OF  THL 


UNIVERSITY 
Of  ILLINOIS 

051 
C35^ 

I88S; 

V.4 


/ 

/ 


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in  2015 


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CHAMBERS'S 


5U  -'^^z^ 

/  o 


ENCYCLOPAEDIA: 


A  DICTIONARY 


OF 


UNIVERSAL  KNOWLEDGE  FOR  THE  PEOPLE, 


ILLUSTRATED, 


AMEEICAX  REVISED  EDITION 


Vol.  IV. 


Philadelphia: 
J.  B.  LippiNcoTT  &  Co. 

1882. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  ot  (Jongress,  In  the  year  1875,  by 

J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  &  CO., 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


UNIVERSAL  KNOWLEDGE  FOR  THE  PEOPLE 


ELEPHANT. 


JS'LEPHAXT  (Gr.  Elephas),  a  genus  of  quadru- 
peds, of  the  order  Pacliydermata  (q.  v.),  and  of  the 
section  Prohosddea.  Elephants  are  the  largest 
existing  land  animals.  The  ordinary  height  at  the 
shoulder  is  about  eight  feet,  but  sometimes  exceeds 
ten  feet.  The  weight  of  a  large  E.  is  aboiit  five 
tons,  the  body  being  very  bulky  in  proportion  to 
its  height.  To  sustain  this  weight,  it  is  furnished 
^\dth  limbs  of  colossal  thickness  and  strength,  which 
are  also  remarkably  straight,  each  bone  resting 
vertically  on  that  beneath""  it.  From  the  appear- 
ance of  inflexibility  presented  by  the  limbs,  arose 
the  notion  prevalent  among  the  ancients,  and 
throughout  the  middle  ages,  that  the  limbs  are 
destitute  of  joints,  and  that  consequently  an  E. 
cannot  lie  down  to  rest  Kke  another  quadruped, 
and  if  it  were  to  lie  down,  could  not  rise  again, 
but  always  sleeps  standing,  or  leaning  against  a 
tree.  It  is  indeed  true  that  the  E.  often  sleeps 
standing,  and  when  fatigued,  falls  asleep  leaning 
against  a  rock  or  tree,  against  which  it  may  have 
been  rubbing  itself.  The  flexibility  of  the  limbs  is, 
however,  sufficient  to  permit  elephants  to  run  with 
speed  nearly  equal  to  that  of  a  horse,  to  indulge  in 
plaj^ul  gambols,  and  to  ascend  and  descend  steep 
mountains.  Elephants  are  more  sure-footed  and 
Bervicealde  than  either  horses  or  mules,  in  difficult 
mountain  roads.  On  the  very  steepest  declivities,  an 
E.  works  his  way  down  pretty  rapidly,  even  with  a 
howdafi  and  its  occupants  upon  his  back,  his  chest 
Atid  belly  on  the  groimd,  and  each  fore-foot  employed 
in  making  a  hole  for  itself,  into  which  the  hind  foot 
eflsrwards  follows  it,  and  to  which  the  weight  may 
be  trasted,  that  another  step  may  be  ventured  with 
safety.  In  lying  down,  the  E.  does  not  bring  his 
hind-legs  imder  him,  like  the  horse  and  other  quad- 
riipeds,  but  extends  them  backwards  (as  man  does 
when  he  assumes  the  kneeling  position),  an  arrange- 
ment which,  '  by  enabling  him  to  draw  the  hind-feet 
gradually  under  him,  assists  him  to  rise  almost 
without  a  perceptible  effort.'  The  E.'s  pace,  when 
exceeding  a  walk,  is  neither  a  trot  nor  a  gallop, 
137 


which  would  be  too  violent  a  motion  for  its  con. 
formation  and  huge  body,  but  a  sort  of  shuffle,  the 
speed  of  which  is  increased  or  diminished  without 
other  alteration.  The  E.  is  incapable  of  springing 
like  the  deer,  horse,  and  other  animals  which  hava 
the  bones  of  their  shoulders  and  hocks  set  at  lin 
angle. 

The  head  in  elephants  is  large ;  the  neck  is  short 
and  thick,  the  long  flexible  proboscis  compensating 
both  for  the  shortness  of  the  neck,  and  for  the  inflexi- 
bility caused  by  the  largely  developed  process<ja 
of  its  vertebrjje,  and  enabling  the  animal  readily 
to  reach  objects  on  the  ground,  or  to  a  height  o{ 
several  feet  above  its  head,  or  on  either  side.  A 
great  extent  of  bony  surface  in  the  head  afi'orda 
attachment  for  muscles  destined  to  move  and  give 
power  to  the  proboscis  or  trunk.  This  extent  of 
bony  surface  is  provided  in  a  remarkable  manner, 
which  at  the  same  time  makes  the  head,  heavy 
as  it  is,  lighter  in  proportion  to  its  bidk  than  ia 
usual  in  quadrupeds  ;  a  great  space  separating  the 
internal  and  external  tables  of  aU  the  bones  of  the 
skull,  except  the  occipital  bones,  so  that  the  space 
occupied  by  the  brain  is  but  a  small  part  of  the 
whole  head.  The  space  between  the  tables  of  the 
bones  is  occupied  by  cells,  some  of  which  are  four  or 
five  inches  in  length;  others  are  small,  irregular, 
and  honeycomb-like;  'these  all  communicate  with 
each  other,  and  through  the  frontal  sinuses  with  the 
cavity  of  the  nose,  and  also  with  the  tympanum  or 
driim  of  each  ear ;  consequently,  as  in  some  birds, 
these  cells  are  filled  with  air.'  The  huge  and 
extraordinary  bones  of  the  skull,  besides  affording 
attachment  for  muscles,  afford  mechanical  support 
to  the  tusks. 

The  nasal  bones  of  the  E.  are  scarcely  more  than 
rudimentary ;  but  the  tapering  proboscis,  to  the 
very  extremity  of  which  the  nostrils  are  prolonged, 
is  nearly  eight  feet  in  length.  Besides  the  great 
muscles  connected  with  it  at  its  base,  it  is  composed 
of  a  vast  multitude  of  small  muscles  variously  inter« 
laced,  but  chiefly  either  longitudinal,  and  divided 


ELEPHANT. 


into  successive  arcs,  of  which  the  convexity  is  out- 
wards, or  transverse,  and  radiating  from  the  internal 
to  the  external  membrane.  Cuvier  states  the 
number  of  muscles  having  the  power  of  distinct 
action  as  not  far  short  of  40,000.  The  trunk  can  be 
coiled  around  a  tree,  and  employed  to  tear  it  from 
its  roots ;  it  is  a  formidable  weapon  of  offence  or 


Various  positions  of  the  Elephant's  Tnmk : 
1,  female  elephant  sncklirig  her  younpf  one;  2,  the  young  one; 
3,  elephant  reposing;  4,  elephant  swimming;  6,  young 
elephant  browsing. 


defence,  and  is  far  more  employed  in  this  way  than 
the  tusks,  even  by  those  elephants  which  have  tusks 
of  great  size  ;  its  extremit}""  can  be  wound  around  a 
Bmall  handful  of  grass  or  a  slender  branch ;  it  is 
even  capable  of  plucking  the  smallest  leaf,  or  of 
lifting  a  pin  from  the  groimd.  To  fit  it  for  such 
actions  as  those  last  mentioned,  and  for  many  such 
as  might  be  performed  by  a  hand,  it  is  furnished 
at  the  extremity  with  what  may  be  likened  to  a 
finger  and  thumb  ;  on  the  upper  side,  an  elongated 
;orocess — strong,  soft,  and  flexible,  like  the  rest  of  the 
trunk,  and  endowed  with  the  most  delicate  sense  of 
touch — on  the  under  side,  a  kind  of  tubercle  against 
which  this  process  may  be  pressed.  All  the  food  of 
the  E.  is  gathered  and  conveyed  to  the  mouth  by 
tlie  trunk :  by  means  of  the  trunk,  also,  it  drinks, 


I,  elopbant  drinking  \  2,  elephant  gathering  long  herbage  ; 
3,  elephant  spouting  water  over  its  back. 


sucking  up  into  it  a  quantity  of  water  sufficient  to 
fill  it,  and  then  discharging  the  contents  into  the 
mouth.  Valves  at  the  base  of  the  trunk  prevent  the 
water  from  going  too  far  up  the  nostrils.  The  trunk 
is  constantly  employed  by  elephants  in  providing  in 


many  ways  for  their  comfort  or  enjoyment,  ar  in 
throwing  dust  over  their  backs,  or  in  fanning  them- 
selves and  switching  away  flies  with  a  leafy  branch, 
two  jn-actices  to  which  they  are  greatly  addictecL 
Their  mutual  caresses  are  also  managed  l)y  means 
of  the  trunk,  and  through  it  they  make  a  loud 
shrill  sound,  indicative  of  rage,  which  is  descri)>cd 
by  Aristotle  as  reseml^ling  the  hoarse  sound  of  a 
trumpet,  and  from  which  this  organ  received  its 
French  jiame  trompe,  corrui)ted  in  English  into 
tnmk.  With  the  trunk  also,  they  sometimes,  when 
angry,  beat  violently  on  the  ground. 

The  sense  of  smell  is  very  acute  in  the  E.,  as  iu 
also  that  of  hearing.  The  ears  are  large  and  pond  a- 
lous,  the  eyes  are  small. 

Elephants  have  no  canine  teeth,  nor  have  they 
any  incisors  in  the  lower  jaw.  The  upper  jaw  ia 
fiu-nished  with  two  incisors,  which  assume  the 
peculiar  character  of  tusks,  and  attain  an  enormous 
size,  a  single  tusk  sometimes  weighing  150  or  even 
300  11)S.  The  tusks  are,  however,  often  imperfectly 
developed,  ten  or  twelve  inches  in  length,  and 
one  or  two  in  diameter.  These  stunted  tusks  are 
often  used  for  such  purposes  as  snapping  off  small 
branches  and  tearing  climbing  plants  from  trees. 
Those  elephants  which  possess  great  tusks  employ 
them  also  for  such  other  uses  as  loosening  the 
roots  of  trees  which  they  cannot  otherwise  tear 
from  the  ground ;  or  in  a  state  of  domestication, 
for  such  labours  as  moving  great  stones,  and  piling 
or  carrying  timber.  A  powerfid  E.  will  raise  and 
carry  on  his  tusks  a  log  of  half  a  ton  weight  or 
more.  The  tusks  of  the  E.  surpass  in  size  all  other 
teeth  of  existing  animals,  and  are  the  largest  of  all 
teeth  in  projjortion  to  the  size  of  the  l)ody.  They 
consist  chiefly  of  that  variety  of  dmtiiie  called 
Ivory  (q.  v.),  and  continue  to  grow — like  the 
incisors  of  the  rodents,  to  which  they  are  in  some 
respects  analogous  —  even  when  the  animal  has 


A,  skull  of  Indian  elephant;  B,  skull  of  African  elephant; 
C,  D,  upper  and  lower  molar  teeth  of  Indian  elephant;  E,  P, 
upper  and  lower  molar  teeth  of  African  elephant ;  G,  the 
original  state  of  the  grinders  when  the  laminae  of  which 
they  consist  are  as  yet  unconnected  together;  II,  the  lamins 
as  they  are  attached  in  parallels  one  to  the  other  by  corticsi 
substance. 

attained  a  great  age,  if  not  to  the  very  end  of  its 
life.  The  young  E.  is  at  first  furnished  with 
deciduous  incisors,  which  are  shed  between  the 
first  and  second  j^ear,  and  are  succeeded  by  the 
permanent  tusks.— The  molar  teeth  of  the  E.  are 
developed  in  succession  ;  and  at  least  in  the  Indian 
E.,  never  more  than  two  are  to  be  seen  in  the  same 
side  of  a  jaw  at  one  time.  The  first  molars  cut  the 
gimi  in  about  two  weeks  after  birth,  and  are  shed 
about  the  end  of  its  second  year.    The  sixth  mol&ra, 


ELEPHANT. 


which  are  also  believed  to  be  the  last,  are  supposed 
to  appear  about  the  fiftieth  year  of  the  E.'s  life. 
The  molar  teeth  of  the  E.  are  remarkable  for 
their  great  size,  and  for  the  extreme  complexity  of 
their  structure,  to  which  the  nearest  resemblance 
is  found  in  some  of  the  small  rodents.  They  are 
composed  of  vertical  plates  of  bony  substance, 
separately  enveloped  with  enamel,  and  cemented 
together  by  a  third  substance,  called  crusta  jyetrosa, 
cortical^  or  cement,  more  resembling  bone  than 
enamel.  Each  succeeding  tooth  is  not  only  more 
complex,  but  occupies  a  greater  space  in  the  jaw 
than  its  predecessor.  Although  formed  from  a 
single  pulp,  the  molar  tooth  of  an  E.  resembles  an 
aggregation  of  teeth  ;  and  in  the  earlier  stages  of 
its  growth,  when  the  cement  is  not  yet  deposited, 
it  seems  as  if  many  separate  teeth  were  soldered 
together.  As  the  siu-face  of  the  tooth  is  worn  down 
hy  mastication,  the  harder  enamel  is  exposed  in 
elevated  ridges.  The  whole  of  a  tooth  is  not  in 
employment  at  once.  From  the  peculiar  manner  of 
its  growth,  the  anterior  part  begins  to  be  em^iloyed, 
and  to  be  worn  away,  whilst  the  latter  part  is  still 
in  process  of  formation. 

The  digestive  apparatus  of  the  E.  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  other  pachydermata  ;  but  the  stomach, 
which  is  of  a  very  leng-thened  and  narrow  form, 
exhibits  a  peculiarity  which  assimilates  it  to  that  of 
the  camel  ;  the  internal  membrane,  at  the  extremity 
beyond  the  cardiac  orifice,  forming  thick  wrinkles 
and  folds,  the  broadest  of  which,  and  nearest  to  the 
gvdlet,  seems  to  act  as  a  valve,  making  that  end  of 
the  stomach  a  reservoir  for  water,  capable  of  con- 
taining about  ten  gallons  ;  whilst  a  peculiar  muscle, 
connecting  the  windpipe  and  gullet,  enables  the 
animal  to  open  this  reservoir  at  pleasure,  for  the 
regurgitation  of  the  fluid,  which  is  then  sometimes 
received  into  the  trunk,  and  squirted  over  the  body, 
to  free  it  from  the  nuisance  of  fl  ies,  or  the  heat  of 
a  tropical  sun. 

The  female  E.  has  only  two  teats,  situated  between 
the  fore-legs.  The  yoimg  suck  with  the  mouth, 
and  not  with  the  trunk.  They  are  suckled  for  about 
two  years.  The  period  of  gestation  is  also  nearly 
two  years,  and  a  smgle  young  one  is  produced  at  a 
birth. 

The  skin  of  the  E.  is  very  thick,  of  a  dark-brown 
colour,  and  in  the  existing  species,  has  scarcely  any 
covering  of  hair.  The  tail  does  not  reach  to  the 
ground,  and  has  a  tuft  of  coarse  bristles  at  the 
end.  The  feet  have  in  the  skeleton  five  distinct 
toes,  but  these  are  so  surrounded  with  a  fii-m 
homy  skin,  that  only  the  nails  are  visible  exter- 
nally, as  on  the  margin  of  a  kind  of  hoof.  The 
foot  of  the  E.  is  admirably  adapted  for  steep  and 
rough  ground,  the  protective  skin  which  covers 
the  toes  allowing  tlxem  considerable  freedom  of 
motion. 

Only  two  existing  species  of  E.  are  certainly 
known,  the  Indian  [E.  Indicus)  and  the  African  [E. 
Af/'icanus),  although  differences  have  recently  been 
observ'ed  in  the  E.  of  Sumatra,  which  may  perhaps 
entitle  it  to  be  ranked  as  a  distinct  sjjecies.  Ele- 
hants  are  found  in  all  parts  of  Africa,  from  the 
ahara  southwards,  where  wood  and  water  are 
sufficiently  abundant ;  also  throughout  India  and 
the  south-eastern  parts  of  Asia,  and  in  some  of  the 
tro])ical  Asiatic  islands.  They  extend  northwards 
to  the  Himalaya ;  and  Chittagong  and  Tiperah 
»rie  with  Ceylon  in  the  superior  excellence  of  the 
elephants  which  they  produce.  The  Indian  E.  is 
distinguished  by  a  comparatively  high  oblong  head, 
v.rith  a  concave  forehead ;  whilst  the  African  has 
a  round  head  and  convex  forehead.  The  ears  of 
the  African  E.  are  nmch  larger  than  those  of  the 
Indian,  covering  the  whole  shoidder,  and  descending 


on  the  legs.  A  marked  distinction  of  tne  two 
species  is  also  found  in  the  molar  teeth;  those  of 
the  Indian  E.  exhibiting  wavy  parallel  tranaverse 
ridges;  whilst  those  of  the  African  species  have  the 


1 ,  head  of  African  elephant ;  2,  head  of  Asiatic  elephant. 


divisions  of  the  crown  of  the  tooth  fewer,  broader, 
and  lozenge-shaped. 

Elephants  live  in  herds,  not  generally  numerous, 
but  several  herds  often  congregate  together  in  the 
same  forest  or  at  the  same  place  of  drinking.  Each 
herd  has  a  leader,  generally  the  largest  and  most 
powerfid  animah  The  leader  seems  to  exercise 
much  control  over  the  movements  of  the  herd,  gives 
the  alarm  in  case  of  danger,  and  seems  to  examine 
and  decide  for  the  whole  herd  as  to  the  safety  of 
proceedmg  in  any  particular  direction.  On  account 
of  his  tusks,  the  leader  is  very  often  the  animal 
against  which  the  eflbrts  of  the  hunter  are  directed  ; 
but  the  rest  of  the  herd  do  their  utmost  to  protect 
him,  and  when  driven  to  extremity,  they  place  him 
in  the  centre,  and  crowd  so  eagerly  to  the  front  of 
him  that  some  of  them  must  often  be  shot  ere  he 
can  be  reached.  A  family  resemblance  is  usually 
very  visible  among  the  elephants  of  the  same  herd  ; 
some  herds  are  distinguished  by  greater  stature,  and 
others  by  more  bullcy  form  and  stronger  limbs  ; 
some  by  particularly  large  tusks,  some  by  slight 
peculiarities  of  the  truidi,  &c.  In  the  East  Indies, 
distinctions  of  this  kind  have  long  been  car-^fully 
noticed,  and  particidar  names  are  given  to  elephants 
according  to  them,  some  being  considered  as  high' 
caste,  and  others  as  low-caste  elephants.  An  E.  which 
by  any  cause  has  been  separated  from  its  herd, 
seems  never  to  be  admitted  into  another,  and  these 
solitary  elephants  are  particularly  troublesome,  in 
their  depredations  exhibiting  an  audacity  which 
the  herds  never  exhibit ;  they  are  also  savage  and 
much  dreaded,  whilst  from  a  herd  of  elephanta 
danger  is  scarcely  apprehended.  The  E.  is  generally 
one  of  the  most  inoffensive  of  animals,  although  in  a 
state  of  domestication,  it  shews,  as  is  well  kno^JH, 
a  power  both  of  remembering  and  resenting  &a 
injm-y. 

The  favourite  haunts  of  wild  elephants  are  ia 
the  depths  of  forests — particidarly  in  moimtainous 
regions— where  they  browse  on  branches,  and  from 
which  they  issue  chiefly  in  the  cool  of  the  night 
to  pasture  in  the  more  open  grounds.  They  ara 
ready  to  plunder  rice  or  other  grain-fields,  if  not 
deterred  by  fences,  of  which,  fortunately,  they  have, 
in  general,  an  unaccountable  dread,  even  although 
rather  imaginary  than  real.  A  fence  of  mere  reeda 
will  keep  them  out  of  fields,  where,  as  soon  as  the 
grain  is  removed,  they  enter  by  the  gaps  of  tha 
fence,  and  may  be  seen  gleaning  among  the  stubbla 


ELEPHANT. 


When  the  E.  eats  grass,  *nothinc^  can  be  more 
graceful  tlian  the  ease  with  which,  before  convey- 
ing it  to  his  mouth,  he  beats  the  earth  from  its 
roots  by  striking  it  on  his  fore-leg.'  A  cocoa-nut  is 
first  rolled  under  foot,  to  detach  the  outer  bark, 
then  stripped  of  the  fibrous  husk,  and  finally 
crushed  between  the  grinders,  when  the  fresh  milk 
is  swallowed  with  evident  relish.  The  fruit  of  the 
palmyra  palm  is  another  favourite  food  of  elephants, 
and  they  seem  to  have  an  instinctive  knowledge  of 
the  time  of  its  ripening.  Sugar-canes  are  also  a 
favourite  food ;  indeed,  elephants  are  very  fond  of 
Bweet  things.  Those  which  are  brought  to  Britain 
are  generally  fed  on  hay  and  carrots.  The  amount 
of  daily  food  necessary  for  the  E.  in  a  state  of 
domestication  may  be  stated,  on  an  average,  at  about 
two  hundred  pounds  in  weight. 

Elephants  delight  in  abundance  of  water,  and 
enter  it  very  freely,  often  remaining  in  it  for  a 
considerable  time  and  with  great  evident  enjoyment. 
They  sometimes  swim  with  not  only  the  body  but 
the  head  under  water,  the  only  part  elevated  above 
it  being  the  extremity  of  the  trunk. 

The  habits  of  the  African  E.  appear  in  no  import- 
ant respect  to  differ  from  those  of  the  Indian 
elephant.  It  is  the  latter  only  that  is  at  the 
present  day  domesticated  ;  but  it  is  cei-tain  that 
the  African  species  was  anciently  domesticated,  and 
the  figures  on  many  Eoman  medals  attest  it. 

Elephants  rarely  breed  in  a  state  of  domestication, 
although,  a  few  years  ago,  the  birth  of  an  elephant 
took  place  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  of  London,  an 
occasion  of  much  interest  not  only  to  the  scieutifio 
but  to  the  general  public.  They  are  generally  tamed 
within  a  few  mouths  after  they  are  captured ;  some 
degree  of  severity  being  em})loyed  at  first,  which, 
however,  as  soon  as  the  animal  has  begim  to  respect 
the  power  of  man,  is  exchanged  for  kindness  and 
gentleness  of  treatment.  Elephants  intended  for 
domestication  are  captured  in  various  ways.  It 
was  formei'ly  common  to  take  them  in  pitfalls,  but 
in  this  way  they  were  often  much  injiired.  Another 
method  frequently  practised  is  by  the  aid  of  tame 
elephants.  Male  elejihants  chiefly  are  captured  in 
this  way,  the  decoy  elephants  employed  being  females, 
trained  for  the  iJurpose.  With  these  the  himters 
very  cautiously  approach  the  animal  they  mean  to 
cai)ture,  and  he  generally  permits  them  to  come  up 
to  him,  and  is  so  pleased  to  make  the  acquaintance  of 
the  females,  that  he  takes  no  notice  of  their  riders 
and  other  human  attendants.  Two  of  the  females 
take  their  places,  one  on  each  side  of  him,  and 
whdst  he  is  occupied  with  them,  men,  the  profession 
of  whose  lives  it  is,  and  who  display  a  wonderful 
expertness  in  the  work,  contrive  to  get  beneath 
their  bodies,  and  to  pass  ropes  round  the  legs  of  the 
intended  captive.  His  two  hind-legs  are  fastened 
together  by  six  or  eight  ropes  in  the  form  of  the 
figure  8,  another  rope  keeping  them  tight  at  the 
intersections,  and  a  strong  cable  with  a  running- 
noose  is  attached  to  each  hind-leg.  Aboi\t  twenty 
minutes  are  usually  spent  in  fixing  the  necessary 
?opes,  profound  silence  being  maintained  if  the 

rTocess  goes  on  unobserved,  or  some  of  the  other 
inters  distracting  the  attention  of  the  E.  from 
those  who  are  engaged  in  this  work ;  and  when 
at  last,  becoming  sensible  of  his  danger,  he  tries 
to  retreat,  an  opportunity  is  soon  found  of  tying 
him,  by  means  of  the  long  cables  which  trail 
behind  him,  to  some  tree  strong  enough  for  the 
purpose.  His  fury  then  becomes  ungovernable,  and 
he  makes  violent  and  prodigious  efforts  to  get  free, 
throwing  himself  on  the  ground,  and  twisting  him- 
self into  the  most  extraordinary  positions.  It  is  not 
until  he  has  thoroughly  exhausted  himself,  and 
begins  to  suffer  severely  from  fatigue,  thirst,  and 


hunger,  that  the  next  steps  are  taken  towards 
taming  him  and  making  him  a  willing  servant  of 
man. 

Still  more  wonderful  is  the  capture  of  a  wild  E., 
sometimes  by  not  more  than  two  hunters,  who  for 
this  purpose  will  go  into  the  woods,  without  aid  or 
attendants,  their  only  weapon  a  flexible  rope  of 
hide.  With  this  they  secm-e  one  of  the  E.'s  hind- 
legs,  following  his  footsteps  when  in  motion,  or 
stealing  close  up  to  him  when  at  rest,  or  sometimes 
spreading  the  noose  on  the  ground,  partially  con- 
cealed by  roots  and  leaves,  beneath  a  tree  on  whicb. 
one  of  the  party  is  stationed,  whose  business  it  is  to 
lift  it  suddenly  by  means  of  a  cord.  When  arrested 
by  the  rope  being  coiled  around  a  tree,  the  E. 
naturally  turns  upon  the  man  who  is  engaged  in 
making  it  fast,  but  his  companion  interferes  on  his 
behalf,  by  i)rovoking  the  animal ;  and  thus  not 
only  is  the  first  rojie  made  fast,  but  noose  after 
noose  is  passed  over  the  legs,  imtil  all  are  at  lasb 
tied  to  trees,  and  the  capture  is  complete ;  upon 
which  the  hunters  build  a  booth  for  themselves  in 
front  of  their  prisoner,  kindle  their  fires  for  cooking, 
and  remain  day  and  night  tdl  the  E.  is  sufficiently 
tamed  to  be  led  away. 

But  these  huge  animals  are  not  always  captured 
singly  ;  whole  herds  are  often  taken  at  once.  This 
is  accomplished  by  means  of  an  enclosure,  towards 
which  the  elephants  are  driven  by  great  numbers 
of  men  encircling  a  considerable  sj^ace,  and  con« 
tracting  the  circle  by  slow  degi-ees.  Weeks,  or 
even  months,  are  spent  in  this  operation,  and  at 
last  the  elephants,  hemmed  in  on  every  side  except 
the  mouth  of  the  enclosure,  enter  it,  and  the  gate 
is  immediately  closed.  The  modes  of  constructing 
the  enclosure  are  different  in  different  parts  of  tli€ 
East.  Tame  elephants  are  sometimes  sent  into  it,, 
and  the  captives  are  in  succession  made  fast  to  treei 
there,  in  a  Avay  somewhat  similar  to  that  practise'^, 
in  capturing  sincrle  elephants. 

The  E.  first  became  kno\\Ti  in  Europe  from  its 
employment  in  the  wars  of  the  East :  '  in  India,  from 
the  remotest  antiquity,  it  formed  one  of  the  most 
picturesque,  if  not  of  the  most  effective,  features  in 
the  aixnies  of  the  native  princes.'  Elephants  havo 
been  taught  to  cut  and  thrust  with  a  kind  oi 
scimitar  carried  in  the  trimk,  and  it  was  formerly 
usual  for  them  to  be  sent  into  battle,  covered  Avitli 
armour,  and  bearing  towers  on  their  backs,  whii.-h 
contained  warriors.  But  the  principal  use  of  the  E. 
in  war  is  for  carrying  baggage,  and  for  dragging 
guns.  An  E.  will  apply  his  forehead  to  a  cannon, 
and  urge  it  through  a  bog,  througli  which  it  would 
be  almost  impossible  for  men  and  cattle  to  drag  it ; 
or  he  will  wind  his  trunk  round  it,  and  lift  it  up, 
whilst  horses  or  cattle  drag  it  forwards.  Elephants 
are  used  in  the  East  for  carrying  persons  on  their 
backs,  a  nxmiber  being  seated  together  in  a  howdah^ 
whilst  the  driver  {uiahout}  sits  on  the  E.'s  neck, 
directing  it  by  his  voice  and  by  a  small  goad. 
Elephants  have  always  a  conspicuous  place  in  the 
great  processions  and  state  displays  of  eastern 
princes,  and  white  elei)hants— albinos— are  peculiarly 
valued.  Elephants  are  also  employed  in  many  kinds 
of  labour,  and  display  great  sagacity  in  comprehend- 
ing the  nature  of  their  task  and  adapting  them- 
selves to  it.  In  l)iling  timber,  the  E.  'manifests 
an  intelligence  and  dexterity  which  is  surprising 
to  a  stranger,  because  the  sameness  of  the  operation 
enables"  the  animal  to  go  on  for  hours  disposing  of 
log  after  log,  almost  without  a  hint  or  dii'ection 
from  his  attendant.' 

Of  the  sagacity  of  the  E,,  many  interesting 
anecdotes  are  on  record,  as  every  reader  of  books 
of  travels  and  of  natmal  hiatory  knows.  But  Cuviei 
refuses,  and   apparently  with  justice,  to  ascrib* 


ELEPHANT. 


to  it  a  degj'ee  of  sagacity  higher  than  that  of 
the  dog.  In  a  state  of  domestication,  the  E.  is  a 
delicate  animal,  rcfjuiring  much  watchfulness  and 
care,  although  naturally  it  has  a  very  long  life, 
and  instances  are  on  record  of  extreme  longevity 
in  domestication,  extending  not  only  to  more  than 
one  hundred,  but  almost  to  two  hun(h'ed  years. 

The  numbers  of  wild  elephants  in  some  parts  both 
of  the  East  Indies  and  of  Africa,  are  being  gradually 
reduced  as  cultivation  extends,  and  many  are  shot 
for  no  other  reason  than  a  desire  to  reduce  their 
numl^ers,  and  put  an  end  to  their  ravages  on  culti- 
vated gromids.  A  reward  of  a  few  shillings  per 
head  was  claimed  for  3500  destroyed  in  part  of  the 
northern  province  alone  of  Ceylon,  in  less  than  three 
years  prior  to  1848.  It  is  for  the  sake  of  ivory  that 
the  greatest  slaughter  of  elephants  takes  place. 
A  ball  of  hard  metal,  skilfully  planted  in  the  eye, 
base  of  the  trunk,  or  behind  the  ear,  generally  ends 
an  E.'s  life  in  an  instant ;  and  expert  sportsmen  have 
been  known  to  kill  right  and  left  one  with  each 
barrel. 

Fossil  Elephants. — The  E.  makes  its  appearance  in 
the  Pleistocene  strata.  Its  near  ally,  the  mastodon, 
whose  remains  are  found  associated  with  it,  began 
life  earlier ;  it  has  left  its  traces  in  Miocene  deposits. 
Ten  species  of  fossil  elephants  have  been  described, 
the  remains  of  three  of  which  are  found  in  Europe. 
The  best  known  of  these  is  the  Elephas  primigenius, 
or  Mammoth,  the  tusks  of  which  are  so  little  altered 
as  to  supply  an  ivory  which,  though  inferior  to 
that  of  the  living  species,  is  still  used  in  the 
arts,  esjiecially  in  Russia.  Its  tusks  are,  on  this 
account,  regxilarly  searched  for  by  '  ivory  hunters '  in 
Siberia,  where,  in  the  sui^erficial  deposits  of  sand, 
g]-avel,  and  loam,  the  remains  occur  in  enormous 
abundance.  They  are  also  foimd  in  similar  strata 
all  over  Europe.  In  Britain,  the  localities  that  have 
supplied  these  remains  are  very  numerous.  They 
are  especially  abundant  in  the  Pleistocene  deposits  of 
the  east  and  south-east  of  England.  Woodward,  in 
his  Geology  of  Norfolk,  calculatra  that  upwards  of 
2000  grinders  of  this  animal  have  been  dredged  up 
by  the  fishermen  off  Happisburgh  in  thirteen  years. 
The  bone-caves  also  yield  remains  of  this  gigantic 
animal. 

The  mammoth  truly  belongs  to  the  geological 
history  of  the  world ;  it  died  out  at  the  close  of  the 
period  represented  by  the  Pleistocene  beds.  It  is  the 
only  fossil  animal  that  has  been  preserved  in  a 
perfect  condition  for  the  examination  of  man.  In  all 
other  remains  we  have  to  deal  with  the  hard  portions 
only — the  bones,  teeth,  scales,  &c.,  and  frequently 
only  with  fragmentary  portions,  requiring  the  skill 
of  a  Cuvier  or  an  Owen  to  make  from  them  an 
approximation  to  the  perfect  animal.  But  the  mam- 
moth has  been  preserved  so  that  its  flesh  has  been 
eaten  by  dogs,  bears,  and  wolves.  In  1799,  a  Tungu- 
eian,  named  Schimiachoff,  while  searching  along  the 
shores  of  Lake  Oncoul  for  mammoth  tusks,  observed 
among  the  blocks  of  ice  a  shapeless  mass,  but  did 
not  at  the  time  discover  what  it  was.  The  heat  of 
succeeding  summers  gradually  melted  the  ice  around 
it,  and,  in  180.3,  the  mammoth  fell  on  a  bank  of  sand. 
In  March  of  the  folloM'ing  year,  the  hunter  visited 
it,  cut  off,  and  carried  away  the  tusks,  which  he 
gold  for  fifty  rubles.  In  1806,  Mr  Adams  visited 
the  locality,  and  examined  the  animal,  which  still 
remained  on  the  sand-bank  where  it  had  fallen, 
but  in  a  greatly  mutilated  condition.  The  Jakutski 
of  the  neighbourhood  had  cut  off  the  flesh  to  feed 
their  dogs,  and  the  wild  beasts  had  almost  entirely 
cleared  the  bones.  The  skeleton  was,  however, 
entire,  excei)ting  one  of  the  fore-legs,  and  some  of 
the  bones  of  the  tail.  Many  of  the  bones  were  stiU 
held  together  bv  the  ligaments  and  by  parts  of  the 


skin.  The  head  was  covered  with  drj'  skin  ;  one  o! 
the  ears  was  well  preserved  ;  it  was  furnished  with  a 
tuft  of  hairs.  Three-fourths  of  the  whole  skin  were 
procu  ed,  which  was  so  heavy  that  ten  persona 
found  gi-eat  difficulty  in  transporting  it  to  th« 


Skeleton  of  Mammoth. 


shore,  a  distance  of  150  feet ;  it  was  of  a  dark-gray 
colour,  and  was  covered  with  a  reddish  wool,  and 
long  black  hairs  or  bristles.  The  wool  was  short, 
and  curled  in  locks  ;  the  bristles  were  of  different 
leng-ths,  varying  from  1  to  18  inches.  Some  of  this 
covering  still  remainsd  attached  to  the  skin,  but  the 
great  mass  was  entirely  separated  from  it.  Mr 
Adams  collected  36  pounds,  although  much  of  it 
had  been  destroyed  from  the  dampness  of  the  place 
where  it  had  lain  so  long.  The  animal  was  a  male, 
and  had  a  long  mane  on  the  neck.  The  entire 
carcass  was  removed  to  St  Petersburg,  where  it  is 
now  preserved.  The  tusks  were  repurchased,  and 
added  to  the  animal.  It  measures  from  the  fore- 
part of  the  skuU  to  the  end  of  the  mutilated  tail  16 
feet  4  inches ;  the  height  to  the  top  of  the  dorsal 
spines  is  9  feet  4  inches ;  the  length  of  the  tusks 
along  the  curve  is  9  feet  6  inches.  Portions  of  the 
hairy  covering  have  been  brought  to  this  country, 
and  may  be  seen  in  the  British  Museum. 

Taking  the  teeth  as  exhibiting  clearly  a  marked 
difference  in  the  recent  species,  the  mammoth  is 
easily  sejiarated  from  both  by  its  broader  grinders, 
which  have  narrower,  and  more  numerous,  and 
close-set  plates  and  ridges.  The  existence  of  the  E, 
and  other  genera,  whose  representatives  are  now 
found  only  in  the  warmer  regions  of  the  earth,  in 
the  north  of  Europe  and  Asia,  led  to  the  belief,  that 
at  the  recent  period  in  the  world's  history  when 
they  were  its  living  inhabitants,  a  tropical  tempera- 
ture existed  in  the  temperate  zone,  and  stretched 
further  north  towards  the  pole  ;  but  the  discovery 
of  this  perfect  animal  shewed  that  these  huge 
elephants  were  adapted  by  their  clothing  to  endure 
a  cold  climate,  and  by  the  structure  of  their  teeth 
were  able  to  employ  as  food  the  branches  and  foliage 
of  the  northern  pines,  birches,  willows,  &c.  There 
are  few  generalisations  more  plausible  at  first  sight 
than  to  predicate  of  an  unknown  species  of  a  geniig 
what  is  ascertained  regarding  the  known  members 
of  the  same  genus.  It  required  a  striking  case,  such 
as  that  supplied  by  the  discovery  of  the  mammoth, 
to  shew  clearly  the  fallacy  of  deductions  which  were 
almost  universally  received  by  scientific  men  not 
many  years  ago,  which  still  occasionally  mislead, 
and  which  may  even  now  be  met  with  in  some 
popular  hand-books  of  science. 

ELEPHANT.  An  order  of  the  elephant  was 
instituted  in  Denmark,  by  King  Frederick  II.  The 
badge  was  a  coUar  of  elephants  towered,  supporting 
the  king's  arms,  and  having  at  the  end  the  picture  ol 
1  the  Virgin  Mary. 


ELEPIIANTA— ELEUSINIAN  MYSTERIES. 


ELEPHA'NTA,  an  island  of  six  miles  in  circuit, 
stands  in  the  harbour  of  Bombay  (q.  v.),  about 
Beven  miles  to  the  east  of  that  city,  and  ab(Mit  five 
miles  to  the  west  of  the  mainland.  It  takes  this  its 
European  name  from  a  huge  figure  of  an  elephant 
near  its  principal  landing-phice,  which,  however, 
appears  to  have  gradually  crunibled  away.  This 
colossal  animal  has  been  cut  out  of  a  detached  rock, 
which  is  a])parently  of  basaltic  origin.  Further 
towards  the  interior,  three  temples,  dug  out  of  the 
living  mountain,  present  themselves— the  roofs 
feeing  supi)orted  by  curiously  wrought  pillars  of 
various  forms  and  magnitudes,  and  the  walls  being 
thickly  sculptured  into  all  the  varieties  of  Hindu 
mythology.  The  largest  of  the  three  excavations 
is  nearly  square,  measuring  133  feet  by  1304  feet ; 
and  iinjnediately  fronting  its  main  entrance  stands 
a  bust  or  third-length  of  a  three-headed  deity,  with 
a  height  of  18  feet,  and  a  breadth  of  23.  These 
monuments  of  superstition,  like  the  quadruped 
which  guards,  as  it  were,  the  approaches  to  them, 
are  said  to  be  rai)idly  decaying — a  state  of  things 
which,  besides  in  some  measure  accounting  for  the 
orecution  of  such  works,  seems  to  be  inconsistent 
with  any  very  high  antiquity.  The  island  is  in  lat. 
18°  57'  K,  and  long.  73°  E. 

EliEPHANTl'NE,  a  small  island  of  the  Nile, 
lying  opposite  to  Assouan  (q.  v.),  the  ancient  Syene, 
on  the  confines  of  Egypt  and  Nubia,  in  24°  5'  N. 
lat.,  and  32°  54'  E.  long.  From  this  island,  the 
Greek  mercenaries  were  sent  by  Psammitichus  I.  to 
recall  the  Egyptian  deserters,  and  it  was  garrisoned 
in  the  time  of  the  Pharaohs,  Persians,  and  Komans. 
The  island  was  anciently  called  Abu,  or  the  'ivory 
island,'  from  its  having  been  the  entrepot  of  the 
trade  in  that  jjrecious  material.  The  most  import- 
ant ruins  are  a  gateway  of  the  time  of  Alexander, 
and  a  small  temple  dedicated  to  Khnum,  the 
god  of  the  waters,  and  his  contemplar  deities, 
Anucis  and  Sate.  This  temple  was  founded  by 
Amenophis  III.,  and  embellished  by  Eameses  III. 
Another  remarkable  edifice  is  the  ancient  Ndometer, 
formerly  mentioned  by  Strabo,  and  which  a])pears 
to  have  been  built  in  the  time  of  the  Caesars ;  and 
several  remaining  inscriptions  record  the  heights  of 
inundation  from  the  time  of  Augustus  to  Severus. 
This  island  had  the  honour  of  giving  a  dynasty 
(the  5th)  to  Egypt,  and  was  evidently  an  important 
place,  the  inscriptions  on  the  rocks  attesting  the 
adoration  paid  by  Sethos  I.,  Psammitichus  II.,  and 
other  monarchs,  to  the  local  deities.  Other  interest- 
ing mr^numents  have  been  found  on  this  island ; 
amongst  which  may  be  cited  part  of  a  calendar 
recording  the  rise  of  the  Dog-star  in  the  reign  of 
Thothmes  III.  (1445  B.C.),  and  numerous  fragments 
of  pottery — principally  receipts  in  the  Greek  lan- 
guage— given  by  the  farmers  of  the  taxes  in  the 
reign  of  the  Antonines.  The  island  is  at  present 
inhabited  by  Nubians. — Wilkmson,  Topography  of 
Tkebcs,  p.  460 ;  Champollion,  Notice  J)esa'iptive, 
p.  215;  Champollion,  Leitres  Ecrites^  pp.  Ill,  157, 
171,  382. 

ELEPHANT'S  FOOT,  or  HOTTENTOT'S 
BREAD  {Testndinaria  elephantipefi)^  a  plant  of  tlie 
natural  order  Dioscoreacece^  of  which  the  root-stock 
forms  a  large  flesliy  mass,  curiously  truncate,  or 
abruptly  cut  off  at  the  end,  so  as  somewhnt  to 
resemble  an  elephant's  foot,  and  covered  with  a 
soft,  corky,  rou^h,  and  cracked  bark.  From  this 
springs  a  climbing  stem,  which  bears  the  leaves 
and  liowers.  The  root-stock  is  used  as  food  by 
the  Hottentots.  The  plant  is  not  unfrequently  to 
be  seen  in  hothouses  in  Britain. 

The  name  Elephant's  Foot  {Elephantopus)  is 
alao  given,  on  accoimt  of  the  form  of  the  root- 


leaves,  to  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  crdct 
Coinpositfc,  sub-order  Corymbiferce,  one  sjjecies  of 
which  {E.  scaler)  is  common  in  elevated  dry  situiv- 
tions  in  all  ])arts  of  India,  and  is  used  in  Indiiiv. 
medicine  in  affections  of  the  urinary  organs. 

ELETTA'RIA.    See  Cardamom. 

ELETZ.    See  Jeletz. 

ELEUSINE,  a  genus  of  Grasses,  chiefly  natives 
of  India  and  other  warm  climates,  several  of  which 
are  cultivated  as  grains.  This  is  especially  the  casQ 
with  K  corocana,  an  Indian  sjjecies,  called  Natcanee 
and  Nagla  Ragee,  also  Mand  and  Murwa,  which 
has  aggregated  digitate  spikes  finally  incurved. 
The  Tibetans  make  a  weak  sort  of  beer,  much  in 
use  amongst  them,  from  this  grain.  E.  slricta  is 
cultivated  as  a  grain-crop  in  the  same  parts  of  tho 
world,  and  is,  lik,f  the  former,  extremely  productive. 
The  grain  called  Tocusso  in  Abyssinia  is  also  a  species 
of  this  genus,  E.  Tocusho.  A  decoction  of  E.  JEyyp- 
tiaca  is  used  in  Egypt  for  cleansing  ulcers,  and  a  drink 
made  from  the  seeds  is  regarded  as  useful  in  diseases  of 
the  kidneys  and  bladder.  E.  Indica,  which  has  been 
naturalized  in  the  northern  U.  States,  is  the  common 
crab  grass,  also  known  as  dog's-tail  and  wire  grass. 

ELEUSFNIAN  MY'STERIES,  the  sacred  rites 
\vith  wdiich  the  annual  festival  of  Ceres  was  cele- 
brated at  Eleusis.  Many  traditions  were  afJoat  in 
ancient  times  as  to  the  origin  of  this  festival.  Of 
these,  the  most  generally  accepted  was  to  the  eflect 
tliat  Ceres,  wandering  over  the  earth  in  quest  of  her 
daughter  Proseri)ino,  arrived  at  Eleusis,  where  she 
took  rest  on  the  sorrowful  stone  beside  the  well 
Callichorus.  In  return  for  some  small  acts  of  kind- 
ness, and  to  commemorate  her  visit,  she  taught 
Triptolemus  the  use  of  corn  on  the  Rharian  plain 
near  the  city,  and  instituted  the  mystic  rites  pecu- 
liarly known  as  hers.  The  outward  method  of  the 
celebration  of  these  mysteries  is  knowTi  with  con- 
siderable accuracy  of  detail.  Their  esoteric  signi- 
ficance is  very  variously  interpreted.  The  ancients 
themselves  generally  believed  that  the  doctrines 
revealed  to  the  initiat<'d  gave  them  better  hopes 
than  other  men  enjoyed,  both  as  to  the  present  life 
and  as  to  a  future  state  ol  existence.  Modern  specu- 
lation has  run  wild  in  the  attempt  satisfactorily  to 
explain  these  mysteries.  As  reasonable  a  solution  as 
any  other  seems  to  be  that  of  Bishop  Thirlwall,  who 
finds  in  them  '  the  remains  of  a  worship  which  pre- 
ceded the  rise  of  the  Hellenic  mythology  and  its 
attendant  rites,  grounded  on  a  view  of  nature,  less 
fancifid,  more  earnest,  and  better  fitted  to  awaken 
both  philosophical  thought  and  religious  feeling.' 
The  festival  itself  consisted  of  two  parts,  the  greater 
and  the  lesser  mysteries.  The  less  important  feast, 
serving  as  a  sort  of  preparation  for  the  greater,  was 
held  at  Agree,  on  the  Ilissus.  The  celebration  of 
the  great  mysteries  began  at  Eleusis  on  the  15th 
day  of  Boedromion,  the  third  month  of  the  Attic 
year,  and  lasted  over  nine  days.  On  the  first  day 
(called  ayurmos,  the  assembling),  the  neophytes, 
already  initiated  at  the  preparatory  festival,  met, 
and  were  instructed  in  their  sacred  duties.  On  the 
second  day  (called  Halade,  mystae,  To  the  s^i,  yg 
initiated/),  they  iniri lied  themselves  by  washing  in 
the  sea.  On  the  third  day,  sacrifices,  comprising, 
among  other  things,  the  mullet-fish,  and  cakes  made 
of  barley  from  the  Rharian  plain,  were  offered  with 
special  rites.  The  fourth  day  was  devoted  to  the 
procession  of  the  sacred  basket  of  Ceres  (the  Kala- 
thion).  This  basket,  containing  pomegranates,  salt, 
poppy-seeds,  &c.,  and  followed  by  bands  of  women 
carrying  smaller  baskets  similarly  filled,  was  drawn 
in  a  consecrated  cart  through  the  streets,  amid 
shouts  of  '  Hail,  Ceres ! '  from  the  onlookers.  Tho 
fifth  day  was  known  as  the  *  day  of  the  tor  jhe.s,*  and 


ELEUSIS— ELF  ARROW-HEADS. 


K-as  thought  to  s}'mbolize  the  wanderings  of  Ceres 
m  quest  of  her  daughter.  On  it  the  inystic,  led  by 
the 'daduchus/ the  torch-bcu-er,  \\ix\kG<\  two  by  two 
to  the  temple  of  the  god<less,  and  seem  to  have  spent 
the  nig]  it  there.  The  sixth  day,  called  lacelnis, 
in  honour  of  the  son  of  Ceres,  was  the  great  day  of 
the  feai  b,  Ou  that  day  the  statue  of  lacchus  was 
borne  r  pomp  along  the  sacred  way  from  the 
Ceram.k!  ^  at  Athens  to  Eleusis,  where  the  votaries 
Bpeat  t}  >i  night,  and  were  initiated  in  the  last  mys- 
teries!. Till  this  stage  of  the  i)roceedings,  they  had 
berm  only  vii/dce  ;  but  on  the  night  of  the  sixth  day 
thoy  weie  admitted  into  the  innermost  sanctuary  of 
the  temple,  and,  from  being  allowed  to  behold  the 
Bacred  things,  became  entitled  to  be  called  '  epoptoe,' 
or  '  ephori ; '  i.  e.,  spectators,  or  conteviplators.  They 
were  once  more  purified,  and  repeated  their  original 
oath  of  secrecy  with  an  imposing  and  awful  cere- 
monial, somewhat  resembling,  it  is  believed,  the 
forms  of  modern  free-masonry.  On  the  seventh 
day,  the  votaries  returned  to  Athens  with  mirth 
and  music,  halting  for  a  while  on  the  bridge  over 
the  Cephisus,  and  exercising  their  wit  and  satire 
against  the  spectators.  The  eighth  day  was  called 
Epidauria,  and  was  believed  to  have  been  added  to 
the  original  number  of  the  days  for  the  convenience 
of  those  who  had  been  unable  to  attend  the  grand 
ceremonial  of  the  sixth  day.  It  was  named  in 
honour  of  ^sculapius,  who  arrived  on  one  occasion 
from  his  native  city  of  Epidaurus  too  late  for  the 
solemn  rites,  and  the  Athenians,  unwilling  to  dis- 
appoint so  distinguished  a  benefactor  of  mankind, 
added  a  supplementary  day.  On  the  ninth  day 
took  2>la,ce  the  ceremony  of  the  '  Plemochoaj,' '  in 
which  two  earthen  vessels  filled  with  wine  were 
turned  one  towards  the  east,  and  the  other  towards 
the  west.  The  attendant  priests,  uttering  some 
mystic  words,  then  upset  both  vessels,  and  the  wine 
so  spilt  Avas  offered  as  a  libation. 

Initiation  ii^to  the  Eleusinian  mysteries  was 
compulsory  on  every  freeborn  Athenian  ;  but  slaves, 
prostitutes,  and  persons  who  had  forfeited  their 
citizenship  were  excluded  from  the  rites.  During 
the  period  of  the  festival,  none  of  those  taking  part 
in  it  could  be  seized  or  arrested  for  any  offence. 
Lycurgus,  with  a  view  to  destroying  distinctions  of 
class,  forbade  any  woman  to  ride  to  the  Eleusinia 
in  a  chariot,  under  a  penalty  of  6000  drachmae.  The 
mysteries  were  celebrated  with  the  most  scrupu- 
lous secrecy.  No  initiated  person  might  reveal 
what  he  had  seen  under  pain  of  death,  and  no 
unmitiated  person  could  take  part  in  the  ceremonies 
under  the  same  penalty.  The  priests  were  chosen 
from  the  sacred  family  of  the  Eumolpidse,  whose 
ancestor,  Eumolpus,  had  been  the  special  favomnte 
of  Ceres.  The  chief  priest  was  called  the  '  Hiero- 
phant,'  or  '  Mystagogue  ; '  next  in  rank  to  him  was 
the  Daduchus,  or  Torch-bearer ;  after  whom  came 
the  *  Hiero-Ceryx,'  or  Sacred  Herald,  and  the  priest 
at  the  altar.  Besides  these  leading  ministers,  there 
was  a  multitude  of  inferior  priests  and  servants. 

ELEU'SIS,  a  celebrated  town  in  ancient  Attica, 
flood  near  the  northern  shore  of  the  Gvdf  of  Salamis, 
and  not  far  from  the  confines  of  Megaris.  It  was 
famous  us  the  chief  seat  of  the  Avorship  of  Ceres, 
whose  mystic  rites  were  here  performed  with  great 
pomp  and  solemnity  from  the  earliest  authentic  times 
till  the  era  of  Alaric.  See  Eleusinian  Mysteries. 
The  temple  of  the  goddess,  designed  by  Ictinus,  the 
architect  of  the  Parthenon,  was  the  largest  sacred 
edifice  in  Greece.  The  site  of  the  old  Eleusis  is 
now  occupied  by  the  little  village  of  Lefsina  or 
Lepsina, 

ELEU'THERA,  one  of  the  Bahamas  (q.  v.),  is, 
next  to  New  Providence,  the  most  populous  island 


in  the  whole  chain.  Including  its  independent  cayo» 
or  kcyx^  Elenfhera  has  a  population  of  al)out  5500.  It 
is  more  fertile  than  most  of  its  neighbours,  mere 
especially  surpassing  all  of  them  in  the  growth  of 
fruit,  such  as  the  pine- apple,  the  orange,  and  the 
lemon. 

ELEUTHE'RIA  BARK,  a  name  not  unfre- 

quently  given  to  the  bark  of  the  Croton  Elev.theriay 
also  known  as  Cascarilla  Bark.  See  CASOAr-iLLA. 
It  is  called  Eleutheria  (or  Eleuthera)  Bark,  because 
it  is  chiefly  gathered  on  the  island  of  Eleuthera. 

E'LEVATED.  Wings  turned  upwards  are 
described  in  heraldry  as  elevated. 

ELEVA'TION,  in  Architectural  Drawing,  is  a 
representation  of  the  flat  side  of  a  building,  drawn 
with  mathematical  accuracy,  but  without  the 
slightest  attention  to  effect.  In  Art,  ag.aiii,  eleva- 
tion is  a  raising  of  the  subject  beyond  its  ordinary 
character  in  real  life.  A  very  good  instance  of 
elevation  in  this  sense  is  given  by  Eairholt  in 
his  Dictionary  of  Terms  in  Art,  in  Rembrandt's 
'Adoration  of  the  Shepherds.'  The  whole  of  the 
objects  and  surroundings  of  the  infant  Saviour  are 
of  the  most  homely  description  ;  and  still  the  light 
which  is  represented  as  issuing  from  his  person 
gives  an  elevation  to  the  scene  which  takes  off  from 
it  entirely  the  character  of  being  commonplace  or 
vulgar. 

ELEVATION,  in  Astronomy  and  Geography, 
means  generally  the  height  above  the  horizon  of  an 
object  on  the  sphere,  measured  by  the  arc  of  a 
vertical  circle  through  it  and  the  zenith.  Thus,  the 
elevation  of  the  equator  is  the  arc  of  a  meridian 
intercepted  between  the  equator  and  the  horizon  of 
the  place.  The  elevation  of  the  pole  is  the  com- 
plement of  that  of  the  equator,  and  is  always  ecpial 
to  the  latitude  of  the  place.  The  elevation  of  a 
star,  or  any  other  point,  is  similarly  its  heighfe 
above  the  horizon,  and  is  a  maximum  when  the 
star  is  on  the  meridian. 

ELE'VENTH,  in  Music,  is  the  interval  of  the 
octave  above  the  fourth. 

ELF,  a  fairy,  pi.  ELVES.    See  Fairies. 

ELF -ARROW -HE  ADS,   ELFIN- ARROWS, 
ELF-BOLTS,  ELF-DARTS,   ELF-SHOT,  and 
ELF-STONES,  names   popularly   given   in  the 
British  Islands  to  the  arrow-heads  of  flint  which 
were  in  use  at  an  early  period  among  the  barbarous 
tribes  of  this  country  and  of  Europe  generally,  as 
they  are  still  in  use  among  the  American  Indians, 
the  Esquimaux  of  the  Arctic  regions,  and  the  inha- 
bitants of  some  of  the  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
It  was  believed  that  elves  or  fairies,  hovering  in 
the  air,  shot  these  barbs  of  flint  at  cattle,  and 
occasionally  even  at  men.     Thus,  Robert  Goi-don 
of  Straloch,  an  accomplished  coimtry  gentleman  of 
the  noi'th  of  Scotland,  writing  in 
1654,  tells  how  one  of  his  friends,         tf^m^  Ml 
travelling  on  horseback,  found  an  fm  f^^^ 
elf-arrow-head  in  the  top  of  his 
boot,  and  how  a  gentlewoman  of  w^^^m^^Bb 
his  acquaintance,  when  out  riding,  y^^]^^^^^ 
discovered  one  in  the  breast  of  her  V^^a^V*^^^^ 
habit.   He  remarks  that,  although     Y -'f^^^^f 
they  are  got  by  chance  in  the 
fields  and  on  the  highways,  one  ^^^^ 
who  goes  to  look  for  them  on 
purpose  will  search  in  vain.  He 
adds  that  they  are  most  com-  Elf-Axrow-neao, 
monly  met  with  after  showers — a 
circumstance    which    probably  helped    them  in 
Germany  to  their  names  of  '  thimder-bolts'  and 
'thunder-stones,'  and  is  easily  enough  explaineCL 
The  rain,  by  washing  away  the  earth  in  which  tbfcf 


ELGIN— ELGIN  AND  KINCARDINE. 


have  bv-cn  imbedded^  makes  them  more  readily 
percepti.Jc  to  the  eye,  especially  if  the  sunshine 
happens  to  fall  upon  them.  Cattle  dying  suddenly 
in  the  fielda  were  believed  to  have  been  struck 
by  elf -arrows — a  belief  which  yet  lingers  in  Ireland, 
and  perhaps  in  some  secluded  parts  of  Scotland. 
'Thus,  when  cattle  are  sick,'  writes  Mr  W.  R. 
Wilde,  in  his  Catalotpie  of  the  Antiquities  in  the 
Museum  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy  (Dub.  1857), 
'  and  the  cattle  doctor,  or  fairy  doctor,  is  sent  for, 
he  says  the  beast  has  been  "  elf-shot,"  or  stricken 
hy  fairy  or  elfin  darts  ;  and  he  forthwith  proceeds  to 
feel  the  animal  all  over  ;  and,  by  some  legerdemain, 
contrives  to  find,  in  its  skin  one  or  more  poisonous 
w  }a])ons,  M^hich,  with  some  coins,  are  then  placed  in 
ths  water  which  is  given  it  to  drink  ;  and  so  a  cure 
is  aaid  to  be  effected.'  The  elf- arrow-head  was  occa- 
Bionally  set  in  silver,  so  as  to  be  worn  on  the  person 
as  a  talisman,  or  had  a  hole  drilled  through  it,  so 
that  it  might  be  dipped  in  water,  which,  being  thus 
endowed  with  healing  virtue,  was  used  sometimes  as 
a  wash,  more  commonly  as  a  draught.  As  a  talisman, 
the  elf-arrow-head,  was  believed  to  be  most  efficacious 
as  a  preservative  from  poison  and  witchcraft.  The 
ascription  of  the  flint  arrow-head  to  the  elves  or 
fairies,  is  but  one  of  several  instances  of  the  disposi- 
tion of  a  people  to  elevate  or  degrade  the  earlier 
races  whom  they  vanquished  or  dispossessed  into 
mythical  beings,  better  or  worse  than  mankind. 
Thus,  in  Greece  and  Italy,  the  remains  of  the  rude 
Btrongholds  built  by  the  Pelasgi  came  to  be  regarded 
Bs  works  of  the  fabled  Cyclops,  or  one-eyed  giants. 
So  also,  in  Scotland,  the  sei)ulcliral  moimds  of  the 
Bboriginal  inhabitants  were  called  '  elf-hillocks  ; '  and 
the  vestiges  of  ancient  ploughshares  which  may  be 
traced  on  heaths  and  hill- tops  were  called  'elfin- 
furrows.'  Examples  of  '  elf-arrow-heads '  may  be 
Been  in  most  museums  of  antiquities.  They  fall  to 
be  more  particularly  described  in  a  following  page, 
under  the  head  of  Flint  Implements  and  Weapons. 

E'LGIN,  a  royal  burgh,  the  county  town  of  Elgin 
or  Morayshire,  and  a  station  on  the  Inverness 
imd  Aberdeen  Junction  Railway,  situated  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  river  Lossie,  about  five  miles 
from  the  sea.  Pop.  (1871)  7339.  E.  joins  with 
Banff,  Peterhead,  Inverurie,  Cullen,  and  Kintore, 
hi  returning  a  member  to  parliament.  It  was  prob- 
ftbly  a  royal  burgh  so  early  as  the  reign  of  King 
David  I.  (1124 — 1153),  and  had  its  privileges  con- 
firmed by  several  of  his  successors.  Its  trade  is 
Qow  almost  wholly  retail.  E.  has  12  yearly  fairs, 
and  a  weeldy  grain  market.  It  has  a  parish  church, 
which  is  collegiate,  2  Free  Churches,  2  United  Pres- 
byterian Churches,  1  Baptist  Chm-ch,  1  Original 
Secession,  1  Independent,  1  Episcopal,  and  1  Roman 
Catholic  ;  with  10  schools.  Gray's  Hospital  for  the 
wck  poor,  built  and  endowed  from  a  bequest  of 
<e20,{)C'0  by  the  late  Dr  Alexander  Gray  of  Bengal, 
and  opened  in  1819,  with  a  small  pauper  lunatic 
asylum  since  attached  by  public  subscription ;  and 
the  Elgin  or  Anderson's  Institution  for  the  support 
of  old  age  and  the  education  of  youth,  built  and 
opened  1831—1833,  on  the  foundation  of  £70,000 
/>er(ueathed  by  the  late  Major-general  Anderson, 
H.E.I.C.S. — are  the  principal  of  many  public  and 
private  charities.  E.  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the 
DC-'iuty  of  its  situation,  lying  placidly  in  a  gentle 
curve  of  the  Lossie,  for  the  salubrity  of  its  climate, 
and  for  its  history  as  the  see  of  the  Bishop  of 
Moray.  Its  appearance,  about  fifty  years  ago,  was 
that  of  a  little  cathedral  city  with  an  antique 
fashion  of  building,  and  with  'a  certain  solemn 
drowsy  air  about  the  town  and  its  inhabitants.' 
That  appearance  is  fast  giving  way  to  that  of  a  gay 
modern  county  town,  siu-rounded  by  elegant  villas. 
The  old  toM  n  was  partially  burned  in  1390  by  the 


notorioiis  Wolf  of  Badenoch  (Alexander  Stewart» 
Earl  of  Buchan) ;  in  1402,  by  Alexander,  the  son  of 
the  Lord  of  the  Isles ;  and  in  1452,  by  the  Earl  of 
Huntl}'^ — this  last  calamity  originating  the  provej  b, 
'  Half  done,  as  Elgin  was  burned.'  Its  once  raag'ii- 
ficent  cathedral  church,  partly  of  Early  English  and 
partly  of  Middle-pointed  architecture,  dedicated  to 
the  Holy  Trinity,  was  begun  by  Bishop  Andrew 
Moray  in  1224,  on  the  transference  of  the  see  from 
Spjnie ;  was  injured  by  fire  in  1270 ;  was  nearly 
burned  down  by  the  Wolf  of  Badenoch  in  1390; 
was  restored  under  Bishops  Bur,  Spyny,  Inncs,  and 
Lcighton  (1390 — 1424);  and  from  subsequent  acci- 
dent and  dilapidation  is  now  a  mere  ruin.  Tho 
other  religious  buildings  of  the  olden  time  Avere  the 
chtirch  of  St  Giles,  a  i')icturesque  example  of  our  old 
parish  churches,  replaced  1826—1828  by  the  modern 
less  interesting  structure ;  the  monastery  of  the 
Black  Friars,  long  since  demolished ;  the  convent  of 
the  Gray  Friars,  the  walls  of  whose  church  remain ; 
the  hospital  of  the  Maison  Dieu,  on  the  site  of  which 
is  Anderson's  Institution ;  the  Leper  House,  still 
commemorated  by  the  gromids  called  the  Lej)er 
Lands ;  and  the  chapel  of  St  Mary  of  the  Castle, 
which  gave  name  to  the  Lady  Hill  and  Lady  Well 
on  the  west  of  the  town.  The  castle  itself,  styled 
of  old  the  Manor  of  Elgin,  whose  ruins,  surmounted 
by  an  obelisk — erected  to  the  memory  of  George, 
fifth  and  last  Duke  of  Gordon — crown  the  Lady 
Hill,  was  a  residence  of  the  Earls  of  Moray,  for 
some  time  superiors  of  the  burgh  under  our 
Scottish  kings. 

ELGIN  AND  KINCA'RDINE,  Earl  of, 
Governor-general  of  India.  James  Bruce,  eighth 
Earl  of  E.,was  born  in  Park  Lane,  London,  in  1811. 
He  was  educated  at  his  father's  seat  in  Fifeshire, 
and  afterwards  went  to  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
where  he  was  first-class  in  classics,  1832  ;  became 
Fellow  of  Merton,  and  graduated  M.A.  1835.  He 
entered  public  life  in  1841,  when,  as  Lord  Brace, 
he  was  returned  at  the  general  election  on  the 
Conservative  interest  for  Southampton.  A  peti- 
tion was  presented  against  the  return,  and  the 
election  was  declared  void.  Before,  however,  a 
new  writ  could  issue.  Lord  Bruce  had  succeeded 
his  father  (who  enriched  the  British  Museum  by 
the  invaluable  collection  of  sculpture  known  as 
the  'Elgin  Marbles,'  q.v.)  as  Earl  of  Elgin.  Those 
who  remember  his  early  parliamentary  and  pre- 
colonial  career,  state  that  he  gave  early  promise 
of  oratorical  distinction,  and  assert  that  if  he 
had  thrown  himseK  into  the  politics  of  the  day, 
he  woidd  have  taken  a  high  position  as  a  parHa- 
mentary  debater.  By  succeeding  to  a  Scotch  peer- 
age, however,  he  was,  in  his  own  words,  '  expelled 
from  the  Houfe  of  Commons  without  being  admitted 
into  the  House  of  Peers.'  Being  offered  the  gover- 
norship of  Jamaica,  in  March  1842,  by  the  Earl  of 
Derby — then  Lord  Stanley — he  went  to  Jamaica, 
where  he  administered  the  affairs  of  the  island  with 
so  much  ability  and  success,  that  in  August  1846, 
the  Governor-generalship  of  Canada  was  tendered 
to  him  by  Earl  Grey,  then  Secretary  of  State  for  the 
Colonies  in  the  administration  of  Lord  J.  Russell, 
Lord  E.,  still  finding  himself  in  the  same  position  as 
a  Scottish  peer,  accepted  the  office,  and  went  to 
Canada.  His  administration  of  the  Government  of 
Canada  will  ever  be  a  bright  spot  in  our  colonial 
history,  and  a  model  to  future  governors  of  English 
dependencies.  He  found  Canada  governed  by 
cliques,  and  torn  by  intestine  feuds.  With  ad- 
mirable tact  and  entire  success  he  inaugurated  a 
system  of  self-government  Avhich  has  rendered 
the  pro\  ince%  of  British  America  a  support  to  the 
British  throne  in  place  of  being  a  source  of  Aveak- 
ness.    Under  his  government,  Canada  made  such 


ELGIN  AND  KTNCARDEm-ELGIN  MAEBLES. 


gtridea  in  importance  and  prosperity,  that  between 
1847  (in  the  beginning  of  which  year  he  entered 
upon  his  government)  and  1855,  when  he  returned 
to  England,  the  revenue    of  that  great  British 
possession  quadrupled  itseK.    During  his  adminis- 
tration, he  successfully  negotiated  a  treaty  for  reci- 
procity of  trade  between  British  America  and  the 
United  States,  which  admitted  the  whole  produce  of 
British  North  America  to  be  brought  into  competi- 
tion with  the  products  of  the  United  States  in  their 
own  markets.    This  treaty  likewise  put  an  end  to 
fche  risk  of  collision  on  the  subject  of  the  fisheries 
between  this  country  and  America,  which  Lord  E. 
has  described  as  the  most  serious  risk  which  had 
presented  itself  during  the  whole  time  he  had 
been  a  public  sen^ant.    His  popularity  was  great, 
not  only  in  Canada  but  the  adjacent  states,  the 
citizens  of  which  offered  him  ovations.     He  was 
now  a  peer  of  the  United  Kingdom  (having  been 
Bummoned  to  the  House  of  Lords  in  1849),  and  was 
appointed  lord  lieutenant  of  Fifeshire.     In  1857, 
the  affair  of  the  lorcha  Arrow,  and  the  bombard- 
ment of  Canton  by  Sir  John  Bowring,  led  Lord 
Pahnerston   to   invite  Lord  E.  to  go  to  China 
as  Plenipotentiary  Extraordinary.    An  army  was 
ecpiipped  to  carry  out  the  policy  prescribed  by  the 
British  government,  and  he  started  on  his  mission. 
But  before  he  could  approach  his  destination,  and 
when '  h**  had  barely  left  England  a  month,  the 
Indian  mutiny  broke  out.    Lord  E.  did  not  hesitate 
R  moment  in  preferring  the  safety  of  India  to  the 
success  of  his  Chinese  negotiations.    He  despatched 
the  Chinese  expedition  to  Lord  Canning's  assistance, 
and  tKe  English  in  India  were  thus  enabled  to  hold 
their  groimd  until  further  reinforcements  arrived. 
After  thus  consigning  himself  to  an  inaction  of 
B£!veral  months.  Lord  E.  proceeded  to  China,  and  in 
1858,  in  conjurction  with  Baron  Gros,  the  French 
plcpipotentiai'/-  he  negotiated  the  treaty  of  Tien- 
tsin, which  piomised  to  give  Great  Britain  a  freer 
a(;cess  to  China  lhan  she  had  ever  enjoyed  before. 
He  found  time,  before  his  return,  to  negotiate  a 
ti-eaty  with  Japan,  under  which  English  manufac- 
tur'^s  are  admitted  at  low  rates  of  duty,  and  a  British 
minister  is  permitted  to  reside  at  Jeddo.    On  his 
return  home,  he  was  appointed  Postmaster-general. 
He  had  scai'cely  time  to  become  acquainted  with 
his  duties,  before  the  treachery  of  the  Chinese,  in 
firing  upon  the  British  squadron  from  the  Taku 
forts,  led  to  the  organisation  of  another  Chinese 
expedition,  and  to  Lord  E.'s  second  mission  to 
China.     A  combined  English  and   French  force 
penetrated  to  the  capital,  and  enabled  Lord  E.  and 
Baron  Gros  to  dictate  a  peace  under  the  walls  of 
Pekin.    On  the  expiration  of  Viscoimt  Canning's 
term  of  service,  the  governor-generalship  of  India 
Was  offered  by  Lord  Palmerston  to  Lord  E.  (1861), 
find  accepted  by  him.     Lord  E.  (who  Avas  the  repre- 
sentative in  the  main  line  of  the  great  Scottish  House 
of  Bruce)  was  twice  married :  in  1841,  to  the  daughter 
of  Mr.  Gumming  Bruce,  M.  P.  (she  died  in  1843),  and 
in  1846,  to  the  daughter  of  the  first  Earl  of  Durham, 
by  whom  he  had  a  son,  Victor  Alexander  Lord  Bruce, 
born  at  Montreal,  1849,  and  other  issue.    Lord  E.  was 
K.  T.  (1847),  privy  councillor  (1857),  G.  C.  B.  (civil, 
extra),  1858.    He  died  in  1863. 

ELGIN  MARBLES,  a  celebrated  collection  of 
ancient  sculptures,  brought  from  Greece  by  Thomas, 
Beventh  Earl  of  Elgin,  and  acquired  from  him  by 
the  nation  for  the  Biitish  Museum  in  1816,  at  the 
eum  of  £35,000. 

These  sculptures  adorned  certain  buildings  on  the 
Acropolis  of  Athens  ;  the  chief  portions,  which  are 
from  the  Parthenon  or  I'eniple  of  Minerva,  were 
designed  by  Phidias,  and  executed  by  him,  or  imder 
ilia  superintenderce.    The^  consist  of — 1.  Portions 


of  several  of  the  statues  that  were  placed  in  the 
east  and  west  tympana  or  pediments,  the  most 
important  of  which  are  the  Theseus  or  Hercules, 


Ilissus  or  river-god,  upper  portions  of  the  torsos  of 
Neptune  and  Minerva,  Iris,  torso  of  Cecrops,  Ceres, 
and  Proserpine,  the  Fates,  heads  of  the  horses  of 
Hyperion,  and  one  of  the  horses  of  Night.  Of  all 
these,  the  Theseus,  and  the  head  of  the  horse  of 
Night,  are  the  most  perfect,  the  former  wanting  only 
the  hands  and  feet  and  part  of  the  nose,  while  even 
the  surface  of  the  latter  is  very  little  injured.  But 
however  mutilated,  the  gi'eatness  in  style  of  these 
magnificent  works  is  clearly  manifest,  and  from  the 
merest  fragment  valuable  instruction  in  art  may 
be  obtained.  2.  Fifteen  metopes,  executed  in  high 
relief,  representing  the  battle  of  the  Centaurs  and 
LapithjB.  A  metope  is  the  interval  between  ihe 
triglyphs  on  a  Doric  frieze — in  the  Parthenon,  there 
were  ninety-two,  fourteen  on  each  front,  and  thu-ty- 
two  on.  each  flank  of  the  temple — and  on  every 


Metope : 
From  the  Parthenon. 


metope,  a  Centaur  engaged  in  conflict  with  one  ^ 
the  Lapithje  is  represented  in  a  style  of  tlio 
highest  excellence  in  point  of  spirit  and  tnithfulnesa. 
3.  A  large  portion  of  the  frieze  of  the  outer  walla 
of  the  cella.  This  remarkable  work  represents  the 
solemn  procession  to  the  Temple  of  ^Minerva  during 
the  Panathenaic  festival,  and  has  never  been 
equalled  for  elegance  of  composition  and  the  variety 
and  gracefulness  of  the  figures.  It  is  executed  in 
low  relief,  in  order  to  adapt  it  to  the  light,  for 
placed  within  the  colonn£;de,  it  received  its  light 
between  the  columns,  and  by  reflection,  from  the 
pavement  below.     This  exquisite  frieze  occupied, 


ELGINSHIEE— ELIJAH. 


Blab  after  slab,  a  space  of  524  feet  in  length.  Tbe 
reiLaius  of  it  in  the  British  Museum  on  slabs  and 


fragments  of  marble  are  to  the  extent  of  upwards  of 
^49  feet,  besides  76  feet  in  plaster  casts, 

Althongli  the  Elgin  Marbles  are  now  acknow- 
ledged to  be  the  most  precious  collection  existing  of 
specimens  of  Greek  art  in  its  purest  state,  yet  it 
was  only  after  very  consideral)le  hesitation*  that 
government  consented  to  purchase  them,  and  then 
the  sum  awarded  was  not  only  far  shoi-t  of  anj^thing 
like  a  fair  value,  if  indeed  a  value  could  be  put  on 
such  treasures,  but  Lord  Elgin  was  left  largely  out 
of  pocket  after  all  his  exertions.  Again,  from  petty 
jealousy,  some  of  the  connoisseurs  of  the  day,  who 
had  earned  a  sort  of  reputation  from  their  collec- 
tions—of whom  MrPajnie  Knight  may  stand  for  the 
fcype — made  strong  efforts  to  underrate  these  great 
works ;  while  others,  like  Lord  Byron,  from  feehngs 
apparently  generous,  but  quite  mistaken,  because 
not  based  on  fact,  heaped  obloquy  on  Lord  Elgin, 
and  opposed  their  acquisition.  But  it  has  been 
clearly  proved  that  Lord  Elgin,  so  far  from  destroy- 
ing, has  saved  these  master-pieces  from  destruction. 
It  was  not  to  be  expected  but  that  foreigners  would 
grudge  this  countiy  such  an  acquisition,  but  cer- 
tainly it  is  remarkable  that  such  opinions  shoidd 
have  been  expressed  in  this  country.  The  view 
adopted  by  a  foreigner,  wdio  has  devoted  much 
attention  to  the  subject,  M.  Viardot,  author  of 
Les  Musees  d^Eurojie,  may  be  accepted  as  that 
generally  taken  abroad ;  and  it  is  very  different 
from  that  at  one  time  so  pertinaciously  maintained 
by  many  in  this  country.  INI.  Viardot  remarks : 
'It  is  said  that,  to  justify  the  appropriation  of  the 
Lahore  diamond,  the  English  allege  that  if  they 
bave  taken  it,  it  was  merely  to  prevent  its  appro- 
priation by  others.  They  may  give  the  same  excuse 
for  their  ap])ropriation  of  the  marbles  of  the  Par- 
thenon. No  doubt.  Lord  Elgin  has  carried  them  off; 
and  the  Greeks  of  the  present  day,  seeing  the  old 
temple  of  their  Acropolis  despoiled  of  all  its  orna- 
licnts,  have  a  good  right  to  curse  the  spoiler.  But 
TPhen  we  think  of  the  devastation  these  works  have 
fio  often  experienced,  to  the  total  destruction  of  the 
principal  statues,  and  the  shameful  mutilation  of 
the  others,  and  the  risk  these  last  ran  of  being 
entirely  destroyed  in  their  turn — when  we  consider 
that  these  precious  relics  of  art  are  conserved  in  a 
place  of  surety,  and  placed  in  the  centre  of  artistic 
Europe,  one  loses  the  desire,  and  almost  the  right  to 
charge  the  Englieh  with  piracy  and  robbery.  For 
niy  part,  if,  in  the  course  of  my  long  devotion  to 
the  marbles  of  Phidias,  a  regret  has  come  to  trouble 
the  ardent  T)leasure  of  my  admiration,  it  was,  that 
10 


the  robber  of  these  marbles  was  not  a  Frenchman, 
and  their  resting-place  the  Museum  of  Paris.' —  T'^t.s- 
conti  on  the  SculjJ tares  in  the  Collection  of  the  Earl 
of  Elgin  (John  Murray,  London,  1816),  XiZ>ra?-y  of 
JSntcrtaining  Knowledge — British  Museum  (London, 
Charles  Knight). 

E'LGINSHIRE,    MO'RAYSHIRE,  or 
MURRAYSIIIRE,  a  maritime  county  in  the  north- 
east of  Scotland,  on  the  Moray  Firth.    It  contains 
531  square  miles,  and  is  30  miles  long  and  20  milea 
broad,  while  above  a  tliird  part  is  cut  off  on  the 
south  by  a  detached  part  of  Inverness-shire.    In  th« 
south  are  the  high  and  rugged  Monadhliadh  Moun- 
tains of  Inverness-shire,  dividing  the  basins  of  the 
Spey  and  Findhorn,  and  forking  in  the  north  to 
include  the  basin  of  the  Lossie.    The  Lussie,  25 
miles  long,  is  the  only  stream  entirely  included  in 
the  coiuity,  but  the  rajnd  Spey  and  Findhorn,  the 
latter  noted  for  its  fine  scenery,  skirt  its  east  and 
west  sides  respectively.    In  the  south,  gneiss  pre- 
dominates with  a  little  granite;  and  in  the  north, 
sandstone  wdth  fish  and  reptilian  remains,  and  small 
patches  of  oolitic  and  wealden  strata.     West  of 
the  Findhorn  mouth  are  the  sand-dunes  of  Culbin, 
three  square  miles  in  extent,  some  of  them  rising 
118  feet.     Great  masses  of  peat  and  trunks  of 
trees  are  often  cast  ashore  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Findhorn.    The  climate  is  mild  and  dry,  and  the 
county  has  been  called  the  Devonshii-e  of  Scot- 
land, the  mountains  of  Aberdeenshire  and  Banff- 
shire protecting  it  from  the  cold  moist  winds  of 
the  German  Ocean.    The  soil  is  open,  sandy,  and 
gravelly,  and  very  fertile  in  the  north,  with  some 
deep  loams  and  clays.     In  1873,  a  third  of  the 
county  was  in  crop,  the  chief  crops  being  oats, 
wlieat,  and  turnips.  E.  was  anciently  reckoned  the  gra^ 
nary  of  Scotland.    Pop.  (1871)  43,5*98  ;  (1851)  38,959, 
chiefly  agriculturists.    The  ciiief  exports  are  grain, 
cattle,  salmon,  and  timbei*.  There  are  some  manufac- 
tures of  woollens  and  malt  liquors.    E.  unites  with 
Nairnshire  in  sending  one  member  to  parliament.  It 
contains  22  parishes,  and  portions  of  parishes.  In 
1871,  84'87  per  cent,  of  children,  from  5  to  13  yeai-s, 
were  receiving  education.    The  total  valuation  of  E. 
was  for  1873 — 1874,  £204,556.    The  parish  schools 
enjoy  the  Dick  Bequest.    The  chief  towTis  are  Elgin 
and  Forres.   The  ancient  province  of  Moray  included 
the  counties  of  Elgin  and  Nairn,  and  parts  of  those 
of  Inverness  and  Banff.    Scandinavians  early  settled 
m  it.    About  1160,  Malcolm  IV.  subdued  it.  The 
chief  antiquities  are  Elgdn  Cathedral,  Spynie  Castle, 
Duffus  Castle,  Pluscarden  Abbey,  Kinloss  i^bbey, 
and  the  Norman  parish  church  of  Birnie.  Burg- 
head,  on  the  coast,  is  supposed  by  many  to  have 
been  a  Roman  station,  but  its  ramparts  and  ditches, 
now  almost  destroyed,  were  probably  of  more  recent 
origin.    It  was  the  last  stronghold  of  the  Norsemen 
in  this  part  of  Scotland.   E.  was  overrun  in  the  civil 
wars  of  Montrose,  1645,  &c. 

ELI'AS,  St,  a  lofty  mountain  which  occupies  a 
conspicuous  position  on  the  north-west  coast  oi 
America,  in  lat.  60°  18'  N.,  and  in  long.  140°  30'  W. 
It  rises  about  17,860  feet,  or  almost  3^  miles  above 
the  sea,  being  visible  to  mariners  at  a  distance  of 
50  leagues.  Physically,  it  marks  pretty  nearly  the 
point  where  the  shore,  after  trending  in  a  north- 
west direction,  turns  due  west,  and  politically  it 
divides  itself  between  the  territories  of  Prussia  and 
Great  Britain. 

ELI'JAH  (in  the  Greek  form,  occurring  in  the 
New  Testament,  Elias),  the  greatest  of  the  prophets 
of  Israel,  was  born  at  Tishbe,  in  Gilead,  on  the 
borders  of  the  desert.  He  comes  upon  the  seen*,  ia 
the  time  of  Ahab,  about  920  B.  c.  When  t^at 
monarch,  to  please  his  Phoenician  wife  Jezebel,  tiad 


Portion  of  Panathenaic  Frieze. 


ELIMINATION— ELISHJ\» 


introduced,  on  an  extensive  scale,  the  worship 
of  Baal,  E.  pronounced  a  curse  on  the  land.  The 
prophet  liad  to  flee.  He  took  refuge  by  the  brook 
Clierith,  probably  one  of  the  torrents  that  cleave 
the  high  table-land  of  his  native  region.  Here  he 
was  nm-aculously  fed  by  ravens.  He  then  Avcnt  to 
Zarepheth,  a  town  lying  between  Tyre  and  Sidon. 
Here  he  lodged  with  a  widow  woman,  prolonged 
,her  oil  and  meal,  and  brought  back  her  son  to 
health  from  the  brink  of  the  grave.  Subsequently 
he  made  a  tem})orary  reconciliation  with  Ahab, 
and  on  Mount  Carmel  executed  dreadfid  venge- 
ance on  the  prophets  of  Baal,  slaying  400  with 
his  own  hand.  Such  a  deed  enraged  Jezebel  to 
the  utmost.  She  swore  to  destroy  the  prophet, 
who  once  more  took  refuge  in  flight.  He  rested 
not  till  he  reached  Beersheba  in  the  far  south, 
on  the  edge  of  the  desert  that  leads  down  to 
Sinai.  The  brief  allusion  in  Scripture  to  his 
weary  wanderings  is  veiy  touching.  At  last  he 
comes  to  Horeb,  where  he  has  an  interview  with 
Jehovah.  The  passage  in  which  this  is  recorded 
is  one  of  the  grandest  and  most  significant  in  the 
whole  of  the  Old  Testament.  He  then  receives 
certain  instructions  from  Jehovah,  among  others 
that  he  shoidd  select  Elisha  to  be  prophet  in  his 
room.  E.'s  next  ajipearance  is  when  Ahab  rides 
forth  to  take  possession  of  Naboth's  vineyard  :  he 
denounces  the  murderous  monarch,  and  utters  an 
awfid  proi)hetic  curse  on  him  and  his  wife.  After 
the  death  of  Ahab,  he  rebukes  the  idolatries  of 
his  son  Ahaziah  in  a  solemn  and  bloody  fashion; 
and  after  the  death  of  Ahaziah,  we  find  him  inter- 
fering in  the  affairs  of  tlie  king  of  Judah,  who 
had  married  a  daughter  of  Ahab,  and  had  begun 
to  '  walk  in  the  ways  of  the  kings  of  Israel.'  He 
denounced  his  evil  doings,  and  inedicted  his  death. 
The  closing  scene  of  his  life  on  earth  is  exquisitely 
narrated.  A  chariot  of  fire  and  horses  of  fire  appeared 
after  Elisha  and  he  had  crossed  the  Jordan,  and 
*  Elijah  went  up  by  a  whirlwind  into  heaven.'  His 
political  and  religious  aims  were  carried  out  by  his 
disciple  and  successor,  Elisha. 

ELIMINA'TION  is  a  process  by  which,  where 
we  have  a  number  of  statements  concerning  several 
quantities,  we  can  obtain  a  separate  statement  con- 
cerning each.  Thus,  in  Algebra,  elimination  is  the 
operation  which  consists  in  getting  rid  of  a  quan- 
tity or  letter  which  is  common,  say,  to  two  equa- 
tions, by  forming  out  of  the  two  a  new  equation,  in 
Buch  a  way  as  to  make  the  quantity  in  question  dis- 
appear. If  three  unknown  quantities,  for  instance, 
are  to  be  found  from  three  independent  equations, 
the  first  step  is  to  form  out  of  the  three  given  equa- 
tions two  new  equations,  so  as  to  eliminate  one  of 
the  unknown  qiiantities  ;  from  these  two  equations 
another  of  the  quantities  is  eliminated  in  the  same 
way,  giving  one  equation  with  one  unknown  q\iantity, 
the  value  of  which  is  then  found.  In  complicated 
equations,  elimination  becomes  difficidt,  and  often 
impossible.  Elimination  is  an  important  process  in 
other  sorts  of  reasoning  besides  the  mathematical ; 
in  this  larger  acceptation,  it  means  the  setting  aside 
ot  all  extraneous  considerations — of  everything  not 
eaeential  to  the  result.  In  astronomical  observa- 
tions, the  elimination  of  errors  of  observation  is 
often  efiected  by  repeating  the  observations  several 
times  in  such  a  way  as  to  cause  the  errors  to  be  of 
opposite  kinds,  then  adding  the  observed  values,  and 
taking  their  averag-j. — The  word  to  'eliminate,!  is 
often  erroneously  usid  in  the  sense  of  to  '  elicit,'  or 
bring  to  light. 

E'LIS,  one  of  the  ancient  divisions  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, bounded  N.  and  N.-E.  by  Achaia,  E.  and  S. 
by  Aicadia,  and  W  by  the  Ionian  Sea.    It  was 


originally  divided  into  thi\.e  districts— Ccele  of 
Hollow  Elis,  Pisatis,  and  Triphylia.  Of  these,  the 
first-named  was  by  far  the  largest  and  most  valual^le, 
comprising  as  it  did  the  broad  and  fei-tile  plains 
watered  by  the  Peneus  and  the  Ladon,  and  in  oduc- 
ing  excellent  crops  of  corn,  cotton,  and  flax  ;  while 
the  pastures  by  the  river-];anks  leared  cattle  and 
horses  of  proverbial  excellence.  This  disti  ict,  from 
its  fertility,  was  called  'the  milk-cow  of  the  Morea. 
Pisatis  is  drained  by  the  Alpheus,  and  is  sejiarated 
from  Coele  Elis  by  Mount  Pholoe,  a  spur  of  Eryn.an- 
thus.  The  low  grounds  of  this  division  possess  great 
natural  fertility.  Most  of  the  surface  of  Trijthylia 
is  hilly,  being  occupied  with  offshoots  from  the  great 
Arcadian  ranges.  It  is  separated  from  Pisatis  by 
the  Alpheus,  on  whose  banks  were  the  grove  and 
temple  of  01ymj)ic  Jove,  and  the  plain  in  which  the 
great  Olympic  games  were  celebrated.  Though  E. 
had  few  facilities  for  preventing  invasion,  it  yet 
suffered  less  from  war  than  any  other  of  the  Greek 
states — an  advantage  chiefly  due  to  the  sacred 
character  of  the  country,  as  the  seat  of  the  greatest 
of  the  national  festivals.  Their  prerogative  of  hold- 
ing the  Olympic  gamea  gave  the  Eleans  a  prestige 
w^hich  they  continued  to  enjoy  in  greater  or  less 
degree  till  the  games  themselves  were  sui)])ressed 
by  the  Emperor  Theodosius  in  394  a.  d. — Elis,  now 
Kaloscopi,  the  ca2)ital  of  the  foregoing  country, 
stood  on  the  Peneus,  and  was  long  famous  as  one 
of  the  most  splendid  and  po})ulous  cities  of  Greece. 
It  was  at  one  time  strongly  fortified,  and  contained 
many  magnificent  buildings,  conspicuous  among 
which  was  the  Gymnasium,  in  which  it  was  necessary 
that  aU  athletes  intending  to  take  part  in  the  Olym- 
pic games  should  go  through  a  month's  training 
before  they  were  allowed  to  comj^ete.  See  Leake's 
Mo7'ea,  and  Curtius's  Peloponnesus. 

ELI'SHA,  a  prophet  of  Israel,  the  successor  of 
Elijah,  who  found  him  at  the  plough,  and  consecrated 
him  to  the  sacred  office  by  throwing  his  mantle  ovei 
his  shoulders.  He  exercised  his  functions  for  a 
period  of  55  years.  When  Elijah  was  carried  up 
into  heaven,  E.  returned  to  Jericho,  where  he  dwelt 
for  some  time.  He  then  proceeded  to  Bethel,  where 
the  perplexing  miracle  occurred  of  the  destruction 
of  the  42  children  by  the  two  she-bears.  After 
this  period,  he  seems,  besides  performing  an  extra- 
ordinary number  of  miracles,  to  have  taken  an 
active  part  in  the  religious  politics  of  his  country, 
but  he  exhibited  nothing  of  the  fiery  and  san- 
guinary zeal  of  his  master.  Mild,  tolerant,  con- 
ciliatory, we  hardly  ever,  if  at  all,  find  him  rebuking 
the  Baal-worship  that  was  still  j)revalent  in  IsraeL 
Many  of  the  incidents  in  his  history  recall  the 
creations  of  eastern  fancy,  such,  for  example,  as 
those  of  the  horses  and  chariots  of  fire  round  about 
E.  on  the  hillside,  of  the  smiting  of  the  Syi-ian 
host  with  blindness,  so  that  the  prophet  led  them 
all  unconsciously  into  Samaria,  captive,  &c.  With 
Elijah,  it  has  been  said  (see  Smith's  Dictionary  oj 
the  Bible:  Art.  'Elisha'),  the  miracles  are  'intro- 
duced as  means  towards  great  ends,  and  are  kept 
in  the  most  complete  subordination  thereto.  But 
with  E.,  as  he  is  pictured  in  the  Hebrew  narra- 
tive, the  case  is  completely  reversed ;  with  him, 
the  miracles  are  evcrj-thing,  the  prophet's  work 
nothing.  The  man  v  ho  was  for  years  the  intimate 
companion  of  Elijah,  on  whom  Elijah's  mantle 
descended,  and  who  was  gifted  with  a  double  por- 
tion of  his  spirit,  appears  in  the  Old  Testament 
chiefly  as  a  worker  of  prodigies,  a  predicter  of 
future  events,  a  revealer  of  secrets,  and  things 
hai)pening  out  of  sight  or  at  a  distance.'  The 
difticultles  that  thus  beset  the  literal  acceptance  of 
the  narrative  of  E.'s  miracles  have  been  felt  by 
most  modern  commentators,  and   to  evade  these 

U 


ELIXIE— ELIZABETH. 


difficulties  various  methods,  more  or  less  satisfactory, 
have  been  employed.  For  several  years  E.  was  the 
chief  theocratical  counsellor  of  Jehoram.  Under  the 
reign  of  Jehu  and  his  successors,  he  gradually  with- 
drew from  public  affairs,  and  died  in  Samaria  in  the 
reign  of  Jehoash,  grandson  of  Jehu  (about  840  B,  c,). 
It  has  been  customary  to  draw  a  parallel  l)etween 
E.  and  Christ ;  and  his  mildness  and  gentleness — 
always  excepting  the  story  of  the  destruction  of  the 
children  at  Bethel,  Avhich  has  perplexed  all  humane 
readers  of  Scripture — seem  to  justify  this.  E.  is 
canonized  in  the  Greek  Church ;  his  day  is  the  14th 
of  June. 

ELI'XIR  (Lat.  elixare^  to  extract  by  boiling),  a 
term  in  pharmacy  which  has  come  do\\Ti  from  the 
days  of  alchemy,  and  is  applied  to  various  prepara- 
tions, consisting  mostly  of  solutions  of  aromatic 
and  bitter  vegetable  substances  in  spirits  of  wine. 
The  term  tincture  is  now  more  common.  Elixir 
OF  Vitriol,  or  Aromatic  Sulphuric  Acid,  is  pre- 
pared from  14  fluid  ounces  of  sulijlmric  acid  (oil 
of  vitriol),  10  fluid  ounces  of  rectified  spirit,  4  oz. 
cinnamon  in  powder,  1  oz.  ginger  in  powder. 
The  acid  is  gradually  added  to  the  spirit,  and  the 
mixture  being  placed  in  a  closed  vessel,  is  allowed 
to  digest  at  a  gentle  heat  for  three  days  ;  the 
cinnamon  and  ginger  are  then  added,  and  after 
b<iing  allowed  to  stand  about  six  days,  the  whole 
is  strained  through  cloth.  The  elixir  of  vitriol  is 
Ufjefid  for  quenching  thirst,  sharpening  the  appetite, 
checking  profuse  perspiration,  and  often  reducing 
the  action  of  the  pidse.  The  dose  may  range 
from  10  to  40  minims,  and  is  administered  in  a 
xvine-glassfid  of  water,  or  some  mild  liquid,  as 
infusion  or  conserve  of  roses. — Elixir  Vit^  of 
MIatiiiolus  is  compos'^d  of  alcohol,  and  upwards  of 
t^v^euty  aromatic  and  stimulating  substances,  and 
was  at  one  time  administered  to  patients  sufl'ering 
from  ejHlepsy. 

ELI'ZABETGRAD,  a  town  of  South  Russia,  is 
situated  in  the  midst  of  a  delightful  plain,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Ingul,  in  lat.  48°  27^  N.,  long.  32°  15'  E., 
about  130  miles  north  from  Kherson.  It  consists  of 
a  town  proper  and  four  subiu'bs,  is  well  built,  its 
streets  straight,  wide,  and  adorned  ^vith  avenues  of 
trees.  E.  has  a  large  arsenal  within  the  walls,  and 
is  protected  by  six  bastions.  A  considerable  trade 
is  carried  on  here  in  the  produce  of  the  surround- 
ing districts;  and  an  annual  fair  is  held,  which  is 
attended  by  many  thousands  of  dealers ;  commerce 
is  also  carried  on  with  Poland  and  Moldavia.  In 
the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  town  there  are 
upwards  of  30  wind-mills.  Great  numbers  of  cavalry 
are  always  present  in  E.,  as  it  is  the  head-quarters 
of  the  military  colonies  east  of  the  river  Bug.  Pop. 
in  1867,  31,968. 

ELI'ZABETH,  Queen  of  England,  was  the 
daughter  of  Henry  VIII.  and  the  unfortimate  Anne 
Boleyn,  and  M^as  born  7th  September  1533.  While 
she  was  yet  in  her  third  year,  her  mother  was 
beheaded.  After  her  mother's  execution,  she  w^as 
aent  to  the  country,  where,  in  comparative  poverty 
iind  seclusion,  imder  the  care  of  ladies  who  leaned  to 
the  '  new  learning,'  and  sometimes,  though  seldom, 
with  the  companionship  of  her  brother  Edward,  or 
her  sister  Mary,  the  greater  part  of  her  early  youth 
was  spent.  When  Catharine  Parr  l)€came  queen, 
K,  who  was  a  favourite  with  her,  was  more  seen  at 
court ;  but  from  some  unknoAvn  cause,  she  inciu-red 
her  father's  displeasm*e,  and  was  again  sent  to  the 
country.  Her  father  died  when  she  was  twelve 
Vears  old.  During  the  reign  of  her  brother  Edward, 
aer  life  passed  quietly  and  peacefully.  She  was 
then  remarkable  for  a  great  demur>ness  and  sobriety 
&£  manner,  discoursing  with  hei  elders  with  aU 
12 


the  gravity  of  advanced  years.  Edward  used  to 
speak  of  her  as  his  'sweet  sister  Temperance.' 
During  her  sister's  reign,  this  demureness  was 
exaggerated  into  prudery,  and  the  vanity  which,  in 
after-years,  with  ampler  means  at  its  command, 
displayed  itself  in  the  utmost  profusion  of  personal 
decoration,  then  sought  for  distinction  by  excess 
of  plainness.  Her  Protestantism,  and  the  way  in 
which  court  was  paid  to  her  by  the  Protestant 
nobility,  caused  uneasiness  to  Mary  and  her  coimciL 
On  her  sister's  command,  she  conformed  to  paptKsy, 
but  the  insincerity  of  the  conformity  imposed  apoB 
no  one.  Upon  the  pretext  of  having  been,  con« 
cerned  in  Wyatt's  rebellion,  she  was  sent  in  1554 
to  the  Tower.  She  entered  it  with  all  the  gloomy 
forebodings  which  the  fate  of  so  many  royal  ladies 
who  had  been  recently  within  7ts  walls,  could 
suggest.  In  daily  fear  for  her  Jde,  many  months 
passed.  Indeed,  the  warrant  for  her  execution  was 
at  one  time  prepared  ;  and  it  is  unquestionable  that 
the  stern  bigotry  of  Mary  and  her  councilloi's, 
Gardiner  and  Bonner,  would  have  sacrificed  E., 
but  for  the  fear  of  popular  commotion.  The  people, 
however,  regarded  E.  with  great  favour,  and  many 
already  looked  forward  to  the  time  when  the 
death  of  Mary  should  free  the  court  from  foreign 
influence,  and  give  room  for  a  milder  government. 
Thus  the  life  of,  E.  was  saved,  but  for  some  time 
longer  she  was  kept  a  prisoner  at  Woodstock. 
During  the  remainder  of  Mary's  reign,  E,  though 
occasionally  at  court,  resided  chiefly  at  her  resi- 
dence of  Hatfield  House,  in  Hertfordshire,  where 
she  occupied  herself  with  feminine  amusements, 
and  the  study  of  classical  literature,  under  tho 
learned  Roger  Ascham. 

When  Mary  died  (17th  November  1558),  E.  was 
twenty-five  years  of  age.  Her  accession  was 
welcomed  alike  by  Catholic  and  Protestant.  The 
former  were,  outwardly  at  least,  the  majority  in 
Mary's  reign  ;  but  among  thera  there  were  few 
who  really  cared  for  the  peculiar  doctrines  of  the 
Roman  Church,  and  there  were  many  who  were 
weary  of  priestly  interference,  foreign  dictation, 
and  cruel  persecution.  Like  E.  herself,  there  were 
many  who  had  conformed  merely  to  save  themselves 
from  trouble.  They  had  obeyed  the  Six  Articles 
in  Henry's  time ;  had  agreed  to  the  Protestant 
settlement  of  Edward  ;  had  turned  with  Queen 
Mary,  and  were  now  ready  to  tiu-n  again  with 
Queen  Elizabeth.  The  Protestants,  of  course,  who 
had  never  believed  the  sincerity  of  E.'s  conformity, 
welcomed  her  to  the  throne.  E.  then  began,  amidst 
dangers  and  difficulties,  a  reign  which,  contrary  to 
the  expectation  of  all,  was  of  unexampled  length 
and  prosperity.  It  would  be  wrong  not  to  attribute 
to  her  influence  some  effect  in  producing  the  great 
changes  which,  during  the  next  fortj^-four  years, 
took  place  in  England ;  but  so  far  as  these  changes 
were  not  produced  in  the  natural  course  of  the 
development  of  the  nation's  powers,  and  so  far  aa 
they  bear  the  mark  of  an  individual  mind,  they 
bear  much  more  the  impress  of  the  bold  yet  cai  tioiia 
judgment  and  clear  intellect  of  the  great  minister, 
Cecil,  than  of  the  sovereign's  will.  It  is  to  the 
highest  praise  of  E.  that  her  first  act  on  succeeding 
was  to  consult  with  such  a  man,  and  that  to  the 
very  last  she  could  bend  her  capricious  temper  to 
his  control. 

How  the  government  influence  was  to  be  directed, 
was  not  long  in  being  shewn.  Till  parliament  should 
meet,  E.  issued  a  proclamation  that  the  English 
language  should  be  used  in  the  greater  part  of  the 
church  service,  and  that  the  Host  should  not  be 
elevated  by  the  priest  during  mass.  This  sufH- 
ciently  indicated  into  what  hands  power  had  passed, 
and  was  enouah  to  throw  the  mass  of  the  indiflerent 


ELIZABETH. 


to  the  side  of  the  Protestants,  and  to  cause  a  Protest- 
ant majority  to  be  returned  to  E.'s  first  parlia- 
ment. The  acts  of  this  parliament  must  be  ever 
memorable  in  our  history.  It  was  then  that  Eng- 
land took  its  position  as  a  Protestant  i)Ower.  The 
Book  of  Common  Prayer,  retaining,  doubtless,  some 
mixture  of  medieval  thought,  but  still  vivid  with 
new  energy,  Avas  appointed  to  be  used  in  all 
churches ;  the  Thirty- nine  Articles  were  settled  as 
the  national  faith ;  the  queen  was  declared  to  be 
head  of  the  church.  Thus  all  allegiance  to  Pvome 
was  thrown  off.  This  revolution  was  soon  accom- 
plished, and  with  little  turmoil.  The  bishops,  with 
one  exception,  refused  to  conform  ;  but  as  a  sign  of 
the  times,  marking  how  thorougldy  the  priesthood 
must  have  become  demoralised  before  their  pow'er 
was  lost,  it  is  noteworthy  that  of  the  9000  clergy- 
men who  held  livings  in  England,  there  were  fewer 
than  200  who  resigned,  rather  than  obey  the  new 
order  of  things. 

The  pohcy  of  E.'s  ministers  was  one  of  peace  and 
economy.  They  foimd  the  nation  at  war  with 
France  and  Scotland,  and  one  of  their  first  acts 
was  to  secure  peace  upon  favourable  terms.  Ever 


prepared  to  take  effectual  measures  to  remove  a  life 
which  might  be  turned  into  so  dangerous  a  tool  in 
the  hands  of  Catholics.  E.  shrank  from  that  course, 
but  had  not  the  courage  and  generosity  to  set 
Queen  Mary  at  liberty.  Had  this  course  been  taken, 
Mary  woiJd  have  gone  to  France  or  Spain,  would 
have  made  a  foreign  marriage,  and  as  a  foreigner 
woidd  have  lost  the  only  sources  of  her  real 
power — the  sympathies  of  the  Scotch  and  English 
Catholics.  As  it  was,  E.  retained  her  a  prisoner, 
and  thus  for  years  gave  cause  to  conspiracy  after 
conspiracy  among  the  English  Cathohcs.  For  a 
rebellion  incited  to  set  Mary  free,  the  richest  and 
most  popular  of  the  English  nobility,  Norfolk,  was 
executed.  The  discovery  of  every  new  plot  led  to 
demands,  on  the  part  of  parhament,  for  the  execu- 
tion of  Mary.  The  plots  then  took  a  graver  aspect. 
The  assassination  of  E.,  and  the  placing  of  Mary 
on  her  throne,  became  the  object.  On  the  dis- 
covery of  Babington's  conspiracy  for  this  purpose, 
the  popular  cry  was  irresistible,  and  was  joined 
in  by  Cecil  and  Walsingham,  and  others  of  E.'s 
ministers,  who  had  sinned  too  deeply  against  Mary 
to  run  the  risk  of  her  succession  to  the  throne. 
With  reluctance  and  hesitation,  the  sincerity  of 
which  need  not  be  questioned,  E.  consented ;  and 
Mary,  after  long  years  of  confinement,  was  con- 
denmod  and  executed. 


afterwards,  they  followed  the  same  path.  No  war 
was  undertaken  in  her  reign  for  the  sake  of  terri^ 
torial  conquest.  To  strengthen  her  own  throne,  E. 
secretly  succoured  the  Protestants  in  Scotland,  in 
France,  and  in  the  Low  Coimtries ;  but  she  had  few 
open  wars.  To  be  at  peace  with  a  government,  nay, 
ajiparently  to  be  ui)on  the  most  amicable  of  terms 
with  it  (as  E.  was  with  the  French  court,  while  she 
sent  assistance  to  the  Huguenots  at  Ilochelle),  and 
at  the  sanfe  time  to  aid  its  rebellious  subjects,  waa 
in  those  days  thought  only  part  of  the  politio 
dissimulation  without  which,  it  was  believed,  no 
nation  could  be  safely  r^lled.  To  maintain  the 
security  of  her  own  throne,  and  to  prevent  foreign 
interference  in  English  matters,  Avas  the  main- 
spring of  E.'s  foreign  policy  ;  and  she  lost  no  oppor- 
tunity of  weakening  and  finding  occupation  abroad 
for  any  foreign  power  that  unduly  threatened  her 
authority. 

The  one  great  blimder  of  England's  policy  waa 
the  treatment  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots.  Had  E. 
pursued  a  straightforward  course,  when  her  rival 
was  thrown  mto  her  hands,  much  evil  might  have 
been  spared.    Some  of  the  English  ministers  were 


This  led  to  new  evils.  The  participation  of  tna 
Catholic  party  in  the  plots  was  retaliated  by  perse« 
cution.  Many  suffered  under  an  act  passed  in 
1585,  making  it  treason  for  a  Catholic  priest  to  be 
in  England,  and  felony  to  harbour  one.  These  cruel 
measures  were  the  idtimate  means  of  bringing  upon 
England  the  most  menacing  foreign  attack  which  she 
had  suffered.  Philip  of  Spain  had  long  meditated 
vengeance  against  England.  The  greatest  state  'u 
Europe,  enriched  by  splendid  acqiusitions  in  the  New 
World,  could  ill  brook  that  a  power  of  the  second 
rank  should  incite  rebellion  among  her  subjects  in 
the  Netherlands,  should  aid  the  Protestants  in  their 
desperate  struggle  against  Alva,  and  allow  its  shipa 
(little  better  than  pirates,  it  must  be  confessed)  to 
enter  the  Spanish  harbours,  and  cut  out  the  rich 
laden  galloons.  These  were  the  real  reasons  :  to 
restore  the  Catholic  faith,  and  to  revenge  the  death 
of  a  CathoHc  queen,  furnished  ostensible  reasons. 
Years  had  been  spent  in  preparation.  In  1588,  the 
*  Invincible  Armada'  sailed  from  the  Tagus,  manned 
by  8000  sailors,  and  carrying  20,000  solcliers.  To 
aid  these,  a  land-army  of  100,000  men  was  to  be 
transported  from  the  Netherlands  imder  the  Duke 
of  Parma.  The  news  roused  all  England,  and  every 
man  who  could  carry  arms — Protestant  and  Catholio 
from  18  years  of  age  to  60 — was  enrolled  in  the 
forces.     The  old  queen  herself  rode  at  Tilbury, 

13 


Fac-simile  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  Signature. 


ELIZABETH. 


energetically  encouraging  the  army.  A  fleet  of 
200  vessels  and  15,000  seamen  gathered  itself  on 
the  southern  coasts,  and  waited  the  attack.  Supe- 
rior skill  and  courage  gained  the  victory  for  the 
English ;  and  what  these  had  begun,  the  force  of 
the  elements  completed.  The  splendid  Armada  was 
broken  and  destroyed  before  it  could  join  the  land- 
army,  not  a  soldier  of  which  ever  "left  foreign 
ground  ;  while  not  a  seaman  of  the  fieetg^ave  those 
whom  shipwrecks  sent,  ever  set  foot  Zn  En-lish 
groimd. 

E.  died  on  24th  March  1G03,  having  lived  nearly 
70,  and  reigned  nearly  45  years.  If  the  life  of 
her  rival,  Mary  of  Scotland,  read  somewhat  like  a 
tragedy,  tlie  private  life  of  E.  might  afford  abundant 
materials  for  comedy.  Always  parading  her  wish  to 
live  an  unmarried  life,  E.  coquetted  with  suitor 
after  suitor  till  long  after  that  period  of  life  when 
Buch  pro[)osals  verge  upon  the  ridiculous.  Of  her 
father's  schemes  to  marry  her  to  the  Scotch  Earl  of 
Arran  or  to  Philij)  the  son  of  Charles  V. — afterwards 
husband  of  Mary — it  is  unnecessary  to  speak,  for  E. 
had  personally  little  to  say  in  regard  to  them.  But 
phe  was  scarcely  more  than  a  child  when  her  flirta- 
tions with  the  handsome  Lord  Admiral  Seymour — 
the  brother  of  the  Protector  Somerset — had  passed 
the  bounds  of  decorum.  In  Mary's  reign,  E.  wag 
flattered  with  the  attentions  of  her  kinsman,  the  Earl 
of  Courtenay,  and  she  declined  the  hand  of  Phili- 
bert  of  Savoy,  pressed  on  her  by  her  sister's  council. 
When  queen,  with  some  hesitation  she  refused  the 
ofi'er  of  Philip  IL,  who  was  desirous  of  perpetuating 
his  influence  over  England,  and  she  began  that 
connection  with  Leicester,  which  so  seriously  com- 
promised her  character.  It  is  certain  that  she 
loaded  him  with  honours  as  soon  as  she  had  them 
to  bestow ;  allowed  him  to  become  a  suitor  for  her 
hand  within  a  few  days  after  the  sudden  death  of 
his  wife.  Amy  Kobsart,  attributed  by  all  England 
to  his  agency ;  and  allowed  him  to  remain  a  suitor 
long  after  his  open  profligacy  had  disgusted  the 
nation,  and  had  even  opened  her  own  eyes  to  his 
worthlessness.  If  we  credit  the  scandal  of  the 
times,  the  intimacy  was  of  the  most  discreditable 
kind.  If  we  credit  those  sources  of  information, 
recently  turned  to  more  profit  by  Mr  Fronde  than 
by  any  of  his  predecessors,  which  are  found  in  the 
dispatches  of  the  Bishop  of  Aquila,  ambassador  of 
Philip  II.  in  London,  preserved  in  the  archives  of 
Simancas,  not  only  was  the  moral  character  of  E. 
Bullied  with  the  darkest  crime?,  but  even  the  quality 
for  which  she  has  ever  been  most  honoured,  her 
English  patriotism,  was  mere  affectation.  These 
dispatches  represent  her  as  accessory — at  least,  after 
the  fact — to  the  miu'der  of  Amy  Eobsart,  and  as 
offering  to  Spain  to  become  a  Catholic,  and  to  restore 
the  Spanish  ascendency  in  England,  if  Philip  would 
support  her  on  the  throne  as  the  wife  of  Leicester ; 
and  they  represent  her  as  being  restrained  from 
giving  way  to  the  fatal  consequences  of  her  wild 
passion  ordy  by  Cecil's  control.  That  there  is  some 
oasis  of  truth  in  this  revelation,  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  deny  ;  but  the  hatred  with  which 
Philip  regarded  E.,  after  her  refusal  to  marry  him, 
has  undoubtedly  led  the  courtly  bishop  to  gross 
exaggerations.  It  is  undeniable,  however,  that  had 
E.  followed  her  own  inclinations,  she  woidd  have 
married  Leicester.  Her  ministers,  wisely  for  the 
nation,  prevented  this,  but  E.  never  seriously  enter- 
tained another  proposal.  Cecil  could  prevent  her 
marrying  whom  he  would  not,  but  he  coidd  not 
force  her  to  marry  whom  he  would.  Among  less 
distinguished  suitors,  the  Archduke  Charles  of 
Vienna,  and  Prince  Eric  of  Sweden,  pressed  their 
Buit  in  vain.  Petitions  from  parliament  to  the 
Qncen  to  marry  only  excite  I  her  maidenlv  Avrath 
14 


and  produced  dignified  replies  that  she  would 
attend  to  the  matter  when  the  time  came.  Years 
passed  on,  and  she  remained  a  spinster.  Catharine 
of  Medici,  queen-mother  of  France,  intrigued  to 
marry  her  to  one  of  her  sons,  Henry  of  Anjou 
(afterwards  Henry  III.),  or  the  Duke  of  Alcn90n, 
afterwards  Duke  of  Anjou.  When  the  foreign 
envoys  pressed  the  suit  of  the  latter,  E.  waa 
38  years  of  age,  and  her  suitor  19  ;  but  they 
ingeniously  flattered  her  that  she  and  he  looked 
of  the  same  age,  for  she,  by  her  good  preservation, 
looked  nine  years  younger  than  she  was  ;  while 
the  duke,  by  his  wisdom,  gravity,  and  mature 
intellect,  looked  nine  years  older.  This  flattery, 
with  more  plausible  attractions,  was  without  effect. 

E.'s  position  gave  too  much  scope  for  the  develop, 
ment  of  the  unamiable  and  ridiculous  features  of 
her  character.  The  personal  vanity  displayed  in 
her  extravagant  dress,  her  conversation,  her  'high 
and  disposed '  dancing,  excites  a  smile,  not  lessened 
when  we  read  of  the  irritable  mistress  boxing  the 
ears  of  her  councillors,  cuffing  her  attendants, 
indulging  in  expressive  masculine  oaths,  and  amxising 
herself  with  rough  masculine  sports.  The  assertion 
that  she  was  of  a  cruel  disposition  is  false.  That 
she  could  do  cruel  things  when  her  vanity  waa 
concerned  is  sufficiently  attested  by  her  ordering 
the  right  hand  of  a  barrister,  named  Stubbes,  to 
be  struck  off  for  writing  a  remonstrance  against 
her  marriage  with  the  Duke  of  Alenyon,  which 
she  thought  unduly  reflected  on  herself ;  but  in 
her  reign,  the  reckless  waste  of  human  life  which 
marked  the  reigns  of  her  predecessors  was  unknown. 
She  was  not,  however,  of  fine  feelings.  Her  brother 
coidd  compliment  her  on  the  calm  mind  and  elegant 
sentences  with  which  she  replied  to  the  commmii- 
cation  of  the  death  of  her  father.  On  the  news  of 
her  sister's  death,  she  burst  out  with  rhapsodical 
quotations  from  the  Psalms ;  and  when  she  heard  of 
the  execution  of  her  lover  Seymour,  she  turned 
away  the  subject  with  something  like  a  jest.  By 
her  attendants,  she  was  more  feared  than  loved. 
The  one  quality  which  never  failed  her,  was  j^er- 
sonal  courage  ;  and  when  she  chose,  her  demeanour 
was  stately  and  royal.  Religion  was  with  her, 
as  with  a  great  proportion  of  the  nation  at  that 
time,  a  matter  more  of  policy  and  convenience 
than  of  feeling  or  principle.  She  preferred  Pro- 
testantism, from  early  associations,  because  it  gave 
her  the  headship  of  the  church,  freed  her  from 
foreign  interference,  and  was  more  acceptable  to 
her  ministers  and  to  the  nation.  But  she  had 
conformed  in  Mary's  time  to  Catholicism  with  little 
difficidty  ;  and,  had  there  been  necessity  for  it,  she 
would  rather  have  reigned  a  Catholic  than  not  have 
reigned  at  all.  To  the  last,  she  retained  in  her 
private  chapel  much  of  the  ritualism  of  the  Roman 
Church ;  and  while  refusing  her  Catholic  sxibjects" 
the  exercise  of  their  religion,  she  entertained  the 
addresses  of  Catholic  suitors.  How  thoroughly 
incapable  she  was  of  apj)reciating  a  matter  of 
religious  principle  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact, 
that  she  looked  upon  the  great  Puritan  movement, 
destined  soon  afterwards  to  play  so  important  a 
part  in  the  nation's  development,  as  some  frivolous 
controversy  about  the  shape  of  clerical  vestments. 
Of  toleration,  then  well  enough  underetood  by 
Bacon  and  the  more  advanced  spu'its  of  the  age, 
she  had  no  concej^tion. 

What  makes  the  name  of  E.  so  famous,  was 
the  splendour  of  her  times.  In  her  long  reign, 
the  true  greatness  of  England  began.  Freed  frona 
the  possession  of  those  French  provinces  which 
rather  harassed  than  enriched — ^vith  little  domestic 
commotion — with  no  great  foreign  wars — vnth  an 
almost  complete  immunity  from  religious  persecution. 


ELIZABETH 


the  nation  turned  to  the  arts  of  peace.  An 
unequalled  literature  arose.  The  age  that  i)roduced 
Speuser,  Shakspeare,  and  Bacon,  could  not  be 
other  than  famous.  Under  Frobisher  and  Drake, 
maritime  adventure  began,  and  the  foundations  of 
our  naval  force  were  laid.  Commerce,  from  being 
a  small  matter  in  the  hands  of  a  few  foreign 
merchants,  developed  itself  largely.  The  Exchange 
of  London  was  opened  in  E.'s  time;  and  in  the 
charter  which  she  granted  to  that  Company  of 
Merchant  Adventurers,  which  afterwards  took  the 
name  of  the  East  India  Company,  may  be  seen 


one  of  the  small  beginnings  of  our  vast  colonial 
empire.  The  social  condition  of  the  people  alfo 
greatly  improved  in  her  reign.  The  crowds  of 
vagabonds  which  the  monastic  institutions  Lad 
fostered,  and  who  had  pillaged  the  country  in  all 
ways  on  the  secularisation  of  the  monastic  i)roperty, 
died  out,  or  were  absorbed  in  industrious  om})loy- 
ments.  The  last  traces  of  bondage  disappeared. 
Simultaneously  with  the  growth  of  greater  comfort 
and  intelligence  in  the  people,  parliament  began  to 
assert,  with  greater  vigour,  its  constitutional  rights. 
The  right  of  the  Commons  to  free  speech,  and  to 


Queen  Elizabeth's  Tomb : 
In  the  North  Aisle  of  Henry  Vli.'s  Chapel,  Westminster  Abbey. 


initiate  all  money  bills  was  steadily  asserted ;  and  ! 
the  right  of  tiie  Crown  to  grant  monopolies,  or  to 
issue  ])roclamations  having  the  force  of  law,  vigor- 
ously assailed.  In  the  later  years  of  her  reign,  the 
attf^mpts  of  E.  to  gain  arbitrary  power,  and  her 
caprices,  had  forfeited  the  popularity  which  she 
EO  anxiously  cultivated.  But  after  her  death,  her 
fame  revived  ;  and  during  the  time  of  the  Stuarts, 
amid  the  jealousy  of  the  Scotch,  the  trouliles  of 
the  civil  wars,  and  the  hatred  of  a  Catholic  sove- 
reign, the  nation  looked  back  with  fond  regard  to 
the  long  reign  of  the  '  Good  Queen  Bess,'  when 
reace  had  prevailed,  and  the  government  had  been 
thoroughly  English. 

ELIZABETH,  St,  daughter  of  Andreas  II.,  king 
of  Hungary,  was  bom  at  Presburg  in  1207.  At  the 
ago  of  four,  she  was  affianced  to  the  Landgraf  of 
Tlmringia,  Louis  IV,,  called  the  Pious,  and  brought 
tu  his  court  to  be  educ  ated  under  the  eyes  of  the 


parents  of  her  future  husband.  She  early  displayed 
what  may  be  called  a  passion  for  the  severities  of 
the  Christian  life,  as  it  was  conceived  in  those  days. 
She  despised  pomp,  avarice,  ambition;  cidtivated 
humility,  and  exhibited  the  most  self -den jnng  bene- 
volence. Her  conduct,  even  as  a  gii-1,  astonished 
the  Thuringian  court ;  but  such  was  the  grace  and 
sweetness  of  her  disposition,  and  the  excellence  of 
her  beauty,  that  Louis — though  her  affections  seemed 
to  be  given  wholly  to  God — still  wished  to  marry 
her.  They  were  united  when  E.  was  only  14.  Louis 
himself,  far  from  blaming  the  devout  girl  whom  he 
had  made  his  wife  for  her  long  prayers  and  cease- 
less almsgiving,  was  himself  partially  attracted  to  a 
similar  mode  of  life.  A  boy  and  two  girls  were  the 
fruit  of  their  union ;  but  the  happiness  of  E.,  in  so 
far  as  it  depended  on  anything  earthly,  was  shattered 
by  the  death  of  her  husband  in  1227,  when  absent 
on  the  crusade  headed  by  Barbarossa.   Her  confessor 

15 


ELIZABETH  PETKOVNA— ELIZABETH  STUAIIT. 


Conrad  of  Marburg,  a  narrow  fanatical  monk  (to 
whose  miserable  teaching  E.  mainly  owed  her 
perverted  idea  of  life  and  duty),  had  trained  her  to 
stifle  the  emotions  of  her  nature  as  sinful,  and 
the  poor  widow  hardly  dared  to  bewail  her  loss. 
Great  misfortunes  soon  befell  her.  She  was  deprived 
of  her  regency  by  the  brother  of  her  deceased 
husband,  and  driven  out  of  her  dominions  on  the 
plea  that  she  wasted  the  treasures  of  the  state  by 
ner  charities.  The  inhabitants  of  Marburg,  whose 
miseries  she  had  frequently  relieved,  refused  her 
an  asylum,  for  fear  of  the  new  regent.  At  last  she 
found  refuge  in  a  church,  where  her  first  duty  was 
to  thank  God  that  he  had  judged  her  worthy  to 
Ruflfer.  Subsequently,  after  other  severe  privations, 
such  as  being  forced  to  take  up  her  abode  in  the 
stable  of  a  hostelry,  she  was  received  into  the 
monastery  of  Kitzingen  by  the  abljess,  who  was  her 
aunt.  When  the  warriors  who  had  attended  her 
husband  in  the  crusade  returned  from  the  East,  she 
gathered  them  round  her,  and  recounted  her  suffer- 
ings. Steps  were  taken  to  restore  to  the  unfor- 
tunate princess  her  sovereign  rights.  She  dechned 
the  regency,  however,  and  would  only  accej^t  the 
revenues  which  accrued  to  her  as  landgravine.  The 
remainder  of  her  days  were  devoted  to  incessant 
devotions,  almsgivings,  mortifications,  &c.  There 
is  something  mournfidly  subhme  in  her  unnatural 
self-sacrifice.  We  shudder  even  in  our  S3nnpathy 
when  we  read  of  this  beautiful  ten'ler-hearted  crea- 
tm-e  washing  the  head  and  the  feet  of  the  scrofulous 
and  the  leprous.  Murillo  has  a  painting  (now  in 
the  Museum  at  Madrid)  of  this  act  of  evangelical 
devotion.  The  solemn  tragedy  of  her  brief  life 
assumed  towards  its  close  a  ghastly  intensity 
through  the  conduct  of  her  confessor,  Conrad,  who, 
under  pretence  of  spiritual  chastisement,  used  to 
strike  and  maltreat  her  -with  brutal  severity.  The 
alleged  cause  of  this  was  Conrad's  aversion  to  her 
squandering '  her  money  among  the  poor.  Perhaps 
he  thought  it  should  have  gone  to  Jiim.  At  last  her 
health  gave  way;  and  on  the  19th  November  1231, 
at  the  age  of  24,  E.  died,  the  victim  partly  of  ill- 
usage  and  partly  of  a  mistaken  theory  of  religious 
life,  but  as  gentle  and  saintly  a  soul  as  figures  in  the 
history  of  the  middle  ages.  She  was  canonised 
four  years  after  her  death.  See  Montalembert's 
Histoire  de  Sainte  Elisabeth  de  Hongr'ie  (Paris,  1836). 
The  Eev.  Charles  Kingsley's  dramatic  poem,  entitled 
The  Sainfs  Tragedy  (London,  1848),  is  founded  on 
the  story  of  E.'s  life. 

ELIZABETH  PETRO'VNA,  Empress  of  Russia, 
daughter  of  Peter  the  Great  and  Catharine  I.,  was 
bom  in  the  year  1709.  On  the  death  of  Peter  II. 
in  1730,  she  allowed  Anna,  Duchess  of  Courland, 
to  ascend  the  throne,  she  herself  being  apparently 
indifferent  to  anything  but  the  indidgence  of  her 

Eassions.  Anna  died  in  1740,  and  Ivan,  the  son  of 
er  niece  (also  called  Anna),  an  infant  of  two 
months,  was  declared  emperor,  and  his  mother 
regent  during  his  minority.  Shortly  after  this,  a 
plot  was  formed  to  place  K  upon  the  throne ;  the 
two  principal  agents  in  it  were  Lestocq,  a  surgeon, 
and  the  Marquis  de  la  Chetardie,  the  French 
ambassador.  The  officers  of  the  army  were  soon 
won  over;  and  on  the  night  of  the  5th  December 
1741,  the  regent  and  her  husband  were  taken  into 
custody,  and  the  child  Ivan  conveyed  to  Schlussel- 
bu_rg.  The  leading  adherents  of  Anna  were  con- 
demned to  death,  but  pardoned  on  the  scaffold,  and 
exiled  to  Siberia.  By  eight  o'clock  in  the  morning, 
the  revolution  was  completed,  and  in  the  afternoon 
all  the  troops  did  homage  to  the  new  empress. 
La  Chetardie  was  handsomely  rewarded;  and 
Lestocq  was  created  fii-st  physician  to  the  empress, 
IProsident  of  the  CoUege  of  Medicine,  and  privy 


councillor.  E.,  however,  did  not  possess  the  qualities 
requisite  in  a  ruler.  She  wanted  energy,  knowledge, 
and  love  of  business,  and  allowed  herself  to  be 
guided  by  favourite*.  In  order  to  strengthen  hex 
position,  E.  took  pains  to  win  over  her  nephew, 
the  young  prince  Peter,  the  son  of  her  sister,  the 
Duchess  of  Holstein-Gottorp.  She  summoned  him 
to  Petersburg  in  the  year  1742,  and  proclaimed  him 
her  successor.  E.  took  part  in  the  Austrian  War 
of  Succession,  and  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of 
France,  despatched  an  army  of  37,000  men  to  ihe 
assistance  of  Maria  Theresa,  and  thereby  hastened 
the  conclusion  of  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapeli<?  In 
1748.  E.  shewed  herself  less  placable  towards 
Frederick  II.,  against  whom  she  cherished  a  person "U 
enmity,  excited  by  some  severe  expressions  he  had 
employed  respecting  her.  At  the  commencement 
of  the  Seven  Years'  War,  she  allied  herself  with 
Austria  and  France,  and  marched  her  troops  into 
the  Prussian  states.  Her  troops  gained  the  victoiy 
in  the  battles  of  Gross jiigerndorf  and  Kunersdorf, 
and  took  possession  of  Berlin,  but  without  any 
decisive  result.  E.  died  before  the  expiration  of 
the  war,  5th  January  1762.  She  founded  the 
university  of  Moscow  and  the  Academy  of  Art  at 
St  Petersburg.  Though  no  person  was  put  to  death 
during  her  reign,  the  most  shocking  punishments 
were  inflicted,  and  thousands  were  exiled  to  Siberia 
and  Kamtchatka.  E.  had  several  illegitimate 
children.  Profligacy,  espionage,  and  persecution 
reigned  in  her  court,  the  administration  of  justice 
was  restrained,  and  tho  finances  neglected ;  but  E. 
was  nevertheless  extremely  strict  in  the  observance 
of  the  public  ordinances  of  religion. 

ELIZABETH  STUART,  Queen  of  Bohemia, 
remarkable  not  only  as  a  heroine,  but  as  forming 
the  connecting  link  between  the  ancient  royal 
families  of  England  and  Scotland  and  the  presenli 
reigning  dynasty,  was  born  in  the  palace  of  Falk- 
land (q.  V.)  on  the  19th  of  August  1596.  On  tha 
accession  of  her  father,  James  VI.  of  Scotland,  to 
the  crown  which  fell  to  him  by  the  demise  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  in  1603,  she  accompanied  the  family  tc 
England,  where  she  was  educated.  On  the  14th  oJI 
February  1613,  E.  was  married  to  Frederick,  Elector- 
Palatme,  whom  she  soon  after  accompanied  to  hia 
residence,  the  castle  of  Heidelberg  (q.  v.) ;  see  also 
Palatinate.  When  the  Protestant  princes  of 
Germany  sought  for  a  fitting  person  to  fill  the 
throne  of  Bohemia,  they  made  choice  of  Fredericlc, 
who  accepted  the  perilous  honour,  partly,  perhaps, 
from  the  ambition  of  his  wife,  who  is  alleged  to  have 
longed  for  the  title  of  queen.  The  Palatine  removed 
with  E.  and  three  children  to  Prague,  which  they 
entered,  October  21,  1619.  Frederick  and  E.  occu- 
pied the  throne  of  Bohemia  only  about  a  year.  By 
the  forces  of  the  Catholic  League,  the  army  of 
Frederick  was  routed  at  the  battle  of  Prague, 
November  8,  1620,  and  the  royal  family  fied  into 
exile,  for  already  the  Palatinate  was  laid  waste. 
With  her  husband  and  children,  and  a  few  faithful 
attendants,  E.  took  up  her  residence  at  the  Hague, 
and  ever  afterwards  the  family  lived  in  a  state  <.»f 
dependence.  E.  was  the  mother  of  thirteen  chil- 
dren,  the  eldest  of  whom  was  accidentallv  drowiied 
in  Holland,  and  three  others  died  young.  The  next 
were  Charles- Louis  and  Rupert,  and,  following  in 
order,  were  Elizabeth,  Mam-ice,  Edward,  Philip, 
Louisa,  Henrietta-Maria,  and  Sophia.  From  this 
numerous  offspring,  E.  derived  little  comfort  in  her 
misfortunes.  Charles-Louis  was  a  selfish,  calculat- 
ing person,  with  low,  disreputable  habits.  Rupert 
(q.  v.),  the  '  mad  cavalier,'  and  his  brother,  Mam-ico. 
fought  in  England  during  the  civil  war,  and,  alc*r 
the  loss  of  the  royalist  cause  at  the  battle  oi 
Naseby,  they  betook  themselves  to  the  sea  and  *x)J 


ELIZABETHAN  ARCHITECTURE— ELK. 


some  time  were  little  better  than  pirates.  Edward, 
in  1645,  abjured  Protestantism,  and  was  admitted 
into  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Philip  committed 
an  assassination  at  the  Hague,  fled  from  justice, 
became  a  soldier  of  fortune  in  France,  and  was 
dain  in  the  civil  wars.  Elizabeth  accepted  the  oflice 
of  superior  of  the  Lutheran  abbey  of  Hervorden, 
H«nrietta-Maria  was  espoused  by  Ragotzi,  Prince 
of  Transylvania,  but  died  shortly  after  her  mar- 
riage. Louisa  fled  to  France,  and  died  as  abbess  of 
Maubisson.  Previous  to  these  events,  E.  became  a 
wid.)w  by  the  death  of  Frederick,  February  17,  1G29, 
-vhtn  his  right  to  the  Palatinate  devolved  on 
Ch  irles -Louis,  who,  by  the  treaty  of  Westphalia, 
v/as  restored  to  the  family  inheritance,  October  24, 
16-18.  This  favourable  turn  of  affairs  did  not  mend 
the  fortunes  of  E.,  who  was  scandalously  neglected 
by  her  son,  the  J^'oung  Elector-Palatine  ;  and  all  he 
wovdtt  do  for  the  family  was  to  give  a  shelter  to  his 
youngest  sister  Soi)hia,  until  she  was  married  to 
Ernest- Augustus,  a  scioa  of  the  House  of  Brunswick, 
who  ultimately  succeeded  to  the  electorate  of 
Hanover. 

Deprived,  in  one  way  or  other,  of  all  her  children, 
the  Queen  of  Bohemia — by  which  title  she  continued 
to  be  known — resolved  to  cpiit  Holland.  Reheved 
of  her  debts  by  the  sale  of  jewek,  and  by  aid  of  a 
pecuniary  subsidy  from  the  British  parliament,  she 
embraced  an  invitation  from  her  nephew,  Charles  XL, 
to  come  to  England.  She  arrived  May  17,  1661. 
If'rom  this  time  she  was  in  a  great  measure  indebted 
to  the  hospitality  of  Lord  Craven,  in  a  mansion  which 
he  had  jmrchased  from  Sir  Robert  Drury,  in  Drury 
Lane,  London.  Charles  II.  paid  her  little  attention ; 
but  at  her  death,  which  occurred  February  13,  1662, 
he  caused  lier  remains  to  be  interred  in  Westminster 
Abbey.  Charles-Loiiis,  her  son,  died  in  1680,  leaving 
a  son,  who  died  without  issue,  and  the  Palatinate 
then  went  to  a  distant  branch  of  the  family  ;  he  left 
also  a  daughter,  Charlotte-Elizabeth,  who,  in  1671, 
had  married  Philip,  Duke  of  Orleans,  only  brother 
of  Louis  XIV.  In  1674,  she  gave  birth  to  a  prince, 
who  became  the  noted  Regent  of  France  during  the 
minority  of  Louis  XV.  She  died  at  St  Cloud  in 
1722.  The  lote  Louis -Philippe,  king  of  the  French, 
was  her  IHeal  descendant.  When,  in  1708,  the 
question  or  succession  to  the  crown  of  Great  Britain 
was  debated,  it  was  found  that  all  the  descendants 
of  James  I.  were  either  dead  or  were  Roman 
Catholics,  except  Sophia,  Electress  of  Hanover,  and 
her  family.  By  act  of  parliament,  that  year,  the 
crown  was  accordingly  secured  to  her  and  her 
descendants,  '  being  Protestants  ; '  and  in  virtue  of 
this  act  of  settlement,  on  the  death  of  Queen  Anne, 
Sophia  would  have  ascended  the  throne,  but  she 
predeceased  the  queen  three  months,  and  her  son 
became  sovereign  of  these  realms  as  George  L, 
August  12,  1714.  In  this  extraordinary  and  unfore- 
Been  manner  did  a  grandson  of  the  unfortunate 
queen  of  Bohemia  become  king  of  England,  and 
originate  the  dynasty  of  the  reigning  monarch.  The 
Memoirs  of  Elizabeth  Stuart,  Queen  of  Bohemia,  by 
Hiss  Ben<Ter,  2  vols.,  may  be  i)erused  as  an  accurate 
•nd  pleasing  piece  of  biography. 

ELIZABE'THAN  ARCHITECTURE,  a  term 
apphed  to  the  mixed  style  which  sprang  up  on 
the  decline  of  Gothic  architecture.  By  some  it 
is  called  the  Tudor  style,  but  that  name  belongs 
more  correctly  to  the  Perpendicular,  or  latest  kind 
of  Gothic.  The  Elizabethan  is  chiefly  exemplified 
by  mansions  erected  for  the  nobility  in  the  reigns  of 
Elizabeth  and  James  I.,  and  originated  in  the  first 
attempt  to  revive  classic  architecture,  influenced,  no 
doubt,  by  Holbein,  who  was  patronised  by  Henry 
VIII.,  and  furnished  several  designs  in  this  manner. 
John  of  Padua  succeeded  him,  and  built  in  the 


mixed  style  a  palace  for  the  Protector  Somerset  (lot 
which  purpose  the  cloisters  of  St,  Paul  were  takeii 
doAvn),  and  the  mansion  of  Longleat  for  his  secre- 
tary, Sir  John  Thynne.  The  vast  dimensions  of  the 
apartments,  the  extreme  length  of  the  galleries,  an(l 


enormous  square  windows,  are  the  leading  charac 
teristics  of  this  manner  of  building.  The  ornaments 
both  within  and  without  were  cumbro\is ;  nothing 
could  exceed  the  heaviness  of  the  cornices  and  ceil- 
ings wrought  into  compartments ;  in  short,  the 
architecture  was  just  in  keeping  with  the  dres3  of 
the  period,  rich  and  gorgeous,  rather  than  elegant, 
graceful,  and  comfortable.  The  following  examples 
of  mansions  of  the  17th  c.  may  be  still  seen  near 
London :  Holland  House,  Campden  House ;  and 
the  follomng  in  Kent :  Sir  T.  WiUow's  at  Charlton, 
the  Marquis  of  Salisbury's  at  Hatfield,  and  Knowle, 
the  property  of  the  Duke  of  Dorset.  The  most 
eminent  architects  of  those  times  were  John  Thorpe, 
Gerard  Christmas,  Rodolph  Symonds,  and  Thomas 
Holt. 

ELIZABETO'POL,  a  town  of  Russian  Trans- 
caucasia, is  sitTiated  in  lat.  40°  42'  N.,  long.  46°  20'  K 
The  town  consists  of  three  parts,  one  of  whieh  is 
fortified  with  a  bastioned  wall.  Its  principal  build- 
ings are  its  churches  and  mosques,  of  which  there 
are  many.  A  peculiarity  of  this  town  is  its  numer- 
ous fruit-gardens  or  vineyards.  Horticulture,  the 
rearing  of  silk- worms,  bees,  and  cattle,  with  agriciil- 
ture  and  raining,  are  the  chief  occupations  of  the 
inhabitants.  Pop.  (1866)  15,439,  principally  Tartars 
nnd  Armenians. 

ELK,  MOOSE,  or  MOOSE  DEER  {Alces 
Malchis,  or  Cervus  alces),  the  largest  existing  species 
of  the  Cervidce,  deer  family,  is  a  native  of  tha 
northern  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America.  Wheu 
full  grown,  it  is  about  six  feet  in  height  at  the 
shoTilders,  and  sometimes  weighs  1200  poimds.  The 
body  is  round,  compact,  and  short ;  the  neck  is 
short  and  thick,  unlike  that  of  deer  in  general,  but 
thus  adapted  for  sustaining  the  great  weight  of  the 
head  and  horns.  The  head  is  very  large,  narrow, 
about  two  feet  long.  The  horns  in  males  of  the 
second  year  are  unbranched,  not  flattened,  and  about 
a  foot  long ;  as  the  animal  becomes  older,  they 
begin  to  display  a  blade,  with  more  numerous  snags, 
and  in  mature  elks  the  blade  becomes  very  broad, 
the  snags  sometimes  fourteen  on  each  horn  ;  a  singly 
antler  has  been  known  to  weigh  about  sixty  pounds. 
The  horns  have  no  basal  snag  projecting  forwards. 
The  ears  are  long,  and  have  been,  compared  to  tlioso 
of  the  ass.  The  eyes  are  small.  The  limbs  are  long, 
and  very  graceful  The  tail  is  only  nl.out  four  inches 


ELK— ELLENBOKOUGH. 


.onj^.  The  body  is  covered  with  coarse,  angular 
hair,  -vAhich  breaks  when  it  is  bent.  On  the  neck 
and  wifhers  there  is  a  heavy  mane,  and  the  throat 
is  covered  with  long  hair.  A  large  goitre-like 
swelling  under  the  throat  of  the  younger  elks  has  a 
very  curious  appearance.  The  hoofs  of  the  E.,  like 
those  of  the  reindeer  and  of  the  buffalo,  are  so  con- 
structed as  to  part  widely,  and  to  afford  a  better 


Elk  {Cervus  alces). 


rooting  on  soft  marshy  ground  or  on  snow :  they 
make  a  clattering  when  it  rans.  In  running,  it 
carri'^s  its  muzzle  forward,  with  the  horns  thrown 
back  upon  the  neck,  so  that  they  may  not  be  caught 
;by  branches.  Its  shoulders  being  higher  than  the 
oroup,  its  common  gait  is  a  shambling  trot ;  but  it 
call  also  gallop  with  great  rapidity.  The  colour  of 
the  elk  is  bromiish  black,  darker  in  winter  than  in 
Bummer ;  the  limbs,  the  sides  of  the  head,  and  the 
mane  are  of  a  lighter  colour  than  the  body.  Elks 
are  sometimes  seen  in  small  herds,  but  often  singly; 
they  are  now  very  rare  in  Europe,  and  are  no  longer 
ioimd  in  parts  of  North  America  in  which  they  were 
once  common.  They  formerly  extended  as  far  south 
as  the  Ohio.  They  are  sometimes  seen  even  on  the 
shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean.  They  deHght  in  marshy 
districts  and  in  forests.  When  compelled  to  eat 
grass,  they  must  get  down  on  their  knees  to  reach 
it :  their  proj)er  food  consists  of  the  branches  and 
foliage  of  shrubs  and  trees.  They  are  very  timid 
and  inoffensive,  except  during  the  rutting  season. 
A  single  stroke  of  an  elk's  fore-foot  is  sufficient  to 
icill  the  strongest  dog.  It  is  also  an  extremely  wary 
animal,  and  is  with  the  greatest  difficidty  approached 
by  the  hunter.  Its  sense  of  smell  is  very  acute,  and 
the  slightest  sound  excites  its  alarm.  It  is,  how- 
ever, much  sought  after  in  North  America.  In 
Sweden,  its  destruction  is  prohibited ;  and  in  Nor- 
way is  placed  under  legal  restrictions.  The  flesh  of 
the  elk  is  esteemed  a  good  kind  of  venison ;  the  fat 
is  remarkably  soft ;  the  nose  and  the  tongue  are 
reckoned  delicacies.  The  skin  is  used  for  a  variety 
of  purposes. 

The  elk  is  easily  domesticated,  and  was  at  one 
time  employed  in  Sweden  for  conveying  couriers, 
being  capable  of  travelling  more  than  200  miles  in  a 
day  when  attached  to  a  sledge. 

The  elk  of  Ceylon  is  a  deer  of  the  group  to  which 
the  name  Busa  has  been  given. 

ELK,  Irish  {Megaceros  Uibernlcus),  a  large  deer 
found  in  the  Pleistocene  strata.  There  is  a  double 
error  in  its  popular  name,  for  it  is  a  true  v^eer, 
b'  t  ween  the  fallow  and  rein  deer,  and  though  abund- 
a»  t  in  Ireland,  it  is  not  peculiar  to  that  country, 
b^'ing  found  also  in  England,  Scotland,  and  on  the 
c-  iitment  of  Eiu'ope,    In  Ireland,  it  occurs  in  the 


shell  marl  underlying  the  extensive  turbaries.  In 
England,  lacustrine  deposits  and  brick-clay  contain 
its  remains,  and,  associated  with  the  mammoth  and 
rhinoceros,  they  are  found  also  in  ossiferous  cavee 


Fossil  Elk. 


The  most  striking  feature  in  this  animal  waa  its 

enormous  antlers.  A  straight  line  drawn  between 
their  extreme  tips  in  one  specimen  measured  ten 
feet  ten  inches.  The  form  of  the  antler  differs  from 
that  of  any  living  species  of  deer.  The  beam  enlarges 
and  flattens  into  a  palm ;  a  brow  snag  exists  as  in 
the  fallow-deer,  but  in  adult  specimens,  this  bifur- 
cates and  expands  somewhat  as  in  the  reindeer 
— a  peculiarity  never  observed  in  the  fallow-deei 
group.  The  antler  is  also  furnished  with  a  back 
snag.  Some  idea  of  the  enormous  size  and  weight 
of  the  antlers  may  be  formed  from  the  fact  that,  in 
a  specimen  where  the  head  weighed  5|  pounds,  their 
weight  was  81  pounds.  To  sustain  this,  the  vertebrae 
of  the  neck  and  the  limbs  are  very  much  larger  and 
stronger  than  in  any  ether  deer.  A  tine  and  almost 
perfect  specimen  of  this  animal,  from  the  Isle  of 
Man,  exists  in  the  Edinburgh  Museum. 

EL-KHA'RGEH,  capital  of  the  Great  Oasis, 
Upper  Egypt,  is  situated  in  lat.  25°  28'  N.,  long.  30' 
40'  E.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  town  are  numerous 
ruins,  among  w^hich  are  those  of  a  temple ;  there  is 
also  a  remarkable  necropolis.    Pop.  6000. 

ELL  (allied  to  eZbow,  Ger.  eZ^enbogen,  Lat.  ulna^ 
the  fore-arm  or  arm  in  general)  is  a  measure  of 
length  now  little  used.  It  was  originally  taken  in 
some  vague  way  from  the  arm,  and  hence  has  been 
used  to  denote  very  different  lengths.  The  Latin 
ulna  appears  to  have  denoted  sometimes  the  mea- 
sure from  the  elbow  to  the  tips  of  the  fingers, 
sometimes  that  between  the  outstretched  hands. 
The  English  ell,  as  a  measure  of  -cloth,  is  equal  trf^ 
five  quarters  of  a  Yard  (q.  v.). 

E'LLENBOROUGH,  Earl  of.  Edward  La\r 
first  Earl  of  E.,  son  of  the  first  baron  (many  years 
Chief-justice  of  the  King's  Bench),  was  born  1790. 
educated  at  Eton  and  at  St  John's  College,  Cambridge!, 
where  he  graduated  M.A.,  1809 ;  succeeded  hia 
father  in  the  barony  in  1818  ;  was  Lord  Privy  Seai 
in  the  Duke  of  "Wellington's  administration,  1828 — 
1829  ;  President  of  the'Board  of  Control  during  the 
short-hved  Peel  administration  of  1834 — 1835  \  and 
appointed,  on  the  return  of  Sir  Robert  Peel  in 
September,  1841,  to  the  same  office,  which  he 
relinquished  a  month  afterwards  for  the  post  of 
Governor-general  of  India.  He  received  the  thanks 
of  parliament  in  1843  for  his 'ability  and  judgment' 
in  supporting  the  military  operations  in  Afghanistan. 
In  manv  other  respects  his  Indian  administration 


ELLENRIEDER-ELi.  /PSE. 


ffl^as  opeu  to  censure.  He  was  charc^ed  with  resei-ving 
his  favour  for  the  military,  and  inflicting  undeserved 
slights  upon  the  civil  servants  of  the  Company.  He 
made  showy  progresses ;  addressed  proclamations  to 
the  nUers  and  natives  of  India  which  appeared  to 
sanction  idolatry ;  and,  finally,  in  his  proclamation 
concerning  the  sandal-wood  gates  of  the  temple  of 
Juggernaut,  when  brought  back  from  Ghuznee,  he 
reached  the  climax  of  a  series  of  extravagances, 
which  induced  the  directors  of  the  East  India 
Company  to  exercise  a  power  only  used  in  extreme 
cases,  and  to  recall  him.  The  ministry,  however, 
stood  by  him,  and  he  was  created  by  the  crown  an 
earl  and  a  viscount ;  he  also  received  the  distinction 
of  G.C.B.  In  1846,  Sir  R.  Peel  made  him  first  Lord 
of  the  Admiralty,  an  office  which  he  resigned  in 
July  of  the  same  year,  when  the  disruption  of  the 
Peel  administration  took  place.  In  the  Derby 
administration  of  1853  he  was  again  Minister  for 
India,  and  the  author  of  an  India  Bill,  which  failed 
to  obtain  the  sanction  of  parliament.  Having 
permitted  a  dispatch  to  see  the  light,  in  which  he 
had  administered  a  severe  and  caustic  rebuke  to 
Viscount  Canning,  Governor-general  of  India,  an 
outcry  was  raised  against  him,  which  threatened 
the  existence  of  the  l3erby  government.  To  avert 
this  result,  Lord  E.  resigned.  He  afterwards  took  a 
frequent  and  influential  part  in  the  debates  of  the 
Upper  House.  He  was  styled,  by  no  less  a  judge  than 
M.  Guizot,  '  the  most  brilliant  of  the  Tory  orators.' 
He  was  twice  married — first  to  a  daugliter  of  the 
Marquis  of  Londonderry,  and  second  to  the  daughter 
of  Admiral  Digby.  His  divorce  from  the  latter 
made  some  noise  at  the  time.  E.  died  without  issue, 
December  2,  1871,  when  the  earldom  and  viscounty 
became  extinct. 

ELLENRIEDER,  Marie,  a  female  painter  of 
very  high  excellence,  was  born  at  Constance  in  1791, 
studied  in  Munich,  and  in  1820  went  to  Rome, 
to  perfect  her  knowledge  of  art.  Her  admiration 
of  the  old  German  masters  gave  a  reUgious  bent  to 
her  genius.  On  her  return  to  Germany,  she  resided 
for  some  time  at  Carlsruhe,  where  she  painted  a 

*  Martyrdom  of  St  Stephen '  as  an  altar-piece  for 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  She  was  afterwards 
appointed  court-painter  at  Munich,  but  has  since 
tixed  her  residence  at  Constance,  and  devoted  her- 
self exclusively  to  her  profession.  Among  her 
principal  pieces  are  the  '  Transfiguration  of  St 
Barthelemy,'    'Christ  Blessing    Little  Children,' 

•  Mary  and  the  Infant  Jesus,'  '  J oseph  and  the 
Infant  Jesus,'  '  St  Cecilia,'  Faith,  Hope,  and  Charity, 
and  a  Madonna.  Marie  E.  is  reckoned  in  Germany 
the  greatest  female  artist  of  the  present  age.  So 
full  of  ideal  grace  and  beauty  are  the  heads  of 
her  women  and  children,  in  particular,  that  it  has 
been  said  that '  she  seems  to  paint  in  the  presence 
of  angels;'  her  colouring,  however,  is  gray,  dull, 
and  sombre,  like  that  which  prevails  among  the  old 
masters  of  the  German  school. 

E'LLESMERE,  first  Earl  of,  politician,  patron 
uf  the  arts,  and  author.  Francis  Egerton,  second 
Bon  of  the  first  Duke  of  Sutherland,  was  bom 
1800 ;  graduated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where 
he  was  second-class  in  classics,  1820 ;  entered  the 
House  of  Commons,  1820,  and  represented  succes- 
sively Bletchingly,  Sutherland  county,  and  South 
Lancashire ;  filled  the  office  of  Chief  Secretary  for 
Ireland  from  January,  1828,  to  July,  1830,  and  Secre- 
tary at  War  from  J uly  to  November,  1 830  ;  in  1 833, 
assumed  the  name  of  Lord  Francis  Edgcrton,  in  lieu 
of  his  patronymic  Leveson-Gower.  He  achieved 
a)nsiderable  literary  distinction  as  a  writer  of 
graceful  poems,  translations  from  the  German,  etc. 
ile  also  published  a  pamphlet  on  the  defenceless 


state  of  the  coasts  and  of  the  nietropolis,  which 
called  forth  some  adverse  criticism.  He  wiis  a 
munificent  patron  of  the  arts,  and  made  many 
valuable  additions  to  the  collection  of  pictures 
which  he  inherited  with  the  large  estates  of  the 
last  Duke  of  Bridgcwater.  He  also  huilt  a  noble 
gallery  for  their  reception,  which  he  liberally  threw 
open  to  the  public.  After  faithfully  voting  with 
the  Conservative  party  in  parliament  for  a  quarter 
of  a  century,  he,  on  the  retirement  of  the  Peel 
administration  in  1846,  obtained  a  revival  in  his 
favour  of  the  peerages  of  Ellesmere  and  Brackley. 
His  last  public  appearance  was  in  May  1856,  when 
he  moved,  in  the  House  of  Lords,  an  address  to  tho 
crown,  approving  of  the  treaty  of  peace  after  the 
war  with  Russia.  He  died  in  1857  at  his  neve 
mansion,  Bridgewater  House,  London,  and  was 
succeeded  in  the  earldom  by  his  eldest  son,  ViscouLt 
Brackley. 

ELLESMERE,  a  town  in  the  north-west  ol 
Shropshire,  near  a  beautiful  lake  or  mere,  19 
miles  north-north-west  of  Shrewsbury.  Pop.  (1871) 
2013.  It  has  considerable  malting  establishments. 
On  the  present  site  of  a  bowling-green  once  stood 
an  ancient  castle,  alternately  held  by  the  English 
and  Welsh. 

E'LLIOT,  Ebenezer,  the  Corn-law  Rhymer, 
was  born  at  Masborough,  in  Yorkshire,  March  7, 1781. 
His  father  was  a  man  of  strong  character  and  narrow 
opinions,  and,  as  appears  from  Ebenezer's  Auto- 
biography (published  in  the  Athencmm  in  1850), 
exercised  no  little  influence  on  his  son's  modes  of 
thinking  and  sympathies.  When  a  boy  at  school, 
E.  was  not  a  quick  pupil ;  and  even  after  his  father 
had  sent  him  to  work  in  the  iron-foundry  where 
he  himself  held  the  situation  of  a  clerk,  the  youth 
exliibited  no  fondness  for  reading.  Before  long, 
however,  he  entirely  changed,  and  commenced  to 
study  Milton,  Shakspeare,  Ossian,  Jimius,  and  other 
authors.  His  first  published  poem  was  composed 
in  his  17th  year:  it  is  entitled  The  Veimal  Walk. 
This  was  succeeded  by  Night,  Wharndiffe,  &c.  In 
1821,  E.  began  business  as  an  iron-founder  on  his  own 
account  at  Sheffield.  He  was  very  successfid ;  and 
in  1841  retired  to  an  estate  which  he  had  purchased 
at  Great  Houghton,  near  Barnesley,  where  he  died 
1st  December  1849.  E.'s  principal  productions  are 
Love,  accompanied  with  a  letter  to  Lord  Byron,  his 
famous  Corn-law  Rhymes,  The  Banter,  and  The  Village 
Patriarch,  a  work  full  of  noble  and  earnest  poetry, 
all  of  which  appeared  between  1828—1830.  In  1834, 
he  issued  a  collected  edition  of  his  works,  in  3  vols. ; 
and  in  1840,  an  edition  in  one  volimie.  E.  followed 
Crabbe,  but  mth  more  dejith  and  fire  of  feeling  in 
depicting  the  condition  of  the  poor  as  miserable  and 
oppressed,  tracing  most  of  the  evils  he  deplores  to 
the  social  and  political  institutions  of  the  country. 
The  laws  relating  to  the  importation  of  corn  were 
denounced  by  E.  as  specially  oppressive,  and  he 
inveighed  against  them  with  a  fervour  of  manner 
and  a  harshness  of  phraseology  which  ordinary 
minds  feel  as  repulsive,  even  while  acknowledged  as 
flowing  from  the  offended  benevolence  of  the  poet. 
But  the  glow  of  earnestness  kindles  his  verse,  and 
hides  a  multitude  of  faults.  More  enduring,  how- 
ever, than  his  rhyming  philippics  are  his  descrip- 
tions of  English,  and  especially  of  Yorkshire  scenery 
and  his  delineations  of  humble  virtue  and  affection 
These  are  instinct  with  the  purest  spirit  of  poetry. 

ELLI'PSE  is  the  name  of  a  figure  in  Geometry, 
important  from  its  being  the  approximate  shape  of 
the  planetary  orbits.  It  is  a  curve  of  the  second 
order,  and  is  a  conic  section,  formed  by  cutting 
a  right  cone  by  a  plane  passing  obUquely  through 
its  opposite  sides.    It  may  be  defined  as  i  curvej 

IB 


ELLIPSIS— ELLORA. 


the  sum  of  the  distances  of  every  point  in  which 
from  two  fixed  points  within  the  curve  is  always 
the  same.  These  two  fixed  points  are  called  the 
foci ;  and  the  diameter  drawn  through  them  is  tlie 
major  axis ;  the  minor  axis  bisects  the  major  at 
right  angles.  The  distance  of  either  focus  from 
the  middle  of  the  major  axis  is  the  eccentricit'ij. 
The  less  the  eccentricity  is  compared  with  the  axis, 
the  nearer  the  figure  approaches  to  a  circle  ;  and  a 
circle  may  be  considered  as  an  ellipse  whose  foci 
coincide. 

There  are  various  contrivances  for  describing  an 
ellipse,  called  eliipsagraphs  or  elliptic  comj)asses. 
The  simplest  method  of  description  is  to  fix  on  a 
})lane  the  two  ends  of  a  thread  with  j)ins  in  the 
foci,  and  make  a  pencil  move  on  the  plane,  keep- 
ing the  thread  constantly  stretched.  The  end  of  the 
pencil  ^v'ill  trace  an  ellipse,  whose  major  axis  is 
equal  to  the  length  of  the  thread. 

The  equation  to  an  ellipse  (see  Co-ordinates), 
referred  to  its  centre  as  origin,  and  to  its  major 

and  minor  axes  as  rectangular  axes,  is  ^  +  ^  =  1, 

•where  a  and  b  are  the  semi-major  and  semi-minor 
axes  respectively.  From  this  equation,  it  may  be 
shewn,  by  the  integral  calculus,  that  the  area  of  an 
ellipse  is  equal  to  -prah ;  or  is  got  by  multiplying 
the  product  of  the  semi-major  and  semi-minor  axis 
by  31  U6.    It  may  also  be  shewn  that  the  length  of 


the  circumference  of  an  ellipse  is  got  by  multipljanw 
the  major  axis  by  the  quantity     (  1  —      —  2*2' 42 

ELLl'PSIS  (Gr.  omission)  is  a  term  Msed  in 
Grammar  and  Pthetoric,  to  signify  the  omission  of 
a  word  necessary  to  complete  the  expression  or 
sentence  in  its  usual  form.  The  object  of  ellipsis  is 
shortness  and  impressiveness ;  accoi'dingly,  it  pre- 
vails in  proverbs.  Ellipses  are  used  in  all  languages, 
l)ut  the  same  forms  of  ellipses  are  not  common  to 
all.  Thus,  'the  house  we  saw,'  instead  of  'the 
house  tfiat  we  saw,'  is  a  kind  of  ellipsis  peculiar,  so 
far  as  we  know,  to  English. 

ELLI'PSOID  is  a  surface  of  the  second  order  ot 
which  the  Spheroid  (q.  v.)  is  a  species,  and  the  most 
interesting,  from  the  fact  of  the  form  of  the  earth 
being  spheroidal.  The  equation  to  an  ellipsoid 
referred  to  its  centre  and  rcctangiUar  co-ordinates  i3 


ELLIPTI'CITY  (of  the  Earth).    See  Earth. 

ELLO'RA,  a  decayed  town  in  the  dominions  of 
the  Nizam,  not  far  from  the  city  of  Dowlatabad,  in 
lat.  20°  2'  N.,  and  long.  75°  13'  E.  It  is  celebrated 
for  its  wonderful  rock- cut  temples.    Their  uumbei 


nas  not  been  precisely  ascertained,  but  Erskine 
reckoned  19  large  ones,  partly  of  Hindu  and  partly 
of  Buddhist  origin.  Some  are  cave-temples  j)roper 
— i.  e.,  chambers  cut  out  in  the  interior  of  the  rock 
— but  others  are  vast  buildings  hewn  out  of  the 
solid  granite  of  the  hills,  having  an  exterior  as  well 
as  an  interior  architecture,  and  being,  in  fact,  mag- 
mficoiit  monoliths.  In  executing  the  latter,  the 
20 


process  was,  first  to  sink  a  great  quadrangular  trencTi 
or  pit,  leaving  the  central  mass  standing ;  and 
then  to  hew  and  excavate  this  mass  into  a  temple. 
The  most  beautiful  of  these  objects  is  the  Hindu 
temple,'  Kailasa.  At  its  entrance,  the  traveller 
passes  into  an  antechamber  138  feet  wide  by  83 
deep,  adorned  by  numerous  rows  of  pillars.  Thence 
he  proceeds  along  a  coloimade  over  a  bridge  into 


ELLORE— ELM. 


•\  great  rectangular  court,  which  is  247  feet  in 
iength  and  150  broad,  in  the  centre  of  which 
stands  the  temple  itself,  a  vast  mass  of  rock 
richly  hewn  and  carved.  lb  is  supported  by  four 
rows  of  pilasters,  with  colossal  elei)hant3  beneath, 
and  seems  suspended  in  the  air.  The  interior  is 
about  103  feet  long,  56  broad,  and  17  high,  but  the 
entire  exterior  forms  a  pyramid  100  feet  high,  and 
is  overlaid  with  sculpttire.  In  the  great  court  are 
numeious  ponds,  obelisks,  colonnades,  sphinxes,  and 
on  the  walls  thousands  of  mythological  figures  of  all 
kinds,  from  10  to  12  feet  in  height.  0^  the  other 
temples,  those  of  Indra  and  Dumarheyiia  are  little 
inferior  to  that  of  Kailasa.  Regarding  their  anti- 
quity and  religious  significance,  authorities  are  not 
agreed ;  but  at  all  events  they  must  be  subsequent  to 
the  epic  poems  Eamayana  or  Mahabharata,  because 
they  contain  representations  taken  from  these 
poems,  and  also  to  the  cave- temples  at  Elephanta, 
Because  they  exhibit  a  richer  and  more  advanced 
style  of  architecture. 

ELLO'RE,  a  town  of  the  district  of  Masulipatam, 
in  the  presidency  of  Madras,  stands  in  lat.  16°  42' 
N.,  and  long.  81"  10'  E.  In  an  official  report,  the 
place  has  been  indefinitely  styled  '  popidous.'  In- 
dependently of  its  population,  properly  so  called, 
E.,  as  a  military  station,  has  a  consideral)le  garri- 
•on.  It  occupies  both  banks  of  the  Jummulair,  a 
torrent  of  the  Eastern  Ghauts,  which,  instead  of 
reaching  the  Pay  of  Bengal,  loses  itself  three  miles 
further  down,  in  the  land-locked  Colair  Lake.  In 
fact,  for  about  50  miles  to  the  westward  of  the  sea, 
tiie  neighbouring  country  is  depressed  below  the 
level  of  the  maritime  belt,  the  stagnant  pool  above 
mentioned  not  only  having  independent  feeders  of 
its  own,  but  also  receiving  supplies,  in  the  season  of 
high-water,  from  the  Kistnah  ©r  Krishna,  and  the 
Godavery.  Under  such  circumstances,  the  climate  of 
E.  is  at  once  unpleasant  and  unhealthy.  During  the 
south-west  monsoon,  bringing  with  it,  of  course,  the 
accumulated  heats  of  the  whole  breadth  of  the  penin- 
sula, the  temperature  is  more  particularly  oppressive, 
liaving  been  known  to  rise,  in  the  night,  to  120°  F. 

E'LLSWORTH,  a  small  but  flourishing  town  of 
North  America,  in  the  state  of  Maine,  on  both  sides 
of  the  navigable  river  Union,  30  miles  south-east  of 
Bangor,  and  about  4  miles  west  of  Frenchman's 
Bay.  It  exports  50,000,000  feet  of  timber  annually, 
carries  on  cod  and  mackerel  fisheries,  and  had,  in 
1870,  5363  inhabitants. 

ELM  {Ulmus),  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Ulmacece,  natives  of  temperate  climates,  with 
serrated  leaves  unequal  in  their  two  sides,  and 
small  flowers  growing  in  clusters  appearing  before 
the  leaves,  and  containing  4 — 12  stamens  and  one 
germen.  The  fruit  is  a  samara,  or  com])ressed  one- 
seeded  little  nut,  winged  all  around.  One  of  the 
most  important  species  is  the  Common  Small- 
leaved  or  English  Elm  {U.  campestris),  a  tree  of 
60—80  feet  in  height,  with  ovato- elliptic,  doubly 
serrated  leaves,  and  flowers  almost  destitute  of 
((talks.  The  wood  is  compact,  and  very  durable 
in  water.  The  tree  is  difl"used  all  over  Europe ;  is 
found  al5C«  in  the  west  of  Asia  and  north  of  Africa, 
and  is  used  for  a  great  variety  of  purj^oses  by  wheel- 
wrights, machine-makers,  ship  and  boat  builders, 
&c. ;  it  is  also  prized  by  joiners  for  its  fine  grain, 
and  the  mahogany  colour  which  it  readily  assumes 
on  the  application  of  an  acid.  It  is  reckoned  supe- 
rior to  the  wood  of  any  other  species  of  ehn.  The 
bark  is  used  in  dyeing  and  in  sugar-refining,  and, 
in  times  of  scarcity,  has  been  used  in  Norway  for 
grinding  into  meal  and  mixing  in  bread,  which  has 
a  less  disagi'ceable  taste  than  that  made  from  meal 
mixed  with  fir-bark.    The  inner  bark  is  used  medi- 


cinally in  cutaneous  diseases  ;  it  is  mucilaginous, 
and  has  a  bitter  astringent  taste.  The  Elm  Malha^A 
{Beaiime  tVorme),  which  was  formerly  in  great  repute, 
is  a  brownish  sul^stance,  which  is  found  in  dried 
galls  of  the  leaves  in  the  south  of  Europe,  Persia, 
&c.  From  these  galls,  in  an  earlier  stage,  flows  a 
clear,  viscid,  sweetish  liquid,  called  Elm  AVatei  [Eau 
cTorme),  which  is  used  for  washing  wounds,  ccntu- 
sions,  and  sore  eyes. — The  seeds  of  the  elm  are 
eagerly  eaten  by  pigeons  and  common  poultry.  The 
elm  is  one  of  the  principal  timber  trees  of  Britam, 
most  extensively  planted,  and  a  chief  ornament 
of  English  scenery. — The  Cork-b.arked  Elm  {U, 
suberosa),  by  many  regarded  as  a  variety  of  [T. 
cam])estris,  is  distinguished  by  the  corky  wings  of 
the  bark  of  the  branches.  It  is  a  taller  and  more 
spreading  tree,  with  much  larger  leaves.  It  is  a 
European  tree,  common  in  plantations  in  Britain, 
but  a  doubtful  native. — The  Dutch  CorvK-BARKED 
Elm  {U,  major)  is  also  looked  upon  by  many  as  a. 


Common  English  Ehn  [Ulmus  campcsiru}. 


variety  of  U.  campeMr'ts.  It  is  still  more  corky  in 
its  bark,  and  has  still  larger  leaves.  It  is  of  very 
quick  growth,  but  the  wood  is  very  inferior. — The 
Broad-leaved  or  Wych  Elm  ( U.  montana)  is  the 
only  species  that  can  with  certainty  be  regarded  as 
indigenous  to  Scotland.  It  has  rough  and  broad 
leaves,  a  stem  less  upright  than  the  English  elm, 
and  large  sj^reading  branches.  The  wood  is  used 
for  all  the  purposes  of  the  English  elm.  The  tree 
is  of  very  quick  growth.  Protuberances  of  gnarled 
wood  are  not  unfrequently  produced,  which  are 
finely  knotted  and  richly  veined ;  they  are  much 
esteemed  for  veneering,  and  are  sometimes  very 
valuable.  Varieties  of  this  species  are  known 
as  the  Giant  Elm  and  Chichester  Elm. — The 
Smooth-leaved  Elm  {U.  glabra)  is  by  some 
regarded  as  a  variety  of  (I.  montana,  but  is  distin- 
guished, besides  other  characters,  by  smooth  leaves, 
which  are  much  smaller.  It  is  a  native  of  Eng- 
land. A  variety  called  the  Huntingdon  Elm  ia 
much  esteemed. — The  Cornish  Elm  (U.  stncta), 
found  in  the  south-west  of  England,  is  remarkable 
for  its  rigid,  erect,  and  compact  branches. — Very 
different  is  the  habit  of  U.  effusa,  a  continental 
species  with  a  large  spreading  head  and  smooth 
bark,  distinguished  also  by  the  long  stalks  of  its 
flowers  and  its  ciliated  fruit. — The  Aaierican  or 
White  Elm  iU.  Americana)^  which  abounds  ia  tb« 

il 


ELMINA— EL  PASO  DEL  NORTE. 


basin  of  tlie  Mississippi,  nnd  attains  its  loftiest 
stature  between  Int.  42"  and  hit  46°,  is  a  magnifi- 
cent tree,  sometimes  100  feet  in  height,  the  trunk 
reaching  60  or  70  feet  before  it  separates  into 
branches,  and  the  widely  diffused  pendulous  branches 
floating  gracefully  in  the  air ;  but  the  timber  is  not 
much  esteemed. — The  Red  or  Slippery  Elm  ( U, 
fulva)  is  also  connnon  in  the  basin  of  the  Missis- 
sippi as  far  south  as  lat.  31°,  and  in  the  western 
parts  of  Canada.  It  attains  a  height  of  50  or  60  feet. 
The  wood  is  more  valuable  than  that  of  the  last 
species,  but  much  inferior  to  the  English  elm.  The 
leaves  and  bark  yield  an  abundant  mucilage,  which 
is  bland  and  demulcent,  and  esteemed  a  valuable 
remedy  in  catarrh,  dysentery,  and  other  complaints. 
— The  Wahoo  or  Winged  Elm  ( U.  alata)  is  a  small 
tree,  found  from  lat.  37°  to  Florida,  Louisiana,  and 
Arkansas,  remarkable  for  the  branches  being  fur- 
nished on  two  opposite  sides  with  wings  of  cork. 
The  wood  is  fine-grained,  compact  and  heavy. —  U. 
Chinensis  is  a  Chinese  species  of  elm,  tbe  leaves 
of  which  often  bear  galls  used  by  the  Chinese  in 
tanning  and  dyeing. 

The  name 'Spanish  Elm  is  given  in  the  West 
Indies  to  a  tree  also  called  Bois  de  Chypre,  Cordia 
Oerascani/ms,  of  the  natural  order  Cordiacece,  the 
timber  of  which  is  valuable ;  also  to  Jlamelia  ven- 
tricosa,  of  the  natural  order  Bubiacece,  tlie  timber  of 
which  is  known  to  cabinet-makers  as  Prince- wood. 

ELMI'NA,  a  fortified  towTi  and  seaport  of  West 
Africa,  capital  of  the  Dutch  settlements  on  the 
Gold  Coast,  is  situated  in  an  undulating  and 
thickly  wooded  district,  in  lat.  5°  10'  N.,  and  long, 
about  1"  40'  W.  It  is  a  large,  irregularly  built,  and 
extremely  unclean  native  town,  and  seems  to  be 
entirely  destitute  of  any  noteworthy  architectural 
features.  The  inhabitants  consist  chiefly  of  traders, 
fishermen,  and  artisans.  A  few  miles  to  the  east  is 
Cape  Coast  Castle.  E.  was  tirst  estal)lislied  by  the 
Portuguese  in  1481,  and  was  the  first  Eiiropean 
settlement  planted  on  the  coast  of  Guinea.  It  was 
taken  by  the  Dutch  in  1637,  and,  four  years  after, 
was  ceded  to  them  by  Portugal.    Fop.  about  10,000. 

ELMFRA,  a  city,  the  capital  of  Chemung  co.,  N.  Y., 
on  the  Cliemung  River,  at  the  junction  of  the  Erie,  the 
Northern  Central,  and  the  Utica,  Ithaca  and  Elmira 
Railroads,  274  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  New  York  City  and 
149  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Buffalo.  It  contains  a  court- 
house, 20  churches,  a  high-school,  a  normal  scliool,  2 
academies,  4  banks,  a  State  reformatory,  and  exten- 
sive manufactures  of  railroad  iron,  railroad  cars, 
farming  implements,  boots  and  shoes,  carriages,  edge- 
tools,  flour,  &c.  It  is  also  tlie  seat  of  the  Elmira  Fe- 
male College,  and  bas  printing-offices  which  issue  2 
daily  and  4  weekly  newspapers.  Fop.  in  1880,  20,678. 

E'LMO'S  FIRE,  St,  is  the  popular  name  of  an 
appearance  sometimes  seen,  especially  in  soutbern 
climates  during  thunder-storms,  of  a  brush  or  star 
of  light  at  the  tops  of  masts,  spires,  or  other  pointed 
objects.  It  is  sometimes  accompanied  by  a  hissing 
noise,  and  is  evidently  of  the  same  nature  as  the 
light  caused  by  electricity  streaming  off  from  points 
connected  with  an  electrical  machine.  See  Elec- 
tricity. The  phenomenon,  as  seen  at  sea,  was 
woven  by  the  Greeks  into  the  myth  of  Castor  and 
Pollux;  and  even  yet  such  lights  at  the  mast-head 
are  considered  by  sailors  a  sign  that  they  have 
nothing  to  fear  from  the  storm. 

ELM  SHORN,  a  town  of  Denmark,  in  the 
duchy  cf  Holstein,  20  miles  north-west  of  Ham- 
har^,  is  situated  on  both  banks  of  the  Kriickau,  a 
na^^gable  stream,  and  feeder  of  the  Elbe.  It  is 
weU  Iniilt,  has  considerable  manufactures,  and  au 
active  trade  in  grain;  it  has  also  a  boat-building 
yard,  and  some  tanneries    Vast  nimibers  of  boots 


and  shoes  are  made  at  E.,  and  are  sold  at  all  tlip 
fairs  in  the  duchies  of  Slesvig  and  Holsitein.  Many 
Jews  reside  here,  as  this  is  one  of  the  few  places  in 
the  duchies  in  which  they  are  allowed  to  settle 
without  having  previously  obtained  permission.  E. 
has  an  important  annual  cattle-market.  Pop.  5000. 
EL  OBEID.    See  II  Obeid. 

ELOCU'TION  (Lat.  for  speaking  out),  the  art  of 
effective  speaking,  more  especially  of  public  speak- 
ing. It  regards  solely  the  utterance  or  delivery ; 
while  the  wider  art  of  oratory,  of  which  elocution  in 
a  branch,  takes  account  also  of  the  matter  spoken. 
The  art  of  elocution  held  a  prominent  place  in 
ancient  education,  but  has  been  greatly  neglected 
in  modem  times.    See  Reading  and  Speaking. 

ELOGE.    When    a    member   of    the  French 
Academie  dies,  it  is  customary  for  his  successor  to 
deliver  an  oration,  setting  forth  his  merits  and 
services.    This  is  called  an  eloge  (Lat.  elo'jium,  Gr. 
€ido(jin,   praise),   and   a   considerable   branch  of 
French  literature  goes  by  the  name.    Many  cf  the 
French  eloges  are  mere  florid  panegyrics ;  but  others, 
particularly  those  written  by  Thomas,  D'Alembert, 
Bailly,  Condorcet,  Cuvier,  and  other  eminent  savants, 
are  interesting  and  valuable  biographies.   The  proper 
I  epoch  of  the  6loge  began  with  Fontenelle  (2  vols., 
I  Par.  1731),  who  was  distinguished  for  clearness,  ease, 
j  and  elegance.    His  successors  have  tried  to  outshine 


him  in  pomp  of  language. 

I     ELOHIM,  Hebr.,  plural  of  Ehah,  Arab.  Jldn, 
Chald.  Eldh,  Syr.  Aldh,  might,  power;  in  plur., 
intensified,  collective,  highest  power — great  beings, 
kin.gs,  angels,  gods.  Deity.    As  a  pluralis  cxcellentiat 
or  viajestatis,  and  joined  to  the  singular  verb,  it 
denotes,  with  very  rare  exceptions,  the  One,  true 
God.    Joined  to  the^lural  verb,  however,  it  usually 
means  gods  in  general,  whether  including  the  One 
or  not.    It  is  mostly  used  (in  the  singular  sense) 
for  or  together  with  Jehovah  (the  Everlasting 
'  One) ;  but  some  portions  of  the  Scriptures  emploj 
exclusively  either   the   one  term  or  the  other 
This  cu'cumstance  has  given  rise  to  endless  discus- 
sions, and  has  also  suggested  amongst  others  the 
notion  of  different  authors  of  Genesis.    On  this,  and 
on  the  relation  of  those  tvv^o  words  to  each  other, 
!  see  the  article  Jehovah.    We  shall  only  mention 
j  here  the  hitherto  unnoticed  opinion  of  the  Tal- 
I  mudists,  that  Elohim  denotes  the  Almighty  under 
I  the  aspect  of  a  God  of  strict  j'xstice ;  Jehovah,  of 
j  clemency  and  mercy.    As  important  for  the  history 
i  of  the  word  Elohim,  we  may  add.  in  conclusion,  that 
j  it  was  very  probably  Petrus  Lombardus  who  first 
!  tried  to  prove  the  Trinity  out  of  this  plural  form — 
an  attempt  which,  although  unanimously  and  scorn- 
fully rejected  by  aU  scholars,  from  Calvin,  Mercerus, 
Calixtus,  the  younger  Buxtorf,  &c.,  to  our  times, 
has  lately  been  revived  by  Rudolf  Stier,  who  has 
gone  so  far  as  to  invent  a  rew  grammatical  term, 
^Pluralis  Trinitatis,^  for  thi^  purpose.     See  also 
the  articles  Shemitic  Plural  and  Pentateuch. 

ELONGA'TION,  Angle  of,  is  the  angle  measur- 
ing the  distance  between  two  stars,  as  seen  from  the 
earth.  Usually,  it  is  employed  only  in  speaking  of 
the  distance  of  planets  from  the  sim  ;  the  word 
'  distance '  being  used  instead  of  the  wo^d  elonga- 
tion, in  regai-d  to  fixed  stars  and  planets,  as  related 
to  one  another. 

ELO'PEMENT.    See  Adultery. 

EL  PA' SO  DEL  NO'RTE  (in  English,  the  Fa^ 
of  the  North)  is  a  narrow  valley  of  nine  or  ten  miles 
in  length,  near  the  northeastern  extremity  of  the 
republic  of  Mexico.  It  is  situated  within  the 
state  of  Chihuahua  (q.  v.),  in  lat.  31°  42'  N.,  anti 
long.  106°  40'  W.,  being  on  the  right  bank  of  the 


ELPHIN— ELSINORE. 


Rio  (irande,  or  Rio  Bravo  del  Norte,  about  1420 
loiles  from  its  mouth.  It  is  remarkably  fertile, 
yielding,  in  particular,  considerable  quantities  of 
win^  and  brandy.  It  contains  about  5000  inhabit- 
anti  nearly  all  of  them  of  mixed  blood.  In  fact,  the 
peop  e  are  little  better  than  the  aboriginal  savages, 
bein^  almost  destitute  of  the  most  ordinary  appli- 
ances of  civilised  life.  The  place  is  worthy  of 
rotice  chiefly  as  the  main  thoroughfare  between 
New  Mea.ico  and  Mexico  Proper. 

E'LPHIN,  a  bishop's  see  in  Ireland,  united  to 
RUmore  in  1833. 

^  E'LPHINSTONE,  William,  a  celebrated  Scot- 
fcieh  prelate,  and  founder  of  King's  College,  Aberdeen, 
was  born  in  the  year  1430  or  1431.  He  was  the  son 
of  William  Elphinstone,  Ecctor  of  Kirkmichael,  and 
Archdeacon  of  Teviotdale,  and,  as  the  marriage  of 
ecclesiastics  was  then  prohibited,  his  birth  was  ille- 
gitimate. E.  studied  at  the  university  of  Glasgow, 
where  he  took  his  degree  of  M.A.  at  the  age  of 
twenty-four,  at  the  same  time  that  he  took  priest's 
orders.  He  seems  to  Jiave  acted  as  his  father's  curate 
at  Kirkmichael,  for  four  years,  but  being  strongly 
attached  to  the  stu^^y  of  law  (he  had  practised  as 
an  advocate  in  the  church  courts  before  this),  he 
went  to  France  in  his  twenty-ninth  year,  at  the 
instigation  of  his  imcle,  Laurence  Elphinstone,  who 
supplied  him  with  the  means  of  studying  at  the 
most  celebrated  schools  of  the  continent.  E.  so 
highly  distinguished  himself,  that  after  three  years 
he  was  appointed  professor  in  the  university  of 
Paris,  and  afterwards  at  Orleans,  which  had  then 
the  highest  reputation  as  a  legal  school.  So  greatly 
M'ere  his  learning  and  talents  appreciated,  that  the 
paiiiament  of  Paris  used  to  ask  his  opinion  on  great 
questions.  After  a  residence  .of  nine  years  abroad, 
he  returned  to  Scotland,  and  was  made  successively 
official-general  of  the  diocese  of  Glasgow  (1471 — 
1472),  rector  of  the  university  (1474),  and  official  of 
Lothian  in  1478,  '  then  probably,'  says  Mr  Cosmo 
Innes  {Sketches  of  Early  Scottish  History,  Edin.  1861), 
'the  second  judicial  office  in  the  kingdom,  which  he 
filled  for  two  years,  sitting  in  parliament,  and  serv- 
ing on  the  judicial  committees,  which  formed  the 
supreme  civil  jurisdiction  in  Scotland.'  His  dignity, 
learning,  and  prudence,  now  began  to  procure  him 
imiversal  respect.  He  was  the  principal  member  of 
a  great  embassy  sent  from  Scotland  to  France,  to 
settle  certain  disputes  that  had  sprung  up  between 
the  two  countries,  and  threatened  the  stability  of 
their  ancient  alliance.  In  this  important  affair,  he 
was  eminently  successful.  On  his  return,  he  was 
made  Bishop  of  Ross  in  1481.  In  1483,  he  was 
removed  to  the  see  of  Aberdeen  ;  and  between  this 
perioa  and  the  death  of  James  III.  he  was  several 
times  engaged  in  embassies  to  France,  England, 
Burgundy,  and  Austria.  For  a  few  months  before 
the  death  of  that  monarch,  he  held  the  office  of 
chancellor  of  the  kingdom.  He  lost  this  great  office 
on  the  accession  of  James  IV.,  but,  says  the  autho- 
rity already  quoted,  '  he  was  speedily  restored  to 
favour,  and  to  the  royal  councils,  and  seems  to 
have  been  keeper  of  the  Privy  Seal  from  1500 
till  hifl  death.'  He  did  not  suffer  his  office  to  with- 
draw him  from  the  care  of  his  diocese,  where  he 
applied  himself  to  the  faithful  discharge  of  his 
episcopal  functions,  endeavouring  to  reform  the 
clergy,  the  service,  and  the  ritual  of  his  church.  He 
next  concluded  (while  on  a  mission  to  the  conti- 
nent for  another  purpose)  a  treaty  with  Holland, 
which  was  beneficial  to  Scotland.  E.  seems  to  have 
had  a  genuine  desire  for  the  enlightenment  and 
improvement  of  his  countrymen.  Whenever  leisure 
permitted,  wj  find  him  engaged  in  devising  means 
to  thia  evtd.   It  appears  to  have  been  chiefly  through 


his  influence  that  the  first  printing-press — that  of 
Chcpman  and  Millar — was  established  in  ScotlancL 
He  superintended  the  preparation  and  printing  of 
the  Breviary  of  Aberdeen,  and  collected  the  materials 
for  the  lives  of  the  Scottish  saints  contained  in  that 
work.  He  procured  from  the  pope  (Alexander  VI.) 
a  bull  for  erecting  a  university  in  Aberdeen.  ITia 
bull  was  sent  in  1494,  but  the  college  was  not  founded 
till  1500,  when  it  was  dedicated  to  St  Mary — a 
name  afterwards  changed  to  King's  College.  E. 
built  also  the  great  central  tower  and  woodi^n  spire 
of  his  cathedral  church  at  Aberdeen,  provided  its 
great  bells,  covered  the  roofs  of  its  nave,  aisles,  and 
transept  with  lead ;  and,  at  his  own  exjjense,  buOt 
a  stone  bridge  over  the  Dee  for  the  benefit  of  his 
townsmen.  The  fatal  battle  of  Flodden,  9th  Sep- 
tember 1513,  broke  the  spirit  of  E.,  who  was  never 
seen  to  smile  after.  He  died  25th  October  1514, 
and  was  buried  before  the  high  altar  of  the  chapel 
of  the  college  which  he  founded.  E.  was  a  man  of 
great  vigour  of  mind  and  nobleness  of  nature — '  one 
of  those  prelates,'  says  a  writer  in  the  Quarterly 
Review  ,'No.  clxix.  p.  141),  'who  in  their  muni- 
ficent lets,  and  their  laborious  and  saintly  lives, 
shewed  to  the  Scottish  church,  in  her  cormption 
and  decay,  the  glorious  image  of  her  youth.'  '  We 
know  him,'  says  Mr  Innes,  'in  the  history  of  the 
time  as  the  zealous  churchman,  the  learned  lawyer, 
the  wise  statesman  ;  one  who  never  sacrificed  his 
diocesan  duties  to  mere  secidar  cares,  but  knew 
how  to  make  his  political  eminence  serve  the 
interests  of  his  church  ;  who,  M'ith  manners  and 
temperance  in  his  own  person,  befitting  the  primitive 
ages  of  Christianity,  threw  around  his  cathedral  and 
palace  the  taste  and  splendour  that  may  adorn 
religion,  who  foimd  time,  amidst  the  cares  of  state, 
and  the  pressure  of  daily  duties,  to  preserve  the 
Christian  antiquities  of  his  diocese,  and  collect 
the  memories  of  those  old  servants  of  truth  who 
had  run  a  course  similar  to  his  own ;  to  renovate 
his  cathedral  service,  and  to  support  and  foster  all 
good  letters,  while  his  economy  of  a  slender  revenue 
rendered  it  sufficient  for  the  erection  and  support  of 
sumptuous  buildings  and  the  endowment  of  a  famous 
university.'  Some  volumes  of  notes  made  by  E. 
when  studying  in  the  law  schools,  are  preserved  in 
the  library  of  tlie  University  of  Aberdeen.  A  tran- 
script of  Fordun's  Scotichi-onicon,  with  some  addi- 
tions, in  the  Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford,  was  long 
erroneously  ascribed  to  him.  His  Breviarium  Aher- 
donense,  printed  in  1509 — 1510,  was  reprinted  in  twe 
volumes  quarto  at  London  in  1853. 

EL  ROSA'RIO,  a  small  town  of  the  Mexican 
Confederation  in  the  state  of  Cinaloa,  is  situated 
55  miles  east- north- east  of  Mazatlan.  It  is  import- 
ant chiefly  as  being  a  commercial  entrepot  between 
Mazatlan  and  the  interior.    Pop.  5000. 

ELSINO'RE,  a  town  and  seaport  of  Denmark,  on 
the  island  of  Seeland,  is  situated  on  the  western 
shore  of  the  Sound,  and  at  its  narrowest  part,  3^ 
miles  west-south- west  of  the  town  of  Helsingborg  in 
Sweden,  and  24  miles  north  of  Copenhagen.  Lat. 
56°  2'  N.,  long.  12°  36'  E.  The  town,  which  haa 
been  in  recent  times  considerably  improved,  is 
spacious,  and  consists  of  one  long  principal  street, 
with  several  lateral  branches.  The  cathedral,  con- 
taining some  fine  tombs,  many  of  them  very  old, 
may  be  considered  as  one  of  the  most  interesting 
edifices.  At  a  short  distance  to  the  east  of  E.  are  the 
castle  and  the  fortress  of  Kronborg,the  former  a  white 
stone  building  in  the  Gothic  style,  and  the  latter,  a 
stronghold  mounted  with  guns  that  command  the 
Sound  in  all  directions.  To  the  north-west  of  R, 
and  in  its  immediate  vicinity,  is  the  royal  chateau  of 
MarienHst,  the  pleasuro-groimds  of  which,  occupyin^j 

2a 


ELSSLER— ELY. 


the  crest  of  a  hill,  are  open  to  the  public.  From  the 
grouuds  of  Marienlist,  magnificent  views  may  be 
had  of  tlie  Sound,  of  Helsingborg,  and  of  the  ])lains 
of  Sweden.  The  harbour  of  K,  formed  by  a  wooden 
pier,  is  accessible  to  ships  of  light  draught.  E.  has 
a  brisk  foreign  trade,  and  has,  besides,  manufactui'es 
of  straw-hats,  arms,  sugar,  brandy,  &c.,  also  cotton- 
printing  and  fisheries.  The  Sound  Dues  ((}.  v.)  were 
collected  here.    Pop.  about  8500. 

Saxo  Grammaticus,  a  famous  writer  of  the  12th 
c,  was  born  here.  Here  Sbakspeare  laid  the  scene 
of  bis  Hamlet,  a  perversion  of  history  on  the  part  of 
the  great  dramatist,  as  Jutland,  not  Seeland,  was 
Hamlet's  country.  The  vaults  under  the  castle  of 
Kronborg  wore  supposed  to  be  the  residence  of 
Holger  I)anske,  the  mythic  hero  of  Denmark,  who 
never  appeared  above  ground  save  when  the  country 
was  in  danger,  and  was  then  supposed  to  march 
at  the  head  of  the  Danish  armies.  In  severe 
winters  the  Sound  is  frozen  over  at  E,,  so  that  one 
can  walk  over  t^.^  ice  from  Denmark  to  Sweden. 

E'LSSLER,  Fanny,  a  celebrated  dancer,  was  bom 
at  Vienna  in  the  year  1811,  and  educated  at  Naples 
for  the  ballet,  along  with  her  elder  sister  Theresa. 
The  first  triumph  of  the  sisters  took  place  at  Berlin, 
where  they  appeared  in  1830.  The  repiitation 
acquired  by  Fanny  in  Berlin  preceded  her  to  Italy, 
America,  England,  and  St  Petersburg,  where  her 
beauty,  amiability,  and  mastery  in  her  art,  charmed 
all  classes  of  society.  In  1841,  the  two  sisters  went  to 
America,  where  they  excited  unwonted  enthusiasm. 
After  Fanny  had  earned  laurels  in  St  Petersburg, 
she  returned,  in  1851,  to  Vienna,  to  take  a  final 
leave  of  the  stage.  She  then  retired  to  Hamburg, 
where  she  still  resides  on  a  small  estate  purchased  by 
her  beyond  the  Dammthore.  Theresa  was  less  grace- 
ful in  her  motions  than  her  sister,  but  exhibited 
preat  strength,  boldness,  and  agility.  On  the  25th 
April  1851,  she  became  the  wife  of  Prince  Adal- 
bert of  Prussia,  and  was  ennobled  by  the  king  of 
Prussia. 

E'LSTER,  the  name  of  two  rivers  of  Germany, 
the  White  and  the  Black  Elster.  The  White  E. 
rises  at  the  foot  of  the  Elster  mountains,  on  the 
uorth-western  boundary  of  Bohemia,  flows  in  a 
northerly  direction,  and  falls  into  the  Saale  three 
miles  south  of  the  town  of  Halle,  in  Prussia.  Its 
chief  aflluent  is  the  Pleisse  from  the  right.  Total 
length,  110  miles.  The  Black  E.  rises  in  the  kingdom 
of  Saxony,  within  two  miles  of  Elstra,  flows  north- 
west, enters  Prussia,  and  joins  the  Elbe  eight  miles 
Bouth-east  of  Wittenberg.    Leng-th,  105  miles. 

ELSTRACKE,  Reginald  or  Renold,  an 
English  engraver,  who  flourished  about  1620.  He 
worked  chiefly  for  the  booksellers,  and  his  plates, 
which  are  executed  wath  the  graver,  without 
etching,  are  almost  entirely  confined  to  portraits. 
Prints  from  his  plates  are  much  sought  after,  not 
only  from  their  scarcity,  and  as  illustrating  English 
history,  but  as  works  of  art,  in  which  much  char- 
acter is  expressed  in  a  firm  and  forcible  manner. 
When  he  did  not  sign  his  plates  with  his  name, 
he  marked  them  with  his  initials,  R.  E. 

ELTO'N,  a  famous  salt  lake  of  Russia,  is  situated 
in  the  government  of  Saratov,  170  miles  south-south- 
east from  the  town  of  that  name,  the  lat.  of  its 
centre  being  48'  56'  N.,  and  the  long.  46'  40'  E.  Its 
longest  diameter  is  eleven  miles,  and  its  shortest 
about  nine  miles.  It  has  a  superficial  extent  of 
45,500  English  acres,  but  at  no  place  is  it  more  than 
about  15  inches  in  depth.  It  is  of  an  oval  form, 
and  can  be  easily  reached  from  the  south,  but  the 
northern  banks  rise  so  rapidly  that  access  to  it  from 
that  (piarter  is  difficult.  In  the  hottest  season,  f,o 
^^vnderful  is  the  illusion  produced  by  the  crystallised 


salt,  that  the  lake  seems  covered  with  snow  and 
ice.  E.  yields  about  100,000  tons  of  salt  annually, 
in  the  collection  of  which  about  10,000  persons  are 
employed. 

ELUTRIA'TION  is  the  term  applied  to  the 
process  of  separating,  by  means  of  water,  the  finer 
particles  of  earths  and  pigments  from  the  heavier 
portions.  The  apparatus  generally  used  is  a  ?"..-j^e 
vat,  in  which  grinding  wheels  revolve,  and  t'  e  sub- 
stance to  be  reduced  to  powder  being  placed  in  the 
vat  along  with  water,  the  wheels  in  revolving  noi) 
only  pulverise  the  material,  but  from  their  motion 
being  communicated  to  the  water,  the  latter  is 
enabled  to  retain  in  mechanical  suspension  the  finer 
particles  of  the  clay,  &c.  By  allowing  a  stream  of 
water  to  flow  in  and  out  of  the  vat,  the  finer  par- 
ticles can  be  constantly  floated  away,  and  the  liquid 
being  run  into  settling  vats,  the  fine  powder  settles 
to  the  })ottom,  when  the  water  can  be  run  off  from 
the  surface.  This  process  is  much  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  materials  used  in  pottery,  and 
in  the  preparation  of  pigments. 

E'LVANS  are  veins  of  a  granular  crystalline 
mixture  of  felspar  and  quartz,  probably  proceeding 
from  a  granite  mass,  which  are  found  in  granite 
rocks  and  fossiliferous  slates  in  Cornwall,  Devon, 
and  the  south  of  Ireland. 

E'LVAS,  an  episcopal  city  and  fortress  of  Portugal, 
stands  in  a  very  fruitfid  district  on  the  eastern 
frontier  of  the  province  of  Alemtejo,  10  miles  west 
of  Badajoz,  and  40  miles  north-east  of  Evora.  It 
is  the  strongest  fortress  in  Portugal,  and  one  of  the 
strongest  in  Europe.  It  is  built  upon  a  precipitous 
hill ;  is  surrounded  by  walls,  and  by  a  glacis  and 
covered-way.  Besides  these,  E.  has  other  defences 
i-n  two  formidable  forts,  Fort  Sta.  Lucia,  and  Fort 
Lippe,  the  former  to  the  south,  and  the  latter — 
almost  entirely  shell-proof — to  the  north  of  the  city. 
E.  is  an  old  town ;  many  of  its  houses  are  badly 
built.  Its  most  striking  architectural  feature  is  an 
enormous  aqueduct,  which  conveys  water  to  it  from 
a  distance  of  three  miles.  This  aqueduct  consists  of 
four  tiers  of  arches  built  upon  one  another,  and 
rising  to  the  heidit  of  rbout  250  feet.  The  chief 
manufactures  of  E.  are  arms  and  jewellery.  There 
are  here  extensive  store-houses  filled  with  British 
manufactures,  and  the  inhabitants,  by  illegally 
selling  these  goods  within  the  Spanish  frontier, 
realise  considerable  wealth.    Pop.  18,510. 

E.  has  undergone  many  sieges,  but  has  never  been 
taken.  The  Spaniards  besieged  it  in  1385,  and  again 
in  1659,  when  a  famous  battle  took  place  called  the 
Lines  of  Elvas,  in  which  the  Portuguese,  though 
gi'eatly  inferior  in  numbers,  drove  the  Spaniards 
from  their  lines  in  front  of  the  town.  E.  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  a  city  by  D.  Manoel,  king  of  Portugal, 
in  15ia 

ELVES.    See  Fairies. 

E'LY,  so  called  from  a  Saxon  word,  elig,  an  eel, 
or  helig,  a  willow,  may  be  called  a  cathedral  town 
rather  than  a  city,  and  is  situated  on  an  eminence 
in  that  part  of  the  fen-country  of  Cambridgeshire 
called  the  Isle  of  Ely.  Pop.  in  1871,  8166.  The 
Eastern  Counties  and  the  Great  Northern  Rail- 
ways have  each  stations,  the  former  outside,  the 
latter  in  the  town. 

Ely  Cathedral. — About  the  year  673,  Etheldreda, 
daughter  of  the  king  of  East  Anglia,  and  wife  of 
Oswy,  king  of  Northumberland,  founded  a  monas- 
tery here,  and  took  on  herself  the  government  of  it. 
Two  hundred  years  afterwards  (870),  the  Danes 
ravaged  the  Isle,  and  destroyed  the  monastery, 
which  was  rebuilt  in  970  by  St  Ethelwold,  Bishop 
of  Winchester;  and  this  continued  till  1801,  when 
a  new  church  was  begun,  which  Avas  converted 


ELY— ELZEVIEE. 


Into  a  cathedral,  and  the  abbey  erected  into  a 
see  in  1109.  The  possessions  of  the  abbey  were 
divided  between  the  bishop  and  the  community. 
The  cathedral  contains  some  beautifid  specimens 
of  architecture,  especially  of  Early  Norman.  Its 
exterior  (limensions  are  535  feet  from  west  to  east. 
The  great  cross  or  main  transept  is  190  feet.  The 
turrets  of  the  west  tower  are  215  feet  high,  and  the 
lantern  over  the  central  toAver  170  feet.  The  west 
front  was  built  by  Geofi'ry  Ridel,  the  third  bishop, 
who  died  in  1189,  and  is  of  Norman  work.  About 
200  years  after  his  time,  an  addition  of  64  feet  v/as 
made  to  the  tower,  and  over  that  a  spire.  This 
great  superincumbent  weight  crushed  the  north-west 
transept,  and  the  south-west  one,  which  still  remains, 
was  considerably  weakened.  In  front  there  is  a 
west  portico  or  galilee  (q.  v.),  of  Early  Gothic, 
said  to  be  the  work  of  Bishop  Eustachius.  The 
nave  is  of  Norman  work,  and  was  completed  about 
1174.  The  cohmins  are  alternately  round  and  octa- 
gonaL  The  roof  was,  in  1861,  beautifidly  painted. 
The  transepts,  which  are  the  most  ancient  parts 
of  the  church,  were  built  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I. 
They  had  originally  a  middle  and  two  side  aisles, 
but  the  latter  are,  in  the  south  transept,  walled 
up,  and  the  space  used  as  a  vestry  axtd  library. 
•Oi-iginally  there  stood  a  square  tower  in  the  centre 
of  the  biulding,  opening  into  the  nave  and  transepts ; 
hwt  this  gave  way  in  1322,  and  fell  eastwards, 
crushing  three  arches  of  the  choir.  The  repair  of 
this  dilapidation  was  undertaken  by  the  sacrist 
of  that  time,  Alan  de  Walsingham.  The  design  was 
original,  an  octagon  tower  with  four  longer  and  four 
shorter  sides,  sui'mounted  by  a  lantern.  The  ui)per 
part  of  this,  which  is  of  timber,  is  about  to  be 
rebuilt  as  a  memorial  to  the  late  Dean  Peacock. 

The  choir  contains  some  rich  varieties  of  decorated 
Gothic,  and  the  fine  shafts  of  Purbeck  marble  com- 
bine beautifully  with  the  white  stone  work.  The 
whole  has  lately  been  restored  and  beautified. 
Originally,  it  was  much  shorter  eastwards,  and  pro- 
truded into  the  nave,  but  in  1235  the  semicircular 
«nd  of  the  old  church  was  taken  down,  and  six 
arches  added  by  Hugh  de  North  wold.  At  the  dedi- 
cation and  removal  of  the  relics,  Henry  III.  and  his 
court  were  present.  The  east  end  is  eminently 
beautiful :  it  consists  of  two  tiers  of  high  lancet- 
shaped  windows.  Perhaps  the  most  interesting 
and  yet  beautiful  part  of  the  biulding  is  the  Lady 
Chapel — an  incomparable  work,  irreparably  spoiled 
by  the  barbarism  of  Puritan  times.  It  was  begun  in 
1321,  and  finished  in  1349,  simidtaneously  with  the 
rebuilding  of  the  central  tower  and  ruined  choij-, 
a  circimistance  highly  illustrative  of  the  taste  and 
munificence  of  the  times.  It  has  a  stone  roof,  like 
King's  College  Chapel  in  Cambridge,  which  it  is 
supposed  to  have  suggested,  and  the  walls  were  once 
decorated  from  top  to  bottom  with  countless  niches 
and  images  of  saints  and  martyrs,  not  one  of  which 
remains  undefaced.  Its  length  is  100  feet;  width, 
46 ;  height,  60.  Bishop  Alcock's  Chapel,  in  which 
he  lies  buried,  is  at  the  east  end  of  the  north  aisle — 
an  overloaded  specimen  of  the  richest  florid  Gothic. 
Bishop  West's  Chapel,  at  the  east  end  of  the  south 
aisle,  is  a  more  pleasing  example  of  the  same  style. 

Amongst  the  celebrated  names  connected  with 
E.  are  Abbott  Thurstan,  who  defended  the  isle 
against  William  the  Conqueror  for  seven  years ; 
Longchamp,  chancellor  and  regent  under  Richard 
I.;  Chancellor  Morton,  Simon  Patrick,  and  Bishop 
Andrews.  The  bishops  of  E.,  like  the  bishops  of 
Durham,  formerly  enjoyed  a  palatine  jurisdiction, 
Rnd  appointed  their  own  chief  justice,  etc. ;  but  this 
privilege  was  taker  from  them  by  the  6th  and  7th 
yVid.  IV.  The  bishop  of  E.  is  visitor  to  St.  Peter's, 
bt.  John's,  uud  Jesus  Colleges,  Cambridge,  of  which 


last  he  also  appoints  the  master.  There  is  a  gi-amm»r» 

school  attached  to  the  Cathedral,  founded  by 
Henry  VIII.  There  are  some  interesting  remains  of 
the  old  conventual  buildings  in  the  neighbourhooti 
of  the  Cathedral. 

ELY,  Isle  of,  the  south  part  of  the  Bedford 
Level,  or  the  part  of  Cambridgeshire  north  of  tho 
Ouse.  It  includes  above  a  half  of  this  county,  is  24 
miles  long  from  north  to  south,  with  an  average 
breadth  of  14  miles,  and  contains  four  himdreds.  It 
consists  of  a  monotonous,  marshy,  or  fenny  plaiii, 
formerly  covered  with  water,  and  ajoimding  in 
aquatic  buxls  and  plants.  It  chiefly  connists  of  black 
earth  and  turf,  and,  where  well  drained  by  innu^ 
merable  artificial  canals  and  ditches,  it  producee 
fine  crops  of  hemp,  flax,  wheat,  oats,  and  cole  seed. 
Over  it  are  interspersed  small  eminences,  generally 
crowned  with  villages  and  towns,  as  Ely  City, 
March,  Thorney,  Willesea,  and  Wisbeach.  Pop. 
about  60,000. 

E'LYMUS.    See  Lyme  Grass. 

ELY'SIUM  (Gr.  elusion),  a  place  in  the  infernal 
regions  of  the  ancient  classical  mythology,  where 
the  souls  of  the  good  dwell  after  death.  In  the 
Odyssey,  Homer  describes  it  as  a  place  v^here  the 
souls  of  the  departed  lived  in  ease  and  abundance 
among  innocent  pleasures,  and  enjoying  a  mild  pnd 
wholesome  air.  In  the  Iliad,  however,  he  gives  a 
sombre  view  of  the  state  of  the  departed  souls. 
Achilles,  though  in  Elysium,  is  made  to  envy  the 
life  of  the  meanest  hind  on  earth.  By  succeeding 
poets,  the  bliss  of  Elysium  is  drawn  in  much  more 
lively  colours.  Besides  the  amenity  and  various 
delights  of  the  place,  diverse  employments  are  found 
for  the  inhabitants,  according  to  the  ruling  passion 
of  each  while  on  earth.  Elysium  was  supposed  by 
some  writers  to  be  in  mid- air,  by  others  in  the 
sun,  by  others  in  the  centre  of  the  earth,  next 
Tartarus,  by  others,  in  the  Islands  of  the  Blest. 

ELZEVIER,  or  ELZEVIR,  the  name  of  a 
celebrated  family  of  printers  at  Amsterdam, 
Leyden,  and  other  places  in  Holland,  whose 
beautiful  editions  were  chiefly  published  between 
the  years  1583  and  1680.  Louis,  the  first  of  them, 
is  said  to  have  been  bom  at  Lou  vain  about  the 
year  1540.  He  was  induced  by  religious  disturb- 
ances to  leave  his  native  city,  and  in  1580,  he 
settled  as  a  bookbinder  and  bookseller  in  Leyden, 
where  he  died  about  1617-  The  first  work  edited 
by  him  bears  the  title  Drusii  Ehraicorum  Quces- 
iionum  ac  Besponsionum  Lihrl  Duo,  videlicet  Secundua 
ac  Tertius,  in  Academia  Lugdunensi  MDLXXXIII. 
Veneunt  Lugduni  Batavorurti.  apud  Elseuirium  e 
Eegione  Sc/iolce  Novoe.  The  second,  a  Eutropius  by 
P.  Merida,  bears  the  date  1592,  and  was  long 
erroneously  believed  to  be  the  first  that  issued  from 
E.'s  press.  Five  out  of  Louis's  seven  sons  continued 
to  carry  on  their  father's  business.  Their  names 
were  Matthew,  Louis,  Aegidius,  Jodocus  (Joost), 
and  Bona  Ventura.  The  last,  in  conjimction  with  hii 
nephew  Abraham  E.  (a  son  of  Matthew),  prepared 
the  smaller  editions  of  the  classics,  in  12mo  and 
16mo,  which  are  still  valued  for  their  beauty  and 
correctness.  It  is  mamly  on  these  that  their  reputa- 
tion is  based.  The  house  of  E.,  in  Amsterdam,  A^aa 
established  by  Louis,  the  son  of  Jodocus  E.,  In  1633. 
Peter  E,  grandson  of  the  last  mentioned,  carried  on 
the  bookselling  business  in  Utrecht,  and  died  in  1696. 
For  more  than  a  century,  however,  this  family  has 
ceased  to  have  any  connection  with  book-printing. 
It  is  represented  at  present  by  Rammelmann 
Elzevier,  whose  father  was  governor  of  the  isle  of 
Curagao,  and  died  in  1841.  The  Elze\der  editions  of 
Virgil,  Terence,  and  other  Roman  classical  authors^ 
as  well  as  of  the  New  Testament,  the  Psalter,  &o» 

2j 


EMACIATION- 


r— EMBALMING. 


are  unrivalled  both  for  beauty  and  correctness. 
It  is  said  that  the  Elzeviers  generally  employed 
women  to  correct  the  press,  under  the  conviction 
that  they  would  be  less  likely  than  men,  on  their 
own  responsibility,  to  introduce  alterations  into  the 
text.  Compare  Adry,  Notice  sur  Ics  Lnprimeurs  de 
la  Famille  des  Elzeviers  (Paris,  1806),  and  Fieter'a 
Annates  de  VImprimeric  Elsevirienne  (Ghent,  1851 — 
1852). 

EMACIA'TION  (Lat.  macies),  leanness.  See 
Consumption;  Tabes  Dorsalts. 

EM  ANA'TION  means,  in  general,  efflux  or  issue. 
In  theology  and  philosophy,  it  indicates  an  ancient 
doctrine,  which  considered  all  things  as  emanating 
or  flowing  from  a  Supreme  Principle.  According 
to  this  doctrine,  the  origin  of  things  is  only  an  over- 
flowing of  the  divine  fulness — an  outstreaming  of 
the  light  from  the  necessity  of  its  nature,  and  not 
any  free  action  on  the  i)art  of  God.  What  is 
thus  given  oft'  as  a  copy  from  original  perfection, 
dei)art3  more  and  more  from  its  source,  and  gra- 
dually degenerates,  which  was  thought  to  account 
for  the  origin  of  evil.  This  doctrine  came  from  the 
East,  and  pervades  the  Indian  mythology,  the  sys- 
tem of  Zoroaster,  and  the  Neo-Platonic  philosophy 
of  Alexandria.  In  Christian  theology,  the  idea  of 
emanation  has  been  applied  to  explain  the  relation 
among  the  persons  of  the  Trinity. 

EMANCH^.    See  Manch. 
EMANCIPA  TION.    See  Slavery. 

EMANCIPATION,  in  the  Roman  law,  was  the 
act  by  which  the  Patria  Potestas  (q.  v.),  or  paternal 
authority,  was  dissolved  in  the  lifetime  of  the  father. 
It  took  place  in  the  form  of  a  sale  (mancipatio)  by 
the  father  of  the  son  to  a  third  party,  who  manu- 
mitted him.  The  Twelve  Tables  required  that  this 
ceremony  should  be  gone  through  three  times,  and 
it  was  only  after  the  third  sale  that  the  son  became 
8ui  juris  under  his  own  law.  In  general,  the  son 
was  at  last  resold  to  the  father,  who  manumitted 
him,  and  thus  acquired  the  rights  of  a  Patron  (q.  v.), 
which  would  otherwise  have  belonged  to  the  alien 
purchaser  who  finally  manumitted  him.  In  the  case 
of  daughters  and  grandchildren,  one  sale  was  suffi- 
cient. If  the  child  died  intestate,  or  if  he  required 
a  tutor  or  curator,  the  father's  rights  as  patron 
came  into  play ;  but  if  the  father  died  intestate, 
the  son  tcok  nothing,  because  he  was  out  of  his 
family.  But  this  rigour  of  the  old  law  was  modified 
by  the  praetor's  edict,  which  placed  all  the  children 
on  the  same  footing.  In  the  law  of  Scotland,  eman- 
cipation is  called  Foresfamiliation  (q.  v.).  The  only 
case  in  which  the  term  is  employed  in  England  is 
with  reference  to  poor-law  settlements.  See  Settle- 
ment, Poor  and  Poor  Laws. 

EMANCIPATION,  Catholic.  See  Roman 
Catholic  Emancipation. 

EMA'NUEL  I.,  king  of  Portugal,  styled  the 
Gkeat,  and  sometimes,  likewise,  the  Fortunate, 
was  Iwrn  on  the  3d  May  1469,  and  succeeded  J ohn 
II.  in  1495.  Before  his  accession  to  the  throne,  he 
bote  the  title  of  Duke  of  Beja.  On  his  accession,  he 
prepared  the  code  of  laws  which  bears  his  name, 
•nd  rendered  himself  remarkable  by  his  zeal  and 
exertions  in  the  cause  of  education,  by  his  active 
piety,  and  by  his  predilection  for  the  society  of 
artists  and  scholars.  Through  his  exertions,  Por- 
tugal became  the  first  naval  power  of  Europe,  and 
the  centre  of  the  commerce  of  the  world.  He 
despatched  Vasco  de  Gama  to  sail  round  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  and  discover  the  passage  to  India. 
Cabral  was  commissioned  by  him  to  prosecute  the 
discoveries  of  Vasco  de  Gama  still  further,  and 
Corte  Real  to  sail  along  the  coasts  of  North 


America.  The  expeditions  under  Albuquerqre  put 
E.  in  possession  of  the  south  coast  of  Africa  and  of 
the  Indian  Archipelago.  Not  satisfied  with  this, 
he  opened  a  communication  with  Persia,  Ethiopia, 
and,  in  1517,  with  China.  At  his  death,  13th 
December  1521,  Portugal  was  in  possession  of  a 
large  fieet,  strong  fortresses,  well-furnished  arsenals, 
a  warlike  army,  a  flourishing  trade  and  commerce, 
and  extensive  colonies.  His  reign  has  been  termed 
the  golden  age  of  Portugal.  E.  was  thrice  married  : 
first  to  Isabella,  the  daughter  of  Ferdinand ;  after- 
wards to  Mary  of  Castile,  her  sister  (by  whom  he 
had  two  children,  John  and  Isabella,  the  fonner  of 
whom  succeeded  him  on  the  throne) ;  and  thirdly, 
to  Eleanore  of  Austria,  sister  of  Charles  V. 

EMA'RGINATE.    See  Leaves. 

E'MBA,  a  river  of  Turkistan,  in  the  Kirghiz 
territory,  rises  at  the  western  base  of  the  Muehajar 
or  Mongojar  Mountains,  and  flowing  in  a  south-west 
direction,  enters  the  Casjnan  Sea  after  a  course  ol 
about  300  miles. 

EMBA'LMING,  the  art  of  pr'^serving  the  body 
after  death,  invented  by  the  Egyptians,  whose  pre- 
pared bodies  are  known  by  tlie  n^me  of  mummies, 
and  are  called  in  the  hieroglyphs  sa/m,  and  by  St 
Augustine  gabbaroe.  This  art  seems  to  have  derived 
its  origin  from  the  idea,  that  the  preservation  of  tho 
body  was  necessary  for  the  return  of  the  soul  to 
the  human  form  after  it  had  completed  its  cycle  of 
existence  of  three  or  ten  thousand  years.  Physical 
and  sanitary  reasons  may  also  h^ve  induced  the 
ancient  Egyptians  ;  and  the  legend  of  Osiris,  whose 
body,  destroyed  by  Typhon,  was  found  by  Isis. 
and  embalmed  by  his  son  Anubis,  gave  a  religious 
sanction  to  the  rite,  all  deceased  persons  being 
supposed  to  be  embalmed  after  the  model  of  Osiris 
in  the  ahuton  of  Phila3.  The  art  appears  as  old  as 
2000  B.  c,  at  least  the  bodies  of  Cheops,  Myceriuus, 
and  others  of  the  age  of  the  4th  dynasty  having 
been  embalmed.     One  of  the  earuest  record*»d 


Egyptian  Miunmy. 


embalmments  on  record  is  that  of  the  patriarch 
Jacob ;  and  the  body  of  J oseph  was  thujs  prepai-ed, 
and  transported  out  of  Egypt.  The  process  has 
been  described  by  Herodotus  and  Diodons ;  but 
their  accounts  can  only  refer  to  their  own  age,  and 
are  only  partially  confirmed  by  an  examination  of 
the  mummies.  The  following  seems  to  have  been 
the  usual  rule  observed  after  death.  The  i-elations  of 
the  deceased  went  through  the  city  chanting  a  wail 
for  the  dead.  The  coi-pse  of  a  male  was  ai  once 
committed  into  the  charge  of  the  undertakers  ;  if  a 
female,  it  was  retained  at  home  till  decomposition 
had  begun.  The  paraschistes,  or  flank-inciser  of  the 
district,  a  person  of  low  class,  whose  establishment 
was  situated  in  the  cemeteries  or  suburbs,  conveyed 
the  corpse  home.  A  scribe  marked  with  a  reed  pen 
a  line  on  the  left  side  beneath  the  ribs,  down  which 
line  the  paraschistes  made  a  deep  incision  with  a 
rude  knife  or  Ethiopian  stone,  probably  flint.  He 
was  then  pelted  by  those  around  with  stones,  and 
pursued  with  curses.  Another  kind  of  embalmer, 
the  toricheutes,  or  preparer,  then  proceeded  to  remove 
the  entrails  and  lungs,  with  the  exception  of  the 
heart  and  kidneys.  The  brain  was  extracted  by 
another  taricheutes,  by  a  crooked  instrurpcnt, 
through  the  nose.  All  this  having  been  eC'v.ted, 
the  body  was    ready  for  the    salts    and  «pic«t<* 


EMBALMING—] 


EMBANKMENT. 


necessary  for  its  preservation,  and  the  future  opera- 
tions depended  upon  the  sum  to  be  expended  on 
the  task.  When  Herodotus  visited  Egypt,  three 
metiiods  prevailed :  the  first,  accessil^le  only  to 
the  wealthy,  consisted  in  passing  peculiar  drugs 
through  the  nostrils  into  the  cavities  of  the  skull, 
rinsing  the  belly  in  palm-wine,  and  filling  it  with 
resins,  cassia,  and  other  substances,  and  stitching 
up  the  incision  in  the  left  flank.  The  mummy 
was  then  steeped  in  natron  for  seventy  days,  and 
wrapped  up  in  linen,  cemented  by  gums,  and  set 
upright  in  a  wooden  coffin  against  the  walls  of  the 
house  or  tomb.  This  process  cost  a  silver  talent, 
which,  considering  the  relative  value  of  ancient 
money  at  one-third  of  that  at  present,  woiild  amount 
to  about  £725.  The  second  process  consisted  in 
removing  the  brain,  as  before,  but  only  injecting 
the  viscera  with  kedrion,  or  cedar  oil,  and  soaking 
the  cor2)se  in  a  solution  of  natron  for  seventy  days, 
which  brought  away  or  destroyed  the  viscera  and 
soft  portions,  leaving  only  the  skin  and  bones. 
The  expense  was  a  mina,  relatively  worth  about 
£243.  The  third  procees,  in  use  for  the  poorer 
classes,  washed  the  corpse  in  myrrh,  and  salted  it 
ror  seventy  days.  The  expense  was  a  trifle,  not 
mentioned.  When  thus  prepared,  the  bodies  were 
ready  for  sepulture,  but  were  often  kept  some  time 
before  being  buried — often  at  home — and  even 
produced  at  festive  entertainments,  to  recall  to  the 
guests  the  transient  lot  of  humanitj'.  When  buried, 
they  were  sent  to  the  cliolchytoi,  a  higher  class  than 
the  taricheutce,  who  had  charge  of  the  tombs,  the 
mummies,  and  the  masses  for  the  dead.  All  classes 
were  embalmed,  even  malefactors  ;  and  those  who 
were  drowned  in  the  Nile  or  killed  by  crocodiles 
received  an  embalmment  from  the  city  nearest  to 
which  the  accident  occurred.  As  the  art,  however, 
existed  for  many  centuries,  it  may  be  easily  con- 
ceived that  mummies  were  preserved  by  verj'-  dif- 
ferent means,  and  quite  distinct  from  those  described 
by  classical  authors,  some  having  been  found  merely 
dried  in  the  sand  ;  others  salted  by  natron,  or  boiled 
in  resins  and  bitumen,  with  or  without  the  flank 
incision,  having  the  brains  removed  through  the 
eyes  or  base  of  the  cranium,  with  the  viscera  returned 
into  the  body,  placed  upon  it,  or  deposited  in  jars 
in  shapes  of  the  genii  of  the  dead,  the  skin  partially 
gilded,  the  flank  incision  covered  with  a  tin  plate, 
the  fingers  cased  in  silver,  the  eyes  removed,  and 
replaced.  The  mummies  are  generally  wrapped  in 
linen  bandages,  and  placed  in  costly  coffins.  See 
Sarcophagus.  The  sacred  animals  were  also 
mummied,  but  by  simpler  processes  than  men. 
Mummies,  it  may  be  observed  in  passing,  were  used 
in  the  15th  and  16th  centuries  of  the  Christian  era 
for  drugs  and  other  medical  purposes,  and  nostrums 
against  diseases,  and  a  peculiar  brown  colour,  used 
as  the  background  of  pictures,  was  obtained  from 
the  bitumen.  The  Ethiopians  used  similar  means 
to  preserve  the  dead,  and  the  successful  nature 
of  embalming  may  be  judged  from  the  numerous 
mui  amies  in  the  different  museums  of  Europe. 
Other  less  successful  means  were  used  by  nations 
of  antiquity  to  embalm.  The  Persians  employed 
wtx  ;  the  Assyrians,  honey ;  the  Jews  embalmed 
their  monarchs  with  spices,  with  which  the  body 
of  our  Lord  was  also  anointed  ;  Alexander  the 
Great  was  preserved  in  wax  and  honey,  and  some 
Roman  bodies  have  been  found  thus  embalmed. 
The  Guanches,  or  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  Canary 
Isles,  used  an  elaborate  process  like  the  Egyjitian ; 
and  desiccated  bodies,  preserved  by  atmospheric  or 
other  circumstances  for  centuries,  have  been  found 
vn  France,  Sicily,  England,  and  America,  especially  in 
Central  America  and  Peru.  The  art  of  embalming 
was  proljably  ne^  er  lost  in  Eurojje ;  and  De  Bils, 


Ruysch,  Swammerdam,  and  Clauderus  boast  of 
great  success  in  the  art.  There  waa  a  celebrated 
cabinet  of  M.  De  Rasiere  in  1727,  containing  pre- 
pared bodies ;  and  the  mode  of  eniljaliiiin<^  princes 
and  others,  by  prepared  balms  and  other  substances, 
is  detailed  by  Penicher,  consisting  in  the  removal 
and  separate  embalmment  of  the  heart  and  viscera, 
and  removing  the  brain,  and  introducing  the  prepara- 
tions by  incisions  all  over  the  body.  Dr.  Hunter 
injected  essential  oils  through  the  j^rincipal  arteries 
into  the  body.  Boudet,  during  the  Erench  Empire, 
embalmed  the  bodies  of  the  Senators  with  camphor, 
balsam  of  Peru,  Jews'  pitch,  tan  and  salt ;  but  the 
discovery  of  Chaussier  of  the  preservative  power 
of  corrosive  sublimate,  by  which  animal  matter 
becomes  rigid,  hard,  and  grayish,  introduced  a 
new  means  of  embalming  by  Beclard  and  Larrey  ; 
but  owing  to  the  desiccation,  the  features  do  not 
retain  their  shape.  The  discovery  of  the  pre- 
servative power  of  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of 
acetate  and  chloride  of  alimiina,  or  of  sulphate  of 
alumina,  by  Gannal  in  1834,  and  of  that  of  arsenic 
by  Tranchini,  and  of  pyroxilic  spirits  by  Babington 
and  Rees  in  1839,  and  of  the  antiseptic  nature  of 
chloride  of  zinc,  have  led  to  the  application  of 
these  salts  to  the  embalming  or  preparation  of 
bodies  required  to  be  preserved  for  a  limited  time ; 
but  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  bodies  so 
preserved  will  last  as  long  as  Egyptian  mummies. 
See  Pettigrew,  History  of  Mummies  (4to,  Lond. 
1834) ;  Gannal,  Traite  cV Emhaumement  (8vo,  Paris, 
1838),  translated  by  Harlan  (8vo,  Philadelph. 
1840) ;  Magnus,  Das  Einhalshniren  der  Leichen 
(8vo,  Braunsch.  1839). 

EMBA  NKMENT,  EA'RTHWORK.  Emback- 
ments,  in  Engineering,  are  masses  of  earth,  rock,  or 
other  materials  artificially  formed,  and  rising  above 
the  natural  surface  of  the  ground.  They  are  chiefly 
formed  either  (1)  to  carry  railways,  common  roads, 
canals,  &c.,  over  depressions  of  the  country ;  or  (2' 
for  hydraulic  purposes,  such  as  the  formation  of 
reservoirs  for  storing  water ;  or  as  defences  against 
the  overflowing  of  rivers,  the  encroachments  of  the 
sea,  of  lakes,  &c. 

In  the  formation  of  canals,  railways,  and  othei 
roads,  embankment  and  excavation  go  hand  in  hand, 
and,  under  the  name  of  Earthwork,  form — espe- 
cially in  modern  times,  and  since  the  development  of 
the  railway  system — a  vast  branch  of  industry, 
giving  employment  to  many  thousands  of  labourers, 
known  in  England  as  '  navvies.'  The  earthworks 
executed  within  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  in 
Great  Britain  alone  have  cost  many  millions  of 
pounds. 

In  planning  works  of  the  kind  alluded  to,  engineers 
follow,  as  much  as  possible,  the  j)rinciple  of  making 
the  cuttings  or  excavations  and  the  embankments 
balance ;  i.  e.,  of  making  the  earth,  &c.,  taken  from 
the  cuttings  be  sufficient  for  the  formation  of  the 
embankments.  See  Railways  (Engineering).  In 
proceeding  to  the  actual  construction  of  a  railway 
embankment,  e.  g.,  a  beginning  is  made  at  the  points 
where  the  level  of  the  formation  meets  the  surface 
of  the  ground ;  and  on  each  side  of  these  points  the 
cutting  is  taken  out,  and  the  embankment  formed 
by  men  using  pick,  shovel,  and  barrow,  so  that  a 
roadway  is  formed  for  a  distance  of  from  50  to  100 
yards.  When  the  '  lead,'  or  the  distance  between  tho 
face  of  the  cutting  and  the  '  tip-head,'  or  end  of  the 
embankment,  is  g.^^ater  than  this,  it  is  no  longer 
economical  to  use  the  barrow.  To  contir  ae  the 
cutting  and  embankment,  several  methods  may  bo 
employed ;  the  most  common  are,  dobbin  carts  j 
small  wagons  run  upon  light  rails  at  a  narrow  gauge, 
and  drawn  by  men  or  horses ;  ordinary  earth-wagons 
drawn  by  horses,  and  occasionally  by  a  locomotive; 

r, 


EMBARGO— EMBATTLEMENT. 


and  lastly,  ballast-wagons  or  trucks  drawn  by 
a  locomotive.  The  cost  of  earthwork  naturally 
varies  greatly  with  the  nature  of  the  strata  in 
which  the  cutting  has  to  be  made,  the  length  of  the 
'  lead,'  and  other  circumstances.  When  rocks  have 
to  be  cut  through.  Blasting  (q.  v.)  is  had  recourse  to. 
One  of  the  points  on  which  considerable  doubt 
existed,  was  as  to  the  inclination  of  the  side-slopes 
of  embankments  ;  but  it  has  been  found  that  nearly 
all  kinds  of  earthwork  will  stand  at  an  inclination 
of  1^  horizontal  to  I  vertical.  "When,  however,  it  is 
necessary  to  use  very  wet  substances,  such  as  peat- 
moss or  wet  clays,  or  when  the  embankment  is  of 
great  height,  a  flatter  slope  may  be  necessary.  In 
many  cases,  it  is  advisable  to  substitute  a  Viaduct 
(q.  V.)  for  an  embankment.  All  embankments  put 
in  as  above  mentioned  subside  more  or  less,  the 
eubsidcnce  being  much  more  distinctly  perceptible 
in  clay  than  in  gravel.  Wheii  clay  is  thi'own  by  the 
wagon  over  a  considerable  tip,  the  lower  half  of  the 
embankment  will  be  seen  to  consist  of  round  bullets 
of  clay  of  sufficient  hardness  to  resist  being  squeezed 
into  one  mass  by  the  weight  of  tlie  embankment, 
until,  in  the  coiu-se  of  time,  from  the  effects  of  mois- 
ture, they  become  gradually  disintegrated,  and  a 
eettlement  or  sinking  of  the  embankment  takes  place, 
sometimes  to  the  extent  of  a  twek'th,  or  even  a  tentli 
of  the  height.  The  greatest  sinking  usually  occurs 
during  the  first  wet  weather  after  the  formation  of 
the  end)ankment ;  but  it  sometimes  goes  on,  though 
more  and  more  slowly,  for  years.  In  the  case  of 
railway  cmljankments,  this  subsidence  is  seldom  of 
very  material  importance.  If  the  permanent  rails 
are  laid,  the  labour  and  expense  of  restoring  them  to 
the  level  is  not  great,  and  the  embankment  should 
always  be  formed  sufficiently  wide  at  the  top  to 
alluw  of  filling  it  uj)  to  its  proper  level  without 
adding  to  the  slopes.  It  is,  however,  practicable, 
though  rather  hazardous,  to  widen  it  at  the  top 
afterwards  by  cutting  trenches  in  the  slopes. 

When  the  side-slope  of  the  ground  on  which  an 
embankment  is  to  be  formed  is  very  steep,  the  whole 
work  has  a  tendency  to  slip  laterally ;  and  to  prevent 
this,  trenches  or  steps  are  cut  in  the  ground  before 
putting  in  the  embankment.  When  the  material  is 
very  wet,  it  sometimes  is  impossible  to  prevent  the 
slopes  from  bulging  out,  in  which  case  it  is  gener- 
ally sufficient  to  \M\t  in  additional  stuff  until  the 
work  stands.  Peat-moss  is  seldom  used  to  form  an 
embankment,  but  frequently  an  embankment  has  to 
be  formed  where  the  giwnd  below  is  moss  to  a  con- 
siderable extent.  In  this  case,  many  plans  have  been 
adopted  to  form  a  substantial  unyielding  work,  which, 
where  the  moss  is  deep,  and  contains  much  water, 
is  often  very  troublesome  and  expensive.  Among 
these,  perhaps,  in  most  cases,  the  best  is  to  continue 
throwing  in  earth  until  no  fuiiher  subsidence  takes 
place,  in  some  cases,  piling  has  been  adopted,  and 
m  others,  a  layer  of  tree-tops  and  brushwood  has 
been  placed  on  the  moss  under  the  embankment. 
When  this  is  done,  it  frequently  happens  that  the 
ground  on  each  side  of  the  embankment  opens  in 

fTcat  rents,  rises  to  a  considerable  height,  and  moves 
iterally  from  the  embankment.  A  good  example  of 
this  may  be  seen  on  the  Scottish  Central  Railway, 
a  short  distance  to  the  south  of  the  Bridge  of  Allan 
station. 

Embankments,  when  finished,  have  their  side- 
slopes  usually  covered  with  soil  and  sown  with  grass- 
geed ;  this  not  only  improves  their  appearance,  but 
adds  considerably  to  their  stability,  preventing 
rain  and  wind  from  doing  the  damage  that  might 
otherwise  take  place. 

In  regard  to  embankments  to  restrain  or  prevent 
the  encroachment  of  water,  it  is  necessary,  in  addi- 
tion to  foimirg  them  of  sufficient  height  and 
28 


j  strength,  to  cover  the  surface  of  the  slopes  in  such  ?, 
I  way  that  the  action  of  the  water  will  not  affect  it. 
Of  course  the  method  adopted  must  depend  entirely 
on  the  nature  of  the  case ;  where,  for  example,  the 
water  only  occasionally  touches  the  embanlcment, 
as  in  the  case  of  river-floods,  and  does  not  run  with 
great  violence  along  it,  good  turf  pinned  to  the  slopes 
has  been  found  eflFectual.  Where,  however,  the  slopes 
are  subject  to  the  action  of  waves  or  rapid  water, 
more  effectual  and  expensive  measures  nuist  be 
adopted,  such  as  stone-pitching,  piling,  &c.  KmbaLk* 
ments  of  this  nature  are  used  on  a  great  Senile  in 
Holland.    See  Dyke. 

Embankments  for  damming  up  water  so  to 
form  ponds  or  reservoirs,  require,  in  addition  to 
the  other  conditions,  to  be  perfectly  water-tigbt ; 
and  for  this  purpose  a  '  puddle-wall '  of  clay  is 
carried  from  top  to  bottom  in  the  heart  of  the 
structure.  The  great  difficulty  lies  in  preventing 
the  water  from  llnding  its  way  between  the  bottom 
of  the  puddle-wall  and  the  foundation  on  which 
it  rests,  or  even  through  the  substances  of  which 
that  foundation  consists ;  and  the  wall  must  often 
be  carried  to  a  great  de])th  below  the  sm-face  of 
the  ground  luitil  an  impermeable  stratum  be  found. 
A  knowledge  of  the  geology  of  the  place  is  here 
essential  to  the  engineer. 

EMBA'RGO  (from  the  Spanish  emhargur,  to 
in-bar,  to  arrest),  is  a  temporary  order  from  the 
Admiralty  to  prevent  the  arrival  or  departui-e  of 
ships.  It  may  apply  to  vessels  and  goods,  or  to 
specified  goods  only  ;  it  may  be  general  or  special ; 
it  may  apply  to  the  entering  only,  to  the  departure 
only,  or  to  both  entering  and  dei)arture  of  ships  from 
particular  ports  ;  and  lastly,  although  issued  by  the 
Admiralt}'-  in  this  country,  it  would  be  equally  an 
embargo  if  issued  by  any  other  comi)etent  authority. 
Such  embargoes  are  generally  connected  in  some 
way  or  other  with  a  state  of  war  between  two 
countries. 

E'MBASSY.  In  a  popular  sense,  all  diidomatic 
missions  are  spoken  of  as  embassies  ;  but  such 
is  not  the  technical  meaning  of  the  term.  In  its 
more  limited  acceptation,  embassy  is  a  mission  pre- 
sided over  by  an  ambassador,  as  distinguished  from 
a  mission  or  legation  intrusted  to  an  envoy,  or 
other  inferior  diplomatic  minister.  In  this  stricter 
sense,  Great  Britain  has  now  only  four  embassies — 
those  at  Paris,  Vienna,  St  Petersburg,  and  Constan- 
tinople. The  only  difference  between  the  powers 
and  privileges  of  the  ambassador  and  the  envoy 
is,  that  the  former  repi'esents  the  person  of  hia 
sovereign,  and  in  this  capacity  he  can  demand  a 
private  audience  of  the  sovereign  to  whom  he  ia 
accredited ;  whilst  the  latter  must  address  him- 
self to  the  minister  for  foreign  afliiirs.  A  residence 
is  pro\dded  for  the  ambassador,  and  an  allowance 
for  house-rent  is  made  to  inferior  ministers,  in 
addition  to  their  salaries.  See  Ambassa.dor,  Envot, 
Consul. 

EMBATE'RION,  a  war-song  of  the  bpartana, 
accompanied  by  flutes,  which  they  sung  march- 
ing in  time,  and  rushing  on  the  enemy.  The 
origin  of  the  embaterion  is  lost  in 
antiquity. 

EMBATTLED,  or  IMBATTLED, 
called  also  Crenelle,  one  of  the  par- 
tition lines  in  heraldry,  traced  in 
the  form  of  the  battlements  of  a 
castle  or  tower.  A  bordure  embattled 
is  often  given  as  a  difference  to  anj^ 
member  of  a  family  who  is,  or  has 
been,  a  soldier. 

EMBA'TTLEMENT.   See  Battlement. 


Embattled. 


MBER  DAYS— EMBLEMENTS. 


E  MBER  or  EMBERING  DAYS.  According 
to  the  Booh  of  Common  Prayer  of  the  Church  of 
England,  three  days  are  appointed  four  times  in 
the  year  to  be  observed  as  days  of  fasting  and 
abstinence ;  these  days  are  the  Wednesday,  Friday, 
and  Saturday  after  the  first  Sunday  in  Lent,  after 
the  feast  of  Pentecost,  after  the  14th  September, 
and  after  the  13th  December.  The  term  'embering' 
has  been  variously  derived  from  the  Greek  >j^£/5«;, 
and  from  the  embers  or  ashes  which  in  the  earliest 
times  were  strewed  over  the  head  at  times  of 
fastmg,  in  token  of  humility  and  self-condemna- 
tion. But  the  more  correct  derivation  would 
appear  to  be  from  the  Saxon  Ymhrine  dagas,  from 
the  Saxon  ymb,  about,  and  rytie,  a  course  or  run- 
ning, the  term  applied  to  these  fasts  because  they 
came  round  at  certain  set  seasons  in  the  year. — 
Somner,  Dictionarium  Saxonici.  This  phrase  is 
used  in  the  laws  of  Alfred  the  Great,  and  also  of 
Canute,  and  con-esponds  with  the  term  used  by 
the  canonists,  jejiinia  quatuor  temporum,  the  fasts 
of  the  four  seasons.  Mr  Somner  says  that  the 
embering  days  were  'times  of  old  chosen  and  set 
apart  for  fasting  and  prayer  for  obteyning  the  fruits 
of  the  earth,  and  to  give  thanks  for  the  same, 
whereas  at  those  times  they  are  either  sowen, 
sprung  up,  coming  in  their  ripenesse,  or  gathered 
into  the  barne,  as  also  to  obtaine  the  grace  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  when  holy  orders  are  gi^^en  and 
ministers  made.'  It  is  to  this  latter  purpose  that 
the  Church  of  England  in  the  present  day  particu- 
larly devotes  the  ember  days,  and  a  special  prayer  is 
appointed  for  use  at  those  seasons. 

EMBERI'ZAand  EMBERIZID^.  See  Bunting. 

EMBE'ZZLEMENT,  the  felonious  appropnation 
by  clerks,  servants,  or  others  in  a  position  of  trust, 
of  goods,  money,  or  other  chattels  intrusted  to  their 
care,  or  received  in  the  course  of  their  duty,  on 
account  of  their  employers.  It  is  essential  to  the 
crime  of  embezzlement  that  the  article  taken  should 
not  have  been  in  the  actual  or  constructive  posses- 
sion of  the  employer ;  for  if  it  were,  the  offence 
would  amount  to  Larceny  (q.  v.).  Embezzlement 
is  not  an  offence  at  common  law;  hence,  persons 
guilty  of  this  crime  were  formerly  suffered  to  escape 
pimishment.  In  consequence  of  a  flagrant  instance 
of  this  immunity  (Bazeley's  Case,  ii.  Leacli,  835), 
the  Act  39  Geo.  III.  c.  85,  was  passed,  whereby 
embezzlement  was  made  a  felony.  This  act  has 
been  repealed,  but  the  law  has  since  been  fixed 
by  subsequent  enactments.  The  leading  statute 
on  this  subject  is  7  and  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  29. 

Einhezzlement  by  clerks  or  servants  is  punishable 
by  transportation  or  imprisonment.  See  Punish- 
ment. If  the  offender  be  a  male,  he  is  liable  to 
be  once,  twnce,  or  thrice  publicly  or  privately 
whipped,  at  the  discretion  of  the  judge.  Questions 
of  much  nicety  often  arose  as  to  whether  the  facts 
proved  constituted  the  crime  of  embezzlement  or 
that  of  larceny ;  but  this  distinction  has  ceased 
to  be  of  any  importance  since  the  passing  of  the 
Criminal  Justice  Act  (14  and  15  Vict.  c.  100), 
whereby  it  is  made  competent,  on  an  indictment 
for  embezzlement,  to  convict  a  man  of  larceny, 
and  vice  versd.  But  it  has  been  decided  in  a  recent 
case,  R.  v.  Gorbutt,  26  Law  Journ.,  M.  C.  47,  that 
on  an  indictment  for  larceny,  it  is  not  competent 
to  convict  of  larceny  where  the  facts  amoimt  only 
to  embezzlement. 

Embezzlement  by  bankers,  brokers,  factors,  and  otlier 
ttfjents,  is  regulated  by  the  above  statute,  sect.  49, 
and  also  by  the  Fraudulent  Trustees  Act  (20  and 
21  Vict.  c.  54).  These  most  important  statutes 
have  rendered  almost  every  conceivable  species  of 
U-audulent  misappropriation  by  bankers  and  others 


a  punishable  offence.  In  particular,  by  the  lattei 
statute,  embezzlement  by  a  Bailee  (see  Bailmeat^ 
is  now  indictable.  Under  this  provision,  a  shop- 
keaper  a}>propriating  goods  intrusted  for  repair,  may 
be  tried  and  convicted. 

Umbezzlemoit  by  bankrupts  of  any  part  of  theii 
estate,  or  of  any  books,  &c.,  relating  to  the  same, 
with  intent  to  defraud  their  creditors,  is,  by  12  and 
13  Vict.  c.  lOG,  made  punishable  by  transportation 
for  life.    See  Bankrupt. 

Embezzlement  of  letters  and  newspapers  by  servants 
of  the  Post-office,  is  also  made  highly  penal  by 
7  Will.  IV.  and  1  Vict.  c.  36.  The  embezzlement  ol 
newspapers  is  punishable  by  fine  or  imprisonment ; 
but  to  embezzle  a  letter,  subjects  the  offender  in  all 
cases  to  transportation  for  seven  years  ;  and  if  the 
letter  contain  money  or  valuables,  to  transportation 
for  life. 

Embezzlement  of  the  Queen^s  stores  is  punishable  by 
transportation  for  life  (4  Geo.  IV.  c.  53).  In  regard 
to  this  species  of  embezzlement,  summary  authorit;y 
is  granted  to  comptrollers  and  other  officers  named, 
on  proof  of  embezzlement  of  government  stores 
below  the  value  of  twenty  shillings,  to  fine  the 
offenders  to  the  amount  of  double  the  value  of  the 
article  taken. 

In  Scotland,  the  crime  of  embezzlement,  or  breach 
of  trust,  is  punishable  at  common  law.  The  dis- ' 
tinction  between  this  crime  and  that  of  theft  ia 
substantially  the  same  as  between  embezzlement 
and  larceny  in  England.  In  both'  coimtries,  the 
criterion  relied  upon  to  distinguish  these  crimes 
is  the  question  of  possession  by  the  owner;  but 
in  Scotland  the  tendency  of  the  decisions  of  late 
years  has  been  to  regard  the  appropriation  of 
articles  intrusted  for  a  temporary  purpose  as 
amounting  to  theft.  In  this  respect,  the  law  of 
Scotland  differs  from  that  of  England  in  regard 
to  embezzlement  by  a  bailee.  In  Scotland,  the 
appropriation  of  things  found  without  an  owner 
would  appear,  according  to  Mr  Hume,  not  to  bo 
an  indictable  offence.  Such  a  case  w^ould  unques- 
tionably be  treated  in  England  as  Larceny  (q.  v.). 

E'MBLEM,  a  representation  of  an  object  intended 
to  signify  or  indicate  to  the  understanding  some- 
thing else  than  that  which  it  directly  represents  to 
the  eye.  The  meaning  of  the  emblem  rests  upon  its 
secondary,  not  its  primary  signification.  Emblem 
is  often  used  in  a  sense  synonymous  with  Symbol, 
under  which,  as  the  wider  word,  it  will  be  mor© 
convenient  to  treat  it. 

EMBLE'MATA  (Gr.),  the  works  of  art  with 
which  gold  and  silver  vessels  were  decorated  hy  the 
ajicients.  These  sculptured  figures  were  generally 
executed  either  in  the  precious  metals  or  in  amber. 
They  were  called  crustse  by  the  Romans,  thoiigh  the 
Greek  word  was  also  used. 

E'MBLEMENTS  (Fr.  emblaver,  to  sow  with  hlS 
or  wheat),  gro%ving  crops  of  cereal  and  vegetable 
productions  raised  by  the  labour  of  the  cultivator. 
Fritits  of  trees  growing  on  the  land,  and  grass,  are 
not  emblements.  The  law  has  ever  been  mindful 
of  the  interests  of  the  tenant  who  has  expended 
his  toil  and  capital  in  tilling  the  ground.  By  the 
feudal  law,  when  a  tenant  for  life  died  between 
March  and  August,  his  heirs  were  entitled  to  the 
profits  for  the  whole  year.  By  the  existing  law  of 
England,  a  tenant  for  life,  or  other  tenant,  whose 
term  may  be  suddenly  and  imexpectedly  brought 
to  a  close,  is  entitled  to  reap  the  crop  which  he  has 
sown,  and  to  enter  the  lands  after  expiry  of  the 
term  to  remove  the  emblements.  By  14  and  15 
Vict.  c.  25,  a  tenant  at  Rack-rent  (q.  v.)  under 
tenant  for  life  is  entitled,  where  the  tenancy  deter- 
mines by  death  of  tenant  for  life,  to  hold  the  land 

29 


EMBLICA— EMBRASURES. 


till  the  expiry  of  the  current  year.  But  if  a  term  be 
brovrht  to  an  end  by  the  act  of  the  tenant,  he  is  not 
entitled  to  emblements.  Thus,  a  tenant  for  life  m  ho 
commits  forfeiture,,  or  a  widow  entitled  to  dower 
—  M'ho,  as  regards  dower-lands,  is  considered  tenant 
for  life — marrying  again,  are  not  entitled  to  emble- 
ments. On  the  death  of  a  tenant,  the  executor,  and 
not  the  heir,  is  entitled  to  the  emblements.  By 
11  Geo.  II.  c.  19,  emblements  may  be  distrained  for 
rent,  and  by  common  law  they  may  be  taken  in 
execution.  The  right  of  life-renters  in  Scotland  to 
reap  tlie  growing  crop  is  somewhat  similar  to  the 
English  right  to  emblements.    See  Life-rent. 

E'MBLICA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Euphorbiacece,  having  a  fleshy  fruit.  E. 
vfficinalis  is  a  tree  found  in  most  parts  of  India, 
with  a  crooked  stem,  thinly  scattered  spreading 
branches,  long  narrow  leaves,  minute  greenisli 
Uowers,  and  a  globular  fruit  about  the  size  of  a 
gall-nut.  The  fruit  is  very  acid,  and  somewhat 
astringent,  which  qualities  it  retains  when  dry 
and  shrivelled.  It  is  used  in  India  as  a  deobstruent 
and  febrifuge,  also  for  tanning  leatlier,  and  making 
ink,  and  is  generally  called  Eiiibllc  Myrohalans, 

EMBO'SSING,  the  art  of  producing  raised 
figures  upon  various  substances,  such  as  paper, 
leather,  wood,  metals,  &c.  This  is  usually  effected 
by  pressing  the  substance  into  a  die,  the  kind  of  die 
and  mode  of  applying  the  pressure  being  modified 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  design  and  the  pro- 
perties of  the  sul)stance  to  be  embossed.  Sheet- 
metal  is  embossed  by  stamping  it  l)etween  a  pair 
of  steel  dies,  one  in  relief,  the  other  in  intaglio.  See 
Die-sinking.  When  the  pattern  is  a  deep  one, 
several  pair  of  dies  are  used,  and  several  blows  given 
with  each,  the  metal  being  occasionally''  annealed. 
The  first  stamping  produces  a  crude  resemblance 
to  the  final  design,  of  moderate  depth;  successive 
stampings  bringing  up  more  of  the  details,  and 
giving  increased  depth.  The  upper  die  is  usually 
raised  by  a  rope  attached  over  a  pulley  to  a 
stirrup,  in  which  the  workman  places  his  foot ; 
he  draws  his  foot  down  to  raise  the  heavy  die  to 
the  required  height,  and  then  suddenly  releases  the 
pressure  of  his  foot  from  the  stirrup,  wfeen  the  die 
descends  by  its  own  weight.  While  thus  raising  the 
die  with  his  foot,  he  adjusts  the  work  in  its  place 
with  his  hands.  Smaller  work  is  embossed  with  a 
screw-press,  the  lever  of  which  is  turned  with  one 
hand,  while  the  work  is  placed  under  the  dies  and 
removed  by  the  other.  Paper  and  card  are  embossed 
in  a  similar  manner,  but  the  dies  are  frequently  of 
brass,  sometimes  of  copper  electro-deposits,  suitably 
backed.  The  counter-die  is  commonly  made  of  soft 
metal,  card  or  mill  board,  pressed  into  the  metal 
intaglio  die  until  a  sharji  impression  is  produced. 
The  paper  or  card  is  well  damped,  and  a  fly-press 
is  generally  used.  The  leather  or  cloth  for  book- 
binding is  embossed  in  this  manner,  the  counter-die 
being  usually  made  by  gluing  several  pieces  of 
millboard  together,  and  gluing  them  to  the  upper 
bed  of  the  press,  then  stamping  these  into  the  lower 
die  until  a  perfect  impression  is  obtained.  The 
embossing  press  designed  and  constructed  by  Mr 
Edwin  Hill,  for  impressing  the  medallion  upon 
postage  envelopes,  is  a  very  elaborate  and  beautiful 
machine,  which  inks  the  die  itself,  and  with  the 
aid  of  two  boys,  to  place  and  remove  the  envelopes, 
embosses  sixty  envelopes  in  a  minute.  When  large 
sm-faces  of  textile  fabrics,  such  as  table-covers,  &c., 
have  to  be  embossed,  the  fabric  is  compressed 
between  rollers,  one  being  of  metal,  upon  which  the 
device  is  sunk  like  a  die ;  the  counter- roller  or  bed- 
cylinder  is  of  paj^er  covered  with  felt ;  this  yields 
Bu/lioi«mtlj  to  allow  the  fabric  to  V-a  pressed  into 


the  die-cylinder.  A  third  smooth  metal  roller  is 
commonly  used  to  press  out  again  the  impression 
made  upon  the  bed-cylinder;  this  acts  upon  the 
bed- cylinder  on  the  side  from  which  the  fabric 
emerges.  Paper  is  sometimes  embossed  in  thia 
manner ;  and  the  flatting  roller  may  be  dispensed 
with  if  the  cylinders  are  sufliciently  accurate  in 
their  diameters  for  the  pattern  always  to  fall  on 
the  same  place  at  each  successive  revolution. 
Leather  embossed  in  high  relief  has  been  used 
for  ornamental  purposes  in  place  of  wood- carving 
on  picture-frames,  cabinet-work,  &c.  The  dies  are 
of  tyi)e-metal  or  electro-deposits,  and  the  leather  ia 
softened  or  fulled,  i.  e.,  worked  with  water  till  it 
contracts  and  thickens,  then  it  is  pressed  into  the 
dies  by  suitable  round  pointed  tools,  like  modelling 
tools,  made  of  wood,  bone,  or  copper.  When  dry, 
the  leather  is  removed  from  the  moidds,  and  by 
its  elasticity  and  shrinking  it  will  relieve  from 
very  deep  and  undercut  designs. — Mr  Straker'a 
mode  of  embossing  wood  diflers  from  all  the 
above,  and  is  very  curious  and  ingenious.  When 
wood  is  pressed  and  rubbed  with  a  blunt  instru- 
ment, the  surface  yields,  and  a  depression  of 
some  depth  may  be  made  in  it ;  if  the  wood  be 
now  soaked  in  water,  the  depressed  portion  will 
rise  again  to  its  original  level.  Mr  Straker  takes 
advantage  of  this  property  thus.  He  rubs  down 
the  surface  in  those  parts  that  are  to  be  finally 
in  relief,  he  then  planes  or  shaves  away  the  uncom- 
pressed portions  until  the  bottom  of  the  depressions 
are  reached  and  made  level  with  the  new  surface ; 
the  wood  is  then  soaked  ;  the  compressed  parts  rise 
to  their  original  level,  and,  of  course,  in  doing  so, 
rise  above  the  portions  that  have  been  planed  away, 
and  present  the  required  device  in  relief. 

EMBOUCHURE  (Fr.),  that  part  of  a  wind 
instrument  to  which  the  lips  are  applied  to  produce 
the  sound. — The  term  Embouchure  is  also  applied 
to  the  mouth  of  a  river. 

EMBOW'ED,  the  heraldic  term  for  anything 
which  is  bent  hke  a  bow.  The  illustration  repre- 
sents a  sinister  arm    couped  at  the  shoulder, 


Coimter-embowed. 


Embowed. 


embowed.  Wben  the  arm  is  turned  the  reverse 
way,  it  is  said  to  be  counter- embowed. 

EMBRA'CERY,  in  the  law  of  England,  tne 
ofi"ence  of  influencing  jurors  by  corrupt  means  to 
deliver  a  partial  verdict.  This  offence  is  a  species 
of  Maintenance  (q.  v.).  The  giving  of  money  to 
be  distributed  amongst  jurors  is  embracery,  though 
the  money  be  not  actually  distributed.  Not  only 
persons  attempting  to  influence  the  jury,  but 
jurors  themselves  attempting  undidy  to  bias  the 
minds  of  their  fellows,  are  guilty  of  embracery. 
The  using  indirect  means  in  order  to  be  sworn  on 
a  jury,  is  also  embracery.  This  offence  is  punishable 
by  various  old  statutes.  At  present,  the  crime  is 
punishable  by  G  Geo.  IV.  c.  50,  which  enacts,  that 
every  person  guilty  of  embracery,  and  the  jury 
consenting  thereto  shall  be  punished  by  fine  and  im- 
prisonment. 

EMBRA'SURES,  in  Fortification,  are  openings 
in  the  parapets,  flanks  of  bastions,  and  other  par!a 
of  the  defence- works,  through  which   cannon  a^s 


EMBROCATION— EMBROIDERY. 


poiutei.  The  siege-batteries  of  the  enemy  have 
bIso  embrasures.  Their  use  is,  to  shield  as  much  as 
possible  the  guns,  gun-carriages,  gunnei  s,  and  interior 
of  the  place,  and  yet  leave  spaces  for  the  free  firing 
of  the  guns.  Each  opening  slopes  outwards,  so  as 
to  give  a  greater  sweep  to  the  gun's  action. 

EMBROCA'TION  (Gr.  em,  into,  and  hrecko,  I 
wet),  the  same  as  Liniment  (q.  v.). 

EMBROI'DERY,  the  art  of  producing  orna- 
mental  needlework-patterns  upon  fabrics  of  any 
kind.  This  art  is  coeval  with  the  earliest  and 
rudest  manufactirre  of  hair  and  woollen  fabrics. 
It  was  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  early 
arts  in  Oriental  countries,  where  it  is  still  practised 
with  great  skill  and  diligence.  It  is  common 
among  most  savage  tribes  that  wear  any  kind  of 
clothing.  The  blanket-wrapper  of  the  Red  Indian 
is  commonly  ornamented  with  embroidery  ;  the 
Laplander  embroiders  upon  the  reindeer  skin  that 
forms  his  clothes  patterns  worked  with  needles  of 
reindeer  bone,  and  thread  of  reindeer  sinews  and 
(Strips  of  hide.  It  is  practised  as  a  domestic  art  in 
our  own  country  by  all  classes,  from  the  princess 
down  to  the  pauper  school-girl,  and  is  carried  on  in 
large  manufactories  by  very  elaborate  machinery. 

The  Chinese  are  perhaps  the  most  laborious  and 
elaborate  hand-embroiderers  of  modern  times ;  their 
best  work  is  upon  silk.  The  figures  are  either  in 
coloured  silk  alone,  or  in  silk  combined  with  gold 
and  silver  thread ;  the  figures  of  men,  horses,  dragons, 
&c.,  being  outlined  with  gold  cord,  and  filled  up 
coloured  and  shaded  mth  silk.  The  Persians,  Turks, 
and  Hindus  also  still  excel  in  embroidery ;  they 
use,  besides  silk  and  gold  and  silver  thread,  beads, 
Bpangles,  pearls,  and  precious  stones.  The  dress- 
Blippers  of  Turkish  women  of  all  ranks  are  elabor- 
ately embroidered,  usually  with  a  precious  stone  or 
a  glass  bead  in  the  middle  of  the  toe-part  of  the 
slipper,  and  a  radiating  pattern  in  gold,  silver,  or 
brass  wire  and  silk  surrounding  it.  The  celebrated 
Turkey  carpet  is  a  sort  of  embroidered  fabric.  See 
Carpets. 

Some  of  the  Oriental  and  Indian  embroiderers 
include  in  their  work  a  great  variety  of  materials 
besides  those  above  mentioned ;  feathers  are  largely 
and  very  tastefully  used;  the  skins  of  insects;  the 
nails,  claws,  and  teeth  of  various  animals ;  nuts, 
jjieces  of  fir,  skins  of  serpents,  &c.,  are  among  these. 
Coins,  which  are  so  commonly  used  as  ornaments 
for  the  hair  of  unmarried  women  in  the  East, 
are  sometimes  also  worked  into  their  dresses  with 
the  embroidery.  This  is  especially  the  case  with 
the  Turks  and  Georgians.  The  Indian  women 
embroider  with  their  own  hair  and  that  of  animals. 

Tapestry  is  a  kind  of  embroidery,  formerly  done 
^vith  the  needle,  but  now  chiefly  with  the  shuttle. 
This  kind  of  work  is,  in  fact,  intermediate  between 
embroidery  and  weaving,  and  it  is  somewhat 
difficult  to  determine  under  which  it  should  be 
classed,  but  in  accordance  with  the  definition 
given  above,  we  shall  only  include  needlework 
under  embroidery,  and  tapestry  wiU  be  separately 
treated. 

For  hand-embroidery,  the  fabric  is  usually 
stretched  upon  a  frame,  and  the  design  to  be 
worked  is  drawn  upon  it,  or  some  other  contrivance 
is  iLsed  to  guide  the  worker.  If  the  fabric  is 
sufficiently  thin  and  open,  a  coloured  drawing  or 
engraving  may  be  placed  behind  the  work,  and 
followed  with  the  needle.  A  sheet  of  thin  trans- 
parent paper,  with  lines  upon  it  corresponding 
to  the  threads  of  the  canvas  to  be  worked  upon, 
is  sometimes  used ;  this  is  secured  by  gum  or  wax 
to  tlie  drawing ;  and  the  design  is  copied  by 
observing  the  number  of  small  squares  occupied 


by  each  colour,  and  filling  in  th.i  corresponding 

meshes  of  the  canvas.  Berlin-work,  which  is  a 
kind  of  embroidery,  is  done  in  a  similar  manner, 
the  pattern  being  an  engraving  on  which  the  lines 
corresponding  to  the  thread  are  printed,  and  the 
meshes  filled  up  with  the  required  colours,  painted 
in  by  hand  by  women  and  children,  who  copy  it 
from  the  original  design  of  the  artist.  The  name 
has  been  given  from  the  fact,  that  the  best  patterns 
have,  since  1810,  been  published  by  Wittich,  a 
printseller  of  Berlin. 

In  France,  pricked  patterns  are  sometimes  used^ 
one  for  each  colour,  and  coloured  powders  are 
dusted  through  the  holes  upon  the  fabric  to  be 
worked. 

AU  these  devices  render  the  art  of  embroidery 
a  mere  mechanical  operation,  requiring  no  further 
artistic  skill  or  taste  than  is  exercised  in  knitting 
stockings ;  but  when  the  embroidress  draws  the 
design  in  outline  upon  the  fabric,  and  works  in  the 
colours  with  her  needle  under  the  guidance  of  her 
own  taste,  embroidery  becomes  an  art  that  might 
rank  with  water-colour  drawing  or  oil-painting ;  and 
it  is  to  be  regretted  that  so  much  time  should 
be  devoted  by  ladies  to  the  mechanical,  and  so 
little  effort  made  in  the  direction  of  truly  artistic 
embroidery. 

Muslin- embroidery  has  been  very  fashionable  of 
late.  This  is  purely  mechanical  work.  The  muslin 
is  printed  with  a  pattern  made  up  of  holes  of  differ- 
ent dimensions ;  these  are  cut  or  j)unched  out,  and 
their  edges  sewn  up  with  a  '  button-hole  stitch.' 
This  kind  of  work  is  much  used  as  trimming  for 
ladies'  clothing,  for  collars,  and  children's  clothes. 

Machine-embroidery  has  been  practised  with  con- 
siderable  success  during  the  last  quarter  century. 
A  machine  was  exhibited  in  the  French  Industrial 
Exhibition  of  1854,  by  M.  Heibnann  of  Mulhausen, 
by  which  one  person  could  guide  from  80  to  140 
needles,  all  working  at  the  same  time,  and  producing 
so  many  repetitions  of  the  same  design.  Although 
the  details  of  the  construction  of  this  machine  are 
rather  complex,  the  principle  of  its  action  may  be 
easily  understood.  The  needles  have  their  eyes  in 
the  middle,  and  are  pointed  at  each  end,  so  that 
they  may  pass  through  from  one  side  of  the  work  to 
the  other  without  being  turned.  Each  needle  is 
worked  by  two  pair  of  artificial  fingers  or  pincers, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  work ;  they  grasp  and  piish 
the  needle  through  from  one  side  to  the  other.  A 
carriage  or  frame  connected  with  each  series  of 
fingers  does  the  work  of  the  arm,  by  carrying  the 
fingers  to  a  distance  corresponding  to  the  whole 
length  of  the  thread,  as  soon  as  the  needle  has 
passed  completely  through  the  work.  The  frame 
then  returns  to  exactly  its  original  place,  and  the 
needles  are  again  passed  through  to  the  opposite  set 
of  fingers,  which  act  in  like  manner.  If  the  work 
were  to  remain  stationary,  the  needles  would  thua 
pass  merely  backwards  and  forwards  through  the 
same  hole,  and  make  no  stitch  ;  but  by  moving  the 
work  as  this  action  proceeds,  stitches  will  be  made, 
their  length  and  direction  varying  with  the  velocity 
and  the  direction  in  which  the  work  moves.  If  1^ 
needles  were  working,  and  the  fabric  were  mcved 
in  a  straight  line,  140  rows  of  stitching  would  b« 
made ;  if  the  work  made  a  circidar  movement,  140 
circles  would  be  embroidered ;  and  so  on.  In  order, 
then,  to  produce  repetitions  of  any  given  design,  it 
is  only  necessary  to  move  the  fabric  in  directions 
corresponding  to  the  lines  of  the  design-  This  is 
done  by  connecting  the  frame  on  which  the  work  ia 
fixed  to  an  apparatus  similar  to  a  common  panta- 
graph,  or  instrument  so  constructed  that  one  end 
repeats  on  a  smaller  scale  exactly  the  movements 
which  are  given  to  the  other.    See  PA>rTA  graph. 

81 


EMBRUN— EMERALD. 


The  free  end  of  this  is  moved  over  an  enlarged  copy 
of  the  design,  the  movement  being  a  succession  of 
steps,  made  after  each  set  of  needles  has  passed 
through ;  and  thus  the  work  is  moved  into  the 
position  i-equired  to  receive  the  next  stitch  of  the 
pattern. 

This  machine  Avas  subsequently  patented  in  Eng- 
land, and  many  improvements  have  been  made  upon 
its  details,  but  the  principle  of  its  construction  re- 
mains the  same. 

Although  it  is  2^ossibIe  to  embroider  any  design 
•with  such  machines,  there  are  only  certain  designs 
that  can  be  worked  economically  ;  for  to  do  this,  the 
patterns  must  be  so  designed  as  to  consume  each 
needleful  of  silk  without  waste.  The  length  of 
8ilk  required  for  each  colour  can  be  calculated 
with  extreme  accuracy,  and  the  designer  is  usually 
limit  jd  by  tliiy  requirement.  A  greater  range  is, 
however  ootrJuable  by  dyeing  the  same  thread  of 
Bilk  in  different  colours,  the  length  of  each  colour 
corresponding  to  what  is  required  for  producing  the 
pattern  ;  but  a  large  demand  for  each  pattern  is 
required  to  render  this  profitable. 

EMBRUN,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  Hautes  Alpes,  is  situated  on  a  platform  of  rock 
in  the  midst  of  a  plain,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Durance,  20  miles  east  of  Gap.  Seen  from  a 
distance,  the  town  has  £\n  imposing  appearance. 
The  streets  of  E.  are  narrow,  dirty,  and  irregular. 
It  is  surrounded  by  loopholcd  ramparts  and  ditches* 
and  strengthened  by  l)astions.  The  principal  build- 
ings are  the  cathedral,  a  Gothic  edilice,  surmounted 
by  a  lofty  Romanesque  tower,  and  the  barrack, 
formerly  the  archbishop's  jxalace.  E.  manufactures 
broadcloth,  counterpanes,  hats,  cotton-yarn,  and 
leather.    Poi>.  (1872)  2161. 

E.  occu])ies  the  site  of  the  ancient  Ebrodunum, 
ca})ital  of  the  Catimges,  and  an  important  Roman 
station.  The  line  of  its  arolil)ishops  can,  it  is  said, 
be  traced  to  the  time  of  Constantuie.  In  modem 
times  E.  has  been  thrice  destroyed  by  fire  :  by  the 
Moors  in  966,  during  the  religious  wars  in  1573, 
and  by  the  Duke  of  Savoy  in  1G92. 

E'MBRYO  (Gr.),  an  organised  being  in  a  rudi- 
mentary condition,  or  the  nidiment  from  which, 
under  favourable  circumstances,  an  organised  body 
is  to  be  developed.  In  botany,  the  term  embryo  is 
applied  to  the  germ  formed  within  the  ovule  on 
fertilisation,  and  which  increases  to  become  the 
principal  part  of  the  seed.  The  albumen  or  peri- 
sperm  of  the  seed,  being  regarded  as  a  mere  store  of 
nourishment  for  the  embryo,  is  not  accounted  part 
of  the  embryo  ;  the  cotyledons,  however — although 
a  large  store  of  nourishment  is  often  laid  up  in  them 
— are  considered  as  essentially  belonging  to  it,  along 
with  the  plicmvle,  the  radicle,  and  the  connecting 
parts.  As  to  animals,  the  term  embryo  is  used  as 
equivalent  with  foRtus,  and  as  designating  the  rudi- 
mentary animal  from  the  moment  of  impregnation 
cmtil  the  egg  is  hatched ;  but  although  this  takes 
place  at  very  different  stages  of  development  in  differ- 
ent kinds  of  animals,  and  consequent  metamorphoses 
are  undergone  by  some  before  they  reach  their 
perfect  state,  the  term  embryo  is  not  applied  to  the 
larvce  and  pupoe  of  insects,  or  to  the  analogous  states 
of  other  classes  of  animals.  Eg^s  contain,  along 
with  the  embryo,  a  store  of  nourishment  for  it  in 
the  earlier  stages  of  its  development.  See  Repro- 
duction, Development  of  the  Embryo,  Egg, 
Fa<:TUs,  Ovule,  Seed,  and  Spore. 

EMBRYO'LOGY.  See  Development  of  the 
Embryo. 

EMBRYOTOMY,  a  division  of  the  foetus  into 
fragments,  to  extract  it  by  piecemeal,  when  the 
82 


narrowness  of  the  pelvis  or  other  faulty  conform»' 
tion  oi)i)oses  delivery. 

E'MDEN,  a  fortified  town  of  Hanover,  in  the 

Erovince  of  East  Friesland,  is  situated  a  little 
elow  the  embouchure  of  the  Ems  into  DoUavt 
Bay,  in  lat.  53°  22'  N.,  long.  7'  13'  E.  It  lies  low, 
but  is  protected  by  strong  dykes  from  any  inroad  of 
i  the  waters  of  the  bay.  Nevertheless,  occasif>nal 
inundations  take  place ;  as  in  1826,  when  the  water 
stood  up  to  the  first  floor  of  the  houses  for  three 
months.  E.,  which  is  the  chief  commercial  town  of 
Hanover,  is  surrounded  by  Avails  and  towers,  is  well 
built,  has  spacious  and  well  paved  streets,  and 
houses  remarkable  for  their  appearance  of  comfcrt, 
and  for  their  extreme  cleanliness.  It  is  intersec*'-ed 
by  numerous  canals,  which  are  crossed  by  about 
thirty  bridges.  The  Delf  Canal  runs  south  from  the 
town  to  Doilart  Bay,  a  distance  of  about  two  mi'es, 
but  it  can  be  entered  at  high  water  only,  and  even 
then  is  not  navigable  for  vessels  of  more  than  13 
or  14  feet  draught;  all  vessels  of  greater  draught 
being  obliged  to  unload  in  the  roadstead  of  Delf,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  canal.  The  principal  building,  at'd 
one  of  the  finest  i)ublic  edifices  in  East  Frieslan  \, 
is  the  town-hall,  containing  a  library  and  a  curious 
collection  of  ancient  arms  and  armour.  E.  stands 
in  a  district  of  great  fertility.  It  has  a  good  deal 
of  ship-building,  besides  various  other  manufactures. 
From  this  town,  from  50  to  60  ships  are  sent  out 
to  the  herring-fishing  off  Scotland.  E.  was  made  a 
free  port  in  1751,  came  into  the  possession  of  Hol« 
land  in  1808,  and,  with  the  whole  of  East  Friesland, 
was  incorporateil  with  tbe  kingdom  of  Hanover  in 
1815.    Pop.  (1871)  12,588. 

E'MERALD  (Sp.  esnieralda,  Fr.  emeraude,  Ger. 
smaragd,  Gr.  smaragdos ;  the  name  is  originally 
Semitic,  or  at  least  eastern,  but  the  signification 
unknown),  a  mineral  generally  regarded  by  mineral- 
ogists as  merely  another  variety  of  the  same  spetdea 
with  the  Beryl  (q.  v.),  with  which  it  essentially 
agrees  in  composition,  crystallisation,  &c.,  differing 
in  almost  nothing  but  colour.  The  E.,  wMch, 
as  a  gem,  is  very  highly  valued,  owes  its  value 
chiefly  to  its  extremely  beautiful  velvety  green 
colour.  It  is  composed  of  about  67 — 68  per  cent, 
of  silica,  15 — IS  of  alumina,  12 — 14  of  glucina,  and 
a  very  little  peroxide  of  iron,  lime,  and  oxide  of 
chromium.  Its  colour  is  ascribed  chiefly  to  the 
oxide  of  chromium  which  it  contains.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  2-577 — 2725.  In  hardness  it  is  rather 
inferior  to  topaz.  The  localities  in  which  E.  ia 
foimd  are  very  few.  The  finest  have  long  been 
brought  from  South  America,  where  thej-  are 
obtained  from  veins  traversing  clay- slate,  norn- 
blende  slate,  and  granite,  in  a  vaUey  not  far  from 
Santa  Fe  de  Bogota.  Emeralds  of  inferior  quality 
are  found  in  Europe,  imbedded  in  mica-slate  in  tho 
Henbach  Valley  in  Salzburg.  They  are  also  found 
in  the  Ural ;  and  some  old  mines  in  Upper  Egypt 
have  also  been  discovered  to  yield  them,  from  which, 
probably,  the  ancients  obtained  them.  This  gem, 
known  from  very  early  times,  was  highly  prized 
by  the  ancients.  Pliny  states  that  when  Lucullua 
landed  at  Alexandria,  Ptolemy  offered  him  ar  E. 
set  gold,  wdth  his  portrait  engraven  on  it. 
Many  wrought  emeralds  have  been  fomid  in  the 
ruins  of  Thebes.  Nei-o,  who  was  near-sighted, 
looked  at  the  combats  of  gladiators  through  aa 
eye-glass  of  E.,  and  concave  eye-glasses  of  E.  seem 
to  have  been  particularly  esteemed  among  the 
ancients.  As  a  precious  stone,  the  E.  is  rarely 
without  flaw.  Its  value  alsj  depends  much  on 
its  colour.  A  very  perfect  E.  of  six  carats  has 
been  sold  for  £1000. 

It  appears  not  improbable  that  emeralds  have 


EMERSION— EMERY. 


been  found  in  the  East,  in  localities  not  at  present 
knowii,  bat  the  name  E.  or  Oriental  E.  is  often 
given  to  a  very  rare,  heaiitiful,  and  precious  green 
variety  of  Sapphire  (q.v.). 

E.  Copper  is  a  beautiful  and  very  rare  E,  green 
crystallised  mineral,  also  called  Dioptase,  found 
only  in  the  Kirghis  Steppe,  and  composed  of  about 
39  j^aits  silica,  50  i)rotoxide  of  copper,  and  1 1  water. 

EME'RSION,  the  reappearance  of  one  heavenly 
body  from  behind  another,  after  an  eclipse  or  occul- 
tation.  Tlie  immersions  and  emersions  of  Jupiter's 
first  satellite  are  particulaily  useful  for  finding  the 
longitude  of  places.  Minutes  or  scruples  of  emer- 
sion are  the  arc  of  the  moon's  orbit  passed  over  by 
her  centre,  from  the  time  she  begins  to  emerge  from 
the  earth's  shadow  to  the  end  oi  the  ecli^^se. 

EM'ERSON,  Ralph  Waldo,  an  American 
essayist  and  poet,  was  born  in  the  city  of  Boston, 
United  States,  May  25,  1803,  entered  Harvard 
XJnivei"sity  in  1817,  graduated  in  1821,  and  became 
pastor  of  a  Unitarian  congregation  in  Boston  in 
1829.  This  office,  however,  he  resigned  in  1832, 
on  account  of  the  gradually  increasing  differences 
between  his  own  modes  of  thought  and  those  of 
his  hearers.  The  next  year  he  spent  in  England. 
Since  then,  he  has  led  a  quiet,  retired,  meditative 
life,  chiefly  at  Concord.  Among  the  earliest  notice- 
able productions  of  his  pen  were  two  lectures, 
or  orations,  entitled  Nature  and  Man  Thinking, 
delivered  before  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  Society  at 
Cambridge,  United  States,  in  1837.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  appeared  his  Literary  Ethics,  an  Oration  ; 
and  in  1841,  The  Method  of  Nature,  Man  the 
Beformer,  the  first  series  of  his  Essays,  and  several 
lectures,  &c.  Three  years  later,  he  issued  a  second 
series  of  Essays.  In  184C,  he  published  a  volume 
of  poems.  In  1849,  he  revisited  England,  to 
deliver  a  series  of  lectures  on  Bepresentative  Mm. 
When  published,  they  were  generally  reckoned  the 
most  vigorous  and  intelligible  of  aU  the  author 
had  then  written.  In  1852,  in  conjunction  with 
W.  H.  Channing  and  J.  F.  Clarke,  he  published 
the  Memoirs  of  Margaret  Fuller  (q.  v.),  Marchesa 
d'Ossoli.  Enylish  Traits  appeared  in  1856,  and  the 
Conduct  of  Life  in  1860.  There  is  perhaps  no  living 
writer  of  note  regarding  wliom  opinions  are  so 
divided  as  Emerson.  Some  critics  have  not  hesi- 
tated to  place  him  among  the  profoundest  thinkers 
belonging  to  the  present  age,  while  others,  equally 
confident,  have  pronounced  him  to  be  in  the  main 
a  sciolist  and  charlatan.  Both  of  these  opinions, 
but  especially  the  latter,  may  be  dismissed  as 
absurd.  No  man  who  is  himself  sincere,  will  doubt 
the  sincerity  of  the  American  philosopher.  His 
entire  '  conduct  of  life '  would  be  otherwise  inex- 
l)]icable.  It  is  true,  however,  that  the  subtlety  of 
hia  intellect,  which  is  far  more  wonderful  than  either 
its  breadth  or  dei)th,  often  deceives  him  by  the 
facihty  with  which  it  discovers  divine  meanings 
in  nature  and  the  human  soul.  E.  never  pauses 
to  harmonise  his  thoughts  and  convictions ;  and,  it 
nmst  be  admitted,  has  rather  a  theatrical  jmichant 
for  paradox.  He  knows  that  an  idea  is  more 
forcible  and  attractive,  and  can  be  clothed  in  more 
brilliant  and  picturesque  phraseology  when  it  is 
not  qualifie<l,  and,  as  it  were,  dragged  down  from 
its  elevation  by  the  influence  of  other  ideas.  He 
loves  to  watch  the  ])lay  of  thought,  and  to  dream 
and  muse  about  it,  borne  up  on  the  wing  of  a 
pure  and  delicate  imagination,  rather  than  to  weigh 
its  significance,  or  to  build  it  up  into  an  '  intel- 
lectual system '  or  a  creed.  E.  thus  belongs  to 
the  class  of  minds  which  are  intuitional  rather  than 
reflective,  and  subtle  rather  than  sagacious.  Hia 
thinking  charms,  animates,  and  vividly  excites  the 


mental  faculty  of  his  reader,  but  it  does  not  satisfy 
or  settle  any  question  conclusively.  Hence  his 
speculations  on  religion,  philosoj)hy,  literature,  and 
life,  though  stij  lulating  to  the  young,  are  coldly 
regarded  by  mQ\±  of  mature  and  sage  understanding. 
E.  has  nowhere  formally  defined  the  fundamental 
basis  of  his  speculation.  He  appears  to  be  what 
is  called  a  Pantheist,  at  least  he  rejects  entirely 
that  kind  of  Theism  which  separates  God  from 
nature,  and  which  looks  upon  him  as  simj)ly  a  living 
Spiritual  Personality.  He  will  not  recognise  a  God 
who  is  not  '  one  with  the  Ijlowing  clover  and  the 
falling  rain.'  In  regard  to  man  and  his  destinies,  he 
entertains  exalted  hopes  ;  but  religion  is  not  in  hia 
eyes  a  divinely  revealed  (in  the  ordinary  sense)  or 
infallible  thing;  all  creeds  are  merely  'the  necessary 
and  structural  action  of  the  human  mind'  in  the 
course  of  its  historical  progress.  Man  made  them 
all  (Christianity  included),  and  he  believes,  that 
from  the  inexhaustible  depths  of  our  nature  there 
Mdll  come  forth  in  due  time  new  and  ever  liighei 
faiths,  which  will  supersede  those  that  have  gone 
before.  E.  is  often  said  to  have  derived  a  good 
deal  of  his  thinking  from  Thomas  Carlyle.  Thi? 
is  true,  but  not  in  the  sense  tiiat  would  represent 
him  as  a  servile  imitator  of  Carlisle.  He  is  essen- 
tially an  original  and  independent  genius,  whose  vspec- 
ulations  may  be  acceptable  to  the  transcendentalist, 
while  '  the  Christian  moralist  describes  his  ethics  as 
destitute  of  authority  as  his  poetry  is  of  life  and  his 
philosophy  of  wisdom.'  His  ^Society  and  Solitude' 
appeared  in  1870. 

E'MERY  (Fr.  Smeril,  Ger.  schmergel,  Gr.  smiris, 
allied  to  smear),  a  variety  of  Corundum  (q.  v.),  or  oi 
the  same  mineral  species  of  which  conmdum  and 
sapphire  (with  oriental  ruby,  &c.)  are  also  varieties. 
It  agrees  with  them  very  perfectly  in  composition, 
hardness,  and  specific  gra^aty  ;  but  is  dull,  opaque, 
and  nob  crystallised,  sometimes  of  a  grayish  black, 
and  sometimes  of  a  blue  colour.  It  occurs  both 
massive  and  disseminated.  Its  masses,  although  very 
compact,  have  a  somewhat  granular  structure.  It 
is  found  in  several  pai'ts  of  Europe,  in  Asia  Minor, 
Greenland,  &c.,  generally  in  masses  scattered  through 
aqueous  deposits,  but  in  one  locality  in  Saxony  in 
beds  of  steatite  in  a  schistose  rock.  The  E.  of 
commerce  is  chiefly  obtained  from  the  island  of 
Naxos.  Being  very  hard,  it  is  much  used  for  grind- 
ing glass  and  polishing  metals  and  other  hard 
substances.  It  is  found  in  lumps,  having  a  granular 
structure.  It  is  composed  of  alumina,  oxide  of 
iron,  and  silica,  with  a  little  lime,  in  proportions 
varying  considerably  with  difl"erent  specimens.  The 
following  may  be  taken  as  an  average :  alumina,  82 ; 
oxide  of  iron,  10;  silica,  6  ;  lime,  I4. 

It  is  prepared  for  use  by  first  breaking  it  into 
lumps  about  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg,  then  crushing 
these  to  powder  by  stampers.  It  is  then  sifted  to 
■various  degrees  of  fineness,  which  are  numbered 
according  to  the  meshes  of  the  sieve.  Plate-glass 
manufacturers  and  others  separate  E.  powder  into 
different  degrees  of  fineness  by  the  method  of 
elutriation  (q.  v.).  A  number  of  copper  cylinders 
of  graduated  capacities  are  placed  in  a  row,  and 
filled  with  water ;  the  E.,  churned  up  with  an 
abundance  of  water,  is  admitted  by  a  pipe  into 
the  smallest,  it  then  passes  to  the  next  in  size, 
and  finally  flows  from  the  largest ;  and  thus,  as 
a  given  quantity  of  water  with  E.  suspended 
in  it,  passes  in  equal  times  through  vessels  of 
varying  ca]iacities,  the  amount  of  agitation  will 
obviously  be  gieatest  in  the  smallest  vessel,  least 
in  the  largest,  and  in  like  proportion  with  the 
intermediate  ;  the  largest  particles,  therefore,  sink 
in  the  smaller  vessel,  and  so  on  till  only  the  very 
finest  will  reach    the   largest  vessel.      In  this 


EMESA— EMIGRATION. 


manner,  any  nunibf^r  of  gradations  of  fineness  may 
be  obtained,  accordinj^  to  the  number  and  sizes 
of  the  vessels.  Elntriation  in  oil  or  gum- water  is 
sometimes  used  on  a  smaller  scale,  the  E.  being 
stirred  up  in  the  liquid,  and  portions  poured  off  at 
different  intervals  of  time,  the  finest  being,  of 
course,  the  last  to  settle.  The  use  of  the  oil  or 
gum  is  to  make  tho  subsidence  take  place  more 
slowly. 

E.  thus  prepared  is  used  for  a  great  many  impor- 
tant piu-poses  in  the  arts.  Being  next  in  laardness 
to  diamond-dust  and  crystalline  conmdum,  the 
lapidary  uses  it  for  cutting  and  polishing  many 
kinds  of  stone.  Glass-stoppers  of  all  kinds  are 
ground  into  their  fittings  with  it.  Plate-glass  is 
ground  fiat  by  its  means ;  it  is  also  used  in  glass- 
cutting,  and  in  grinding  some  kinds  of  metallic 
fittings.  When  employed  for  the  polishing  of 
metals,  it  has  to  be  spread  on  some  kind  of  surface 
to  form  a  sort  of  fine  file.  E.  ptqter,  E.  cloth,  E. 
slides,  E.  cake,  and  E.  stone,  are  various  contrivances 
for  such  purposes. 

E.  yajper  is  made  by  sifting  E.  over  paper 
which  has  been  covered  with  a  coating  of  glue.  It 
is  used  either  by  wrapping  it  round  a  fine  file,  or 
a  stick,  or  in  the  hand,  according  to  the  form  of  the 
v/ork.    See  Polishing  of  Metals. 

E.  cloth  is  made  like  E.  paper,  with  coarse  calico 
substituted  for  the  paper.  The  E.  does  not  adhere 
BO  well  as  to  i)aper,  and  it  is  therefore  not  used  by 
metal-workers,  who  work  E.  paper  till  smooth  with 
wear,  but  is  chiefly  used  for  piirj)oses  where  the 
band  alone  is  used,  and  paper  would  tear. 

E.  sticks  are  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  E.  paper 
wrapped  round  files  ;  they  are  made  of  deal  sticks 
shaped  like  files,  then  glued  over,  and  dipped  once 
or  twice  in  a  heap  of  emery. 

E.  cake  is  a  compound  of  bees- wax,  suet,  and  E., 
melted  and  well  worked  together.  It  is  applied  to 
buffing  wheels,  &c. 

E.  stone  is  a  kind  of  earthen-ware  mixed  with 
E.,  formed  by  pressing  a  mixture  of  clay  and  E. 
into  suitable  moidds,  and  then  firing,  like  common 
earthen- ware.  It  is  moulded  into  wheels,  laps,  &c. 
tts  hardness  and  cutting  power  are  very  considerable. 

EMESA.    See  Hems,  or  Homs. 

EME'TICS,  medicines  given  for  the  purpose  of 
producing  Vomiting  (q.  v.).  They  are  given  when 
it  is  desirable  to  relieve  the  stomach  of  some  noxious 
or  indigestible  substance,  as  a  narcotic  poison,  or 
excess  of  food,  or  some  special  article  of  diet  which 
has  disagreed.  Emetics  are  also  administered  in 
cases  of  fever,  where  the  copious  secretion  they 
produce  from  the  glands  of  the  stomach  and  intes- 
tines is  supposed  to  have  a  directly  curative  effect, 
aided,  perhaps,  by  the  sedative  action  of  emetics 
upon  the  circulation  and  nervous  system.  There 
is  a  considerable  amount  of  evidence  to  shew,  that 
emetics  have  the  power  of  cutting  short  typhus  and 
other  fevers  in  the  earliest  stage,  and  afterwards  of 
making  the  attack  of  the  disease  less  severe.  In 
diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs,  emetics  are  given 
as  tlie  quickest  and  safest  method  of  remo\ang  accu- 
mulated mucus  from  the  air-passages  ;  and  in  Croup 
(q.  v.),  their  action  is  es]>ecially  favourable,  being 
often  followed  by  expectoration  and  a  rapid  improve- 
ment in  the  suffocative  symptoms.  Emetics  are  to 
be  -riven  with  great  caution,  however,  in  all  very 
dei»ressed  states  of  the  system,  as  their  primary 
action  is  to  produce  Nausea  (q.  v.),  which  is  attended 
always  with  more  or  less  diminution  of  the  vital 
power,  and  often  with  great  depression  of  the 
heart's  action,  amounting  to  syncope  or  fainting. 
Tlie  principal  emetics  are  the  preparations  of  anti- 
mony, zinc,  and  copper;  ipecacuanha  in  po^^der  or 
u 


in  wine ;  squill,  lobelia,  and,  generally  speaking, 
the  whole  class  of  expectorants  and  irritants ;  tlie 
latter  of  which,  however,  with  the  exception  of 
sulphate  of  zinc,  and  perhaps  mustard  and  water, 
form  a  dangerous  kind  of  emetics,  which  shoidd 
never  be  administered  when  the  milder  kinds  can 
be  procured. 

EMETINE.   See  Ipecacuanha. 

EMIGRA'TION  is  the  passing  from  one  part  of 
the  world  to  another  for  the  purpose  of  permanently 
settling  in  it.  People  gomg  thus  from  one  district 
of  the  same  state  to  another — especially  if  it  be  a 
distant  part,  with  different  habits  and  physical 
peculiarities — are  sometimes  said  to  emipate,  and 
in  this  way  the  term  has  been  often  appli  id  to  the 
English  and  Scotch  settlers  in  Ireland.  In  its 
established  signification,  however,  the  word  now 
refers  to  those  who  leave  the  state  or  dominions 
in  which  they  have  heretofore  lived,  and  in 
this  sense  the  term  applies  to  those  going  to  the 
colonies,  though  these  are  like  the  United  King- 
dom, under  the  authority  of  the  British  crown. 
In  tlie  country  which  people  leave,  they  are  called 
emigrants  or  wanderers  out — in  that  in  wdiich  they 
settle,  they  are  usually  called  immigrants.  Jacob 
and  his  family  were  immigrants  to  Egypt,  and  their 
descendants  became  emigrants  from  that  country 
when  they  went  to  inherit  the  promised  land. 

The  Greeks  were  addicted  to  emigration,  owing, 
it  has  been  said,  to  the  many  political  contests 
which  drove  the  v/eaker  i)arty  from  home.  Greek 
emigrants  planted  colonies  on  the  borders  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  Black  Sea,  carrying  them  as 
far  northward  as  France,  where  they  established 
the  city  of  Marseille.  The  Romans  were  great 
colonisers,  but  by  conquest  rather  than  emigration. 
They  disliked  leaving  Italy ;  and  the  military  and 
civil  officers  necessary  to  rule  a  colony  were  generally 
the  only  Romans  who  abode  in  it.  These  even  did 
not,  in  general,  settle  in  the  colonies  with  their 
famihes,  but  were  recalled  after  a  certain  period 
of  service,  the  whole  arrangement  much  resembling 
that  for  the  government  of  British  India. 

The  migrations  of  the  northern  tribes  who  overran 
the  Roman  emi)ire,  are  well  known  in  history ; 
their  wanderings  may  be  said,  indeed,  to  have 
continued  down  to  the  13th  century.  Those  who 
wandered  from  the  north  into  France,  where  they 
acquired  great  territories,  became  known  as  Normans, 
and  were  remarkable  for  entirely  throwing  off  the 
language  and  mamiers,  and  even  aU  the  traditions 
of  their  original  homes,  and  becoming  the  most 
civilised  and  courtly  portion  of  the  French  people. 
But  though  thus  changed,  they  still  continued  to 
wander,  spreading  over  Britain,  Sicily,  and  the 
intervening  portions  of  Europe. 

The  discovery  of  America  opened  a  vast  new  field 
for  emigration,  which  was  taken  immediate  advan- 
tage of  by  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese,  and  later, 
by  the  British,  the  French,  the  Germans,  and  the 
Dutch.  In  the  17th  c,  many  of  the  English  Puri- 
tans, persecuted  in,  or  discontented  with,  their  own 
country,  found  it  more  congenial  to  their  tastes  to 
live  together  in  a  new  country,  where  they  would  be 
free  from  the  presence  of  those  who  did  not  sympa- 
thise with  them,  and  they  thus  founded  the  New 
England  colonies.  It  is  singular  tliat,  in  the  19th  c, 
an  attempt  should  be  made  to  revive  the  plan  of 
emigrating  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  an  exclu- 
sive church,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  Englisli  High 
(>hurch  colony  of  Canterbury,  and  the  Scot(;h.  Free 
Church  colony  of  Otago. 

The  principal  emigration  fields  at  the  present  day 
are  the  vast  territory  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
the  British  colonies  in  America,  and  the  colc-iies  in 


EMIGRATION. 


South  Africa,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand.  There 
13  a  great  distinction  to  be  taken  between  colonies 
fit  for  emigration  and  those  de[)endencies  of  the 
British  crown  held  for  other  purposes.  India,  for 
instance,  the  greatest  dependency  of  the  crown,  is 
totally  unsuited  for  emigration.  The  British  }ieople 
who  go  there,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  merchants, 
gcr  to  form  the  civil  and  mihtary  stalf  which  rules 
the  country.  They  stay  there  no  longer  than  they 
can  help,  and  instead  of  living  on  from  generation  to 
generation,  send  home  their  children  in  early  youth, 
families  of  British  origin  having  a  tendency  to 
dege\ierate,  both  physically  and  mentally,  by  long 
residence  there.  It  is  useless  for  working-people  to 
go  there,  as  every  kind  of  work  is  done  in  some  way 
or  other  l)y  the  natives  much  cheaper  than  it  could 
be  b}^  Eui'opeans,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  every 
colony  in  the  hot  latitudes. 

As  a  question  in  j)olitical  economy,  opinions  about 
emigTation  have  oscillated  violently.  At  one  time 
it  has  been  prohibited,  at  another  encouraged  by 
aU  kinds  of  tempting  offers  held  out  to  emigrants, 
while  teachers  of  political  economy  have  proclaimed 
that  there  can  never  be  too  much  emigration.  The 
conclusion  to  which  we  are  coming  in  this,  as  in  so 
many  other  questions  in  political  economy  is,  that 
what  is  good  for  the  individual  members  of  a  com- 
munity is  good  for  the  community  collectively— if 
people  can  improve  their  condition  by  emigrating,  it 
is  as  well  that  they  should  emigrate ;  but  if  other- 
wise, they  had  better  stay  at  home.  It  might  seem 
unnecessary  to  promulgate  a  doctrine  which  every 
man's  self-interest  should  teach  him,  but  unfortu- 
nately emigration  is  one  of  the  matters  on  which  the 
popidace  have  been  liable  to  delusions  which  have 
produced  great  mischief.  Sometimes  poor  workmen 
have  crowded  in  where  labour  was  superabundant 
and  capital  deficient ;  at  others,  men  have  taken 
their  cajjital  to  districts  where  there  was  no  employ- 
ment for  it,  and  the  unnaturally  high  price  of  the 
necessaries  of  life  has  immediately  absorbed  it  all. 
young  gentlemen,  with  nothing  but  showy  accom- 
plishments, have  gone  to  the  backwoods  of  America, 
where  they  could  only  prosper  by  ceaseless  toil  in 
felling  and  clearing.  Ambitious,  discontented  artisans 
have  wandered  to  the  wide  pastures  of  Australia, 
where  they  coidd  only  get  a  scanty  subsistence  as 
hut-keepers  or  assistant  shepherds,  not  having  skill 
enough  to  be  intrusted  with  the  charge  of  stock. 
Such  mistakes  have  originated  from  people's  ignor- 
ance of  the  fate  of  those  who  have  gone  before,  it 
being  generally  taken  for  granted  that  the  emi- 
grant has  gone  away  for  his  benefit,  whereas  it  has 
often  been  for  his  ruin,  and  to  meet  an  untimely 
death. 

The  standard  difficulty  is  the  want  of  adjustment 
of  capital  to  labour.  This  is  enhanced  by  the  circura- 
etance,  that  those  who  wish  to  emigrate  are  gener- 
ally persons  feeling  the  pressure  of  })overty  at  home. 
1  he  man,  however,  who  goes  to  a  place  where  there 
b  no  capital  to  employ  him  with — either  his  own 
or  some  other  person's — is  just  in  the  position  of 
a  shipwrecked  mariner  cast  on  the  shore.  It  has 
been  justly  remarked,  that  perfect  emigration  shoidd 
consist  of  a  transplantation  of  home-society  with 
aU  its  several  classes  and  institutions,  including 
capitalists  employing  labour,  artisans  of  various 
kinds,  members  of  the  learned  j)rofessions,  teachers, 
and  clergymen.  An  ingenious  plan  for  bringing  about 
Buch  a  distribution  was  called  the  "Wakefield  system 
of  emigration,  after  the  name  of  its  inventor.  The 
foimdation  of  the  plan  was  a  high  charge  for  land — 
£1  per  acre,  the  money  so  advanced  by  capitalists 
being  employed  in  exporting  labour.  The  plan 
failed,  however,  because  people  could  get  land  in  the 
Cfnited  States  for  a  quarter  of  the  price ;  and  even 


j  in  Australia,  where  it  prevailed,  capitalists,  Instead 
of  buying  land,  '  squatted,'  as  it  was  termed,  and 
j  the  government  had  to  countenance  the  system,  by 
1  charging  them  a  small  rent  or  squatting  licence, 
j  There  was  one  shaj)e,  howevc.T,  in  which  it  was 
I  found  necessary  for  the  government  to  interfere— 
'  the  protection  of  emigrants,  so  far  as  possible,  from 
cruelty  and  imposition.  Conducting  emigration  is  a 
trade  in  which  a  large  body  of  men  are  engaged. 
Before  he  leaves  his  own  country,  the  intending 
emigi'ant,  through  means  of  agents  who  take  nv  tluiu 
line  of  business,  can  not  only  be  shipped  for  a  distant 
port,  but  can  contract  for  his  removal  inland  to  hia 
final  place  of  settlement,  and  can  even  contract  for 
the  purchase  of  a  2)lot  of  ground,  or  for  the  sale  of 
his  labour.  The  temptations  and  the  opportunities 
for  imposition  in  contracts  to  be  fulfilled  so  far  away 
from  the  j)lace  where  they  are  midertaken,  is  obAdous, 
and  the  instances  of  cruelty  and  rapacity  exhibited 
in  the  emigration  trade  are  among  the  most  atrocious 
that  have  ever  disgraced  human  nature.  These  led 
to  the  appointment  of  a  department  of  government 
called  the  Emigi-ation  Commission,  and  to  the  passing 
of  the  Passengers'  Act  of  1849,  which  regulates  the 
build  and  character  of  the  vessels  which  may  carry 
emigrants  to  certain  points,  limits  the  number  that 
may  be  conveyed,  requires  the  sufficiency  of  the 
provisions  and  other  stores  to  be  certified,  and  pro- 
vides for  pi-oper  medical  nttendance. 

The  total  imniigration  into  the  United  Sfates  from 
the  year  1856  to  1874  inclusive,  was  4,804,714,  being 
an  average  of  nearly  253,000  per  annum.  For  the  14 
years,  from  1861  to  1874,  the  annual  arrivals  were  as 
follows: 


18G1   91,920 

1SG2   91,987 

1M:3  176,282 

18C4  193,418 

1872  404.806 

18fi5  248.120 

1874  313.339 

]8()7  298,358 

Tot  il,  14  yrs  ...3,954,924 

As  will  he  seen,  the  greatest  nimiher  of  arrivals  wa8 
in  1873,  when  it  amounted  to  459.803.  Of  the  313,- 
339  which  arrived  in  1874,  50,935  were  from  Eng- 
land, 53,707  froiii  Iieland,  and  10,429  from  Scotland. 
Germany  contributed  87.291;  Austria,  7888;  Swe- 
den, 5712;  Norway,  10,384;  Denmark,  3082;  Swit- 
zerland, 3093;  France,  9643;  Italy,  7596;  Russia, 
3960,  and  China,  13,776.  About  33,000  arrived  from 
the  Dominion  of  Canada. 

Comparing  decade  with  decade  the  tide  of  immigra 
tion  is  largely  on  the  increase  almost  every  year  of  the 
present  decade,  being  in  excess  of  1869,  which  greatly 
exceeded  that  of  any  previous  year  since  1854,  and 
amounted  to  352,569.  Of  this  aggregate,  253,754 
arrived  at  the  jmrt  of  New  York;  35.586  at  Huron, 
Michigan;  23,294  at  Boston;  13,490  at  San  Fran- 
cisco ;  1 1 ,202  at  Baltimore ;  4026  at  Portland,  INIaine ; 
3424  at  New  Orleans;  1061  at  Philadelphia,  and  the 
l  euiainder  at  various  other  ports.  Tlie  largest  propor- 
tion of  immigrants  in  1869  was  from  Germanv,  which 
sent  132,537;  Great  Britain,  60,286;  Ireland,  64,-. 
938;  Sweden,  24,224;  B.  North  America,  29.918; 
Norway,  16.068;  China,  12,874;  France,  3879; 
Switzerland,  3650;  Denmark,  3649,  &c. 

The  numerical  force  of  emigration  is  influenced  by 
material  and  moral  disturbances  in  Europe  as  well  aa 
by  the  commercial  and  political  condition  of  America. 
Thus  in  1838,  the  total  nngration  decreased  to  38,914, 
while  in  1837  it  had  amounted  to  79,340,  and  in  1839 
and  1840  it  increased  again  to  68,069  and  84,066  re- 
spectively\  The  decline  was  caused  by  the  financial 
crisis  of  1837,  which  shook  the  foundations  of  the  busi- 
ness and  industrj^  of  the  United  States. 

The  enugration  from  Ireland  reached  its  highest 

35 


EMIGRATION  OF  PAUPERS— EMINENCE. 


point  after  the  famine  of  1846,  and  from  1845  to  1854 
itidusive,  numbered  1,512,100  souls;  and  from  Jan. 
I,  1850,  to  Dec.  31,  1854,  904,859  came  to  the  United 
States.  This  emigration  appears  to  have  exhausted 
tlie  ishmd,  and  since  1855  tlic  average  is  less  than  half 
that  of  the  pi'eceding  ten  years. 

The  failure  of  the  Revohition  of  1848—1849  in 
Europe  caused  the  voluntary  expatriation  of  twice  as 
many  from  Germany  as  in  previous  years,  and  176,986, 
the  largest  number  ever  received,  landed  at  New  York 
in  1854.  From  Jan.  1,  1845,  to  Dec.  31,  1854,  1,226,- 
.^yi  Germans  arrived  in  the  United  States,  773,449  of 
whom  reached  here  during  the  last  live  years  of  the 
term  named.  In  1858  ami  1859  the  influx  of  aliens 
was  smaller  than  for  any  previous  year  since  1842, 
the  commercial  crisis  of  1857  having  alarmed  many 
whose  caj)ital  M-as  the  lal)Our  of  their  hands.  Jn  1860, 
the  total  immigration  I'ose  to  105,162,  but  the  civil 
war  caused  it  to  recede  to  65,539  in  1861,  antl  to  76,- 
306  in  1862.  In  1867  the  German  immigration  in- 
creased over  that  of  1866  by  more  than  10,000  in  con- 
sequence of  the  Prussian  war,  and  the  annexation  of 
neighbouring  provinces,  and  the  new  order  of  things,  j 

At  the  i)ort  of  New  York,  Avhich  receives  almost 
three-fourths  of  the  total  immigration,  there  exists  an 
organized  system  for  the  reception  and  care  of  immi-  ' 
grants.    The  'Board  of  Commissioners  of  Einigra- ] 
tion  of  the  State'  has  been  in  operation  since  May, 
1847,  and  has  for  its  object  the  protection  of  the 
newly  arrived  from  fraud  and  impositiim,  the  cure  of 
the  sick  and  helpless,  and  to  render  aid  to  those  seek- 
ing employment.    The  labours  of  the  Board  are  be- 
stowed gratuitously,  but  a  fund  to  aid  the  work  is 
raised  by  a  tax  of  $2.50  on  each  alien  entering  the 
port  of  New  York,  wlu(;h  is  paid  by  the  owner  of  the 
vessel  carrying  the  innnigrant.    The  fund,  in  1868, 
amounted  to  $538,480,  and  in  1869  exceeded  the  sura 
of  $650,000.    In  1868,  $330,000  of  the  sum  was  paid 
for  nursing  and  maintenance  of  the  sick  in  the  asy-  | 
lums  and  hospitals  devoted  to  this  purpose.    The ; 
nationalities  of  all  and  destination  of  most  of  these 
for  1868-69  maybe  seen  in  the  following  statements: 


Nationality. 

1S68. 

1869. 

Destination. 

1868. 

1869. 

Germany,  .  .  . 

101,989 

96,841 

California,  .  . 

3.9S9 

3,591 

Ireland,  .  .  .  . 

47.571 

68,632 

Canada,  .... 

2.7  2o 

2,564 

England,  .  .  . 

29,695 

41, .537 

Connecticut,  . 

3,458 

3,922 

14,520 

24,683 

Illinois,  .  .  .  . 

34,6_'5 

37.:n3 

Scotland,  .  .  . 

7,390 

10,411 

Indiana,  .  .  . 

3,852 

3,025 

Switzerland,  . 

3,302 

3,153 

Iowa,  

7,040 

8,026 

France,  .... 

2,811 

1,024 

Kansa.s,  .... 

1,0,S5 

1,(332 

Maryland,  .  .  . 

1,604 

1,524 

Holland,  .  .  .  . 

1,265 
1,3S7 

1,342 

Massachusetts, 

7,604 

8,158 

Denmark,  ,  .  . 

2,673 

Jlicliigaii,  .  .  . 

7,324 

6,939 

Norway,  .... 

1,008 

2,537 

Minnesota,  .  . 

5,891 

6,725 

993 

1,540 

Missouri,   .  .  . 

6,517 

4,723 

Nebraska,   .  . 

1,419 

1,641 

699 

1,032 

New  .Jersey,  .  . 

5,916 

7,743 

Newfoundland 

1 

New  York,  .  . 

65.714 

82,372 

Australia,  .  .  . 

1 

Oliio,  

11,133 

11,738 

Urazil,  .... 

1 

Pennsylvania, 

16,926 

30,746 

Ciiili,  

1 

Rhode  Island, 

2,279 

2,227 

China  &.  Japan, 

6 

Utah,   

3,155 

2,325 

Lima,  

1 

Wisconsin,  .  . 

16,537 

16,632 

Of  the  entire  number,  about  6100  appear  to  haA-e 
been  destined  to  15  southern  and  southwestern  states 
in  1868,  and  about  5300  in  1869.  The  active  elTorts 
to  turn  the  tide  towards  the  south  will  undoubtedl}' 
influence  the  future  history  of  immigration  to  the  U. 
State-s.  For  a  detailed  account  of  immigration  into  the 
United  States,  see  Animal  Report  of  the  Chief  of  the 
Jiureait  of  Statistics  :  Commerce  and  Navigation,  ]  874. 

EMIGRES,  the  name  given  more  especially  to 
those  persons  who  quitted  France  during  the  Revo- 
lution. After  the  insurrection  at  Paris,  and  the 
taking  of  the  Bastile,  14th  July,  1789,  the  princes  of 
the  royal  family  departed  from  France.  They  were 
jbl lowed,  after  the  adoption  of  the  constitution  of 


1791,  by  all  who  considered  themselves  aggrieved 
by  the  destruction  of  their  privileges,  or  who 
were  exposed  to  persecution.  Nobles  quitted  their 
chiUeaus  ;  oflBicers,  with  whole  companies,  passed 
the  frontiers.  Crowds  of  priests  and  monks  tied 
to  escape  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  constitution. 
Belgium,  Piedmont,  Holland,  Switzerland,  and, 
above  all,  Germany,  were  overrun  with  fugitives 
of  every  age.  Only  a  few  had  been  able  to  save 
their  property ;  the  greater  portion  were  in  a  state 
of  destitution,  and  sank  into  utter  demoralisation. 
A  court  had  fonncd  itself  round  the  princes  at  Cob- 
lenz  ;  a  government,  with  ministers  and  a  court  of 
justice,  had  beeii  established,  and  communication 
was  kept  up  with  all  the  foreign  courts  luifavoiir- 
able  to  the  Revolution.  This  conduct  imbittered 
France,  aggravated  the  position  of  the  king,  and 
drove  the  revolutionary  party  forward  in  their  san- 
guinary career.  Under  the  command  of  the  Prince 
of  Conde,  a  body  of  6migres  was  formed,  which 
followed  the  Pnissian  army  into  Champagne.  The 
result  was  that  the  severest  laws  w-ere  now  put  in 
force  against  the  Emigres.  Their  lands  were  con- 
fiscated. The  penalty  of  death  was  proclaimed 
against  any  one  who  should  sup]>ort  or  enter  into 
commtmi  cation  with  them.  Thirty  thousand  jier- 
sons  were  ])laced  upon  the  list  of  emigres,  and 
exiled  for  ever  from  the  soil  of  France,  although 
many  of  them  had  refused  to  bear  arms  against 
their  country.  Not  until  after  the  failure  of  theii 
attem])t  to  land  at  Quiberon  in  1795,  did  th<j 
Emigres  abandon  all  thoughts  of  penetrating  into 
France  by  force  of  arms.  Conde's  corps,  after  the 
peace  of  Luncville,  was  obliged  formally  to  dissolve, 
and  sought  an  asylum  in  Russia.  Even  under  the 
Directory,  however,  many  had  endeavoured  to 
obtain  pennission  to  return  to  France.  The  general 
amnesty  proclaimed  by  the  First  Consul  was  there- 
fore joyfully  hailed  by  the  greater  portion  of  tho 
emigres.  Many,  however,  did  not  return  home 
till  after  the  downfall  of  Napoleon.  Dignities,  pen- 
sions, and  offices  were  now  showered  upon  these 
faithful  ailherents ;  but,  according  to  the  charter 
of  1814,  they  were  unable  to  recover  either  their 
estates  or  their  privileges.  Finally,  on  che  motion 
of  the  minister  Vill^le,  the  emigres  who  had  lost 
their  lauded  estates,  by  the  law  of  the  27th  April 
1825,  i-eceived  a  compensation  of  30  million  franca 
yearly  on  the  cai)ital  of  1000  million  francs.  After 
the  July  revolixtion,  however,  the  grant  was  with- 
drawn. Compare  Antoine  de  Saint- Gerv^ais,  HiS' 
toire  des  Emv/res  Frari^.ais  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1823),  and 
Montrol,  Histoire  de  VEmvjration  (2d  edit.,  Paris, 
1825). 

EMI'LIAN  (or  CHILIAN)  PRO'VINCES,  a 

name  now  employed  to  designate  a  portion  of  the 
recently  formed  kingdom  of  Italy,  comprising  the 
northern  })art  of  the  States  of  the  Church  (the 
Romagna),  and  the  duchies  of  Panna  and  Modena. 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  ancient  Via  jEmiUa 
(a  continuation  of  the  Via  Flaminia,  or  great 
northern  road),  which  passed  through  these  terri- 
tories. The  E.  P.  were  formally  annexed  to 
Sardinia  in  April  1860.    See  Italy. 

E'MINENCE,  a  title  given  to  cardinals  by  Urbau 
VIII.  Up  to  the  period  of  his  pontificate,  they 
had  been  called  . Most  Illustrious  and  Most  Reverend. 
The  assumption  by  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy 
this  and  other  ecclesiastical  titles,  not  having 
reference  to  any  '  pretended  province,  or  to  any 
pretended  see  or  diocese,'  are  not  struck  at  by  tho 
Act  14  and  15  Vict.  c.  49,  to  prevent  the  assum})tion 
of  certain  ecclesiastical  titles  in  respect  of  i>laces  in 
the  United  Kingdom.  See  Eccle,siastic-U  Titles 
AssuMPTiox  Act. 


ETvIlH— EMOTION. 


E'MIR,  an  Arabic  word,  equivalent  to  'ruler,' 
la  a  title  given  in  the  East,  and  in  the  Nortli  of 
Africa,  to  all  independent  chieftains,  and  also  to  all 
the  actual  or  supposed  descendants  of  Mohammed 
through  his  daughter  Fatima.  The  latter  are  very 
numerous  throughout  the  Turkisl  dominions,  but 
although  entitled  by  birth  to  be  classed  among  the 
first  four  orders  of  society,  they  enjoy  no  particxdar 
privilegen  or  consideration  ;  on  the  contrary,  they 
are  found  engaged  in  all  sorts  of  occupations,  and 
are  to  b<j  met  with  among  beggars,  and  the  lowest 
of  the  fopulace,  as  frequently  as  among  the  mollahs. 
Theii'  privileges  are  conlined  to  a  few  unimportant 
matters,  chiefly  to  the  exclusive  right  to  wear 
turbans  of  a  green  colour,  that  having  been  the 
favourite  colour  of  the  Proj)het.  They  are  placed 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Emir-Beshir.  In 
former  times,  the  title  of  Emir  was  borne  by  the 
leaders  in  the  religious  wars  of  the  Moham- 
medans, as  Avell  as  by  several  ruling  families,  such 
as  the  Thaherides  and  Samanides  in  Persia,  the 
Tulunides  in  Egypt,  the  first  seven  Ommaiades 
in  Si)ain.  The  title  Emir,  in  connection  with 
other  words,  like^\'ise  designates  different  offices. 
hJmir'al'Mumen'm,  '  Piince  of  the  Faithfid,'  is  the 
title  assumed  by  the  califs  themselves  ;  Emir- 
al-Irluslemiii,  signifying  the  same  thing,  was  the 
title  of  the  Almoravides.  Emir-al-Onirah,  'Prince 
of  Princes,'  was  the  title  of  the  first  minister,  under 
the  califs  and  the  East  Indian  Mogids,  who  united 
in  his  own  person  the  highest  civil  and  military 
dignities.  It  is  now  the  title  of  the  governors  of 
different  provinces.  The  Turkish  master  of  the 
horse  is  styled  Emir-Achor ;  the  standard-bearer, 
Emir-Alem ;  the  surveyor  of  markets  in  Turkey, 
E mi r- Bazaar ;  and  the  leader  of  the  caravans  of 
pilgrims  to  Mecca,  Emir- Hadji. 

E'MLY,  an  ancient  Irish  see,  united  to  Cashel  in 
1568. 

EMME'NAGOGUES,  medicines  intended  to 
restore,  or  to  bring  on  for  the  first  time,  the  men- 
Btnial  excretion  in  women.  The  emmenagogues 
chiefly  in  use  are  the  preparations  of  aloes,  iron, 
myrrh,  and  other  stimulants  in  connection  with 
purgatives ;  and  also  the  local  use  of  the  warm 
bath,  leeches,  fomentation,  &c.  Some  recommend 
Btill  more  powerful  and  direct  applications  to  the 
•  uterine  mucous  membrane ;  as  galvanic  pessaries, 
lunar  caustic,  scariflcations,  &c. ;  but  these  are  not 
in  general  use.    See  Menstruation. 

E'MMERICH,  a  town  of  Phenish  Prussia,  is 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Phine,  on  the 
borders  of  Holland.  It  is  a  very  old  town,  and  has 
a  Dutch  character  of  cleanliness.  It  has  a  custom- 
house, an  orphan-house,  a  gymnasiimi,  and  several 
ecclesiastical  ediflces.  E.  has  manufactures  of  cloth, 
linens,  and  leather,  and  some  shii)ping.    Pop.  7817 

E'MMET.    See  Ant. 

EMO'LLIENTS  (from  Lat.  mollis,  soft),  sub- 
stances used  to  soften  the  textures  to  which  they 
are  applied,  as  poultices,  fomentations,  &c.,  exter- 
nally, and  Demulcents  (q.  v.)  internally. 

EMO'TION.  This  is  the  name  for  one  of  the 
comprehensive  departments  of  the  human  mind.  It 
ia  now  usual  to  make  a  threefold  division  of  the 
mind — Emotion,  or  Feeling  ;  Volition,  or  Action 
prompted  by  Feelings ;  and  Intellect,  or  Thought. 
It  is  not  meant  that  these  can  be  manifested  in 
absolute  sei)aration  ;  or  that  we  can  be  at  one  time 
uQ  emotion,  another  time  all  volition,  and  again  all 
thouglit,  wathout  either  of  the  other  two.  But 
although  our  living  mind  is  usually  a  concurrence,  in 
creater  or  less  degree,  of  all  of  them,  still  they  can 
be  digtinguished  as  presenting  very  different  appear- 


ances, according  as  one  or  other  i)redomi nates. 
Wonder,  Anger,  Fear,  Afl'ection,  are  emotions;  the 
Acts  that  we  perform  to  procure  i)]easurable  feel- 
ings, and  avoid  painful,  are  volitions,  or  exercises 
of  Will ;  Memory  and  lleasouing  are  processes  of 
Thought,  or  Intellect. 

Emotion  is  essentially  a  condition  of  the  walcing, 
conscious  mind.  Wiien  aslcej),  or  in  a  faint,  or  in 
any  of  those  states  called  'being  unconscious,'  wo 
have  no  emotion  ;  to  say  that  we  ha\  e  would  be 
contradiction,  which  sliews  that  '  emotion  '  is  a  very' 
wide  and  comprehensive  word.  In  fact,  whenever 
we  are  mentally  excited  '  anyhow,'  we  may  be  said 
to  be  under  emotion.  Our  active  movements  and 
intellectual  processes  can  sometimes  go  on  with 
very  little  consciousness  ;  we  may  walk  and  scarcely 
be  aware  of  it ;  trains  of  thought  may  be  jiroved 
to  have  passed  through  the  mind  while  we  are 
unconscious  of  them.  Now,  it  is  these  unconscious 
modes  of  Volition  and  Intellect  that  present  the 
greatest  contrast  to  emotion  ;  shewing  how  nearly 
co-extensive  this  word  is  with  mental  wakefulness, 
or  consciousness,  in  its  widest  signification. 

Emotion,  then,  is  of  the  very  essence  of  mind, 
although  not  expressing  the  whole  of  mind.  There  are 
three  distinct  kinds  or  divisions  of  it  :  Pleasures, 
Pains,  and  Excitement  that  is  neither  pleasurable 
nor  i)ainful. 

Every  kind  of  Pleasure  is  included  under  emotion 
in  its  widest  acceptation.  The  pleasures  of  the 
Senses  are  as  much  of  an  emotional  character  as 
those  pleasures  that  are  not  of  the  senses— as,  for 
example,  those  of  Power,  Pride,  Affection,  Malevol- 
ence, Knowledge,  Fine  Art,  &c.  Every  one  of  our 
senses  may  be  made  to  yield  pleasurable  emotion  ; 
and  all  those  other  susceptibilities,  sometimes  called 
the  special  emotions,  of  which  a  classiflcation  is 
given  below,  are  connected  with  our  pleasures  or  our 
pains.  What  i)Ieasure  is  in  its  inmost  nature,  each 
one  must  find  from  his  own  experience ;  it  is  an 
ultimate  fact  of  the  human  consciousness  which 
cannot  be  resolved  into  anything  more  fundamental, 
although,  as  will  be  seen,  we  can  lay  down  the  laws 
that  connect  it  with  the  other  manifestations  of 
mind — namely,  action  and  thought,  and  with  the 
facts  of  our  corporeal  life. 

In  the  next  place.  Pain  is  a  species  of  emotion. 
We  know  this  condition  as  being  the  opposite  of 
Pleasure,  as  the  source  of  activity  directed  to  ita 
removal  or  a])atement,  and  as  the  cause  of  a  peculiar 
outward  appearance,  known  as  the  Expression  or 
Physiognomy  of  Pain.  All  the  inlets  of  pleasure 
are  also  inlets  of  pain.  The  various  sensibilities 
of  the  mind,  whether  the  outward  senses,  or  the 
more  inward  emotions,  give  rise  at  one  time  to 
pleasure,  at  other  times  to  pain,  the  conditions  of 
each  being  generally  well  understood  by  us  ;  we  can 
define  the  agencies  that  cause  pleasure  or  sufierinj; 
through  the  skin,  the  ear,  or  the  eye. 

But  it  is  requisite,  further,  to  recognise  certain 
modes  of  Neutral  Excitement,  in  order  to  exhaust 
the  compass  of  emotion.  We  are  very  often  roused, 
shocked,  excited,  or  made  mentally  alive,  when  wa 
can  hardly  say  that  we  are  either  pleased  or  put  to 
pain.  The  mind  is  awakened  and  engrossed  with 
some  one  thing,  other  things  are  excluded  ;  and  the 
particvdar  cause  of  the  excitement  is  impressed  upon 
us  so  as  to  be  afterwards  remembered,  while  all  the 
time  we  are  removed  alike  from  enjoyment  and 
from  suffering.  This  is  a  kind  of  emotion  that  has 
its  principal  value  in  the  sphere  of  intellect.  The 
emotion  of  Wonder  or  Astonishment  is  not  seldom 
of  this  nature  ;  for  although  we  sometimes  derive 
pleasure,  and  sometimes  the  opjiosite,  from  a  shock 
of  surprise,  we  are  very  frequently  affected  in 
neither  way,  being  simply  impressed.    The  straiii^f 


EMOTION. 


appearance  of  a  comet  gi\es  far  more  of  tins  neutral 
effect  than  of  the  othei-s.  It  is  a  thing  that  possesses 
our  mind  at  the  time,  and  is  afterwards  vividly  re- 
membered by  us,  and  these  are  the  chief  consequences 
of  its  having  roused  our  wonder. 

The  Physical  Accompaniments  of  emotion  are  a 
part  of  its  nature.  It  has  been  remarked  in  all 
ages,  that  every  strong  passion  has  a  certain  outward 
expression  or  embodiment,  which  is  the  token  of  its 
presence  to  the  beholder.  The  child  soon  learns  to 
interpret  the  signs  of  feeling.  Joy,  Grief,  Affection, 
Fear,  Rage,  Wonder,  have  each  a  characteristic 
©Tipression  ;  and  painters,  sculptors,  and  poets,  have 
adopted  the  demeanour  of  ])assiou  as  a  subject 
for  tlieir  art.  There  must  be  some  deep  connec- 
tion in  the  human  frame  between  the  inward  states 
of  oonsciousness  and  the  physical  or  corporeal 
ucti  Titles,  to  produce  results  so  unifcnm  thrcugliout 
the  human  race.  When  we  study  the  facts  closely, 
we  obtain  decisivt  proof  of  the  concurrence  of  tlie 
following  members  and  organs  in  the  manifestation 
of  feeling. 

In  the  first  place,  the  muscles  or  movlnrj  orrjans 
are  affected.  Under  strong  excitement,  the  whole 
body  is  animated  to  gesticulation  ;  in  less  powerfid 
feelings,  the  expression  confines  itself  more  to  the 
features  or  the  movements  of  the  face.  These  last 
have  been  analysed  by  Sir  Charles  Bell.  The  face 
has  three  centres  of  movement — the  Month,  Ilyes, 
and  Nose;  the  mouth  being  most  susceptible,  and 
therefore  the  most  expressive  feature.  In  the  Eyes, 
expression  is  constituted  b}-  the  two  ojiposite  move- 
ments of  the  eyebrows  ;  the  one  raising  and  arching 
them  (promjjted  by  a  muscle  of  the  scalp,  ocdpito- 
frontalia),  the  other  corrugating  and  wrinkling 
them.  The  one  movement  is  associated  with  pleas- 
ing states,  the  other  with  painful.  The  Nose  is 
acted  on  by  several  muscles,  the  most  considerable 
of  which  is  one  that  raises  the  wing  together  with 
the  upper  lip,  and  is  brought  into  play  under  the 
disgust  of  a  bad  smell  and  in  exjiressing  dislike 
generally.  The  Mouth  is  princii)ally  made  iip  of 
one  ring-like  muscle  (orhicidaris),  from  wdiieh  nine 
pairs  radiate  to  the  cheeks  and  face.  In  pleasing 
emotions,  the  mouth  is  drawn  out  by  the  action  of 
two  ]iairs  of  muscles,  named  the  l)uccinator  and 
zygomatic,  situated  in  the  cheek.  The  ex})ression 
of  pain  is  determined  by  the  contraction  of  the 
aperture  of  the  mouth,  through  the  relaxation  of 
those  muscles,  and  the  contraction  of  the  ring-like 
nniscle  that  constitutes  the  flesh  of  the  lips  ;  and 
by  two  muscles  in  the  chin,  one  depressing  the  angle 
of  the  mouth,  and  the  other  raising  the  middle  of 
the  lower  lip,  as  in  pouting.  Besides  the  features, 
the  Voice  is  instinctively  afi'ected  under  strong  feel- 
ings ;  the  shouts  of  hilarious  excitement,  the  cry  of 
sharp  pain,  and  the  moan  of  protracted  agony,  are 
universally  known.  Another  important  muscle  of 
expression  is  the  Diaphragm,  or  midriff,  a  large 
muscle  dividing  the  chest  from  the  abdomen,  and 
regularly  operating  in  expiration.  In  laughter,  this 
muscle  is  affected  to  convulsion. 

In  the  second  place,  the  organic  functions  of  the 
Bystei':  are  decidedly  influenced  for  good  or  evil 
under  emotion.  The  glandular  and  other  organs 
acted  on  in  this  way  comprehend  the  most  import- 
ant viscera  of  the  body.  The  Lachrymal  Secretion 
is  specifically  affected  under  passion  ;  the  flow  of 
tears  being  accelerated  to  a  rush,  instead  of  piirsvi- 
ing  tiie  traiiqiul  course  of  kee})ing  the  eyeball  moist 
and  clean.  The  states  of  the  Sexual  Organs  are  con- 
nected with  the  stroTigest  feelings  of  the  mind,  being 
both  the  cause  and  the  effect  of  mental  excitement. 
The  Digestion  is  greatly  subject  to  the  feelings, 
being  promoted  by  joy  and  hilarity,  not  in  too  great 
excess,  and  arrested  and  disturbed  under  pain,  grief, 
S8 


terror,  anger,  and  intense  bodily  or  mental  occuprv* 
tion.  The  Skin  is  known  to  respond  to  the  condition 
of  the  mind  ;  the  cold  sweat  in  fear  is  a  derange- 
ment  of  its  healthy  functions.  The  Hespiration  may 
be  quickened  or  depressed  according  to  the  feelings. 
The  action  of  the  Heart  and  the  Circulation  of  the 
Blood  are  subject  to  the  same  causes.  The  nature 
of  this  influence  was  explained  under  Blushing. 
Lastly,  in  women,  the  Lacteal  Secretion  particii)ate8 
in  the  states  of  emotion,  being  al)undant,  healthy, 
and  a  source  of  j)leasure  in  a  tranquil  condition  of 
mind,  while  grief  and  strong  passions  change  it  to  a 
deleterious  quality. 

The  connection  between  mental  emotion  and 
bodily  states  being  thus  a  fact  confirmed  by  the 
universal  experience  of  mankind,  can  we  explain 
this  connection  ui)on  any  general  law  or  principle  of 
the  human  constitution  ?  Have  we  any  clue  to  the 
mysterious  selection  of  come  actions  as  expressing 
pleasure,  and  others  as  expressing  pain  ?  The  rei)ly 
is,  that  there  is  one  ])rincii)le  or  clue  that  unravela 
much  of  the  complexity  of  this  subject — namely, 
that  states  of  pleasure  are  vsi(ally  accovipanied  '.nth 
an  increase  in  some  or  all  of  the  vital  functions,  Z7id 
slates  of  pain  vnth  a  depression  or  weakening  of  %'/xil 
functions.  This  position  may  be  maintained  on  a 
very  wide  induction  of  facts,  many  of  them  very 
generally  recognised,  and  others  ojjen  to  any  carefiil 
observer  ;  there  being,  however,  some  appearances 
of  an  oi)i)osite  kind,  which  have  to  be  satisfactorily 
accounted  for,  before  we  can  cons.der  it  as  fully 
established. 

If  we  consider  first  the  respective  agents  or  causes 
of  pleasure  and  i)ain,  we  must  acknowledge  that 
they  are  very  generally  of  a  nature  to  accord  with 
the  view  now  stated.  How  many  of  the  sources  of 
pleasure  are  obviously  sourcej  of  increased  energy  of 
some  vital  organs.  The  cas,e  of  Food  is  too  obvious 
to  need  any  comment.  Warmth  within  limits  both 
confers  jileasure  and  stimulates  the  skin,  the  diges- 
tion, and  other  functioiis.  Fresh  air  exhilarates  the 
mind,  while  quickening  the  respiratory  function. 
Light  is  believed  to  stimulate  the  vital  actions  no 
less  than  the  mental  tone.  And  if  there  be  some 
pleasures  of  sense,  such  as  mere  sweetness  of  taste, 
fragrant  odours,  music,  &c.,  that  do  not  obviously 
involve  greater  energy  of  vital  function,  they  might 
be  seen  to  do  so,  if  we  knew  more  than  w'e  do  respect- 
ing the  operation  of  the  various  organs,  and  we  are 
certain  that  they  do  not  have  the  opposite  efiect. 
Medical  authorities  are  so  much  impressed  with  the 
general  tendency  of  pleas.ures,  that  they  include 
them  in  the  list  of  stimidants  in  cases  of  low  \'itality. 
If  we  pass  from  the  senses  to  the  special  emotions, 
such  as  Wonder,  Power,  Tender  Afi'ecti  on,  Taste,  we 
find  that  when  those  are  pleasing,  they  also  increase 
the  animal  forces  at  some  point  or  other.  A  stroke 
of  victory  sends  a  tlirill  through  the  whole  system ; 
and  if  the  pulse  were  examined  at  that  moment,  we 
shoidd  find  that  it  beats  stronger.  The  illustration 
for  Pains  is  exactly  parallel,  but  still  more  striking. 
It  is  notorious  that  hurts,  wounds,  fatigue,  ill-health, 
himger,  chillness,  nauseo^^s  tastes  and  odours,  tha 
silence  of  a  prison,  the  gloom  of  utter  darkness, 
failure,  humiliation,  contumely,  deprivation  of  one's 
usual  comforts  and  pleasures— while  causing  pain, 
cause  in  a  corresponding  degree  a  depression  of  the 
powers  of  the  system.  There  are  some  apparent  ex- 
ceptions, as  in  the  stimulus  of  the  whip,  the  bracing 
agency  of  cold,  and  the  effect  of  misery  generally  in 
rousing  men  from  lethargy  to  action,  but  these  could 
all  be  shown  to  be  quite  compatible  with  the  main 
principle. 

If  we  turn  from  the  agents  to  the  expression,  or 
modes  of  manifestation,  of  the  opposing  neutral  con- 
ditions, we  shall  find  that  the  facts  are  of  the  samf 


EMOTION— EMPANNEL. 


general  tenor,  although  with  some  seeming  excep- 
taons.  Joy  makes  a  man  sj)ontaneously  active, 
erect,  animated,  and  energetic.  It  is  as  if  a  flush  of 
power  were  diffused  through  his  members  ;  and  the 
efljrts  he  is  then  prompted  to,  lead  to  no  painful 
exliaustion.  The  opening  up  of  the  features,  by  the 
elevation  of  the  eyebrows  and  the  retraction  of  the 
mouth,  indicates  that  the  stream  of  energy  has 
courjed  over  the  face.  In  a  still  greater  shock, 
th  •  coavulsiveness  of  laughter,  by  which  respiration 
fjS  quickened,  attests  the  superabundance  of  the 
animal  spirits.  The  body  stands  more  erect,  and 
every  act  done  is  done  with  more  emphasis.  Grief 
and  depression  are  the  opposite  in  every  particidar. 
Tha  frame  is  languid  and  stooping,  the  features  life- 
less, the  voice  is  a  feeble  wail ;  and  although  there 
is  a  species  of  convulsion  attending  on  this  condi- 
tion of  mind,  it  is  a  marked  contrast  to  the  other, 
'^he  sob  is  caused  by  the  partial  paralysis  of  the 
diaphragm,  which  necessitates  great  volimtary  efforts 
in  order  that  breathing  may  proceed.  The  choking 
sensation  at  the  throat  is  also  a  species  of  paralysis 
from  loss  of  vital  power.  The  convulsions  arising 
under  such  circumstances  are  productive  of  an 
exhausting  reaction,  which  is  the  case  with  aU  the 
energetic  movements  stimulated  by  extreme  pain. 

Such  is  undoubtedly  the  general  fact.  But  why 
should  pain  stimulate,  or  give  strength  to,  some 
special  muscles,  such  as  the  corrugator  of  the  eye- 
brow, and  the  dei)ressor  of  the  angle  of  the  mouth? 
This  has  appeared  a  great  difficulty  to  the  aljlest 
physiologists.  It  would  look  as  if  pleasure  coin- 
cided with  an  energetic  wave  sent  to  some  muscles, 
and  pain  with  an  energetic  wave  sent  to  others  ;  so 
that  the  oj)posite  conditions  of  mind  are  equaU}'' 
accompanied  by  an  accession  of  powsr  to  some 
bodily  member.  But  if  we  examine  the  matter 
more  narrowly,  it  will  probably  turn  out  that  the 
muscles  that  seem  to  be  stimulated  under  pain,  are 
not  so  in  reality,  but  obtain  the  upper  hand  through 
the  general  relaxation  of  the  system.  Thus,  take 
the  mouth.  We  know  the  state  of  the  mouth  in 
languor,  inaction,  and  sleep.  We  know  that  when 
we  are  roused  in  any  way,  the  m^uscles  of  the  face 
operate  and  draw  the  mouth  asunder  in  a  variety 
of  forms.  Pleasure  corresponds  with  our  energetic 
moods,  pain  causes  a  collapse  towards  the  sleepy 
and  exhausted  condition  which  represents  a  state  of 
departed  energy.  So  the  collapse  of  the  body 
might  seem  an  exertion  of  the  flexor  muscles,  or 
those  that  bend  the  frame  forward ;  but  we  are 
well  aware  that  such  collapse  takes  place  when  the 
system  is  totally  lifeless.  A  renewed  energy,  as  a 
matter  of  course,  makes  us  stand  erect. 

This  is  a  part  of  the  case  in  reply  to  the  objections 
arising  from  a  speciflc  exi)ression  of  ])ain,  l)ut  not 
the  whole;  and  the  answer  to  the  difficulties  still 
rejDtaining  is  furnished  by  a  fact  that,  if  well  authen- 
ticated, will  probably  disjjose  of  nearly  all  the 
exceptions  to  the  general  jirinciple  now  contended 
for.  It  is  the  organic  functions,  more  than  the 
muscular  system,  whose  increased  vitality  coincides 
mith  pleasurable  feeling,  and  their  diminished  action 
%lt\i  i)ain.  Muscidar  exercise  is  often  highly  agree- 
able, but  the  pleasure  of  restirif)  after  exercise  is 
gtill  more  so.  Now,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
what  happens  in  the  state  of  healthy  repose  is  this  : 
the  amount  of  vital  force  stimulated  by  exercise — 
the  increased  energy  <lerived  from  plying  the  lungs 
and  heart — is  now  allowed  to  leave  the  active 
meml)ers,  and  to  i)ass  to  the  other  organs— the 
digestion,  skin,  and  various  secreting  glands — and  it 
is  their  aggrandisement  that  is  associated  with  tlie 
comfortable  sensations  of  repose  and  sinking  into 
Bleep.  Thus,  the  abating  of  muscidar  energy  may 
be  a  cause  of  pleasure,  provided  the  organic  func- 


tions are  raised  in  consequence ;  b  at  it  may  be 
!  maintained  as  a  liighly  j)robaljle  sup])oaition,  that  i\. 
'  certain  health  and  energy  of  some  or  all  of  these 
!  functions  (it  is  difficult  to  draw  a  specific  line)  is 
I  essential  to  i)leasural)le  feeling.     We  may  doubt 
j  whether  even  mental  causes  can  materially  raise 
the  tone  of  enjoyment,  if  they  do  not  also  raise  the 
activity  of  some  of  these  organs.    Not  only  may  a 
'  person  be  very  happy  and  comfortable  in  the  pros- 
tration of  the  muscular  energy,  even  in  a  sick-be<l, 
[  but  one  way  of  procuring  comfort  is  to  induce  a 
total  inaction  of  the  moving  members,  to  allosV 
all  the  available  nervwis  power  to  i)ass  to  the 
viscera  and  secretions.    Hence  a  forced  relaxation 
of  the  muscles  generally,  by  the  employment  of 
some  of  them,  is  a  means  of  soothing  the  mind 
under  pain.    Thus,  the  active  intervention  of  cer- 
tain small  muscles — such  as  the  corrugator  of  the 
eyebrows,  the  orbicular  ir.uscle  of  the  mouth,  and 
the  depressor  of  the  angle  of  the  mouth — l;y  relax- 
ing a  much  greater  body  of  mnscle,  is  the  means  of 
setting  free  vital  energy  for  behoof  of  the  other 
j  parts  of  the  system.    This  would  explain  the  mental 
relief  furnished  by  an  assumed  sadness  of  featui'c, 
and  a  voluntary  collapse  of  the  body  generally. 

It  would  appear,  then,  that  the  stimiUus  of  muscle  is 
not  necessarily  or  inimediatel}''  a  cause  of  pleasure ; 
while  the  stimulus  of  the  organic  functions  is  so. 
Thus,  a  bracing  cold  quickens  the  activities,  but  ia 
apt  to  cause  a  shock  of  pain,  by  temjiorarily  check- 
ing the  action  of  the  skin ;  when  the  reaction 
arrives,  this  check  is  converted  into  stimulation, 
and  the  mental  state  is  altered  in  like  manner.  A 
bitter  tonic  must  be  supposed  to  act  on  the  same 
principle. 

The  emotions  of  the  human  mind  may  be  classi- 
fied under  two  heads  : 

First — The  ])leasures,  and  pains,  and  modes  of 
excitement  growing  out  of  the  exercise  of  the  Senses, 
the  Movements,  and  the  Appetites.  See  Senses. 
The  five  senses,  commonly  recognised,  are  partly 
sources  of  pleasure  and  pain,  in  which  case  they 
yield  Emotion,  and  partly  sources  of  Knowledge,  by 
which  they  are  related  to  the  Intellect.  There  are 
other  sensibilities  not  included  in  the  five  senses, 
but  ranking  with  them  in  those  particulars — as  the 
feelings  of  Muscular  Exercise  and  Repose,  and  the 
sensations  of  Digestion,  Respiration,  &c. 

The  second  head  comprises  the  Special  Emotions 
not  arising  immediately  out  of  Sensation,  although 
connected  therewith.  These  have  been  variously 
classified.  The  following  is  one  mode  of  laying 
them  out :  1.  Feelings  of  Liberty  and  Restraint ; 
2.  Wonder ;  3.  Terror ;  4.  Tender  Affections ;  5. 
Emotions  of  Self-complacency,  Love  of  Ap})roba- 
tion,  &c. ;  6.  Sentiment  of  Power ;  7.  Irascibility ; 
8.  Emotions  of  Action,  including  the  interest  of 
Pursuit  or  Plot ;  9.  Emotions  of  Intellect,  Love  of 
Knowledge,  Consistency,  and  Inconsistency ;  10. 
Fine  Art  Emotions,  or  Taste  ;  11.  The  Moral  Sense. 

On  this  subject,  see  Miiller's  Physiology,  Movementi 
due  to  tlie  Passions  of  the  Mind;  Bell's  Anatomy 
of  Expression  ;  Stewart  on  the  Active  Poiverj  ;  Bain 
on  the  Emotions  and  the  Will,  &c. 

EMPA'NNEL — Empanellare  vel  ponere  in  assisis 
et  jurat  is — to  write  in  a  schedide  or  roll  the  names 
of  such  jurors  as  the  sheriff'  returns  to  pass  upon 
any  trial.  The  judges  of  assize  in  England,  before 
commencing  their  circuits,  issue  precepts  to  the 
sheriffs  of  the  several  counties,  calling  upon  them 
to  summon  a  sufficient  number  of  jurors  to  sers'o 
upon  the  grand  and  petty  jiu-ies.  In  compliance 
with  this  order,  the  sheriff  prepares  lists,  called  the 
Panels  (q.  v.)  of  the  jury,  and  the  i>ersous  named 
in  the  lists  are  thereupon  summoned  to  attend  at 
the  assizes. 


EMPECrNADO— EMPEROR  MOTH. 


EMPECINA'DO,  Don  Juan  Martin  Diaz,  el, 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Spanish  revolution  of 
1820,  was  born  in  177'^.  He  was  the  son  of  poor 
parents,  and  entered  the  Spanish  army  in  1792.  At 
the  head  of  5000  or  GOOO  men,  he  carried  on  a 
guerilla  warfare  against  the  French  during  the 
Peninsular  sti'uggle,  and  acquired  great  distinction. 
In  1814,  he  was  ap])ointed  colonel  in  the  regular 
army,  and  the  king  himself  created  him  held- 
marshal ;  but  in  consequence  of  i)etitioning  Ferdi- 
uand,  in  1815,  to  reinstitute  the  Cortes,  he  was 
imprisoned,  and  afterwards  banished  to  Valladolid. 
On  the  outbreak  of  the  insurrection  in  1820,  lie 
took  a  })romiueut  ])art  on  the  side  of  the  constitu- 
tionalists, and  on  several  occasions  exhibited  gi'eat 
courage,  daring,  and  circumspection.  After  the 
triumph  of  the  absolutists  in  1825,  he  was  arrested, 
exposed  in  an  iron  cage  to  the  contumely  of  the 
passers-by,  and  finally  executed  on  a  common 
gibbet,  amidst  tlie  ferocious  yellings  of  a  debased 
and  liberty- hating  populace. 

EMPE'DOCLES,  a  Greek  philosoi)her  of  Agri- 
gentum,  in  Sicily,  lived  about  450  B.C.  So  great 
was  the  estimation  in  which  he  was  held  by  his 
fellow-citizens  as  a  physician,  a  friend  of  the  gods,  a 
predicter  of  futurity,  and  a  sorcerer,  or  conjuror 
of  nature,  that  they  are  said  to  have  offered  him  the 
fiiovereiguty.  But  being  an  enemy  of  tyranny,  he 
declined  it,  and  Avas  the  means  of  delivering  the 
community  from  the  dominion  of  the  aristocracy, 
and  bringing  in  a  democrac3%  There  was  a  tradition 
that  he  threw  himself  into  tlie  crater  of  Etna,  in 
order  that  his  sudden  disappearance  might  beget  a 
lielief  in  his  divine  origin  ;  this,  however,  can  only 
be  regarded  as  a  mere  fable,  like  the  story  told  by 
Lucian,  that  Etna  threw  out  the  sandals  of  the  vain 
philosopher,  and  thus  destroyed  the  popular  belief 
m  his  divinity.  The  statement  of  Aristotle  is,  that 
he  died  at  the  age  of  60  ;  later  writers  extend  the 
period  of  his  life  considerably  further,  but  their 
testimony  is  not  equal  in  weight  to  that  of  Aristotle. 

In  E.,  philosophic  thought  is  bound  up  with 
poetry  and  myth  even  in  a  higher  degree  than  in 
rarmeriides  (q.  v.).  His  general  point  of  view  is 
determined  by  the  influence  of  the  Eleatic  school  i 
upon  the  physical  theories  of  the  Ionic  philoso- 
phers. He  assumed  four  primitive  independent 
substances — air,  water,  fire,  and  earth,  which  he 
designates  often  by  the  mythical  names  Zeus,  Here, 
&c.  These  four  elem.ents,  as  they  were  called,  kept 
their  place  till  modern  chemistry  dislodged  them. 
Along  with  material  elements,  he  afifirmed  the  exist- 
ence of  two  moving  and  operating  powers,  love  and 
hate,  or  friendship  and  strife,  the  first  as  the  unit- 
ing principle,  the  second  as  the  separating.  The 
contrast  between  matter  and  power,  or  force,  is  thus 
brought  out  more  strongly  by  E.  than  by  preA^ious 
philosophers.  The  origin  of  the  world,  or  cosmos, 
he  conceived  in  this  way  :  In  the  beginning,  the 
elements  were  held  in  a  sort  of  blended  unity,  or 
sphere,  by  the  attractive  force  of  love ;  when  hate, 
previously  exterior,  penetrated  as  a  rej^elling  and 
separating  principle.  In  this  process  of  separation, 
wMch  gives  rise  to  the  individual  objects  of  nature, 
he  seems  to  have  assumed  a  series  of  stages,  a 
gradual  development  of  the  perfect  out  of  the 
impel  feet,  and  a  periodical  return  of  things  to  the 
rlemental  state,  in  order  to  be  again  separated,  and 
a  new  world  of  phenomena  formed.  From  the 
fragments  that  we  possess  of  his  didactic  poem,  it  is 
not  quite  clear  in  hov/  far  he  considered  fire  as  the 
substratum  of  strife,  and  water  as  the  substratum  of 
love,  and  ascribed  various  creations  to  the  predomi- 
nance of  one  or  the  other  of  these  iirinciples.  Of 
his  opinions  on  special  j)henomena,  may  be  men- 
tiouod  his  doctrine  of  emanations,  which  proceeding 
40 


from  one  thing  enter  into  corresponding  openings  in 
other  things.  By  this  assumption  in  connection 
with  the  maxim,  that  like  is  known  only  by  like, 
he  thought  to  explain  the  nature  of  perception  by 
the  senses.  He  attempted  to  give  a  moral  ai)plica- 
tion  to  the  old  doctrine  of  the  transmigration  of 
souls,  his  views  of  which  resembled  those  of  Pjrthag- 
oras.  The  fragments  of  E,  have  been  edited  by 
Sturz  (2  vols.,  Leip.  1805),  Karsten  (Amst.  1838) 
and  Stein  (Bonn,  1852). 

_  E'MPEROR  (Lat.  ?m;)erator).  The  original  siftni' 
fication  of  this,  which  in  the  modem  world  \zm 
become  the  highest  title  of  sovereignty,  can  be 
understood  only  when  it  is  taken  in  conjunction 
with  imper turn,  which  in  the  Roman  political  system 
had  a  peculiar  and  somewhat  technical  meaning. 
The  imperium  of  a  magistrate,  be  he  king  or  consul, 
was  the  power  which  he  possessed  of  bringing  physi- 
cal force  into  operation  for  the  fulfilment  of  his 
behests.  This  power  was  conferred  by  a  lex  curiata, 
and  it  required  this  authorisation  to  entitle  a  consul 
to  act  as  the  commander  of  an  army.  In  the  case  of 
the  kings  also,  the  imperium  was  not  implied  in 
their  election,  but  was  conferred  separately,  by  a 
separate  act  of  the  national  will.  '  On  the  death  of 
King  Pomi)ilius,'  says  Cicero,  '  the  populus  in  the 
coiiiitia  curiata  elected  Tullus  Hostiiius  king,  upon 
the  rogation  of  an  interrex  ;  and  the  king,  following 
the  example  of  Pompilius,  took  the  votes  of  the 
populus,  according  to  their  cur  ice,  on  the  question  of 
his  imperium.^ — Jiepublic,  ii.  17.  Now,  it  was  in 
virtue  of  this  imperium  that  the  title  iinperator  waa 
given  to  its  possessor.  Far  from  being  an  emperor 
in  the  modern  sense,  he  might  be  a  consul  or  a  pro- 
consid  ;  and  there  were,  in  fact,  many  imperatores, 
even  after  the  title  had  been  assumed  as  a  pre- 
uomcn  by  Julius  Csesar.  It  was  this  assumption 
which  gi-adually  gave  to  the  title  its  modern  signifi- 
cation. In  republican  times,  it  had  followed  the 
name,  and  indicated  simply  that  its  j)Ossessor  was  an 
imperator,  or  one  possessed  of  the  imperium  ;  now 
it  preceded  it,  and  signified  that  he  who  arrogated 
it  to  himself  was  the  empeior.  In  this  form  it 
appears  on  the  coins  of  the  successors  of  Julius. 
After  the  times  of  the  Antonines,  the  title  grew  into 
use  as  expressing  the  possessor  of  the  sovereignty  of 
the  Roman  world,  in  which  sense  Prbiceps  also  was 
frequently  employed.  In  the  introduction  to  the 
Institutes,  Justinian  uses  both,  in  speaking  of  him- 
self, in  the  same  paragraph.  From  the  emperors  of 
the  West,  the  title  passed  to  Charlemagne,  the 
founder  of  the  German  empire.  When  the  Carlo- 
vingian  family  ex])ired  in  the  German  branch,  the 
imperial  crown  became  elective,  and  continued  to 
be  so  till  it  ceased — Francis  II.,  who  in  1804  had 
declared  himself  hereditary  Emperor  of  Austria, 
having  laid  it  down  in  180C.  In  addition  to  the 
Emperor  of  Austria,  there  are  now  in  Europe  the 
Emi)eror  of  Russia  and  the  Emperor  of  the  French — 
the  latter  of  whom,  being  an  elected  monarch,  holds 
a  position,  in  one  respect  at  least,  resembling  that  of 
the  old  emi)erors  of  the  second  Western  Empire, 
with  whom  it  is  sometimes  thought  that  he  is  not 
unwilling  to  be  identified, 

EMPEROR  MOTH  {Saturnia  pavonia  minor), 
a  moth  of  the  same  family  {Bonibyci(hv)  w^th  th«. 
silk-worm  moth,  and  of  a  genus  t(?  which  the 
largest  of  lepidopterous  insects  belong.  The  R  M- 
is  the  largest  British  lepidopterous  insect.  Ita 
expanse  of  wings  is  about  three  and  a  half  inches. 
Each  wing  is  ornamented  with  a  large  eye-like 
glassy  and  transparent  spot,  and  such  spots  are 
exhibited  by  many  of  the  genus.  The  Peacock 
Moth  {iS.  pavonia  major),  is  the  largest  European 
species,   and   attains   an   expanse   of   five  inches 


EMPETKACE^E— EMPOllITTM. 


across  the  wings  Th3  cocoons  of  the  E.  M.  are 
remarkable  for  being  formed  internally  of  stiff 
convergent  elastic  thi-eads,  which  readily  permit  the 


Emperor  Moth,  with  Caterpillar,  Pupa,  and  Cocoon. 

escape  of  the  insect,  but  prevent  the  entrance  of 
Intniders.  The  cocoons  of  this  genus  of  moths  are 
invested  with  silk,  which  in  China  and  India  is 
collected  for  use.    See  Silk  and  Silk-worm. 

EMPETRA'CE^.    See  Crowbeery. 

E'MPHASIS.    See  Accent. 

EMPHYSE'MA,  an  unnatural  distension  of  a 
part  with  air.  Emphysema  of  the  cellular  texture 
often  takes  place  in  the  neighbourhood  of  woimds 
of  the  air-passages  in  the  lungs,  and  is  the 
consequence  of  an  escape  of  air  from  these  parts. 
Emphysema  of  the  lungs  is  the  consequence  either 
of  distension  or  of  rupture  of  the  air-vesicles, 
especially  on  the  surface.  It  is  rarely  that  emphy- 
sema is  produced  otherwise  than  mechanically  ; 
but  collections  of  fluid  in  a  stato  of  decompo- 
sition sometimes  give  out  gases,  which  penetrate 
and  distend  the  textm-es  with  which  they  are  in 
cont&ot. 

EMPHYTEU'SIS  (Gr.,  an  implanting),  in  the 
Roman  law,  a  perpetual  right  in  a  piece  of  land, 
for  which  a  yearly  sum  was  paid  to  the  superior 
or  original  proprietor.  The  emphyteusis  much 
resembled  our  feudal  holdings,  so  much  so,  indeed, 
that  Craig  and  other  Scotch  writers  a])ply  the  term 
to  them.  The  sum  paid  to  the  superior  was  called 
the  carbon  emphyteuticus.  The  tenant  handed  down 
the  right  to  his  heirs,  and  was  entitled  to  sell,  but 
only  on  condition  of  giving  the  first  offer  to  the 
dominus.  The  consent  of  the  lord,  however,  was 
not  necessary  to  entitle  him  to  impignorate  the 
emphyteuta  for  his  debt.  Justinian  put  the  emphy- 
teusis and  the  ager  veLfgalis  on  the  same  footing. 
The  latter  is  the  term  applied  to  lands  leased  by  the 
Konian  state,  by  towns,  ecclesiastical  corporations, 
and  by  the  vestal  virgins.  There  were  several  ways 
in  which  the  right  ot^  emphyteusis  might  cease.  If 
tlie  tenant  died  without  lieirs,  it  reverted  to  the 
dominus.  He  might  also  lose  his  right  by  injuring 
the  property,  l)y  non-payment  of  his  rent  or  public 
burdens,  or  by  alienation  without  notice  to  the 
dominus.  It  was,  of  course,  also  in  his  power  to 
renounce  it. 

EMWKIC  (Gr.  empeirikos^  an  experimentalist  or 
searcher  after  facts  in  nature,  from  peirao^  I  try).  It 
is  ditficult  to  say  at  what  period,  or  in  what  manner, 


this  word  began  to  degenerate  from  its  ori^nal 

meaning.  Probably  the  idea  was,  that  empiricLsm, 
or  experimental  science,  excluded,  because  it  did  not 
require,  the  reasoning  faculties  for  its  cultivation 
and,  therefore,  the  profession  of  empiricism  came  to 
be  synonymous  with  vulgar  ignorance.  The  empirics 
were  a  regular  sect  of  ancient  physicians  in  the  time 
of  Celsus  and  Galen,  who  gives  us  Pome  insight  into 
their  modes  of  thuught  and  practice.  They  laid  great 
stress  on  the  unprejudiced  observation  of  raturej 
and  thought  that,  by  a  careful  coUectioii  of  obsei  ve(J 
facts  forming  a  history,  the  coincidence  of  many 
observations  would  lead  to  unalterable  prescriptions 
for  certain  cases.  Ihe  later  adherents  of  the  sohocl 
excluded  all  theoretical  cTtiidy,,  even  that  of  analomy, 
and  were  guided  solely  by  tradition  and  their 
individual  experience.  By  an  empiric  in  medicine  ia 
now  understood  a  man  who,  from  want  of  theoretio 
knowledge,  prescribes  remedie?  by  guess  according 
to  the  name  of  the  disease  or  to  ^dividual  symptoms, 
without  thinking  of  the  constitution  of  the  patient 
or  other  modifying  cii'cumstances.  What  are  called 
specifics  are  administered  on  this  principle,  or  want 
of  principla 

EMPrRICAL  FO'RMULA,  in  Chemistry,  is 
a  mode  of  expressing  the  results  of  analysis  by  ele- 
mentary symbols.  Hiere  are  numerous  comj)ound 
substances,  such  as  acetic  acid,  lactic  acid,  glucose, 
etc.,  which  would  all  give  the  same  result  on  analysis, 
and  would  be  represented  by  the  empirical  formula 
CH2O,  or  one  equivalent  of  carbon,  two  equiva- 
lents of  hydrogen,  and  one  equivalent  of  oxygen.  The 
very  different  [jroperties  of  these  bodies,  all  composed 
of  the  same  elements,  must  be  due  to  a  different  order 
of  combination,  whicli,  to  a  great  extent,  may  be  rep- 
resented by  rational  formula  as  distinguished  from  em- 
pirical. Acetic  acid  is  the  hydrated  oxide  of  acetyl,  or 
may  be  regarded  as  a  molecule  of  water  (H2O),  in  which 
half  the  hydrogen  is  replaced  by  acetyl,  C2H3O  ;  and 

C  fT  O  ) 

this  is  expressed  by  the  rational  formula  V  O, 

but  could  not  be  implied  by  the  empirical  mode,  either 
in  the  form  of  CH2O,  or  C2H4O2. 

EMPIRICAL  LAWS  are  such  as  express 
relationships,  which  may  be  merely  accidental, 
observed  to  subsist  among  phenomena,  but  which 
do  not  suggest  or  imply  the  explanation  or  cause  of 
the  production  of  the  phenomena.  They  are  usually 
tentative,  and  form  stages  in  the  ])rogress  of  dis- 
covery of  causal  laws.  Bode's  law  of  the  distances 
of  the  planets  from  the  sun  may  be  accepted  aa 
an  example  of  an  empirical  law. 

E'MPOLI,  a  town  of  Tuscany,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Italy,  is  situated  in  a  remarkably  beautiful  and 
fertile  district  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Arno,  16 
miles  west-south-west  of  Florence.  It  is  a  thrivdng 
town,  is  surrounded  by  walls  flanked  with  towers, 
and  although  its  streets  are  narrow,  it  is  on  the 
whole  well  built,  and  has  some  good  squares.  The 
most  interesting  building  is  the  Collegiate  Church, 
built  in  1093,  the  tine  original  facade  of  which 
has  suffered  but  little  from  modern  improvemeni9i 
although  the  other  portions  of  the  building  irgra 
considerably  altered  in  1738.  This  chuj-oh  coiitaina 
several  good  paintings,  and  has  also  some  eicePient 
specimens  of  sculptxure,  among  which  is  one  by 
Donatello.  E.  has  several  manufactories  o£  cotton, 
leather,  straw- hats,  and  glass,  a  considerable  trade 
in  agricultural  produce,  and  a  weekly  market  of 
some  importance.    Pop.  6500. 

EMPO'RIXJM  (Gr.  emporion,  trading-place).  The 
word  is  derived  from  emporos,  which  signified  in 
Homer's  time  a  person  who  sailed  in  a  siiip  belong- 
ing to  another,  but  latterly  meant  a  wholesale 
merchant,  as  -opposed  to  a  retailer,  who  was  called 


EMPTION— EMYS. 


kapelos.  An  emporium  thus  came  to  be  applied  to 
the  receptacles  in  which  wholesale  merchants  stowed 
their  goods  in  seaports  and  elsewhere,  and  thus 
corresponded  to  our  warehouse,  as  opposed  to  a 
shop. 

E'MPTION.    See  Sale  of  Goods. 

EMPYE'MA  (Gr.),  an  internal  suppuration,  a  woi'd 
now  applied  exclusively  to  a  collection  of  pus  in  the 
pleura,  causing  pressure  of  the  lung,  and  often  at- 
tended by  hectit:  fever.    See  Tleurisy. 

EMPYREU'MA  (Gr.  empyrerco,  I  kindle),  the 
burned  smell  and  acrid  taste  which  result  when  vege- 
table or  animal  substances  are  decomposed  by  a  strong 
heat.  The  cause  of  tbe  smell  and  taste  resides  in  an 
oil  called  empyreumatic,  which  does  not  exist  natur- 
ally vti  tao  substance,  but  is  formed  by  its  decomposi- 
tion. 

EMS,  usually  called  the  Batlis  of  Ems,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  other  places  of  the  same  name,  a 
bathing-place  known  to  the  Romans,  and  celel>rated 
in  Germany  as  early  as  the  14th  century.  It  is 
situated  a))0ut  four  miles  from  Coblenz,  near  the 
most  picturesque  parts  of  the  Rhine,  in  a  beautiful 
valley  in  tlie  ])rovince  ot"  Ilessen,  traversed  by  the  navi- 
gable river  Lalm,  and  sui  roundcd  by  wooded  bills.  Top. 
(1875)  6104.  Its  warm  mineral  springs  belong  to  tbe 
class  containing  soda.  The  only  essential  difference 
between  the  numerous  s})rings  is  in  the  temperature 
varying  from  24°  to  4G°  Reaumur,  and  in  the  greater 
or  lesser  amount  of  carbonic  acid  gas  contained  in 
them.  The  bathing  establishments  arc  comfortably, 
and  even  luxuriously  fitted  up,  and  the  same  may 
be  said  of  the  hotels  and  private  lodging-houses. 

EjMS,  a  river  in  the  north-west  of  Germany,  rise*- 
in  Westphalia,  at  the  southern  base  of  the  Teuto- 
burger  Waid,  and  flowing  first  in  a  north-western, 
and  then  through  the  Hanoverian  territories  in  a 
northern  direction,  empties  itself  into  Dollart  Bay, 
an  estuary  of  the  German  Ocean,  after  a  course  of 
210  mj^.es.  Its  chief  affluents  ai'e  the  Aa,  the 
Haase,  and  the  Leda.  It  is  navigable  for  vessels  of 
100  tons  as  high  as  Pappenburg,  which  is  25  miles 
rip  the  river  from  Dollart  Bay.  The  E.  drains  a 
basin  of  about  5000  square  miles  in  extent.  In 
1818,  it  was  connected  by  a  canal  with  the  Lippe, 
and  thus  with  the  Rhine,  which  gi'catly  increased 
its  importance  with  respect  to  commerce  and 
navigation. 

E'MU  {Dromaius — or  Dromechis — Novce  Hoi- 
landice),  a  very  large  bird,  one  of  the  Struthionidce 
or  Brevipenne.%  a  native  of  Australia,  and  widely 
diffused  over  the  southern  parts  of  that  continent 
and  the  adjacent  islands.  It  is  by  some  ornitholo- 
gists referred  to  the  same  genus  with  the  cassowary, 
but  the  differences  are  very  considerable ;  the  bill 
being  horizontally  depressed,  whilst  that  of  the 
cassov/ary  is  laterally  compressed,  the  head  feathered, 
and  destitute  of  bony  crest;  the  throat  is  nearly 
naked,  and  has  no  pendent  wattles ;  the  feet  are 
three-toed  as  in  the  cassowary,  but  the  claws  are 
nearly  of  equal  length.  The  name  emu  or  emeu 
was  given  by  the  older  voyagers  and  naturalists  to 
khe  cassowary,  but  is  now  the  invariable  designation 
of  tto  Australian  bird.  The  emu  is  even  taller  than 
Uie  cassowiSry,  which  it  resembles  in  the  general 
character  of  its  plumage.  Its  wings  are  mere 
rudiments  hidden  beneath  the  feathers  of  the  body. 
Its  colour  i3  a  dull  brown,  mottled  with  dingy  gray; 
the  young  are  striped  with  black.  When  assailed, 
it  strikes  backwards  and  obliquely  with  its  feet,  like 
the  cassowary,  and  it  is  so  powerfid  that  a  stroke 
of  its  foot  is  said  to  be  sufficient  to  break  a  man's 
leg.  Dogs  employed  in  hunting  it  are  often  injured 
by  ito  kicks,  but  well-trained  dogs  run  in  before  it, 
43 


and  spring  at  its  neck.  It  cannot  fly,  but  runs  very 
fleetly.  It  is  timid  and  peaceful,  and  trusts  alto- 
gether to  its  speed  for  safety,  unless  hard  pressed. 
In  a  wild  state,  it  sometimes  occurs  in  small 
flocks ;  but  it  has  now  become  rare  in  and  around 


Emu,  and  Young. 


all  the  settled  parts  of  Australia.  The  extinction 
of  the  species  may,  however,  perhaps  be  prevented 
by  its  being  preserved  in  a  state  of  domestication  ; 
as  its  flesh  is  excellent,  and  it  is  very  easily 
domesticated,  and  breeds  readily  in  that  state.  It 
has  frequently  bred  in  Britain.  The  eggs  are  six 
or  seven  in  number,  dark  green  ;  the  male  performs 
the  principal  part  of  the  incubation.  The  eggs  are 
highly  esteemed  as  food.  The  skin  of  the  emu 
contains  much  oil — six  or  seven  quarts  are  obtained 
from  a  single  bird,  and  on  this  accoimt  it  has  been 
much  hunted  in  Australia.  The  food  of  the  emu 
consists  chiefly  of  roots,  fruits,  and  herbage.  Its 
oidy  note  is  a  drumming  sound,  which  it  freguently 
emits. 

EMU'LSIN",  or  SYNAPTASE,  is  a  peculiar 
ferment  present  in  the  bitter  and  sweet  almond,  and 
which  forms  a  constituent  of  all  almond  emulsions. 
When  bitter  almonds  are  bruised,  and  water  added, 
the  emidsin  acts  as  a  ferment  on  the  araygdalin, 
and  decomjjoses  the  latter  into  volatile  oil  of  bitter 
almonds,  prussic  acid,  grape-sugar,  formic  acid,  and 
water  (see  Almonds,  Volatile  Oil,  or  Essential 
Oil  of).  The  vegetable  albumen  of  almonds  ia 
almost  entirely  composed  of  emidsin  ;  which,  when 
separated,  is  a  white  substance,  soluble  in  water, 
and  is  distinguished  by  its  remarkable  power  of 
causing  the  fermentation  of  amygdalin.  It  consists 
of  carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  oxygen. 

EMU'LSION  is  the  term  applied  to  those 
preparations  in  pharmacy  obtained  by  triturating 
certain  substances  with  water,  and  where  the  pro- 
duct is  a  milky  white  opaque  mixture  of  a  gummy 
consistence,  and  composed  more  or  less  of  oily 
particles  floating  in  mecbanical  suspension  in  the 
mucilaginous  liquid.  The  true  and  oily  eniulsions 
are  those  containing  true  oil,  as  the  emulsion  of 
bitter  almonds,  obtained  by  bruising  the  latter  in 
a  mortar  with  water ;  and  the/a^se,  or  not  oily,  where 
no  true  oil  is  suspended,  as  where  camphor,  balsams, 
or  resins  are  rubbed  up  with  the  yolk  of  egg,  mucil- 
age, or  dilute  spirit  of  wine. 

E'MYS,  a  genus  of  Miu-sh  Tortoises,  from  which 
the  whole  family  of  Marsh  Tortoises  is  sometimes 
called  Emydce.  The  chelonians  of  this  family  are 
numerous,    and   widely  diffused    throughout  the 


EMYS— ENAMEL. 


warmer  parts  of  the  world.  They  differ  more  in 
their  habits  than  in  their  ai>pearance  and  structural 
characters  from  Land  Tortoises.  Their  carapace, 
however,  is  more  flattened,  and  their  feet  are  more 
expanded  and  webbed,  so  that  they  swim  ^vith  great 
facility.  They  feed  chiefly  on  animal  food,  as 
insects  and  molluscs,  aquatic  reptiles,  and  fishes, 
Bome  of  them  even  preying  upon  birds  and  mam- 
malia, which  come  within  their  reach.  Two  or 
three  species  of  JSmydcs  are  natives  of  the  south  of 


Alligator  Tortoise,  in  the  act  of  seizing  a  "Water 
SpanieL 

Em-ope ;  but  two  species  are  particularly  abundant 
in  North  America,  the  Painted  Tortoise  [Emys  picta), 
and  the  Alligator  Tortoise  [Eviysaura  serpentina). 
The  flesh  of  some,  as  Cistudo  Europcea,  is  esteemed 
for  food.  This  small  species,  about  ten  inches  long, 
an  inhabitant  of  lakes,  marshes,  and  muddy  places 
in  the  south  and  east  of  Europe,  is  sometimes  kept 
in  ponds,  and  fattened  for  the  table  on  lettuce- 
leaves,  bread,  &c. 

ENA'MEL  (Fr.  email,  originally  esma'd,  from  the 
game  root  as  smelt),  the  name  given  to  vitrified  I 
substances  of  various  composition  applied  to  the  j 
surface  of  metals.     Enamelling  is  practised  (1)  for  ! 
purposes  of  utility,  as  in  making  the  dial-plates  of  \ 
watches  and  clocks,  coating  the  insides  of  culinary  I 
vessels,  &c.,  when  it  may  be  considered  as  belong-  ! 
ing  to  the  useful  arts  ;  and  also  (2)  for  producing  j 
objects  of  ornament  and  beauty — artistic  designs,  j 
figures,  portraits,  &c.,  when  it  belongs  to  the  fine  i 
arts.     Both  the  composition  of  enamels  and  the  ''< 
processes  of  applying  them  are  intricate  suljjects,  j 
besides  being  in  many  cases  kept  secret  by  the 
inventors  ;  and  we  can  only  afford  space  for  the 
most  general  indications  of  their  nature.    The  basis 
of  all  enamels  is  an  easily  fusible  colourless  silicate 
or  glass,  to  which  the  desired  colour  and  the  desired 
degree  of  opaqueness  are  imparted  by  mixtures  of 
metallic  oxides.    The  molten  mass,  after  cooling, 
is  reduced  to  a  fine  powder,  and  washed,  and  the 
moist  paste  is  then  usually  spread  with  a  spatula 
iil>on  the  surface  of  the  metal ;  the  whole  is  then  ' 
tsxposed  in  a  fiurnace  {Jired,  as  it  is  called)  tiU  the  i 
wiaaiel  is  melted,  when  it  adheres  firmly  to  the  | 
EQetul.    The  metal  most  commonly  used  as  a  ground 
for  enamel  is  copper  ;  but  for  the  finest  kinds  of  j 
enamel  work  gold  and  silver  are  also  used.  | 

Artistic  or  Ornamental  Enamellinc]. — This  art  is  of  I 
preat  antiquity :  it  is  proved  by  the  remains  found  ' 
m  Egypt  to  have  been  practised  there ;  from  the  | 
Egyptians  it  passed  to  the  Greeks,  and  it  was  j 
extensively  emj)loyed  in  decoration  by  the  Romans ; 
m  the  reign  of  Augustus,  the  Roman  architects  I 
began  to  make  use  of  coloured  glass  in  their  mosaic  ' 
decorations  ;  various  Roman  antiquities,  ornamented  ! 
v/ith  enamel,  have  been  dug  up  in  Britain,  and  it  \ 


was  adopted  there  by  the  Saxons  and  Ncrmans. 
A  jewel  found  at  Athelney,  in  Somersetshire,  and 
now  preserved  in  the  Ashmolean  Museum  at 
Oxford,  is  proved  by  the  inscription  on  it  to  havo 
been  made  by  order  of  Alfred  ;  and  there  are  vari- 
ous figures  with  draperies  partly  composed  of 
coloured  enamel  on  the  sides  of  the  gold  cup 
given  by  King  John  to  the  corporation  of  Lynn 
in  Norfolk. 

Enamelling  has  been  practised  from  a  remote 
period  in  the  East,  Persia,  India,  and  China,  under 
a  separate  and  distinct  development ;  but  tJiere 
is  nothing  from  which  it  can  be  inferred  thai 
the  various  methods  were  in  use  earlier  than  in 
Europe.  As  a  decoration,  enamelling  was  more 
popular,  and  attained  to  greater  perfection  in  the 
middle  ages,  than  in  classic  times.  It  was  exten- 
sively practised  at  Byzantium  from  the  4th  Tintil 
the  11th  c,  and  afterwards  in  Italy  in  the  Rhenish 
provinces,  and  at  Limoges  in  the  south  of  France, 
where  it  was  successfully  followed  out  till  a  com* 
paratively  late  period,  in  sevei'al  different  styles. 
The  Byzantine  and  other  early  styles  of  enamel- 
work  down  to  the  17th  c.  were  generally  employed 
in  ornamenting  objects  connected  with  the  service 
of  the  church,  such  as  reliquaries,  pyxes,  church- 
candlesticks,  crosiers,  portable  altars,  the  frontals  ol 
altars,  &c. ;  the  art  was  also  greatly  used  in  orna- 
menting jewellery,  and  vessels  made  for  use  or 
display  in  the  mansions  of  the  rich,  such  as  salt- 
cellars, coffers,  ewers,  plateaux,  candlesticks,  &c. 
After  this  period,  the  art  declined,  until  a  new  phase 
of  it  was  invented  in  France,  in  which  enamel  is 
used  as  a  gromid,  and  the  figures  are  ];ainted  with 
vitrified  colom's  on  the  surface  of  it.  This  is  enamel- 
painting  properly  so  called,  the  earlier  styles  being 
more  of  the  nature  of  mosaics. 

Distingviished  with  reference  to  the  manner  of 
execution,  enamel-work  may  be  divided  into  four 
kinds :  1.  Cloisonee,  or  enclosed,  the  method  of  the 
Byzantine  school,  in  which  the  design  is  formed 
in  a  kind  of  metal  case,  generally  gold  or  copper, 
and  the  several  colom-s  are  separated  by  very 
delicate  filigree  gold  bands,  to  prevent  them  rim- 
ning  into  each  other.  2.  Champ  Leve,  practised  by 
the  early  Limoges  school.  In  this  process,  the 
ornamental  design,  or  the  figures  that  were  to 
be  filled  in  with  colour,  were  cut  in  the  metal 
(generally  copper)  to  some  depth ;  and  wherever 
two  colours  met,  a  thin  partition  of  the  metal  was 
left,  to  prevent  the  colours  running  into  each 
other  by  fusion  when  fired.  3.  Translucent  enamel, 
which  had  its  origin,  and  was  brought  to  great 
perfection  in  Italy,  was  composed  of  transparent 
enamel  of  every  variety  of  colour,  laid  in  thin 
coatings  over  the  design,  which  was  incised  on  the 
metal,  generally  silver,  the  figure  or  figures  being 
slightly  raised  in  low  relief,  and  marked  with  the 
graver,  so  as  to  allow  the  drawing  of  the  contours 
to  be  seen  through  the  ground,  instead  of  being 
formed  by  the  coarse  lines  of  the  copper,  as  in  the 
early  Limoges  enamels.  4.  Surface-painted  enamels, 
which  may  be  divided  into  two  stages.  The  first 
stage,  which  is  known  as  the  late  Limoge  style, 
sprang  up  under  Francis  I.  of  France  (1515 — 1547). 
In  this  the  practice  was  to  cover  the  metal  plate 
with  a  coating  of  dai'k  enamel  for  shadows,  and  to 
paint  on  this  with  white,  sometimes  set  off  with 
gold  hatchings,  sometimes  haAdng  the  hands  and 
other  parts  of  the  figures  completely  coloured.  The 
designs  were  generally  taken  from  well-known 
paintings  or  engravings  of  the  period ;  and  the  style 
of  the  designs  was  strongly  influenced  by  that  of 
the  Italian  artists  employed  by  Francis  I.  This 
style  soon  degenerated,  and  gave  place  to  the  latest 
or  miniature  style,  which  was  invented  before  che 

43 


ENAMEL  OF  TEETH— ENCAMPMENT. 


iWu^Jdle  of  the  16th  c.  by  Jean  Toutin,  a  goldsmith 
ftfl  Bhatcaudun,  and  carried  to  the  highest  perfection 
by  Jean  Petitot,  a  miniature  painter,  who  was  born 
Ft  Geneva,  1G07,  and  afterwards  resided  long  in  Eng- 
laitd,  and  then  in  Paris.  In  this  the  plate  is  covered 
wiih  a  white  opaque  enamel,  and  the  colours  are 
laid  on  this  with  a  hair-pencil,  and  fixed  by  firing. 
The  paints  are  prepared  by  grinding  up  coloured 
enamels  wuth  some  kind  of  liquid,  and  when  fused 
by  the  heat,  they  become  incorporated  with  the 
enamel  of  the  ground.  The  earlier  enamellers  of 
this  school  occupied  themselves  with  miniatures, 
Bnuti-boxes,  and  other  trinkets,  till  the  period  of  the 
French  Kevolution,  when  the  art  fell  into  disuse. 
It  was,  however,  revived  in  England  early  in  this 
century;  and  copies  of  portraits  and  pictures  on  a 
much  larger  scale  than  the  French  miniatures 
were  executed  with  much  success  by  the  late  H. 
Bone,  PuA.,  and  the  late  Charles  Muss.  Works  of 
this  description  possess  the  obvious  advantage  of 
durability ;  but  those  various  qualities  of  texture, 
and  the  delicacy  of  colour  for  which  good  works  in 
oil  or  water-colour  are  prized,  cannot  be  attained 
in  enamel  copies ;  and  it  is  to  be  regretted  that 
greater  efforts  are  not  made  to  turn  enamelling 
to  account  in  the  way  of  ornamentation,  for  which 
it  is  so  admu-ably  fitted,  rather  than  in  attempts 
at  imitating  works  classed  strictly  as  within  the 
bounds  of  fine  art,  and  to  put  in  ]>ractice  the  older 
styles  of  enamelling,  particularly  those  denominated 
champ  leve  and  transparent  enamelling. 

Enamelled-ioare. — The  liability  of  iron  to  oxida- 
tion by  heat  or  moisture,  and  to  corrosion  even  by 
fche  weakest  acids,  has  led  to  many  attempts  to  coat 
it  with  a  protecting  surface.  Ordinary  tin  ))late  is 
the  oldest  and  most  familiar  example  of  a  partially 
Buccessful  method.  Since  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century,  many  attempts  have  been  made 
to  cover  iron  with  a  vitreous  surface,  and  several 
patents  have  been  taken  for  such  methods  of 
enamelling.  The  chief  difiiciilty  in  applying  enamels 
to  iron  arises  from  the  tendency  of  the  metal  to 
oxidise  before  it  reaches  the  temperature  at  which 
the  enamel  fuses,  and  to  become  brittle  from  the 
oxide  combming  with  the  silica  of  the  enamel.  This 
action  being  superficial,  the  mischief  is  the  greater 
IV  proportion  to  the  thinness  of  the  iron.  Therefore 
it  is  much  easier  to  enamel  thick  cast-iron  vessels 
than  thin  vessels  made  of  sheet-iron.  A  glass  may 
be  made  by  combining  either  silicic  acid  or  boracic 
acid  with  a  base ;  the  latter  fuses  at  a  lower  tempera- 
tnre  than  the  former,  but  the  glass  is  much  dearer 
and  not  so  durable  as  the  silica  glass.  The  enamels 
used  for  coating  iron  consist  of  a  mixture  of  silica 
and  borax,  with  various  basic  substances,  such  as 
roda,  oxide  of  tin,  alumina,  oxide  of  lead,  &c. 

The  best  enamel  for  such  purposes  with  which  we 
are  acqiiainted,  is  that  patented  by  C.  H.  Paris,  and 
applied  by  Messi's  Grifiiths  and  Browett  of  Birming- 
ham. It  consists  of  130  parts  of  flint-glass  powdered, 
20|  parts  of  carbonate  of  soda,  12  of  boracic  acid. 
These  are  fused  together  to  form  a  glass,  then 
reduced  to  a  very  fine  powder  ;  the  article  to  which 
Ine.'^  are  to  be  applied  is  carefully  cleaned  wdth 
acid,  then  brushed  over  with  gum  water,  and  the 
powder  dusted  upon  it.  The  gum  water  is  merely 
to  cause  adhesion.  This  coating  is  then  carefully 
dried,  and  heated  just  to  the  point  at  which  the 
powdered  glass  will  fuse,  and  by  running  together, 
coat  the  surface.  Messrs  Griffiths  and  Browett  have 
succeeded  completely  in  enamelling  their  '  hollow 
\\  are,'  which  is  made  of  sheet-iron,  stamped  and 
li-immered  into  the  shape  of  saucepans,  dishes, 
basins,  &c.,  all  in  one  piece,  without  any  soldering. 

Clarke's,  and  other  patent  enamels,  have  been 
Buccessfijly  applied  to  saucepans,  pipes,  and  other 
44 


articles  of  cast  iron.  The  writer  has  made  many 
experiments  upon  enamelled- ware  for  laboratory  and 
other  purposes,  and  the  conclusions  arrived  at  are, 
that  no  enamelled-ware  has  yet  been  produced  that 
will  stand  acids,  or  salts  of  metals  that  are  electro- 
negative to  ii-on ;  or  v^-ill  bear  suddenly  heating 
to  a  high  temperature,  such  as  frying-pans,  for 
example,  are  commonly  subjected  to  ;  but  that  with 
moderate  care  it  may  be  used  as  saucepans  and 
for  boiling  water,  as  dishes  for  baking,  and  may 
last  for  years.  For  vessels  of  any  kind  required  to 
hold  cold  water,  it  is  unobjectionable. 

The  action  of  sudden  heat  is  to  expand  the 
metal  more  tlian  the  enamel,  and  cause  the  lattei 
to  peel  off.  Acids  find  their  way  through  minute 
invisible  pores,  which  exist  in  the  best  enamel ;  and 
when  once  they  reach  the  iron,  they  rajjidly  spread 
between  it  and  the  enamel,  and  undermine  and 
strip  it  off.  This  kind  of  action  is  curiously  shewn 
by  filling  an  enamelled  vessel  with  a  solution 
of  sulphate  of  copper.  The  acid  attacks  the  iron 
wherever  pores  exist,  and  little  beads  of  metallic 
copper  are  deposited  at  all  such  spots ;  these 
beads  go  on  growing  until  they  are  large  enough 
to  be  very  plainly  seen.  This  is  the  severest  test 
for  trying  the  continuity  of  enamelled  surfaces, 
to  which  they  can  l)e  subjected,  as  sulphate  of 
copper  will  penetrate  the  glaze  and  body  of  ordinary 
earthen-ware. 

ENAMEL  OF  TEETH.    See  Teeth. 

ENA'RA,  or  ENA'RE,  a  lake  of  Russia  in  cno 
extreme  north  of  Finland,  is  situated  in  lat.  68°  30' 
—or  10'  N.,  and  long.  27°  30'— 28°  45'  E.  It  has 
an  area  of  1200  square  miles,  and  has  numerous 
islands.  Its  superfluous  waters  are  discharged  into 
the  Arctic  Ocean. 

ENA'REA,  a  country  of  Africa  south  of  Abyssinia, 
is  situated  within  lat.  7°— 9°  N.,  and  long.  3G°— 38' 
E.,  biit  its  limits  have  not  yet  been  definitely  ascer- 
tained. It  is  inhabited  by  a  portion  of  the  Gallas 
tril)es,  who,  owing  to  the  continued  communication 
which  they  keep  uj)  with  Abyssinia,  and  also  to 
the  residence  of  many  Mohammedan  merchants 
among  them,  are  much  more  civilised  than  the 
Gallas  usually  are.  Their  government  is  a  heredi- 
tary and  absolute  monarchy.  The  principal  rivers 
of  E.  are  the  Gibbe  and  the  Dodesa.  Its  coffee- 
plantations  are  so  extensive  as  to  deserve  the  name 
of  woods ;  they  occur  chiefly  along  the  banks  of 
the  Gibbe.  E.  is  remarkable  for  its  manufactures 
of  ornamented  arms,  and  of  cloths  Avith  embroidered 
borders.  Besides  these,  it  exports  slaves,  gold,  ivory, 
civet,  and  skins,  into  Abyssinia.  The  king  and  a 
small  portion  of  the  population  are  Mohammedans, 
and  it  is  said  that  native  Christians  have  been  foimd 
here.  The  capital  is  Saka,  a  'place  of  considerable 
importance,  near  the  river  Gibbe. 

ENARTHRO'SIS  is  the  term  used  by  anatomical 
writers  to  express  the  kind  of  Joint  ;q.  v.)  which 
admits  of  the  most  extensive  range  of  motion.  From 
the  mode  of  connection  and  the  form  of  the  bones 
in  this  articulation,  it  is  commonly  called  the  ball- 
and-socket  joint.  It  occurs  in  the  hip  and  shoulder 
joints. 

ENCA'MPMENT  (Lat.  campus,  a  plain)  is  a 
lodgment  or  home  for  soldiers  in  the  field.  There 
are  intrenched  camps,  where  an  army  is  intended  to 
be  kept  some  time,  protected  against  the  enemy  ;  Jly^ 
i/i(7  camps,  for  brief  occupation;  camps  of  position^ 
bearing  relation  to  the  strategy  of  the  commander ; 
and  camps  of  instruction,  to  habituate  the  troops  tC 
the  duties  and  fatigues  of  war. 

Under  Camp  has  been  given  an  account  of  the 
maimer  in  which  Roman  camps  were  constructed.  It 
is  probable  that  the  same  general  plan  was  adhered 


ENCAUSTIC  PAINTING— ENCAUSTIC  TILES. 


to  until  tlie  invention  of  gunpowder.  When  cannon 
came  to  be  used,  however,  a  new  arrangement  of 
camp  became  necessary,  to  shield  the  army  from 
long-range  projectiles.  Everything,  indeed,  relating 
to  attack  and  defence,  especially  to  the  latter,  is 
taken  into  account  in  choosing  the  locality  of  a  camp. 
A  healthy  site,  good  water,  security  from  floods, 
and  plenty  of  fuel  and  forage,  are  the  chief  requisites 
in  a  good  encampment. 

The  British  army,  when  in  the  field,  usually  en- 
camps by  brigades  or  divisions,  roads  and  paths  being 
arranged  before  the  troops  arrive.  The  infantry, 
cavalry,  and  artillery  are  so  placed  as  to  defend  each 
other  in  the  event  of  a  sudden  attack.  There  is  a 
cbain  of  guards  all  round  the  spot ;  and  the  park 
of  artillery  is  placed  behind  the  troops.  The  suttlers 
and  servants  are  in  the  rear  of  the  camp,  but  not 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  rear-guard.  The  tents 
of  the  infantry  are  ranged  in  rows  perpendicular 
to  the  front,  each  row  containing  the  tents  (q.  v.) 
for  one  company.  The  circular  tents,  now  much 
used,  accommodate  fifteen  men  each.  The  cavalry- 
are  in  like  manner  encamped  in  rows;  but  each 
circular  tent  accommodates  only  twelve  men.  There 
are  streets  or  roads  between  the  rows  of  tents, 
of  regulated  width  ;  and  the  officers'  tents  are  at 
a  given  distance  behind  those  of  the  men  :  the 
subalterns'  tents  being  nearest  to  those  of  the  com- 
panies to  which  they  respectively  belong.  As  a 
general  rule,  the  line  of  the  whole  encampment  is 
made  to  correspond  as  nearly  as  practicable  with 
that  in  which  the  troops  are  intended  to  engage 
the  enemy  when  fighting  is  renewed;  to  which  end 
the  tents  of  each  battalion  are  not  allowed  to  occupy 
a  greater  space  in  front  than  the  battalion  itself 
would  cover  when  in  order  of  battle. 

Under  most  circumstances,  in  modem  warfare,  an 
encampment  is  not  defended  by  artificial  construc- 
tions ;  the  commander  seeks  security  for  his  troops 
in  streams,  marshes,  difficult  surface  of  country, 
and  numerous  advanced  posts.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, more  extensive  defence-works  are  necessary ; 
and  then  we  have  an  example  of  an  intrenclietl 
camp,  which  becomes  a  fortified  enclosure.  The 
chief  uses  of  such  a  camp  are— to  secure  an 
army  while  covering  a  siege,  or  in  winter- quarters, 
to  accommodate  a  corps  of  observation  while  the 
active  army  is  engaged  elsewhere ;  or  to  defend 
a  position  near  a  fortified  place.  Care  is  taken 
that  the  site  is  not  commanded  by  neighbouring 
hills.  All  villages  are  occupied,  and  all  obstacles 
removed,  within  a  distance  of  half  a  mile  or  a  mile. 
The  area  of  ground  selected  is  large  enough  to  con- 
tain the  necessary  store  of  arms,  ammunition,  food, 
fuel,  forage,  and  water,  and  to  enable  the  troops  to 
manceuvre.  The  junction  of  two  rivers  is  often 
[Selected  as  a  favourable  spot.  Vainous  defence- works 
are  constructed  around  or  near  the  spot,  such  as 
coniiniious  earth-works,  rcdouljts,  filches,  &c.  The 
position  held  by  the  allies  outside  Sebastopol,  during 
the  long  intei-vals  when  the  cannonading  was 
si'spended,  had  many  of  the  characteristics  of  an 
k  trenched  camp. 

Camps  of  instruction  may  be  either  temporary  or 
permanent.  Of  the  former  kind  was  the  camp  formed 
at  Chobham  in  Surrey  in  185.3,  merely  for  the  summer 
months,  to  exercise  certain  regiments  in  evohitions. 
Anotlier  was  formed  at  Shornclifle  in  Kent  in  1855, 
at  first  to  receive  troops  of  the  Foreign  Legion;  but 
it  has  since  been  improved  to  the  condition  of  a 
[)crinanent  camp.  The  great  establishment  at  Alder- 
sliott  is  described  in  a  separate  article,  Aldershott 
Cami*.  Since  that  article  was  written,  the  total 
CN\)cnditure  has  risen  to  nearly  a  million  sterling, 
tlie  camp  lias  been  improved  in  all  particulars,  and 
tho  small   agricultural  village   of  Aldershott  has 


grown  into  an  important  commercial  town,  witM 
railway  stations,  hotels,  market-house,  handsome 
shops,  &c.  A  large  permanent  camp  has  also  been 
established  in  Ireland,  on  a  plain  called  the  Curragb 
of  Kildare,  and  thei^e  are  smaller  ones  at  Pembroke 
and  Colchester. 

ENCAU'STIC  PAINTING  (Gr.  encaustihe,  in 
fired,  or  fixed  by  fire),  a  manner  of  painting  practised 
by  the  ancients.  As  the  name  implied  that  fire 
was  used  in  the  execution,  some  have  been  led  to 
suppose  that  encaustic  painting  was  the  same  as 
enamel  painting ;  but  notices  by  Pliny  and  other 
writers  shew  clearly  that  it  was  a  species  of  paint- 
ing in  which  the  chief  ingredient  used  for  uniting 
and  fixing  the  colours  was  wax  dissolved  by  heat. 
Various  attempts  have  been  made  in  modern  times 
to  revive  it.  About  the  middle  of  last  century. 
Count  Ci^ylus  and  M.  BacheHer,  and  in  1792,  Mis3 
Greenland,  made  various  experiments  with  this 
view.  The  count  laid  the  result  of  his  experiments 
before  the  Academies  of  Painting  and  of  Sciences 
in  Paris  ;  and  the  ingenious  lady  was  rewarded  with 
a  gold  pallet  by  the  Society  for  the  Encouragement 
of  Arts  in  London ;  but  the  success  of  these  efi"orts 
seems  to  have  been  but  temporary.  Encaustic 
painting  was,  however,  some  years  ago  again  taken 
up  in  Germany  under  the  patronage  of  the  late  king 
of  Bavaria,  who  had  a  number  of  important  works 
executed  in  this  way.  The  colours  are  ground,  and 
laid  on  with  a  vehicle  composed  principally  of  wax. 
Miss  Greenland  dissolved  gum-arabic  in  water, 
afterwards  adding  gum-mastic,  which  was  dissolved 
by  stirring  and  boiling,  and  when  the  mixtm-e  had 
reached  the  boiling  point,  she  put  in  the  wax. 
After  painting  the  j^icture,  she  passed  a  thin  coat- 
ing of  melted  wax  over  it  with  a  hard  brush,  and 
then  drew  over  the  surface  an  iron — for  ironing 
linen — moderately  heated.  After  the  picture  cooled, 
it  was  rubbed  with  a  fine  linen  cloth.  The  Ger- 
man method  is  somewhat  similar,  but  some  other 
ingredients  are  used ;  among  these,  potash  with 
the  wax ;  and  in  place  of  an  iron  being  passed 
over  the  surface,  the  wax  is  brought  to  the  surface 
by  a  vessel  containing  fire  being  held  at  a  little 
distance  from  the  picture.  Encaustic  painting  ia 
not  likely  to  come  into  general  use,  for  neither 
in  imparting  brilliancy  to  the  colours,  facility  foT 
execiition,  nor  durability,  is-  it  to  be  compared  with 
oil-painting. 

ENCAUSTIC  TILES,  ornamental  tiles  mad« 
of  an  earthen- ware  intermediate  in  quality  between 
common  tiles  and  porcelain,  and  now  extensively 
used  for  paving  churches,  halls,  conservatories,  &c. 
They  are  of  two  kinds — plain  or  'dry  tiles,'  and 
figured  tiles.  The  former  are  square  or  triangular, 
and  of  different  colours,  so  that  when  laid  they  may 
form  a  mosaic.  The  triangular  are  most  effective; 
and  by  means  of  a  few  colours,  a  great  variety  of 
chromatic  geometrical  patterns  may  be  produced. 
These  '  dry  tiles '  are  made  by  placing  the  coloured 
clay  in  a  powdered  state  in  strong  steel  moulds,  and 
subjecting  it  to  a  pressure  of  several  himdred  tons, 
by  means  of  a  plunger  fitting  accurately  into  the 
mould.  A  depth  of  three  inches  of  powder  is  com- 
j)ressed  into  a  tile  of  one  inch  in  thickness.  The 
bottom  of  the  mould  is  usually  ribbed,  to  give  the 
tile  a  corresponding  surface,  in  order  to  afford  a 
better  hold  for  the  mortar.  The  compressed  clay  is 
then  removed,  heated  in  a  hot  chamber,  fired,  and 
glazed  if  required.  Slabs  and  panels  of  various 
kinds,  shirt  studs  and  buttons,  and  a  variety  of 
ornamental  articles,  are  made  in  this  manner.  See 
Pottery  and  Porcelain. 

The  figured  tiles  are  made  in  a  different  manner. 
The  cLvY  is  worked  in  a  moist  state,  but  veiy 

45 


ENCEINTE— ENCRINITES. 


stiff,  first  into  sjuare  blocks.  These  are  cut  into 
square  slices  or  slabs  by  passing  a  wire  through 
them;  upon  this  is  put  a  facing  of  line  clay  of 
the  colour  of  the  ground  of  the  pattern— another 
layer,  of  a  di/Terent  quality  of  clay,  is  sometimes 
added  to  the  bottom,  to  prevent  warping.  It  is  tlien 
I)la(;ed  in  a  mould,  with  a  plaster  of  Paris  slab 
lonning  the  top,  on  the  under  surface  of  which  is 
the  pattern  in  relief.  This  slab  is  pressed  down, 
and  thus  forms  a  deep  impression  of  the  pattern 
which  is  to  be  produced  in  another  colonr.  The 
clay  of  the  requisite  colour  to  form  tlie  pattern  is 
now  poured,  in  a  semi-fluid  state,  into  this  depres- 
Bion,  and  allowed  to  flow  over  the  whole  face  of 
the  tile;  then  it  is  set  aside  until  dry  enough  to  have 
its  surface  scraped  and  smoothed  on  a  whirling 
table.  By  this  means,  the  superfluous  clay  is 
removed,  and  the  pattern  is  brought  out  quite  sharp, 
the  two  colours  of  clay  forming  one  smooth  flat 
surface.    The  tile  is  then  dried  and  fired. 

Tiles  of  this  kind  were  used  for  paving  churches 
in  England,  Flanders,  and  France,  in  the  16th  c, 
and  earlier,  but  have  since  fallen  into  disuse.  Encaustic 
tiles  are  made  by  Minton  &  Co.,  of  Stoke-upon-Trent, 
Eng.,  and  enjoy  the  higliest  reputation.  To  them 
oeloug  the  honour  of  lia\  iug  restored  this  mcdiuival 
trt  by  following  the  ancient  forms  and  patterns,  and 
inventing  new  methods  of  producing  them.  Their 
introduction  has  been  regarded  as  tlie  greatest  step  in 
decorative  architecture  which  the  ceramic  art  lias 
made  in  England, 

ENCEINTE  (Fr.),  in  Fortification,  denotes 
generally  the  whole  area  of  a  fortified  jdace. 
rro[)erly,  however,  it  means  a  cincture  or  girdle, 
and  in  this  sense  the  enceinte  signifies  the  principal 
wall  or  rampart  encircling  the  place,  comprising 
the  cui'tain  and  bastions,  and  having  the  main 
ditch  immediately  outside  it. 

ENCHO'lllAL  CHARACTERS.  See  Hiero- 
glyphics. 

E'NCKE,  JoH.  Franz,  the  well-known  astron- 
omer, was  born  September  23,  1791,  at  Hamburg, 
where  his  father  was  a  clergyman.  After  studying 
at  Gijttingen,  he  sei-ved,  during  the  campaign  of 
1813 — 1814,  in  the  artillery  of  the  Hanseatic  legion, 
and  in  1815,  in  the  Prussian  army,  as  lieutenant  of 
artillery.  On  the  establishment  of  peace,  he  left  the 
service,  and  became  assistant,  and  afterwards  prin- 
cipal astronomer  in  the  observatory  of  Seeberg,  near 
Gotha.  In  1825,  chiefly  at  the  instigation  of  Bessel, 
he  was  called  to  Berlin  as  successor  to  Tralles,  in 
the  secretaiyship  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and 
as  director  of  the  observatory.  While  at  Gotha,  the 
astronomical  prize  offered  l)y  Cotta  was  awarded  to 
E.  by  the  judges  Gauss  and  Olbers,  for  his  deter- 
mination of  the  orbit  of  the  comet  of  1680.  Tliis  led 
him  to  solve  another  pro]>lem,  which  had  been  pro- 
posed along  with  the  other — viz.,  the  distance  of 
the  sun.  The  solution,  by  means  of  the  two  transits 
of  V^enus  in  1761  and  1769,  is  published  in  two 
sej)arate  tracts  {Die  Entfenmng  der  Sonne,  Gotha, 
1822—1824).  In  1819,  he  proved  that  the  comet 
discovered  by  Pons,  November  26,  1818,  revolved  in 
the  hitherto  incredibly  short  period  of  about  1200 
days,  and  had  been  already  observed  in  1786,  1795, 
and  1805.  It  has  since  gone  by  the  name  of  E.'s 
comet,  and  has  appeared  regularly  ;  the  period  of 
its  recurrence  being  3-29  years,  or  about  3^%  years. 
See  Comets.  E.'s  researches  on  this  subject  are  con- 
tained in  the  Transactions  of  the  Berlin  Academ)/. 
In  1830,  he  undertook  the  editing  of  the  Berlin 
Astronomical  Almanac,  in  which  he  has  published 
a  number  of  astronomical  treatises.  Three  volumes 
have  appeared  of  Astronomical  Observations  at  tlie 
Berlin  Ob-'<crvatorij  (Bcrl.  1840-51).  He  died  in  1865. 
16 


ENCORE  ('  Again'),  a  French  expressicm,  jzener* 
ally  used  in  England  by  the  audience  of  a  theatre 
or  concert-room,  when  requesting  the  repetition 
of  the  performance  of  a  piece  of  music.  It  i3 
not  used  by  the  French  themselves,  who,  in  similar 
circimistances,  exclaim  bis  (twice). 

ENCRI'NAL  or  ENCRINI'TAL  LIMESTONE, 

a  name  given  to  some  carboniferous  limestones, 
from  the  great  abundance  in  them  of  the  calcare* 
ous  skeletons  of  Encrinites  (q.  v.),  whole  masses 
of  the  rock  being  almost  entirely  composed  ot 
them. 

E'NCRINITES,  a  name  applied  generally  to  the 
fossil  Crinoidea,  a  family  of  Echinodermata  (q.  v.). 
The  popidar  name.  Stone  Lilies,  is  given  to  the 
munerous  fossil  species,  from  the  resemblance  which 
many  of  them  i)resent  when  the  rays  are  closed  to 
the  lily.  Hence  also  the  name  Crinoidea.  Crinoids 
are  characterised  by  having  their  bodies  .supported, 
during  the  whole  or  part  of  their  existence,  on  a 
longer  or  shorter  jointed  calcareous  stem.  The  stem  is 
attached  either  by  the  expanded  base,  or  by  jointed 
processes,  to  the  rocky  bed  of  the  sea,  or  perhaps,  in 
some  cases,  to  floating  bodies,  like  barnacles.  Occa- 
sionally, numerous  root-like  side-arms  are  sent  out 
from  the  base  of  the  stem  to  strengthen  and  support 
it;  and  in  some  S])ecies,  as  in  the  recent  Penta- 
crinus,  the  column  throughout  its  length  is  furnished 


Encrinite  Steins  (Mountain  Limestone). 


with  axillary  side-arms.  The  stem  is  round  or  ttve- 
sided  ;  in  one  genus  oidy  is  it  elliptical.  It  is  com- 
posed of  a  number  of  joints,  perforated  in  the  centre, 
for  the  passage  of  a  soft  portion  of  the  animal,  and 
beautifully  sculptured  on  the  articulating  surfaces. 
The  body  is  cup-shaped,  and  composed  of  many- 
sided  plates  on  the  under  surface,  to  the  centre  of 
which  the  stalk  is  attached,  while  the  upper  surface 
is  covered  w^th  a  coriaceous  skin,  protected  by  many 
small  plates.  On  this  was  situated  the  mouth,  which 
was  frequently  proboscidiform,  and  near  it  was  the 
anal  orifice — the  alnnentary  canal  being  turned  upoa 
itself,  as  in  the  Bryozoa.  The  arms  spring  from  the 
edges  of  the  cup.  They  are  five  in  number  at  their 
origin,  but,  with  few  exceptions,  speedily  divide  and 
subdivide  dichotomously.  The  arms  are  composed  of 
articvdated  calcareous  joints,  similar  to  those  of  the 
stems.  Each  joint  is  furnished  Avith  two  slender- 
jointed  appendages  or  cirri,  of  use  to  the  animal  in 
capturing  its  prey,  which  consisted  of  mollusca  and 
other  small  animals.  The  number  of  joints  in  some 
species  is  truly  amazing.  Dr.  Buckland  calculated 
ihixt  Peoitacrinus  BHareus  consists  of  at  least  150,000; 
and  '  as  each  joint,'  according  to  Cai-penter, '  Avas  fur- 
nished with  at  least  two  bundles  of  nmscular  fibre — 
one  for  its  extension,  the  other  for  its  contraction — • 
we  have  300,000  such  in  the  body  of  a  single  Pentac- 
7'imts,  an  amount  of  muscular  apparatus  far  exceed- 
ing anything  that  has  elsewhere  been  observed  in  the 
animal  kingdom.' 

E.  are  represented  in  the  British  seas  by  one 
species,  Comatula  rosacea,  which,  in  its  perfect  state, 
is  free,  and  moves  about  in  the  same  manner  as 
other  star  fishes,  but  is,  in  its  structure,  a  true  crinoid, 
and,  in  fact,  when  young,  has  the  flexible  stalk 
characteristic  of  the  order.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
more  than  one  species  {Pentacrirais  Caind  Meduste) 


ENCRINITES— ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


of  permanently  stalked  E.  lives  in  modern  seas.  It 
is  a  native  of  the  West  Indian  seas. 


Pentacrinus  Caput 


The  family  commenced  its  existence  with  the 
earliest  sedimentary  deposits.  Seventy-three  genera 
have  been  described,  containing  upwards  of  300 
species,  two-thirds  of  which  are  found  only  in 
Palaeozoic  I'ocks.  The  most  ancient  E.  have  nearly 
all  round  stems,  the  few  that  are  five-sided  having 
the  articulated  surface  of  the  joints  simply  radiated, 
and  not  complexly  sculptured  as  in  Pentacrinus, 
the  type  of  a  division  of  the  order  which  appears 


A.pU  Crinitus  Rotundus  (from  Buckland's  Bridgewater 
Treatise). 

a,  espanded ;  5,  closed ;  c,  shewing  where  the  stem  has  been 
injured,  and  repairer'  oy  calcareous  secretion. 

first  in  the  Lias.  The  earlier  seas  literally  swarmed 
with  these  animals.  '  We  may  judge,'  says  Dr 
Buckland,  'of  the  degree  to  which  the  individual 
crinoids  multiplied  among  the  first  inhabitants 
of  the  sea,  from  the  countless  myriads  of  their 
pefrified  remains  which  fill  so  many  limestone  beds 
of  the  older  formations,  and  compose  vast  strata 
of  entrochal  marble,  extending  over  large  tracts 
of  country  in  Northern  Europe  and  North  America. 
The  sulrstarice  of  this  marble  is  often  almost  as 
entirely  made  up  of  the  petrified  bones  of  Encri- 
nites,  as  a  corn-rick  is  composed  of  straws.'  See 
CiiixoiDE^  and  Pentacrinus. 


ENCYCLOPiE'DIA  means  properly  a  book  or 

work  professing  to  give  information,  more  or  less 
full,  on  the  whole  circle  of  human  knowledge.  The 
name  is  compounded  of  two  Greek  words,  enkykliob^ 
circular  or  ge  neral ;  and  jKiideia,  disciphue  or 
instruction.  These  words  were  used  by  the  Greeks 
and  Ivomans  to  signify  the  circle  of  instruction 
tlii'ough  which  every  free-born  youth  had  to  pass 
before  entering  on  public  life.  That  circle  embraced 
more  particularly  grammar,  music,  geometry,  astro- 
nomy, and  gymnastics,  and  afterwauiis  became  the 
'  seven  liberal  arts '  of  the  middle  ages.  The  com- 
pound name  Eucycloiniedia  appears  to  have  been 
unknown  to  the  Greeks,  and  also  to  the  Latin 
writers  of  the  classic  period ;  and  there  is  no 
evidence  that  either  Greeks  or  Pvomans  ever  applied 
the  words,  single  or  com})ounded,  to  designate  t. 
book.  The  short  form  Cyclopaedia  har  stiU  less 
classical  authority  than  Enc5''cloi)a!dia. 

Eucyclopjedias,  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  word, 
are  most  commonly  Alphabetical ;  but  sometimes 
the  arrangement  is  '  rational,'  i.  e.,  according  to  the 
natural  relations  of  the  subjects.  An  alphabetical 
Encyclopaedia  is  a  Dictionary  of  Universal  Know- 
ledge. Besides  this,  its  proper  meaning,  of  a  reper- 
tory of  iml  /ersal  knowledge,  the  name  Encyclopaidia 
is  often  applied — less  properly  perhaps — to  alpha- 
betical works  whose  scope  is  limited  to  a  particular 
brancn — works  differing  in  no  respect  from  others 
which  are  styled  Dictionaries,  Gazetteers,  &o.  See 
Dictionary.  As  all  works  of  this  kmd,  which  now 
form  a  large  and  increasing  section  of  literature  in 
every  language,  have  in  so  far  a  common  character 
with  Encycloptedias  proper,  we  may  giv'e  some 
account  of  the  whole  class  mider  the  present  head. 

For  the  sake  of  convenience,  they  may  be  arranged 
m  three  divisions  :  1.  The  earlier  works  of  this 
kind,  having,  for  the  most  part,  merely  an  ency- 
clopaedic character,  i.  e.,  embracing  a  large  range 
of  subjects,  without  distinctly  aiming  at  univer 
sality  ;  2.  Encyclop;xjdias  pro})er,  which  treat  of  the 
whole  circle  of  human  knowledge  ;  3.  Books  pro 
fessedly  confined  to  a  definite  department  of  know- 
ledge, whether  under  the  name  of  encyclopeedia. 
dictionary,  gazetteer,  or  other  title.  As  books  of 
this  class  profess  to  touch  on  every  important  pomt 
that  comes  within  their  scope,  they  may  be  con- 
sidered as  encyclopajdic  in  a  limited  sense.  In  the 
following  sketch,  the  distinction  between  the  first 
and  second  of  those  classes,  which  is  of  a  somewhat 
indetei-minate  kind,  is  not  strictly  adhered  to  when 
it  would  interfere  with  the  chronological  sequence. 

1.  The  earliest  work  of  an  encyclo]ifedic  char- 
acter is  generally  ascribed  to  Speusipi)us,  a  disciple 
of  Plato.  The  great  collections  of  Varro  [Berum 
ITumanarum  et  Dlvinarum  Antiquitates  and  Dis- 
ciplinarum  libri  ix.),  of  the  elder  Pliny  {Hktoria 
Naturalis),  of  Stob^us,  of  Suidas,  of  Isidorua  (the 
Oricjines),  and  of  Capella,  belong  to  the  same  class, 
hv.i  they  exhibit  no  plan,  and  are  only  confused 
accumulations  of  the  then  lm<»w'u  arts  and  sciences. 
Vincent  of  Beauvais  (1254)  surpassed  them  aU. 
He  gathered  together  with  wonderfid  -^Idigence  the 
entire  knowledge  of  the  middle  ages  in  tlrree  com- 
prehensive works,  Speculum  Hl^loriale,  Speculum 
Naturale,  and  Spectdum  Doctrinale,  to  which  soon 
after  an  unknown  hand  added  a  Speculum  Morale^ 
But  these,  as  well  as  the  other  similar  compilations 
which  appeared  in  the  later  medieval  period  vmder 
the  title  of  Summa,  or  Speculum  (Alirror),  are  marked 
throughout  by  a  lack  of  philosophic  spirit.  Perhap- 
the  nearest  approach  to  the  modem  encyclopaedia 
by  an  ancient  writer,  dates  two  centuries  earlier 
than  the  time  of  Beauvais.  In  the  tenth  century, 
flourished  Alfarabius,  the  ornament  of  the  school 
of  Bagdad,  who  wrote  an  encyclox>aedic  oollection  of 


ENCYCLOP^IA. 


knowledge,  remarkable  for  its  /^rasp  and  complete- 
ness, and  which  stiU  lies  in  MS.  in  the  Escorial  of 
Spain.    Among  the  earliest  and  most  noted  of  the 
modern  encyclopa3dias  was  that  of  Joliann  Heinrich 
Alsted,  or  Alstedius,  which  appeared  in  Germany 
in  two  volumes  in  1630.    It  consisted  of  35  books 
in  all,  of  which  the  first  four  contained  an  explana- 
tion of  the  nature  of  the  rest.     Then  followed 
six  on  philology,  ten  on  specnlative,  and  four  on 
practical  philosophy ;   three    on   theology,   j  uris- 
pmdence,  and  medicine ;  three  on  the  mechanical 
arts  ;  and  live  on  history,  chronology,  and  miscel- 
laneous   topics.     Two  important   French  works 
belong  to  this  century — the  one  is  Louis  Moreri's 
Grand  Dictionnaire  Jlutorique  et  Critique,  of  which 
the  first  edition  apjicared  at  Paris  in  1673,  and  the 
last   in   1759 ;   the   other,  Peter  Bayle's  famous 
Dictionnaire  Historique  et  Critique,  i)ublished  at 
Kotterdam,  in  4  vols.,  1697.    The  first  encyclopjedic 
dictionary,  so  far  as  known,  appeared  in  Germany  as 
the  Lexicon  Universale  of  Hoffmann  (2  vols.,  Basel) 
in  1677.    Some  time  after  thei'e  appeared  in  France 
Thomas  Corneille's  Dictionnaire  des  Arts  et  de.s 
Sciences,  2  vols.  (Paris,  1694).    Dictionaries  limited 
to  the  exi)lanation  of  technical  terms  had  long 
])een  common  throughout  Em-ope ;  but  previous  to 
Hoffmann's  work,  no  attempt  had  been  made  to 
bring  the  whole  body  of  science  and  art  under  the 
lexicography  form.     A  highly  successfid  attempt 
identical  in  kind,  and  attributable  in  idea,  it  may 
be,  to  the  German  work  just  alluded  to,  was  the 
Lexicon  Technlctim  of  Dr  Harris,  2  vols,  folio  (Lon- 
don, 171,0),  which  may  fairly  be  regarded  as  the 
})arent  of  all  the  dictionaries  of  arts  and  sciences 
that  have  since  api)eared  in  England.    The  Ct/clo- 
pa;dia  of  Ephraim  Cliambers,  published  in  1728,  in 
two  very  large  folio  volumes,  presents  tlie  next 
marked  advance  in  the  construction  of  encyclo- 
psedical  dictionaries.    This  one  was  brought  out 
with  considerable  claims  to  originality  of  arrange- 
ment.   The  author  endeavoiu-ed  to  communicate  to 
his  alphabetical  materials  something  of  the  interest 
of  a  'continuous  discourse,'  by  an  elaborate  system 
of  cross  references.    Another  pecidiarity  of  this 
cyclopedia  was,  that  its  author,  in  the  details  of 
mathematical  and  physical  science,  gave  only  con- 
clusions and  not  processes  of  demonstration.   It  was 
long  a  very  popular  work.    The  largest  and  most 
comprehensive  of  the  successors  to  Hoffmann's  book 
in  Germany,  was  Zedler's   Universal  Lexicon,  64 
vols.  (Leip.  1732 — 1750).    In  point  of  comprehen- 
siveness, this  work  should  be  classed  with  the 
encyclopaedias  proper,  there  being  almost  nothing 
then  known  that  may  not  be  found  in  it.  Perhaps 
the  strongest  impulse,  if  not  in  all  respects  the 
best,  communicated  by  this  successfid  attempt  of 
Ephraim  Chambers,  was  given  to  the  French  mind 
through  D'Alembert  and  Diderot.    Their  Encyclo- 
p$die  was  really,  though  not  professedly,  foun^^"*! 
opon  E.  Chambers's  book,  which  an  Englishman 
liamed  Mills  had  translated  between  1743  and  1745, 
though  the  French  version  of  it  never  was  published. 
The  great  French  Lncyclopedle  was  written  by 
various  authors  of  higli  literary  and  philosophical 
attainments,  but  of  whom  nearly  all  were  tainted 
too  much  with  the  most  im})ractica))le  revolutionary 
ideas,  besides  holding  for  the  most  part  extremely 
Bceptical  opinions  conceniing  reli^^ion.  They  excluded 
both  biography  and  history  from  its  scope,  yet 
infused  into  it  more  originality,  depth,  and  ability 
than  ever  had  a])peared  before  within  the  boards 
of  an  encyclojjajdical  dictionary.    It  appeared  at 
Paris  in  28  vols,  between  the  years  1751 — 1772, 
and  was  followed  by  a  Supplement  in  five  vols. 
(Am^t.  1776 — 1777),  n,nd  an   analytical   index  in 
two  vols.  (Paris,   1780).     The   work  was  every- 
48 


where  received  with  the  greatest  enthusiasm,  and 
it  secured  a  place  in  the  literary  history  of  the 
nation  for  the  editors  and  principal  writers,  who 
are  ordinarily  known  as  the  Enqjclopedists  of  France. 
They  were  D'Alembert  and  Diderot  the  editors. 
Pousseau,  Grimm,  Dumarsais,  Voltaire,  Baron 
d'Holbach,  and  Jan  court.  [See  La  Po lie's  Esprit  de 
V  Encyclo  I  )edie  (Paris,  1768) ;  and  Voltaire's  Ques- 
tions sur  V Encyclopedie  (Paris,  1770).]  D'Alem- 
bert's  celebrated  preliminarj'  discourse  was  garljled 
in  various  i)retentious  works  of  thi.i>  class  pub- 
lished for  the  most  part  in  England ;  such  were 
Barrow's  New  and  Universal  Dictionary  of  Aria 
and  Sciences,  1  vol.  folio,  1751 ;  and  the  Com- 
plete Dictionary  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  by  Croker, 
WiUiams,  and  Clerk,  3  vols,  folio,  1766.  A  some- 
what better,  though  rather  illogical  performance 
was  published  by  a  '  Society  of  Gentlemen  '  in  1754 
in  four  8vo  volumes,  generally  known  as  Owen's 
Dictionary,  from  the  name  of  the  publisher  of  it. 
Ilie  first  rude  outline  of  the  ponderous  and  solid 
Encychpcedia  Britannica  was  laid  down  in  the  year 
1771,  in  three  volumes,  but  it  was  nothing  more 
than  a  dictionaiy  of  arts  and  sciences ;  it  had  not 
yet  attained  to  its  subsequent  universality.  Such  is 
a  brief  outline  of  the  earlier  kind  of  encyclopjedias. 

2.  The  first  encyclopaedia  proi)er  that  demands 
our  attention  is  the  Encyclopoidia  Britannica,  of 
which  the  2d  comparatively  complete  edition, 
containing  biographical  and  historical  articles, 
appeared  in  10  vols,  between  1776  and  1783  ;  the 
3d  edition  was  completed  in  18  vols,  in  1797  ;  the 
4th  edition,  in  20  vols.,  in  1810 ;  the  5ch  and 
6th  editions  (which  were  not  true  reprints),  and 
supplements  in  6  vols.,  appeared  between  1815 — 
1824;  the  7th  edition,  in  21  vols.,  in  1830—1842; 
and  the  8th  and  last  edition,  in  21  vols.,  1852— 
1860.  The  method  pursued  by  this  work,  whUo 
thoroughly  alphabetical,  consists  in  a  combination 
of  the  systematic  and  the  particular.  In  few 
instances  is  any  science  broken  up  into  fractional 
parts ;  nearly  all  the  sciences  are  given  in  treatises 
as  they  severally  occur  in  the  order  of  the  alphabet. 
In  some  cases,  however,  where  obscurity  might 
result  from  such  a  plan,  the  other  method  is  adopted. 
A  marked  feature  of  this  work,  is  the  number  of 
complete  treatises  and  dissertations  which  it  con- 
tains by  men  of  European  name.  From  first  to 
last,  this  Encyclopaedia  has  been  executed  and 
published  in  Edinburgh,  the  literary  reputation  of 
which  it  has  helped  in  no  small  degree  to  increase. 
The  next  encyclopaedia  that  we  must  notice  is  the 
Encyclopyedie  Methodlque  par  Ordre  des  Matleres, 
which  was  begun  in  1781,  and  was  not  finished 
tin  1832,  when  it  apjieared  in  201  volumes.  Each 
subject  is  treated  in  a  separate  volume  or  series 
of  volumes,  so  that  the  work  is  a  collection  of 
separate  dictionaries,  more,  extensive  than  any  ency- 
clopaedic work  that  has  yet  appeared.  A  work 
of  higher  scientific  value,  however,  and  even  of 
a  more  varied  nature,  has  been  in  progress  for 
nearly  haK  a  century  in  Germany,  nndertakeu 
originally  by  Professors  Ersch  and  Gruber  in  1818, 
and  which  has  since  continued  to  appear,  in  three 
several  sections  of  the  alphabet,  up  to  the  present 
time.  There  have  already  (1861)  appeared  of  this 
gi'eat  Allgemeine  Encyclopddie  der  WissenscJuxft  und 
Kiinste  some  125  volumes.  In  1802,  Dr  Abraham 
liees  projected  an  extended  and  improved  edition 
of  Ephraim  Chambers's  Cyclop(cdla,  which  was 
completed  in  45  volumes  in  1819.  The  system  of 
cross  references  peculiar  to  E.  Chambers  is  very 
effectually  carried  out  in  this  book ;  but  besides 
including  a  great  accession  of  historical  and  bio- 
graphical detail,  it  contained  a  large  number  of 
papers,  j)repared  by  competent  writers,  on  subjects 


ENCYCLOPEDISTS— END. 


with  which  their  life  had  rendered  them  famihar. 
An  >ther  work  of  considerable  merit,  which  began  to 
api-ear  in  1810,  was  Brewster's  Ed'mbvrcjh  Enajclo- 
p(p.dm^  edited  by  tlie  late  Sir  D.Mvid  Brewster,  and 
completed  in  18  volumes  in  1830.  It  wns,  if  nny- 
thmg,  too  much  given  up  to  physical  science,  even 
for  the  taste  of  the  19th  century.  In  1812,  a  great 
impetus  was  given  to  encyclopedic  publications  by 
the  appearance  of  the  Conversations- Lexicon  of  F.  A. 
Brock  haus  of  Leipsic.  It  has  since  gone  through 
as  many  as  ten  editions,  the  last  issue  of  it,  amount- 
ing to  15  volumes,  having  appeared  between  1851 
an'd  1855.  It  has  been  translated  into  nearly  all  the 
civilised  languages  of  Europe ;  no  fewer  than  four 
English  works  of  the  kiiid  being  professedly  f oimded 
on  it:  these  are  the  Encyclopedia  Americana,  m  14 
vols.  (Phila.,  1829 — 1848) ;  the  Popular  Encyclopedia, 
1  vols.  (Glasgow,  1841) ;  Apple  ton's  new  ^mer^■m?^  Cy- 
clopedia, 16  vols.  (N.  Y.,  1857—1863),  and  annual  sup- 
plements (1861—1869);  and  Chambers'  Encyclopedia, 
10  vols.  (Edin.  and  Phila.,  1861—1868),  and  revised 
editio«  in  1870  by  J.  B.  Lippincott  &  Co.  The  latter 
has  been  pronounced  '  one  of  the  most  convenient,  re- 
liable, and  useful  compends  of  knowledge  in  existence.' 

The  next  encyclopaedic  work  which  appeared  after 
the  Conversations-Lexicon,  was  one  projected  accord- 
ing to  an  original  philosophic  plan  by  Samuel 
Taylor  Coleridge,  in  1818,  and  finished  in  1845,  in 
30  volumes.  This  Encyclopcedia  Metropolitana  was 
arranged  in  four  divisions  :  1st,  the  pure  sciences ; 
2d,  the  mixed  and  applied  sciences ;  3d,  biography 
and  history  ;  and  4th,  miscellaneous  and^  lexico- 
graphic articles.  The  contributions  to  the  first  two 
divisions  were  written  by  persons  of  i^ecognised 
ability,  and  they  have  nearly  all  been  published 
Bcparately  in  8vo  volumes  since  the  Metropolitana 
appeared.  If  the  book  had  any  fault,  it  was  that 
the  plan  of  it  was  too  rigidly  philosophical,  and 
therefore  not  adapted  to  be  consulted  dictionary 
fashion  ;  for  although  in  one  sense  the  alphabetic 
arrangement,  by  its  jumble  of  subjects,  is  most 
heterogeneous  and  irrational,  it  recommends  itself 
to  popidar  acceptance  by  its  extreme  simplicity ; 
and  in  point  of  fact,  no  encyclopredia  has  ever  been 
thoroughly  popular  that  has  not  been  executed  on 
the  plan  of  a  single  alphabet,  in  which  all  subjects, 
however  various,  are  included.  Next  appeared  the 
Penny  Cyclopcedia  of  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion 
of  (Jseful  Knowledge,  which  was  begun  in  1833, 
and  completed  in  1843,  in  28  volumes.  This  work 
was  perhaps,  at  the  time  it  appeared,  the  most 
useful  and  convenient,  for  the  purjioses  of  general 
consultation,  of  any  encyclopaedical  treatise  that  had 
ever  been  issued.  The  English  Cyclopcedia  is  founded 
on  the  copyright  of  the  Penny  Cyclopcedia,  but  is 
rearranged  into  four  great  divisions,  which  are  each 
given  in  the  order  of  the  alphabet,  viz.,  geography, 
natural  history,  biography,  and  arts  and  scic-ioes. 
This  publication  was  begun  in  1853,  and  was  com- 
pleted in  18G1  in  22  volumes.  Among  a  host  of 
abridgments  and  smaller  publications  of  this  char- 
acter which  have  appeared  in  the  course  of  the 
present  century,  may  be  mentioned  Wilkes's  Ency- 
clopcedia  Ijondonensis,  in  24  vols.  4to  (Lond.  1810 
• — 1829)  ;  the  Encyclopcedia  Perthensls,  in  23  vols. 
(Edinburgh,  1810)  ;  and  the  London  Ency  clopcedia, 
'22  vols.  (Lond.  1829).  The  French  have  likewise 
published  an  Encyclopedie  des  Gens  da  Monde,  in 
22  vols.  8vo  (Par.  1833—1844)  ;  an  EncyclojMe 
Moderne,  which,  with  its  Supplement,  occupies 
36  vols.  8vo  (Par.  1857) ;  and  a  Dictlonnaire  de  la 
Conversation  et  de  la  Jjccture,  in  68  vols.  (Par.  1839 
— 1851),  of  which  a  new  edition,  begun  in  1851, 
is  still  in  progress.  The  last  of  these  is  to  a 
large  exteni-  based  on  the  Conversations- Lexicon  of 
Brockhaus.    The  most  notable  of  the  other  German 

IbO 


encyclopaedias  are  Meyer's  Grosse  Conversatlona 
Lexicon,  in  38  vols.,  1840 — 1852,  besides  6  volumea 
of  a  Sup})lement  and  8  volumes  of  plates,  &c.,  in 
1853 — 1855;  and  Pierer's  Universal  Lexicon,  in  34 
vols.  (Altenburg,  1840—1840),  a  new  and  improved 
edition  of  which  began  to  appear  in  1851.  In 
addition  to  these,  there  are  at  present  (1861)  several 
encyclopaedias  in  course  of  publication  in  other 
European  countries;  all  of  which  are  based  u])ori 
the  Conversations-Lexicon — viz.,  the  Enciclopedia 
Espafiola,  begun  at  Madrid  in  1842;  the  Nuova 
Enciclopedia  Popolare  lialiana,  begun  at  Turin 
in  1856;  the  Ahnenn.  Dansk  Konversations- Lexicon 
(Copeiihagen,  1849)  ;  and  the  Svemht  Konversa- 
tions-Lexikon,  begun  at  Stockholm  in  1 845  ;  besideji 
others  in  Russia,  Hungary,  the  Netherlands,  &c. 

3.  We  have  now  to  direct  attention  briefly  to 
those  books  that  are  dictionaries  or  encycloptediaa 
for  one  branch  of  knowledge.  These  works  have 
been  always  very  numerous,  both  in  this  country 
and  on  the  continent.  Such  are  the  Biographie 
Universelle  (commenced  in  1811 ;  new  edition,  1854, 
still  going  on) ;  Chalmers's  Biographical  Dictionary^ 
in  32  vols.  (1812—1817);  the  Bictionnaire  des 
Sciences  Medicates,  60  vols.  (Par.  1812—1822); 
Nouveau  Bictionnaire  d'llistoire  Naturelle,  36  vols. 
(Par.  1816—1819) ;  F.  Cuvier's  Bictionnaire  de» 
Sciences  Naturelles,  61  vols,  text,  10  vols,  plates, 
(1816 — 1845);  Bictionnaire  de  V Industrie,  &c.,  10 
vols.  (Par.  1831—1841)  ;  M'Cidloch's  Comviercicd 
Bictionary  (2d  edition,  1834 ;  last  edition,  1869) ; 
M'CuUoch's  Geographical  Bictionary  (1st  edition, 
1841  ;  new  edition,  1866);  the  Bictionary  of  Prac- 
tical  Medicine,  3  vols.  (Lond.  1844— 1858)  ;*  Cham- 
bers's Cyclopcedia  of  English  Literature  (1843  ;  new 
edition,  1858) ;  Creasy's  Encyclopcedia  of  Civil  Engi- 
neering (1847);  Johnston's  Gazetteer  (1850;  new 
edition,  1859).  Morton's  Cyclopcedia  of  Agriculture, 
2  vols.  (1851)  ;  the  Nouvelle  Biographie  G&nSrale 
(begun  in  1 853) ;  Lippincott's  Gazetteer  of  the  United 
States  (Phila.,  1854);  S.  Austin  Allibone's  Criticcd 
Dictionary  of  British  and  American  Authors,  3  vols. 
8vo.  (Phila.,  the  1st  issued  in  1858,  the  2d  and  3d  in 
1870) ;  Lippincott's  Gazetteer  of  the  World,  1st  edition 
(Phila.,  1855,  2d  edition,  revised,  1866);  Lippincott's 
(Thomas')  Universal  Pronouncing  Dictionary  of  Bi- 
ography and  Mythology,  2  vols.  (Phila.,  1870).  Nor 
must  we  overlook  the  dictionaries  of  Dr.  Win.  Smith, 
viz. :  the  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Poman  Biography 
and  Mythology,  3  vols.  (1843—1848,  new  ed.,  1849— 
1851) ;  the  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Poman  Antiqui' 
ties,  1  vol.  (1848) ;  the  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Po- 
man Geography,  2  vols.  (1854 — 1857);  the  Dictionary 
of  the  Bible,  2  vols.  (1860—1851)  ;  and  Watts'  Dic- 
tionary of  Chemistry,  5  vols.  (1863—1869).  These 
dictionaries  are  perhaps  the  most  splendid  specimens  of 
encyclopedias  devoted  to  s])ecial  branches  of  knoAvledge 
that  have  anywhere  appeared.    Sec  Dictionaey. 

ENCYCL0P:^DISTS.    See  E^^  cyclopedia. 

END.  This  familiar  word  is  concerned  in  some 
important  discussions,  and  especially  in  Ethics.  It  is 
in  the  sense  of  '  the  thing  aimed  at,'  the  oljject, 
purpose,  or  goal  of  human  action,  that  we  have  here 
to  consider  it.  There  is  a  fundamental  contrast 
between  Science  and  Art,  Knowledge  and  Practice. 
Science,  or  Knowledge,  embraces  the  general  order 
of  the  universe,  and  states  that  order  in  the  form 
by  which  we  can  take  in  as  much  as  possible  in  one 
view  ;  it  is  the  fidlest  intellectual  comprehension  of 
the  phenomena  of  nature  that  the  mind  can  attain 
to.  Art,  or  Practice,  on  the  other  hand,  selects 
and  appropriates  certain  items  of  knowledge,  so  aa 
to  subserve  some  usefid  purpose,  some  exigency 
of  human  life.  Thus,  Agi'icidture,  Navigation,  I>aw, 
Politics,  Education  are  all  branches  of  Practioe , 

4» 


ENDEMIC— ENDIVE. 


they  involve  knowledge,  but  in  strict  subordination 
to  their  several  purposes.  The  navigator  stxidies 
Astronomy,  not  with  a  view  to  enlighten  his  under- 
standing as  to  the  mysteries  of  the  solar  system 
and  the  starry  sphere,  but  with  a  view  to  the 
guidance  of  his  course  in  the  sea.  In  short,  to  an 
Art  (the  word  is  not  here  used  in  the  narrow  sense 
of  a  Fine  Art),  or  a  department  of  Practice,  belongs 
in  the  first  place  the  consideration  of  the  end. 
Every  Art  has  its  end,  which  is  its  distinction  from 
every  other.  In  most  of  the  arts,  the  end  is  clear 
and  "^unmistakable :  we  all  know  what  is  expected 
of  a  builder,  a  soldier,  or  a  judge ;  the  only 
question  is  how  to  obtain  the  knowledge  requisite 
for  adequately  performing  each  separate  function. 
But  there  are  some  departments  where  the  end 
itself  is  not  agreed  upon,  which  casts  a  peculiar 
difficulty  on  the  2>ractice.  Thus,  it  was  remarked 
under  Civilisation,  that  the  end  of  the  whole 
mechanism  of  Human  Society,  including  Politics, 
fee,  is  differently  viewed  by  different  minds.  But 
it  is  in  the  one  special  Department  of  Morality 
that  the  consideration  of  the  end  is  of  most  vital 
consequence.  This  feature  of  the  ethical  problem 
has  been  very  little  adverted  to  in  modem  dis- 
cussious,  while  the  ancient  philosophers  kei)t  it 
more  prominently  before  them.  Aristotle  begins  his 
Ethics  by  remarking  that  every  art  aims  at  some 
good  ;  most  arts,  as  medicine,  ship-building,  general- 
ship, having  limited  or  partial  ends ;  wliile  some 
comprehend  much  wider  ends  than  others.  The 
largest  end  of  all  is  the  good  of  mankind  collectively. 
Hence  he  goes  on  to  inquire  what  is  the  highest 

food  of  man,  and  finds  that  happiness  is  neither 
*leasure,  nor  Honour,  nor  Virtue  (by  itself),  nor 
Wealth,  but  that  it  is  *  an  energy  of  the  soul 
according  to  virtue;'  activity,  in  opposition  to 
Oriental  notions  of  luxurious  repose,  being  an  essen- 
tial in  his  eyes.  He  has  next,  therefore,  to  inquire 
what  'virtue'  is,  according  to  which  a  man  must 
employ  his  activity — a  question  of  no  easy  solution. 
S);iil,  the  discussion  brings  out  the  one  fact,  that 
Morahty  is  a  branch  of  Practice,  but  unlike  most 
arts  in  this,  that  the  end  is  peculiarly  difficult  to 
determine  precisely.  Accordingly,  it  is  necessary  to 
have  in  connection  with  it  a  set  of  discussions, 
called  by  Mr  J.  S.  Mill  (Logic,  concluding  chapter) 
Teleology,  or  the  Doctrine  of  Ends,  corresponding  to 
what  the  German  metaphysicians  have  termed  the 
Principles  of  Practical  Keason.  The  various  theories 
of  Moral  Obligation  differ  in  their  statement  of  the 
end  of  Morality  :  according  to  one,  it  is  the  self- 
interest  of  the  individual ;  according  to  another, 
the  interest  of  mankind  on  the  whole.  The  most 
prevalent  theory  is  the  harmonising  with  a  certain 
inward  sentiment  called  the  Moral  Sense.  See 
Ethics. 

ENDE'MIO  (from  en,  among,  and  demos,  the 
people),  a  term  applied  to  diseases  which  afl'ect 
numbers  of  persons  sinudtaneously,  l^ut  so  as  to  shew 
a  connection  with  localities  as  well  as  with  their 
inhal)itants.  Endemic  diseases  are  usually  spoken 
of  as  contrasted  with  Epidemic  (q.  v.)  and  Sporadic 
(q.  V.)  ;  the  first  term  indicating  that  a  disease 
infests  habitually  the  population  within  certain 
geographical  limits,  and  also  that  it  is  incapable  of 
being  transferred  or  communicated  beyond  those 
limits  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  a  disease  is  termed 
epidemic  if  it  is  transmitted  without  reference 
to  locality ;  and  sj)oradic  if  it  occurs  in  isolated 
instances  only.  The  theory,  accordingly,  of  endemic 
diseases  is,  that  they  are  in  some  way  or  other 
soanected  with  the  soil — the  result  of  terrestrial 
ipfiuences,  or  mias'ins — of  poisons  generated  within 
ihe  earth,  or  near  its  surface,  and  diffused  through 
tlie  air,  so  as  to  be  weakened  in  proportion  to  the 
50 


distance  from  the  source  ci  the  poison.  Snob 
poisons  are  always  observed  io  be  more  virulent 
in  smnmer  than  in  winter — more  dangerous  at 
night,  when  the  vapours  are  concentiated  on  tne 
surface  of  the  soil,  than  in  the  day-time — more 
abundant  in  the  plains,  and  in  close  confined 
places,  than  at  a  certain  degree  of  elevation — 
more  easily  carried  in  the  direction  of  the  wind 
than  in  the  opposite — and  very  often  arrested 
altogether  by  water,  or  l)y  a  belt  of  forest  or 
other  luxuriant  vegetation.  In  all  these  partion- 
lars,  endemic  are  different  from  epidemic  diseases, 
which  bear  no  very  obvious  relation  to  the  soil, 
and  are  not  observed  to  be  considerably  modified 
either  by  the  prevailing  winds  or  the  period 
of  the  day  or  night  at  which  exposure  to  their 
influence  takes  place.  The  most  marked  ty])e  oi 
an  endemic  disease  is  Ague  (q.  v.)  or  Intermittent 
Fever,  which  has  all  the  habits  mentioned  a])ovo, 
and  is  to  so  marked  a  degree  a  denizen  of  particular 
tracts  of  countvy  as  to  lead  to  their  being  in  some 
instances  almost  depopulated.  Many  places  in 
Italy  are  a  prey  to  the  aria  cattiva  or  malaria,  as 
it  is  popularly  called ;  and  hence,  no  doubt,  even 
more  than  for  protection  from  human  foes,  the 
custom  so  prevalent  in  that  country  of  building  the 
villages  on  the  tops  of  hills,  so  as  to  secure  immu- 
nity from  the  poisonous  vapours  raised  by  the  solar 
heat  from  the  plains  lying  on  either  side  at  the 
base  of  the  Ai)enniueg,  Terrestrial  miasms,  or  such. 
poisons  as  generate  endemic  diseases,  are  usually 
found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  marshy  flats,  or  of 
uncultivated  tracts  of  land  at  the  confluence  of 
rivers,  or  where  a  delta,  or  a  v/ide  channel  subject  to 
overflow,  is  formed  at  the  upper  end  of  a  lake.  In 
proportion,  too,  as  the  heat  of  the  sim  is  greater,  the 
tendency  to  malarious  emanations  is  increased  ;  and 
in  the  tropics,  accordingly,  large  tracts  of  jungle 
and  forest  are  often  rendered  absolutely  uninhalnt- 
able  and  almost  impassable  at  certain  seasons, 
by  the  imnsible  and  odourless  germs  of  inter- 
mittent, remittent,  and  even  continued  Fevers 
(q.  v.),  which  are  more  fatal  and  immanageable 
than  the  most  terrible  epidemic  pestilences  to  those 
who  are  exposed  to  them.  Such  diseases  are 
almost  always  sudden  in  their  mode  of  attack, 
and  they  indicate  the  range  of  their  influence  by 
the  number  of  persons  attacked ;  but  they  are 
wholly  free  in  most  cases  from  the  suspicion  of 
commimication  by  Contagion  (q.  v.),  which  is  so 
frequent  in  the  case  of  epidemic  diseases.  The  poison 
hitherto  termed  malaria  is  now  believed  to  arise  from 
the  reception  and  growth  of  minute  vegetable  spores  in 
the  human  system.  Tlieir  sj)rcad  is  almost  invariably 
checked  by  drainage  and  cultivation  of  the  soil ;  and 
hence  many  places  in  Europe,  formerly  very  pro- 
ductive of  endemic  diseases,  have  now  ceased  to  be 
so,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Tuscan  Maremma,  ami 
some  parts  of  Kent  and  Essex,  and  of  the  Lothians 
in  Scotland. 

E'NDERBY  LAND,  discovered  by  Biscoe  m 
18.31,  lies  in  lat.  67°  oO'  S.,  and  long.  50°  E.  It 
appeared  to  the  discoverer  to  be  of  considerable 
extent,  and  was  closely  bound  by  field  ice,  but 
owing  to  stress  of  weather  and  the  extreme  cold,  it 
coidd  not  be  ajiproached  within  20  or  30  miles,  and 
Biscoe  was  thus  unable  to  say  whether  the  land  he 
discovered  was  an  island  or  a  strip  of  continentaJ 
coast. 

E'NDIVE  {Cichorium  Endivia),  an  annual  or 
biennial  plant,  of  the  same  genus  with  Chicory 
(q.  v.),  said  to  be  a  native  of  China  and  Japan,  but 
which  is  naturalised  in  thft  Levant,  and  has  long 
been  in  cultivation  as  a  garden  vegetable ;  it^ 
blanched  root-leaves  beimj  much  used  as  a  salad. 


ENDOCAKDITIS—ENDOSMOSE. 


and  also  sometimes  for  stewing  cand  in  soups.  The 
root-leaves  are  numerous,  smooth,  wavy  at  the 
maro-iu.  The  varieties  with  much  curled  leaves  are 
preferred.  Some  of  the  varieties  boll  of  themselves, 
and  are  thus  blanched  ;  others  require  to  be  tied 
up.  In  Britain,  the  seed  is  usually  sown  from  the 
middle  of  JNIay  to  the  end  of  June,  and  l)y  a  little 
care  and  protection,  plants  may  be  kept  lit  for  use 
thrcughoat  most  of  the  winter. 

ENDOCARDI'TIS,  inflammation  or  disease  of 
the  internal  surface  of  the  heart,  resulting  in  the 
deposit  of  fibrin  upon  the  valves.  See  Heart, 
Diseases  op. 

ENDO'GENOUS  PLANTS,  or  ENDOGENS 
(Gr.  endon,  within,  and  genos,  birth  or  origin), 
one  of  the  great  classes  into  which  the  vegetable 
kingdom  is  divided,  the  others  recei\ang  the  corre- 
sponding designations  of  Exogenous  Plants  and 
Acrogenous  Plants.  The  character  from  which  this 
designation  is  derived  is  found  in  the  structure  of 
the  stem,  which  does  not  increase  in  thickness  by 
additional  layers  on  the  outside  like  the  exogenous 
stem,  familiarly  illustrated  in  all  the  trees  of  the 
colder  parts  of  the  world,  but  receives  its  additions 
of  woody  matter  in  the  interior ;  and  in  general 
does  not  continue  to  increase  indefinitely  in  thick- 
ness like  the  exogenous  stem,  but  is  arrested  when 
a  cei-tain  thickness  has  been  attained,  different  in 
different  species,  and  afterwards  increases  only  in 
length.    When  a  transverse  section  is  made  of  an 


Transverse  and  Vertical  Sections  of  Endogenous  Stem. 


endogenous  stem,  numerous  bundles  of  vessels  are 
Been  disi)ersed  irregularly  in  cellular  tissue,  the 
younger  and  softer  jjarts  of  the  stem  exhibiting 
the  cellular  tissue  in  greatest  proportion,  the  older 
and  lower  parts  chiefly  abounding  in  vascular 
bundles,  which  are,  however,  somewhat  scattered 
in  the  central  part  of  the  stem,  and  are  densely 
aggiegated  towards  the  circumference,  there,  in  the 
pahns  generally,  forming  very  hard  wood,  in  some  of 
them  wood  so  hard  that  it  cannot  be  cut  with  a 
hatchet.  The  stems  of  endogenous  plants  in  the 
far  greater  number  of  cases  produce  terminal  buds 
only,  and  not  lateral  buds,  and  are  therefore  un- 
brauchecL  From  the  bases  of  the  leaves,  definite 
bundles  of  vascidar  tissue  converge  towards  the 
centre ;  but  these  extending  downwards  extend 
also  outwards,  and  thus  an  interlacing  of  fibres 
takes  place,  which  contributes  not  a  little  to  the 
strength  and  compactness  of  the  wood  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  stem.  As  the  fibres  extend  down- 
wards, they  also  become  attenuated,  spiral  and 
porous  vessels  disappearing,  and  nothing  but  the 
most  ligneous  substance  remaining.  It  is  the  har- 
dening of  the  outer  part  of  the  stem  which  arrests 
its  increase  in  thickness.  Endogenous  stems  have 
uot  a  distinct  pith,  nor  any  medullary  rays.  When 
the  central  part  is  soft  and  pith-like,  yet  it  is  not 
distinctly  separated  from  the  surrounding  wood,  and 
has  no  medullary  sheath.  In  many  endogenous 
plants,  as  in  the  greater  number  of  grasses,  the 
centre  of  the  stem  is  hollow.  This  is  uot  the 
case  at  first,  when  the  st<3m  begins  to  grow;  and 


when  any  cause  makes  the  growth  of  the  stem 
unusually  slow,  so  that  it  is  much  stunted,  it 
remains  solid  ;  the  fistular  character  of  the  stem  is 
the  result  of  its  rapid  growth,  rui)turing  the  cells  of 
the  central  portion,  which  finally  disap])ear.  Endo- 
genous stems  have  no  canddum  and  no  i)roper 
bark.  There  is,  indeed,  a  cellular  epidermis  ;  and 
there  is  also  within  it,  and  exterior  to  the  hardest 
woody  part  of  the  stem,  a  couii)aratively  soft  layer 
of  a  corky  substance,  which  is  sometimes  called 
bark,  soiuetimes  false  bark,  which  does  not  separabt; 
from  the  wood  below  it  without  leaving  myriads  of 
little  broken  threads,  the  ends  of  the  fil^res  which 
have  extended  into  it  from  the  hardest  part  of 
the  stem.  In  those  exogenous  plants  which  pro- 
duce lateral  buds  and  branches,  the  fibves  of  the 
branches  on  descending  to  the  stem  extend  on  tha 
outside  of  the  proper  stem,  between  its  hardest 
portion  and  th^false  bark  ;  and  in  this  way  a  great 
thickness  is  sometimes  attained,  as  in  the  dragon- 
tree.  In  the  Grasses,  a  jjlexus  of  fibres  takes  placp 
at  the  nodes,  the  fibres  crossing  from  one  side  to  the 
other.  No  British  tree — and  it  may  almost  be  said 
no  tree  of  temperate  or  colder  climates— is  endogen 
ous.  Almost  all  the  endogenous  trees  are  palms, 
although  a  few,  as  the  dragon-tree,  belong  to  other 
orders.  Endogenous  i)lants,  however,  are  nimierous 
in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Among  endogenous  plants 
are  many  of  the  plants  most  useful  to  mankind, 
particularly  palms  and  grasses,  all  the  true  corn- 
plants  being  included  among  the  latter.  Nutritious 
substances  are  very  extensively  produced  both  in 
the  fruit  or  seed,  and  in  other  j)arts ;  poisonous 
products  are  comparatively  rare,  altliough  found  in 
the  Aracece,  Liliacece,  Melanthaccce,  and  other  orders. 
Aromatic  secretions  are  cliaracteristic  chiefl}^  of  one 
order,  Scitaminea?.  Besides  palms  and  grasses, 
many  of  the  endogenous  plants  are  of  great  beauty, 
and  many  produce  most  beautiful  flowers.  Lilies 
and  orchids  may  be  mentioned  as  instances. 

Endogenous  plants  are  monocotyledonous ;  and  the 
terms  endogenous  and  monocotyledonous  are  there- 
fore often  employed  indiscriminately  to  designate 
the  class.  But  Lindley  distinguishes  a  class  of  Dic- 
tyogens  (q.  v.),  which,  although  monocotyledonous, 
have  stems  approaching  to  the  exogenous  character. 
The  leaves  of  endogenous  plants  generally  exhibit 
parallel  venation,  which  is  indeed  strictly  confined 
to  them,  although  a  venation  resembling  it,  or  rather 
simulating  it,  may  be  seen  in  some  exogenoxis 
plants.  The  seed  also  germinates  in  a  peculiar 
manner,  different  from  that  of  exogenous  plants, 
and  to  which  the  name  endorhizal  has  been  given, 
the  radicle  being  protruded  from  within  the  sub- 
stance of  the  embryo,  and  smTounded  by  a  cellidar 
sheath  formed  from  the  integument  which  it  breaks 
in  its  egress. 

ENDO'RSE.    See  Bill. 

ENDORSE,  in  Heraldry,  an  Ordinary  contain- 
ing the  fourth  part  of  a  pale.  Endorsed,  again,  or 
indorsed,  signifies  that  objects  are  placed  on  the 
shield  back  to  back. 

ENDOSMO'SE  and  EXOSMO'SE  (Gr.  inward 
motion  and  outward  motion),  terms  applied  by 
Dutrochet,  the  first  investigator,  to  the  transfusion 
that  takes  place  when  two  liquids  or  two  gases  of 
different  densities  are  separated  by  an  animal  or  a 
vegetable  membrane.  As  the  transmission  has  no 
necessary  relation  to  outwards  or  inwards,  the  torin 
osmose,  or  osmotic  action,  is  now  preferred.  See 
Diffusion. 

This  action  performs  a  very  impoi-tant  part  in 
living  organisms,  and  explains  many  pher.omena  of 
the  circulation  of  sap  and  the  processes  of  nutrition, 
which  were  previously  referred  only  to  the  wonderful 


u 


.  OF  ILL  LIB. 


END  YMION— ENEMY. 


action  of  \it;il  energy.  Thus,  the  blood,  continually 
streaming  through  the  cni)iihuy  vessels,  gives  forth 
a  portion  to  the  surrouiubng  cells,  and  so  supplies 
them  with  the  necessary  chyle.  Tliis  may,  however, 
by  the  ex))ansion  of  the  cnpilhiry  vessels  (see  In- 
flammation) lead  to  immoderate  exudation.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  blood,  in  i)assing  by,  takes  up  a 
number  of  worn-out  constituents  of  the  juices  of 
these  cells,  and  in  this  way  serves,  by  the  exchange 
which  it  effects,  to  restore  the  body,  and  to  disburden 
it  of  ]>roducts  which  have  become  useless. — In  plants 
also,  osmose  performs  an  important  ])art  in  the  pro- 
cess of  nutrition  and  the  motion  of  the  sap.  The 
substances  in  the  cells  of  plants  are  usually  denser 
than  the  fluids  without,  and  thus  a  process  of  endos- 
niose  takes  place,  by  which  the  plant  is  sujiplied  in 
tlie  first  instance  from  the  soil,  being  incapable, 
however,  of  appropriating  any  nourishment  which  is 
not  presented  in  a  liquid  state  to  t^^e  fibrils  of  its 
roots ;  whilst  that  which  the  roots  <^,lve  off  by  exos- 
mose,  is  supposed  gradually  to  unfit  the  soil  for  the 
growth  of  the  same  kind  of  plant.  The  bursting  of 
the  capsules  of  some  kinds  of  plants  is  owing  to 
a  process  of  endosmose  going  on  in  the  cells,  as  in 
the  fruit  of  the  Elateriuni  or  Squirting  Cucumber. 
Some  of  the  Entozotty  as  tape- worms,  seem  to  live 
entirely  by  endosmose.    See  Ostmose. 

ENDY'MION,  in  Greek  Mythology,  was  a  son 
either  of  Zeus  or  of  Aethlios,  and  followed,  according 
to  some  accounts,  the  occupation  of  a  herdsman  or 
hunter,  but  according  to  others,  was  king  of  Ells. 
On  account  of  his  uprightness,  he  is  said  to  have 
received,  at  his  own  request,  from  Zeus,  the  gift 
of  immortality,  unfading  youth,  and  everlasting 
sleep ;  but  another  version  is,  that  Zeus  having 
taken  him  up  to  Olympus,  E.  fell  in  love  with  Here 
(Juno),  and  was  condemned  l>y  her  enraged  husband 
to  eternal  sleep  on  Mount  Latmos.  Others,  again, 
l)rettily  fable  that  Selene  (the  Moon),  charmed  by 
the  beaiity  of  the  youth,  conveyed  him  to  Caria, 
and  sent  him  to  sleep  on  Mount  Latmos,  that  she 
might  nightly  kiss  him  unobserved.  The  Eleans,  on 
the  contrary,  declared  that  he  died  among  them,  and 
in  proof  of  it  were  wont  to  shew  his  monument. 
The  myth  of  E.  has  been  hajjpily  interpi-eted  by 
Max  Midler  in  his  article  on  Comparative  Myth- 
ology, in  the  Oxford  Essays  (1856).  E.,  according  to 
him,  is  one  of  the  many  names  of  the  sun,  but  with 
special  reference  to  the  setting  or  dying  sun,  being 
formed  from  enduo,  probably  a  dialectic  variety  of 
duo,  the  technical  verb  in  Greek  to  express  sunset. 
E.  sleeps  in  the  cave  of  Latmos,  i.  e.,  of  night  (from 
the  same  root  as  Leto  or  Latona,  the  night).  So  far 
the  myth  poetically  describes  certain  phenomena  of 
nature,  the  sinking  of  the  sun  in  the  west,  and  the 
rising  of  the  moon,  that  seems  to  follow  his  depart- 
ing beams.  But  the  original  signification  of  the 
metaphors  becoming  lost,  as  might  naturally  happen 
vdien  the  words  expressing  them  had  only  a  local 
usage,  it  was,  we  may  say,  inevitable  that  people 
should  transfer  the  metaphors  to  persons,  and 
invent  a  history  to  supply  the  place  of  the  vanished 
poetry.  And  this  invention,  or,  more  properly, 
explanation  (for  it  M'as  doubtless  made  in  all  good 
faith),  is  what  properly  constitutes  the  myth  of 
Endymion.  The  story  has  been  made  the  subject 
of.  a  poem  by  Keats. 

ENE'MA  (Gr.  en,  in,  and  lemi,  I  enter),  a  medicine 
or  fluid  siibstance  conveyed  into  the  body  by  injec- 
tion, usually  through  the  rectum  or  lower  bowel. 
Sec  Clysteii. 

E'NEMIES,  Adhering  to  the  Queen's.   By  25 
Edw.  III.  st.  5,  c.  2,  it  is  declared  that  if  a  man  '  be 
adherent  to  the  king's  enemies  in  his  realm,  giving 
them  aid  and  comfort,  in  the  realm  or  elsewhere,' 
62 


he  is  to  be  held  guilty  of  treason.  Under  this 
statute,  the  subjects  of  states  at  war  with  us  aix) 
held  to  be  enemies,  though  war  has  not  been 
solemnly  i)roclaimed.  Every  species  of  assistance, 
whether  by  joining  in  acts  of  hostility,  or  sending 
sup])lies  or  intelligence  to  the  enemy,  is  deemed  an 
act  of  adherence.  To  incite  to  hostilities  the  sub- 
jects of  a  state  at  amity  with  us,  is  not  held  to 
fall  under  this  provision.  But  if  the  subjects  of  a 
friendly  state  make  a  hostile  invasion,  any  British 
subject  rendering  assistance  will  be  deemed  guilty 
of  treason  under  this  clause.    See  Treason. 

ENEMY.  An  enemy,  according  to  the  civil  law, 
is  one  who  has  publicly  declared  war  against  us,  or 
we  against  him;  all  others  are  thieves  or  robbers. 
Hostes  hi  sunt  qui  nobis,  aut  quibus  nos,  publics 
bdlum  decrevimus;  cceteri  latrones  aut  prccdones  sunt. 
— Digest,  i.  IG,  118.  Thus,  in  order  to  constitute  an 
enemy,  there  must  be  a  public  declaration  of  war. 
This  declaration  must  also  be  made  by  a  didy 
organised  state  or  kingdom,  for  a  declaration  of  w^ar 
by  any  turbxdent  body  of  men  is  not  sufficient ;  and 
a  hostile  act  committed  by  private  citizens  will  not 
justify  a  war,  unless  that  act  be  sanctioned  by  the 
government.  The  purpose  for  which  this  public 
declaration  is  required,  is  stated  by  Grotius  to  be 
that  it  may  be  clearly  known  that  the  war  is  under- 
taken not  as  a  venture,  but  by  the  will  of  the  two 
people.  Hostilities  having  been  formally  declared, 
every  STd)ject  of  the  hostile  nations  becomes  an 
enemy  of  the  opposing  state,  as  do  likewise  those 
independent  nations  which  attach  themselves  to  the 
interests  of  either  party.  According  to  ancient 
usage,  the  utmost  violence  and  cruelty  was  lawful 
towards  those  who  were  enemies  of  the  state ;  but 
by  the  humane  principles  which  prevail  in  modem 
times,  warfare  is  to  be  carried  on  subject  to  certain 
general  niles,  which  are  intended  as  much  as  may 
be  to  abridge  the  calamities  of  war,  and  to  protect 
the  rights  of  individuals.  Thus,  an  army  invading 
an  enemy's  country  is  bound  to  suffer,  as  far 
as  possible,  the  peaceable  inhabitants  to  remain 
mmiolested.  Unnecessary  devastation  of  the  country 
and  the  seizure  of  property  are  also  contrary  to  the 
laws  of  civilised  war;  and  Grotius  lays  it  down 
that  the  use  of  poisoned  weapons,  and  of  assas- 
sination, and  violence  to  women,  are  to  be  repro- 
bated. On  the  other  hand,  individuals  taking  up 
arms,  "".vithout  the  sanction  of  the  state,  in  order  to 
annoy  an  invading  enemy,  are  regarded  as  lawless 
marauders.  The  result  of  this  distinction  is,  that 
such  persons  are  not  treated  as  prisoners  of  war, 
but  are  subject  to  be  summarily  dealt  with  by  the 
commander  of  the  invading  army.  As  to  the  right 
of  indi^'iduals  to  fit  out  vessels  for  the  annoyance 
of  the  enemy,  see  Privateering  and  Piracy.  It 
appears  to  be  a  recognised  principle  of  international 
law,  that  the  property  of  an  alien  enemy  residing  in 
either  of  the  hostile  states  may  be  confiscated.  The 
Americans,  during  the  war  with  England,  asserted 
this  right  in  regard  to  British  property  found  in 
their  territory.  But  the  usage  of  civilised  nationa 
for  a  long  period  has  much  modified  the  stem  rule 
of  law.  It  is  provided  by  Magna  Charta,  cap.  30, 
that  if  merchants  '  be  of  a  land  making  war  with 
us,  and  be  found  in  our  realm  at  the  beginning  of 
the  wars,  they  shall  be  attached  without  any  harm 
of  body  or  goods,  until  it  be  known  to  us,  or  our 
chief  justice,  how  our  merchants  be  intreated  there 
in  the  land  making  war  against  us;  and  if  our 
merchants  be  well  intreated  there,  theirs  shall  be 
likewise  with  us.'  And  by  27  Edw.  III.  c.  17, 
merchants  of  a  foreign  state  at  war  with  us  were 
allowed  forty  days,  after  proclamation  of  hostilities, 
wherein  to  remove  from  the  kingdom  themselvee 
and  their  goods ;  and  if  that  space  of  time  were  net 


ENERGICO— ENGAGEMENT. 


Bufficiciit,  forty  days  more  were  to  be  conceded  to 
xhem.  V^attel  (iii.  4,  63)  denies  that  the  right  to 
coutiscate  the  goods  of  an  ahen  enemy  is  a  ri^ht 
inherent  in  a  state  by  the  law  of  nations,  insisting 
that  a  sovereign  having  permitted  foreigners  to 
enter  the  state,  and  to  continue  there,  had  tacitly 
|o-omised  them  full  liberty  and  security  for  their 
return.  Whatever  be  the  prriciple,  there  is  no 
doiiljt  that  the  almost  \iniversal  practice  of  modern 
nations  has  been  to  respect  the  property  of  indivi- 
duals at  the  outbreak  of  hostilities.  _  Provisions 
azj  frequently  inserted  into  commercial  treaties, 
stipulating  that,  in  case  of  war,  the  subjects  of  the 
onemy  shall  have  time  to  depart,  and  even  that  they 
(jhoidd  be  allowed  to  remain  and  carry  on  a  peace- 
able trade.  As  to  the  practice  in  regard  to  Embargo 
and  Letters  of  Marque,  see  those  articles.  The 
right  to  confiscate  the  debts  of  the  subjects  of  a 
hostUe  nation  appears  to  rest  on  the  same  basis  as 
that  of  the  contiscation  of  other  property.  Trade 
between  the  subjects  of  two  hostile  powers  is 
absolutely  suspended  during  hostilities,  unless  per- 
mitted by  express  sanction ;  and  the  importation 
of  ai-ticles  particidarly  useful  in  war  is  contraband. 
All  such  articles,  whether  supplied  by  subjects  of 
the  enemy,  or  of  another  state,  are  seized  and  con- 
fiscated. See  CoxTRABAND  OF  War  ;  see  also  Pjiize 
and  Prisoner  of  War.  On  the  subject  of  this 
article,  see  Grotius,  De  Jure  Belli  et  Pads,  lib.  iii. 
cc.  3  to  7 ;  Vattel's  Laiv  of  Nations,  b.  iii.  c.  4  and  5; 
Kent's  Commentaries,  vol.  i.  c.  3. 

ENE'RGICO,  an  Italian  term  in  music,  meaning 
with  energy  and  force ;  with  strong  articulation 
pjid  accentuation,  and  a  marked  powerful  delivery 
of  the  single  notes,  without  losing  in  distinctness 
of  execution. 

ENFANTIN,  Barthelemy  Prosper,  the  chief 
representative  of  St  Simonism,  and  as  such,  usually 
styled  Piire  Enfantin,  was  the  son  of  a  banker  at 
Paris,  where  he  was  bom  in  the  year  1796.  He 
became  a  pupil  in  the  Ecole  Fohjtechnique  in  1812, 
but  was  ex})elled  in  1814,  in  consequence  of  his 
having  joined  the  pupils  who  left  school  and  fought 
against  the  allies  on  the  heights  of  Montmartre  and 
St  Chauraont.  He  was  afterwards  a  commercial 
traveller  in  Pussia,  then  a  banker's  clerk,  and  in 
1825  became  director  of  the  Caisse  Hypothecair'e. 
About  this  time,  he  became  a  disciple  of  St  Simon, 
whose  ideas  he  developed,  after  the  death  of  their 
author,  in  the  Producteur.  After  the  July  revolu- 
tion, E.  associated  himself  with  M.  Bazard  for  the 
active  propagation  of  St  Simonism.  Bazard  preached 
it  in  its  relations  to  philosophy  and  politics  ;  E., 
mainly  in  its  relations  to  the  social  state.  Soon, 
however,  a  schism  broke  out  between  the  two  on  the 
question  of  marriage  and  the  relation  of  the  sexes. 
Recognising  the  '  mobility '  of  the  affections,  E. 
afhrmed  that  they  ought  to  be  '  free,'  and  of  course 
pronounced  against  the  ties  of  marriage.  E.'s  views 
were  pushed  so  far,  that  government  deemed  it 
necessary  to  interfere  on  the  grounds  of  public 
decency.  The  '  Supreme  Father '  (as  his  disciples 
were  wont  rather  profanely  to  call  him)  was,  after  a 
trial  of  two  days,  sentenced  to  two  years'  imprison- 
ment, and  to  pay  a  line  of  100  francs.  Being  released 
at  the  expiration  of  a  few  months,  E.  went  to  Egypt, 
and,  after  an  absence  of  two  years,  returned  to 

ranee,  and  l>ecame  a  post-master  and  farmer  in  the 
vicinity  of  Lyon.  In  1841,  he  came  to  Paris,  and 
was  appointed  a  member  of  the  Scientific  Commis- 
sion for  Algiers,  and  on  liis  return  from  Africa,  wrote 
a  sensible,  interesting  book,  entitled  Colonisation  de 
VAlf/erie  (Paris,  1843).  After  the  revolution  of 
1^8,  ho  edited  the  joiurnal  entitled  Le  Credit  Public, 
a  papei  retaining  much  of  the  old  St  Simonian 


character,  but  which  had  to  stop  in  1850  for  want  of 
funds.  E.  afterwards  held  an  inijwrtant  situation  on 
the  Lyons  and  Mediterranean  Railway.  Ilis  princi- 
pal works  are  his  Doctrine  de  St  Simou.^  in  conjunction 
with  others  (Paris,  1830);  his  Traiie  d' Economie 
Folitique  (Paris,  1831),  and  La  IleU<jUm  Saint- Sirao- 
nienne  (Paris,  1831);  Moral;  Le  Livre  Nouveau 
(1832)  ;  Correspondence  rjiilosophique  et  lielUjiense 
(1847);  Correspondence  Politiq lie  {1849)]  La  Vie  Eter- 
nelle  Passe ^  I*resente^  Future  (1861).   He  died  in  1864. 

ENFEO'FFMENT.    See  Feoffment. 

E'NFIELD  RIFLE  FACTORY.    See  Siviait. 

Arms  Factories,  Royal. 

ENFILA'DE  is  a  military  term  applied  to  a  fii^? 
of  musketry  or  artillery  made  in  the  direction  of  tho 
length  of  a  line  of  troops  or  of  a  line  of  rampart.  A 
besieging  battery  so  placed  as  to  send  its  shot  along 
any  part  of  the  line  of  a  fortification,  and  inside  the 
parapet,  does  great  execution  in  dismounting  the 
guns,  which  thus  present  the  laa-gest  surface  to  the 
balls.  Hence  the  lines  of  rampart  should  be  planned 
that  their  prolongations  may  fall  in  situations  inac- 
cessible to  the  enemy.  Where  this  is  not  possible, 
the  lines  are  either  broken,  or  are  protected  by 
Bonnets  (q.  v.),  or  by  Traverses  (q.  v.),  or  Blindages 
(q.  v.).  In  the  siege  of  a  fortress,  the  trendies 
of  approach  are  cut  in  a  zigzag,  to  prevent  the 
defenders  enfilading  them  from  the  walls. 

ENFRANCHISE,  ENFRANCHISEMENT, 

to  make  free  ;  the  admission  to  certain  liberties  or 
privileges.  Thus,  a  person  made  a  denizen  of  the 
country,  or  receiving  the  freedom  of  a  city  or  burgh, 
is  said  to  be  enfranchised. 

ENFRANCHISEMENT  OF  COPYHOLDS. 
See  Copyhold. 

ENGADI'NE,  a  famous  valley  in  Switzerland, 
in  the  canton  of  Grisons,  second  only  to  the  Valais 
in  length,  extends  north-east  for  about  50  miles 
along  the  banks  of  the  Inn,  from  the  foot  of  Mount 
Maloja  to  the  village   of  Martinsbruck.     It  is 
divided  into  two  portions — that  toward  the  south- 
west, called  the  Upper  Engadine,  and  that  toward 
the  north-east,  the  Lower  Engaduie.    The  latter 
is  wild  and  bleak  ;  i)ent  up  within  narrow  limits 
among   the  hills,  and   having  a  huge  barrier  of 
glaciers  between  it  and  Italy,  its  climate  is  dismal. 
Frost  and  snow  occur  in  July,  and  winter  j^revails 
for  nine  months  of  tlie  year.    The  Upper  Engadine 
I  is  more  open,  and  possesses  much  tine  meadow- 
:  land.    The  Inn,  which  enters  the  valley  at  it3 
south-west  or  upper  extremity,  and  flows  through 
I  it,  has  many  towns  upon  its  banks,  the  highest 
!  of  which,  Silvaplana,  is   about  5600   feet  above 
'  sea-level,  while  the  lowest,  Martinsbruck,  is  3137 
feet.     The   inhabitants   devote   themselves  prin- 
!  cipally  to  the  rearing  of  cattle  ;  they  also  make 
I  cheese,  and  export  it  largely.    More  than  one-half 
of  the  young  men  emigrate  at  an  early  age,  and 
betake  themselves  to  continental  capitals,  where 
they  often  attain  comparative  wealth,  in  which  casf' 
\  they  almost  invariably  return,  build  a  house  in  theis- 
native  valley,  and  therein  spend  the  remainder  of 
their  days.    Poj).  about  11,000,  almost  all  of  thft 
j  Reformed  or  Calvinistic  Church.     The  language 
;  most  generally  spoken  is  the  Ladin  (a  corruption 
of  Latin),  a  Romanic  tongue,  but  diftering  from 
I  the  other  Romanic  dialects  of  the  Rhaetian  Alps, 
1  and  bearing  a  resemblance  to  the  Italian. 

ENGA'GEMENT,  Milit.uiy,  considered  as  a 
I  conflict  between  two  armies  or  hostile  forces,  cannot 
j  be  described  within  limits  suitable  for  this  work. 
I  Alnrost  every  term  applicable  to  armies  in  the  field 
1  bears  relatior  in  some  way  or  other,  to  a  hostila 


ENGAGEMENT— ENGINEER. 


engage  men  t,  and  those  terms  Avill  be  found  briefly 
noticed  nnder  their  proper  headings. 

ENGAGEMENT,  Naval,  admits  of  more  precise 
and  terse  illustration  than  a  militaiy  engagement, 
because  each  ship  of  war  is  a  unit  in  itself,  bounded 
by  a  clearly  marked  watery  margin  from  all  the 
other  ships  of  a  fleet. 

In  the  small  war-vessels  of  ancient  times,  before 
the  invention  of  gunpowder,  a  naval  engagement 
usually  began  by  running  the  galleys  violently 
against  each  other,  to  crush  or  sink  the  enemy  by 
means  of  the  beak  or  prow.  The  prows  were,  for 
this  purpose,  armed  with  brazen  or  iron  points.  On 
the  Jeck  was  sometimes  a  kind  of  turret  filled  with 
soldiers,  the  probable  precursor  of  the  forecadle  in 
modern  ships ;  and  there  was  also  frequently  a 
platform  for  accommodating  swordsmen,  slingers, 
and  javelinmen.  High  and  bulky  ships,  of  no  great 
length,  were  best  for  this  kind  of  warfare.  Some- 
times a  massive  piece  of  iron  or  lead,  called  a 
dol])/nn,  was  let  dowii  violently  from  the  yard-az-m, 
to  crush  or  break  through  some  part  of  the  enemy's 
vessel.  The  men  fastened  sickles  to  the  end  of  long 
poles,  to  cut  the  enemy's  rigging  and  sails.  Other 
means  for  carrying  on  a  hostile  attack  were  battering- 
rams — heavy  maces  with  very  long  hantUes,  stone- 
thi'owing  machines,  and  grappHug-irons. 

In  modern  shl])s,  prei)arations  for  an  engagement 
are  made  with  the  utmost  coolness  and  i)recision. 
The  boatswain  and  his  mates  communicate  to  all  the 
crew  the  order  to  'clear  for  action.'    The  men  take  ] 
their  hammocks,  lower  them,  tie  them  up,  and  carry  ^ 
them  to  the  quarter-deck,  poop,  forecastle,  and  other 
I)arts  of  the  ship,  where  they  are  stowed  between  a  ' 
double  netting  above  the  gimwale,  and  form  a  partial  i 
defence  against  the  enemy's  musketry.    The  sails, 
yards,  booms,  bowsj^rit,  &c.,  are  secured  by  strong  ' 
chains  and  extra  ro])es,  to  prevent  or  lessen  disaster  i 
if  they  are  shot  away.    The  boatswain  and  the  ', 
carpenter  collect  together,  and  place  at  hand  all  kinds  ; 
of  pieces  of  wood,  iron,  rope,  and  canvas  that  may 
be  useful  in  quickly  rej^airing  shot-holes  and  other 
damage.    Tiic;  gunner  and  his  mates  examine  the  i 
cannon  and  tha  Ulled  cartridges,  and  see  that  all  the 
implements  for  gunnery  are  at  hand.    The  master  j 
and  his  subordinate  officers  look  to  the  trim  and  state  j 
of  the  sails.    The  lieutenants  \dsit  all  the  decks,  to  ' 
see  that  obstructions  of  every  kind  are  removed.  | 
\Vlien  the  engagement  is  about  to  begin,  the  drums  | 
beat  to  arms.     Every  man  repairs  to  his  place,  j 
The  marines  are  drawn  up  in  rank  and  file  on  the  j 
quarter-deck,  poop,  and  forecastle.   The  surgeon  and  | 
his  assistants  are  ready  in  the  cockpit  to  amputate  | 
limbs,  exti-act  bullets,  and  dress  wounds.     Then  | 
begins  the  battle,  which  varies  in  its  character 
according  to  the  number  and  kind  of  ships  on 
each  side,  the  nature  of  the  sea,  the  direction  of  { 
the  wind,  and  a  multitude  of  other  circmnstances.  | 
In  the  British  navy,  the  order  of  battle  for  a  | 
fleet  is  ordinarily  in  two  lines,  each  being  divided 
into  the  Starboard  and  Port  Division  or  squadron. 
When  the  battle  is  ended,  if  it  has  been  a  severe 
one,  the  probabilities  are  that  many  men  have 
I^een  killed  or  wounded,  decks  and  sides  battered 
fidiid  splintered,  cannon  dismounted,  rigging,  masts,  ; 
yards,  and  sails  destroyed  or  torn.     The  whole  | 
«hii)'s  crew,  except  those  disabled,  then  work  hard 
to  get  the  vessel  back  into  trim ;  an  attempt  that 
frequently  cannot  be  realised  vnthout  aid  from 
other  ships,  or  from  the  resources  of  a  j)ort. 

E'NGELHARDT,  Jon.  Georg  Veit,  a  learned 
German  theologian,  was  born  r2th  November  1791, 
ftt  Neustadt  on  the  Aisch,  and  studied  at  Erlangen, 
where,  in  1820,  he  was  appointed  extraordinary 
professor,  and  iu  J822  ordinary  prof esaor  of  theology. 


He  died  13th  September  185.3.  Patristic  and  medieval 
dogmatics,  and  Neoplatonism,  are  the  subjects 
which  he  has  chiefly  investigated.  In  1820,  he  pub- 
lished at  Erlangen  a  translation  of  the  first  Fnnead 
of  Plotinus;  in  1823  appeared  his  translation  of  tlio 
writings  ascribed  to  Dionysius  the  Areopagite.  His 
Kirchengeschichtlichen  Abhandbingen  (Erl.  1832), 
Ausleguruj  des  specalativeu  Theih  des  Evavgeliums 
Johatinis  dnrcli  einen.  deutschen  7nystichen  Theologen 
(Erl.  1839),  and  his  contribution  to  the  history  of 
the  mystical  theology,  entitled  Richard  von  St  Victor 
und  Johannia  Kayshroek  (Erl.  1838),  are  works  of 
great  value,  and  have  thrown  a  new  light  on  many 
important  points.  Very  useful,  too,  especially  on 
account  of  the  richness  of  their  special  notices,  are 
his  Ilandbuch  der  Kii^-.JiengcHchiclite  (Erl.  1834),  and 
DogmengcHchiclite  (Neustadt,  1839).  E.,in  the  course 
of  his  life,  wrote  many  learned  dissertations  in  the 
Journal  of  Historical  Theology,  among  which  may 
be  specified  his  Ueber  die  HesycJiiasten  and  JJeben' 
Eranmus  Sarcerius. 

ENGHIEN,  Louis  Antonio  Henri  de  Bour 
BON,  Due  d',  Oldy  son  of  Prince  Henry  Louis 
Joseph,  Due  de  Bourbon,  was  born  at  Chantilly, 
2d  August  1772.  In  1789,  he  quitted  France,  and 
travelled  through  several  countries  of  Europe.  In 
1792,  he  entered  the  corps  of  emigres  assembled  by 
his  grandfather,  the  Prince  of  Con(16,  on  the  Rhine, 
and  connnanded  the  vanguard  from  1796  until  1799. 
At  the  i)eiice  of  Lunveille,  in  the  year  1801,  he 
went  to  reside  at  Ettetdieim,  an  old  chateau  on  the 
German  side  of  the  Rhine,  not  far  from  Strasburg, 
and  within  the  territories  of  the  Duke  of  Baden. 
Here  he  married  the  Princess  Charlotte  of  Rohan 
Rochefort,  and  lived  as  a  private  citizen.  When 
the  conspiracy  of  the  Bourbon  princes,  headed  by 
Cadoudal,  Pichegru,  &c. ,  against  the  life  and  au- 
thority of  Bonaparte,  was  discovered  at  Paris,  the 
latter  chose  to  believe  that  the  Due  d'E.  was  privy 
to  it,  although  there  was  not  a  tittle  of  evidence 
to  prove  this.  Perhaps  Bonaparte  was  afraid  that 
the  valour  and  humanity  of  the  last  descendant 
of  the  great  Conde  might  one  day  prove  dangerous 
to  his  power.  Be  that  as  it  may,  he  unscrupulously 
resolved  to  seize  the  person  of  the  duke.  On  the 
night  of  the  17th  March  1804,  the  neutral  territory 
of  Baden  was  violated,  and  the  chateau  of  Etten- 
heim  surrounded  with  a  bodv  of  soldiers  and  gen- 
darmes. The  duke,  at  first,  endeavoured  to  defend 
himself ;  but  the  force  was  too  great  to  be  opposed, 
and  he,  with  several  friends  and  domestics,  was 
capture<l,  and  carrie<l  prisoner  to  Strasburg,  and  im- 
mediately after  to  Vincennes.  On  the  20th  of  March, 
he  was  tried  before  a  court-martial,  consisting  of 
eight  ofiicers,  and  after  an  examination  of  five 
hours  was  condemned  to  death.  Half  an  hour  later, 
the  sentence  was  put  into  execution.  So  cruel  and 
audaciously  criminal  an  act  has  fixed  a  deep  stigma 
on  the  character  of  Bonaparte.  M.  Dupin  has  pub- 
lished the  records  of  the  trial,  and  shown  the  ille- 
gality of  the  proceedings  of  the  military  commis- 
sion. This  illegality  was  publicly  acknowledged 
by  General  HuUin,  •  the  president  of  the  court. 
After  the  Restoration,  the  bones  of  the  judicially 
nmrdered  duke  were  taken  up,  and  interred  in  the 
chapel  of  the  castle  at  Vincennes. 

ENGINEE'R  and  ENGINEERING.  Engi- 
neering, the  business  of  the  engineer,  is  the  art 
of  designing  and  superintending  the  execution  of 
works  of  a  constructive  character,  such  as  roads, 
railways,  bridges,  canals,  harbours,  docks,  works 
for  supplying  water  to  towns,  drainage  and  sewerage 
works,  mining  machinery,  and  the  working  of 
metals. 

It   may  be  divided   into  two  kinds — civil  ana 


ENGINEER-ENGIN  EERS. 


iniliriuy.  The  military  engineer  is  an  officer  in  the 
service  of  govern tnent,  whose  duties  are  principally 
to  construct  fortifications,  to  make  surveys  for  war- 
like purposes,  to  facilitate  the  passage  of  an  army 
by  the  construction  of  roads  and  britlges;  in  sliort, 
to  execute  all  engineering  works  of  a  military 
nature;  but  he  is  also,  especially'  in  this  country, 
called  upon  to  undertake  many  works  which  more 
properly  belong  to  the  business  of  the  civil  engineer, 
such  as  the  survey  of  the  country — called  the 
Ordnance  Survey — the  inspection  of  public  works, 
f.'ad,  in  short,  all  the  duties  of  a  government 
sngiiieer. 

Tiie  civil  engineering  profession  is  subdivided  into 
several  sections,  according  to  the  special  nature  of 
tne  employment  of  its  members.  The  railway 
engineer  projects  and  superintends  the  execution 
of  railw.\ys  and  all  the  works  in  connection  with 
them,  such  as  the  alteration  of  roads  and  streams, 
the  construction  of  viaducts,  bridges,  cuttings,  and 
embankments.  The  hydraidic  engineer  constructs 
the  works  connected  with  the  suj)ply  of  water 
to  towns,  the  filtering  of  water,  its  collection  in 
reservoirs,  and  its  distribution  through  a  town  or 
district ;  the  irrigation  and  drainage  of  tracts  of 
coimtiy  ;  the  ^^rotection  of  low  lands  from  inunda- 
tion, and  the  use  of  water  as  a  motive-power.  The 
dock  and  harbour  engineer  has  the  management 
of  all  works  connected  with  the  sea  or  navigable 
waters,  such  as  the  construction  of  piers,  break- 
waters, docks,  harbours,  and  light-houses.  The 
mechanical  engineer  is  princi])ally  concerned  in  the 
manufacture  of  machinery^,  the  working  of  metals, 
the  construction  of  ships,  steamers,  cannon,  and  all 
the  various  structures  in  which  the  metals  bear  a 
prominent  part.  Then  there  is  the  mining  engineer, 
who  discovers  minerals  and  manages  mines  ;  there 
are  engineers  who  are  specially  engaged  in  the 
drainage  of  towns,  and  many  other  less  prominent 
divisions  of  the  profession. 

In  all  engineering  works,  the  contractor  takes  a 
very  important  part ;  he  executes  the  works  from 
the  designs,  and  under  the  dhection  and  super- 
intendence of  the  engineer,  and  on  his  ability  and 
good  management  the  success  of  imdertakings  very 
materially  depends. 

The  engineering  works  of  antiquity  are  both 
numerous  and  prominent,  many  of  them  remaining 
while  all  other  traces  of  their  constructers  have  been 
swept  away.  The  most  notable  of  the  works  belong- 
ing to  very  remote  antiquity  are  the  harbours  of  the 
Phoenicians,  the  palaces  and  sewerage  of  Nimroud, 
and  the  pyramids  of  Egypt ;  next  in  order  come  the 
harbours  of  ancient  Greece,  the  bridge  of  boats  across 
the  Dardanelles,  made  by  Xerxes,  to  transport  his 
immense  army  into  Europe,  and  his  canal  across  the 
isthmus  of  the  peninsula  of  JSIount  Athos.  The 
buildings  of  ancient  Home  next  claiju  attention — its 
theatres,  temples,  baths,  and  a(pieducts,  some  ef 
which  carried  water  from  distances  of  more  than 
fifty  miles  into  Rome  ;  its  roads,  bridges,  and 
drainage-works  vie  in  extent  and  magnificence  with 
fcha  most  celebrated  works  of  modern  times. 

From  that  period  down  to  the  commencement  of 
^khe  18th  c,  the  most  extensive  works  executed  are 
the  canals,  embankments,  and  other  hydraulic  con- 
structions used  by  the  Dutch  for  the  purposes  of 
inland  navigation,  and  to  protect  their  low  lands  from 
the  sea  ;  the  canals  of  North  Italy,  the  cathedrals 
and  fortifications  of  medieval  Em-ope. 

Civil  engineering,  as  a  distinct  profession,  may  be 
said  to  have  originated,  in  England,  about  the 
midtUe  of  the  last  century  ;  since  that  time,  the 
/mi)rovements  in  the  steam-engine  by  James  W att, 
its  subsequent  application  to  the  railway  system  by 
George  Stephenson,  and  its  use  in  navigation,  have 


given  a  great  impulse  to  commerce  and  civilization 
which  in  their  turn  have  created  the  necessity  fo,- 
the  numerous  and  nuxgnificcnt  engineering  works 
of  modern  times  ;  such  as  the  innumerable  railways, 
roads,  and  canals  tliat  intersect  this  and  foreign 
countries ;  the  bridges,  water  works,  docks,  har- 
bours, and  vessels  tliat  facilitate  cur  conunercc  and 
increase  our  comfort  and  prosperity.  Among  tho 
most  remarkable  of  these  works  may  be  mentioned 
the  tubular  bridges  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Menai 
Strait,  the  Niagara  railway  suspension  bridge,  and 
the  electric  telegra])h  system,  which  covers  this 
country  and  the  seas  and  countries  of  Eurripe, 
and  may,  at  some  future  time,  connect  us  with 
the  continents  of  x\merica,  Australia,  and  India. 
Among  the  more  celel^rated  British  engineers  are 
the  Stepliensons,  the  Rennies,  the  Brunels,  Tclfoird, 
Smeatou,  and  Locke. 

The  education  of  those  who  would  rise  to  eminence 
in  the  profession,  must  embrace  a  fair  knowledge  of 
pure  mathematics  and  of  the  mixed  sciences  of 
natural  philosophy,  such  as  mechanics,  hydrostatics, 
hydraulics,  and  optics.  They  should  acquhe  a 
knowledge  of  the  principles  of  projections,  and 
should  aim  at  being  good  draughtsmen  and  rapid 
and  accurate  arithmeticians. 

Engineering  is  represented  in  this  country  hy 
several  institutions  and  societies,  the  principal  of 
which  is  the  London  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers, 
established  in  1818,  '  for  facilitating  the  acquire- 
ment of  professional  knowledge,  and  for  promoting 
mechanical  philosophy  ; '  there  are  also  many 
schools  and  colleges  throughout  the  kingdom  in 
which  engineering  is  made  a  special  study. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  said  that  every  day 
ope;i3  fresh  fields  to  engineering  science  and  labour  ; 
and  that  as  the  first  beginnings  of  the  art  are  lost 
m  tiie  obscurity  of  remote  antiquity,  so  we  see  no 
term'nation  to  its  usefulness  and  necessity. 

Thii  more  important  operations  involved  in 
engintering  are  treated  of  under  such  heads  aa 
Bridges,  Canals,  Aqueducts,  Embankment,  Tu- 
bular Bridge,  Road  and  Roajomaking,  Rail- 
ways, Rivers,  Suspension  Bridges,  &c. 

ENGINEERS,  The  Royal  Corps  of,  forms  one 
component  portion  of  the  army  of  the  British  empire. 
A  similar  corps  exists  in  all  regular  armies.  It  is 
the  scientific  and  constructive  branch,  intrusted  with 
the  making  and  defending  of  all  military  worka^ 
and  the  attack  and  conquest  of  similar  works  belong- 
ing to  an  enemy.  It  is  true  that  civilians  are  often 
employed  to  construct  the  buildings  themselves,  at  a 
stated  price;  but  the  military  engineers  make  the 
plans  and  are  responsible  to  the  country  for  their 
efhcieney.  At  the  present  time,  for  instance  (1876), 
contractors  are  at  work  on  fortifications  at  Ports- 
mouth and  elsewhei-e,  but  on  plans  and  under  orders 
for  which  the  engineer  department  of  the  government 
is  responsible. 

The  Royal  Engineers  of  the  United  Kingdom 
form  one  regiment  or  corps.  The  officers,  in  time 
of  peace,  are  scattered  all  over  the  world.  Their 
service  is  continuous^  unlike  that  of  other  branches 
of  the  army.  There  is  no  half- pay,  except  on 
permanent  retirement;  and  no  unemployed  list. 
They  have  much  wear  and  tear  of  body  and  mind» 
and  are  considered  entitled  to  a  competent  retiring 
allowance  at  an  earlier  age  than  other  officers. 
Their  regular  pay  corresponds  to  the  active  pay  of 
other  officers  of  the  same  rank ;  but  they  exclu- 
sively receive  in  addition  extra  pay,  amounting  to 
one-half  their  ordinary  pay  wlien  on  duty  at  home, 
and  equalling  their  ordinary  pay  when  employed 
abroad.  There  is  an  €stal)lishn)ent  of  Engineers 
in  each  colony,  to  conduct  and  superintend  all  th« 
military   buildings  and  works.     The  entire  force 

5& 


ENGINEERS— ENGL.iOT). 


tb  under  a  i)articular  department  of  the  War-office, 
tLat  of  the  Inspector-general  of  Fortifications. 
Until  the  year  1763,  the  duties  of  military  engineers 
were  discharged  by  ofhcers  taken  from  the  rcgidar 
army.  In  that  year,  however,  the  corps  of  Engineers 
was  formed,  greatly  to  the  advantage  of  the  military 
Bervice.  In  "l 783,  it  was  made  a  royal  coq)S,  and 
a  distinctive  uniform  adopted.  Several  companies 
of  arti{icers  were,  in  1812,  converted  into  Sappers 
and  Miners,  and  placed  under  the  Engineers. 

The  non-commissioned  officers  and  privates  of  this 
"raluable  corps  are  all  workmen  who  have  learned 
Home  meclKinical  trade ;  hence  their  skill  in  all 
constructive  operations.  The  Ordnance  Survey  has 
been  intrusted  to  the  corps.  For  many  purposes, 
the  men  are  lent,  to  attend  to  special  and  peculiar 
work  ;  and  at  such  times  their  emolument  is  always 
increased.  Tliey  often  buy  their  discharge,  in  order 
to  go  into  civil  em[)loyment3,  when  the  prospects  are 
good.  The  i)eriod  of  regular  service  is  21  years  ; 
out  they  can  purchase  their  discharge  at  any  time. 
They  have  to  pay  more  for  their  discharge  than 
other  corps  in  tbe  army.  The  average  lengtli  of 
service  is  found  to  be  something  under  live  years,  so 
many  are  the  inducements  to  the  men  to  pui'chase 
their  discharge. 

Officers  intended  for  the  Engineers  enter  the  Royal 
Military  Academy  as  cadets,  and  com])ete  from  time 
to  time  for  commissions.  When  in  the  corps,  pro- 
motion is  by  seniority,  the  purchase  system  not 
having  been  introduced. 

Tbc  Army  estimates  for  1873 — 1874  provided  for 
the  following  number  of  officers  and  men  in  the  corps 
of  Royal  Engineers : 

Officers,  394 

Nou-conimissioned  officers,  ....  681 
Bank  and  file,  4172 

6247 

Horses,  422 

The  sum  set  down  for  their  cost  for  tbe  year  was 
£273,438,  which,  however,  does  not  include  any 
commissariat  charges.  The  head-quarters  are  at 
Chatham,  where  there  are  Engineer  barracks.  The 
corps  is  grouped  into  battalions  and  companies. 

ENGINEERS,  in  the  Royal  Navy,  are  the  jiersons 
who  attend  to  the  machinery  on  board  the  war- 
steamers.  When  such  steamers  were  at  first  adopted, 
men  were  obtained  from  private  engineering  estab- 
lishments, or  from  merchant-steamers.  In  1847  and 
1848,  many  changes  were  made,  to  induce  skilful 
and  steady  men  to  enter  the  service,  and  to  main- 
tain better  discipline.  The  higher  grades  of  them 
were  raised  from  the  rank  of  warrant  officers  to  that 
of  commissioned  officers  of  a  civil  branch.  There 
are  now  the  grades  of  inspector  of  machinerj^,  chief- 
engineer,  and  assistant-engineer,  the  last  rank  bemg 
subdivided  into  three  classes.  All  these  are  com- 
missioned officers,  and  are  strictly  examined  before 
admissio)! ;  their  rank  and  ]>]-omotion  being  by  selec- 
tion, and  dependent  on  skill,  character,  and  length 
of  service.  A  cliief-engineer  is  expected  to  be  able 
to  make  notes  in  the  log  of  every  particular  con- 
f^erning  tlie  engines  and  boilers  ;  to  draw  rough 
sketches  of  the  machinery,  with  figured  dimensions 
fit  to  work  from  ;  to  understand  and  manage  every- 
thing relating  to  engines,  boilers,  and  furnaces ;  to 
understand  practical  mechanism  generally,  and  the 
principles  of  theoretical  mechanism.  The  assistant- 
engineer  is  expected  to  possess,  in  a  smaller  degree, 
the  siwne  kinds  of  knowledge  and  skill  as  the  chief- 
engineer  ;  and  to  act  under  his  orders.  The  pay 
varies  from  £401  for  an  inspector  of  machinery, 
down  to  £64  for  a  third-class  assistant-engineer  on 
narbour  s  ^rvice ;  the  luirbour-pay  varies  from  £143 
10  £55.  , 
5(i 


The  Navy  Estimates  for  1873 — 1874  provided 
for  929  naval  engineers,  besides  10  inspectors  of 
macliinery. 

E'NGLAND,  the  southern  and  larger  section  of 
the  island  of  Great  Britain,  and  the  most  im],)ortaut 
member  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland.  The  geography  of  E.  will  be  found 
under  the  head  of  Gkkat  Britain,  the  i)reseut 
article  being  confined  to  a  sketch  of  its  history 
previous  to  the  iniion  with  Scotland. 

Of  the  inhabitants  of  E.  before  the  Christian  era, 
little  is  known.  In  some  of  the  ancient  geogi'aph  jrs, 
there  are  a  few  scattered  notices  of  a  rude  poiiulation, 
with  whom  a  limited  commerce  in  tin  was  caiiied 
on  by  the  Phoenician  merchants  ;  and  our  informa- 
tion scarcely  extends  further.  What  is  known  of 
E.  under  the  Roman  occu])ation  has  already  been 
embodied  in  the  article  Bkitannia.  An  accoimt  of 
the  country  during  the  period  intervening  between 
the  withdrawal  of  the  Romans  and  the  Norman 
Conquest  will  oe  found  in  the  article  An  glo-Saxons. 
i  When  William  of  Normandy  landed  in  E.  to 
!  claim  the  crown  which  Edward  the  Confessor  had 
I  becpieathed  to  him,  he  found  that  the  people  had 
raised  to  the  tlnone  Harold,  the  son  of  a  po])ular 
I  nobleman.  The  resources  of  the  Saxons,  however, 
had  been  wasted  in  domestic  conflicts  before  the 
j  attack  of  William  ;  and  tbe  battle  of  Hastings 
!  (10G6  A.  D.)  gave  E.  with  comparative  ease  to  the 
is^'ormans.  The  next  twenty  years  saw  the  conquest 
com])leted,  and  nearly  all  the  large  landed  estates 
of  the  Saxons  j)ass,  on  every  pretext  except  the 
true  one,  into  the  liands  of  the  Normans.  William 
claimed,  indeed,  to  rule  as  sovereign  by  hereditary 
right,  but  this  made  little  difference  to  the  fact  of 
conquest.  All  the  high  offices  in  the  state  and 
in  the  church  passed  into  the  hands  of  a  new  race. 
The  Danes  alone  could  retain  either  property  or 
dignity.  For  long,  some  of  the  Saxons  maintained 
an  unequal  resistance,  retiring  to  the  forests  as  tlie 
outlaws  whose  adventures  furnished  the  materials 
for  those  favourite  popidar  legends,  where,  as  in 
Robin  Hood,  the  si)oiliug  of  the  richer  classes  is 
depicted  as  one  of  the  chief  virtues.  In  the  course 
of  time,  the  Normans  were  absorbed  among  the 
Saxons,  their  very  language  disappearing,  though 
leaving  many  traces.  From  this  union  arose  the 
English  people  and  the  English  language  as  they 
now  exist. 

The  union  of  the  Normans  with  the  Saxons  was 
not  fully  effected  so  long  as  the  Normans  retained 
their  foreign  possessions.  In  King  John's  reign, 
the  whole  of  these  were  lost,  excepting  Guienne  and 
Poitou.  Long  wars  under  Henry  III.  and  Edward 
III.,  and  his  famous  son,  the  Black  Prince,  were 
continued,  in  the  endeavour  to  regain  the  lost  i)03- 
sessions  ;  yet  gi-eat  victories  like  those  of  Cressy 
(1346  A.D.)  and  Poictiers  (1356  A. D.)  seemed  to 
leave  no  result,  for  no  sooner  were  the  English 
armies  withdrawn,  than  the  populations  returned  to 
their  French  allegiance.  After  Agincourt  (1415 
A.  D.),  Henry  V.,  when  he  had  forced  himself  to  be 
acknowledged  heir  to  the  French  throne,  v.  as 
virtually  king  of  France,  and  held  his  corrt  in 
Paris ;  yet,  in  a  few  years  more,  the  rebellion  of 
Joan  of  Arc  came  at  a  time  when  E.  was  weakened 
with  the  Wars  of  tlie  Roses,  and  (1451  A.  D.)  nothing 
of  foreign  ground  was  left  to  this  country  excepting 
Calais. 

To  their  efforts  to  conquer  France,  the  Normau 
kings  added  others.  Henry  II.  conquered  Ireland 
(1171  A.  D.),  Edward  L  conquered  Wales  (128.5  A.  d.). 
and  had  almost  added  Scotland  to  his  dominions 
The  bravery  of  Wallace  and  Bruce  defeated  the 
armies  of  Edward  II.,  his  successor;  and  thcugh  the 
idea  of  the  conquest  of   Scotland  was  always  a 


ENGLAND. 


favourite  one,  an  opportunity  for  attempting  it  on  a 
great  scale  never  again  presented  itself. 

The  great  struggles  of  tlic  successors  of  William 
were  with  the  ecclesiastics  and  with  the  barons. 
Sometimes  in  these  the  popular  sympathies  were 
with,  and  sometimes  against  the  crown.  The  con- 
queror himself  and  his  immediate  successors  had 
no  dilSculty  in  maintaining  the  superiority  of  the 
coiu'ts  of  justice  over  the  ecclesiastics  ;  but  even 
a  sovereign  so  bold  and  skilful  as  Henry  IT.  was 
forced,  after  the  outcry  occasioned  by  the  murder 
of  Thoraas-a-Becket  (1170  a.d.),  to  yield  the  point. 
The  right  to  nominate  the  higher  ecclesiastics  was 
also  secured  by  the  popes.  The  degradation  of  the 
English  monarchy  was  at  its  lowest  when  King  John 
consented  (1213  A.D.)  to  hold  the  crown  as  a  gift 
from  Home.  The  weaknesses  of  this  monarch  had 
good  as  well  as  evil  residts,  for  from  him  the  barons 
won  their  Great  Charter  (1215  a.d.).  From  Henry 
II.  something  similar  had  already  been  gained  ;  but 
it  was  the  Magna  Charta  of  John  which  firmly 
established  two  great  English  principles — that  no 
man  should  suffer  arbitrary  imprisonment,  and  that 
no  tax  shoidd  be  imposed  without  the  consent  of  the 
council  of  the  nation.  Under  Edward  I.,  the  famous 
Btatiite  that  no  manner  of  tax  shoidd  be  imposed 
without  the  common  consent  of  the  bishops,  barons, 
anJ.  burgesses  of  the  realm,  was  passed  (1296  a.d.)  ; 
and  before  the  time  of  Henry  VII.,  the  foimdations 
of  parliamentary  government  had  been  laid. 

The  union  of  tlie  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster 
under  Henry  VII.  begins  a  new  period  in  English 
history.  Part  of  his  reign  was  disturbed  by 
Perkin  Warbeck  and  other  pretenders  to  the  throne, 
in  support  of  whose  claims  the  tvirbulent  nobles 
found  vent  for  their  restlessness.  But  the  greater 
part  of  his  long  reign  was  distinguished  from 
preceding  reigns  as  a  time  of  i)eace  and  economy. 
During  it,  jien's  minds  ripened  for  the  great 
events  of  the  next  reign.  Henry  VIII.  succeeded, 
under  the  most  favourable  auspices.  He  found  the 
alliance  of  his  now  important  country  courted  by 
both  of  his  great  contemporaries,  Francis  I.  and 
Charles  V.  But  the  interest  of  the  foreign  compli- 
cations of  the  reign  merges  in  the  struggle  between 
the  courts  of  E.  and  of  Home.  The  orign'n  of  the 
contest  was  the  divorce  which  Henry  desired  to 
have  from  Catharine  of  Aragon,  his  brother's 
widow,  to  whom  he  had  been  married  by  papal 
licence.  Cranmer  and  the  English  Churcli  pro- 
nounced the  marriage  to  be  null,  but  a  formal 
decree  of  divorce  by  the  head  of  the  chitrch  was 
then  thought  necessary  in  Catholic  Europe.  Pope 
Clement  and  the  consistory,  influenced  by  Spanish 
counsels,  delayed,  by  every  possible  means,  the 
decision  of  the  question.  E.,  however,  was  ready 
enough  to  su[)port  Henry.  Wickliffe  and  his  adher- 
ents had  done  not  a  little  to  shake  the  attach- 
ment of  the  nation  to  a  foreign  spiritual  authority, 
by  preaching  doctrines  which  dispensed  with  the 
necessity  for  it.  A  parliament  met,  when  the  Com- 
mons took  the  significant  step  of  presenting  a  long 
memorial  of  com2)laint3  against  the  church.  The 
pope,  still  shewing  no  signs  of  yielding,  bills 
followed,  declaring  the  lung  the  head  of  the 
chui  cli ;  rendering  the  inferior  clergy  amenable  to 
the  civil  courts ;  abolishing  the  payment  of  the 
first  year's  fruits  of  ecclesiastical  livings  to  Pome  ; 
and  perhaps  a  more  important  thing  than  any  of 
these,  declaring  that  no  convocation  should  meet 
unless  the  king  should  sunmion  it,  and  that  no 
ecclesijistical  canons  should  have  force  except  Avith 
the  king's  consent.  To  these  measures  the  pope  re- 
plied hy  refusing  the  divorce,  and  excommunicating 
the  king  (1533  A.  D.).  The  breach  thus  became  irre- 
parable. 


A  new  act  was  passed  giving  to  the  magistrates 
the  power  of  judging  in  questions  of  heresy.  The 
next  step  was  tlie  suppression  of  nearly  400  of  the 
smaller  monasteries.  Tlie  subsidence  of  an  insigni- 
ficant popular  reaction,  incited  by  the  lower  clci-gy, 
was  followed  I)y  the  suppression  of  the  great  abbeys. 
All  these  changes,  however,  touched  only  matters  of 
church  government.  On  matters  of  faith,  Henry 
and  his  parliaments  were  as  orthodox  as  the  most 
conservative  could  wish.  They  embodied  the  leading 
doctrines  of  Komanism,  disputed  by  the  Protestants, 
in  an  act  of  parliament,  known  among  the  i>eople  as 
'  the  bloody  six  articles,'  and  enforced  conformity 
under  severe  penalties. 

Henry  was  succeeded  by  Edward  VI.  His  reiga 
was  marked  by  the  general  progress  which  the 
Reformation  now  made  from  questions  of  govern- 
ment to  questions  of  doctrine.  More  thoroughly 
than  ever  the  power  of  the  clergy  was  sapped.  The 
Book  of  Common  Prayer  (1548  a.d.)  dejmved  them 
of  the  mysterious  authority  which  the  use '  of  a 
foreign  language  in  worship  gave  them  in  the  eyes 
of  the  people,  and  the  42  Articles  of  the  Church  of 
England  (1552  a.d.),  the  foundation  of  the  present 
39,  denied,  among  other  things,  their  power  to  work 
miracles  in  the  elevation  of  the  mass. 

The  next  reign  saw  the  inevitable  reaction.  The 
superstitions  of  the  populace  had  been  too  rudely 
handled,  and — as  often  happens  before  a  crisis — • 
there  came  a  period  of  physical  suffering.  The  con- 
version of  cornfields  into  sheep-walks,  induced  by 
the  high  value  of  wool  as  an  article  of  export,  had 
thrown  many  out  of  employment ;  and  the  country 
was,  moreover,  infested  with  the  crowd  of  vagrants 
whom  the  monasteries  had  been  wont  to  maintain. 
The  popular  dissatisfaction  coupled  these  things 
with  the  Reformation.  Thus  the  oi)portunit3'  was 
prepared  for  the  atrocities  of  the  reign  of  Mary. 
The  queen  herself  was  interested,  by  her  mother's 
honour  and  her  own,  to  uphold  the  Romanist 
faith ;  and  her  gloomy  temper,  aggravated  by  her 
unhappy  childless  maiTiage,  believed  that  it  did 
true  service  to  God  when  it  gave  the  rein  to 
the  bigotry  of  Pole  and  Bonner.  In  her  first 
parliament  (1553  a.d.),  the  w^hole  legislation  of 
Edward  VI.  was  repealed,  leaving  the  Church  of 
England  one  in  ceremonial  and  doctrine  with  the 
Church  of  Rome.  Another  parliament  (1555  A.D.) 
repealed  the  legislation  of  Henry  VIII.,  thus  re- 
establishmg  the  jxapal  supremacy.  Everything  that 
the  refonners  had  done  was  thus  undone.  Still 
the  adlierents  of  the  Reformation  were  numerous, 
and  when  legislation  failed  to  convert  them,  the 
fires  of  Smithfield  were  tried.  Hooper,  Bishop  of 
Gloucester,  was  one  of  the  first  to  suffer.  La'oimer, 
Ridley,  Cranmer,  followed,  and  the  nimiber  who 
perished  is  not  less  than  300  by  fire,  "cid  100  by 
torture  and  the  cmelties  of  confinement.  Nothing 
more  was  wanted  to  turn  the  popular  mind  at  once 
and  for  ever  from  the  Church  of  Rome. 

The  accession  of  the  Protestant  princess  Elizabeth 
came  as  a  relief  to  the  whole  nation.  The  Roman- 
ists themselves  were  weary  of  the  policy  which 
made  E.  the  tool  of  Spain,  and  were  sickened 
with  the  cruelties  which  had  been  enacted-  Eliza- 
beth began  by  releasing  from  prison  ail  confined 
on  charges  of  heresy.  Parliament  fcUowed  (1559 
A.D.)  with  acts  restoring  the  royal  supremacy  over 
the  church,  and  returning  iji  general  to  the  legis- 
lation of  Edward  VI.  The  Prayer-book  and  the 
Thirty-nine  Articles  were  adjusted  as  they  still 
exist.  Fortunately  for  the  countrj',  the  ministry 
of  Elizabeth,  guided  by  the  able  hand  of  Cecil, 
was  one  of  peace.  No  opportimity  vas  lost  ol 
aiding  the  I*rotestant  cause  throughout  Euroj)e ; 
but  Elizabeth  had  almost  no  open  wars,  and  her  long 

67 


ENGLAND. 


reigu  was  disturbed  by  almost  no  domestic  colli- 
sions. The  mistake  cominitted  in  dctaininc^  the 
queen  of  Scotland  in  an  English  prison  gave  a 
constant  incitement  to  disaffection  among  the 
adherents  of  the  old  faith,  but  no  sei-ious  conse- 
(j^uenccs  ensued.  Towards  the  close  of  the  reign, 
Protestant  and  Catholic  were  alike  patriotic  in 
repelling  the  Armada  (1588  A.  D.).  On  the  death 
of  Elizabeth,  the  crowns  of  E.  and  Scotland  were 
united. 

The  reign  of  James  VI.  does  not  present  much 
that  is  remarkable.  The  plot,  for  which  Sir 
"Walter  Raleigh  suffered  long  afterwards,  and  the 
Gunpowder  Plot — the  insignificant  proportio'ns  of 
which  were  so  magnified  for  factious  purposes — 
disturbed  tlie  earlier  years  ;  and  the  close  of  tlie 
reign  found  the  nation  engaged  in  an  unfoi-tunate 
war  to  assist  the  king's  son-in-law,  Frederick, 
Elector  of  Bohemia,  against  the  P]mperor  Ferdinand 
II.  of  Germany.  But  for  the  greater  portion  of  the 
23  years  of  the  reign,  there  was  neither  foreign 
nor  domestic  war.  These  j'ears  the  king  occupied 
industriously  in  rendering  monarchy  odious  and 
contemptible.  He  lavished  money  u])on  unworthy 
favourites,  and  to  supply  his  extravagance,  o^ienly 
sold  the  dignities  of  tlie  ])eerage  and  the  oth:;r 
honours  of  tJie  state.  His  personal  demeanour  was 
vain,  weak,  and  ridiculous;  but  in  contrast  with  the 
insignificance  of  his  talents  was  his  extravagant 
conception  of  the  extent  of  his  royal  prerogative. 
His  conduct  occasioned  great  discontent  in  parlia- 
ment, and  but  for  his  timidity,  might  have  led  to 
more  serious  consequences. 

The  misfortunes  of  Charles  I.  were  the  legitimate 
result  of  the  principles  of  his  fatlier.  Charles  com- 
mitted the  mistake  of  repeating,  in  the  17th  c,  acts 
whicli  the  Plantagenet  sovereigns  had  done  with 
impunity  in  the  14th  and  15th.  One  of  his  first  acts 
was  to  exact  a  benevolence  to  carry  on  the  war. 
Had  he  been  successful,  this  might  have  been  over- 
looked, but  when  the  bad  management  of  the  Duke 
of  Buckingham  lost  the  fieet  off  Rochelle,  the 
indignation  of  the  Commons  was  without  bounds. 
In  place  of  taking  measures  to  allay  this  feeling,  the 
king  dissolved  the  parliament,  and  resolved  to  govern 
without  calling  another.  In  1630,  he  concluded 
peace,  and  for  the  next  seven  years,  in  council  with 
Strafibrd  and  Laud,  he  carried  on  the  government. 
Taxes  were  raised  as  before  without  parliamentary 
authority ;  and  when  the  taxes  failed,  money  was 
raised  by  selling  to  the  Roman  Catholics  immunities 
from  the  penal  laws  against  their  worship. 

Nevertheless,  there  were  limits  to  these  methods 
of  raising  money ;  and  in  1637,  when  the  king  found 
himself  involved  in  a  war  with  Scotland,  in  conse- 
quence of  his  endeavour  to  introduce  a  liturgy  there, 
he  was  compelled  to  call  a  parliament.  The  Com- 
mons refused  supplies,  and  were  again  dissolved. 
In  1640,  the  king  once  more  summoned  a  parliament. 
He  found  the  temper  of  the  Houses  more  indomitable 
than  ever.  In  place  of  voting  him  sujiplies,  they 
impeached  his  minister  Strafford,  and  condemned 
him  to  death.  The  Commons  then  presented  a 
grand  remonstrance  to  the  king,  embodying  all  the 
giievances  the  nation  had  suffered  since  the  death 
of  Elizabeth.  Matters  proceeded  from  bad  to  worse, 
till  an  open  rupture  came,  and  an  appeal  was 
made  to  arms.  In  August  1642,  the  king  erected 
his  standard  at  Nottingham,  w^hile  the  rebels  took 
amis  under  the  Earl  of  Essex.  The  first  conflict 
was  at  Edgehill,  where  the  loss  on  both  sides  was 
severe  and  nearly  equal.  The  fortune  of  war  con- 
tinued to  vary,  till  at  Marston  Moor  it  turned 
against  Charles,  and  at  Naseby,  in  June  1645,  he 
was  finally  defeated.  He  was  executed  on  30th 
January  1G49. 

66 


The  government  for  th^  next  four  years  wa« 
conducted  by  parliament.  Meanwhile,  Cromwell 
was  rising  into  distinction,  and  power  gradually 
feU  from  the  hands  of  parliament  into  those  of 
the  military.  In  1653,  Cromwell  had  himself  prO' 
claimed  '  Protector.'  He  was  now  absolute  monarcli. 
He  governed  with  a  firm  hand,  and  never  was  E. 
more  resj)ected  abroad  than  during  his  time.  In 
1654,  he  concluded  peace  with  Holland,  and  em])lo}'ed 
the  gallant  Admiral  Blake  in  an  expedition  against 
the  Spaniards,  which  ended  brilliantly  for  the 
English  navy.  But  the  nation  grew  as  discontented 
with  the  government  of  Cromwell  as  it  had  been 
with  that  of  Charles.  After  the  death  of  the  Pro- 
tector in  1658,  and  a  short  intei-val  during  which 
his  sou  Richard  held  the  office,  parliament  received 
with  acclamations  a  proposal  from  Charles  II.  to 
return.  In  May  1660,  the  popidace  clamoured  with 
delight  on  the  royal  entry  to  London  of  him  who, 
a  few  years  before,  had  fled  from  Worcester  for  hia 
life. 

While  Clarendon  was  minister,  the  government 
of  Charles  If.  was  well  conducted.  A  war  with 
Holland  was  brought  to  a  successfid  ending  in  the 
conquest  of  New  York.  On  Clarendon's  resignation, 
the  government  [>assed  into  the  hands  of  the  min- 
istry known  as  the  Cabal.  They  were  as  profligate 
and  as  careless  as  the  king  himself.  A  succession 
of  cruelties  against  the  Catholics,  for  which  the  pre- 
tended revelations  of  Titus  Oates  and  his  imitators 
furnished  the  excuse,  betokened  rather  the  wantoxi 
temper  of  the  sovereign  and  the  nation,  than  any 
zeal  for  the  Protestant  religion.  The  only  act 
which  reflects  much  credit  on  any  portion  of  the 
reign  was  the  ])assing,  in  1670,  of  the  JIa'>e/is  Corpus 
Act,  designed  more  effectually  to  protect  the  liberty 
of  the  person.  Strong  efforts  were  made  in  parlia- 
ment after  that  to  pass  the  Exclusion  Bill,  the 
object  of  which  was  to  exclude  the  Duke  of  York, 
as  a  Roman  Catholic,  from  the  succession.  To  the 
great  satisfaction  of  the  king,  jjarliament  rejected 
the  bill.  In  1681,  parliament  was  dissolved,  and 
Charles  II.  never  called  another. 

After  this  there  was  a  change  for  the  worse  in 
the  chai-acter  of  the  government ;  from  being  wan- 
tonly indifferent,  it  became  sullenly  mischievous. 
Presbyterians  and  Nonconformists  were  excluded 
from  all  offices.  Among  other  arbitrary  acts,  may  be 
mentioned  the  recall  of  their  charters  from  London 
and  many  of  the  other  principal  cities,  which  were 
only  restored,  with  diminished  privileges,  on  pay- 
ment of  heavy  fines.  Conduct  such  as  this  made 
men  more  than  ever  afraid  of  the  succession  of 
the  king's  brother.  A  conspiracy  to  seciij-e  the 
succession  to  the  Duke  of  Monmouth,  an  illegiti- 
mate son  of  the  king,  was  formed.  Lord  Howard 
betrayed  the  conspiracy,  and  among  others  who 
suffered  death  for  it  were  Lord  Russell  and 
Algernon  Sidney. 

When  the  king  died,  in  1GS5,  James  IT.  succeeded 
amid  universal  dissatisfaction.  Monmouth's  attempt 
to  seize  the  throne,  however,  was  mismanaged,  and 
failed.  The  punishment  of  those  who  had  aided 
his  rising  formed  an  occasion  for  the  jierpetration 
of  great  cruelties  by  Jeffreys,  then  chief  justice  of 
England.  In  the  meantime,  nothing  coidd  be  fairer 
than  the  king's  language.  He  issued  a  declaration 
in  favour  of  general  toleration,  and  announced  that 
the  penal  laws  against  Cathohcs  were  no  longer 
to  be  enforced.  A  second  declaration  to  the  same 
effect  was  issued,  but  he  went  further,  and  added 
to  it  an  order  that  the  clergy  should  read  it  in  all 
churches.  The  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  ana  six 
bishops  presented  an  address  to  the  throne,  humbly 
setting  forth  that  their  duty  to  maintain  the  Pro- 
testant  establishment  would  not  permit   them  U 


ENGLAND— ENGLAND,  CHURCH  OF. 


fpve  obedience  to  the  royal  mandate.  For  this 
they  were  indicted  as  guilty  of  sedition.  The  trial 
of  the  bishops  (1688  a.  d.)  was  the  turning-point 
of  James's  career.  It  created  immense  excitement, 
and  when  the  jury  returned  a  verdict  of  not  guilty, 
even  the  soldiei's  joined  in  the  tumultuous  rejoicings. 

William,  Prince  of  Orange,  who  had  married 
Mar3 .  the  eldest  daughter  of  the  king,  had  long 
been  intriguing  with  the  malcontents.  He  now 
landed  in  E.  with  a  small  body  of  troops.  The 
soldiers,^  the  leading  nobles,  even  the  king's  OAvn 
children,  joining  the  prince,  the  king  fled  to  France. 
Parliament  then  settled  the  crown  jointly  on  Wilham 
and  Mary  for  life.  James,  with  the  assistance  of 
liOuis  XIV.,  made  one  effort  to  regain  his  throne. 
He  landed  m  Ireland,  where  the  lord  lieutenant, 
TjTconnel,  was  devoted  to  his  cause,  and  managed 
to  raise  an  army.  William  defeated  him  at  the 
battle  of  the  Boyne  ;  and  the  contest  was  soon  after 
this  terminated  by  the  second  flight  of  James  to 
France.  So  easily  was  the  great  revolution  of  1688 
effected. 

•  The  domestic  government  of  William  was  marked 
by  his  efforts  to  introduce  a  general  toleration  ;  but 
of  his  foreign  administration,  which  led  the  country 
into  costly  wars,  it  is  hardly  possible  to  speak  in 
very  favourable  terms.  To  reduce  the  threateninff 
power  of  France,  E.,  in  alliance  with  Holland  and 
Germany,  embarked  in  a  protracted  contest.  Its 
termination  at  the  i)eace  of  Kyswick,  in  1697, 
brought  to  E.  nothing  beyond  an  increase  of  reputa- 
tion.   William  died  in  1702. 

Under  Queen  Aune,  the  war  with  France  was 
renewed,  and  the  Duke  of  Marlborough's  splendid 
victories  of  Oudenarde,  Blenheim,  and  Ramilies  were 
achieved.  With  these  the  history  of  E.  as  a  separate 
state  closes.  In  1707,  the  long-wished-for  union 
with  Scotland  was  accomplished  ;  and  after  that, 
Great  Biitain,  united  under  one  legislature,  as  well 
as  under  one  crown,  has  a  common  interest  among 
nations,  and  therefore  a  common  history. 

A  table  of  the  English  sovereigns  is  appended, 
beginning  with  Alfred,  and  continued,  for  con- 
venience' sake,  to  the  present  time  : 


Anglo-Saxon  Link. 

Bep.-JD  to 
ReiffU. 

Yenn  of 
Kcign. 

Alfred,  king' of  Wessox, 

Edward  I.,  king  of  Wes-sex,  Mercia,  &c., 

Athelstan,  king  of  England, 

Edmund  I.,  . 

Ed red  

Edwy,  ..... 
Edgar,  ..... 
Edward  II,,  .... 
Ethielred,  .... 
Edmund  II.,  .         .         .         ^  . 

871 
901 
925 
940 
946 
9.i5 
959 
975 
97.S 
1016 

30 
24 
15 
6 
9 
4 
16 
3 

38 

Danish  Line. 

Canute,  . 
Harold  I.,  . 
Hardicanute, 

Saxon  Link. 

1017 

1036 
1039 

19 
3 
3 

E  lirard  III., 
Hirold  XL, 

Norman  Line. 

1041 
10G6 

25 

Wl  Uain  II., 
Heury  I., 

HoDSB  OF  Blois. 

10R6 
1087 
1100 

21 
13 
35 

Stepncn,  . 

Pi,antaqen«t  Link, 

1135 

39 

Henry  II., 
hichard  I., 
John, 

llenrv  III., 
Edward  I.,  . 
Edward  II., 
Kdward  111.,  . 
kichurd  II., 

1154 
1189 

1199 
1216 
1272 
1307 
1327 
1377 

85 
10 
17 

56 
05 
20 
50 
22 

House  of  Lancastee. 

IloiKn. 

Tear*  of 
Heigu. 

.         .  . 

1399 
1413 
1422 

14 

9 
3d 

House  of  Yobk. 

14R1 
U8Z 
1483 

8f 
• 

House  of  Tudoe. 

•         •  . 

1485 
1509 
1547 
1553 
1558 

94 

38 
6 
5 

43 

Stuaet  Line. 

•         •         .  * 

1603 
1625 

22 
24 

1G49 

10 

STUART  L*tVE» 

.  '   .  ' 

1660 
1685 

25 

3 

House  of  Orange. 

1683 

14 

Stuart  Line. 

1702 

n 

Brunswick  Line. 

1714 
1727 
1760 
1820 
1830 
1837 

13 

33 
60 
10 
7 

Henry  IV., 
Henry  V., 
Henry  VI., 


Edward  IV., 
Kdward  v., 
Kichard  HI., 


Hcnrv  VII., 
Henry  VIII., 
Kdward  VI., 
Mary, 
Elizabeth, 


.Tames  I., 
Charles  I.,  . 

Comiiionwealth, 


Charles  II., 
James  11., 


William  and  Mary, 


George  I., 
George  II., 
Geort'e  111. 
George  IV., 
William  IV.. 
Victoria, 

ENGLAND,  New.   See  New  Englaxd. 

ENGLAND,  Church  of.  A  brief  sketch  of 
the  origin  and  early  history,  as  well  as  an  outline 
of  the  doctrine  and  form  of  government  of  this 
church,  will  be  found  under  the  head  Anglo-Cath- 
OLic  Church,  or  Anglican  Church.  See  also 
the  Articles  Augustine  and  Dunstan.  Up  to  the 
time  of  the  Reformation,  ecclesiastical  affairs  would 
be  more  properly  described  as  the  history  of  the 
Church  in  England  ;  from  that  period  the  Church  of 
England  dates  her  existence.  She,  however,  retains 
so  much  of  antiquity,  and  her  institutions,  laws, 
and  formidaries  are  so  interwoven  with  the  history 
of  the  past,  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  have 
any  correct  or  connected  view  of  them,  and  of  her 
connection  with  tlie  state,  her  characteristic  featiire, 
without  at  least  glancing  rapidly  over  the  leading 
events  between  the  Conquest  and  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIIL  During  the  three  centuries  from  the 
Norman  Conquest  (1066)  to  the  preacliing  of  Wickliffe 
(1356),  her  history  can  be  regarded  only  as  a 
continual  stmggle  between  the  ecclesiastical  and 
civil  power,  and  there  woidd  be  little  else  to  describe 
than  the  methods  by  which  the  mitre  *  triumphed 
over  the  crown,  and  the  crown  invaded  the  rights 
and  property  of  the  church.  In  the  time  of 
WiUiam  I.,  nearly  half  the  country  was  in  the  hands 
of  spiritual  persons.  He  ejected  the  English  clergy, 
and  supi)lanted  them  with  Normans ;  and  although 
he  was  possessed  of  full  power  over  the  church,  yet 
in  his  reign  were  sown  the  seeds  of  future  papal 
encroachments.  Papal  legates  were  then  first  intro- 
duced into  England,  and  the  ecclesiastical  courts 
separated  from  the  civil.  From  this  time,  the 
increased  influence  of  Home  may  be  traced  to  the 
defective  titles,  the  usuq)ations,  and  the  Aiolent 
conduct  of  the  kings.  Thus,  the  defective  title  of 
Henry  I.  made  him  seek  popularity  by  recalling  the 
primate  Anselm,  who  had  incurred  the  displeasure 
of  his  brother  William,  and  had  fled  the  country 
Anselm  was  devoted  to  the  pope,  who  had  espoused 
his  quarrel,  and  refvised  to  do  homage  to  the  king 
for  the  temporalities  of  his  see,  till  at  k  ngth  Heniv 


ENGLAND,  CHURCH  OF. 


found  himself  obliged  to  surrender  the  right  of 
Investiture.  Ihus,  too,  Stephen's  usurpation  opened 
the  way  for  further  encroachments  ;  and  Henry  II., 
who  found  the  power  of  Rome  greatly  augmented, 
helped  to  extend  it  further,  by  accepting  a  grant  of 
Ireland  from  the  pope.  Then  followed  the  opposition 
of  Thomas-a-Becket,  which  arose  out  of  the  question 
of  the  punishment  of  ecclesiastics  b}'^  the  civil  power. 
For  the  moment,  it  seemed  that  the  quarrel  was 
healed  by  the  Constitutions  agreed  on  at  Clarendon 
^q.  v.),  but  it  broke  out  more  violently  than  ever. 
The  pope  discharged  Becket  from  his  oath,  and 
condemned  the  Constitutions.  Becket  had  fled  from 
the  kingdom;  and  his  subsequent  return,  murder, 
and  canonisation,  all  tend'^d  to  strengthen  the 
authority  of  the  church.  It  was  not,  however,  till 
the  reign  of  John,  wlieu  England  was  laid  under  an 
interdict,  and  the  icing  resigned  his  crown  to  the 
pope,  that  the  papal  encroachments  rose  to  their 
height;  and  the  weak  reign  of  Henry  III.,  which 
followed,  did  nothing  to  abate  them.  Edward  I. 
gave  a  check  to  the  power  of  the  clergy,  sub- 
jected them  to  taxation,  and  passed  the  statute  of 
Mortmain  (1279),  which  prohibited  the  transfer  of 
land  without  the  king's  consent.  There  is  little  to 
be  said  as  to  innovations  in  doctrine  during  these 
three  cent lu'ies  ;  l)ut  it  may  be  noted,  that  about 
the  middle  of  this  period,  viz.,  1213,"  the  council  of 
iSt  John  Lateran  declared  transu])stantiation,  or  the 
bodily  presence  of  Christ  in  the  consecrated  elem.ents, 
to  be  a  tenet  of  the  church. 

It  was  in  1356  that  a  new  period  commenced. 
Wickliffe  then  published  his  first  work,  entitled 
The  Last  Age  of  the  Church,  directed  a,gainst  the 
oovetousnesa  of  the  Church  of  Rome.  His  doc- 
la-ines  corres])ond  in  many  points  with  those  now 
naught  by  the  Church  of  England,  but  he  differed 
•irom  her  in  regard  to  the  necessity  of  Episcopacy, 
fv^hich  lie  rejected  ;  he  also  believed  in  purgatory, 
ind  permitted  prayers  for  the  dead.  His  chief 
objects  of  attack  were  the  papal  indulgences,  and 
tiilie  doctrine  of  transubstantiation.  It  has  been 
observed  concerning  the  condemnation  at  Oxford  of 
VVicklilfe's  opinions  with  respect  to  the  latter,  that 
'  this  was  the  first  plenary  determination  of  the 
Church  of  England  in  the  case,  so  that  this  doctrine, 
which  brought  so  many  to  the  stake,  had  but  with 
us  140  years'  prescription  before  the  times  of  Martin 
Luther.'  In  a  limited  sense,  he  ui)held  the  efficacy 
of  the  seven  sacraments.  Wickliffe  had  a  large  body 
of  followers.  They  were  called  Lollards,  probably 
from  a  German  word,  lullen,  to  sing  with  a  low  voice. 
The  storm  of  persecution  which  he  escaped  by 
death,  fell  upon  them.  Henry  IV.  thought  it  neces- 
sary to  fortify  his  usxirped  position  assisting  the 
bishops  against  the  Lollards,  and  from  this  time 
to  the  Reformation,  there  was  an  uninterrupted 
Buccession  of  confessors  and  martyrs.  Sir  John 
Oldcastle,  Lord  Cobham,  was  the  most  illustrious 
of  these  sufferers.  Fox  gives  a  detailed  account 
of  nearly  twenty  individuals  burned  for  heresy 
between  the  death  of  Lord  Cobham  and  1509,  when 
Henry  VIII.  ascended  the  throne.  To  some  extent, 
the  blood  of  these  martyrs  was  the  seed  of  the 
Reformed  Church  ;  but  we  must  not  overlook  the 
'  hidden  seed '  which  was  growing  secretly,  from 
the  time  that  Wickliffe  gave  to  his  countrymen  a 
translation  of  the  Scriptures  in  their  own  tongue. 
The  progress  of  learning,  and  especially  the  study 
of  Greek,  led  to  a  better  understanding  of  the 
sacred  books,  whilst  the  invention  of  printing  (1442) 
caused  a  wider  circulation  of  them. 

The  above  causes,  however,  would  probably  have 
proved  insufficient  to  produce  the  great  change 
which  was  now  impending,  liad  not  Henry  VIII.'s 
divorce  from  Catharine  of  S])ain  led  to  a  quarrel 
60 


between  him  and  the  pope,  which  ended  in  the 
total  abolition  of  the  pajjal  authority  within  the 
kingdom.  Then  began  tlie  Reformation  in  earnest. 
For  the  details  of  that  great  event,  consult  the 
article  imder  that  head,  and  the  lives  of  such  men 
as  Wolsey,  Sir  Thomas  More,  Fisher,  Clement, 
Liither,  Cromwell,  Cranmer,  Latimer,  and  pLidiey, 
&c.  From  this  period  may  be  dated  the  existence 
of  the  Church  of  England  as  a  separate  body,  and 
her  final  separation  from  Rome.  For  the  opiniona 
of  the  church  in  Henry's  reign,  two  important 
books  which  were  then  published  should  be  con- 
sulted— viz.,  the  Bishop's  Book,  or  the  Godly  and 
Pious  Institution  of  a  Christian  Man,  and  the  Kiwfa 
Book,  which  was  a  republication  of  the  same  in  a 
more  perfect  form  in  1543,  and  called  lice  Necessary 
Brudition  for  any  Christian  Man,  and  was  called  the 
King's  Book  because  put  forth  by  royal  authority. 
A  book  of  Articles  devised  by  the  Kinges  Jlighnes 
Majestie  to  stahlyshe  Christen  Unitie,  should  also 
be  consulted.  It  has  been  stated  in  the  article 
Anglo-Catholic  Church,  that  the  reformation  in 
doctnne  did  not  make  much  progress  in  Henry's 
reign  ;  from  these  books,  it  will  be  seen  that  it  was 
rather  retrograde.  The  monks,  too,  who  were  dis- 
possessed at  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries, 
were  dispersed  amongst  local  cures,  and  kept  ahve 
the  old  o])inions,  and  the  lower  orders  were  not  as 
yet  favourable  to  the  new  doctrines.  Cranmer  was 
the  leader  and  presiding  genius  of  the  Reformed 
opinions  ;  and  the  youth  of  Edward  VI.  left  the 
king  pliant  in  the  hands  of  the  archbishop.  The 
Book  of  Homilies,  put  forth  in  1540,  the  New  Com- 
munion Service  and  Catechism  in  1548,  the  fii-st 
Book  of  Common  Prayer  in  1549,  and  the  Forty- two 
x\rticles  in  1553,  all  bear  the  impress  of  his  hand, 
and  it  was  these  which  advanced  and  fixed  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Reformation.  Nor  was  the  temporal 
authority  idle  on  the  same  side — Bonner  and 
Gardiner  were  committed  to  jirison,  and  both  were 
deprived  of  their  bishoprics.  In  fact,  the  way  in 
which  all  the  institutions  of  the  Church  of  England 
M^ere  established  in  Edward  VI.'s  reign  by  the  help 
of  the  civil  magistrate,  have  brought  upon  her  the 
charge  of  Erastianism.  The  civil  power  had  just 
delivered  her  from  a  foreign  tyranny  ;  and  when 
the  weak  health  of  the  young  king,  the  known 
sentiments  of  his  successor,  Mary,  the  ignorance  of 
tiic  common  people,  and  the  interested  views  of  the 
old  clergy,  are  considered,  it  cannot  be  a  matter  of 
surprise,  still  less  of  blame,  that  the  same  arm  was 
relied  upon  for  the  establishment  of  the  new  forma 
of  religion. 

Although  Mary  promised  at  her  accession  that 
she  would  put  constraint  on  no  person's  religion,  her 
promise  was  not  kept.  Bonner  and  Gardiner  were 
restored  ;  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  and  Cate- 
chism were  declared  heretical ;  the  kingdom  was 
reconciled  to  the  see  of  Rome ;  a  persecution  of 
the  chief  reformers  commenced — Rogers  was  burned 
at  Smithfield,  Hooper  at  Gloucester,  Saunders  at 
Coventry,  Taylor  at  Hadluy.  The  prisons  were 
filled  with  '  heretics  ; '  many  fled  beyond  sea  ;  some 
purchased  safety  by  an  outward  conformity.  Cran- 
mer, Latimer,  and  Ridley  perished  in  the  flames 
at  Oxford.  Cardinal  Pole  was  made  primate.  One 
benefit  was  conferred  on  the  church  by  Mary — she 
surrendered  all  the  church  lands,  as  well  as  the  first 
fruits  and  tenths,  which  had  been  seized  by  Henry. 
At  last  the  death  of  Mary,  with  which  that  of  the 
cardinal  was  all  but  simidtaneous,  delivered  the 
church  from  its  oppressors.  The  passin^^  of  the 
Act  of  Uniformity  in  the  first  year  of  Elizabeth's 
reign,  restored  the  Common  Prayer-book  to  general 
use,  and  enjoined  the  same  dresses  as  were  in  use 
at  the  ti:nc  of  the  first  Prayer-book  of  Edward  VL 


ENGLAND,  CnUKCII  OF. 


Ail  tlia  bishops  except  one,  Kitchin  of  Llandaff, 
refused  to  take  the  oath  of  uniformity,  and  were 
ejected  from  their  sees  to  the  number  of  14  (the 
eleven  remaining  sees  were  vacant  by  deaths),  and 
175  other  beneficed  clergy  were  dei)rived  for  the 
same  cause — no  very  considerable  numl)er,  when  it 
is  remembered  that  there  were  then  9400  benefices 
in  England.  There  was  some  difficulty  in  filling 
uj)  the  vacant  bishopric's,  and  perhaps  some  slight 
informalities.  Matthew  Jr'arker  was  made  Arch- 
bishop of  Cauterbiuy.  For  the  refutation  of  the 
fable  of  the  Nag's-iiead  Consecration,  see  the 
article  under  that  head.  In  15G2,  the  Thirty-nine 
Articles  were  finally  reviewed  and  subscribed. 
These,  with  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  are  the 
tests  of  orthodoxy  in  the  Chui-ch  of  England. 

But  what  was  done  to  satisfy  the  scruples  of 
Protestant  nonconformists  ?  An  attempt  in  this 
direction  was  made  in  the  reign  of  James  1.  at 
the  Hampton  Court  Conference  (q.  v.).  The 
result  was  another  review  of  the  Common  Prayer- 
book  ;  and  this,  with  the  new  translation  of 
the  Bible,  and  the  passing  of  the  canons  of  1604, 
were  the  principal  ecclesiastical  events  of  James's 
reign.  These  canons  received  the  sanction  of  the 
crown,  but  not  that  of  parliament  ;  they  are 
not,  therefore,  binding  on  the  laity,  but  they  are 
still  binding  on  the  clergy  to  some  extent,  and 
they  regadate  the  practice  of  tlie  ecclesiastical 
courts,  and  are  the  only  rule,  on  some  points,  to 
which  the  bisliops  and  clergy  cnn  appeal.  See  the 
articles  LAUD  and  Scotland,  Church  of,  for  the 
events  of  Charles  I.'s  reign.  The  gi-eat  rebellion 
overthrew  both  church  and  state.  The  bishops 
were  declared  '  delinquents,'  robbed  of  their  property, 
and  abolished ;  and  the  clergy  were  ejected  from 
their  benefices.  Laud  was  put  to  death  in  1645. 
The  Church  of  England  had  no  corporate  existence 
during  this  interval.  With  the  restoration  of  the 
monarchy,  1660,  came  the  restoration  of  the  church. 
The  reaction  from  Puritanism  to  Prelacy  was  com- 
plete. Attempts  were  made,  but  with  small  success, 
to  win  over  the  Puritan  leaders  ;  bishoprics  were 
offered  to  Baxter,  Calamy,  and  Keynolds  ;  but  the 
last  only  accepted.  The  Savoy  Conference  (q.  v.) 
was  an  imsuccessful,  perhaps  insincere  attempt  to 
comprehend  the  nonconfoi-mists  in  the  Established 
Church.  But  the  demands  of  the  Presbyterians 
were  most  immoderate.  Baxter  went  so  far  as  to 
propose  the  substitution  of  an  entirely  new  book  of 
hife  own  composition,  in  the  place  of  the  Common 
Prayer-book.  After  the  failure  of  the  Savoy  Con- 
ference, this  was  once  more  reviewed  ;  and  a  new 
Act  of  Uniformity  in  1662  made  its  use,  as  it  now 
stands,  cora})idsory  in  ail  the  churches. 

The  Church  of  EngLind  passed  through  one  more 
ciitical  j)eriod  before  reaching  that  tranqiiillity  in 
which,  for  upwards  of  a  century,  she  slumbered  too 
Becurely.  In  1687,  James  II.  i.tuljlished  the  famous 
Declaration  of  Indulgence,  which  filled  up  the 
measure  of  i)0pular  discontent,  and  finally  cost  him 
his  croWn.  Although  by  this  declaration,  which 
was  ])erfectly  illegal,  liberty  of  conscience  was  per- 
mitted to  all  his  subjects,  it  was  clearly  und(irstood 
that  the  liberty  was  intended  only  for  tlie  pajusts. 
The  nonconformists  refused  to  accept  tlie  treacher- 
ous boom  Eighteen  bishops  out  of  twenty-five 
refused  to  puldish  the  declaration,  as  ordered,  in 
their  dioceses.  Seven  of  them — Sancroft,  Lloyd, 
Ken,  Turner,  Lake,  White,  and  Trelawny — drew  up 
a  remonstrance  to  the  king  ;  they  were  simimoned 
before  the  privy  coimcil,  and  sent  to  the  Tower. 
The  whole  city  was  in  commotion  ;  and  great  was 
the  rejoicing  when,  on  being  l)rought  to  trial  in 
Westminster  Hall,  they  w  ere  acquitted.  On  the  5th 
n£  November  following,  1638,  the  Prince  of  Orange 


landed  in  EnglancL    It  is  worthy  of  remark,  tliat 

out  of  these  seven  bishops  three  refused  to  sweai 
allegiance  to  him,  and  were  joined  by  a  consider, 
able  number  of  the  clergy ;  these  were  called  Non 
jurors.  In  the  first  year  of  William  and  Mary's 
reign,  the  Toleration  Act  was  passed,  and  dissent 
ceased  to  be  illegal.  Another  attempt  was  made  to 
comprehend  the  nonconformists  in  the  chirrch,  but 
the  lower  house  of  Convocation  was  in  no  tolerant 
mood,  and  the  attempt  failed,  but  chiefly  in  conse- 
quence of  the  disturbances  in  Scotland.  In  1717, 
Convocation  was  dissolved.  After  slumbering  for 
nearly  140  years,  it  has  been  once  more  called  into 
life  and  action  in  the  province  of  Canterbury.  See 
the  article  Convocation. 

That  the  Church  of  England,  after  fighting  for  ita 
very  existence  against  popery  on  the  one  hand,  and 
against  Puritanism  on  the  other,  should  have  sub- 
sided into  inactivity  during  the  dull  reigais  of  the 
Georges,  is  less  a  matter  of  surprise  than  of  regi-et. 
The  peaceful  enjoyment  of  her  temporalities  in  a 
dull,  irreligious,  not  to  say  infidel  age,  may  easily 
account  for,  though  it  cannot  excuse,  her  idleness. 
But  that  in  the  rise  of  John  Wesley,  1730,  she 
should  have  failed  to  see  a  grand  opportimity  for 
herself,  is  a  matter  of  both  surprise  and  regret ; 
she,  however,  let  it  pass ;  nor  can  she  hope  that 
such  another  will  ever  again  present  itself.  The 
utmost  that  can  be  hoped  is,  that  she  has  seen  her 
error.  The  next  impoi-tant  event  in  the  history  of 
the  church  is  the  Act  of  Union,  which  came  into 
eflfect  on  the  1st  of  January  1801,  and  united  the 
churches  of  England  and  Ireland  in  aU  matters  of 
doctrine,  worship,  and  discipline.  The  Pteformation 
had  made  some  progress  in  Ireland  under  Edward 
VI.  Five  Protestant  bishops  were  appointed  iu 
1550,  and  the  English  Bible  and  Liturgy  were 
introduced  in  1551 ;  but  from  a  variety  of  causes, 
the  Peformed  doctrines  have  never  found  much 
acceptance  with  the  native  population  ;  and  although 
a  Protestant  church  was  established  by  law,  it  waa 
and  is  the  church  of  the  minority  (see  Ireland). 
In  1635,  the  English  Articles  were  received  ;  and 
in  1662,  the  English  Book  of  Common  Prayer  waa 
ado])ted  by  convocation.  Before  the  pohticai  union 
of  the  countries,  the  two  churches  were  in  full 
communion.  By  an  act  of  the  imperial  parliament 
in  1833,  ten  of  the  Irish  bishoprics  were  suppressed, 
and  the  funds  thus  obtained  were  aj^plied  to  the 
augmentation  of  small  livings  and  the  building  and 
repair  of  churches.  There  are  now  twelve  Irish 
bishops. 

In  later  times,  two  great  controversies  have 
shaken  the  English  Church,  but  have  led  to 
nothing  more  than  some  internal  divisions,  and  the 
secession  of  some  members  to  Eome,  and  a  few  tt; 
the  ranks  of  dissent.  These  were  the  Tractarian 
and  the  Gorham  controversies.  The  former  waa 
occasioned  by  some  Tracts  which  began  to  be 
published  at  Oxford  in  1833,  the  object  of  which 
was  to  i-evive  something  of  the  spirit  of  Catholio 
antiquity,  and  reform  the  abuses  and  slovenly 
practices  which  had  crept  into  every  pait  of  the 
churcli  system.  See  Tractaeiaxism.  The  Gor- 
ham Controversy  (q.  v.)  related  to  the  doctrine 
of  baptismal  regeneration.  The  Tractarians  are 
accused  of  Piomanising  tendencies  ;  and  their  views, 
when  carried  to  extremes,  imdoubtedly  lead  in 
that  direction,  as  is  proved  by  the  numerous 
secessions  to  that  church.  With  the  extreme  Low 
Church  party.  Episcopacy  is  rather  an  expedient 
than  a  necessary  form  of  church  government.  They 
think  but  little  of  the  efficacy  of  sacraments,  and 
deny  that  regeneration  necessaiily  takes  place  in 
infant  ba])tism.  Justification  by  faith,  the  atone- 
ment of  the  cross,  and  the  Calvinistic  doctrines  on 


ENGLAND,  CHURCH  OF. 


election  are  their  leadinf^  topics  in  preaching.  See 
the  life  of  Simeon  and  of  Venn  for  the  views  of  this 
party. 

What  are  called  Broad  Church  views  are  those 
whinli  are  attributed  to  men  of  the  Arnold  school,  and 
the  followers  of  Mr.  Maurice  ((j.  v.).  Those  who  hold 
them  can  scarcely  be  called  a  party,  and  are,  indeed, 
unwilling  to  be  so  considered  ;  but  if  their  position 
must  be  defined,  they  might  be  described  as  a  party 
between  and  somewhat  antagcmistic  to  both  the  High 
and  Low  Church  jjartics.  The  High  Church  i)arty 
insist  on  the  authority  of  the  church  and  priestliood, 
tlie  efficacy  of  sacraments  when  rightly  received,  and 
the  necessity  of  apostolical  succession  in  the  matter  of 
orders,  and  in  their  general  teaching  they  take  the 
Prayer-book  as  the  exponent  of  Scripture.  They  are 
scrujjulous  in  observing  the  rubrics,  and  have  done 
much  to  revive  the  practice  of  daily  prayer  in  the 
churches,  and  the  observance  of  the  festivals.  Order, 
unity,  anti(piity,  and  catbolicity  are  what  they  profess 
to  liave  in  view.    See  Kitualism,  in  Surr."^,  Vol.  X. 

There  were,  in  18G9,  12,837  benefices  in  England 
and  Wales,  of  which  numy  ai*e  new  districts,  that 
are  being  continually  formed  out  of  the  old  large  and 
overpoi)ulous  parishes.  These  districts  are  called  pei"- 
petual  curacies,  or  incumbencies,  and  for  the  most 
part  are  but  very  slenderly  endowed.  The  old  bene- 
fices are  either  rectories,  where  the  incimd)ent  receives 
the  (/reat  or  corn  tithes,  or  vicarages,  where  he  receives 
the  small  tithe  only.  The  great  tithes  had  anciently 
been  bestowed  upon  the  neighbouring  monasteries, 
who  undertook  the  cui'e  of  the  souls,  and  appointe(l 
vicars  for  the  purpose,  who  lived  on  the  small  tithes 
and  the  offeriiigs  of  the  people.  At  the  dissolution  of 
the  monasteries,  many  of  the  great  tithes  were  given 
to  laymen,  and  laymen  now  extensively  hold  tbem, 
and  some  to  endowed  colleges.  The  endowments  were 
all  by  private  beneficence,  and  there  is  no  tenure  so 
ancient  as  that  by  which  the  parish  church  holds  her 
property.  In  the  aggregate,  the  amount  is  very  large, 
and  was  ascertained  by  the  commission  appointed  in 
1830  to  be  as  follows :  "Bishops,  £181,631 ;  deans  and 
chapters,  £360,095;  parochial  clergy,  £3,251,159; 
total  annual  revenue,  £3,792,885.  The  revenues  of 
the  Irish  branch  are  stated  at  £1,000,000,  1)ut  this  is 
probably  in  excess  of  the  truth.  Since  1830  the  Eng- 
lish revenues  must  have  rather  increased  from  pri- 
vate bene  licence  and  the  enhanced  value  of  property. 
Di\'ided  equally  amongst  the  whole  number  of  bene- 
fices, this  -would  give  an  average  of  less  than  £300  per 
annum  for  the  joint  support  of  incumbent  and  curates. 
It  appears  from  the  last  census  that  there  are  in  Eng- 
lan(l  and  Wales  14,077  churches  or  chapels,  served  by 
17,320  ministers,  or  123  ministers  to  every  100  build- 
ings. The  church  rates,  amounting  to  £500,000  an- 
nually, are  no  part  of  the  ministers'  endowment ;  they 
are  collected  from  time  inunemorial,  and  exclusively 
devoted  to  the  repairs  of  the  church  fal)ric,  and  the 
warming,  lighting,  cleaning,  etc.,  of  the  church. 

The  Church  of  England  has  three  orders  of  clergy : 
bishops,  priests,  and  deacons.  Generally,  a  degree  at 
one  of  the  English  universities,  or  of  Dublin,  is  re- 
quired in  a  candidate  for  orders  ;  but  in  Wales,  and 
some  of  the  more  populous  districts,  this  condition  is 
dispensed  with.  There  are  2  archbishops  (Canterbury 
and  York)  and  30  bishops,  active  and  retired,  in  Eng- 
land, besides  2  archbishops  and  10  bishops  in  Ireland. 
The  archdeacons  and  rural  deans  assist  the  bishops  in 
the  management  of  their  dioceses. 

The  patronage  of  the  church  is  in  a  great  variet}' 
of  hands — in  the  crown,  the  bishops,  the  nobles  and 
gentry,  and  incorporate  bodies,  such  as  colleges  and 
cathedrals.  Advowsons  and  next  presentations  may 
be  sold  as  property,  but  a  presentation  may  not  be 
sold  when  a  living  is  vacant.  A  clergyman  is  '  pre- 
sented '  to  his  living  by  the  patron,  he  is  inducted  by 


the  bishop  or  his  appointee;  he  must 'read  hinisell 
in,'  i.  e.,  he  must  read  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  after 
the  morning  or  evening  prayer  within  two  months 
after  induction. 

The  Episco]ml  Church  in  Scotland  is  not  in  union 
with  that  of  England. 

The  Anglican  Church  has  been  the  scene  of  agitating 
controversies  during  the  last  decade.  In  1864,  a  synod 
of  South  African  bishops  condemned  one  of  their  num- 
ber, Colenso,  for  heresy,  and  deprived  him  of  his  see. 
His  contumacy  continued  through  several  years,  and 
his  case  still  continues  unsettled.  In  18C5  and  1866, 
efforts  were  instituted  to  aid  in  bringing  on  a  closer 
union  between  the  Anglican  Churches  and  that  of 
Rome,  and  were  actively  pursued,  and  societies  insti- 
tuted for  the  promotion  of  '  the  unity  of  Christendom,' 
actuated  thereto  by  the  letter  of  Dr.  Pusey,  in  which 
he  asserted  that  there  is  '  no  insurmountable  obstacles 
to  the  union  of  the  Roman,  Greek,  and  Anglican 
communions,'  and  that  the  latter  Church  'rciidily 
recognizes  the  prinuicy  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome.'  In 
1866,  the  proposed  ritualistic  changes  in  worship,  and 
'revision  of  the  Liturgy,'  produced  much  agitation, 
and  being  strongly  opposed  by  the  Archbisho))  of  Can- 
terbury and  many  thousands  of  laymen  and  clergy,  the 
government  declined  to  propose  the  forming  of  a  com- 
mission for  that  purpose.  New  monastic  orders  were, 
however,  instituted  in  the  Church,  which  it  is  said  are 
on  the  increase.  Among  these  the  order  of  St.  Bene- 
dict, over  which  Mr.  Lyne  ('Father  Ignatius')  pre- 
sided, numbered  15,000  brothers  and  sisters.  The 
titles  of  others  are  the  '  Order  of  Intercessory  Prayer,* 
*  Tlie  Sisters  of  St.  John  the  Evangelist,'  and '  llie  Con 
fraternity  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  of  the  Body  and 
Blood  of  Christ.'  In  the  same  year,  association  with 
the  Russo-Greek  and  Oriental  Churches  generally  was 
suggested  in  the  House  of  Bishops,  and  advances 
made  towards  a  close  intercommunication  with  the 
Episcopal  and  Lutheran  Churches  of  Northern  Eu- 
rope. In  1867,  a  '  Pan- Anglican  S3'nod'  was.  held  at 
Lambeth,  London,  at  which  about  80  bishops  were 
l)resent.  A  pastoral  address  Avas  adopted,  exhorting 
against  the  growing  superstitions  of  the  day,  su(;h  as 
the  sovereignty  of  the  Pope  and  the  exaltation  of  the 
Virgin  ^lary,  etc.,  but  no  reference  was  made  to  the 
subject  of  ritualism.  A  pastoral  letter  was  also 
addressed  to  the  Patriarch  and  Bishops  of  the  Greek 
Church.  This  letter  was  replied  to  in  November,  1869, 
and  strengthened  the  hopes  of  those  v^  ho  desired  the 
union  of  the  Anglican  and  Oriental  Churches. 

In  1 868,  a  resolution  was  offered  in  the  House  ot 
Commons  in  favour  of  the  dis-establishment  of  the 
Anglican  Church  in  Ireland.  This  was  sustained  by 
all  the  religious  denominations  in  England  except  the 
Wesleyans,  and  the  bill  separating  the  Church  from 
the  State  government  became  the  law,  July  26,  1869, 
and  the  former  compelled  to  a  reconstruction  on  a 
voluntary  basis. 

In  the*  Urdtcd  States  there  were  45  dioceses  and  10 
missionary  jurisdictions  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  in  1875;  57  l)ishops,  3122  priests  and  dea- 
cons, 261,000  communicants,  and  the  contributions  to 
the  support  of  the  church  amounted  to  $6,899,305. 
The  Episcopalians  were  most  numerous  in  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  Connecticut,  Massachusetts,  New  Jer- 
sey, and  Virginia.  The  diocese  of  Oregon  and  W^ash- 
ington  contains  but  742  communicants  in  an  area  of 
161,274  square  miles. 

In  England  there  are  2  archbishops  and  26  bishop^., 
and  2  archbishops  and  10  bishops  in  Ireland.  The  arch- 
deacons and  rural  deans  assist  the  bishops  in  the  man- 
agement of  their  dioceses.  See  Smart's  Historj/  of  the 
(JhurcJi  of  England^  Marsden's  Dictionary  of  Chris- 
tian ChnrcJies  and  Sects,  Fuller's  and  Mosheim's  Church 
History ;  the  Histories  of  Collier,  Strype,  Burnet, 
and  Clarendon,  and  the  Works  and  Sei-  ons  of  Barrow 


ENGLISH  CHANNEL— ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 


Hooker,  Jeremy  Taylor,  Lightfoot,  Soutli,  Tillotson, 
Butler,  Atterbury,  Sherlock,  aud  others. 

ENGLISH   or   BRITISH    CHANNEL  {La 

Manche  or  the  Skeve  of  the  French,  aud  the  Oceanus 
Britannicus  of  the  Romans)  is  the  narrow  sea 
which  separates  England  and  France,  having  on 
the  north  the  English  counties  of  Kent,  Sussex, 
Hants,  Dorset,  Devon,  and  Cornwall ;  and  on  the 
south  the  French  provinces  of  Artois,  Picardy, 
Normandy,  and  Bretagne.  On  the  east,  it  joins 
the  North  Sea,  at  the  Strait  of  Dover,  where  it  is 
narrowest,  being  only  21  miles  Avide  from  Dover 
to  Cape  Grisnez.  From  this  strait  it  runs  west- 
Bouth-west  for  2S0  miles,  and  joins  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  at  the  Chops,  with  a  breadth  of  100  miles 
between  the  Scilly  Isles  and  Ushant  Isle.  With 
an  average  breadth  of  70  miles,  it  is  90  miles  -wide 
from  Brighton  to  Havre ;  CO  miles  from  Portland 
Point  to  Cape  La  Hague  ;  140  miles — its  greatest 
breadth— from  Sidmouth  to  St  Malo ;  and  100  to  110 
miles  west  of  the  latter  line.  It  occupies  23,900 
square  geographical  miles,  and  includes  the  Scilly 
Isles,  Channel  Isles,  Ushant  Isle,  Isle  of  Wight, 
and  many  islets  and  rocks,  especially  off  the  coast 
cf  Bretagne.  It  is  shallowest  at  the  Strait  of 
Dover,  where  a  chalk-ridge  at  the  depth  of  twelve 
Co  thirty  fathoms  joins  England  and  France.  West 
of  this,  it  deepens  to  sixty  fathoms,  with  some 
banks  at  three  to  five  fathoms,  and  some  hollows 
five  to  thirty  fathoms  deeper  than  the  parts 
around.  A  coarse  gravel  covers  the  bottom.  The 
English  coast-line  of  the  E.  C.  is  390  miles  long, 
with  an  inshore  depth  of  twelve  to  fifty-five 
fathoms,  and  the  French  coast-line  of  the  E.  C. 
is  570  miles  long.  W esterly  Avinds  prevail  in  the 
E.  C,  and  the  cm-rent,  though  imperceptible,  is 
always  from  west  to  east.  The  E.  C.  abounds  in 
fish,  of  which  the  chief  are  pilchard,  mackerel,  and 
oysters. 

ENGLISH  CONSTITU'TION.    See  Parlia- 

SIENT. 

ENGLISH  DRA'MA.    See  Drama. 

ENGLISH  LA'NGUAGE,  which  is  now  spoken 
fty  upwards  of  50  millions  of  the  earth's  inhabitants, 
1 4  in  its  vocabulary  one  of  the  most  heteiogeneous 
that  ever  existed ;  a  fact,  the  causes  of  which 
are  to  be  traced  in  the  history  of  England  (q.  v.). 
Ita  composition  and  grammatical  character  are 
thus  described  by  M.  Miiller  in  his  Lectures  on 
the  Science  of  Language  (1861).  'There  is,  perhaps, 
no  language  so  full  of  words  evidently  derived 
from  the  most  distant  sources  as  English.  Every 
country  of  the  globe  seems  to  have  brought  some 
of  its  verbal  manufactures  to  the  intellectual 
market  of  England.  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  Celtic, 
Saxon,  Danish,  French,  Spanish,  Italian,  German 
— nay,  even  Hindustani,  Malay,  and  Chinese  words 
— he  mixed  together  in  the  English  dictionary. 
On  the  evidence  of  words  alone,  it  would  be 
impossible  to  classify  English  with  any  other  of 
the  established  stocks  and  stems  of  human  speech. 
Leaving  out  of  consideration  the  smaller  ingre- 
dients, we  find,  ou  comparing  the  Teutonic  with 
tlie  Latin,  or  Neo-Latin,  or  Norman  elements  in 
English,  that  the  latter  have  a  decided  majority 
over  the  home-grown  Saxon  terms.  This  may 
seem  incredible ;  and  if  we>  simply  took  a  page  of 
any  English  book,  and  counted  therein  the  words 
of  ])urely  Saxon  and  Latin  origin,  .the  majority 
would  be  no  doubt  on  the  Saxon  side.  The 
articles,  pronouns,  prepositions,  and  auxiliary  verbs, 
all  of  which  are  of  Saxon  growth,  occur  over 
and  over  again  in  one  and  the  same  page.  Thus, 
Hickes  maintained  that  nine-tenths  of  the  English 
dictionarj'  were  Saxon,  because  there  were  only 


three  words  of  Latin  origin  in  the  Lord's  Prayer, 

Sharon  Turner,  who  extended  his  ol^servations  ovei 
a  larger  field,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
relation  of  Norman  to  Saxon  was  as  four  to  six. 
Another  writer,  who  estimates  the  whole  number  of 
English  words  at  38,000,  assigns  23,000  to  a  Saxon, 
and  15,000  to  a  classical  source.  On  taking,  however, 
a  more  accm-ate  inventory,  and  counting'  every  word 
in  the  dictionaries  of  Pvo])ertson  and  Weljster,  M. 
Thommerel  has  established  the  fact,  that  the  number 
of  Teutonic  or  Saxon  words  in  English  an)ounts  to 
only  13,330  against  29,354  words  which  can  e:  tlier 
mediately  or  immediately  be  traced  to  a  Latin 
source.  On  the  evidence  of  its  dictionarj  ,  there- 
fore, and  treating  English  as  a  mixed  language.,  it 
would  have  to  be  classiiied  together  with  Freni.h, 
Italian,  and  S})anish,  as  one  of  the  Ptomance  or  Neo- 
Latin  dialects.  Languages,  lioAvever,  though  mixed 
in  their  dictionary'-,  can  never  be  mixed  in  their 
grammar.  Hervas  was  told  by  missionaries,  that 
in  the  middle  of  the  18th  c.  the  Araucans  hardly 
used  a  single  word  which  was  not  Spanish,  though 
xliey  preserved  both  the  grammar  and  the  syntax  of 
their  own  native  speech.  This  is  the  reason  why 
grammar  is  made  the  criterion  of  tlie  relationship 
and  the  base  of  the  classilication  in  almost  all 
languages ;  and  it  follows,  therefore,  as  a  matter  of 
course,  that  in  the  classification  and  in  the  science 
of  language,  it  is  impossible  to  admit  the  exist- 
ence of  a  mixed  idiom.  We  may  form  whole 
sentences  in  English,  consisting  entirely  of  Latin  or 
Piomance  words ;  yet  whatever  there  is  left  of 
grannnar  in  English  bears  unmistakable  traces  of 
Teutonic  workmansliip.  What  may  now  be  called 
grammar  in  English,  is  little  more  than  the  ter- 
minations of  the  genitive  singular  and  nominative 
plural  of  nouns,  the  degrees  of  comparison,  and  a 
few  of  the  persons  and  tenses  of  the  verb.  Yet  the 
single  8,  used  as  the  exponent  of  the  third  person 
singular  of  the  indicative  present,  is  irrefragable 
evidence  that  in  a  scientific  classification  of  lan- 
guages, English,  though  it  did  not  retain  a  single 
word  of  Saxon  origin,  would  have  to  be  classed  as 
Saxon,  and  as  a  branch  of  the  great  Teutonic  stem 
of  the  Aryan  family  of  speech.'    See  Language. 

In  tracing  the  growth  of  the  English  language, 
the  history  is  usually  divided  into  four  leading 
periods:  the  Anglo-Saxon  Period  (449  A. D. — 1066 
A.D.);  the  Semi-Saxon  Period  (from  1066  a.  d. — 
1250  A.  D.) ;  the  Early  English  Period,  comprising 
the  two  periods  of  Old  and  Middle  English  (from 
1250  A.  D.— 1550  A.  D.);  and  the  Modern  English 
Period  (from  1550  A.  D.  to  the  present  time). 

As  early  as  the  5th  c,  Teutonic  invaders  from 
the  continent  settled  in  this  country,  and  drove  the 
original  Celtic-speaking  inhabitants  to  the  north 
and  west  of  the  island  ;  so  that  before  the  battle  oi 
Hastings  (1066),  the  Anglo-Saxon  tongue  had  been 
spoken  in  England  for  at  least  600  years.  The  final 
absorption,  after  a  long  conflict,  by  the  kmgs  of 
Wessex,  or  West  Saxons,  of  the  various  portions 
of  the  Heptarchy,  in  the  9th  c.,  went  far  to  mako 
the  ruling  speech  of  the  land  identical  with  tl^at 
of  Berkshire  and  Hants,  the  recognised  centre  of 
the  predominant  sept.  The  use,  besr'des,  of  this 
So\ithem  Anglo-Teuton  speech  as  the  instrument 
of  literary  communication,  wa3  permanently  con- 
firmed by  King  Alfred,  a  native  of  Berks.  Further 
back  than  the  time  of  this  hterary  monarch,  few 
existing  remains  of  the  laugiaage  permit  us  to  go; 
yet,  from  the  writings  of  Ciedmon,  who  was  a 
North  Anglian,  and  a  few  ecclesiastical  MSS.  of 
the  kingdom  of  Northumbria,  which  extended  from 
the  Humber  to  the  Firth  of  Forth,  it  has  been 
generally  concluded  that  at  least  two  dialectical 
peculiarities  must  have  existed  in  the  island — a 

63 


ENGLISH  LANGUAGE— ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 


nortliern  and  a  sonthern  one.  The  Anglian  or 
Northern  dialect,  it  has  been  presumed,  was,  to 
Eonie  extent,  marked  with  Scandinavian  features  ; 
while  the  Saxon  or  Southern  dialect  was  more 
purely  Low-Germanic,  though  the  Anglian  was 
also  Low- Germanic  in  all  essentials.  Some  have 
account(;d  for  the  partial  approximation  of  the 
Anglian  dialect  to  Scandinavian  by  the  fact  that  the 
Danes,  at  a  later  period,  effected  a  settlement  in 
the  north-east  of  England ;  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
it  is  argued  that  *  certain  peculiarities  of  a  Scandi- 
navian character  are  to  be  found  in  the  Anglian, 
even  of  a  date  anterior  to  the  tirst  Danish  occu- 
pation of  a  part  of  England  in  the  latter  half  of 
the  ninth  century.'  Some  philologers,  again,  insist 
on  distributing  the  Anglo-Saxon  language  into 
more  dialects  than  two ;  hut  it  will  be  sufHcicnt  if 
the  reader  bear  in  mind  the  two  which  have  been 
mentioned.  Now,  the  question  arises,  which  of  the 
dialects  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  is  specifically  the  i)arent 
of  the  English  tongue  ?  Two  answers  have  been 
given  to  tiiis  question.  It  has  been  alleged  that 
after  the  Norman  Conquest,  the  classical  Saxon 
of  Wessex  lost  its  temporaiy  supremacy,  and  gra- 
dually gave  way  to  a  dili'erent  dialect — nainely,  that 
of  the  Midland  counties  of  Engh^nd.  This  was 
the  district  where  the  universities  S])rung  up,  and 
where  the  rich  monasteries  and  other  religious 
foundations  took  their  rise  ;  and  in  support  of  this 
theory,  it  is  argued  by  competent  scholars,  that 
the  dialect  which  is  most  closely  allied  to  the 
standard  English  of  our  day  is  that  of  Northamp- 
tonshire and  some  neighbouring  counties.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  has  been  maintained  by  no  less 
an  authority  than  Sir  Francis  Madden,  and  his 
conclusion  seems  not  imlikely,  that  we  must  look  for 
the  real  groundwork  of  our  language  in  a  gradual 
coalescence  of  nearly  all  the  leading  dialects  of 
England.    See  his  edition  of  Layamon's  Brut,  1847. 

The  period  known  as  Semi-Saxon,  in  the  history 
of  our  Enghsh  tongue,  dates  from  aliout  the  Conquest 
until  near  the  middle  of  the  13th  century.  This 
was  a  transition  era,  and,  like  every  era  of  the 
kind,  one  of  •  confusion,  both  to  those  using  the  lan- 
guage, and  to  those  desirous  of  tracing  its  history. 
The  monks  of  the  time,  accustomed  to  the  use  of 
medieval  Latin,  had  in  a  great  measure  forgotten 
the  grammar  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  language ;  and 
when  they  attempted  to  write  their  mother-tongue, 
did  so  very  badly.  In  fact,  their  language  is  just 
ungrammatical  Anglo-Saxon,  and  very  probably  had 
its  counterpart  in  the  usus  loquendi  of  the  common 
people.  The  Saxon  Chronicle,  as  it  is  called,  which 
bears  date  1173,  and  Laj^amon's  Bnit,  about  1190 
or  1200,  exhi])it  traces  of  the  breaking-up  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon.  The  inflections  and  genders  of  the 
substantives,  the  definite  and  indefinite  declensions 
of  adjectives,  are  for  the  most  part  disregarded ;  a 
marked  partiality  is  shewn  for  weak  preterites  and 
participles  ;  there  is  a  constant  substitution  of  en  for 
m  in  the  plurals  of  verbs ;  and  the  final  e  is  often 
discarded  ;  besides  a  great  uncertainty  prevailing 
in  the  government  of  prepositions.  As  regards  the 
Semi-Saxon  vocabidary  itself,  although  employed 
in  literature  a  century  and  a  half  after  the  Norman 
Conquest,  it  exhibits  but  few  traces  of  Norman- 
French  ;  proving  beyond  question,  tliat  the  imme- 
diate effects  of  that  great  change  were  by  no 
means  so  important  on  the  Anglo-Saxon  tongue 
as  they  were  at  one  time  believed  to  have  been. 

When  we  come  to  the  £Jarh/  English  Period,  we 
have  escaped  most  of  the  perplexities  which  attach 
themselves  to  the  Semi- Saxon  era  of  our  language. 
The  principles  of  the  English  tongue  now  assert 
themselves  actively  in  contrast  with  those  of  its 
Teutonic  origin.  The  Anglo-Saxon  was  rich  in 
64 


inflections,  which  the  English  has  contiived  to  get 
rid  of.  It  prefers  to  express  the  various  modili- 
cations  of  an  idea  by  some  relational  word  o*-  words 
attached  to  the  leading  idea.  During  the  Semi- 
Saxon  period,  as  we  haVe  seen,  the  verbs  suffered 
much  less  inflectional  change  than  the  substantives 
and  adjectives  ;  this  will  be  found  to  hold  throughout 
the  entire  250  years  of  the  era  of  reconstruction. 
In  the  fine  poem  of  Tlie  Owl  and  the  Nightingale, 
the  Anglo-Saxon  vowels  a,  e,  v,  in  final  syllables,  are 
aU  re])resented  by  e,  and  tlie  final  n  of  the  infiintivA 
is  beginning  to  disappear.  In  the  Chronicle  of 
liobert  of  Gloucester,  we  encounter,  besides,  a  jjeat 
number  of  French  words,  which  had  gradually 
become  familiar  to  the  people,  through  the  ju-esence 
of  their  Norman  masters.  The  presence  of  French 
is,  besides,  very  noticeable  in  the  poetry  of  Chaucer 
and  Gower.  What  fear  could  not  accomplish, 
literary  respect  produced  ;  for  it  is  no  doubt  to 
the  literary  men  of  England,  rather  than  to  iti 
masters,  that  we  owe  so  large  an  admixture  of 
French  ex^iressions  and  of  French  tcnninology. 
Our  first  complete  translation  of  the  Bible  belongs 
to  this  period.  Piers  Ploioman  has  but  few  French 
words,  while  Lydgate  and  Bishop  Peacock  have 
too  many ;  and  More's  Edward  V.  (1509),  and 
the  J\^nt  Brown  Maid  (1500),  are  comparatively 
modern  in  their  style  and  tone.  As  to  Scotland, 
again,  in  the  Anglian  counties  lying  south  of  the 
Forth,  the  language  in  all  respects  was  similar  to 
its  more  southern  neighbour,  and  underwent  such 
changes  as  we  have  noted  in  its  more  Saxon  com- 
|»eer.  Barbour,  a  Scottish  contemporary  of  Chaucer, 
wrote  purer  English  than  Chaucer  did,  and  hia 
poems  resembled  in  a  striking  degree  the  homely 
phraseology  of  Pie^s  Ploivman.  Regarding  the 
north-eastern  dialects  of  Scotland,  some  diversity 
of  opinion  exists.  Some  antiquaries  are  of  opinion, 
that  the  large  infusion  of  Norse  or  Scandinavian 
elements  in  these  dialects  is  to  be  accounted  for 
by  the  fact  of  a  Norwegian  kingdom  having  been 
maintained  in  the  east  of  Scotland  during  the 
11th  c.  for  a  period  of  thirty  years;  while  others 
allege  with  more  probability,  that  the  language  ol 
the  north-east  of  Scotland  is  as  decidedly  Anglo- 
Saxon  in  its  form  and  substance  as  that  of  Norfolk 
or  Yorkshire. 

In  the  Modern  English  Period,  says  Professo: 
Spalding,  'the  organisation  of  the  English  lan_gviage 
may  be  said  to  be  complete.  The  laws  determining 
the  changes  to  be  made  on  words,  and  regulatiixg 
the  grammatical  structure  of  sentences,  had  been 
definitively  fixed,  and  were  generally  obej'ed  ;  aU 
that  had  still  to  be  gained  in  this  particular,  was  an 
increase  of  ease  and  dexterity  in  the  application  of 
the  rules.  The  vocabulary,  doubtless,  was  not  so 
far  advanced.  It  was  receiving  constant  acces- 
sions ;  and  the  tliree-and-a-half  centuries  that  have 
since  elapsed,  have  increased  our  stock  of  words 
immensely.  But  this  is  a  process  which  is  still 
going  on,  and  which  never  comes  to  a  stojj  in  tlie 
speech  of  any  people ;  and  the  grammar  being  once 
thoroughly  founded,  the  effects  of  glossarial  changes 
are  only  secondary,  until  the  time  arrives  when 
they  co-operate  with  other  causes  in  breaking  up  a 
language  altogether.' — For  further  information,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  such  accessible  works  as  those 
of  Latham,  Craik,  and  Spalding. 

ENGLISH  LI'TERATURE,  like  every  other 
mental  product,  is  qualified  by  the  history  of  the 
nation  to  which  it  belongs.  The  great  social  eras 
of  a  country's  history  have  always  been  found  to 
correspond  with  the  great  intellectual  eras  of  her 
growth.  It  will,  however,  be  sufficient  for  our 
purj)ose  to  arrange  the  literary  annals  of  England 
into  three  periods  :  1.  The  period  antecedent  to  the 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 


Korman  Conquest ;  2.  The  period  extending  from 
the  Norman  Conquest  to  the  E?ighsh  Reformation  ; 
and  3.  The  period  extending  from  the  English 
Reformation  to  the  present  day. 

1.  The  Peiiod  Antecedent  to  the  Conquest. — This 
|K'riod  possesses  a  literature  composed  in  three 
distinct  languages — the  Celtic^  the  Latin,  and  the  ! 
Anglo- Saxon.     Regarding  the  Celtic  literatiu-e,  see  [ 
Celtio  Nations,  Irish  Literature,  and  Welsh  i 
Literature.    The  introduction  of  Latin  literature  j 
into   this  country  was    considerably  later  than 
the  Roman  invasion  of  it.     The  cultivation  of ; 
the  letters  of  Rome  followed  as  a  necessary  con-  { 
sequence  on  the  introduction  of  Christianity  into 
the  comitry.    St  Patrick  is  said  to  have  been  the  \ 
first  teacher  of  Christianity  in  the  British  Islands,  j 
some  time  before  the  middle  of  the  5bh  century.  | 
Ireland  was  the  scene  of  his  labours ;  and  it  is  ; 
well  known  that  it  was  by  Irish  missionaries,  chief 
among  whom  was  St  Columba  (q.  v.),  that  the  j 
first  light  of  the  gospel  was  attempted  to  be  i 
disseminated  in  Scotland  and  the  north  of  England,  j 
Towards  the  close  of  the  6th  c,  St  Augustine  } 
landed  in  the   south   of  England,  and  laid  the  i 
foundations  of  the  Anglo- Catholic  Church.  These 
great  evangelists,  however,  rather  prepared  the  ! 
way  for  literary  effort  on  the  part  of  others,  than  I 
were  themselvt-ii  literary.     The  earliest  names  of 
importance  that  we  encounter  are  Alcuin  and  \ 
Erigena,  Bede  and  Alfred.    After  the  immigration  | 
of  the  Anglo-Saxons  into  Britain,  this  people  began  j 
to  form  a  literature  of  their  own.     Their  three  j 
historical  poems — the  Gleeman's  Song,  the  Battle  of 
f  innesburgh,  and  the  Tale  of  Beowulf — are  mainly 
versions  of  events  which  happened  on  the  continent 
before  the  descent  on  the  shores  of  England.  The 
last,  which  is  essentially  a  Norse  tale,  is  the  only 
poem  resembling  an  Iliad  which  the  Anglo-Saxons 
possess.     Except  the  remarkable  religious  poems 
of  the  Northumbrian  monk  Cajdmon,  in  the  7th 
c,  little  more  of  any  moment  in  verse  has  been 
handed  down  to  us  by  the  Anglo-Saxon  people. 
But  this   people,  though  comparatively  poor  in 
poetry,  are  eminently  simple  and  straightforward 
prose  writers.     King  Alfred  discarded  Latin  in 
all  his  communications  with  his  subjects,  and  in 
consequence  the  Anglo-Saxon  made  an  impressive 
start  throughout  the  whole  of  England.    From  the 
Saxon  Chronicle,  which  is  made  up  from  the  MS. 
of  several  conventual  records,  modern  scholars  have 
derived  si)ecial  and  valuable  information.  Portions 
of  the  sacred  Scriptures  were  translated  into  this 
language,  several  of  the  leading  men  of  the  time, 
such  as  Aldhelm,  Bede,  and  Alfred,  lending  their 
assistance.    Sermons  and  grammars,  glossaries  and 
medical  treatises,  geogi-aphies  and  dialogues  between 
Solcmon  and  Saturn,  make  up  the  file  of  this  period 
ff  the  literature.    This  notice  of  the  first  period 
must  be  concluded  by  an  allusion  to  the  illustrious 
name  of  Alfred,  who,  by  his  enlightenment  and 
his  virtue,  has  rendered  the  9th  c,  in  which  he 
fiourished,  one  of  the  brightest  spots  in  the  whole 
range  of  English  literature.    His  favourite  literary 
employment  was  rendenng  works  written  in  Latin, 
a  language  which  he  only  knew  imperfectly,  into 
his  native  tongue.     He  did  not  scruple  to  add  a 
picturesque  story,  a  bit  of  geography,  or  a  devout 

Erayer,  when  occasion  suited,  to  the  original  text  of 
is  author.  Even  in  his  version  the  last  of  the 
philosoj>hic  Romans,  he  sometimes  vies  with  Boetliius 
in  passages  of  solemn  eloquence  or  of  speculative 
meditation. 

2.  T)te  Period  extending  from  the  Norman  Con- 
quer to  the  Enijlish  Reformation. — The  Conquest 
had  the  efiFect  of  changing  the  language  and 
manners  of  the  court;  it  took  but  little  effect  on 

161 


those  of  the  obstinate  inhabitants  of  the  country 
In  a  few  centuries,  the  English  peojjle  compelled 
their  Norman  masters  to  acquire  the  desj)ised 
Anglo-Saxon ;  and  if  there  was  a  considerable 
importation  of  Norman-French  into  our  literature,  it 
was  ovidng  much  more  to  such  writers  as  Chaucer 
and  Gower,  who  took  what  suited  them  from  what- 
ever quarter,  than  to  any  lordly  influence  of  the 
Norman  nobility  domineering  over  the  abject  necks 
of  their  Teutonic  enemies.  In  a  generation  or  two 
after  the  Conquest,  classical  and  theological  learning 
made  very  considerable  progress.  Monasteries  were 
busy,  and  the  English  universities  were  both  by  this 
time  founded ;  while  an  interchange  of  teachers 
and  pupils  constantly  went  on  between  the  English 
seminaries  and  those  of  France  and  other  countries. 
Lanfranc  and  Anselm,  Hales  and  Duns  Scotus, 
Michael  Scot  and  Roger  Bacon,  had  attained  to 
a  great  eminence  in  speculative  and  in  physical 
philosophy.  Doubtless  their  thinking  was  more 
characterised  by  its  hair-splitting  ingenuity  than 
by  its  solidity,  but  the  13th  c.  stands  out  in  a  di3« 
tingaiished  manner  in  England,  and  indeed  through- 
out Euroiie,  for  its  peculiar  devotion  to  speculative 
studies.  But  all  these  philosophers  wrote  in  Latin, 
and  so  did  the  historical  writers  of  the  time. 
These  were  William  of  Malmesbury,  Geoffrey  of 
Monmouth,  Giraldus  Cambrensis,  Matthew  Paris, 
and  other  chroniclers.  One/)f  the  most  curious  and 
amusing  phases  through  whicli  our  literature  passed 
was  the  composition  of  local  squibs,  generally  of  a 
personal  character,  in  rhymed  Latin  couplets.  The 
ecclesiastics  frequently  came  in  for  more  than  their 
share  of  this  rude  abuse.  It  is  to  Walter  Mapes,  a 
man  of  wit  and  fancy,  we  owe  a  highly  popidar 
drinking-sonn^  of  this  period,  beginning  Mild  est  jpro- 
positum  in  taberna  mori  ('  I  devise  to  end  my  days* 
in  a  tavern  drinking ; '  see  Leigh  Hunt's  felicitous 
translation),  which  almost  rivals  in  sj^irit  and  vigour 
the  Jolly  Good  Ale  and  Old  of  two  centuries  later. 
The  satire  passed  from  the  clergy,  and  v/as  directed 
against  the  feeble  king  (John).  De  Montfort  aiid 
the  other  great  barons  who  distinguished  them- 
selves at  Runnymede,  are  the  universal  theme  of 
popular  praise.  The  Gesta  Bomanormn,  a  medley  of 
the  most  dissimilar  elements,  compiled  by  nobody 
knows  who,  contain  tales  and  apologues,  fables  and 
satires,  stories  of  pathos  and  of  humour,  worked 
up  into  a  form  closely  resembling  the  French 
Fabliaux.  These  Gesta  have  been  instrumental 
in  suggesting  some  of  the  noblest  themes  to  our 
more  recent  literature,  and  thus  possess  double 
claims  on  our  affectionate  regard.  The  Aferchant  oj 
Venice,  Marmion,  &c.,  owe  much  to  these  rude  tales 
of  a  bygone  age.  The  French  Fabliaux  affected 
our  literature  but  little  before  the  time  of  Chaucer. 
Except  the  productions  of  a  poetess,  Marie  of 
France,  few  of  these  compositions  have  come  down 
to  us  of  very  great  merit.  The  romances  of  chivalry, 
rude  and  spirited,  pathetic  and  imaginative,  are 
well  worth  the  attention  of  the  student  of  English 
literature;  such  are  the  fine  old  storj'  of  Haveloh 
the  Dane,  the  Gest  of  King  Horn,  Bevis  of  Hamp' 
toun,  Guy  of  Wa7'wicJc ;  and  last  and  best  of  all  are 
those  romances  written  in  French,  but  composed 
by  Englishmen,  that  celebrate  the  glory  and  fall  of 
King  Arthur  and  his  knights  of  the  Roimd  Table, 
of  which  splendid  use  has  recently  been  made 
by  Alfred  Tennyson  in  his  Idylls  of  the  King.  But 
what  during  all  this  time  has  become  of  the  old 
vernacular  tongue  of  England  as  a  mediitm  of  lite- 
rary expression  ?  Driven  from  the  monasteries  and 
universities,  for  the  most  part,  and  only  slightly 
retained  in  poetry,  it  might  have  been  expected  to 
decay  and  die  out.  But  such  was  the  native  vitality 
of  the  people  who  spoke  it,  that  it  kept  its  place. 

6i 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 


almost  witliout  a  literature,  only  undergoing  such 
changes  as  time  inevitably  effects  upon  a  nascent 
langnai,'e.  Thus  the  Anglo-Saxon  merged  into  the 
Semi-Saxon,  which  grew  and  flourished,  although 
it  contains  very  little  literature  of  much  import- 
ance, except  the  Brut  of  Layamon,  'the  English 
Ennius.'  The  14th  and  15th  centuries  (the  period 
of  the  Early  English)  are  of  great  importance,  both 
iu  the  progress  of  English  histcry  and  of  English 
literat\u-e ;  for  although  the  age  of  Edward  II.  was 
inglorious  in  both,  yet  in  the  next  reign  the 
victories  of  Crecy  and  Poitiers  heralded  as  with 
trumpet-blast  the  age  of  thought  and  of  poetry, 
represented  by  Wickliffe  and  Chaucer,  both  of  them 
brave-hearted  genuine  Englishmen.  The  translation 
(the  first  ever  executed)  of  the  Bible  into  English, 
which  was  completed  by  Wickliffe  about  1380,  is 
a  v/ork  of  great  value,  not  only  as  a  monument  in 
the  religious  history  of  our  nation,  but  in  a  philo- 
logical point  of  view,  being,  as  it  is,  *  all  but 
first  among  the  prose- writings  in  our  old  tongue.' 
The  principal  book  which  precedes  it,  and  the 
verj'  oldest  written  in  Early  English,  is  Sir  John 
Mandeville's  accoimt  of  his  eastern  travels  (1356). 
Somewhat  later  (between  1390  and  1400),  Geoffrey 
Chaucer,  the  genuine  father  of  English  poetry, 
published  his  Cantei-hury  Tales.  A  shrewd  and 
sagacious  observer,  he  has  left  behind  him  in  these 
Tales  a  series  of  sportive  and  pathetic  narratives, 
told  with  such  a  wonderful  power  of  tenderness  and 
humour,  in  such  a  simple,  healthy  style  (although 
his  English  is  largely  modified  by  French  innova- 
tions), that  they  have  been  the  wonder  and  delight 
of  all  succeeding  times.  Laurence  Minot,  Richard 
RoUe,  Langland  or  Longlande,  author  of  Piers 
Plowman,  and  Gower,  fitly  close  round  Chaucer  as 
contemporaries  who  wrote  more  or  less  vigorous 
verse.  About  the  same  period  flourished  in  Scotland 
John  Barbour,  whose  epic  narrative.  The  Bruce,  was 
written  about  1376.  The  language  of  this  poem 
resembles  that  contemporaneously  employed  in  the 
south.  In  the  follo^dng  c.  (the  15th),  and  in  the 
early  part  of  the  16th,  occur  in  England  the  names 
of  John  Lydgate  (1430),  whose  London  Lyckpenny  is 
Btill  agreeable  readin;^ ;  Alexander  Barclay,  whose 
Ship  of  Fools  was  prmted  in  1509  ;  John  Skelton, 
Buthor  of  the  scurrilous  satire  of  Colin  Clout  (died 
1529) ;  Howard,  Earl  of  Surrey  (beheaded  1546— 
1547) ;  and  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt  (died  1 541 ).  The  prose 
writers  of  this  period  are  Sir  John  Fortescue,  chief- 
ji^stice  of  the  King's  Bench  under  Henry  VI.,  who 
flourished  1430 — 1470,  and  who  wrote,  among  other 
things,  a  tract  on  the  Difference  between  an  Absolute 
and  Limited  Monarchy,  as  it  more  particularly 
regards  the  English  Constitution ;  William  Caxton, 
who  introduced  printing  into  Britain  in  1474 — the 
first  book  ever  printed  in  this  country  being  the 
Game  of  Chess ;  Fabian,  author  of  the  Concordance 
of  Stories,  died  1512 ;  Hall,  an  English  lawyer  (died 
1547),  who  wrote  a  chronicle  of  the  Wars  of  tlie 
Roses;  and  Tyndale,  burned  (1536)  for  heresy.  In 
Scotland,  during  the  same  period,  we  encounter  in 
poetry  the  names  of  James  I.,  king  of  Scotland 
(murdered  1437),  author  of  the  King's  Quhair,  &c. ; 
Andrew  Wyntoun,  prior  of  Lochleven,  whose  On/gy- 
nale  Cronykil  of  Scotland  was  completed  about  1 420  ; 
Bli-id  Harry,  author  of  The  Adventures  of  William 
Wallace,  a  work  written  about  1460,  and  long  exceed- 
ingly popular  with  the  Scottish  peasantry ;  Robert 
Henryson  (died  1508),  author  of  The  Testament  of 
Cres-:eid,  &c.  ;  William  Dunbar  (died  about  1520), 
whose  Dance  of  the  Seven  Deadly  Sins  shews  him  to 
have  possessed  great  boldness  and  vigour  in  his 
delineations  of  character  ;  and  Gavin  Douglas  (died 
1522),  whose  best  work  is  a  translation  of  Virgil's 
uEneid  into  Sjottiah  verse. 


3.  The  Period  extending  from  the  English  Refor- 
mation to  the  Present  Day. — Among  the  brilliant 
works  of  the  Elizabethan  age,  there  is  probably 
none  of  which  we  may  not  detect  germs  in  some 
of  the  efforts  which  were  made  in  the  century 
that  preceded.  In  theology,  the  names  of  Latimer 
(burned  1555),  of  Cranmer  (burned  1556),  and  ol 
Ridley  (burned  1555),  shine  forth  conspicuously; 
and  it  is  sufficient  to  mention  Sir  Thomas  Moi« 
(beheaded  1535),  author  of  Utopia,  a  curioiia 
philosophical  work,  and  Roger  Ascham  (died  1568), 
as  excellent  miscellaneous  writers  of  that  timet 
As  we  have  already  taken  up  the  English  drama 
under  the  article  Drama,  we  need  only  ntentif/a 
here  Sackville  (died  1608),  author  of  M  vrour  for 
Magistrates,  &c.  ;  Brooke  (droAvned  156o),  authof 
of  the  Tragical  History  of  Eomeus  and  Jidtet ; 
and  the  Scotchmen,  Sir  David  Lyndsay,  Lyon 
King-at-arms  (died  about  1557),  Boece,  Major, 
Melville,  and,  above  all,  George  Buchanan  (died 
1582),  who  is  universally  admitted  to  have  been  one 
of  the  finest  classical  scholars  that  ever  appeared 
in  Christendom.  The  founding  of  the  Scottish 
universities,  and  the  dissemination,  mainly  through 
the  influence  of  the  great  reformer  John  Knox, 
of  grammar  and  parish  schools  throughout  the 
country,  bade  fair  to  give  to  Scotland  an  im- 
portant place  in  the  literature  of  Great  Britain ;  a 
result  which  unforeseen  ecclesiastico-i)olitical troubles 
long  frustrated.  The  era  on  which  we  are  next 
to  look,  the  Elizabethan,  is  the  most  brilliant  iu 
the  literary  history  of  England.  We  may  quote 
here  the  words  of  Lord  Jeffrey :  '  In  point  of 
real  force  and  originality  of  genius,  neither  the 
age  of  Pericles,  nor  the  age  of  Augustus,  nor  the 
times  of  Leo  X.,  or  of  Louis  XIV.,  can  come  at 
all  into  comparison.  For  in  that  short  period  we 
shall  find  the  names  of  almost  all  the  great  men 
that  this  nation  has  ever  produced :  the  names  of 
Shakspeare,  and  Bacon,  and  Spenser,  and  Sidney ;  of 
Raleigh,  and  Hooker,  and  Taylor ;  of  Napier,  and 
Milton,  and  Cudworth,  and  Hoblies ;  and  many 
others — men,  all  of  them  not  merely  of  great  talents 
and  accomplishments,  but  of  vast  compass  and  reach 
of  imderstanding,  and  of  minds  tndy  creative ;  not 
men  who  perfected  art  by  the  delicacy  of  their  taste, 
or  digested  knowledge  by  the  justness  of  their 
reasonings  ;  but  men  who  made  vast  and  substantial 
additions  to  the  materials  upon  which  taste  and 
reason  must  hereafter  be  employed,  and  who  enlarged 
to  an  incredible  and  unparalleled  extent  both  the 
stores  and  the  resources  of  the  human  faculties.' 
Even  the  minor  dramatists  of  the  time,  such  as 
Marlowe  and  Chapman,  Beaumont  and  Flet  .  her, 
Jonson  and  Drummond,  are  all  nearly  the  equala 
of  any  succeeding  poets  that  have  ap])eared.  In 
the  latter  half  of  this  period  a  new  class  of  poetio 
writers  started  up,  who  were  lyrical  rather  thaa 
dramatic,  and  whose  occasional  verses,  sometime* 
descriptive,  sometimes  amatory,  and  s(mietimes  reli- 
gious, are  characterised  by  a  bright  and  delicate 
fancy,  as  if  morning  sunbeams  glittered  on  their 
pages.  These  are  George  Wither,  William  Browne, 
Frances  Quarles,  and  George  Herbert,  '  the  sweet 
psalmist  of  the  17th  century'  (as  Emerson  calls 
him).  The  last  forty  years  of  the  17th  c.  are  gener- 
ally known  as  the  age  of  the  Restoration  and 
the  Revolution.  During  this  period,  the  literature 
of  the  stage  was  disgraced  by  its  indecency.  Charles 
II.  and  his  court  had  brought  back  with  them 
from  France  a  love  of  polite  profligacy,  which 
found  its  most  fitting  expression  in  the  comedy 
of  intrigue.  Four  names  stand  out  conspicuous 
as  *  sinners  above  all  men  in  that  generation ' — 
Wycherly,  Congreve,  Vanbrugh,  and  Farquhar.  Yet 
theology  could  boast  of  such  names  as  Baxter, 


ENGRAILED— ENGRAVING. 


Owen,  Calaniy.  Collier,  Leighton,  South,  Tillotson, 
and  Barrow.  This  was  also  the  epoch  when  the 
great  Milton,  driven  into  the  shades  of  obscurity 
by  political  adversities,  fulfilled  the  uttered  hope 
of  his  youth,  and  wrote  '  something  which  posterity 
will  not  willingly  let  die.'  About  this  time,  too, 
Walton  angled,  and  Butler  burlesqued  dissent ;  Mar- 
vell  turned  his  keen  irony  against  the  High  Church ; 
Jjocke  and  Newton  speculated  and  discovered  ;  and 
John  Dryden,  the  literary  chief  of  the  time,  '  found 
the  English  language  (according  to  Dr  Johnson)  of 
brick  and  left  it  of  marble.' 

The  literary  history  of  the  18th  c,  and  of  the  reign 
of  Queen  Anne,  has  been  variously  estimated.  If  it 
was  overvalued  by  those  who  lived  in  it,  and  in  the 
age  that  succeeded,  it  has  assuredly  been  imder- 
valued  in  our  own  day.  It  was  long  glorified  as 
the  Augustan  age  of  English  literature  ;  but  amon» 
ourselves  it  has  been  set  aside  as  a  sceptical,  utili- 
tarian age,  when  poetry  could  find  no  higher  field 
than  didactic  discussion,  and  prose  found  nothing  to 
amuse  but  comic  and  domestic  narrative,  or  bitter 
and  stinging  satire.  The  truth,  as  usual,  lies  in 
the  middle.  This  age  was  far  from  being  superior 
to  every  era  that  had  gone  before  it,  and  it  was 
not  quite  so  low  as  some  of  its  hostile  critics 
have  represented.  One  thing,  however,  is  beyond 
dispute,  \'iz.,  that  the  form,  both  in  poetry  and  in 
prose,  had  come  to  be  much  more  regarded  than 
the  matter.  Addison,  Swift,  and  Johnson,  may  be 
taken  as  types  of  the  prose  writers  of  this  century. 
The  first  for  ease  and  grace  is  unmatched  in  any 
age ;  the  second  stands  equally  high  for  rough  and 
pointed  vigour ;  and  the  third  is  famous  for  his 
ponderous,  finely  balanced  sentences,  the  dignity  of 
which  not  unfrequently  surpassed  the  sense.  The 
poetry  of  the  time  is  represented  by  Pope,  and  it 
has  been  gravely  asked  whether  he  was  a  poet  at 
aU.  He  certainly  versified  with  brilliant  elegance, 
and  the  terror  which  his  polished  epigrams  excited 
in  the  breasts  of  his  enemies,  shewed  him  to  possess 
a  force  of  genius  which  at  least  demands  our  admira- 
tion. Young  and  Akenside  were  perha])s  animated 
by  a  higher  poetic  sense,  but  they  accomplished  much 
less ;  and  the  same  may  also  be  said  of  Thomson, 
Gray,  Collins,  Beattie,  and  Cowper.  Incomparably 
the  greatest  poet,  however,  of  the  18th  c.  was 
Robert  Bums.  Richardson,  Fielding,  Smollett, 
Sterne,  Goldsmith,  and  Mackenzie  are  its  novelists ; 
Hume,  Robertson,  and  Gibbon,  its  historians ; 
Butler,  Berkeley,  Clarke,  Shafttedbury,  Hume,  Paley, 
and  Adam  Smith  its  philosophers. 

The  19th  c,  though  full  of  interest  for  us,  is, 
from  the  novelty  and  the  variety  of  the  intellectual 
character  employed  in  it,  one  of  the  most  difiicidt  to 
analyse  of  the  whole  range  of  English  literature.  It 
has  been  a  time  of  extraordinary  activity,  books 
have  l)een  multiplied  to  an  unprecedented  degi'ee, 
and  readers  have  increased  in  an  equal  proportion. 
It  cannot  be  doubted,  however,  that  the  first  quarter 
pf  this  century  is  greater  in  literature  than  any 
Bubse(j[uent  i)ortion  of  it.  It  is  greater,  besides,  in 
poetry  than  in  prose.  The  early  names  of  Coleridge 
and  Wordsworth,  of  Scott  and  Byron,  oi  Shelley 
and  Keats,  of  Campbell  and  Southey,  are  higher 
than  any  now  prominent  except  that  of  Tennyson. 
This  is  the  age,  besides,  of  novels  and  romances, 
of  reviews  and  periodicals.  Jeff"rey  and  S^i'dney 
Smith,  Hazlitt  and  John  Foster,  De  Quincey  and 
Carlyle,  are  the  great  names  in  review-literature  ; 
Hall,  Clialmtirs,  and  Irving  in  pulpit  oratory ; 
Stewart,  Mackintush,  IJenthara,  Brown,  Hamilton, 
and  Mid  in  philosophy ;  Dickens,  Thackeray,  Bulvver 
Lytton,  Miss  Bronte,  and  Miss  Evans,  as  novehsts  ; 
Uall;*ni,  Macaulay,  Thirlwall,  Grote,  Milman,  and 
C&rlyle,  as  historians ;  Ruskin,      a  writer  on  art ; 


Tennyson,  the  Brownings,  Matthew  and  Edwin  At 
nold,  Dobell,  and  Smith,  as  poets ;  and  in  the  New 
World  beyond  the  Atlantic,  Washington  Irving,  Poe, 
Longfellow,  Cooper,  Prescott,  Emerson,  Bancroft, 
Hawthorne,  Whittier,  Motley,  Mrs.  Stowe,  and  others, 
are  among  the  great  living  authors  of  this  age  or 
those  recently  dead.  A  considerable  j)ortion  of  the 
literature  of  the  18th  and  19th  centuries  is  devoted  to 
science,  which  can  show  a  crowd  of  illustrious  names 
too  numerous  to  mention.  Besides,  in  scientific  works, 
the  matter  is  of  so  much  greater  importance  than  the 
form,  and  so  little  attention  is  paid  in  general  to  the 
latter  by  scientific  writers,  that  it  is  not  customary  to 
include  them  in  a  survey  of  literature  proper. 

Several  compends  of  English  literature  have  been 
published  within  the  last  twenty  years,  which  are  well 
worthy  of  attentive  study.  Among  the  most  judicious 
may  be  named,  A  Compendium  of  English  LiteratxirCy 
from  Sir  J.  Mandeville  to  William  Cowper  (Philadel- 
phia, 1848),  English  Literature  oj  the  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury (^Philadelphia,  1851),  and  A  Compendium  of 
American  Literature  (Philadelphia,  1858),  all  by 
Chas.  D.  Cleveland.  Also,  Chambers'  Cyclopedia  of 
English  Literature  (Edin.,  2  vols.  8vo.,  1844 — 1853); 
BuychincKs  Cyclopedia  of  American  Literature  (N. 
York,  2  vols.  8vo.,  1856  ;  new  edition,  revised,  1869). 
Allibone's  Critical  Dictionary  of  English  Literature 
and  British  and  American  Aitthors,  3  vols.  8vo.  (Phila., 
1858 — 1870),  is  not  properly  a  compendium,  but  a  crit- 
ical biography  of  English  and  American  literature,  and 
a  work  of  extraordinary  labour  and  erudition. 

ENGRA'VING,  in  its  widest  sense,  is  the  art  of 
incising  designs,  writing,  &c.,  on  any  hard  substance, 
such  as  stone,  metal,  or  wood.  Many  branches  of 
the  art  are  of  great  antiquity ;  such  as  gem-engrav- 
ing, cameo-cutting,  and  die-sinking.  The  more 
important  of  these  ornamental  and  useful  kinds  of 
engraving  are  described  mider  their  proper  heads. 
But  in  a  narrower  sense,  engraving  is  the  special 
designation  of  the  art  of  cutting  or  indenting  the 
surface  of  metal  plates  or  of  blocks  of  wood  with 
designs,  for  the  purpose  of  taking  ofi"  impressions  or 
prints  of  the  designs  on  paper.  This  department  of 
the  art  arose  as  late  as  the  15th  c.,  the  earliest 
wood-engraving  with  a  date  being  1423,  and  the 
earliest  dated  engra^ing  from  a  metal  plate  being 
1461. 

Wood-engraving  differs  from  engraving  on  metal 
in  this,  that  on  a  metal  plate  the  traces  or  marka 
which  are  to  appear  on  the  jiaper  are  cut  or  sunk 
into  the  plate,  and  when  printed  from  are  filled 
with  ink,  while  the  rest  of  the  surface  is  kept  clean ; 
whereas  in  wood- engraving  they  are  left  prominent 
or  in  relief,  and  the  blank  paiiis  of  the  design  are 
cut  away.  Hence  a  wood-cut  acts  as  a  type,  and  is 
inked  and  printed  from  in  the  usual  way.  Se« 
Printing.  This  makes  wood- engraving  peculiarly 
suitable  for  the  illustration  of  books  ;  as  the  blocks 
can  be  printed  from  along  vAih.  the  letterpress; 
while  the  impressions  from  a  metal  plate  must  be 
i  taken  by  themselves,  and  by  a  slow  process.  The 
further  treatment  of  the  important  art  of  Wood- 
engraving  is  reserved  for  a  separate  article  ;  our 
attention  at  present  being  confined  to  engraving  on 
metal. 

It  is  beyond  our  scope  to  enter  into  the  practical 
details  of  the  various  processes ;  we  can  only  aim  at 
enabling  a  reader  altogether  ignorant  of  them  to 
conceive  how  the  effects  may  be  produced,  and  to 
understand  the  terms  currently  used  in  speaking  of 
this  kind  of  art. 

The  metals  most  commonly  used  for  engra%'ing 
are  copper  and  steel,  the  former  having  the  advan* 
tage  of  being  more  easily  worked,  the  latter  ot 
greater  durability.    The  processes  of  workuig  an 

67 


ENGRAVING. 


essentially  the  same  in  both.  The  several  manners  or 
styles  of  engraving  are  distinguished  as  Line  engrav- 
ing, Mezzotinto,  Stippling,  and  Aquatinta. 

1.  Line-engraving — in  which,  as  the  name  implies, 
the  eflfect  is  produced  by  a  combination  of  lines  — 
is  executed  either  by  direct  incision  with  the  graver 
or  the  dry-point,  or  by  a  combination  of  incision 
with  etching — a  chemical  process  to  be  immediately 
descril  ed.  The  graver  or  burin  is  usually  in  the 
f3rm  of  a  quadrangular  prism,  htted  into  a  short 
handle.  In  making  the  incision,  the  graver  is 
piished  forward  in  the  direction  of  the  line  required, 
being  held  by  the  handle,  at  an  angle  very  slightly 
inclined  to  the  plane  of  the  copper.  A  scraper  is 
required  to  scrape  off  the  barb  or  burr  which  is 
formed  by  the  action  of  the  graver  and  dry-point. 
The  rubber  is  a  roll  of  cloth  dipped  in  oil,  and  is 
used  to  make  the  surface  smooth.  A  burnisher  is 
required  to  polish  the  plate,  and  erase  any  scratches 
which  it  may  accidentally  receive,  and  also  to  make 
lighter  any  part  of  the  work  which  may  have  been 
made  too  dark.  The  dry-j)oiut  is  like  a  sewing- 
needle  fixed  into  a  handle,  and  is  used  to  cut  or 
scratch  the  finer  lines.  The  graver  cuts  the  copper 
clean  out,  the  dry-point  throws  it  up  on  each  side  ; 
and  in  some  cases  this  is  not  scraped  off,  but 
made  use  of  till  it  is  worn  off,  as  it  gives  richness 
to  the  line. 

In  etching,  the  first  step  is  to  cover  the  plate  with 
a  composition  of  wax,  asphaltum,  gum  mastic,  resin, 
&c.,  dissolved  by  heat ;  an  outline  of  the  design,  made 
on  paper  in  pencil  or  red  chalk,  is  then  '  transferred' 
to  the  surface  of  this  composition,  by  being  passed 
through  a  press.  The  subject  is  then  drawn  on  the 
ground  with  the  etching-point,  which  cuts  through 
it,  and  exposes  the  copper.  Etching -points  or  needles 
resemble  large  sewing-needles  shortened,  and  fixed 
into  handles  four  or  five  inches  long ;  some  are 
made  oval,  to  produce  broader  lines.  A  rim  of  wax 
being  put  round  the  plate,  acid  is  poured  on,  and 
corrodes  the  copper  not  protected  by  the  ground. 
If  the  acid  is  found  not  to  have  acted  sufficiently, 
it  may  be  applied  again  to  the  whole  design,  or 
only  to  portions  of  it,  by  stopping  up,  with  a  mix- 
ture of  lampblack  and  Venice  turpentine  applied 
with  a  camel-hair  pencil,  what  has  been  sufficiently 
bitten  in. 

When  a  series  of  parallel  lines  are  wanted,  as  in 
backgrounds,  &c.,  an  ingenious  machine  called  a 
ruler  is  employed,  the  accuracy  of  whose  operation 
is  exceedingly  perfect.  This  is  made  to  act  on 
etching-ground  by  a  point  or  diamond  connected 
with  the  apparatus,  and  the  tracings  are  bit  in  with 
aquafortis  in  the  ordinary  way. 

2.  The  process  of  viezzotinto  is  by  no  means  so 
difficult  as  line-engraving.  The  plate  is  prepared 
by  being  indented  or  hacked  all  over  by  an  instru- 
ment with  a  serrated  edge,  called  a  cradle,  which  is 
rocked  to  and  fro  upon  it  in  all  directions.  The  barb 
or  nap  thus  produced  retains  the  printer's  ink,  and  if 
printed,  a  uniform  dark  surface  would  be  the  result. 
On  this  plate,  after  a  tracing  has  been  transferred, 
the  engraver  goes  to  work  with  tools  called  scrapers 
ftnd  burnishers — those  parts  of  the  ground  most 
imoothed  being  the  highest  lights,  and  the  ground 
the  least  operated  on  producing  the  deepest  shadows. 
As  the  work  proceeds,  it  may  be  blackened  with  ink, 
applied  with  a  printer's  ball  or  otherwise,  in  order 
to  ascertain  the  effect.  The  design  is  sometimes 
etched  on  the  plate  by  the  ordinary  process,  before 
♦■he  mezzotinto  ground  is  laid. 

3.  Aquatint  Engraving.— By  this  method,  the  effect 
of  drawings  in  Indian  ink  is  produced ;  and  at  one 
time  it  was  greatly  made  use  of  in  rendering  the 
drawings  of  Paul  Sandby  and  our  early  water- 
colour  painters,  and  particularly  prints  for  drawing- 


books.  In  this  process,  which  is  a  very  complex 
kind  of  etching,  the  ground,  which  is  composed  of 
pulverised  rosin  and  spirits  of  wine,  assumes  when 
dry  a  granulated  form  ;  and  the  aquafortis  acting 
on  the  metal  between  the  particles,  reduces  the 
surface  to  a  state  that  an  impression  from  it 
resembles  a  tint  or  wash  of  colour  on  paper.  David 
Allan  engraved  his  celebrated  illustrations  of  the 
Gentle  Shepherd  in  this  manner.  It  has  now  gone 
almost  entirely  out  of  use,  having,  like  engraving  in 
imitations  of  drawings  in  chalk  or  pencil,  been  in 
a  great  degree  superseded  by  litho^aphy. 

4.  In  engraving  in  Stipple,  which  was  much  in 
vogue  in  the  end  of  the  last  century,  the  dravvdng 
and  effect  are  produced  by  small  dots,  in  place  of 
lines.  Hyland,  Bartolozzi,  and  Sherwin,  excelled 
in  this  style.  It  is  well  suited  for  portraits  ;  several 
of  Raeburn's  have  been  capitally  engi-aved  in  stipple 
by  Walker.  It  involves  much  more  labour  than 
mezzotinto,  and  is  now  little  i)ractised. 

Plate-printing. — Copper-plates,  engraved  in  any  of 
the  above  styles,  are  ready  for  press  as  soon  as  they 
are  finished  by  the  engraver.  The  method  of  print- 
ing from  them  is  very  simple.  Their  engraved  sur- 
face is  daubed  over  with  a  thick  oleaginous  ink,  so 
that  the  lines  are  effectually  filled.  As  this  dirties 
the  whole  face  of  the  plate,  it  is  necessary  to  clean 
it,  which  is  done  by  the  workman  wiping  i%  first 
with  a  piece  of  cloth,  and  then  with  the  palms  of  hia 
hands,  rubbed  on  fine  whiting.  It  may  be  calculated 
that  a  hundred  times  more  ink  is  thus  removed 
than  actually  remains  in  the  indentations ;  how- 
ever,  such  is  necessary.  The  plate  being  thoroughly 
cleaned^  it  is  laid  on  a  press  (see  fig.),  with  a  pieon 


of  damped  paper  over  it ;  and  being  woimd  beneatA 
a  roller  covered  with  blanket-stuff,  it  is  forced 
to  yield  an  impression  on  the  paper.  The  plate 
requires  to  be  kept  at  a  moderate  warmth  during 
the  operation.  The  frequent  rubbing  of  the  plate 
with  the  hand  to  clean  it,  as  may  be  supposed,  tends 
greatly  to  wear  it  down ;  and  such  is  the  wear 
chiefly  from  this  cause,  that  few  copper-plates  will 
yield  more  than  a  few  thousands  of  impressions  in 
good  order.  The  earliest,  called  proofs,  are  always 
the  best  and  most  highly  prized. 

In  consequence  of  this  defect  in  copper,  the  prac- 
tice of  engraving  steel-plates,  for  all  subjects  requiring 
a  great  many  impressions,  has  now  become  very 
common.  This  process  was  introduced  by  the  late 
Mr  Perkins  of  London,  who  originally  softened  the 
plates,  engraved  them,  and  then  rehardened  them — 
a  practice  now  abandoned,  as  ordinary  steel-plates 
can  be  worked  upon  by  the  burin,  dry-point,  scraper, 
and  burnisher  with  perfect  facility.  Etching  on 
steel-plates  is  executed  much  in  the  same  way  as  in 
the  process  on  copper.  An  engraving  on  a  steel 
plate  may  be  transferred  in  relief  to  a  softened  steel 
cylinder  by  pressure ;  and  this  cylinder,  after  being 
hardened,  may  again  transfer  the  iesign  by  rolling 


ENGRAVING. 


ft  upon  a  fresh  steel-plate;  and  thus  the  design  may 
Uq  midtiplied  at  pleasure. 

U'ustonj  of  Engraving. — This  most  important  in- 
vention, by  which  the  productions  of  art  are  diffused 
without  limit,  is  said  to  have  been  accidental,  and 
is  claimed  for  Tommaso  Finiguerra,  who  first  took 
impressions  on  paper  about  the  year  1440.  His 
employment  was  executing  ornamental  engraving, 
cliiefiy  on  articles  used  in  religious  services,  such 
as  small  portable  slirines,  or  altar-pieces.  These 
were  generally  made  of  silver,  and  the  designs 
engraved  on  them  were  filled  up  with  a  black 
composition,  that  hardened  in  a  short  time.  This 
cx)mpositiou  was  called  in  Italian  rdello  (from  Lat. 
nigellus,  dim.  of  niger,  black),  and  the  workers  in  it 
mellatori.  It  was  the  practice  of  Finiguerra,  in  the 
oourse  of  executing  his  work,  to  prove  it  by  rubbing 
lampblack  and  oil  into,  and  pressing  paper  over 
it  he  thus  obtained  an  impression  of  his  work 
up  to  a  particular  stage,  and  w-as  enabled  safely 
to  carry  it  on  till  it  was  completed.  Finiguerra's 
title  to  the  invention  has  been  disputed ;  and  in  a 
recent  work  by  J.  D.  Passavant,  Le  Pemtre-Graveur 
(Leip.  1860),  a  strong  case  seems  to  be  made  out 
for  its  German  origin.  Be  that  as  it  may,  the 
principal  early  Italian  engravers  who  followed 
Finiguerra,  were  Bacio  Baldini  (born  about  1436,  died 
1515) ;  Sandro  Botticelli  (born  1437,  died  1515)— he 
embellished  an  edition  of  Dante's  Inferno,  brought 
out  in  1481 ;  Antonio  PoUajuoli  (born  1426,  died 
1498,  at  Florence) ;  Andrea  Mantegna  (bom  at 
Padua  1431,  died  at  Mantua  1505);  and  Marc 
Antonio  Raymondi  (born  at  Bologna  1487  or  1488, 
died  1539),  who  executed  his  chief  works  at  Borne. 
The  most  celebrated  early  German  engravers  were 
Martin  Schoengauer  (born  at  Colmar  about  1455, 
died  1499) ;  Israel  van  Mecheln,  or  Meckenen  (born 
at  Meckenen  on  the  Meuse  about  1450,  and  died 
1523)  ;  Michel  Wohlgemuth,  who  died  in  1519 ; 
Albert  Diirer  (born  at  NUrnberg  in  1471,  died  in 
1528) ;  and  Lucas  van  Ley  den  (born  at  Leyden 
1494,  died  1533).  The  engravings  of  aU  these  artists 
are  very  valuable,  not  only  from  their  scarceness,  and 
as  illustrating  the  early  history  and  progress  of  the 
art,  but  as  exemplifying  many  high  qualities  that 
have  never  been  surpassed  in  later  times.  The 
most  of  them  were  painters,  and  engraved  their  own 
works,  except  Marc  Antonio,  who  engraved  chiefly 
those  of  Raphael,  by  whom  he  was  employed,  and 
who  occasionally  overlooked  and  directed  him.  All 
those  engravers,  and  their  immediate  followers, 
executed  their  works  with  the  graver;  but  soon 
after,  engravings  came  to  be  generally  executed 
by  two  processes — etching,  and  cutting  with  the 
graver  or  the  dry-point.  The  works  of  these  early 
masters  are  often  remarkable  for  character  and 
expression,  as  those,  for  instance,  by  Mantegna  ; 
and  for  the  correctness  and  high  style  of  the 
drawing,  for  which  qualities  Marc  Antonio  has 
aever  been  surpassed ;  also  for  finish  of  the  most 
careful  and  elaborate  kind,  which  has  been  carried 
further  by  Albert  Diirer  and  Lucas  van  Leyden 
than  by  any  other  engravers.  The  styles  of  these 
early  engravers  were  cultivated  by  numerous  suc- 
cessors, several  of  whom  followed  their  masters  as 
closely  as  they  could,  while  others  diverged  into 
something  like  originality :  the  chief  names  are 
Agostino  Veneziano,  about  1620 ;  Nicolas  Belin  da 
Modena,  and  Giov.  Ghisi,  1630 ;  Luc.  Damesz, 
vho  died  in  1533 ;  Giov.  Giac.  Caraglio,  and 
Marco  da  Kavenna,  about  1640  ;  Giul.  Bouasone, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1498,  died  in  Rome  in  1564 ; 
Eneus  Vicus,  George  Vens,  Hem-id  Aldegraf,  and 
Jean  Sebast.  Boehm,  about  1550  ;  Adi'ian,  Charles, 
William,  and  John  Collerl;,  Adam  and  George 
Ghi&i^  Sutermann,  Virgilius  Solis,  Cornelius  Cort, 


Martin  Rota,  and  others,  ranging  from  the  middle 
to  the  end  of  the  10th  century.  Agost.  Caracci, 
the  celebrated  painter,  executed  many  spirited 
engravings.  Saenredam,  De  Bruyn,  Galie,  Keller- 
thaller,  Alberti,  De  Goudt,  C.  de  Pass,  Sadeler, 
are  names  of  well-known  engravers  that  enter  on 
the  17th  century.  Henry  Goltzius  is  noted  for 
the  number  and  variety  of  his  works,  and  hifl 
imitations  of  the  styles  of  the  older  masters.  la 
the  plates  of  engravers  towards  the  middle  of  the 
17th,  and  beginning  of  the  18th  c,  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  work  consists  of  etching,  the  graver 
being  chiefly  used  for  deepening  and  clearing  u^o 
the  etching.  This  arose  from  the  manner  of 
working  being  well  adapted  for  rendering  the  style 
of  the  painters  of  that  period,  whose  works  were 
distinguished  for  freedom  of  execution  or  touch, 
and  clearness  and  transparency.  The  most  noted 
engravers  of  this  period  were  the  Vischers,  who 
flourished  between  1610  and  1650,  and  engraved 
many  of  Berghem's  pictures  ;  Bolswert,  1620 ;  Lucas 
Vosterman  the  Elder,  1630 ;  Suyderhoef,  about 
1640.  These  engravers  rendered  many  of  the  works 
of  Rubens  in  a  very  spirited  manner.  Coryn  Boel — 
whose  engravings  from  Teniers  are  in  some  respects 
superior  even  to  Le  Bas — Troyen,  and  Van  Kessel, 
are  worthy  contemporaries. 

In  the  age  of  Louis  XIV.,  a  race  of  engravers  of 
portraits  arose,  who  carried  execution  with  the 
graver  almost  to  perfection.  The  works  of  the 
artists  they  engraved  from  were  florid  in  style, 
with  a  great  display  of  draper}'-  and  lace,  and 
accessories  in  the  backgrounds  elaborately  executed. 
Among  these  engravers  the  following  rank  highest : 
Gerard  Edelinck  (b.  Antwerp  1627,  d.  Paris  1707)— 
he  was  one  of  the  best  engravers  of  the  period, 
and  specially  patronised  by  Louis  XIV, ;  Masson 
(b.  1636,  d.  1700) ;  Larmessin  (b.  1640,  d.  1684) ;  Drevet 
the  Elder  (b.  1664,  d.  1739) ;  Drevet  the  Younger 
(b.  1697);  Gerard  Andran  (b.  1640,  d.  1703).  There  was 
a  large  family  of  Andrans  engravers,  but  Gerard 
was  the  most  celebrated,  indeed  he  was  one  of  the 
best  of  the  French  engravers.  Among  engravers  of 
talent  in  England  may  be  mentioned  Robert  Walker 
(b.  1572)  ;  William  Faithorne  (b.  London  between. 
1620  and  16.30,  d.  1694)  executed  many  excellent 
engravings  of  portraits ;  George  Vertue  (b.  London 
1684,  d.  1756),  a  good  engraver,  and  a  man  of 
general  information  and  taste  in  matters  of  art ; 
John  Smith  (b.  London  1654,  d.  1722)  executed  in 
mezzotinto  a  vast  number  of  interesting  portraits- 
In  the  18th  c,  there  w^ere  numerous  excellent 
engravers,  by  whose  works  the  taste  for  the  pictures 
of  the  Dutch  school  of  the  17tli  c.  has  been  widely 
extended.  Two  of  the  most  distinguished  of  these 
were  John  Philip  le  Bas  (b.  Paris  1708,  d.  1782)  and 
John  George  Wille  (b.  Konigsberg  1717,  d.  1808). 
Their  styles  are  totally  dissimilar.  Le  Bas's  plates 
are  chiefly  etched,  and  remarkable  for  spirit 
and  sharpness  of  touch  and  transparency;  accord- 
ingly, mostly  all  his  works  are  after  painters  who 
excelled  in  these  qualities,  jiarticularly  Teniers. 
Wille's  engravings,  again,  are  of  the  most  caref  il 
and  elaborate  description,  and  his  best  prints  ai« 
after  Gerard  Dow,  Terburg,  Mieris,  and  Metzu — 
masters  distinguished  for  the  high  finish  of  their 
pictures.  He  worked  with  the  graver ;  and  his  plates 
are  distinguished  by  the  precision  and  clearness 
with  which  the  lines  are  cut. 

It  w^as  about  the  middle  and  latter  portion  of 
last  century  that  engraving  reached  its  highest 
point  in  England.  The  works  of  William  Hogarth 
(b.  London  1698,  d.  1764)  are  of  w'orld-wide  cele- 
brity, but  that  is  owing  mainly  to  the  excellence 
and  dramatic  interest  of  the  pictures  from  wnich 
the  engravings  are  made,  though,  no  doubt,  his 


ENGRAVING. 


prints,  are  en}j;raved  in  a  firm,  clear  style,  similar 
to  that  practiced  by  the  Erench  engravers  of  the 
time,  several  of  ■\vhoni  -were  employed  by  him. 
It  was  Sir  Robert  Strange  (b.  Orkney  1721, 
d.  London  1792),  an  engraver  of  figures,  and  William 
Woolet  (b.  Maidstone  1735,  d.  London  1785], 
a  landscape-engraver,  who  imparted  to  English 
engraving  those  qualities  and  characteristics  that 
enable  us  to  claim  a  style  of  engraving  that  is 
national,  differing  from  other  styles,  and  that  has 
orisf  n  ar.d  been  best  carried  out  in  this  country.  In 
drawing  and  form,  Strange  was  rather  defective; 
but  he  excelled  in  what  engravers  call  colour,  or  the 
art  of  producing,  by  means  of  variety  of  line,  a 
tcx'^m  or  quality  that  compensates  for  the  want  of 
colour,  by  giving  to  the  engi'aving  something  of  the 
richness  ])roduced  by  colour  in  a  picture.  His  imita- 
tion of  the  softness  and  semi-trans])arency  of  flesh 
was  y)articularly  successful,  and  superior  to  that  of 
the  French  engravers,  whose  works,  though  in  most 
respects  admirable,  failed  in  that  respect,  and  had, 
in  the  more  delicate  parts,  a  hard  or  metallic  look. 
Woolet  treated  landscape-engraving  in  a  manner 
totally  new,  imparting  to  it  more  firmness  and 
decision,  by  making  great  use  of  the  graver.  His 
works  have  more  finish  and  force  than  fonner  land- 
scape-engravers, but  they  are  in  some  degree  lial)le 
to  the  objection  of  hardness,  in  the  treatment  of 
foliage  in  particular.  The  works  of  these  two 
engravers  have  had  a  marked  influence  on  art,  not 
only  in  this  country,  but  abroad.  The  merit  of 
Strange's  style  was  acknowledged  on  the  conti- 
nent ;  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academies  of 
Florence,  Bologna,  Parma,  and  Rome.  At  the  end 
of  last  century,  art  had  fallen  very  low  on  the 
continent,  but  a  regeneration  was  beginning  ;  and  in 
Italy,  engravers  were  then  arising,  such  as  Volpato 
and  Cunego,  who  studied  and  imitated  the  softness 
and,  technically  speaking,  fleshiness  of  texture  that 
distinguished  the  works  of  the  British  engraver ; 
those,  again,  were  followed  by  Raphael  Morghen, 
Longhi,  Mercurii,  and  others,  in  Italy  ;  by  Boucher 
Desnoyers,  Forster,  &c.,  in  France  ;  and  by  MuUer, 
Keller,  Gruner,  and  numerous  other  engravers  in 
Germany.  By  them,  engraving  has  been  carried  to 
the  highest  pitch.  Amongst  their  works,  the  fol- 
lowing are  chefs-cVceuvres :  'The  Last  Supper,'  after 
Da  Vinci,  by  R.  Morghen  ;  the  '  Spozalizia,'  after 
Raphael,  by  Longhi;  'La  Belle  Jardiniere,'  and 
other  works,  after  Rajihael,  by  Boucher  Desnoyers, 
who  has  engraved  the  works  of  Raphael  perhaps  on 
the  whole  better  than  any  other  engraver ;  '  The 
Madonna  de  San  Sisto,'  by  M.Uller,  and  '  The  Dispute 
on  the  Sacrament,'  after  Raphael,  of  Keller.  No 
engravings  executed  in  this  coimtry  come  up  to 
the  works  of  these  last-named  masters,  who  have 
engraved  works  of  a  higher  class  than  the  majority 
of  those  done  by  Strange,  while  the  drawing  and 
g-.meral  treatment  of  their  works  are  in  a  purer  and 
more  correct  style.  However,  the  engravings  of 
Burnet,  Raimbach,  Stewart,  and  others  after  Wilkie 
and  contemporary  British  painters,  deservedly  hold 
the  highest  place  among  works  of  the  class  to 
crhivh  they  belong,  and  betoken  clearly  the  great 
influeLje  which  Strange  exercised  on  their  style. 
At  present,  few  figure-subjects  are  executed  in 
the  line-manner,  and  that  art  has  certainly  fallen 
in  this  country.  This  may  be  accounted  for, 
perhaps,  by  the  great  use  made  of  mechanical 
appliances,  in  portions  of  the  work,  to  save  time, 
and  by  the  preference  shewn  for  mezzotinto- 
engraving  as  practised  at  present,  that  is,  with  a 
mixture  of  lining  or  stippling.  The  greater  nimi- 
ber  of  Landseer  s  works  have  been  engraved  in 
that  way,  and  it  is  now  adopted  for  rendering  the 
Works  of  John  Phillip  and  Miliais,  and  the  leading 
7a 


artists  of  the  day.    Several,  however,  of  Lands»eer'a 

earlier  works  have  been  engraved  in  tha  line  mai  ner, 
particularly  his  pictures  of  '  Drovers  leaving  the 
Grampians,'  and  'The  Watering-place,'  by  Watt,, 
which  are  capital  examj)les  of  line-engraving. 
There  is  no  good  modern  school  of  landscupe-engrav 
ing  on  the  continent ;  the  influence  of  Woolet  waa 
entirely  confined  to  this  country,  where  landscape- 
engraving,  particularly  in  illustrated  works  after 
Turner,  has  attained  great  excellence. 

Towards  the  end  of  last  century,  mezzotinto- 
engraving  was  practised  in  England  with  great 
success  ;  arising  from  its  being  peculiaily  adai)ted 
to  render  effectively  the  works  of  Sir  Joshua  Rey- 
nolds. M'Ardell,  Earlom,  Watson,  Smith,  Valtiitin« 
Green,  and  Ward  were  among  the  best  engravers  ot* 
his  works.  The  invention  of  this  process  is  gener- 
ally given  to  Prince  Rupert,  others  ascribe  it  to 
Dr  Wren,  1662,  and  state  that  Prince  Rupert  morely 
improved  on  the  invention.  It  has  been  i)ractised 
very  generally  from  the  time  of  its  invention,  but 
attained  its  highest  position  in  Sir  Joshua's  time; 
and  it  is  very  successfully  can-ied  out  now,  in  an 
altered  manner,  additional  force  being  aimed  at,  by 
means  of  stippling  and  etching.  It  is  well  calcu- 
lated for  producing  broad  effects  :  Turner's  Jjibcr 
Studiorum,  and  the  landscapes  after  Constal)le,  are 
admirable  examples  of  its  cai)abilities  in  this  way ; 
the  efiect  in  Turner's  plates,  however,  is  heightened 
by  etching. 

Etching  has  been  already  described  as  a  part 
of  the  i)roces3  of  engraving  ;  but  as  practised  by 
painters,  it  is  classed  as  a  distinct  art.  The  plate 
is  prepared  with  a  ground,  and  corroded  in  the  same 
way  ;  but  the  treatment  is  more  free.  Not  being 
tied  to  the  task  of  literally  coi)ying  or  translating 
the  idea  of  another,  like  the  engraver,  the  painter 
has  scope  to  impart  a  spirit  to  his  work  peculiarly 
suggestive  of  what  he  intends  to  embody  ;  his  idea 
is  represented  directly,  and  not  at  second-hand,  aa 
it  were.  The  etchings  of  Rembrandt,  Paul  Potter, 
Karl  du  J ardin,  Adrian  Vande velde,  Teniers,  Ostade, 
Berghem,  Backhuysen,  Van  Dyck,  Claude,  Salvatoi 
Rosa,  Canaletti,  and  other  painters,  are  very  highly 
valued,  as  conveying  more  completely  the  feeling 
of  the  i)ainter  than  the  best  engravings.  Etching 
was  more  practised  by  the  old  than  by  modern 
painters ;  yet  Wilkie,  Landseer,  and  other  modem 
artists,  have  etched  various  plates,  remarkable  for 
character  and  spirit. 

English  Works  on  Engraving — Sculpture,  or  thi 
History  and  Art  of  Chalcography  and  Engraving 
on  Copper,^  by  John  Evelyn  (Lond.  12mo,  1663; 
8vo,  1755)  ;  The  Art  of  Engraving  and  Etching,  with 
the  Way  of  Printing  Copper -plates,  by  M.  Faithomo 
(Lond.  1702) ;  Sculptura  Historico-technico,  or  the 
History  and  Art  of  Engraving,  extracted  from  BaU 
dinucci  Florent,  Le  Compt,  Faithome,  t/ie  Abecadario 
Pittorico,  and  other  authors  (Lond.  4to,  1747,  1766, 
and  1770) ;  An  Essay  upon  Prints,  by  Gilpin  (Lond, 
8vo,  1767,  1768,  and  1781);  Strntt'a  Biographical 
Dictionatvj  of  Engravers  (2  vols.,  4to,  Lond.  1785) ; 
Landseer's  Lectures  on  Engraving  (8vo,  Lond.  1806) ; 
An  Inquiry  into  the  Origin  and  Early  History  of 
Engraving  upon  Copper  and  on  Wood,  by  William 
Young  Ottley  (4to,  Lond.  1816). 

Of  late  years,  many  inventions  have  been  intro- 
duced, having  for  their  object  to  supersede  the  slow 
and  laborious  manual  operations  of  engraving  by 
means  of  machinery  and  other  appliances.  It  is, 
however,  to  business  and  ornamental  purposes  that 
they  are  applicable,  and  not  to  the  prodm.tion  of 
artistic  engravings  of  the  kind  treated  of  in  this 
article.  The  subject  will  be  noticed  under  I^Iachine 
Engraving,  Medals,  Glass,  etc.  WitfL  regard  to 
the  reproduction  of  plates,  and  other  apj>lications 


ENGRAVINGS— ENLISTMENT. 


galvanic  electricity  to  engraving,  see  Galvanism 
And  Magneto-Electricity.  See  also  Puotographic 
Engraving. 

ENGRAVINGS,  Property  of.  The  property 
of  engravings  and  prints  is  secured  by  statutes 
sim  lar  to  those  for  the  protection  of  literary 

f)ropei*ty.  By  8  Geo.  II.  c.  13,  the  property  of 
dstorical  and  other  prints  was  declared  to  be 
invested  in  the  inventor  for  14  years.  The 
proprietor's  name  must  be  affixed  to  each  print, 
^nd  the  statute  imposes  a  penalty  on  printsellers 
ind  others  pirating  the  same.  The  provisions  of 
this  statute  were  extended  by  7  Geo.  III.  c.  38, 
which  secures  to  the  widow  of  WiUiam  Hogarth 
the  sole  right  of  printing  and  reprinting  his  works 
for  tJie  period  of  20  years.  The  other  acts  are 
17  Geo.  III.  c.  57,  6  and  7  WiU.  IV.  c.  59— which 
extends  the  former  acts  to  the  whole  United  King- 
dom— and  15  Vict.  c.  12.  The  latter  act — the  object 
of  which  was  to  enable  her  Majesty  to  carry  into 
effect  a  convention  with  France  on  the  subject  of 
copyright,  to  extend  and  explain  the  international 
copyright  acts,  and  to  explain  the  acts  relating 
to  copyright  in  engravings — reduces  the  duties  on 
foreign  engravings,  and  extends  the  protection  of 
the  acts  to  prints  taken  by  lithography,  or  '  any 
other  mechanical  process  by  which  prints  or  impres- 
sions of  drawings  or  designs  are  capable  of  being 
midti]>lied  indefinitely' — a  clause  which  has  now 
been  found  to  cover  photographs. 

ENGRO'SSING  and  REGRA'TING.  An 

engrosser,  regrater,  or  forestaller,  is  a  person  who 
buys  grain,  flesh,  fish,  or  other  articles  of  food,  with 
the  intention  of  selling  them  again  at  an  enhanced 
price,  either  in  the  same  fair  or  market,  or  in 
another  in  the  neighbourhood,  or  who  purchases  or 
contracts  for  corn  while  still  in  the  field.  These 
practices  were  regarded  as  criminal  in  most  coun- 
tries, before  the  laws  by  which  trade  is  regulated 
were  properly  imderstood.  In  England,  they  were 
forbidden  by  various  statutes,  fi-om  the  time  of 
Edward  VI.  to  that  of  Queen  Anne.  These  statutes 
were  repealed  by  12  Geo.  III.  c.  71,  on  the  pre- 
amble, that  it  hath  been  found  by  experience,  that 
the  restraints  laid  upon  the  dealing  in  corn,  meal, 
flour,  cattle,  and  sundry  other  sorts  of  victuals,  by 

Ereventing  a  free  trade  in  the  said  commodities, 
ave  a  tendency  to  discourage  the  growth,  and  to 
enhance  the  price  of  the  same.  It  was  found,  how- 
ever, that  engrossing  was  not  only  a  statutory  but 
a  common  law  offence,  and  a  prosecution  for  it  in 
the  latter  character  actually  took  place  in  the 
present  century.  The  Act  7  and  8  Vict.  c.  24,  for 
abolishing  the  offences  of  forestalling,  regrating,  and 
engrossing,  was  consequently  passed.  Besides  declar- 
ing that  the  several  offences  of  badgering,  engross- 
ing, forestalling,  and  regrating  be  utterly  taken 
away  and  abolished,  and  that  no  information  or 
prosecution  shall  lie  either  at  common  law  or  by 
virtue  of  any  statute,  either  in  England,  Scotland, 
or  Ireland,  this  statute  repeals  a  whole  host  of 
earlier  enactments  in  restraint  of  trade,  which  had 
keen  omitted  in  the  statute  in  the  time  of  George 
III.,  above  referred  to.  The  rubrics  of  these  enact- 
Dients  give  a  curious  picture  not  only  of  the  trading 
errors,  but  in  many  other  respects  of  the  obsolete 
customs  of  our  ancestors.  The  first,  for  example 
(51  Henry  III.),  is  called  a  '  Statute  of  the  Pillory  and 
Tumbrel,  and  of  the  Assize  of  Bread,  and  Ale.'  Then 
there  is  an  act  passed  in  several  reigns  which 
provides  for  the  punishment  of  *a  butcher  or  cook 
that  huyeth  flesh  of  Jews  and  selleth  the  same  to 
Christians.' 

Notwithstanding  the  doctrine  of  the  Scottish  law, 
tKat  statutes  may  be  repealed  by  mere  desuetude,  it 


was  thought  safer  to  include  the  Scottish  statutes  to 
the  same  effect.  The  earliest  is  1503,  c.  38,  and  the 
latest  IGCl,  c.  280. 

The  statute  6  and  7  Vict.  c.  24  does  not  ai)i)ly  to 
the  spreading  of  false  rumours,  with  the  intent  to 
enhance  or  decry  the  price  of  merchandise,  or  pre 
venting  goods  from  being  brought  to  market  by 
force  or  threats,  which  continue  to  be  punishable  as 
if  that  act  had  not  been  made. 

ENGROSSING  A  DEED.    See  Ingrossing-. 

ENGUE'RA,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of 
Valencia,  43  miles  south-west  of  the  town  of  that 
name.  It  is  poorly  built,  and  has  narrow  and 
irregular  streets.  It  has  manufactures  of  linen  and 
woollen  goods,  and  some  trade  in  cattle  and  agricul- 
tural produce.    Pop.  5250. 

ENGUICHE.  A  hunting-horn,  the  rim  around 
the  mouth  of  which  is  of  a  different  colour  from  the 
horn  itself,  is  said  heraldically  to  be  euguiche,  of 
the  colour  in  question. 

ENHARMO'NIC,  a  term  applied  in  Music  wheu 
the  name  of  a  note  is  changed  without  any  sensible 
difference  of  sound,  such  as  Cjj!  and  Db,  F^I  and  Gb. 
Correctly  speaking,  there  is,  or  ought  to  be,  a 
difference ;  but  on  keyed  instrumer.ts,  such  as  the 
organ  and  pianoforte,  there  can  be  none,  as  the 
same  key  serves  for  both  sharp  and  fiat,  whUe 
with  a  just  equal  temperament  the  ear  is  in  no 
way  offended.  In  harmony,  the  principal  seat  of 
enharmonic  change  isj  in  the  chord"  of  the  diminished 
seventh,  which,  by  a  change  of  the  notes,  may  be 
treated  fundamentally  in  four  different  ways,  without 
any  sensible  difference  in  the  intonation. 

ENKHUI'SEN,  a  fortified  town  and  seaport  ot 
the  Netherlands,  in  the  province  of  North  Holland, 
is  situated  on  the  western  shore  of  the  Zuider  Zee, 
about  30  miles  north-east  of  Amsterdam.  It  is 
built  with  great  regidarity,  and  is  of  a  circular  form. 
The  most  important  public  building  is  an  elegant 
town-house,  surmounted  by  a  lofty  tower.  There 
are  also  numerous  ecclesiastical  edifices,  several  salt  - 
refineries,  shi^^-building  yards,  and  a  cannon-foundry. 
Formerly,  E.  was  a  town  of  some  importance — 400 
vessels  used  to  leave  its  harbour  annually  for  the 
herring-fisheries  ;  at  present,  not  more  than  7  vessela 
are  thus  employed.  It  has  still  some  trade  iu  hatter, 
cheese,  timber,  cattle,  and  fish.    Pop.  5400. 

ENLI'STMENT,  in  the  Army,  is  the  cliief  rnr^de 
by  which  the  English  army  is  supplied  with  troops, 
as  distinguished  from  the  Conscription  prevailing 
in  many  other  countries.  Enlistmtnt  was  in  private 
hands  until  the  year  1802,  middlemen  j.rocuring 
recrxiits,  and  receiving  a  profit  or  commission  for  their 
trouble.  This  system  being  subject  to  much  aVjuse,  the 
matter  was  taken  into  the  hands  of  the  gcvernment 
in  the  above-named  year,  and  is  now  managed  by 
the  adjutant-general.  Formerly,  a  soklier  enlisted 
for  life,  and  could  never  look  forward  to  a  period  of 
freedom ;  or,  at  best,  he  could  not  retire  on  a 
pension  while  still  possessed  of  a  fair  share  of  health 
and  strength.  This  system  was  changed  iu  1847, 
by  an  act  relating  to  limited  enliatment.  If  a  man 
serves  as  a  soldier  in  an  infantry  regimr.nt  for  ten 
years,  he  is  then  at  liberty  to  leave  the  ar.  ny ;  but  if 
he  wishes  to  retire  on  a  small  pension,  he  must  servKi 
a  further  period  of  eleven  years,  making  twenty -one 
years'  service  in  all.  He  has  a  choice,  and,  if  he 
please,  six  months  for  deliberation,  whether  he  will 
render  this  second  period  of  service  or  not.  In  the 
cavah'y  and  artillery,  the  two  terms  of  serWce  are  of 
twelve  years  respectively.  If  apprentices  enlist,  the 
master  may  recover  them  under  certain  co'iditioiva 
detailed  in  the  Mutiny  Act  (q.  A.)  (which  is  passed 
every  year) ;  and  if  they  state  to  the  ma^lj'v;ratc>  that 

3X 


ENLISTMENT—: 


ENNISKILLEN. 


tliey  are  not  apprentices,  they  may  be  punished  for 
fraud,  and  are  liable  to  serve  in  the  army  on  the 
expiration  of  their  indentures.  If  the  master  con- 
cent to  the  enlistment,  he  is  entitled  to  part  of  the 
\)0uiAty.  The  Mutiny  Act  also  provides  that  servants 
enlisting  before  the  term  of  their  engagement,  are 
validly  enlisted,  and  are  entitled  to  wages  up  to 
the  date  of  enlistment.  Periods  of  imprisonment 
are  not  reckoned  as  part  of  the  time  of  limited 
enlistment.  A  recruit  enlists  into  some  particular 
regiment,  at  his  own  choice,  not  into  the  general 
army  ;  but  artificers,  as  armourers,  &c.,  are  usually 
fivlisted  for  general  service,  so  that  their  ser- 
vices may  be  made  available  where  most  required. 
L'vcry  recruit  is  asked  whether  he  belongs  to 
the  militia,  and  whether  he  enlists  willingly.  He 
has  to  ai)pear  before  a  magistrate,  and  make 
declaration  that  the  enlistment  is  volimtary  on 
•  i:s  part.  Several  other  questions  are  put  to  him  ; 
Bome  of  the  Articles  of  War  are  read  to  him ;  and  he 
is  ex})ecte  I  to  understand  his  real  position  before  the 
oath  is  adnunistered.  This  is  intended  to  obviate 
the  gi-oss  alnises  of  the  old  system,  under  which 
recruits  were  sometimes  irrevocably  enlisted  when 
drunk  and  almost  insensible.  The  oath  is  signed 
by  the  magistrate,  the  recruit,  and  a  witness,  and  a 
certificate  is  given  to  the  newly  made  soldier.  If, 
at  this  interview  with  the  magistrate,  the  young 
man  repents  of  his  previous  engagement  with  the 
recruiting-officer,  he  may  buy  himself  off  by  paying 
twenty  shillings  as  Smart-money  (q.  v.),  and  defi\ay- 
ing  any  other  ex]>ense  he  may  have  occasioned.  He 
cannot  retract  without  paying  this  fine  ;  a  simple 
refusal  to  take  the  oath  is  followed  by  imprison- 
ment.  The  Mutiny  Act  specifies  many  other  cases 
in  which  the  recruit  renders  himself  liable  to 
imprisonment. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  war  with  Russia,  or 
rather  in  1S55,  an  act  em})owered  the  crown  to 
enlist  soldiers  for  a  shorter  period  than  ten  years, 
on  emergency  ;  hut  the  exercise  of  this  power  is 
placed  under  certain  parliamentary  limitations.  In 
the  Eoyal  Marines,  the  enlistment  is  usually  for 
twelve  years. 

ENLISTINIENT,  in  the  Navy,  is  managed  by  the 
Admiralty,  and  is  changed  from  time  to  time  in  its 
details,  according  to  the  degree  of  \viningness  among 
8eafari::g  men  to  enter  the  ser\ace.  In  1830,  an 
hit  was  passed  to  give  certain  additional  advan- 
tages to  volunteer  seamen.  In  1835,  another  act 
emjjowered  the  crown  to  double  the  amount  of 
bounty  given  to  a  volunteer,  if  he  was  already  a 
gearaan.  In  1847,  it  was  enacted  that  such  persons 
as  were  entitled,  if  enlisted,  to  double  boimty, 
ihoidd  form  a  select  class ;  and  that  shipowners 
should  not  be  allowed  to  hire  such  persons  as 
crews  for  racrchant-shi[)s,  if  the  government  thought 
proper  to  issue  a  proclamation  to  that  effect. 
At  the  commencement  of  the  war  with  Eiissia, 
In  1854,  it  was  deemed  expedient  not  only  to  give 
extra  bounties  to  seamen  willing  to  enlist,  but  to 
make  a  money- present  to  seamen  already  in  the 
oavy,  as  an  equivalent  advantage.  The  bounty 
^iven  to  seamen  varies  from  time  to  time,  accord- 
tog  to  the  exigencies  of  the  service;  but  recent 
legislation  has  established  a  distinction  between 
Amited  and  continuous  service.  A  seaman  may 
enlist  for  five  or  for  ten  years,  or  for  the  period 
th3  ship  he  enters  is  in  commission ;  if  for  the  longer 
period,  he  receives  higher  pay  and  other  advantages. 
At  the  end  of  this  longer  period,  he  may  demand 
hia  discharge  ;  and,  if  abroad,  he  may  claim  to  be 
l>r'>ught  home  free  of  expense.  His  commanding- 
sfPcer  may,  in  emergency,  retain  his  further  service 
for  six  months,  on  payment  of  another  increase 
Df  pay.    The  crown,  besides,  possesses  a  power  of 


compelling  renewed  service  from  seamen  under  certain 
con(litions,  in  case  of  invasion  or  other  national 
peril. 

Other  matters  bearing  on  this  subject  "will  be 
found  noticeil  under  Bocjntv,  Coast  Volunteers, 
Impressment,  and  Manning  the  Navy. 

ENMANCHE,  or  EMANCH^.    See  Manchb. 

ENNEMOSER,  Joseph,  known  aa  a  medico- 
philosophic  writer,  was  bom  15th  November  1787, 
at  Hintersee,  in  the  Tyrol,  and  commenced  hie 
academic  studies  at  Innsbruck  in  1806.  On  thi 
rising  of  the  Tyrolese  against  the  French  in  1809,  Ei 
followed  Andreas  Hofer  as  his  secretary,  and  honour- 
ably distinguished  himself  in  battle  on  several  occa- 
sions. At  the  close  of  the  war,  he  went  to  Erlangen, 
and  subsequently  to  Vienna,  for  the  i)uri)ose  of  con- 
cluding his  studies.  Here,  however,  he  experienced 
the  greatest  difficulty  in  procuring  the  means  of 
subsistence,  but  fortunately  fell  in  with  a  merchant 
from  Altona,  in  whose  company  he  travelled  for  some 
time.  When  Napoleon  declared  war  against  Russia 
in  1812,  E.  was  despatched  to  England,  to  solicit  aid 
for  the  T3rrolese  in  their  meditated  insurrection 
against  the  French  domination.  He  was  after- 
wards appointed  by  Friedrich  Willielm  III.,  king  of 
Prussia,  an  officer  in  a  regiment  of  volunteers,  and 
soon  gathered  about  him  a  company  of  Tyroleae 
marksmen,  who  were  of  great  ser\'icr  during  the  cam- 
paignis  of  1813  and  1814.  After  the  peace  of  Paris, 
E.  went  to  Berlin,  where  he  finished  his  curriculum, 
and  in  1816  took  his  degree  of  Doctor  of  Medicine. 
In  1819,  he  was  made  Professor  of  Medicine  at  the 
new  university  of  Bonn,  where  he  lectured  on 
Anthropology,  Physical  Therapeutics,  and  Pathology. 
A  love  of  his  native  country  induced  him  to  settle 
as  a  physician  in  Innsbruck,  but  in  1841  he  went 
to  Munich,  where  he  has  obtained  a  great  reputa- 
tion by  the  application  of  magnetism  as  a  curative 
power.  Among  his  WTitings  may  be  mentioned, 
Der  Macjnetismus  in  seiner  geschichtlkhen  Entvricke- 
lung  (Leip.  1819),  which  is  reckoned  his  principal 
work;  Historisch-psychologisclie  Untersuchungen  iiber 
den  Ur sprung  und  das  Wesen  der  MemclUichen  Seele 
(Bonn,  1824)  ;  Anthropologisclie  Ansichten  zur  hessem 
Kenntnisz  des  Mmschen  (Bonn,  1828) ;  Magnetia- 
mus  im  Verhdltnisz  zur  Natur  und  Religion  (Stuttg. 
1842) ;  Der  Geist  des  Menschen  in  der  Natur  (Stuttg. 
1849) ;  Was  ist  die  Cholera  (2d  edit.,  Stuttg.  1850) ; 
and  Anlcitung  zur  Mtsmer'' schen  Praxis  (Stuttg. 
1852).    He  died  in  1854. 

E'NNIS,  a  parliamentary  and  municipal  borough, 
in  the  middle  of  Clare  county,  Ireland,  the  capital 
of  the  county,  on  the  Fergus,  20  miles  west-north- 
west of  Limerick.  It  is  a  neat-looking  town,  with 
some  good  houses.  Pop.  (1871)  6503.  It  returns 
one  member  to  parliament.  It  has  the  ruins  of  a 
monastery  founded  in  1240  by  O'Brien,  Prince  of 
Thomond.  Near  the  town  is  Ennis  College,  one  of 
the  four  classical  schools  founded  by  Erasmus 
Smith.  E.  has  a  valuable  limestone  quarry,  large 
flour-mills,  and  some  trade  in  grain  and  cattle. 

ENNISCO'RTHY,  a  market-town  in  the  middle 
of  Wexford  county,  Ireland,  on  a  steep  rising  ground 
on  the  Slaney,  14  miles  north-north-west  of  Wex- 
ford. The  Slaney  is  here  tidal  and  navigable  for 
barges,  and  flows  through  a  very  rich,  fertile,  and 
beautiful  valley.  Pop.  (1871)  5594.  E.  is  a  rising 
town,  and  has  a  large  corn-trade.  It  arose  in  a 
Norman  castle,  stiU  entire,  founded  by  Raymond 
le  Gros,  one  of  the  early  Anglo-Norman  invaders. 
Cromwell  took  E.  in  1649  ;  and  the  Irish  rebels, 
stormed  and  burned  it  in  1798. 

E  N  N I S  K  TL  L  E  N,  a  parliamentary  and  muni 
cipal  borough  in  the  middle  of  Fermanagh  county 
Ireland,  the  chief  town  of  the  county,  ol>out  7* 


EKNIUS— ENOCa 


miles  west-south-west  of  Belfast.  It  is  beautifully 
situated  on  the  Erne ;  the  greater  portion  of  it, 
however,  is  on  an  isle  in  the  river  between  the 
Upper  and  Lower  Loughs  Erne.  It  consists  mainly 
of  one  undulating  street  running  east  and  west. 
Around,  are  richly  cidtivated  eminences  and  many 
fine  mansions.  Its  two  forts  command  the  only 
pass  for  50  miles  into  Ulster  across  the  Erne.  The 
chief  manufactures  are  cutlery  and  straw-plait.  Pop. 
(1871)  5836.  It  retiu-ns  one  member  to  parliament. 
E.  is  famous  for  the  victory,  in  1689,  won  by  the 
troops  of  William  III.,  under  Lord  Hamilton,  over  a 
auperior  force  of  James  II.,  under  Lord  Gilmoy.  The 
banners  taken  in  the  battle  of  the  Boyne  hang  in 
the  town-hall  of  Enniskillen.  The  regiment  of 
Eiiniakilleners  or  6th  Dragoons,  was  first  instituted 
from  the  brave  defenders  of  the  town. 

E'NNIUS,  one  of  the  earliest  Roman  poets,  the 
father  of  the  Roman  Epos,  was  bom  at  Rudise,  in 
Calabria,  about  240  years  before  the  Christian  era, 
and  was  probably  of  Greek  extraction.  He  is  said 
to  have  served  in  the  wars,  and  to  have  risen  to 
the  rank  of  a  centurion.  In  Sardinia,  he  became 
acquainted  with  Cato  the  Elder,  and  returned  with 
him  to  Rome  when  about  the  age  of  38.  Here 
he  gained  for  himself  the  friendship  of  the  most 
eminent  men,  among  others  that  of  Scipio  Africanus 
the  Elder,  and  attained  (what  was  then  exceedingly 
rare  in  the  case  of  an  alien)  to  the  rank  of  a  Roman 
citizen.  He  supported  himself  in  a  decent  but 
humble  manner  by  instructing  some  young  Romans 
of  distinguished  families  in  the  Greek  language  and 
literature,  his  accurate  knowledge  of  which  explains 
the  influence  he  hail  on  the  development  of  the  Latin 
tongue.  He  died  when  he  had  attained  the  age  of 
70,  or  about  190  B.C.  His  remains  were  interred  in 
the  tomb  of  the  Scipios,  and  his  bust  was  placed 
among  those  of  that  great  family.  E.  has  tried 
his  powers  in  almost  every  species  of  poetry,  and 
although  his  language  and  versification  are  rough 
and  unpolished,  these  defects  are  fidly  compensated 
by  the  energy  of  his  expressions,  and  the  fire  of  his 
poetry.  His  poems  were  highly  esteemed  by  Cicero, 
Horace,  and  Virgil :  the  last,  indeed,  frequently 
introduces  whole  lines  from  the  poetry  of  E.  into 
his  o"vvn  compositions.  His  memory  seems  to  have 
been  lovingly  cherished  by  his  countrymen  ;  Noster 
Ennius,  '  Our  Ennius,'  they  used  to  call  him.  Of 
his  tragedies,  comedies,  satires,  and  particularly  of 
his  Annales,  an  epos  in  18  books,  only  fragments  are 
Btill  extant.  What  adds  to  our  regret  is,  that  it  is 
believed  his  whole  works  were  extant  as  late  as  the 
13th  c.  (A.  G.  Cramer,  Hauschrotiick).  The  frag- 
ments have  been  collected  and  edited  by  various 
Bcholars,  among  others  by  Hessel  (Amst.  1707).  The 
fragments  of  the  Annales  have  been  edited  by  Span- 
genberg  (Leip.  1825).  Compare  Hoch,  De  Ennian- 
orum  Annaliinn  Frogmentis  (Bonn,  1839).  The  few 
fragments  of  his  dramas  that  have  come  down  to 
a.s  were  collected  by  Bothe  in  the  Poetarum  Latii 
Scenicorum  Fragmenta  (5  vols.). 

ENNS,  a  river  of  Austria,  rises  at  the  northern 
[»ase  of  a  Ijranch  of  the  Noric  Alps  in  the  crown- 
land  of  Salzbxirg,  12  miles  south  of  Radstadt.  It 
first  flows  north  to  Radstadt,  then  north-north -east 
to  Hieflau,  after  which  it  proceeds  in  a  general 
direction  north-north- west,  passes  Steyer,  and  joins 
the  Danube  11  miles  below  the  town  of  Linz,  after 
a  course  of  about  120  miles.  Its  chief  affluents  are 
the  Salza  and  the  Steyer.  For  the  last  15  miles  of 
its  coui'se,  the  E,  forms  the  boundary  between 
Upper  Austria  (Ober  der  Enns)  and  Lower  Austria 
(Untor  der  Enns).  The  scenery  on  the  banks  of  the 
E.  33  in  general  bold  and  romantic,  as  it  flov/s,  for 
the  most  p^rt,  between  rirallel  mouutaiu-(;hain3, 


which  are  lofty  and  precipitous.  In  its  lower  course 
it  becomes  navigable,  but  it  is  chiefly  important  from 
the  valuable  water  power  which  it  supplies. 

E'NOCII,  the  name  of  two  different  individuals 
in  Scripture.  1.  The  eldest  son  of  Cain,  who  built 
a  city  which  was  called  after  his  name.  2.  The  son 
of  Jared  and  father  of  Methuselah.  A  j)cculiarly 
mysterious  interest  attaches  to  him  on  account  of 
the  supernatural  manner  in  which  his  earthly  career 
terminated.  We  are  told  by  the  writer  of  Genesia 
that  E.  'walked  with  God  300  years  .  .  .  and  he  wa« 
not,  for  God  took  him.'  What  the  statement  'he 
was  not'  signified  to  the  later  Jews  is  explained  b^ 
the  writer  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews :  *  Enoch 
was  translated  that  he  should  not  see  death.'  E. 
and  Elijah  are  the  only  human  beings  on  record  whc 
did  not  require  to  discharge  the  debt  which  mortals 
owe  to  nature.  It  may  naturally  be  supposed 
that  E.  was  a  character  on  whom  the  extravagant 
fancy  of  the  later  Jews  would  fasten  with  unusual 
pleasure.  As  they  came  more  and  more  into  contact 
with  Grecian  and  other  culture,  they  felt  the 
necessity  of  linking  on  the  arts  and  sciences  of 
Gentile  nations  to  their  own  history,  if  they  would 
continue  to  preserve  that  feeling  of  supremacy  which 
was  so  dear  to  their  pride  as  the  chosen  people. 
Hence,  E.  appears  as  the  inventor  of  writing,  arith- 
metic, astronomy,  &c.,  and  is  affirmed  to  have  filled 
300  books  with  the  revelations  which  he  received, 
the  number  300  being  obviously  suggested  by  the 
number  of  years  during  which  he  is  said  to  have 
walked  with  God. 

ENOCH,  Book  of.  This  book,  from  which, 
curiously  enough,  St  J\ide  quotes  as  if  it  were 
history,  shews  how  richly  mythical  the  history  of 
the  mysterious  antediluvian  Enoch  had  become ! 
It  was  probably  written  originally  in  Aramaic,  by 
a  native  of  Palestine,  in  the  2d  c.  B.C.  The  precise 
date  is  not  known.  At  subsequent  periods,  it  would 
seem  to  have  been  enlarged  by  additions  and  inter- 
polations. It  is  divided  into  five  parts  ;  and  the 
Jirst  discourses  of  such  subjects  as  the  fall  of  the 
angels,  and  the  journey  of  E.  through  the  earth 
and  through  Paradise  in  the  company  of  an  angel, 
by  whom  he  is  initiated  into  the  secrets  of 
nature,  &c. ;  the  second  contains  E.'s  account  of 
what  was  revealed  to  him  concerning  the  heavenly 
or  spiritual  region ;  the  third  treats  of  astronony  and 
the  phenomena  of  the  seasons  ;  the  fourth  repre- 
sents E.  beholding,  in  prophetic  vision,  the  course  of 
Divine  Providence  till  the  coming  of  the  Messiah; 
and  the  last  consists  of  exhortations  based  on  what 
has  preceded.  The  book  was  current  in  the  primi- 
tive church,  and  was  quoted  by  the  Fathers,  but  was 
lost  sight  of  b}^  Christian  writers  about  the  close  of 
the  8th  century,  so  that  until  last  century  it  wag 
only  known  by  extracts.  Fortunately,  however, 
the  traveller  Bruce  discovered  in  Abyssinia  three 
complete  MSS.  of  the  work,  which  he  brought  to 
England  in  1773.  These  MSS.  jiroved  to  be  a  a 
Ethiopic  version  made  from  the  Gre*^k  one,  in  une 
among  the  Fathers,  as  was  e\adent  from  the  coinci- 
dence of  language.  The  Ethiopic  version  did  not 
appear  till  1838,  when  it  was  published  by  Arch- 
bishop  Lawrence.  An  English  translation,  iiowev  ?r, 
by  the  same  writer,  had  ai>peared  in  1821,  wh}oh 
passed  through  three  editions,  and  formed  the  basis  of 
the  German  edition  of  Hoffmann  (Jena,  1833— 183S). 
In  1840,  Gfrorer  published  a  Latin  translation  of  the 
work ;  but  by  far  the  best  edition  is  that  of  Dr  A. 
Dillmann,  who,  in  1851,  published  the  Ethiopic  text 
from  five  MSS.  ;  and  in  1853,  a  German  translation, 
with  an  introduction  and  commentary,  which  haa 
I  recently  turned  the  attention  of  many  Gennaa 
I  scholars  to  the  subject. 

n 


ENOS— ENSIGN. 


E'NOS  (ancientlj,  ^nos),  an  ancient  town  and 
seaport  of  European  Turkey,  in  the  province  of 
Ruwiili,  is  situated  on  a  rocky  isthmus  at  the 
mouth  of  a  gulf  of  the  same  name,  about  35  miles 
west-north-west  of  Gallipoli.  It  is  the  port  of 
Adrianople,  and  has  some  trade  in  wool,  camels' 
hair,  cotton,  leather,  silk,  etc.  Its  harbour  is  com- 
modious, but  so  shallow  from  being  choked  up  with 
sand  that  it  admits  only  small  vessels.  Pop.  6000, 
jfrincipally  Greeks.  Tlie  Gulf  of  Enos  is  about  2^ 
miles  wide  at  the  entrance,  extends  into  the  country 
for  about  14  miles,  and  is,  on  an  average,  5  miles 
broad. 

The  town  of  E.  is  very  ancient.  Virgil  mentions 
it  {^n.  iii.  18)  as  being  one  of  the  towns  founded 
by  TEneas,  after  the  sack  of  Troy ;  and  Homer  also 
attests  its  antiquity  by  alluding  to  it  in  his  great 
poem  {II.  iv.  519). 

ENRIQXJEZ,  Gomez  Antonio  (properly,  Enri- 
<iJEZ  DE  Paz),  a  Spanish  poet,  the  son  of  a  baptized 
Portuguese  Jew,  was  born  at  Segovia  early  in  the 
17th  century.  He  entered  the  army  in  his  20th 
year,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  captain  ;  but  in  1C36. 
had  to  flee  the  country,  to  escai)e  the  persecution  of 
the  Inquisition,  which  suspected  him  of  a  secret 
leaning  to  the  creed  of  his  father.  E.  settled  at 
Amsterdam,  and  latterly  professed  the  Jewish  faith ; 
in  consequence  of  which,  he  was  burned  in  effigy 
by  the  pious  Catholics  of  Seville,  14th  April  16G0. 
The  date  of  his  death  is  not  known.  During  his 
residence  in  Spain,  E.  had  considerable  reputation  as 
a  dramatic  poet.  According  to  his  own  account,  he 
wrote  22  comedies,  which  met  with  great  success  on 
the  stage,  in  consequence  of  which,  several  of  them 
passed  as  Calderon's.  Lo  prudente  Ahir/ail,  Engaiiar 
para  reinar,  Celos  no  ofenden  al  sol,  and  A  lo  que 
obllgan  los  celos,  were  pul)lished  under  the  name  of 
Fernando  de  Zarate.  E's.  comedies  shew  him  to 
have  possessed  much  inventiveness,  but  in  other 
respects  they  deserve  little  praise.  Among  his 
other  writings  are  Las  Academias  morales  (Rouen, 
1642),  containing  some  fine  elegiac  verse ;  La  Culpa 
del  primer  pererjrino  (Rouen,  1644),  a  mystico- 
theologic  poem;  El  siglo  Pitagdrico  (Rouen,  1647), 
a  series  of  satu'ical  portraits  partly  in  prose  and 
partly  in  verse ;  and  El  Samson  Nazareno  (Rouen, 
1656),  an  abortive  epic.  For  a  notice  of  E.  and  his 
writings,  see  Estudios  historicos  poUticos  y  literarlos 
tiobere  los  Judios  de  Espaiia,  by  Jose  Amador  de  los 
Rios  (Madrid,  1848). 

ENRO'LMENT,  entry  upon  a  register  or  record. 

Enrolment  of  Deeds. — In  order  to  prevent  the 
secret  transfer  of  lands  which  was  effected  in 
England  by  means  of  a  Bargain  and  Sale  (q.  v.),  it 
was  provided  by  27  Hen.  VIII.  c.  16,  that  no 
transfer  of  land  should  be  effected  by  bargain  and 
sale,  imless  the  deed  were  enrolled  within  six 
months  of  the  date  of  the  deed.  By  the  Fines  and 
Recoveries  Act  (3  and  4  Will.  IV.  c.  74),  it  is  enacted 
that  all  transfers  of  land  effected  under  the  provi- 
sions of  that  statute,  must  be  enrolled  in  the  Court 
ai  Chancery  within  six  months  after  the  execution. 

Enrolment  of  Decree  in  Chancery. — A  decree  in  a 
■uit  iii  Chancery  does  not  receive  full  effect  until  it 
has  been  enrolled.  A  cause  may  be  re-heard  by  the 
judge  before  whom  it  has  been  argued,  or  may  be 
taken  to  the  court  of  appeal  until  enrolled ;  but 
after  enrolment  the  cause  can  only  be  heard  in  the 
House  of  Lords.  If  not  enrolled  within  six  months, 
an  order  for  enrolment  is  necessary.  The  opposite 
party  wishing  to  prevent  an  enrolment,  must  lodge 
a  caveat,  if  he  has  not  presented  a  petition  for 
re-hearing. 

EXSEMBLE  (Fr.),  the  general  effect  produced 
by  the  whole  figures  or  objects  in  a  picture,  the 


persons  and  plot  of  a  drama,  or  the  various  parts 
of  a  musical  performance. 

E'NSIGN"  is  the  title  of  the  lowest  combatait 
rank  of  commissioned  officers  in  the  British  army, 
and  is  derived  from  their  being  charged  with  the 
duty  of  carrying  the  regimental  colours  or  ensign 
(Fr.  enseigne,  Lat.  inslgne).  In  the  hand-to-hand 
m61ees  of  the  middle  ages,  the  preservation  of  the 
colours  or  standard,  as  the  rallying- point  of  those 
fighting  under  the  same  leader,  was  a  matter  of 
vital  importance,  and  was  only  intrusted  to  the 
bravest  and  most  trustworthy.  The  colours  were 
committed  to  him  with  imposing  ceremony  in  pre- 
sence of  the  assembled  regiment,  and  he  had  to 
take  an  oath  to  defend  them  with  life  and  limb, 
and  if  need  were,  to  wrap  himself  in  them  as  a 
shroud,  and  devote  himself  to  death.  The  man 
who  undertook  this  perilous  post  received  some- 
times as  much  as  sixfold  the  usual  i)ay.  It  was 
doubtless  in  this  way  that  the  point  of  honour  arose 
respecting  the  colours.  History  records  repeated 
instances  where  the  oath  was  kept  to  the  letter. 
In  the  modern  system  of  warfare,  the  regimental 
colours  are  seldom  exposed  to  such  danger,  and  the 
office  of  ensign  is  of  less  account.  In  the  infantry, 
there  are  two  kinds  of  subalterns  below  the  ca[)taiu^ 
viz.,  the  lieutenant  and  the  ensign.  In  the  cavalry 
and  artillery,  the  duties  of  ensigu  are  taken  by 
officers  who  receive  the  titles  of  cornet  or  lieu- 
tenant. When  a  gentleman  enters  the  army,  he 
always  begins  as  an  ensign  (if  in  the  infantry),  and 
from  this  rank  he  rises  by  purchase  or  seniority. 
The  price  of  an  ensign's  commission  is  stated 
under  Commissions,  Army,  as  well  as  the  extra 
price  to  be  paid  on  rising  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant. 
The  pay  is  5s.  3cZ.  per  day,  and  the  half-pay 
Is.  \i)d.  to  3s. ;  although  it  is  most  unusual  for  an 
ensign  to  be  on  half-pay.  An  ensign  in  the  Fot»t 
Guards  ranks  as  a  lieutenant  in  the  army,  and,  on 
transferring  his  services  to  an  infantry  or  cavalry 
regiment,  would  exchange  with  an  officer  of  that 
grade. 

The  ensign's  duty  generally  is  to  assist  the  captain 
in  reference  to  everything  belonging  to  the  particular 
company  which  the  latter  commands.  There  are  aa 
many  ensigns  in  an  infantry  regiment  as  there  are 
companies  ;  and  one  of  these  has  the  duty  of  carry- 
ing the  regimental  colours  when  on  the  march  or  on 
parade 

In  the  late  East  India  Company's  army,  a  cadet 
became  an  ensign,  in  rank  and  pay,  dixectly  he 
landed  in  India. 

Ensign  is  also  the  name  of  one  of  the  flaga 
belonging  to  the  British  fleet ;  and,  uiuler  that  oi 
some  other  name,  to  most  other  fleets.  It  is  a  larga 
flag  or  banner  hoisted  on  an  ensign  staff,  a  long  pole 
erected  over  the  poop,  or  at  the  gaff  when  the  ship 
is  under  sail.  Its  chief  purpose  is  to  denote  the 
nation  to  which  the  ship  belongs.  The  English 
ensign  has  for  a  groimdwork  one  of  three  colom-s— 
red,  white,  or  blue  (the  use  of  one  of  these  colours 
indicates  a  particular  squadron  of  the  English 
navy) — and  bears  the  Union  double  cross  of  St 
George  and  St  Andrew,  or  Union-Jack  (q.  v.), 
in  the  upper  corner  next  the  mast  (dexter-chi'ef). 
The  white  ensign  is  also  divided  into  four  quarters 
by  a  red  cross  of  St  George.  The  ensign  is 
of  the  same  colour  as  the  pennant.  Merchant- 
vessels  are  only  allowed  to  carry  the  red  ensign  ; 
but  yachts,  if  of  clubs  acknowledgctd  by  the 
Admiralty,  are  permitted  to  use  the  three  colours. 
Formerly,  the  English  admirals  required  ships  of 
all  other  nations  to  dip  their  ensigns  as  a  token  of 
respect  to  the  English  flag :  the  refusal  of  the  Dutch 
to  comply  with  this  custom,  was  the  signal  for  onto 
of  Blake's  bloodiest  encounters  with  Van  Tromp, 


ENTABLATURE~E  NT  AD  A. 


ENTA'BLATURB,  that  part  of  a  design  in 
classic  architecture  which  surmounts  the  Columns 
(q.  v.),  and  rests  upon  the  capitals.  It  is  usiially 
about  two  diameters  of  the  column  in  height,  and 
is  divided  in  every  style  of  classical  architectiu-e 
into  three  parts — architrave,  frieze,  and  coruice. 
These  parts  vary  in  their  relative  proportions  in 
different  s;tyles.  In  Doric  architecture,  for  example, 
if  the  entablature  be  divided  into  eight  equal  parts, 
two  of  these  form  the  height  of  the  architrave,  three 
that  of  the  frieze,  and  three  that  of  the  cornice.  In 
the  other  styles,  the  relative  proportions  are  as 
throe,  three,  and  four. 

The  term  entablature  was  not  used  till  the  17th 
C,  the  members  composing  it  being  previously 
simply  designated  the  cornice,  frieze,  and  architrave. 

1.  Tlie  Ardiitrave  is  the  horizontal  portion  which 
rests  immediately  upon  the  abacus  of  the  colimin.  It 
is  usually  ornamented  with  horizontal  mouldings, 
with  flat  spaces  or  facice  between.  The  upper 
moulding  always  projects  further  than  the  others, 
BO  as  to  throw  off  the  rain.  This  moulding  varies  in 
different  styles.  In  Doric  (fig.  1),  it  is  a  plain  square 


Fig  1. — Example  of  Doric  Entablature. 


projection,  with  small  pendants  or  guttce  under  the 
triglyphs.  In  the  other  styles,  it  is  generally  an 
ogee  or  talon  moulding.  These  mouldings  are  fre- 
quently enriched  with  leaf  ornaments,  and  in  very 
florid  designs  the  facise  are  also  enriched. 

2.  Tlie  Fneze  is  the  middle  portion  of  the  entab- 
lature, between  the  top  of  the  architrave  and  the 
bed  of  the  cornice.  In  the  Doric  style,  it  is 
ornamented  with  triglyphs  or  slight  projections, 
divided  by  angular  grooves  into  three  parts.  The 
spaces  between  the  triglyi)h3  (called  metopes)  are 
square,  and  are  either  phxin  or  enriched,  either  with 
figure- scidpture,  as  in  the  Parthenon,  or  with  bulls' 
heads,  paterfB,  or  other  ornaments.  In  the  other 
Btyles,  the  frieze  is  never  cut  into  portions,  but  is 
either  left  quite  plain  or  ornamented  with  figure- 
Sic' "J  pture  or  scroll-work.  The  former  is  most  usual 
fjL  Greek  ai-t,  the  latter  in  Roman.  In  late  Koman 
•grorks,  the  frieze  is  sometimes  swelled  or  made  to 
j/roject  with  a  curve. 

3.  The  Cornice  forms  the  upper  portion  of  the 
entablature.  It  is  divided  into  several  parts.  The 
lower  moulding  or  mouldings  resting  on  the  frieze 
are  called  the  l)ed  mouldings — the  upper  projecting 
part  is  called  the  Corona  (q.  v.),  and  between  the 
two  there  are  frequently  introduced  modillions  and 
dentil  bands.  The  bed-moulding  is  generally  of  an 
r.val  or  echiims  form,  and  is  frequently  enriched 
with  tlie  egg  and  tongue,  or  leaf  ornaments.  The 
upper  moulding  of  the  corona  is  generally  of  a 
eymarecta  form  (see  COLUMN,  fig.  1),  and  is  often 


ornamented  with  lions'  heads.  These  represent  tbf, 
openings  through  which  the  rain  was  at  first  led  oft 
from  the  roof-gutters,  which  were  cut  in  the  top 
of  this  moulding,  and  were  retained  as  ornaments 
after  their  original  use  was  discontinued.  The 
corona  projects  well  over  the  frieze  and  architrave, 
and  protects  them  from  rain,  while  at  the  same 
time,  by  its  broad  shadow,  it  gives  repose  and 
variety  of  effect  to  the  building.  The  sofit,  or 
under  side  of  the  corona,  is  frequently  panelled  and 
ornamented  with  paterae. 

Orhjin. — The  component  parts  of  the  entablature 
are  said,  with  some  appearance  of  truth,  to  owe 
their  origin  to  the  forms  of  the  construction  of  the 
oldest  temples.  These  were  of  wood,  and  were  put 
together  in  the  manner  most  natural  for  that 
material.  The  square  beams  laid  across  from  post 
to  post  are  represented  by  the  architrave ;  the 
triglyphs  of  the  frieze  are  copied  from  the  ends  of 
the  cross-beams ;  the  cornice  is  taken  from  the 
boarding  which  covered  the  rafters  and  ties  of  the 
roof — projected  so  as  to  throw  off  the  rain ;  and  the 
dentils  and  modiUions  shew  the  ends  of  the  raftera 
left  uncovered. 

Whatever  the  origin  of  the  entablature  may  have 
been,  it  is  a  remarkable  fact,  as  connected  with 
Greek  and  Koman  art,  how  persistent  the  entabla- 
ture was  as  a  feature  in  the  decoration  of  these 
classic  styles.  So  long  as  buildings  consisted  of  one 
story  in  height,  this  was  quite  natural ;  but  after 
this  simple  system  was  abandoned,  and  when,  as  in 
Roman  architecture,  series  of  columns  and  entabla- 
tures were  piled  one  above  the  other — not  used  con- 
structionally,  but  simply  applied  to  the  face  of  th» 


Fig.  2. — Example  of  Composite  Entablaturo. 


building— the  cornice,  frieze,  and  architrave  stiD 
retained  their  places  and  proportions.  In  the  revivetl 
Roman  art  of  the  16th  c,  the  entablature  was  used 
in  a  manner  still  further  removed  from  its  original 
puqiose  (fig.  2).  The  strict  proportions  of  the 
various  parts  were  entirely  lost  sight  of.  The  frieze 
was  increased  in  height,  so  as  to  admit  of  small 
windows,  to  light  the  entresol  or  Mezzanin  (q.  v.), 
and  in  the  French  and  English  forms  of  the  renais- 
sance, the  various  members  become  still  mora 
attenuated  and  altered  from  the  original  design  (seq 
Renaissance).  But  in  no  modification  of  classic 
architectm-e,  however  debased,  is  the  entablatim 
awanting.  The  architrave,  frieze,  and  cornice  an 
essential  portions  of  every  classic  design. 

ENTADA,  a  genus  of  climbing  shrubs  of  th* 
natural  order  Leguminosa,  suborder  MiviosecB 
having  pinnate  or  bipinnate  leaves,  and  reuiark 
able  for  their  great  pods,  in  which  the  seeds  lif 
amidst  a  glutinous  or  gelatinous  substance.  Tiu 


ENTAIL. 


aeetls  of  E.  Pursmtlia,  an  East  Indian  species,  are 
Bnponaceous,  and  are  used  for  washing  the  hair. 
1  he  plant  attains  a  great  size  :  its  pods  are  some- 
times fully  five  feet  long,  and  six  inches  broad ;  the 
Bceds  are  beautiful  brown  beans,  so  large  that  in 
Ceylon  they  are  often  hollowed  out  and  used  as 
tinder-boxes. 

ENTAI'L,  or  ENTAY'LE  (Fr.  tailler,  to  cut), 
often  used  by  old  English  authors  for  any  architec- 
tural ornament  which  is  sculptured  or  cut  in  stone. 
Chaucer  speaks  of 

*  An  image  of  an  other  entaile  ; ' 

and  other  examples  are  given  by  Parker  {Glossary 
of  Architecture). 

ENTAIL,  or,  as  it  is  frequently  called  in  Scot- 
land, tailzie,  from  Fr.  tailler,  to  cut,  properly 
signifies  any  destination  by  which  the  legal  course 
of  succession  is  cut  off,  one  or  more  of  the  heirs- 
at-law  being  excluded  or  postponed,  and  the  settle- 
ment of  land  made  upon  a  particular  heir  or  series 
of  heirs.  The  desire  to  preserve  in  our  own  family 
land  which  we  liave  either  inherited  or  acquired, 
appears  to  be  inherent  in  the  human  mind.  The 
first  distinct  trace  of  the  existence  of  entails,  is 
to  be  found  in  the  Koman  law.  The  Greeks, 
indeed,  permitted  persons  to  name  successors  to 
their  estates,  and  to  appoint  a  substitute  who 
should  take  the  estate  on  the  failure  of  him  first 
named.  The  substitute,  as  appointed,  was  per- 
mitted to  succeed  on  the  death  of  the  institute 
(as  he  was  called)  without  leaving  issue  or  without 
alienating  the  estate.  But  this  limited  right  fell 
far  short  of  the  power  of  entailing  Avhich  has  since 
prevailed  in  vai-ious  countries.  At  Rome,  under 
the  later  emperors,  the  practice  of  settling  land 
upon  a  series  of  heirs,  by  means  of  Fideiconimlssa 
(q.  v.),  grew  up,  and  was  sanctioned  by  the  state. 
These  deeds,  which  were  originally  simply  a  trust 
rei)osed  in  the  honour  of  a  friend,  to  whom  the 
property  was  conveyed,  to  carry  out  the  will  of  the 
grantor,  by  degrees  received  the  sanction  of  the 
law.  In  their  early  form,  they  contained  merely  a 
substitution  of  heirs.  Thus,  Bogo  ne  testamentum 
fa-ciat,  donee  liberos  suscepe^'it.''  ^  Bogo  id  testamento 
euo  Seium  hoeredem  facial.''  '■Bogo  hceredem,  ne  hcere- 
ditatem  aUenet,  sed  relinquat  familiceJ — Heineccius, 
6.  Go8.  But  by  the  later  law,  a  much  fuller  form 
of  settlement  was  admitted,  whereby  the  estate 
was  protected  from  every  sort  of  alienation.  '  Volo 
meas  cedes  non  vendi  ab  hoiredibus  meis,  neque 
fcenerari  siqier  eas :  sed  manere  eas  firtnas,  sim- 
plices,  filHs  meis  et  nepotibus  in  universum  tempus. 
Si  aliquis  autem  eorum  voluerit  venders  partem 
siiam,  vel  famerari  super  earn,  potestatem  habeat 
vendere  coheredi  suo  et  fcenerari  ab  eo:  si  autem 
aliquis  prceter  haecfecerit,  crit  quod  obligatur,  inutile 
atque  irritum.'' — Dig.  xxxi.  88,  s.  15.  Here  we 
have  an  example  of  the  principal  clauses  of  a 
strict  entail  as  subsequently  more  fully  carried 
out  in  Scotland.  It  is  impossible  to  doubt  that 
this  Roman  form  must  have  been  adopted  by  the 
^■!ottish  lawyers  in  framing  their  deeds  of  entail. 
The  limitation  to  a  particular  line  of  descent,  the 
prohibition  to  alienate  or  burden  with  debt,  and  the 
still  more  peculiar  feature  of  tlie  declaration  of 
forfeiture  in  case  of  non-compliance,  are  to  be  found 
in  both  forms.  There  are,  however,  two  points  in 
which  the  Roman  law  differed  from  that  which 
prevailed  for  jnany  years  in  Scotland — viz.,  that  the 
former  did  not  recognise  the  right  of  primogeniture, 
and  that  the  limitation  of  the  deed  was  restricted  to 
four  generations.  For  the  right  of  primogeniture,  as 
recognised  in  deeds  of  entail,  we  are  indebted  to  the 
(eudal  law.    That  system,  which  has  united  with 


the  civil  law  to  form  a  basis  for  the  codes  of  modem 
Eiu'ope,  did  not,  in  its  original  form,  recognise  the 
right  of  a  holder  of  land  to  alienate  his  feudal 
benefice.  But  the  right  of  the  eldest  sou  to  represent 
his  father,  both  in  the  duties  and  privileges  of  the 
fief,  if  not  an  original  principle  of  the  system,  was 
universally  recognised  in  the  days  of  its  greatest 
power.  We  shall  presently  see  how  this  principle 
was  embodied  in  a  Scottish  deed  of  entail.  We 
come  now  to  consider  entads  as  they  have  exist*^ 
in  modern  nations. 

In  England,  the  Saxons,  it  is  said,  prohibited  tht 
alienation  of  lands  by  those  who  had  succeeded 
to  them  under  condition  that  they  should  not 
alienate. — Wilkins's  Leges  SaxoniccB,  p.  43  (note). 
Among  the  Saxons,  the  law  of  primogeniture  was 
not  recognised.  But  on  the  establishment  of  the 
feudal  laws  in  England,  a  practice  began  to  prevail 
whereby  an  estate  was  settled  upon  a  particular 
series  of  heirs,  as  'to  a  man  and  the  heirs  of  hia 
body.'  This  is  the  first  germ  of  an  entad  in 
England.  It  was  called  a  fee- simple  conditional, 
because  the  judges  refused  to  recognise  an  absolute 
limitation  of  the  estate  to  a  particular  line  of  heirs, 
but  held  the  destination  to  be  conditional  on  the 
birth  of  an  heir,  and  that  that  condition  having  been 
purified,  the  donee  was  free  to  alienate  the  estate. 
The  common  law  thus  refusing  to  recognise  entails, 
a  statute  was  passed  which  had  the  effect  of  intro- 
ducing that  practice  into  England-  Tliis  was  the 
famous  statute  De  Donis  (q.  v.),  whereby  it  was 
declared  that  the  estate  should  be  held  secundum 
formam  doni.  In  order  to  the  creation  of  an  entail 
under  this  statute,  it  was  not  enough  that  the 
estate  was  Hmited  to  *  a  man  and  his  heirs,'  as  those 
words  were  held  to  constitute  an  estate  in  fee ;  it 
was  necessary  that  the  estate  should  be  given  to 
*  a  man  and  the  heirs  of  his  body,'  or  '  to  a  man  and 
the  heirs  of  his  body  by  his  wife  Joan.'  The  former 
was  called  a  general,  the  latter  a  special  entail. 
Another  form  whereby  lands  might  be  entailed 
under  the  statute  De  Donis,  was  by  settlement  in 
Frankmarriage  (q.  v.).  For  nearly  200  years  after 
the  passing  of  this  act,  lands  settled  in  the  form 
which  it  prescribed  continued  to  be  held  under  the 
fetters  of  a  strict  entail.  But  the  tendency  of  the 
law,  which  in  Scotland,  as  we  shall  presently  see, 
was  to  strengthen  the  power  of  entails,  was,  in 
England,  in  the  opposite  direction.  For  a  long 
time,  tenants  in  tail,  taking  advantage  of  legal 
technicalities,  were  able  practically  to  defeat  the 
limitation  in  tail  by  means  of  a  Discontinuance. 
But  it  was  not  till  the  time  of  Edward  IV.  that  an 
effectual  means  of  evading  the  provisions  of  the 
act  was  brought  mto  use;  this  was  achieved  by 
means  of  a  process  called  a  common  recovery.  See 
Fines  and  Recoveries.  By  this  process,  a  tenant 
in  tad  could  bar  the  entail,  and  convert  the  estat* 
into  a  fee-simple.  Another  mode  of  barring  ai  entail 
was  by  means  of  a  Fine  (q.  v.).  It  had  been  declared 
by  the  statute  De  Donis,  that  levying  a  fine  of  lands 
should  be  no  bar  to  the  entail ;  but  by  32  Hen, 
VIII.  c.  36,  it  was  enacted  that  a  fine  of  lands, 
when  duly  levied,  shoidd  be  a  complete  bar  to  the 
tenant  in  tail,  and  those  claiming  under  him.  It  is 
to  be  observed  that  the  operation  of  a  fine  was 
confined  to  those  claiming  under  the  tenant  m  tad  ; 
those  who  had  rights  of  reversion  or  remainder 
under  the  grantor  of  the  entail  were  not  excluded  by 
this  species  of  assurance ;  so  that  by  means  of  a 
recovery  only  could  an  estate  tail  be  converted  into 
a  fee-simple.  From  the  introduction  of  common 
recoveries  tdlthe  passing  of  the  Fines  and  Recoveries 
Act  (3  and  4  Wdl.  IV.  c.  74),  a  period  of  more  than 
300  years,  it  was  impossible  that  an  estate  could  ba 
held  imder  the  fetters  of  an  entail,  if  the  tenant 


ENTASIS— ENTELLUS  MONKEY 


in  tail  and  the  next  heir  chose  to  combine  to  defeat 
the  entail.  By  the  Fines  and  Recoveries  Act,  the 
technicalities  formerly  necessary  in  order  to  bar  an 
entail  were  removed,  and  tenant  in  tail  may  now,  by 
a  simple  conveyance,  alienate  his  estate  at  pleasure. 
A  n  estate  tail  is  a  freehold  of  a  limited  description. 
Tenant  in  tail  may  commit  Waste  (q.  v.).  Formerly, 
an  estate  tail  was  not  liable  to  the  debts  of  the 
tenaat,  but  by  1  and  2  Vict.  c.  110,  this  restriction 
has  been  removed.  Copyhold  lauds  have  been  held 
not  to  fall  under  the  operation  of  the  statute  Be 
Donis.  A  limitation,  therefore,  which  in  a  freehold 
creates  an  estate  tail,  in  copyhold  lands  creates  a 
fee-simple  conditional,  according  to  the  old  common 
law,  except  where  the  custom  of  the  manor  is  to 
the  contrary. 

In  Scotland,  as  in  England,  entails  appear  first  to 
have  taken  their  rise  from  the  feudal  usages.  It  has 
been  observed  by  Lord  Kames,  that  while  the  feudal 
system  was  in  its  vigoiu-,  every  estate  was  in  fact 
entailed,  because  no  proprietor  had  any  power  to 
/liter  the  order  of  the  succession.  But  when  the 
etricter  feudal  principles  gave  way,  and  the  power  of 
alienating  land  began  to  be  recognised,  the  holders 
of  estates  sought  to  secure,  by  deed,  in  their  own 
families  the  lands  which  they  possessed.  The  form 
first  adopted  for  this  purpose  was  the  simple  destina- 
tion, whereby  the  estate  was  simply  limited  to  a 
particular  series  of  heirs,  without  prohibition  to 
alienate,  or  declaration  of  forfeiture  for  contravention 
of  the  will  of  the  grantor.  In  this  form,  the  deed 
must  have  resembled  the  early  Enghsh  entails. 
The  feudal  law  of  primogeniture  having  been  received 
as  a  principle  of  common  law,  the  estate  woidd 
naturally  descend  from  father  to  son  in  the  line 
indicated  by  the  deed.  But,  as  it  was  held  that 
those  succeeding  under  this  deed  were  not  restrained 
from  alienating,  the  practice  of  adding  prohibitory 
clauses  was  introduced.  Entails  in  this  form  were 
held  to  bind  the  heir  from  granting  gratuitous  aliena- 
tions ;  but  he  was  not  restrained  from  selling  the 
estate,  or  burdening  it  with  debt.  Early  in  the 
17th  c  ,  a  further  addition  was  made  to  the  form  of 
the  deed  by  the  introduction  of  irritant  and  resolu- 
tive clauses,  i.  e.,  clauses  declaring  the  act  of  aliena- 
tion to  be  null,  and  to  infer  the  forfeitiire  of  the 
estate.  The  form  thus  adopted,  which  resembles 
closely  the  form  of  the  Koman  deed  already  noticed, 
was  fortified  by  a  decision  of  the  Court  of  Session 
in  the  Stormont  entail,  ;M.  13994,  holding  that 
an  estate  so  protected  could  not  be  attached  by 
creditors.  This  decision  created  much  difference 
of  opinion  amongst  lawyers  as  to  the  power  of  the 
grantor  thus  to  protect  an  estate  from  the  onerous 
act  of  the  heir,  in  consequence  of  which  the  famous 
Scotch  Entad  Act,  1685,  c.  22,  was  passed,  by  which 
it  was  enacted  that  an  estate  conveyed  by  a  deed 
fortified  by  prohibitory,  irritant,  and  resolutive 
clauses,  and  recorded  in  a  particular  register,  should 
eH'ctually  secured  in  the  line  of  destination. 
This  act  has  always  been  most  strictly  viewed  by 
Scottish  ]  awyers ;  and  entails  which  have  been 
fo-iBi  deficient  in  any  of  the  prescribed  requisites, 
have  been  regarded  by  the  courts  as  utterly  ineffec- 
tuaL  The  first  Lord  Meadowbank,  in  a  judgment 
v^hinh  has  always  been  regarded  as  a  leading 
authority,  laid  it  down  that  entails  '  are  the  mere 
creatures  of  statute,'  and  that  where  the  interests 
of  tliird  parties  are  concerned,  every  part  of  an 
entail  is  liable  to  the  strictest  interpretation  {Hamil- 
ton V.  Macdowull,  3d  March  1815).  The  operation 
of  the  old  entail  act  was  found,  notwithstanding, 
to  be  oi  the  most  oppressive  character.  Statutes 
were  in  consequence  passed  from  time  to  time, 
empower,  ng  heirs  of  entail  to  grant  leases  of  their 
tands  ol  longer  duration  than  could  be  granted 


under  the  act  1685,  and  to  make  provisions  for  fcheif 
families.  But  at  length,  by  the*  11th  and  12th 
Vict.  c.  36,  the  power  of  fettering  lands  by  a  strict 
entail  has  been  finally  destroyed.  By  this  act,  heirs 
under  an  existing  entail  may  disentail,  with  the  con- 
sent of  certain  heirs  next  in  succession  ;  and  in  all 
entails  made  after  1st  August  1848,  and  also  in  old 
entads  where  the  heir  in  possession  was  born  since 
1st  August  1848,  the  heir  of  entaU  in  possession 
may,  by  means  of  a  simple  deed  of  disentad,  free 
his  estate  from  the  restrictions  of  the  entail. 

Ill  America,  before  the  Revolution,  the  English 
law  as  to  estates  tail  prevailed.  But  in  the  United 
States,  the  law  of  entails  has  been  gradually  aban- 
doned by  the  several  states  ;  and  property  can  noTf 
be  fettered,  to  a  limited  extent  oidy,  by  means 
of  executory  Devises  (q.  v.).  In  France,  the  power 
of  creating  entails  has  varied  much  at  different 
periods,  from  the  right  to  make  a  perpetual  entail, 
which  apjiears  to  have  been  the  original  principle,  to 
a  limitation  to  four,  and  at  one  time  to  two  degrees. 
But  by  the  Code  Napoleon,  ss.  89G — 897,  entails  are 
now  absolutely  prohibited.  In  Spain,  also,  entails, 
which  were  permitted  under  certain  restrictions, 
have  been  entirely  abolished  by  a  law  of  the 
Cortes  in  1820.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  right 
of  securing  land  in  a  particular  family,  which  com- 
mends itseK  to  the  natural  feelings,  has  been  found 
so  opi^ressive  in  operation,  and  so  injurious  to  the 
public  interest,  that  after  an  existence  of  more 
than  600  years  it  has  been  practically  discarded 
almost  simultaneously  by  the  general  consent  of 
modern  nations. 

E'NTASIS  (Gr.),  the  swelling  outline  given  to 
the  shaft  of  a  Column  (q.  v.). 

ENTELLUS  MONKEY,  or  HONUMAN 
{Semnopithecus  Entellus),  an  East  Indian  species  oi 
monkey,  with  yellowish  fur,  face  of  violet  tinge, 
surrounded  with  projecting  hairs,  long  limbs,  and 
very  long  muscular  and  powerful — though  not  pre- 
hensile— tail.  It  is  held  in  superstitious  reverence 
by  the  Hindus,  and  is  often  to  be  seen  exhibiting 
much  impudent  familiarity  in  the  precincts  oi 
temples ;  indeed,  temples  are  often  specially  dedi- 
cated to  it ;  hospitals  are  erected  for  its  reception 
when  sick  or  wounded.  Hindu  laws  affix  a  far 
more  severe  punishment  to  the  slaughter  of  one 
of  these  sacred  monkeys  than  of  a  man ;  the  peasant 


Entellus  Monkey  {Semnopithecus  EnteUtu), 


esteems  it  an  honour  when  his  garden  is  plundered 
or  his  house  robbed  by  troops  of  them,  and  would 
consider  it  an  act  of  the  greatest  sacrilege  to  drive 
them  away.  They  take  their  places  with  perfect 
confidence  on  the  roofs  of  houses,  and  gaze  at  the 
passing  crowd.    This  is  one  of  the  very  few  speciea 


ENTERITIS— ENTOMOLOGY. 


of  monkeys  found  in  the  northern  provinces  of 
India,  and  in  sutlimer  ascends  the  Hiniahiya  to  the 
pine  forests,  and  almost  to  the  snow  line ;  it  has  even 
{succeeded  in  crossing  the  mountains,  and  occurs  in 
Bhotan. 

ENTERITIS  (Gr.  enteron,  the  intestines),  inflam- 
mation of  the  bowels,  and  especially  of  their  muscu- 
lar and  serous  coat,  leading  to  Constipation  (q.  v.) 
and  pain,  -with  Colic  (q.  v.),  and  sometimes  Ileus 
(q.  v.).  Enteritis  is  distingiiished  from  these  last  aflfec- 
tions,  indeed,  only  by  the  presence  of  inflammatory 
Bym})tonis — i.  e.,  pain,  tenderness,  fever,  &c.,  from  a 
very  early  stage  of  the  disease,  and  in  so  decided  a 
form  as  to  require  special  attention.  If  enteritis 
does  not  depend  upon  mechanical  obstruction,  it 
may  be  combated  by  hot  fomentations,  with  moder- 
ate leeching  and  counter-irritation,  and  the  internal 
administration  of  opium.  Injections  of  warm  water, 
or  of  asafa?tida  and  turpentine  (see  Cly.ster), 
should  be  at  the  same  time  given  to  clear  the  lower 
bowel ;  and  aU  purgatives,  except  in  some  cases 
castor  oil,  should  be  avoided.  The  disease  Ls,  how- 
ever, one  of  gi*eat  danger,  and  should  never  be 
incautiously  treated  with  domestic  remedies.  It  is 
closely  allied  to  Peritonitis  (q.  v.),  and  often  depends 
U])on  internal  mechanical  causes,  or  on  external 
injury. 

In  the  Loiver  Animals. — Inflammation  of  the 
bowels,  among  the  heavier  breeds  of  horses, 
generally  results  from  some  error  of  diet,  such  as 
a  long  fast  followed  by  a  large,  hastily  devoured 
meal,  indigestible  or  easily  fermentable  food,  or 
large  draughts  of  water  at  improper  times.  When 
thus  produced,  it  is  frequently  preceded  by  stomach 
Btaggers  or  colic,  aflects  chiefly  the  mucous  coat 
of  the  large  intestines,  and  often  runs  its  course 
in  from  eight  to  twelve  hours.  With  increasing 
fever  and  restlessness,  the  pidse  soon  rises  to  70  or 
upwards,  and,  unlike  what  obtains  in  colic,  con- 
tinues throughout  considerably  above  the  natural 
standard  of  40  beats  per  minute.  The  pain  is 
great,  but  the  animal,  instead  of  recklessly  throAnng 
himself  about,  as  in  colic,  gets  np  and  lies  down 
cautiously.  Respiration  is  quickened,  the  bowels 
torpid.  Cold  sweats,  stu]>or,  and  occasionally 
delirium,  precede  death.  When  connected  with, 
or  occun-ing  as  a  sequel  to  influenza,  laminitis, 
and  other  complaints,  the  small  intestines  are  as 
lOiuch  aflected  as  the  large,  and  the  peritoneal  as 
well  as  the  mucous  coat  of  the  bowels.  This  form 
is  more  common  in  the  lighter  breeds.  When 
the  patient  is  seen  early,  whilst  the  pidse  is  still 
clear  and  distinct,  and  not  above  60,  and  the 
legs  and  ears  warm,  bloodletting  is  useful,  as  it 
relieves  the  overloaded  vessels,  and  prevents  that 
exudation  of  blood  which  speedily  becomes  poured 
out  in  the  interior  of  the  bowels.  This  disease 
Bhoutd  be  treated  as  follows  :  In  a  pint  of  oil,  or 
an  infusion  of  two  drachms  of  aloes  in  hot  water, 
give  a  scruple  of  calomel  and  an  ounce  of  lauda- 
num, and  repeat  the  calomel  and  laudanum  every 
hour  in  gruel  until  the  bowels  are  opened,  or 
five  or  six  doses  are  given.  Encourage  the  action 
of  the  bowels  by  using  every  half  hour  soap  and 
writer  clysters,  to  which  add  laudanum  so  long 
as  pain  and  straining  continue.  If  the  animal 
is  nauseated  and  stupid,  with  a  cold  skin,  and  a 
weak  quick  pulse,  bleeding  and  reducing  remedies 
are  very  injurious;  and  the  only  hope  lies  in  follow- 
ing up  one  dose  of  the  calomel  and  aloes  with 
small  doses  of  laudanum  and  sweet  spirit  of  nitre, 
or  other  stimulants,  repeated  every  forty  minutes. 
In  all  stages,  woollen  cloths  wTung  out  of  hot  water 
jind  a])plied  to  the  belly  encourage  the  action  of  the 
biwcls,  and  relieve  the  pain. 

Enteritis  in  cattle  is  mostly  produced  by  coarse 
7a 


wet  pasture,  acrid  or  poisonous  plants,  bad  water, 
and  overdriving.  The  symptoms  are  fever  and 
thirst,  a  quick  but  rather  weak  pulse,  restless  twitch- 
ing up  of  the  hind  limbs,  tenderness  of  the  belly, 
and  torpidity  of  the  bowels.  Calves  generally  die 
in  three  or  four  days,  other  cattle  in  a  week  cr 
nine  days.  Bleed  early,  ©i^en  the  bowels  with  « 
pint  of  oil  and  a  drachm  of  calomel,  which  may 
be  repeated  in  eight  or  ten  hours,  if  no  effect 
is  produced.  Give  every  hour  fifteen  drops  o? 
Fleming's  tincture  of  aconite  in  water,  until  eur 
or  seven  doses  are  given.  Allow  only  sloppy  .and 
laxative  food,  such  as  treacle,  gruel,  or  a  tliin 
bran  mash  ;  employ  clysters  and  hot  cloths  to  the 
belly,  and  use  two-ounce  doses  of  laudanum  if  the 
pain  is  great.  Enteritis  in  sheep  mostly  occurs  in 
cold  exposed  localities,  and  where  flocks  are  sub- 
jected to  great  privations  or  improper  feeding. 
The  symptoms  and  treatment  resemble  those  of 
cattle. 

ENTOMO'LOGY  (Gr.  enfomon,  an  insect,  logos, 
a  discourse),  the  science  which  has  Insects  (q.  v.)» 
for  its  subject.  The  mere  collector  of  insects  may 
be  one  of  the  humblest  labourers  in  the  great  field 
of  natural  history,  l)ut  his  labours  contribute  mate- 
rials for  the  more  philosophic  naturalist  who  studies 
the  structures  of  these  creatures,  and  compares 
theni  wath  one  another  according  to  the  unity  and 
the  variety  of  design  which  they  exhibit.  And 
when  we  begin  to  take  into  account  the  vast  number 
of  diflerent  species  of  insects,  their  gi-eat  diversities 
of  structure  and  of  habits,  their  great  complexity  of 
organisation,  the  wonderful  transformations  which 
many  of  them  imdergo  at  different  stages  of  their 
existence,  and  the  equally  wonderful  but  extremely 
various  instincts  which  many  of  them  display,  we 
find  entomology  to  be  a  science  worthy  to  engage 
the  noblest  mind.  But  besides  all  these  things,  we 
must  remember  that  insects  serve  most  imi»ortant 
purposes  in  the  general  economy  of  nature ;  and 
that  some  of  them  are  directly  useful  to  man,  some 
directly  injurious,  at  least  when  their  nimibers  are 
at  any  time  excessively  multii)lied. 

Entomology,  along  with  the  other  branches  of 
natural  history,  was  cultivated  by  Aristotle  and 
other  Greeks,  Aristotle  is  the  most  ancient  author 
of  whose  M'orks  anything  relating  to  this  science  novs* 
remains.  Pliny  has  little  on  this  subject  but  what 
j  is  copied  from  Aristotle  ;  and  it  can  scarcely  be  said 
1  to  have  been  again  studied  as  a  science  till  the  IGth 
I  c,  when  attention  began  once  more  to  be  directed 
to  it,  although  it  was  not  till  the  17th  c.  that  much 
progress  was  made,  or  that  any  important  works  on 
entomology  appeared.  Insects  then  began  to  be 
described,  not  only  those  of  Europe,  but  also  some  of 
the  curious  and  splendid  insects  of  tropical  countries ; 
bees  and  other  insects  of  particidar  interest  received 
attention  ;  the  metamorphoses  of  insects  began  to 
be  studied,  and  tlieir  anatomy  to  be  investigated. 
The  names  of  Goedart,  Maipighi,  Swammerdam, 
Leuwenhoek,  and  Ray  deserve  to  be  particularly 
mentioned  ;  but  the  infant  state  of  the  science  may 
be  illustrated  by  the  fact,  that  about  the  end  of  the 
17th  c,  Ray  estimated  the  whole  number  of  insects 
in  the  world  at  10,000  species,  a  number  smaller  than 
is  now  kno-RTi  to  exist  in  Britain  alone.  In  the  18th 
c,  the  name  of  Linnaeus  occupies  as  high  a  place  in 
the  history  of  entomology  as  in  that  of  kindred 
branches  of  science.  The  progress  of  the  science 
was  much  promoted  by  his  arrangement  and  exhibi- 
tion of  the  discoveries  of  ])re\ious  and  contemporary 
naturalists;  and  by  his  system  of  classification, 
founded  on  characters  taken  from  the  wings,  or 
their  absence,  a  system  prqfessedly  artificial,  yet  so 
harmonising  with  the  most  natural  distribution  into 
groups,  tliat  some  of  its  orders  were  indicated  by 


ENTOMOSTRACA— ENTOPHYTES. 


Aristotle,  and  that  it  has  retained  and  seems  likely  to 
retain  it?  place,  modified,  indeed,  but  not  essentially 
changed.  De  Geer  and  Fabricius  are  perhaps,  after 
Linufeus,  the  most  worthy  to  be  nafned  of  the  great 
entomologists  of  the  18th  centnry.  At  the  close  of 
the  18th  and  beginning  of  the  19th  c,  the  name  of 
Latreilie  is  iire-eminently  consj^icuoiis ;  and  in  the 
year  1815,  a  new  impulse  began  to  be  given  to  the 
study  of  entomology  in  Britain  by  the  publication  of 
the  admirable  Introduction  to  Entomology  of  Messrs 
Kirby  and  Spence,  a  work  combining  in  a  remark- 
able degree  the  merits  of  being  at  once  popular  and 
scientific.  Since  the  beginning  of  the  19th  c,  the 
nimiber  of  insects  known  and  described  has  prodi- 
giously increased ;  many  entomologists  have  with 
great  advantage  devoted  themselves  particularly  to 
the  study  of  particular  orders  of  insects  ;  and  many 
valuable  monographs  have  appeared.  Entomological 
iiteratm-e  has  now  become  very  extensive.  The 
progress  of  the  science  has  owed  not  a  little  to 
entomological  societies,  of  which  the  Entomological 
Society  of  London  may  be  particularly  mentioned. 
We  cannot  attempt  to  enumerate  the  distinguished 
entomologists  of  the  19th  c,  but  perhaps  the  names 
of  Leach,  Macleay,  Curtis,  Stephens,  Westwood, 
Bmith,  Walker,  Stainton,  Swainson,  and  Chuckard, 
deserve  particular  notice  among  those  of  Britain  ; 
Meigen,  Jurine,  Gyllenhal,  Gravenliorst,  Hubner, 
Dufour,  Boisduval,  Erichsen,  and  Lacordaire  among 
those  of  the  continent  of  Europe ;  and  Say  among 
those  of  Ameiica.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  we 
have  not  yet  any  comj)lete  work  on  the-insects  of 
Britain.  The  Insecta  Brita?inica,  of  which  some 
volumes  by  different  authors  have  been  published 
under  the  ausj)ices  of  the  Entomological  Society, 
is  intended  to  supply  the  want. 

ENTOMO'STRACA  (Gr.  insect- shells),  a  term 
Introduced  by  Miiller,  and  adopted  by  Latreilie, 
Cuvier,  and  other  naturalists,  to  designate  the  second 
of  their  two  great  divisions  of  Crustaceans  (q.  v.). 
The  number  of  species  of  E.  is  very  great.  They  are 
ftU  of  small  size,  except  the  King-crabs  {Limulus), 
which  in  many  respects  differ  from  all  the  rest, 
and  have  recently  been  formed  by  some  natura- 
lists into  a  sub-class  of  crustaceans  by  themselves. 
Many  of  them  are  minute,  and  exist  in  great 
numbers  both  in  fresh  and  salt  water,  particularly 
in  stagnant  or  nearly  stagnant  fresh  water,  affording 
to  many  kinds  of  fishes  their  principal  food.  They 
differ  very  much  in  general  form;  the  number  of 
organs  of  locomotion  is  also  very  various — in  some 
Very  few,  in  s«>me  more  than  one  hundred — usually 
adapted  for  swimming  only,  and  attached  to  the 
abdominal  as  well  as  to  the  thoracic  segments  ;  but 
there  never  is  a  fin-like  expansion  of  the  tail,  as 
in  some  oi  the  malacostracous  crustaceans.  The 
antennae  of  some  are,  however,  used  as  organs  of 
locomotion.  Some  of  the  E.  have  mouths  fitted  for 
mastication,  and  some  for  suction.  Not  a  few  are 
parasitic.  The  heart  has  the  form  of  a  long  vessel. 
One  or  two  nervous  knots  or  globules  supply  the 
place  of  a  brain.  The  organs  of  respiration  are  in 
certain  species  attached  to  some  of  the  organs  of 
locomotion,  in  the  form  of  hairs,  often  grouped  into 
beards,  combs,  or  tufts,  or  blade-like  expansions  of 
the  anterior  legs  are  subservient  to  the  puqjose  of 
respiration :  in  others,  no  special  organs  of  respira- 
tion are  known  to  exist.  The  eyes  are  sometimes 
confluent,  so  as  to  form  a  single  mass — one  eye — in 
the  front  of  the  head.  The  name  E.  has  been  given  to 
these  creatures  in  consequence  of  most  of  the  species 
having  shells  of  one  or  two  pieces,  rather  homy  than 
calcareous,  and  of  very  slender  consistence,  generally 
almost  membranous  and  transparent.  In  very  many, 
the  shell  consists  of  two  valves,  capable  of  being 
completely  closed,  but  which,  at  the  pleasure  of  the 


little  animal,  can  also  be  opened  so  as  to  permit  the 

antennai  and  feet  to  be  stretched  out. 

The  study  of  the  smaller  crustaceans  has  recently 
been  prosecuted  with  great  assiduity  and  success, 
by  Milne-Edwards  and  others ;  and  in  consequence 
of  the  great  differences  existing  among  them,  new 
classifications  have  been  proposed,  and  the  name  E. 
has  by  some  been  restricted  to  those  which  have  a 
mouth  formed  for  mastication,  but  no  special  organs 
of  respiration,  forming  a  section  which  is  subdivided 
into  two  orders,  Ostrapoda  and  Gopepoda,  the  former 
having  a  bivalve  shell  or  shield,  the  latter  destitv.te 
of  it. — But  the  name  E.  is  stiU  commonly  employed 
in  its  former  wider  sense. 

ENTOMOSTRACA,  Fossil.  E.  attained  their 
maximum  size  in  the  palseozoic  waters,  which  they 
tenanted  in  vast  shoals.  The  Silurian  Trilobit© 
(q.  V.)  was  a  phyllopod,  and  the  Pteregotus  (q.  v.) 
of  the  old  red  sandstone  was  nearly  allied  to  the 
modern  limulus.  Small  bivalvular  species  are  found 
in  all  strata,  sometimes,  as  at  Burdie-House,  near 
Edinburgh,  forming  layers  of  considerable  thickness, 
at  others  scattered  in  enormous  numbers  in  tho 
dried  sediments  of  lakes,  as  in  the  fresh- water  clays 
of  the  Wealden,  or  fonning  in  some  places  a  large 
proportion  of  chalk,  with  the  multitudes  of  their 
thin  calcareous  coverings. 

E'NTOPHYTES  [Entophyta  ;  Gr.  enton,  within, 
and  phyfon,  a  plant),  a  term  usually  emploj^^ed  to 
denote  those  parasitic  plants  which  grow'-  on  li\'ing 
animals.  It  is  seldom  extended  to  vegetable  para- 
sites which  grow  on  living  vegetables,  whether  on 
external  or  internal  parts,  nor  is  it  restricted  to 
those  which  are  found  in  the  internal  cavities,  or 
within  the  substance  of  animal  bodies,  but  includes 
all  which  have  their  seat  on  living  animal  tissues. 
It  does  not,  like  the  analogous  term  Entozoa,  denote 
any  particular  class  of  organised  beings  ;  some  of 
the  E.  are  Algce,  and  some  Fungi,  but  to  these  two 
orders  they  are  limited,  and  all  of  them  belong  to 
the  lower  sections  of  these  orders  ;  some  of  them  to 
those  lowest  sections  in  which  the  distinguishing 
characters  of  the  two  orders  cannot  easily  be  traced, 
so  that  they  are  referred  to  the  one  or  the  other  on 
very  slender  grounds;  those  in  which  a  colouring 
matter  is  present  being  reckoned  algse,  although  it 
can  be  observed  only  in  masses  of  aggregated  cells, 
and  not  in  the  cells  when  ^'iewed  separately,  and 
those  which  even  in  the  mass  appear  entirely  colour- 
less, being  considered  fungi.  Many  of  the  algJB 
and  fungi  parasitic  on  plants  are  nearly  allied  to 
those  which  occur  on  animals  ;  thus,  ergot  and  the 
kind  of  mildew  which  has  proved  so  destructive  to 
vines,  are  refen-ed  to  the  same  genus  {Oidium)  to 
which  is  also  referred  the  fungus  found  in  the 
diseased  mucous  membrane  in  cases  of  apWi.ce  or 
thrush :  and  another  genus  [Botnjtis,  q.  v.)  contains 
the  fungus  called  Muscardiiie,  or  Silkworm  Rot,  so 
destructive  to  silkworms,  together  wdth  the  iucgus 
which  accompanies  or  causes  the  potato  disease,  and 
many  other  species  which  infest  plants.  Common 
mould  is  even  supposed  to  occur  on  animal  tissues 
tending  to  decay,  during  life,  as  well  as  on  dead 
animal  and  vegetable  substances. 

Vegetable  parasites  occur  both  in  man  and  in  tfie 
lower  animals ;  not  a  few  of  them  are  i>eculiar  to 
fishes,  and  more  are  peculiar  to  insects  than  to  any 
other  class  of  animals.  The  fimgi  which  grow  oa 
the  bodies  of  insects  sometimes  attain  an  extra* 
ordinary  development :  Sph  rria  Sinensis,  which 
grows  on  a  Chinese  caterpillar,  and  to  which  medi- 
cinal virtues,  probably  imaginary,  are  ascribed  in 
China,  attains  a  length  greater  than  that  of  the 
'  caterpillar  itself.  A  similar  species  (S.  Bohertsii)  is 
!  foimd  on  the  caterpillar  of  a  New  Zealand  moth. 


ENTOPHYTES— ENTOZOA. 


Tha  situations  in  which  E.  occur  are  very  various. 
Some,  like  the  thrush  fungus  already  noticed, 
ai)pear  in  diseased  couditious  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane ;  some  find  their  place  in  the  lungs,  the  ear, 
or  other  organs  ;  some  on  the  skin,  in  the  hair 
tollicles,  and  in  as  well  as  on  the  hair  itself.  The 
*  f"ur '  which  appears  on  the  tongue  when  the  stomach 
is  disordered,  abounds  in  the  extremely  slender 
untranching  threads  of  the  alga  called  Leptothrix 
bvccalis,  which  also  vegetates  luxuriantly  in  cavities 
and  corners  of  the  teeth  not  sufficiently  visited  by 
the  tooth-brush.  The  lungs  of  birds,  the  gills  of 
fishes,  the  intestines  of  insects,  the  wing-covers  of 
beetles,  the  eggs  of  molluscs,  all  have  their  pecidiar 
vegetable  i>arasites  by  which  they  are  sometimes 
infested. 

It  is  often  by  no  means  easy  to  say  whether  the 
presence  of  E.  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  consequence 
or  as  the  cause  of  disease  ;  sometimes  it  may  be 
both.  Sometimes  it  api)ears  to  be  certainly  a  conse- 
quence, as  when  tbe  Sarcina  (or  Merismopcedia) 
ventriculi  occurs  in  the  contents  of  the  stomach  and 
bowels ;  sometimes,  as  in  the  diseases  called  Favus, 
Poit'kjo,  Tinea,  Herpes  tonsurans,  Plica  Polonica, 
Mentagra,  Piti/rlasis  vers'irolor,  &c.,  it  seems  entitled 
to  be  regarded  as  the  cause  of  tlie  diseased  state, 
and  the  cure  of  the  disease  seems  to  be  accomplished 
by  killing  the  parasite,  often  a  thing  of  no  little 
difficulty. 

Whence  the  germs  of  E.  are  derived  is  often  a 
question  to  which  it  would  not  be  easy  to  find  an 
answer.  Their  s})ores  are  extremely  minute ;  but 
there  are  no  plants  which  produce  seeds  or  spores 
more  abundantly  than  some  of  them  do  ;  the  gro^^'th 
of  the  plants  themselves  is  very  rajjid,  and  rei)ro- 
duction  is  '  very  intense  and  rapid.' 

It  has  sometimes  been  imagined  that  epidemic 
diseases  may  be  caused  by  spores  of  K  conveyed 
through  the  air  ;  no  evidence  has,  however,  been 
produced  to  render  this  opinion  probable.  An 
attempt  was  made  to  establish  the  existence  of 
cholera  fungi  or  algoo,  but  it  completely  failed, 

ENTOZO'A.  This  term  is  applied  to  all  the  animal 
forms  which  live  either  in  the  natural  cavities 
(as,  for  example,  the  intestinal  canal),  or  in  the 
solid  tissues  (as,  for  example,  the  liver)  of  other 
animals.  The  number  of  these  parasites  is  so 
great  (there  being  at  least  20  distinct  species  of 
worms  found  in  man,  14  in  the  dog,  15  in  the 
horse,  11  in  the  common  fowl,  fee),  and  their 
occurrence  so  frequent,  especially  in  some  of  the 
lower  animals,  that  we  must  regard  their  presence, 
at  all  events  in  many  species,  rather  as  the  normal 
condition,  than  as  a  morbid  state  due  to  accidental 
causes. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice,  that  many  of  the  animals 
included  amongst  the  E.  only  enjoy  a  parasitic 
existence  during  a  part  of  their  total  life,  which 
often,  as  in  the  well-known  case  of  perfect  insects, 
presents  very  varied  and  distinct  phases.  Thus,  for 
example,  the  larvte  of  the  gadfly  {(Estrus  equi) 
undergo  their  entire  development  in  the  stomach 
of  the  horse,  attaching  themselves  by  minute  hooks 
to  the  gastiic  mucous  membrane  ;  they  then  detach 
themselves,  pass  along  the  intestines,  and  in  due 
time  are  discharged,  and  imdergo  their  further 
changes  externally ;  and  many  similar  instances 
might  be  quoted.  For  this  reason,  and  addition- 
ally because  parasites  are  now  knowTi  to  belong 
to  various  classes  of  animals,  we  no  longer  attempt, 
like  Linnaius  and  Cuvier,  to  forin  a  special  group 
of  E. ;  and  a  reference  to  the  Vermes  intestince  in 
the  Systerna  Naturce,  or  to  the  Entozoaires  in  the 
Regne  Animal,  at  once  shows  that  these  ilhistrious 
naturalists  grouped  together  animals  with  few  or  no 
true  natural  affinities. 
m 


Although  most  E.  belong  to  the  class  of  Vermes^ 
or  Worms,  this,  as  has  been  already  observed,  is  by 
no  means  exclusively  the  case.  Thus,  even  fishes 
may  lead  a  parAsitic  existence  ;  a  fish  of  tlie  genus 
Fia'osfer  being  frequently  found  in  the  respiratory 
cavity  of  the  Holothuria  tubulosa,  or  Sea-cucunibeTf 
and  small  fishes  having  been  frequently  observed  in 
the  cavity  of  the  Asteria  discoides.  Amongst  the 
crustaceans,  instances  of  parasitism  are  by  no  means 
rare  ;  different  species  of  Lernaa  being  abundant 
in  the  branchial  (or  giU)  cavity,  and  on  the  surface 
of  numerous  lislies,  whOe  the  LinguatuUe  infest 
mammals,  reptiles,  and  fishes,  being  found  in  tb« 
olfactory  sinuses,  the  larynx,  the  lungs,  the  peri- 
toneal cavity,  &c.  The  instances  in  which  molluscf 
are  found  to  live  parasitically  are  few ;  certain 
gasteropods,  however,  inhabit  the  bodies  of  echino- 
derms,  holothurias,  and  comatulas ;  and  amongst 
the  lamellibranchiates,  species  of  modiolaria  and 
mytnus  live  in  the  bodies  of  ascidians.  There  are 
several  cases  of  polyi)S  which  have  been  observed 
to  adopt  a  parasitic  existence  ;  and  finally,  various 
protozoa  are  not  unfrequently  met  with  in  the 
animal  fluids  ;  for  example,  certain  species  of  Vifjrlo, 
Cercomonas,  and  Paramecium,  have  been  found  in 
the  intestinal  evacuations  in  cholera  and  diarrhuja ; 
Monads  have  been  found  in  the  urine  in  cholera, 
and  certain  infusoria  and  rhizopoda  in  tlie  blood 
of  the  dog,  the  frog,  and  many  other  animals.  See 
Ha:matozoa. 

The  more  common  kinds  of  E.  appear  to  have 
attracted  the  notice  of  the  earliest  physicians  and 
naturalists  whose  opinions  or  works  have  reached 
us.  Hippocrates  speaks  of  several  worms,  especially 
the  tcenite  and  ascarides,  infesting  the  human  intes- 
tinal canal ;  and  Pythagoras  learned  in  India  that 
the  bark  of  the  pomegranate  acted  almost  as  a 
specific  in  cases  of  tape-worm.  Aristotle  noticed 
both  the  tape- worm  of  the  dog  and  of  man,  and  the 
Cysticercus  celluloses  (see  Cestoid  Worms)  of  the 
pig  ;  but  utterly  unconscious  that  the  cysticercus, 
imder  favourable  conditions,  became  developed  into 
a  tape-worm  (see  Tape- worms),  referred  the  origia 
of  all  intestinal  worms  to  S|A>ntaneou3  generation 
— a  doctrine  that  seems  to  have  been  generally 
adopted  till  the  17th  c,  when  Hedi  published  (in 
1684)  a  work  on  Helminthology,  in  which  he  dis- 
tinctly shewed  that  the  generation  of  various  E. 
followed  the  same  laws  as  in  higher  animals,  and 
that  in  many  instances  there  were  distinct  males 
and  females.  The  great  recent  discovery,  that  the 
vesicular  or  bladder-hke  parasites,  such  as  the 
different  species  of  cysticercus  and  coenurus,  are 
cestoid  worms  in  an  early  stage  of  develoj>ment,  is 
alluded  to  in  Cestoid  Worms,  and  ^vill  be  mor* 
fully  noticed  in  the  article  Tape-worsis. 

Another  point  of  general  interest  in  connection 
with  E.,  is  the  part  of  the  body  in  which  they  are 
found.  While  most  hve  in  the  intestinal  canal  and 
other  open  cavities  (as  the  larynx,  bronchial  tubes, 
&c,),  others  are  found  in  the  closed  cavities  and  in 
the  parenchymatous  tissue  of  the  liver  and  other 
solid  organs.  Thus  (confining  our  remarks  to  the 
E.  occurring  in  man),  Anchylostoma  duodencde^ 
Strongylus  duodenalis,  two  species  of  AscariSf 
Oj-yuris  vermicularis,  Trichocephalus  dispar,  Distoma 
heterophyes,  at  least  four  species  of  Tcenia,  and 
Bothriocephalus  latus,  have  been  found  in  different 
parts  of  the  intestinal  canal ;  while  Strongylus  gigas 
inhabits  the  kidney,  another  species  of  Stroivjylua 
the  lungs,  a  species  of  Spiroptera  the  bladder,  two 
species  of  Filaria  and  Monostoma  Lentis  the  eye. 
Trichina  spiralis  the  voluntary  muscles,  two  species 
of  Fchinococcus  and  Cysticercus  cellulosce,  various 
parenchymatous  tissues,  two  species  of  Distoma  the 
gaU-bladder,  another  species  the  portal  vein,  and 


ENTR'ACT— ENTRY  OF  AN  HEIR. 


the  Filaria  MedinenaiSy  or  guinea-worm,  the  sub- 
cutaneous tissue. 

Davaine,  who  raay  be  regarded  as  one  of  the 
highest  living  authorities  on  this  subject,  gives  the 
foUowing  synopsis  of  the  E.  occurring  in  man  and 
the  domestic  animals  (see  his  Traite  des  Entozoaires, 
Paris,  18G0). 

Type  I.  Peotozoa,  including  the  genera  Bac- 
teriiim.  Vibrio,  Monas,  Cercomonas,  Trichomonas, 
Pavamcdum. 

Typfc  11.  Cestoidea,  including  the  families  of 
T<isniadce  and  Bothriocepluxlidce.  The  Tcvniadce 
occur  (1)  in  their  undeveloped,  cystic,  or  vesicidar 
form,  constituting  the  genera  Coe/mrus  and  Cysticer- 
cus ;  and  (2)  in  their  perfect,  ribbon-like  shape, 
constituting  the  genus  Tcenia,  of  which  about  20 
species  have  been  described.  The  Bothrioceph- 
alidce  contain  the  single  genus  Bothriocephalus, 
which  embraces  various  species.  Their  early  or 
vesicidar  stage  has  not  yet  been  described. 

Type  III.  Trema.todea,  including  two  well- 
marked  secondary  tyjtes :  (1)  The  Fohjstomidce, 
which  live  as  epizoa  on  the  skin  or  gills  of  aquatic 
animals,  and  which  do  not  concern  us  here  ;  and  (2) 
the  DistomidAe,  including  the  genera  Monostoma, 
Distoma,  Holostoma,  Amphistoma,  with  the  doubtful 
genera  of  Tetrasfmna  and  Hexathrydium. 

Type  IV.  Acanthocephala,  with  the  single 
genus  EchinorhyncMis. 

Type  V.  Nematoidea.  Passing  over  two  cases 
in  which  these  worms  have  been  discovered,  appar- 
ently in  their  larval  or  imperfectly  developed  state 
(once  by  llainey  in  the  human  trachea,  and  once  by 
Vulpian  in  the  kidney  of  the  dog),  Davaine  gives 
the  following  genera,  Oxyuris,  Ascaris,  Spiroptera, 
Trichina,  Trlchosoma,  Trichocephcdus,  FUaria, 
Docltmius,  Sderostoma,  Strongylus,  Anchylostoma, 
Dadylius. 

Type  VI.  Acanthotheca,  including  the  genus 
Pentastcrnfia. 

Alarming  as  the  above  list  may  seem,  compara- 
tively few  of  the  worms  contained  in  it  do  in 
reality  give  rise  to  dangerous  or  severe  symptoms. 
It  seems  to  be  a  condition  of  parasitism,  that  the 
animal  upon  which  the  parasite  lives  must  not  be 
destroyed  by  it ;  and  it  has  been  suggested  by  one 
of  our  highest  authorities  on  this  subject.  Van 
Beneden,  that  in  many  cases  the  parasite  does  not 
80  much  attack  the  organism  in  which  it  exists,  as 
its  superabundant  products.  Dujardin  and  other 
helminthologists  have  described  cases  in  which 
worms  were  developed  by  thousands  in  persons 
apparently  in  good  health.  The  symptoms  occa- 
sioned by  Ascarides,  Tajniae,  &c.,  are  described  in 
the  articles  Ascakis,  Tape-worms,  &c. 

The  multiplication  of  worms  is  most  rapid  in 
debilitated  persons,  especially  children  living  in 
cold  aud  damp  situations ;  and  impure  water,  unripe 
froita,  and  raw  or  imperfectly  cooked  meat,  have 
considerable  influence  on  the  development  of  these 
tmimAls.  For  the  description  of  the  medi ernes  used 
{cr  their  destruction,  see  the  ai-ticle  Vermifuges  ; 
and  for  information  regarding  the  structure  and 
habits  of"  the  most  important  E.,  see  the  articles 
Ascaris,  Bothriocephalus,  Cestoid  Worms, 
Filakia,  Mo.vostoma,  Nematoidea,  Spiroptera, 
Strongylus,  Tape-worm,  Trematoda,  Trichina 
Spiralis,  Trichocephalus. 

ENTR'ACT,  in  Music,  is  an  instrumental  piece, 
composed  in  the  form  of  a  little  symphony  or  over- 
ture, to  be  performed  between  the  acts  of  a  play. 

E'NTRI<]  DOU'RO  E  MI'NHO,  or,  as  it  is  fre- 
quently called,  MiNHO,  a  province  of  Portugal,  in 
the  extreme  north-west  of  the  country,  is  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  Galicia,  from  which  it  is  separated 
162 


by  the  river  Minho  ;  on  the  E.  by  Galicia  and  Iraa 
OS  Montes ;  on  the  S.  by  the  province  of  Bei/a, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  river  Douro, 
and  on  the  W.  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  has  an 
area  of  about  3094  square  miles,  and  u  pop.  (1871) 
of  971,001.  It  has  been  called  the  Paradise  of 
Portugal,  and  indeed  it  may  be  doubted  whether 
any  territory  in  Europe  of  equal  extent  exhibits 
so  much  beauty.  It  is  traversed  from  north-east 
to  south-west  by  three  mountain-ranges,  which, 
however,  sink  down  as  they  approach  the  coast, 
leaving  a  considerable  tract  of  undulating  country 
along  the  sea-margin.  The  chief  rivers,  besides 
those  already  mentioned  as  forming  the  northern 
and  southern  boundaries  of  the  province,  are  tho 
Lima — a  portion  of  the  vale  of  which  is  said  to 
form  the  loveliest  landscape  in  the  world — the 
Cavado,  and  the  Tamego.  The  climate  is  agreeable 
and  healthy.  The  chief  productions  are  wine,  oil, 
flax,  maize,  wheat,  barley,  oats,  and  vegetables. 
Wine,  which  is  shipped  at  Oi)orto,  is  largely 
exported.  Along  the  coast  are  numerous  fisheries, 
at  which  great  numbers  find  employment.  The 
province  of  Minho  consists  of  three  districts,  Braga, 
Vianne,  and  Porto,  with  the  town  of  Braga  for  the 
capitaL 

ENTRE  RI'OS  (the  Spanish  for  Between  Rivera) 
takes  its  name  from  its  occupying  the  space  between 
the  Parana  and  the  Uruguay,  immediately  above 
the  point  where  they  unite  to  form  the  Plate.  It  is 
one  of  the  states  of  the  Argentine  Confederation. 
The  area  is  estimated  at  32,000  square  miles,  and 
the  population,  in  1868,  at  160,000  inhabitants.  The 
country  is  almost  entirely  pastoral — its  principal  pro- 
ductions being  hides,  horns,  tallow,  and  jerked  beef. 
The  soil  is  not  well  fitted  for  cultivation,  for,  besides 
being  rather  swampy  throughout,  it  is  subject,  in 
the  south,  to  annual  floods.  The  capital  is  Entre 
Rios,  with  a  population,  in  1868,  of  16,000 ;  the  othei 
principal  towns  are  Gualeguay,  Gualeguarchu,  and 
Concepcion  de  la  China. 

ENTREMETS,  ENTREES,  French  terms  noyr 
used  in  England  to  designate  certain  courses  of  dishes 
served  at  fashionable  dinners.  The  chief  dishes  aro 
entrees,  and  the  lighter  dishes  are  entremets. 

ENTRESOL.    See  Mezzanin. 

ENTRO'PIUM,  or  ENTRO'PION  (Gr.  en,  in,  and 
trepo,  I  turn),  inversion  of  the  eyelashes,  or  even 
eyelid,  consequent  either  on  loss  of  substance,  or  on 
inflammatory  swelling  of  the  lid.  If  confined  to 
one  or  two  eyelashes,  they  should  be  plucked  out 
by  the  roots,  and  the  bulbs  should  be  cauterised ; 
but  the  radical  cure  of  severe  entropium  requires 
a  careful  adaptation  of  the  surgeon's  art  to  the 
circumstances  of  the  particular  case,  and  should 
not  be  attempted  by  imskilled  hands. 

ENTRY,  Right  of.  A  person  is  said,  in  English 
law,  to  have  a  right  of  entry  who  has  been  wrong- 
fully dispossessed  or  ousted  of  land  and  tenements 
by  Abatement,  Intrusion,  or  Disseisin.  See  the 
several  articles  under  these  heads.  A  right  of  entry 
was  formerly  lost  by  suffering  a  descent  cast,  i.  e., 
where  the  tenant  tortiously  in  possession  is  per- 
mitted to  continue  unmolested  till  his  death,  and  is 
succeeded  by  his  heir.  This  result  of  suffering  a 
descent  cast  is  removed,  3  and  4  Will.  IV,  c.  27, 
and  right  of  entry  is  now  lost  by  not  asserting  it 
for  twenty  years. 

ENTRY  OF  AN  HEIR.  In  the  feudal  law  of 
Scotland,  this  term  was  applied  to  the  recognition  of 
the  heir  of  a  vassal  by  the  superior  or  dominua. 
Strictly,  the  whole  rights  of  the  vassal  in  the 
property  return  to  the  superior  on  his  death,  and 

Si 


ENVELOPES— EOCENE. 


mast  be  renew*  H  to  liis  heir.  The  renewal,  however, 
is  not  optional,  it  is  merelj"  an  occasion  of  exacting 
dues  of  entry  from  the  heir,  which  tend,  of  course, 
to  diminish  the  vahie  of  the  property,  and  of 

I)utting  fees  into  the  pockets  of  conveyancing 
awyers,  who  are  the  only  real  gainers  by  the 
arrangement.    See  Conveyancing. 

E'NVELOPES.  Until  the  introduction  of  the 
penny-postage  system,  envelojies  for  written  letters 
were  very  little  adopted  ;  it  was  far  more  customary 
to  secure,  by  Avafer  or  sealing-wax,  the  sheet  of  paper 
«n  which  the  letter  was  written.  When  the  postage 
was  rendered  uniform  for  all  distances,  and  prepay- 
ment enforced,  or  at  least  recommended,  it  was 
supposed  that  stamped  envelopes  would  be  con- 
venient coverings  for  letters,  sealing  the  letter  and 
|-ayiug  the  postage  at  one  operation.  Such  has 
mdeed  been  the  case ;  but  the  envelope-manufac- 
ture has  since  taken  a  new  direction,  and  to  an 
extent  that  no  one  could  have  contemplated.  Several 
large  firms  in  London  and  elsewhere  can  make 
t'nv«;lopes  more  cheaply  than  the  government,  and 
can  vary  the  size,  shape,  colour,  and  quality  to  an 
iudelinite  degree ;  as  a  consequence,  although  enve- 
lopes l)earing  the  government  impressed  stamp  are 
still  in  demand,  the  unstamped  varieties  are  used  in 
very  much  larger  qiiantities.  They  are  made  by  two 
methods,  involving  diflferent  amounts  of  macliine- 
power.  The  paper  is  first  cut  into  quadrangular 
pieces  rather  longer  than  wide,  by  a  cutting  blade 
brought  to  bear  upon  a  pile  of  sheets  at  once ;  and 
then  cutting-dies  reduce  these  pieces  to  the  proper 
Bhape,  generally  lozenge  or  diamond  form,  but  some- 
times with  curvilinear  edges.  For  some  kinds,  it  is 
foimd  to  economise  both  time  and  paper  to  stamp 
tlie  i)ieces  out  at  once  from  the  rough  sheets.  The 
subsequent  folding  and  gumming  are  performed 
generally  by  hand,  sometimes  by  machine.  In  the 
aand-metliod,  women  and  girls  fold  with  almost 
incredible  quickness,  liaAnng  very  simple  griide- 
pieces  to  aid  them  in  giving  the  proper  oblong 
quadi*angular  ,';hape  to  the  fold.  The  gum  is  applied 
with  a  small  brush,  either  all  along  the  overlajiping 
edges,  or  in  s  pots  here  and  there,  according  to  the 
quality  of  the  envelope. 

The  envelope -machines,  however,  such  as  those 
of  Messrs  De  la  E,ue,  are  beautiful  examples  of 
automatic  mechanism.  In  the  kind  invented  and 
used  by  this  celebrated  firm,  a  cutting-machine 
severs  the  blanks  or  papers  ;  and  dies  are  emploj^ed 
to  stamp  the  device  on  the  spot  M^here  the  seal 
would  otherwise  lie.  The  blanks  are  then  fed  into 
the  folding-machine,  where  they  pass  through  a 
curious  series  of  processes.  Each  blank  is  carried 
dowTi  into  a  box,  where  a  plunger  makes  four  creases 
in  it ;  two  short  levers  fold  down  two  of  the  flaps 
thus  made ;  a  giimming  apparatus  comes  up,  and 
applies  a  line  of  wet  gum  to  each  flap-edge  ;  two 
small  levers  then  fold  down  the  other  two  flaps 
{but  only  fastening  one  of  them) ;  and  finally,  the 
envelope  is  shifted  aside  to  a  pile,  and  makes  way 
for  another.  All  these  processes  are  gone  through 
in  cne  second,  enabling  the  machine  to  make  sixty 
envelopes  per  minute.  Where  twelve  of  these 
machines  are  working  at  once,  it  will  be  seen  that  a 
million  envelopes  are  put  out  of  hand  in  a  very  short 
time.  Nearly  a  million  and  a  half  of  enveloped 
letters  pass  through  the  post  every  day  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  most  of  the  envelopes  for  which  are  of 
horn  Pi  manufacture  ;  and  besides  this,  a  large  export 
trade  is  maintained.  The  stamped  envelopes  all  go 
to  Somerset  House,  to  have  the  stamp  impressed 
upon  them,  which  is  done  by  a  beautifid  machine, 
chiefly  invented  by  Mr  Edwin  Hill,  in  which  emboss- 
ing ana  colour-printing  are  ingeniously  combined. 
These  envelopes  are  sold   by  the  Stamp-oflfice, 


between  which  and  the  Pobt-oflBce  a  monetary 

adjustment  becomes  necessary. 

E'NVOY,  a  diplomatic  minister  of  the  second 
order,  i.  e.,  inferior  in  rank  to  an  ambassador. 
Envoys  ordinary  and  extraordinary,  ministers 
plenipotentiary,  the  interniMjcios  of  the  pope,  and 
all  other  inferior  dijjlomatic  ministers,  difler  from 
ambassadors  in  this,  that  although  they  receive 
their  credentials,  like  ambassadors,  immediately 
from  their  sovereign,  they  represent  not  his 
personal  dignity,  but  only  his  afl'airs.  They  stand 
to  him  just  as  an  ordinary  agent  does  to  his 
princii)al,  and  their  acts  or  promises  are  his  iu 
a  business,  though  not  in  a  personal  sense.  It  ia 
said  that  this  class  of  diplomatists  was  lirst 
introduced  by  Louis  XI.  of  France,  towards  ih^ 
end  of  the  15th  century.  The  envoy  is  8ui)erior 
ill  rank  to  the  charge  d'affaires,  whose  creden- 
tials proceed  from  the  ministers  of  the  state 
from  which  he  is  sent,  and  are  addressed  to  the 
ministers  of  the  state  to  which  he  is  sent ;  or  are  a 
mere  delegation  from  an  ambassador  or  envoy  to 
conduct  the  affairs  of  the  mission  in  his  absence. 
Consuls  (q.  v.)  are  not  generally  reckoned  among 
di[)lomatic  ministers,  though,  where  they  have 
dijJomatic  duties  to  perform  independently  of  an 
ambassador  or  envoy,  they  are  accredited,  and 
treated  as  ministers.  According  to  the  division  of 
diplomatic  agents  into  four  classes,  which  was  made 
by  the  ^reat  powers  at  the  congress  of  Vienna  in 
1815 — VIZ.  1.  Ambassadors,  legates,  and  nuncios ; 
2.  Envoys,  ministers,  and  other  agents  accredited  to 
sovereigns  ;  and  3.  Charges  d'affaires,  accredited  by 
and  to  the  departments  of  Foreign  Affairs— an 
envoy  would  be  of  the  second,  and  a  chargS 
d'aff"aires  of  the  third  rank.  But  the  practice  of  this 
country  has  interjected  between  the  ambassador 
and  the  envoy  a  second  class,  called  envoys  extra- 
ordinary and  ministers  plenipotentiary,  which,  of 
course,  throws  the  ordinary  envoy  into  the  third, 
and  the  chargd  d'affaires  into  the  fourth  class.  See 
Charge  d'affaires,  Aseb.vssadgr,  Embassy,  and 
Consul. 

ENYED.    See  Nagy-enyed. 

E'OCENE  {eos,  dawn,  and  kainos,  recent),  a  term 
introduced  by  Lyell  to  characterise  the  Lower 
Tertiary  strata,  from  the  idea  that  the  fossil  shells 
of  that  period  contain  an  extremely  small  proportion 
(34  per  cent.)  of  living  species.  He  accordingly  looks 
upon  these  beds  as  indicating  the  dawn  of  the 
existing  state  of  the  testaceous  fauna — no  recent 
species  ha\'ing  been  detected  in  the  older  rocks. 
The  gradual  approximation  of  the  living  inhabitants 
of  the  globe  to  the  present  forms  is  the  chief  charac- 
teristic of  the  Eocene  and  newer  dep>.^its.  The 
Eocene  beds  rest  on  the  chalk.  Like  the  other  Ter- 
tiary strata,  these  deposits  occupy  small  and  detached 
areas  when  compared  with  the  older  measures.  It 
is  not  difficidt  to  determine  the  relative  position  of 
Primary  or  Secondary  strata,  because  of  the  great 
extent  of  particular  beds,  being  frequently  C(  ntinu* 
ous  over  extensive  districts.  But  Tertiary  dei)osits 
are  more  isolated,  and  occur  in  smaller  and  more 
detached  patches ;  hence  it  is  difficidt  to  determica 
the  contemporaneity  of  the  sections  of  the  various 
periods,  occurring  as  they  do  in  diff'erent  isolated 
localities.  Their  relations  must  be  deteimined  from 
the  petralogical  structure  of  the  beds,  which,  how. 
ever,  is  very  inconstant,  or  from  the  more  satis- 
factory evidence  derived  from  their  fossil  if  eious 
contents. 

In  the  following  table  are  given  the  geneially 
received  divisions  of  this  period,  with  the  maxinuun 
thickness  {in  English  feet)  of  the  Euglish  strata,  aad 
the  French  and  Belgian  equivalent  beds : 


SOLIAN  HARP— EPACRIDACE^ 


u 

1.  Ilampsteaf  series, 

176 

o 

W  ' 

H 

2.  Bembridge  aeries. 

115 

3,  Osborne  series,  • 

70 

4.  lieadon  series,  . 

182 

£5- 

5.  Bagshot  series, 

1270 

6.  London  clay  series, 

480 

7.  Plastic  clay  series,  . 

160 

8.  Thanet  sands  series, 

90 

{Calc 
rie 
tai 


xlcalre  laciistre  supe- 
ur,  and  Grts  de  Von- 
taineblcaii. — Kupelien. 
ypseou.H  series  of  Mont- 
iartre,Calcaire  laciistre 
moyenne,  and  Calcaire 
siliceux. — Tongrien. 


(Sables  moycnnes,  Calcair- 
grossier,  and  I-its  coquile 
liercs.— Laeckenien  and 
IJVuxellien. 
f  Wanting  in  France. — 
\  Ypresien. 

j  Argile  plastiqueet  lignite. 
(  — L  indenien  superieur. 
j  Wanting  in  France. — 
\    Landenien  inferieur. 

Total  thickness,    2542  feet. 

EO'LIAN  HARP.    See  ^olian  Harp. 

EON  DE  BEAUMONT,  Charles  Gejjevi^ive 
IjOUIS  Auguste  Andrk  Timotiiee  d',  known  as  the 
Chevalier  <VEon,  was  born  at  Tonnerre,  in  Burgundy, 
in  1728,  studied  law,  and  became  an  advocate.  He 
attracted  the  notice  of  the  Prince  of  Couti  by  some 
politica]  witings ;  and  in  1755,  was  introduced  by 
the  latter  to  Louis  XV.,  who  employed  him  in 
diplomatic  missions  to  Russia  and  Austria.  After 
serving  a  short  time  in  the  anny,  not  without 
distinction,  he  was  sent  to  London  in  1761  as 
secretary  of  embassy,  and  shortly  after  was  made 
minister-plenipotentiary.  Becoming  the  victim  of  a 
court  cpbal,  however,  which  deprived  him  of  his 
office,  be  took  his  revenge  by  publishing  his  secret 
correspondence  with  the  French  court,  which  con- 
tained, among  other  things.  Libels  on  various  persons. 
For  one  of  these,  he  was  prosecuted  in  London  ;  and 
to  avoid  judgment,  fled  to  the  continent.  Pie,  how- 
ever, returned  to  England  again  ;  but,  on  the  death 
of  Louis  XV.,  the  French  ministry  deemed  it  prudent 
to  recall  him,  as  they  were  afraid  he  might  betray 
their  secrets  to  the  English  government,  which 
made  him  brilliant  offers.  The  pretext  laid  hold  of 
for  this  pxirpose,  was  the  scandal  excited  in  London 
by  his  having  assumed  the  garb  of  a  woman,  which 
he  had  done  at  the  request  of  Louis,  the  better,  it 
may  be  presumed,  to  hide  his  designs  as  a  'secret 
agent.'  On  his  return  to  France,  however,  Eon  was 
very  favourably  received ;  and  Louis  XVI.  even 
ordered  him  to  make  use  of  the  feminine  garb  in 
future.  In  17S3,  he  again  proceeded  to  London,  not, 
however,  in  any  visible  official  capacity ;  and,  though 
dressed  as  a  woman,  gave  lessons  in  fencing,  of 
which  art  he  was  a  complete  master.  On  the  out- 
break of  the  French  Revolution,  he  hastened  home, 
and  offered  his  services  to  the  nation  ;  but  as  nothing 
«anie  of  his  offer,  he  finally  returned  to  London, 
'vhere  he  sank  into  the  greatest  misery,  and  died 
2l8t  May  1810.  An  examination  of  Eon's  remains 
*y  Mr  J.  Copeland,  a  surgeon,  settled  the  question 
of  his  sex,  atd  put  an  end  to  the  curiosity  of  the  Eng- 
lish public.  His  writings  appeared  at  Amsterdam 
1775,  under  the  title  of  LoUirs  du  Chevalle)'  d  ^Eon. 
The  Memoires  which  bear  his  name  are  not  genuine. 

EOO'A,  or  MI'DDLEBURG,  one  of  the  Friendly 
or  ToDga  Islands,  is  30  miles  in  circuit,  and  contains 
300  inhabitants.  It  is  in  lat.  18°  19'  S.,  and  long. 
175°  37'  W.  The  surface,  which  is  rocky  and 
barren,  rises  600  feet  above  the  sea.  The  group, 
as  a  whole,  was  discovered  by  Tasman  in  1643. 

EOTVOS,  JOZ.SEF,  a  higldy  distinguished  Hunga- 
rian author,  was  bom  3d  September  1813  at  Buda ; 
edu«^at(id  at  home  by  a  tutor  of  republican  senti- 
ments, and  studied  pliilosophy  and  j  uiisprudence  at 
the  university  of  Pesth  durir;^  the  years  1825 — 1831. 
He  became  an  advocate  in  1833,  but  soon  resolved 
to  divote  himself  exclusivel3  to  literature,  in  which 


field  he  had  already  won  a  great  reputation  by  his 
comedies  Kritikusok  (The  Critics)  and  Jlazattulo/t 
(The  Weddings),  and  also  by  his  tragedy  ISoszie 
(Revenge).  After  his  return  from  a  journey  through 
Germany,  France,  England,  Switzerland,  and  the 
Netherlands,  he  published  his  Prison  Jfrform  {Gejting- 
iiissrrform,  Pesth,  1838),  which  was  instrumental  in 
bringing  about  many  wholesome  improvements  in 
regard  to  prisons.  This  was  followed  (1838 — L841) 
by  his  novel  entitled  The  Carthusian,  which  excited 
great  interest,  and  was  pronounced  to  be  one  of  tho 
best  productions  of  Hungarian  literature.  E.  now 
began  to  distinguish  himself  in  politics.  When  the 
Liberal  party  split,  in  1844,  into  Municipalists  and 
Centralists,  he  became  one  of  the  most  eloquent 
advocates  of  the  policy  of  the  latter  party,  and  wrote 
numerous  articles  in  favour  of  it  in  the  Fcsti  llirlap^ 
which  are  marked  by  varied  learning,  fulness  of 
thought,  and  elegance  of  expression.  They  were 
issued  in  a  collected  form  at  Leipsic  in  1846,  under 
the  title  of  Reform.  Tlie  Village  Notary  (A'  Falu' 
Jegyzoje,  3  vols.,  Pesth,  1844—1846;  Enghsh  by 
Otto  Wencksteru,  1850  ;  German  by  Mailath)  is  a 
work  of  the  highest  order  of  merit.  For  variety  of 
incident,  easy  vigour  of  style,  humour,  liveliness, 
and  freshness  of  descriptive  power,  it  has  been  pro- 
nounced equal  to  the  best  of  the  Waverley  Novels. 
It  was  followed  in  1847 — 1848  by  his  Magyarorszdg 
1514 — hen  (Hungary  in  1514),  which  describes  the 
insurrection  of  the  peasants  that  happened  in  that 
year  in  a  masterly  style.  When  the  revolution  of 
1848  broke  out,  E.  was  appointed  Minister  of  Public 
Instruction,  but  soon  became  aware  of  his  own 
incapacity  for  the  work  of  a  practical  statesman, 
and  abandoning  his  coimtry,  which  he  deemed  it 
impossible  for  him  to  serve,  retired  for  some  time  to 
Munich,  where  he  employed  himself  exclusively  ip 
literary  pursuits.  The  most  important  fruit  of  his 
residence  here  was  Der  Einjiuss  der  Ideen  des  19 
Jahrh.  auf  Staat  und  Gesellscliaft  (The  Influence  of 
the  Ideas  of  the  19th  Century  on  the  State  and  on 
Society,  Pesth  and  Vienna,  1851).  In  1851,  K 
returned  to  Hungary.  In  1859  he  published  anony- 
mously his  Garantien.  der  MncJit  und  Einheit  (Ester- 
reichs.  In  1867  he  was  appointed  minister  of  worship 
and  education.    He  died  at  Pesth,  Feb.  3,  1871. 

EPAORIDA'CEiE,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  consisting;;  of  shrubs  and  small  trees,  which. 


Springelia  Incamata ; 
1,  flower  and  calyx ;  2,  anther  ;  8,  stamen*  and  orarj. 

both  in  appearance  and  in  botanical  characters 
much  resemble  the  Erkeae^  or  Heath  familv.  The 


EPACT— EPAULEMENT. 


most  important  distinguishing  structural  character 
is  indeed  found  in  the  simplicity  of  the  anthers, 
which  are  one-celled,  open  longitudinally,  and  are 
destitute    of  appendages, 
^js^  The  flowers  of  the  E.  have 

generally  a  tubular  corolla, 
dividing   into    five — rarely 
"^[^i....^^^  four  —  segments  ;  which, 

^  however,  sometimes  become 

^^^3:.  J   separate  petals.    The  calyx 

^>-mS^^  is  persistent,  often  coloured, 

^^'^  the  same  number  of  seg- 
^.^^l^^^^l^—  ments  with  the  corolla,  and 

^^Juf^^^^^>  is  surrounded  with  small 

(Sjf^^^^^^^^^      bracts.     The  stamens  are 
^.^W^^wo^^^       fewer  than  in  the  Ericece, 
m!^^^^^^        usually  equal  In  number  to 
■.rr^Tr Vr^^^&fc  segments  of  the  corolla, 

A|  i^faM  and  alternate  with  them. 

•y^T^^f^^R^J^    The  fruit  is  sometimes  a 
LML^afa  f^Sl^^^    capsule,  sometimes  a  berry, 
7^  (^'2^1$^^      sometimes  a  drupe.  The 
M  jw||^So^      leaves  are  simple,  generally 
QmA^^K      alternate,   often   crowded ; 
Jjn^B^^^     the   flowers  in  spikes,  in 
u/Jj  terminal  racemes,  or  axillary 

1^1^     and    solitary. — About  400 
species  of  E.   are  known, 
fjj^    all  natives  of  the  Indian 
^    Archipelago,  the  Soiith  Sea 
Epacris  Grandiflora.     Islands,  and  Australia  ;  in 
which   regions  they  seem 
to  occupy  the  place  of  the  heaths  of  other  parts 
of  the  world.     Some,  particularly  of  the  genus 
Epacris,  are  well-known  ornaments  of  our  green- 
houses, and  are  flowering  shrubs  of  great  beauty. 
Some  produce  edible  berries  resembling  the  cran- 
berry.  See  Cranberry. 

E'PACT,  in  Chronology,  is  the  excess  of  the  solar 
month  above  the  limar  synodical  month ;  or  of  the 
solar  year  above  the  lunar  year  of  twelve  synodical 
months  ;  or  of  several  solar  months  above  as  many 
sjmodical  months  ;  or  of  several  solar  years  above  as 
many  periods,  each  consisting  of  12  synodical  months. 
The  menstrual  epact  is  the  excess  of  the  civil  calen- 
dar month  above  the  lunar  month.  For  a  month  of 
31  days,  this  epact  is  1  day  11  hours  15  minutes  57 
seconds,  if  we  suppose  new  moon  to  occur  on  the 
first  day  of  the  month.  The  annual  epact  is  the 
excess  of  the  solar  year  above  the  lunar.  As  the 
Julian  solar  year  is  (nearly)  3G5  days,  and  the  Julian 
limar  year  is  (nearly)  354  days,  the  annual  epact  is 
nearly  11  days.  The  epact  for  two  Julian  years  is, 
therefore,  n  3arly  22  days  ;  for  three  years,  33  days  ; 
and  so  on.  When,  however,  the  epact  passes  30 
days,  30  fuxls  to  be  deducted  from  it,  as  making  an 
iniercalary  month.  For  three  years,  then,  the  epact 
Is  properly  3  ;  and  for  4  years,  adding  11  days,  it  is 
14  days ;  and  so  on.  Following  the  ^ycle,  starting 
fiori  a  new  moon  on  the  1st  of  January,  we  find 
that  the  epact  becomes  30  or  0  in  the  19th  year. 
The  jpact  for  the  20th  year  is  again  11 ;  and  so  on. 
fhe  years  in  the  cycle  are  marked  by  Homan 
nimierals,  1.  II.  III.,  &c.,  called  the  Golden  Numbers ; 
and.  a  table  of  the  Julian  epacts  exhibits  each  year 
in  tl  e  cycle  with  its  golden  number  and  epact.  As 
the  Gregorian  year  (see  Calendar)  differs  from,  and 
is  in  advance  of,  the  Juhan  by  11  days  (the  number 
lost  on  the  Julian  account  before  the  Gregorian 
computation  of  time  was  introduced  in  England), 
and  as  1 1  days  is  the  difference  between  the  solar 
and  lunar  years,  it  follows  that  the  Gregorian  epact 
for  any  year  is  the  same  with  the  Julian  epact  for 
the  year  preceding  it. 

EPAMINO'NDAS,  the  most  eminent  of  Theban 


generals  and  statesmen,  and  ono  who  for  a  long 
period  elevated  his  country  to  the  highest  point  oi 
honour  and  prosperity,  was  bom  414  b.  c.  He  was 
descended  from  an  ancient  but  impoverished  family, 
and  led  a  retired  life  till  his  40th  year,  profiting  by 
the  instructions  of  Lysis  the  Pythagorean,  who 
inspired  him  with  enthusiasm  for  the  elevated  ideas 
which  it  was  the  object  of  his  life  to  realise,  E. 
first  becomes  prominent  during  the  period  when 
the  Lacedemonians  garrisoned  the  citadel  of  Thebes, 
and  kept  the  inhabitants  in  subjection.  Though 
he  took  no  part  in  the  desperate  but  successful 
stratagem  by  which  his  fellow-citizens  recovered 
the  Cadmeia  in  379  b.  c,  he  stepped  forward  immo« 
diately  after  into  the  ranks  of  the  patriots ;  and 
when  sent  to  Sparta  in  371  B.C.  along  with  several 
others,  in  order  to  negotiate  a  peace  between  the 
two  countries,  E.  displayed  as  much  firmness  and 
dignity  as  eloquence  in  the  debate  which  ensued 
upon  the  question  whether  Thebes  should  ratify 
the  treaty  in  the  name  of  all  Boeotia,  the  result 
of  which  ratification  would  have  been  equivalent 
to  a  recojrnition  of  her  claim  to  supremacy  over 
the  Boeotian  towns.  To  this  the  Lacedemonians 
demurred,  and  the  war  was  again  resumed  ;  E. 
was  appointed  commander-in-chief;  and,  in  con- 
junction with  his  friend  Pelopidas,  with  an  army 
of  6000  men,  defeated  double  that  number  of  the 
enemy  at  Leuctra  (371  B.  c).  Two  years  later,  lie 
and  Pelopidas  marched  into  the  Peloponnesus, 
incited  several  of  the  allied  tribes  to  fall  away 
from  Sparta,  and  then  turned  his  arms  against 
that  city,  which,  however,  was  bravely  defended  by 
Agesilaus.  On  his  return  to  Thcbe?,  E.  was  accused 
of  having  violated  the  laws  of  his  country,  by 
retaining  the  supreme  power  in  his  hands  beyond 
the  time  appointed  by  law ;  but  was  acquitted  in 
consequence  of  his  open  and  animated  defence.  In 
the  spring  of  368  B.C.,  the  war  was  renewed  with 
increased  fury  between  Thebes  and  Sparta,  and  E. 
once  more  marched  into  the  Peloponnesus,  but  did 
not  accomplish  much ;  and  on  his  return  home, 
received  a  check  from  Chabrias  at  Corinth.  To  atone 
for  this  unsuccessful  undertaking,  he  advanced  with 
33,000  men  into  Arcadia,  and  joined  battle  with  the 
main  body  of  the  enemy  near  Mantineia,  in  the  year 
362  B.  c.  E.,  at  the  head  of  his  troops,  succeeded  in 
breaking  the  Spartan  phalanx,  but  was  mortally 
woimded  in  the  breast  by  a  javelin.  Being  told  by 
the  physicians  that  he  would  die  as  soon  as  the 
weapon  was  extracted,  on  receiving  intelligence  that 
the  Boeotians  had  gained  the  victory,  he  is  said  to 
have  torn  out  the  javelin  with  his  own  hand, 
exclaiming :  '  I  have  lived  long  enough.'  His  moral 
purity,  justice,  and  clemency  are  extolled  by  the 
ancients  as  much  as  his  military  talents ;  and  it  is 
expressly  recorded  of  him,  that  he  never  told  a 
lie,  even  in  jest.  Compare  Bauch,  Epaminondas 
und  Thehens  Kampf  um  die  HegariAnie  (Breslau, 
1834). 

EPAU'LEMENT  (from  the  French,  epaule^ 
shoulder),  in  siege  works,  is  a  portion  oi  a  battery 
or  earthwork.  The  siege  batteries  are  generally 
shielded,  at  one  end  at  least,  by  epaulements, 
forming  an  obtuse  angle  with  the  main  line  of  the 
battery.  The  object  is  to  protect  tlie  gun  and 
gunners  from  a  flanking  fire.  The  name  is  often 
given  erroneously  to  the  parapet  of  the  battery 
itself,  but  it  applies  properly  to  the  flanking  return 
only.  Sometimes  the  whole  of  a  small  or  secondary 
earthwork,  including  the  battery  and  its  flanks,  is 
called  an  epaulement;  and  sometimes  the  same 
name  is  given  to  an  isolated  breast  work  intended 
to  shield  the  cavalry  employed  in  defending  a  body  of 
besiegers. 

An  epaule  is  the  shoulder  of  a  bastion,  where 


EPAULETTE— EPHEMERA. 


one  of  the  faces  and  one  of  the  flanks  meet ;  and 
this  points  to  the  proper  meaning  of  epaulement, 
as  a  shoulder  or  flanking  work. 

E'PAULETTE,  from  the  same  French  source 
as  epaulement,  is  a  shoulder-knot  worn  by  com- 
missioned oflicers  in  tbe  naval  profession,  both  as  an 
ornament  and  a  distii.otion.  In  the  British  navy, 
the  officers  of  and  above  the  rank  of  lieutenant 
wear  epaidettes  of  gold  lace,  one  on  each  shoulder, 
rab-lieutenants  wearing  one  only.  Ranks  and 
degrees  are  marked  in  a  very  systematic  way  by 
means  of  crowns,  anchors,  and  stars  worked  in 
lilver  on  the  epaulette,  and  also  by  the  size  of  the 
«ords  of  the  epaidette  itself.  This  decoration  was 
formerly  universal  in  the  British  army,  oflicers 
wearing  those  of  gold,  men  of  worsted ;  but  they 
were  abolished  at  the  time  of  the  Russian  war,  in 
consequence  of  the  danger  to  which  officers  thus 
rasily  marked  out  Avere  exposed  from  the  enemy's 
sharpshooters.  Militia  officers  wore  epaulettes  of 
silver  cords. 

EPl^E,  Charles  Michel,  Abb^  de  l',  one  of 
the  foimders  of  the  system  of  instruction  for 
the  deaf  and  dumb,  was  bom  at  Versailles,  25th 
November  1712.  He  studied  for  the  church,  and 
entering  into  holy  orders,  became  a  preacher  and 
canon  at  Troyes,  but  eventually,  on  account  of  his 
Jansenist  opinions,  was  deprived  of  this  appoint- 
ment. He  now  lived  in  retirement  in  Paris.  In 
the  year  1755,  he  first  began  to  occupy  himself 
with  the  education  of  two  deaf  and  dumb  sisters ; 
and,  as  he  asserts,  without  any  previous  knowledge 
of  Pereira's  eff"orts  in  the  cause,  invented  a  language 
of  signs,  by  which  persons  thus  afflicted  might  be 
enabled  to  hold  intercourse  with  their  fellow- 
creatures.  His  first  attempts  being  crowned  with 
success,  he  determined  to  devote  his  life  to  the 
subject.  At  his  own  expense,  he  founded  an  insti- 
tution for  tbe  deaf  and  dumb,  and  laboured  with 
unwearied  zeal  for  its  prosperity.  His  favourite 
wish,  however,  the  foundation  of  such  an  institu- 
tion at  the  public  cost,  was  not  fidfilled  tiU  after 
his  death,  which  took  place  23d  December  1789. 
He  wrote  a  work,  entitled  Institution  des  Sourcls 
tt  Muets  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1774),  which  after-vyards 
appeared  in  an  improved  form  imder  the  title, 
La  Veri/abk  Maniere  dC Instrulre  les  Sourds  et 
Muets  (Palis,  1784). 

EPF)^i'P>  A.  a  genus  of  spiders,  the  type  of  a  family 
called  EpeiruliE.  They  are  of  those  spiders  which 
liave  Eixily  a  pair  of  pulmonary  sacs  and  spiracles ; 


Epeira  Diadcma. 


oims^nKrt  webs  with  regular  meshes,  formed  by  con- 
centric circles  and  straight  radii ;  and  are  furnished 
with  a  pair  of  almost  contiguous  eyes  on  each  side, 
other  four  eyes  forming  a  quadrangle  in  the  centre. 
Many  of  them  are  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of 


their  colours  and  of  their  forms.  Several  siKJcies 
abound  in  our  gardens,  particularly  in  autumn.  E 
diadema  is  one  of  the  largest  British  spiders.  It  ia 
found  in  moors,  the  borders  of  woods,  &c. ;  but  it 
is  in  tropical  countries  that  the  Epeiridre  exist  in 
greatest  niunbers,  and  attain  the  greatest  size  and 
beauty,  extending  from  branch  to  branch  their  lace- 
work,  remarkable  for  gracefidness  of  design.  Tho 
net,  when  loaded  with  wings,  wing-covers,  a:  d 
limbs  of  insects  that  have  been  preyed  upon,  h 
often  loosened,  and  falls  down  upon  the  cential 
nest  or  den  of  the  spider  ;  and  successive  ncta 
thus  falling  down,  form  at  last  a  ball  sometimes 
as  large  as  a  man's  head.  Some  of  the  spider  cords, 
carried  horizontally  from  tree  to  tree  at  a  consider- 
able height  from  the  ground,  '  are  so  strong  as 
to  cause  a  painful  check  across  the  face  when 
moving  quickly  against  them  ;  and  more  than 
once,  '  Sir  J.  E.  Tennent  says,  '  in  riding  I  have 
had  my  hat  lifted  off"  my  head  by  a  single  thread.' 
— Tenuent's  Ceylon. 

EPERIES  (Lat.  Fragopolis  or  Eperesinum ; 
Hung.  Eperjes,  Slovak  Presaova),  an  old  town  of 
Hungary,  in  the  county  of  Saros,  of  which  it  is  the 
capital,  is  agreeably  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Tarcza,  about  150  miles  north-east  of  Pesth.  It  is 
sui-rounded  with  walls,  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and 
contains  some  houses  of  the  15th  and  16th  centuries, 
built  in  the  style  of  those  in  Naples,  with  which  E, 
was  much  connected  in  the  middle  ages.  Its  prin- 
cipal buildings  are  the  Church  of  St  Nicholas,  the 
communal  college,  with  500  students  and  a  library 
consisting  of  14,000  volumes,  and  the  county  hall. 
It  has  manufactures  of  earthen- ware  and  of  linens 
and  woollens,  and  has  some  trade  in  linen 
goods,  corn,  and  Tokay  wine.  In  the  vicinity 
are  the  Sovar  sfiltworks,  which  produce  5000 
tons  of  salt  annually.  Pop.  10,772,  almost  wholly 
Slavonic. 

EPERNAY,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  Marne,  is  the  head-quarters  of  the  Vins  de  Cham- 
pagne, and  is  situated  in  the  midst  of  a  rich  viue- 
growing  district,  on  the  left  baidc  of  the  Marne,  19 
miles  west-north-west  of  Chalons.  It  is  weU  built, 
clean,  and  well  paved.  Its  environs  consist,  for  the 
most  part,  of  elegant  viUas,  with  vaults  attached, 
belonging  to  the  Champagne  mne-merchauts.  E. 
manufactures  large  quantities  of  earthen- ware  from 
a  clay  obtained  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  called 
Terre  de  Champagne;  also  hosiery,  refined  sugar, 
and  leather.  It  has  a  brisk  trade  in  bottles,  corks, 
wire,  champagne,  wines,  etc.    Pop.  in  1872.  12,628. 

E'PHAH,  a  measure  of  cai)acity  for  dry  goods  in 
use  among  the  Hebrews.  It  contained  three  English 
pecks  and  three  pints. 

EPHE'MERA  (Gr,  lasting  for  a  day),  a  Linnjean 
genus  of  neuroj)terous  insects,  now  forming  the 
family  or  tribe  Ephemerkla;.  They  are  allied  to  the 
Libellulidoi,  or  Dragon-flies,  but  differ  from  them  in 
many  very  important  respects.  They  have  received 
their  name,  to  which  corresponds  the  English  Dj  i'- 
FLY,  sometimes  also  appHed  to  them,  from  the  brief 
duration  of  their  existence  in  the  perfect  state,  iu 
which,  very  unlike  the  dragon-flies,  they  are  bebei  ed 
to  take  no  food,  merely  propagating  their  species, 
and  dying.  From  the  season  of  the  year  in  which 
they  begin  to  be  seen,  some  of  them  are  alsct  called 
May-fly  ;  and  by  this  name  are  well  known  to 
anglers,  who  use  them,  and  artificially  imitate 
them  as  excellent  lures  for  trout.  The  eggs  of 
the  ephemerjB  are  also  a  favourite  food  of  fishes  ; 
they  cohere  together  in  a  gelatinous  mass.  Tha 
larvje  and  pupa?  are  aquatic,  and  in  these  states  tbe 
ephemerae  have  a  much  longer  life  than  in  then* 


EPHEMERA— EPHESU8 , 


perfect  state,  extending  even  to  years.  The  iarv* 
and  pupa)  arc  sufficiently  voracious.  The  abdomen 
of  tlie  larva  is  furnished  on  each  side  with  a  set  of 
leaflets,  w^hich  serve  instead  of  gills  for  resi)iration, 
and  are  also  used  in  locomotion,  although  there  are 
six  feet  attached  to  the  thoracic  segments.  The 
pupre  diifer  little  from  the  larvjB  excei)t  in  having 
rudimentary  wings  enclosed  under  scales.  Both 
larvaa  and  pupae  have  the  abdomen  terminated  by 
two  or  three  jointed  iilaments,  which  the  perfect 
insect  also  has,  sometimes  very  long.  The  body  of 
the  perfect  insect  is  soft  and  slender  ;  the  wings 
resemble  in  form  those  of  dragon- flies,  but  are  soft 
and  fllmy  ;  in  rei)ose,  they  are  elevated  vertically 
abore  the  body  :  the  second  pair  of  wings  are  much 
smaJer  than  the  flrst,  and  in  some  species  are 
altogether  wanting ;  the  organs  of  the  mouth  are 
Eo  soft  and  small  as  not  easily  to  be  discerned, 
and  to  be  apjjarently  unfit  for  any  kind  of  use. 
Ephemerre,  in  their  larva  and  i)upa  states,  live 
chieily  under  stones  in  water,  or  in  burrows  which 
they  make  in  the  banks  of  streams.  When  ready 
for  their  linal  change,  they  creep  out  of  the  water 
to  undergo  it  on  some  ])lant  or  other  object  by  the 
water-side,  generally  towards  sunset  on  some  flne 
day  of  summer  or  autumn.  After  having  attained 
their  winged  state,  however,  they  cast  ott"  a  complete 
plough  or  envelope,  so  perfect,  that  it  exhibits  even 
the  limbs,  abdominal  iilaments,  and  antennae  ;  and 
these  *  ghost-like  exuvioe'  are  sometimes  so  abundant 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  streams,  as  to  cover  in  '  a 
pearly  layer'  the  hat  and  basket  of  the  angler.  The 
multitudes  of  ephemerae  are  often  ver}'^  great,  filling 
the  air  as  a  cloud  ;  nay,  so  abundant  are  they  at 
times,  that  their  bodies  have  been  known  to  cover 
the  ground  in  certain  districts  of  France,  and  have 
been  gathered  from  particidar  spots  in  cart-loads  to 
be  used  as  manure. 

EPHE'MERA,  or  FEBRTS  DIARIA  in  Latin 
(from  Gr.  ejn  and  hemera,  on  a  da}'),  a  fever  which 
lasts  only  a  single  day,  or  part  of  a  day,  and  is 
generally  dependent  on  some  slight  local  irritation. 
It  hardly  requires  any  other  treatment  than  the 
removal  of  the  cause,  if  known. 

EPHE'MERIS  (Gr.  *for  the  day')  is  a  name 
applied  to  almanacs  from  their  containing  notices 
for  each  day.  It  is  mostly  confined  to  astronomical 
tables  giving  the  daily  places  of  the  sun,  moon,  and 
planets,  and  other  phenomena  of  the  heavens.  Such 
tables  have  become  common  since  the  days  of 
Kepler.  The  first  were  published  by  Purbach  for 
the  years  1450 — 1461.  Those  of  Regiomontanus, 
for  1474,  were  much  more  accurate,  and  his  Ephem- 
erides  met  with  universal  acceptance.  Similar 
publications  were  afterwards  made  by  Leovitius, 
Origauus,  Kepler,  and  others.  The  most  imporfant 
works  of  the  kind  at  present  are  the  French  Con- 
naksance  des  Temps,  the  English  Nautical  AbnanaCy 
tho  Effmieridi  di  Milano,  and  the  Berlin  Astrono- 
nnschen  Jahrbiicher. 

EPHE'SIANS,  Epistle  to  tiie,  is  a  letter 
A^d-'essed  by  St  Paul,  during  his  first  imprisonment 
nA  Rome,  to  the  church  which  assembled  in  Ephesus 
(q.  v.).  This  church  had  been  planted  by  the 
apostle  himself,  and,  as  we  infer  from  various  cir- 
cumstances mentioned  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles, 
w/is  an  object  of  his  special  affection.  The  epistle 
was  written  almost  at  the  same  time  as  that  to  the 
Colossians,  and  consequently  breathes  the  same 
spirit  of  exalted  piety  and  fervid  faith,  besides 
containing  many  similar  thoughts  and  exhorta- 
tions. It  may  be  divided  into  two  grand  parts, 
the  first  of  which  is  for  the  most  part  doctrinal, 
and  the  second  practical.  The  proofs  of  its  aenuinenesa 


and  avthenticity  have  generally  been  considered 
unquestionable  ;  but  recently  De  Wette,  in  his 
Introduction  to  a  Commentary  on  the  Ephcna.ns 
(2d  edit.  1847),  has  tried  to  shew  that  this  ej>istle 
is  8imj)ly  an  expansion  of  the  grander  e))istie  to 
the  Colossians,  though  he  admits  that  it  haii  the 
appearance  of  having  been  compiled  in  the  apostolio 
age. 

E'PHESUS,  one  of  the  twelve  lon-c  cities  of 
Asia  Minor,  was  situated  in  Lydia,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  river  Caystrus,  in  the  midst  of  an  alluvial 
plain.  It  does  not  appear  to  have  been  as  old  as  the 
Trojan  war,  but  its  primitive  history  has  been 
confused  ])y  myths.  It  bore  a  great  variety  of 
names  at  difl'erent  times,  the  principal  of  which, 
besides  E.,  were  Ortygia  and  Ptelea.  According  to 
Strti))o,  it  was  founded  by  Androclus,  son  of  Coclrus, 
and  this  is  the  most  probable  of  the  accounts  which 
have  come  down  to  us,  though  others  held  to  the 
tradition  of  its  Amazonian  origin.  It  was  long 
before  p].  acquired  any  political  importance,  in  spite 
of  being  a  sacred  city  from  an  early  period.  Sub- 
dued first  by  the  Lydian,  and  next  by  the  Persian 
kings,  it  was  included,  after  the  death  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  in  the  territories  of  Lysiraachus  (281 
B.  c),  l)y  whom  it  was  greatly  strengthened.  Ulti- 
mately, it  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Romans; 
and  in  tlie  time  of  Augustus,  when  Strabo  wrote,  it 
was  '  the  greatest  place  of  trade  of  all  the  cities  of 
Asia  west  of  the  Taurus.'  This  was  also  its  condi- 
tion when  visited  by  St  Paid,  who  resided  here 
three  years  ;  but  the  destruction  of  its  great  temple 
by  the  Goths,  in  260  a.  d.,  gave  it  a  blow  from 
which  it  never  recovered.  In  341  a.  d.,  it  was  the 
scene  of  the  third  general  council  of  the  Christian 
Church.  Its  general  history,  while  a  city  of  the 
Byzantine  emi)ire,  was  unimportant,  and  before  the 
days  of  Tamerlane  it  had  almost  completely  perished. 
— The  ruins  of  E.  comprise  a  stadium  687  feet  long 
fragments  of  a  great  theatre  (alluded  to  in  the 
account  of  St  Raid's  preaching  in  the  city),  of  an 
odeum  or  music-hall,  and  of  various  walls  and 
towers,  belonging  to  the  Greek,  Roman,  and  Byzan- 
tine epochs.  Near  the  western  extremity  of  the 
town  are  also  some  massive  structures,  which  over- 
look the  swamp  or  marsh  where  was  the  ancient 
harbour.  These  are  regarded  with  much  probability 
as  the  site  of  the  famous  Temple  of  Diana.  This 
marvellous  building,  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of 
the  world,  was  originally  built  by  Chersiphron;  but 
after  its  destruction  by  Herostratus  on  the  night 
(as  is  said)  when  Alexander  the  Great  was  bom 
(356  B.  c),  it  was  rebuilt  by  the  inhabitants  in  a 
style  of  gi-eater  splendour  than  before,  the  very 
women  contrilmting  their  ornaments  to  secure  the 
necessary  funds;  yet,  notwithstanding  this  enthu- 
siasm, more  than  two  hundred  years  elajised  before 
the  new  edifice  was  completely  finished.  It  was 
the  largest  Greek  temple  ever  constructed.  Its 
length  was  425  teet,  its  width  220,  the  number 
of  its  columns  128,  of  which  36  were  carved,  and 
their  height  60  feet.  It  had  an  area  more  than 
four  times  that  of  the  Parthenon  at  Athens,  and 
even  the  Olympeiuni  was  only  about  two-thirds 
as  great.  But  even  more  wonderful  than  the 
temple  itself  were  the  numberless  statues  and 
pictures  which  it  contained,  executed  by  the  best 
masters  of  Greece.  The  altar  of  the  goiddess  was 
principally  adorned  with  the  works  ot  Praxiteles. 
Plundered  of  its  treasures  by  Nero,  and  burnetl  (as 
has  been  mentioned)  by  the  Goths,  it  was  most 
likely  finally  destroyed  by  the  Iconoclasts,  in  the 
reign  of  Theodosius  I.,  who  issued  his  celebrated 
edict  against  the  ceremonies  of  the  Pagan  relig- 
ion 381  A.  D.  The  site  of  E.  is  now  occupied  by 
some  wretched  villages,  the  principal  of  vhich  is 


EPHOD— EPHRAEM  SYRUS. 


Ayasaliik. — Certain  cabalistic  words  or  sayings  are 
Baid  to  have  been  inscriljed  on  the  figure  of  Diana, 
which  being  copied  and  carried  about  as  charms, 
became  known  as  EiJheace  litoroe  (Mason's  Anatomie 
o/Sorcerie,  1G12). 

E  PHOD,  a  vestment  worn  by  the  Jewish  high- 
priest  over  the  il/giZ  or  second  (purple)  tunic.  It 
consisted  of  two  shoulder-pieces,  one  covering  the 
back,  the  other  the  breast  and  upper  part  of  the 
body,  not  unlike  the  Greek  eponis.  Two  onyx  stones 
■et  in  gold  fastened  it  on  the  shoidders,  and  on  each 
(if  the  stones  were  engraved  the  names  of  six  tribes, 
••iccording  to  their  order.  The  material  of  which 
the  ephod  was  wrought  was  extremely  costly  and 
magnificent :  '  gold,  blue,  purple,  crimson,  and  fine 
twined  linen.'  A  girdle  or  band,  of  one  piece  with 
the  ephod,  fastened  it  round  the  body.  Just  above 
this  girdle,  in  the  middle  of  the  ephod,  and  joined 
to  it  by  little  gold  ohaius,  rings,  and  strings,  rested 
the  square  oracular  breast-plate  ^vith  the  mysterious 
Urim  and  Thummlm.  See  also  Hiuh-Priest  and 
Urim  and  Thummim. 

Originally  intended  to  be  worn  by  the  high-priest 
exclusively,  ephods  of  an  inferior  material  seem 
to  have  been  in  common  use  in  later  times  by  the 
ordinary  priests.  Even  David,  when  bringing  the 
ark  back  to  Jerusalem,  appeared  in  one.  There 
is  also  mention  made  of  an  ephod  in  several 
passages  of  the  book  of  Judges  and  Samuel,  where 
the  word  must  needs  stand  either  for  the  whole 
priestly  apparatus  of  an  illegal  service,  or  simply 
for  a  statue  or  an  idol.  The  Talmud  understands 
this  ephod  to  have  been  a  colossal  shoulder  vest- 
ment of  gold,  to  which  divine  honours  were 
rendered. 

E'PHORI  (Gr.  'overseers'),  an  order  of  magis- 
trates in  ancient  times  which  appears  to  have  origin- 
ated at  Sparta,  and  to  have  been  peculiar  to  the 
Doric  governments.  When  or  by  whom  the  ephori 
were  first  instituted,  is  a  point  of  gi'eat  uncertainty. 
Herodotus  attributes  their  creation  to  Lycurgus, 
and  Aristotle  to  Theopom})us  (770 — 720  b.  c).  Their 
duty  was  to  superintend  the  internal  administra- 
tion of  the  state,  especially  affairs  of  justice,  for 
which  a  particular  building  was  assigned  them, 
called  the  Ephorion.  One  of  their  most  important 
functit)ns  was  the  oversight,  at  least  in  part,  of  the 
education  of  youth,  for  we  are  told  by  Athenaius 
that  they  inspected  the  clothing  and  bedding  of 
the  young  men!  The  ephori  were  five  in  num- 
ber ;  they  were  elected  by  and  from  the  people 
— on  which  Aristotle  observes,  that  through  them 
the  demos  enjoyed  a  participation  in  the  highest 
magistracy  of  the  state — and  held  their  office 
only  for  one  year.  Their  influence  gradually 
increi^ed,  for  their  powers  were  so  ill  defined  that 
it  was  difficidt  to  say  what  was  not  under  their 
cognizance  and  authority.  Cicero  draws  a  com- 
parison between  the  ephoralty  of  Sparta  and  the 
tribunate  of  Rome,  which  is  not  altogether  un- 
warranted by  tlie  facts  of  the  case.  Ultimately, 
the  kings  themselves  became  subject  to  the  super- 
vision of  the  ephori.  Cleomenes,  for  example,  was 
brought  before  them  for  bribery ;  Agesilaus  was 
fined,  and  Pausanius  imprisoned ;  and  in  extreme 
cases  they  could  prefer  charges  against  them, 
and  have  them  tried  before  the  supreme  criminal 
court.  They  also  transacted  the  negotiations  with 
foreign  powers,  subscribed  treaties,  raised  troops, 
'intrusted  the  army  to  the  king,  or  some  other 
general,'  and,  in  fact,  acted  as  the  executive  of 
the  state.  Mnller  regards  the  ephoralty  as  '  the 
principle  of  change  in  the  Spartan  constitution, 
and,  in  the  end,  the  cause  of  its  dissolution.'  In 
Uan  hands  of  the  phori,e  the  constitution  of  Sparta 


certainly  ceased  to  be  a  genuine  aristcx  r-acy,  and  be- 
came a  sort  of  oligarchy  ;  hut  this  point  is  ijivolvcd 
in  much  obscurity  and  perplexity.  Their  authority, 
however,  was  at  hist  destroyed  by  Agis  and  Cle- 
omenes, who  murdered  the  ephori  for  the  time  Ixh 
ing,  and  restored  the  old  Spartan  constitution  (22.'» 
B.  C). 

E'PIIRAEM  SY'RUS,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
and  prolific  ecclesiastical  writers  of  the  Syrian 
Church.  Several  accounts  of  his  life  have  been 
handed  down  to  us,  ljut  they  all  Ijear  more  or  less 
such  a  legendary  character,  tliat  the  real  facts  to  be 
gathered  from  them  are  hwt  scanty.  It  a])p(.'ars,  tlien, 
that  Ephraem  (Heb.  Epliraivi)  was  born  in  the  easly 
part  of  the  reign  of  Constantine  the  Great,  'some- 
where between  the  Euphrates  and  Tigi'is,'  most  prob- 
ably at  Nisibis.  His  parents  were,  according  to 
some,  heathens  ;  and  E.,  repudiating  their  idolatry 
at  an  early  age,  had  to  leave  their  roof.  Jacob, 
Bishop  of  Nisibis,  took  care  of  the  boy,  and  under- 
took his  education.  His  progress  in  learning  was 
so  satisfactory  that  the  bishop  was  soon  able  to 
make  him  teacher  at  his  own  school ;  and  v.hen  in 
325  A.  D.  Jacob  went  to  the  council  of  Niciea,  E. 
accompanied  him  thither.  In  363,  Xisibis  was  ceded 
by  Jovinian  to  the  Persians,  and  E.  first  retired  into 
Roman  territory,  then  went  to  Anid,  his  mother's 
birthplace,  and  finally  settled  in  Edcssa  (Orfa), 
where  he  remained  until  his  death.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  so  poor  when  he  first  arrived  at  Edessa, 
that  he  was  obhged  to  take  service  at  a  public 
bath,  but  he  soon  became  acquainted  witli  hermits 
of  the  neighbourhood,  and  adopted  their  habits : 
he  retired  into  a  cave  near  the  town,  and  led 
the  life  of  a  recluse.  But  so  great  were  his  piety 
and  asceticism,  as  well  as  his  readiness  to  helj) 
the  poor  and  tend  the  sick,  that  he  was  looked 
upon  as  a  saint,  and  his  day  is  stiil  celebrated, 
at  different  dates,  in  various  churches.  Among  his 
usual  denominations,  more  especially  referring  to 
his  teachings  and  writings,  are  'Prophet  of  the 
Syrians,  Column  of  the  Church,  Harp  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,'  &c. ;  and  his  name  is  never  mentioned 
without  the  '  Mor '  or  '  Mari '  (Lord,  My  Master) 
being  prefixed.  But  for  all  that,  he  had  no  lack 
of  enemies.  His  burning  zeal  for  pi'eaching  and 
converting  led  him  to  attack  most  fiercely  almost 
every  one  beyond  the  i)ale  of  his  peculiar  creed. 
He  spoke  and  wrote  imceasingiy  against  Idolatera, 
'Chaldees,'  Jews,  and  heretics  of  all  kinds,  espe- 
cially Arians,  Sabellians,  Maniclutans,  Kovatians, 
&c.  Towards  the  end  of  his  life,  he  paid  a  visit 
to  Basil  the  Great,  in  Cap])adocian  Ctesarea,  who 
could  not  prevad  upon  hun  to  accept  of  any  higher 
office  in  the  church-  than  a  deanery,  though  he 
spared  no  effort  to  maice  hun  bishop.  Returned 
to  Edessa,  he  fomid  plague  and  famine  raging  there, 
and  to  his  over-exertions  for  the  relief  of  the 
sufferers  his  death  is  attributed  by  some.  He 
expired  in  the  same  year  with  Basil,  in  378.  not 
before  having  given  the  strictest  injunctions  that 
his  burial  should  be  of  the  very  simjdest  descrip- 
tion. With  respect  to  the  Testament  which  he  is 
reported  to  have  dictated  in  his  dying  hour — 
much  as  it  has  been  used  for  biographical  purposes 
— we  can  take  no  notice  whatever  of  it,  as  it  i^ 
entirely  spurious. 

The  visit  to  Basilius,  imimportant  as  it  seems,  ha* 
been  of  very  great  moment.  The  legend  which 
surrounds  this,  as  all  other  incidents  of  his  life,  w^.th 
a  halo  of  miracle,  records  that  the  two  men,  although 
previously  ignorant  of  each  other's  language,  began 
to  speak  them  fluently  at  this  interview — BasiUua 
Syriac,  and  E.  Greek.  This  wonderfid  cu-cuni- 
stance  first  induced  the  learned  to  enter  upon  th^ 
question,  whether  E.,  half  of  whose  volumiaoofl 

07 


EPHRXIM— EPIC  POETRY. 


worka  are  in  Greek,  did  really  understand  that 
language  ;  and  further,  whether  he  understood  any 
language  but  his  own,  Syriac.  If  he  did  not,  what 
view  was  to  he  taken  of  his  Commentaries  on  the 
Bible,  of  which  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  texts,  as 
well  as  the  Septuagint  and  the  Greek  Fathers,  must 
Jiave  l)cen  a  sealed  book  to  him.  There  were,  and 
are  still,  great  differences  of  opinion  on  these  points, 
but  it  is  generally  taken  for  granted  now,  that  he 
did  not  undor^itand  any  language  but  his  own  ;  that 
he  made  use  of  the  common  Syriac  version,  the 
Peshito;  that  his  grammatical  and  linguistic  notes 
nre  taken  from  dilfereut  Syriac  Commentaries,  and 
that  the  Greek  poi-tion  of  his  works  consists  partly 
of  translations  made  from  his  Syriac  after  his  death, 
or  oven  during  his  lifetime,  and  partly  of  interpola- 
tions. Both  the  praise  and  the  blame  which  have 
been  indiscriminately  bestowed  upon  him  as  a  writer 
arc  exaggerated.  His  chief  merit  lies  in  the  glowing 
fervour  and  the  deep  piety  which  he  infused  into 
all  he  wrote,  more  particularly  into  his  elegiac 
hymns.  Diction  and  form  are  poetical  throughout, 
and  when  not  soaring  into  the  intinite,  of  no 
mean  beauty.  The  effect  is  heightened  by  the 
matchless  simplicity  and  awing  grandeur  of  the 
Syriac  idiom. 

We  will  now  enumerate  his  principal  works  and 
their  editions.  Those  (under  his  name)  in  Greek, 
consist  of  Sermons  or  Homihes,  and  Treatises  of  an 
exegetic,  dogmatic,  and  ascetic  nature.  Photius 
records  that  he  wrote  more  than  a  thousand  such 
eernions  ;  Sozomenos  speaks  of  '  300  myriads  ; '  but, 
as  we  said  l)efore,  of  those  that  have  come  down  to 
us,  some  are  spurious,  and  others  at  least  suspi- 
cious. Gerhard  Vossius  translated  171  treatises  from 
Greek  M8S.  found  in  Italian  libi-aries,  into  Latin, 
and  published  them  at  Rome,  15S9 — 1598,  in  3  vols. 
(There  is  ])ut  one  piece  in  them  translated  from  the 
Syriac.)  They  were  reprinted  in  Cologne  in  1603, 
1619  (1675),  and  also  in  Antwerp,  in  1619.  The  first 
Greek  edition  appeared  in  Oxford  in  1709,  edited 
from  28  Oxford  MSS.,  by  E.  Thwaites.  The  most 
important  of  his  Syriac  works  are,  besides  an  infi- 
nite variety  of  homilies,  sermons,  poems,  &c.,  his 
commentaries,  or  rather  scholia,  on  parts  of  the  Old 
Testament.  Their  value  to  us,  however,  is  limited  to 
their  aiding  us  in  explaining  and  fixing  some  read- 
ings of  the  Peshito  (see  Pesiiito),  and  in  enriching 
our  critical  apparatus.  That  he  also  commented  on 
tlie  Gospels  is  certain,  but  no  MS.  has  been  found  as 
yet,  not  even  in  a  Greek  or  Arabic  translation.  As 
to  the  songs  and  prayers  in  the  Syrian  Liturgy 
ascribed  to  E.,  they  are  simply  composed  in  his 
manner,  and  betray  their  comparatively  recent 
origin  at  the  first  glance.  The  principal  edition 
of  his  works  in  Syriac  and  Greek  was  published 
in  6  vols,  in  Rome,  under  the  papal  authority 
(1732—1746). 

The  principal  writers  on  E.  are :  Sozomenos, 
Hist.  Eccl.  iii.  16 ;  Assemani,  Proleg.  and  Biblioth. 
Orient.;  Credner,  i)e  Proph.  Min.  Vers.  Syr.  (1827); 
Lenf^erke,  Comm.  de  Ephr.  Syr.  S.  S.  Interprele 
(Halle,  1823) ;  and  De  Ephr.  Syr.  Arte  Hermen.,  &c. 
|1831).  Some  tastefid  German  translations  of 
hymns,  by  Zingerle,  are  to  be  found  in  the  Zeitachr. 
d.  Beufschen  Morgenl.  Gesellsch.  passim. 

E'PHRAIM,  the  younger  son  of  Joseph  by  his 
wife  Asenath,  and  the  founder  of  one  of  the  twelve 
tribes  of  Israel.  It  is  possible  that  he  may  have 
received  Ids  name,  which  signifies  'double  fruitful- 
ne/js,'  from  having  been  born  during  the  seven  years 
of  plenty.  His  grandfather,  Jacob,  shortly  before 
his  death,  pto]i}iosied  the  greatness  of  his  posterity 
when  giving  him  his  blessing :  '  His  seed  shall 
become  a  multitude  of  nations '  (Gen.  xlviii.  19). 
Alter  the  Israelites  had  left  Egypt,  the  tribe  of 
tiS 


Ephraim  numbered  40,500  (Numbers,  i.  32,  33) ;  but 
from  causes  not  specified,  and  not  discoverable,  it 
had  sunk,  forty  years  later,  on  the  eve  of  the  con- 
quest of  Canaan,  to  32,500  (Numbers,  xxvi.  37). 
Yet  it  was  mider  the  leadershij)  of  an  Ephraimite, 
Joshua,  the  son  of  Nun,  that  the  Canaanites  were 
subjugated,  and  the  land  possessed.  This  seems  to 
have  given  the  tribe  a  much  higher  influence  than 
might  have  been  expected  from  its  numerical  strength. 
We  find  Judah  and  Ephraim  classed  together  a* 
taking  their  inheritance  first  (Josh.  xv.  xvi,  &c.), 
The  precise  boundaries  of  Ephraim,  as  of  the  Qi\e\i 
tribes,  it  is  impossible  to  determine.  It  occujied 
the  centre  of  Palestine,  was  bounded  on  the  south 
by  Dan  and  Benjamin,  and  stretched  from  tho 
Jordan  on  the  east  to  the  Mediten-anean  on  the 
west  From  scattered  notices  of  the  Epliraimites  in 
the  earlier  annals  of  the  Hebrews,  we  infer  that 
they  were,  on  the  whole,  jealous  of  their  brethren. 
This  feeling  of  dissatisfaction  at  length  broke  out 
into  rebellion  in  the  reign  of  Rehoboam,  and  the 
new  kingdom  of  Israel,  rided  over  by  Jeroboam, 
was  for  the  most  part  merely  the  kingdom  of 
Ephraim,  for  the  laud  which  lay  to  the  north 
of  it  coidd  hardly  be  said  to  be  actually  in  the 
possession  of  the  tribes  whose  names  it  bore, 
the  original  iidiabitants  keeping  stiibbom  hold  of 
their  cities  and  strongholds.  See  the  article 
Jews. 

EPI,  or  GIROUETTE  (Fr.),  a  species  of  oma- 
mental  ironwork  with  -which  the  cones  of  pavilions 
or  pointed  roofy  are  sometimes  surmounted  in  the 
renaissance  style  of  architecture.  One  of  the  finest 
examples  is  that  which  surmounts  the  Tourelle 
aux  Pastorals  at  the  Hotel  de  Bourgtheroulde  in 
Rouen. 

EPIC  POETRY  (Gr.  epos,  a  word,  a  discourse 
or  narrative).  The  two  chief  kinds  of  poetry,  are 
Epic  poetry  and  Lyric  poetry.  Epic  poetry  has 
outward  objects  for  its  subject,  of  which  it  gives 
an  imaginative  narrative.  The  events  themselves 
may  be  partly  real  and  partly  fictitious,  or  they 
may  be  altogether  fictitious.  Lyric  poetry,  on  the 
other  hand,  sets  forth  the  inward  occurrences  of 
the  writer  or  speaker's  own  mind — his  feelings  and 
reflections.  No  composition,  perhaps,  answers,  in 
all  its  parts,  to  the  one  of  these  descriptions,  or  to 
the  other ;  but  a  piece  or  poem  is  classed  as  epic  or 
lyric  according  to  the  element  that  predominates. 
Under  each  of  these  grand  divisions,  or  genera, 
there  are  subdivisions,  or  species.  The  longer  poems 
of  the  epic  genus  embrace  an  extensive  series  of 
events,  and  the  actions  of  numerous  personages. 
The  terra  heroic  epic,  or  heroic  poem,  is  properly 
applied  to  such  works  as  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  of 
Homer,  Virgil's  JEneid,  Tasso's  / erusalem  Deliver edj 
Ariosto's  Orlando  Furioso,  and  others,  which 
describe  the  achievements  of  the  gods  and  heroes 
of  antiquity,  or  of  the  little  less  mythic  knights 
of  medieval  chivalry.  Poems,  again,  like  IVUton's 
Paradise  Lost  and  Dante's  Divina  Coinmed  a,  are 
sacred  epics.  Byron's  Childe  Harold,  with  the 
length  and  narrative  stracture  of  an  epic,  abound* 
in  reflection,  sentiment,  and  satire,  and  thus  is,  in 
substance,  as  much  lyric  as  ejiic.  Productions  like 
those  now  named  form  the  class  of  grand  ej)ic3,  or 
epic  poems,  by  way  of  eminence.  But  there  are 
several  species  of  minor  poems  which,  from  their 
nature,  must  also  be  ranked  as  epics.  One  of  these 
is  the  Idyl,  a  term  ai)plied  to  what  is  called  pastoral 
poetry,  or  to  descriptions  in  general  of  natural 
scenery,  and  of  the  actions  and  manners  of  men 
in  calm,  ordinary  life.  Burns's  Cottei'^s  Saturday 
Night,  Goldsmith's  Deserted  Village,  and  most  of 
Crabbe's  poems,  are  idyls ;  so  are  poetical  epistles. 


EPICHARMU  — EPICUEUS. 


The  ballad  (q.  v.)  ifl  another  species  of  minor 
epic. 

Atta'npts  at  epic  poetry  are  now  rare,  the  spirit 
of  the  age  being  against  that  form  of  composition. 
Instead  of  epic  poems,  we  have  novels,  which,  so 
far  as  subject  is  concerned,  may  be  considered  as 
the  epics  of  modern  civil  and  domestic  hfe. 

EPICHA'RMUS,  a  famous  Greek  poet,  was  bom 
in  the  island  of  Cos,  in  the  5th  c,  B.C.  At  first,  be 
studied  philosophy  imder  Pythagoi-as ;  but  a  resi- 
dence at  Megara,  the  native  soil  of  comedy,  gave 
him  a  taste  for  that  branch  of  tbe  drama.  After 
the  destruction  of  Megara,  in  484  B.C.,  he  removed 
to  Syracuse,  wliere,  at  the  court  of  Hiero,  he  spent 
the  remainder  of  his  life.  From  this  circumstance, 
he  is  often  mentioned  by  the  ancients  as  a  Sicilian. 
Almost  nothing  else  is  known  of  his  personal  history 
except  that  he  died  at  the  age  of  90,  or,  as  some 
say,  of  97.  The  date  of  his  death,  as  of  his  birth,  is 
unknoAvn.  E.  is  called  by  Theocritus  the  father  of 
comedy,  and  Plato  assigns  to  him  a  place  among 
comic  wT-iters  as  high  as  that  of  Homer  among  epic 
poets.  He  certainly  did  a  good  sei-vice  in  exclud- 
ing, to  a  large  extent,  from  his  dramas  the  vidgar 
bufToonery  which  disgraced  all  previous  comedies, 
and  in  introducing  a  regular  plot  in  which  the  cornus 
or  batid  of  revellers  sustained  the  dialogue.  None 
of  E.'s  works  survive  entire;  but  we  possess 
several  fragments  and  the  titles  of  thirty-five. 
They  embraced  a  wide  variety  of  topics,  mytho- 
logical, social,  and  political.  From  one  of  them, 
Plautus  borrowed  the  plot  of  his  Mencechmi,  which 
shews  a  great  amount  of  constructive  skill.  The 
fragments  of  E.  have  been  collected  and  edited  by 
H.  P.  Krurraann  (Harlem,  1834),  Compare  Grysar, 
De  Doriemlum  Comcedia  (Colon.  1828),  and  Muller's 
Dorians. 

EPICTE'TUS,  a  celebrated  disciple  of  the  Stoa, 
was  born  at  Hiernpolis,  in  Phrvgia,  about  fifty  years 
.  after  tbe  birth  of  Christ.  He  was  at  first  the  slave  of 
Epaphroditus,  a  freedman  of  Nero,  at  Rome,  whose 
abusive  treatment  he  is  said  to  have  endured  with 
the  composure  characteristic  of  the  sect  to  which 
he  belonged.  He  was  afterwards  manumitted,  and 
devoted  himself  to  the  Stoic  philosophy.  Domitian 
hated  him  on  account  of  his  principles,  and  banished 
him,  along  with  several  other  jihilosophers,  from 
Rome.  E.  settled  at  Nikopolis,  in  Epirus.  Under  the 
pressure  of  the  times  in  which  he  lived,  his  serious 
moral  views  received  a  character  rather  of  self-denial 
than  of  energy;  to  renounce,  to  endure,  and  not  to 
tjet  the  mind  upon  anything  beyond  the  power  of  the 
individual  to  attain,  being  the  points  chiefly  insisted 
on.  His  pupil,  Arrianus,  collected  the  maxims  of 
E.  in  the  work  entitled  Encheiridion  ('Handbook') 
and  in  eight  books  of  Commentaries,  four  of  which 
are  lost.  The  peculiar  excellence  of  the  writings 
of  E.  consists  in  their  simple  and  noble  earnestness. 
That  real  heartfelt  love  of  good  and  hatred  of  evil 
wliich  we  are  in  tbe  habit  of  supposing  an  exclu- 
sively Christian  feeling,  does  manifest  itself  very 
finely  and  bcautitully  in  these,  yet,  as  Professor 
Bnindis  says,  'there  is  not  a  trace  in  the  Epictetea 
to  shew  that  he  was  uctjuainted  with  Christianity, 
and  still  less  that  he  had  adopted  Christianity, 
either  in  part  or  entirely.'  Some  of  his  opinions, 
moreover,  are  essentially  Christian  in  their  nature, 
though,  of  course,  they  are  unconnected  with  the 
facts  of  revelation.  E.  believes  in  our  '  resemblance' 
to  God,  in  our  '  relationship '  to  him,  and  in  our 
'  union '  with  him  through  the  coincidence  of  the 
'will'  and  the  'soul;'  he  recoj;nises  the  contest 
between  <;oo(l  and  evil,  the  life-struggle  in  tbe  heart, 
the  divine  life  against  which  the  law  in  the  mem- 
bers wars  ;  and  he  affirms  the  necessity  of  '  invoking 


God's  assistance  in  the  strife,'  that  the  inner  lif** 
may  become  pure  as  God  is  i)ure.  There  are 
several  good  editions  of  the  works  of  E.,  the  most 
complete  of  which  is  that  of  Schweighalisei  (Leip. 
1800). 

EPICU'RUS,  AND  EPICURE' ANISM.  Epicurus, 

an  illustrious  Greek  philosopher,  was  bom  in  the 
island  of  Samos,  .341  B.C.,  seven  years  after  the 
death  of  Plato.  His  father,  Neocles,  is  said  to  hav« 
been  a  schoolmaster,  and  his  mother,  Choercstrate, 
to  have  practised  arts  of  magic.  At  the  age  of  18^ 
he  repaired  to  Athens,  where  it  has  been  supposed 
that  he  may  have  had  for  his  teacher  Xenocrates  or 
Theophrastus,  or  perhaps  both,  but  he  himself  used 
to  declare  that  he  was  self-taught.  Of  the  older 
philosophers,  he  was  most  attached  to  Anaxagoras 
and  Democritus,  his  system  of  pliysics  being 
evidently  built  upon  the  atomic  speculations  of  the 
latter.  E.'s  stay  at  Athens  on  this  occasion  was 
short.  At  Mitylene,  in  his  thirty-second  year, 
he  first  opened  a  school;  and  there  and  at  Lamp- 
sacus  he  taught  for  five  years.  In  306  B.C.,  ha 
returned  to  Athens,  and  established  a  school  of 
philosophy  in  a  garden  which  he  purchased  and 
laid  out  for  the  purpose.  From  this  circumstance-;, 
his  followers  were  called  the  'philosophers  of  the 
garden.'  Although  E.  laid  down  the  doctrine, 
that  pleasure  is  the  chief  good,  the  life  that  he 
and  his  friends  led  was  one  of  the  greatest  tem- 
perance and  simplicity.  They  were  content,  we 
are  told,  with  a  small  cup  of  light  wine,  and  all 
the  rest  of  their  drink  was  water ;  and  an  inscrip- 
tion over  the  gate  promised  to  those  who  might 
wish  to  enter  no  better  fare  than  barley-cakes 
and  water.  The  chastity  of  E.  was  so  incontestable, 
that  Chrysippus,  one  of  his  principal  opponents, 
in  order  to  deprive  him  of  all  merit  on  the  score 
of  it,  ascribed  it  to  his  being  without  i^assions. 
The  calumnies  which  the  Stoics  circulated  concern- 
ing him  are  undeserving  of  notice,  and  were  at 
no  time  generally  believed.  E.'s  success  as  a 
f/cacher  was  signal ;  great  numbers  flocked  to  his 
school  from  all  parts  of  Greece,  and  from  Asia 
Minor,  most  of  whom  became  warmly  attached  to 
their  master,  as  well  as  to  his  doctrines,  for 
E.  seems  to  have  been  characterised  not  less 
by  amiability  and  benevolence  than  by  force  of 
intellect.  He  died  270  B.C.,  in  the  seventy-second 
year  of  his  age 

E.  was  a  most  voluminous  writer.  According  to 
Diogenes  Laertius,  he  left  300  volumes.  Among 
others,  he  had  37  books  on  Natural  Philosophy,  a 
treatise  on  Atoms  and  the  Vacuum ;  one  on  Love ; 
one  on  Choice  and  Avoidance  ;  another  on  the  Chief 
Good  ;  four  essays  on  Lives ;  one  on  Sight ;  one  on 
Touch  ;  another  on  Images  ;  another  on  Justice  and 
the  other  Virtues,  &c.  Almost  all  these  works  are 
lost :  the  only  writings  of  E.  that  have  come  dowTi 
to  us  are  three  letters,  and  a  number  of  detached 
sentences  or  sayings,  preserved  by  Diogenes  Laer- 
tius, in  his  life  of  the  philosopher.  The  principal 
sources  of  our  knowledge  of  the  doctrines  of  E., 
besides  the  above  lettei's,  &c.,  are  Cicero,  Senec*, 
and,  above  all,  Lucretius,  whose  great  poem,  IH 
Rerum  Natura,  contains  substantially  the  Epicurean 
philosophy. 

Although  the  majority  of  E."s  writings  referred 
to  natural  philosophy,  yet  he  was  not  a  pht/s/ast^ 
properly  speaking.  He  stuched  nature  with  a  moral 
rather  than  with  a  scientifc  design.  According  to 
him,  the  great  evil  that  afflicted  men — tlie  incubua 
on  human  happiness — was  fear  ;  fear  of  the  goda 
and  fear  of  death.  To  get  rid  of  these  two  feara, 
was  the  ultimate  aim  of  all  his  speculations  on 
nature. 

The  following  is  a  brief  acco\mt  of  his  views.  B« 

89 


EPICUEUS— EPICYCLE. 


regarded  the  universe  {To  Pan)  as  corporeal,  and  as 
infinite  in  extent  and  eternal  in  duration.  He  recog- 
nized two  kinds  of  existence — that  of  bodies,  and 
lhat  of  vacuum,  or  sj^ace,  or  the  intangible  nature. 
Of  his  bodies,  some  are  compounds  and  some  atoms 
or  indivisible  elements,  out  of  which  the  compounds 
are  formed.  The  world,  as  we  now  see  it,  is  pro- 
duced by  the  collision  and  whirling  together  of 
these  atoms.  He  also  held  the  doctrine  of  })erception 
by  images  (Gr,  eidola),  which  are  incessantly  stream- 
ing off  from  the  surface  of  all  bodies,  and  which  are 
necessary  to  bring  us  into  rapport  with  the  world 
without.  In  like  manner,  he  believed  that  sound- 
ing bodies  threw  off  emanations,  by  which  we  are 
brought  into  sympathy  with  them  ;  and  that  per- 
ception by  smell  took  place  in  the  same  way.  In 
psychology,  E.  was  a  decided  materialist,  holding, 
for  various  reasons,  that  the  soul  is  a  bodily 
substance,  composed  of  subtile  particles,  dissemi- 
nated through  the  whole  frame,  and  having  a  great 
resemblance  to  spirit  or  breath  with  a  mixture  of 
heat. 

In  seeking  to  understand  the  phenomena  of  the 
heavens,  E.  has  no  scientilic  end  in  view;  his  sole 
object  is  to  enable  the  mind  to  account  for  them  to 
itself,  without  the  necessity  of  imagining  any  super- 
natural agency  at  work.  'The  phenomena  of  the 
heavens,'  says  E.,  *  admit  of  various  causes  being 
assigned  for  their  production,  equally  conformable 
to  the  facts  learned  from  the  senses.  If,  then,  in 
thinking  of  any  appearance,  we  suppose  it  brought 
about  by  the  same  cause  that  produces  another 
appearance  which  gives  no  alarm  or  uneasiness, 
we  are  as  much  delivered  from  uneasiness  as  if 
we  saw  that  such  is  the  cause  of  it.  E.  did  not 
deny  that  there  are  gods,  but  he  strenuously  main- 
tained, that  as  *  happy  and  imjierishable  beings,' 
they  could  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  affairs  of 
the  universe  or  of  men.  '  Beware,'  he  says,  '  of 
attributing  the  revolutions  of  the  heaven,  and 
eclipses,  and  the  rising  and  setting  of  stars,  either  to 
the  original  contrivance  or  continued  regulation  of 
such  a  being.  For  business,  and  cares,  and  anger, 
and  benevolence,  are  not  accordant  with  happiness, 
but  arise  from  weakness,  and  fear,  and  dependence 
on  others.' 

E.  next  proceeds  to  deal  with  the  fear  of  death. 
Having  proved  in  his  psychology  that  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  body  involves  that  of  the  soul,  he 
argues  that  the  most  terrible  of  all  e\als,  death, 
is  nothing  to  us,  '  since  when  we  are,  death  is  not ; 
and  when  death  is,  we  are  not.  It  is  nothing,  then, 
to  the  dead  or  the  living  ;  for  to  the  one  class  it 
is  not  near,  and  the  other  class  are  no  longer 
in  existence.'  "Whether  E.  actually  succeeded  in 
removing  the  terrors  of  death  by  his  syllogism, 
may  be  doubted- 

The  positive  part  of  E.'s  system  may  be  noticed 
in  a  few  words.  He  held  that  pleasure  was  the 
chief  good,  and  it  is  from  a  misapprehension  of  the 
nieauiug  of  this  word  as  used  by  E.  that  the 
term  Ej^icurean  came  to  signify  one  who  indulged 
his  sensual  appetites  without  stint  or  measure.  At 
the  same  time  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  use  of  the 
woid  *  pleasure '  was  calculated  to  produce  the 
mischievous  results  with  which  the  later  Epicurean- 
ism was  charged.  According  to  E.,  the  sources  and 
tests  of  all  ethical  truth  are  the  feelings  [pathe],  and 
there  arc  two,  pleasure  and  pain.  We  delight  in  the 
one,  and  avoid  the  other  instinctivelj'.  '  When  we 
say  that  ])leasure  is  the  end  of  life,  we  do  not  mean 
tlie  pleasures  of  the  debauchee  or  the  sensualist,  as 
some  from  ignorance  or  from  malignity  represent, 
but  freedom  of  the  body  from  pain,  and  of  the  soul 
frnm  anxiety.  For  it  is  not  contimious  di'inkings 
and  re  veilings,  nor  the  society  of  women,  nor  rare 
9U 


vinnds,  and  other  luxuries  of  the  table,  that  con- 
stitute a  pleasant  life,  but  sober  contemplation  that 
searches  out  the  grounds  of  choice  and  avoidance, 
and  banishes  those  chimeras  that  harass  the  mind. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  E.  says :  *  If  the  means  to 
which  sensualists  owe  their  pleasures  dispelled  the 
anxieties  of  the  mind  ....  and  enabled  them  to 
set  limits  to  their  desires,  we  should  have  no 
grounds  to  blame  them  for  taking  their  fill  of 
pleasure,  wherever  they  could  find  it,  provided  it 
were  attended  with  no  pain  or  grief  from  any 
quarter ;  for  that  is  the  only  evil.'  The  Avhole 
question  of  ethics,  then,  coraea  \c  a  calculation  and 
balancing  of  pleasures  and  pains  ;  in  other  words, 
the  cardinal  virtue  is  prudence.  E.  rests  justice  on 
the  same  prudential  basis  as  temperance.  Denying 
any  abstract  and  eternal  right  and  wrong,  he 
affirms  that  injustice  is  an  evil,  because  it  exposes 
the  individual  to  disquietude  from  other  men ; 
justice  is  a  virtue,  because  it  secures  him  from  this 
disquietude.  *  Injustice  is  not  an  evil  in  itself,  but 
becomes  so  from  the  fear  that  haunts  the  injurer 
of  not  being  able  to  escape  the  appointed  avengers 
of  such  acts.'  The  duties  of  friendship  and  good- 
fellowship  are  inculcated  on  the  same  grounds  of 
security  to  the  individual. 

Among  the  Romans,  the  system  of  E.  was  adopted 
by  many  distinguished  men.  Horace,  Atticus,  and 
Pliny  the  Younger,  were  Epicureans ;  and  the 
splendid  poem  of  Lucretius  must  have  recommended 
the  system  to  many.  In  modem  times.  Epicurean- 
ism was  resuscitated  in  France  by  Pierre  Gassendi, 
who  published  an  account  of  E.'s  life  and  a  defence 
of  his  character  in  1647.  Many  eminent  French- 
men have  professed  his  principles  ;  among  others, 
Molibre,  Saint  Evremont,  Count  de  Grammont, 
the  Duke  of  Rochefoucault,  Rousseau,  Fontenelle, 
and  Voltaire. 

EPICY'CLE.  The  earlier  astronomers  assumed 
that  all  the  motions  of  heavenly  bodies  took  place  in 
circles,  the  circle  being  held  to  be  the  most  perfect 
of  all  curves  ;  and  a  necessary  consequence  of  this 
assumption  was,  that  the  motions  murit  have  a 
unifonn  velocity.  Another  part  of  the  hypothesis 
was,  that  all  the  heavenly  bodies  moved  round  the 
earth,  which  remained  at  rest  in  the  centre.  The 
observ^ed  phenomena  of  the  heavens,  however,  were 
soon  seen  to  stand  in  glaring  inconsistency  with 
these  assiunptions ;  and  to  remedy  this,  it  was  neces- 
sary to  have  recourse  to  additional  assimiptions. 
For  the  sun  and  moon,  which  manifestly  do  not 
always  move  \\'ith  the  same  velocity,  the  ii'cce»- 
tric  Circle  (q.  v.)  was  imagined.  The  case  of  the 
planets,  whose  motions  were  seen  to  be  sometimes 
direct,  sometimes  retrograde,  and  sometimes  alto- 
gether arrested,  offered  still  greater  difficulties ;  to 
get  over  which,  the  idea  of  epicycles  was  hit  upon. 
According  to  this  hypothesis,  while  a  planet  was 
moving  in  a  small  circle,  the  centre  of  that  small 
circle  was  describing  a  larger  circle  about  the  earth. 
This  larger  circle  was  called  the  deferent,  and  the 
smaller,  which  was  borne  upon  it,  was  called  the 
epicyde  (Gr.  epi,  upon).  In  this  way  the  motions 
of  the  planets  about  the  earth  were  conceived  to  be 
something  like  what  the  motion  of  the  moon  about 
the  sun  actiially  is.  By  assuming  proper  propor- 
tions between  the  radii  of  the  deferent  circle  and 
the  epicycle,  and  between  the  velocities  of  the  two 
motions,  it  was  foimd  possible  to  account  pretty 
satisfactoi'ily  for  the  above-mentioned  appearances 
and  irregularities  in  the  motions  of  the  planets.  But 
it  is  only  the  irregularities  arising  from  the  revolu- 
tion of  the  earth  about  the  sun  that  can  be  at  ali 
explained  \n  this  way,  and  not  shose  arising  from 
the  elliptic  motions  of  the  planets  abf  ut  the  g  m.  nor 
yet  the  inequalities  of  the  moon's  motions.  The 


EPICYCLOID -EPIDEMIC  MENTAL  DISEASES. 


successors  of  the  Greek  astronomers,  clown  to  Tyclio 
Brahe,  continued,  therefore,  to  increase  the  number 
of  epicycles,  setting  one  circle  upon  another,  until 
the  hypothesis,  in  itself  comi)licate(l,  became  still 
more  so,  and  raade  the  simi)hcity  of  the  Copernican 
Bystem  at  once  striking. 

EPICY'CLOID  is  the  name  of  a  peculiar  curve. 
When  a  circle  moves  upon  a  strai:^ht  line,  any  point 
in  its  circiunference  describes  a  Cycloid  (q.  v.);  but 
if  the  circle  moves  on  the  convex  circumference  of 
another  circle,  every  point  in  the  plane  of  the  first 
circle  describes  an  epicycloid  ;  and  if  on  tlie  con- 
cave circumference,  a  hypocycloid.  The  circle  that 
moves  is  the  generating  circle  ;  the  other,  the  base. 
The  describing  point  is  not  necessarily  in  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  generating  circle,  but  may  be 
anywhere  in  a  radius  or  its  prolongation.  This 
curve  was  first  investigated  by  the  Danish  astro- 
nomer Romer.  It  has  many  remarkable  properties, 
and  is  even  useful  in  the  practical  arts.  The 
teeth  of  wheels  in  machinery  must  have  an  epicy- 
cloidal  form,  in  order  to  secure  uniformity  of 
movement. 

EPIDA'MNUS.    See  Durazzo. 

EPIDAU'RUS,  a  town  of  ancient  Greece,  on  the 
eastern  shore  of  the  Peloponnesus,  in  the  district  of 
Argolis,  was  situated  on  a  small  promontory,  15 
stadia  in  circumference,  in  the  Saronic  Gulf,  in  lat. 
ST  38'  N.,  long.  23°  10'  E.  During  the  most  pros- 
perous period  of  Grecian  history,  E.  was  an  inde- 
pendent state.  It  was  colonised  first,  it  is  supposed, 
Dy  Carians  (hence  the  older  name  of  Ejncarus, 
according  to  Aristotle),  and  afterwards  by  Ionian s, 
but  was  subsequently  invaded  by  a  Dorian  army 
under  Deiphontes,  the  son-in-law  of  Temenus  the 
Heracleide.  This  force  dethroned  Pitj'^reus,  the 
Ionian  king  of  E.,  compelled  him  and  his  citizens 
to  retire  to  Athens,  and  inaugurated  the  Dorian 
rule,  which  preserved  the  ascendency  at  E.  during 
the  whole  of  the  historical  period.  The  form  of 
government  was  originally  monarchical,  but  after 
many  \acissitudes,  it  eventually  became  and  remained 
oligarchical.  At  an  early  period,  E.  became  one  of 
the  chief  commercial  cities  of  the  Peloponnesus.  It 
colonised  the  islands  of  Cos,  Calydnus,  and  Nisyrus, 
as  well  as  the  town  of  ^gina,  which,  during  the 
6th  c,  attracted  all  its  commerce  from  the  then 
declining  mother-city.  E.  was  chiefly  famous  for 
its  temple  of  ^sculapius,  to  which  patients  resorted 
from  all  parts  of  the  Hellenic  world,  seeking  cures 
for  their  diseases.  The  site  of  this  temple  was  a 
plain  surrounded  by  mountains,  about  5  miles  west 
of  the  t<)wn,  and  which  is  still  called  Hieron,  the 
sanctuary.  E.  had  also  numerous  temples,  among 
which  were  those  of  Artemis,  Dionysus,  Aphrodite, 
and  Hera,  and  a  magnificent  theatre,  at  present  in  a 
more  perfect  state  of  preservation  than  any  in  the 
Peh)[)onnesus,  and  with  sufficient  accommodation 
for  12,000  spectators. 

E.  (modern  Greek,  Epidavro)  is  now  a  smaU 
vilLvge,  with  scarcely  100  inhabitants,  employed 
for  the  most  part  in  raising  vegetables  for  the 
Atbgnian  market.  The  plain  surrounding  the 
village  is  productive  and  highly  cultivated.  Here, 
in  January  1822,  a  congress  from  all  parts  of  Greece 
assembled,  and  promulgated  the  constitution,  known 
aa  the  constitution  of  Epidaurus. 

EPIDE'MIC  (Gr.  epi,  upon,  and  demos,  the  people), 
a  disease  which  attacks  number's  of  persons  €n  one 
plice  simultaneously  or  in  succession,  and  which  in 
addition  is  observed  to  travel  from  place  to  place, 
often  in  the  direction  of  the  most  frequented  lines 
of  communication.  Many  ejiidemic  diseases  are  also 
eontagiouK,  and  all  of  them  suggest  the  necessity  of 
careful  iuquiry  into  the  ventilation,  drainage,  food, 


drink,  and  habits  of  the  persons  liable  to  be  affected 
In  presence  of  an  ei)idemic,  it  is  projicr  to  take 
unusual  preciiutiotis  to  preserve  the  public  health 
(see  article  Health),  and  not  unfieqncntly  the 
organisation  of  a  regular  house-to-house  visitation 
of  the  locality  is  calculated  to  do  much  good,  by 
directing  the  minds  of  the  poor  and  ignorant  to 
their  duties  in  respect  to  themselves  and  to  each 
other.  See  Endemic  for  further  observations  on 
this  subject;  also  Contagion,  Infection,  Fever, 
Cholera,  &c. 

EPIDEMIC  MENTAL  DISEASES.  When  w« 
consider  how  ordinary  and  normal  thoughts  and 
emotions  spread  from  one  man  to  many,  and  sway 
multitudes  to  the  same  views  and  actions,  it  is  no 
longer  a  mystery  that  morbid  conditions  of  the 
mind  should  become  at  times  no  less  epidemic  than 
physical  diseases.  Such,  at  least,  is  the  fact.  A 
mental  disorder  may  spread  from  man  to  man,  and 
may  involve  whole  nations.  It  depends  for  its 
propagation,  like  an  epidemic  disease,  first  uj)on 
external  circumstances,  and  secondly,  upon  the 
peculiar  condition  or  constitution  of  the  individuals 
affected.  Like  the  bodily  affection,  the  causes 
which  provoke  the  insanity  and  the  tendency  to  be 
affected  may  have  been  in  process  of  development 
for  years.  Both  attack  the  weak  rather  than  the 
strong ;  both  exist  for  a  season,  and  disai)pear.  In 
the  case  of  the  mental  malad}",  the  external  influ- 
ences— those  which  constitute  the  moral  atmosphere 
— are  ignorance  or  imperfect  knowledge,  the  power 
of  one  mind  over  another,  the  influence  of  language, 
the  diffusion  of  particular  opinions,  the  tendency  to 
imitate.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  physical 
causes  exercise  an  important  influence  in  the  pro- 
duction of  such  general  mental  conditions.  In  1842 
and  1844,  there  occurred  in  Germany  and  France, 
among  the  military,  epidemics  of  meningitis  with 
delirium,  or  inflammation  of  the  membranes  of  the 
brain,  wdien  no  moral  factors  were  at  work,  but 
when  diet,  temperature,  &:c.  were.  But  even  where 
the  origin  cannot  be  so  distinctly  traced,  the  co-oper- 
ation of  external  as  M'ell  as  psychical  agents  may  be 
legitimately  piedicated.  It  woxild  accordingly  be 
illogical  to  limit  the  production  of  the  Dancing  Mania 
(q.  v.),  which  occasionally,  during  several  centuries, 
swept  over  Europe,  to  the  reaction  succeeding  the 
dread  of  the  end  of  the  world,  which  had  previously 
prevailed  epidemically.  An  examination  of  about  a 
hundred  manifestations  such  as  that  alluded  to, 
collected  from  various  sources,  demonstrates  that 
not  merely  the  intoxication  of  joy,  but  the  most 
absurd  forms  of  belief — that  dreams,  delusions, 
superstitions,  corruptions  of  language,  all  instincts 
and  passions,  even  movements  and  cries,  may  assume 
the  fonn,  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  may  follow  the 
laws  of  epidemic  diseases.  In  far-distant  ages, 
there  are  records  of  a  histrionic  plague,  v/hen,  after 
a  summer  of  intense  heat,  all  conceived  themselves 
players,  and  traversed  the  streets,  and  sunk  and 
died,  repeating  verses,  and  exhiljiting  extravagant 
gesticulations ;  of  whole  communities  being  stricken 
with  nightmare,  which  was  so  general  as  to  be 
supposed  and  called  contagious.  There  have  been 
epidemics  of  homicidal  and  suicidal  mania.  In  one 
age,  hundreds  are  found  possessed  by  Satan ;  in 
another,  larger  numbers  con  verted  into  wol  ves  ;  and 
ill  recent  times,  the  leaping  ague  of  Forfarshire,  and 
i^utbursts  of  pyromauia  in  various  places,  remind 
us  that  there  may  be  still  in  the  constitution  of  the 
human  mind,  and  in  the  education  and  the  habita 
of  life  prevaihng,  elements  capable  of  reahsing  the 
catastrojihe  suggested  by  Bishop  Butler's  question : 
What  is  to  prevent  a  whole  nation  becoming  mad? 
The  instances  of  e])idemic  mental  disease  recorded 
in  the  following  table,  have  been  selected  from  a 


EPIDEMIC  MENTAL  DISEASES—EPIDERMIS. 


vast  number  of  others,  with  a  view  of  showing  not  range  of  the  phenomenon  through  the  powers  and 
the  frct^uency  or  extent  of  such  affection,  but  the  |  propensities  of  our  nature. 


Popular  Name. 

Form  of  Disease. 

Year. 

Number  Affected. 

Authority. 

St.  Vitua'— St.  John's  Dance,  .  .  . 

WolP-iiiadness,  

PosiieHsioii,  

Convulsionaries  of  St.  Medard,  .  . 

AVitchcrai't,  

Suicide  

Choreamania. 

Lycaiithropia. 

Do  monomania. 

Theomania. 

Pyromania. 

Domonopathia. 

Melancholia. 

Delusions. 
Panphobia. 

1274. 

15-23. 

1642,  etc. 

1731. 

1800. 

Various. 

1845. 

Hundreds. 
(( 

Many. 
Thousands. 

Many. 
Many. 

Ilecker. 
Calmiel. 
(1 

Ci 

Mai  c. 
Various. 
Esquirol. 
Brierede. 
l<»)i8nK)nt. 
Edin.  Jievicw, 
[  1849. 

There  appears  to  be  no  guarantee  that  the  present 
and  future  generations  shall  be  exempted  from 
similar  visitations,  except  in  the  universal  diffusion 
of  knowledge  and  sound  tliinking,  for  it  is  invariably 
in  the  darkness  of  ignorance  or  in  the  twilight  of 
imperfect  knowledge  that  the  moral  plague  comes. — 
Heckcr's  Epidemica  of  the  Middle  A(jes;  Calmiel, 
Dc  la  Folie  consideree  sous  le  Point  de  Vue  Patholo- 
gique,  Philosophique,  Historique  et  Judiciaire,  depuis 
la  Ihaaissance  des  Sciences  en  Europe  jusq'au  dix- 
neuvienie  Siede,  &c. ;  Psychological  Journal^  and 
fassim. 

EPIDE'RMIS  (Gr.  epi,  upon,  and  derma,  the 
skin),  a  semi-transparent  membrane,  containing 
neither  vessels  nor  nerves,  and  everywhere  forming 
an  external  covering  to  the  corium  or  true  skin. 
See  Skin.  The  epidermis  is  called  in  ordinary 
language  the  scarf-skin.  It  consists  of  two  layers, 
chemically  and  moriihologically  distinct — viz.,  the 
mucous  layer,  which  lies  immediately  upon  the 
corium,  and  the  horny  layer,  which  forms  the 
outermost  surface  of  the  body. 

TJie  mucous  layer  (known  formerly  as  the  rete 
nnicosiim.  s.  Malpujhianum)  is  of  a  whitish  or 
slightly  brown  tint  (in  the  Negro,  dark  gray  or 
black),  and  is  composed  of  smaU  soft  cells.  The 


Perpendicular  Section  of  the  Skin  of  the  Leg  of  a  Negro : 

Magnified  250  diameters. 

0,  o,  papillae  of  the  cutis  ;  ft,  deepest  intensely  coloured  layer  of 
perpendicularly  elongated  cells  of  the  mucous  layer ;  c,  upper 
stratum  of  the  same  layer ;      horny  layer. 

innermost  of  these  cells,  resting  on  the  surface  of 
the  corium,  are  elongated  and  arranged  perpen- 
dicularly ;  upon  these  follow  elongated  or  roundish 
cells  in  many  layers,  which,  in  proportion  to  their 
digtano(j  from  the  corium,  acquire,  from  their  mutual 


pressure,  a  polygonal  form,  which  may  even  Le 
recognised  in  individual  cells. 

All  the  cells  in  the  mucous  layer  are  nucleated 
vesicles  distended  with  fluid,  and  likewise  contain- 
ing minute  granules,  which  diminish  in  nvmiber  in 
the  more  external  cells. 

The  horny  layer  forms  the  external  semi-trans- 
parent  part  of  the  epidermis,  which  in  the  white 
races  is  colourless,  and  is  composed  almost  wholly 
of  uniform  ce.'ls,  metamorphosed  into  ])late3  or 
scales.  The  deepest  ])lates  in  some  degree  resemble 
the  u])permost  cells  of  the  mucous  layer;  but  in  the 
second  or  third  layer  we  find  the  flattening  com- 
mence; till  at  length,  after  a  gradual  series  of  modi- 
fications, we  have  the  hard,  horny  scales  which 
occur  on  the  surface,  where  they  are  regularly  cast 
off  with  more  or  less  rapidity,  and  replaced  by 
those  beneath  them.* 

The  colour  of  the  epidermis  differs  in  different 
persons  and  in  different  parts  of  the  body.  It  is 
deepest  around  the  nipple,  especially  in  women 
during  pregnancy  and  after  they  have  borne  children. 
A  more  or  less  dark  pigment  is  often  deposited,  in 
persons  who  are  exposed  to  the  sun,  in  the  face, 
neck,  back  of  the  hands,  &c.  These  tints  are  not 
produced  by  special  pigment-cells,  but  are  seated 
in  the  common  cells  of  the  mucous  layer,  round 
whose  nuclei  granular  pigment  is  deposited.  In 
the  Negro  and  the  other  coloured  races,  it  is 
also  only  the  epidermis  which  is  coloured,  while 
the  corium  completely  resembles  that  of  Europeans. 
The  perpendicvUar  cells  (see  h  in  the  figiu-e)  are 
the  darkest,  and  form  a  sharply  marked  fringe 
at  the  edge  of  the  clear  corium.  To  these  succeed 
brown  cells,  which  accumidate  in  the  depressions 
between  the  papillaj,  and  as  we  aj^proach  the  horny 
layer,  we  have  yellowish  cells.  The  horny  layer 
of  the  Negro  also  inclines  to  a  yeUow  or  brownish 
tint. 

Morbid  coloration  of  the  epidermis  (freckles, 
mother's  marks,  &c.)  is  produced  in  the  same  way 
as  the  colour  of  the  Negro's  skin.  Nimiexoua 
instances  of  partially  or  entirely  white  Negices  and 
of  black  Europeans,  not  as  a  consequence  of  change 
of  climate  but  as  an  abnormal  condition  of  the  skin, 
are  on  record. 

The  thickness  of  the  epidermis  varies  extremely. 
While  \ipon  the  cheeks,  brow,  and  eyelids,  it  varies 
from  T^th  to  ^th.  of  a  line,  on  the  palm  of  the  hand 
it  ranges  from  -^d  to  ^  a  line,  and  on  the  sole  of  the 
foot  sometimes  even  exceeds  a  line.  In  some  j)arta 
of  the  body  the  horny  layer  is  thicker  than  the 
mucous  ;  in  other,  the  mucous  is  the  thicker  of  the 
two.    As  the  chief  use  of  the  epidermis  is  that  of 

*  In  reptiles  and  amphibians,  this  layer  is  periodically 
cast  off  in  a  more  or  less  entire  state,  a  new  one  being 
previously  formed  beneath  it ;  and  in  man,  desquama- 
tion in  large  patches  often  occm-s  after  certain  diseases, 
especially  scaxiatina. 


EPIDOTE-EPILEPSY. 


af* 'rding  protection  to  the  soft  and  tender  subjacent 
ports,  it  attains  its  greatest  thickness  on  those 
portions  of  the  body  (the  palm  of  the  hand  and  the 
sole  of  the  foot)  which  are  most  exposed  to  pressure 
and  friction. 

In  plants,  as  in  animals,  the  epidermis  is  formed 
of  flattened  cells,  of  which  also  new  layers  are  con- 
tinually produced  from  the  bark  below,  whilst  the 
outer  ones  dry  up,  lose  their  vitality,  and  peel  off, 
crack  and  split  off,  or  otherwise  become  separated 
from  the  living  organism.  The  cells  of  the  epidermis 
are  often  enlarged  outwards,  so  as  to  form  projec- 
tions, sometimes  very  slight,  sometimes  elongated 
into  Hairs  (q.  v.).  Glands  (q.  v.)  are  also  connected 
with  the  ej)idermi3,  sometimes  by  the  intervention 
of  hairs,  sometimes  without,  and  in  this  way  it 
contributes  to  the  secretion  of  substances  formed  in 
j)lants  by  the  wonderful  chemistry  of  nature,  and  on 
which  their  value  to  man  often  greatly  depends. 
The  cells  of  the  epidermis  are  usually  filled  with  a 
colourless  fluid,  but  resinous  and  waxy  substances 
are  sometimes  found  in  them,  and  sometimes  silica 
(as  in  grasses  and  Equisetaceie),  sometimes  carbonate 
of  lime  (as  in  the  Gharas).  The  epidermis  is  pierced 
by  Stomata  (q.  v.).  When  the  epidermis  of  plants 
is  subjected  to  prolonged  maceration,  it  can  often 
be  made  to  separate  into  two  parts ;  one,  which  is 
more  strictly  called  the  epidermis,  being  the  inner, 
lower,  and  thicker  membrane ;  the  other,  which  is 
.:;alled  the  Pellicle  or  Cuticle,  being  very  thin,  and 
extending  continuously  over  every  part  of  the  plant 
except  where  it  is  pierced  by  the  stomata.  Thus, 
this  superficial  pellicle  invests  even  the  finest  hairs. 
In  some  of  the  Algce,  it  seems  to  constitute  the 
whole  integument.  In  the  greater  number  of  plants, 
the  epidermis  is  thin  and  soft,  but  sometimes  it  is 
thick,  and  sometimes  hard. 

E'PIDOTE,  a  mineral  allied  to  garnet,  composed 
of  silica  and  alimiina,  with  a  considerable  proportion 
of  lime,  or  of  peroxide  of  iron,  or  of  peroxide  of  man- 
ganese. These  diversities  of  composition  constitute 
three  very  distinct  varieties ;  and  of  these  there  are 
sub-varieties,  differing  in  colour  and  other  parti- 
culars [Pistacite,  BucUonclite,  Withamite,  Zoisite,  &c.). 
E.  is  sometimes  found  massive,  foliated,  columnar, 
granular,  or  incrusting;  often  crystallised.  Its 
ciystals  are  prisms,  variously  modified.  Its  preva- 
lent colours  are  green,  yellow,  and  gray,  but  some 
of  the  varieties  are  red  and  black.  It  is  found  in 
gneiss,  syenite,  trap,  and*  other  rocks  in  a  number 
of  localities  in  Scotland,  and  in  many  parts  of  the 
world. 

EPIGA'STRIUM  (Gr.  epi,  over,  and  gaster,  the 
etomach),  the  part  of  the  Abdomen  (q.  v.)  which 
chiefly  corresponds  to  the  situation  of  the  stomach, 
extL\'i(liug  from  the  Sternum  (q.  v.)  towards  the 
Navel  or  Umbilicus  (q.  v.),  and  bounded  on  each  side 
by  the  Hjqiochonders  (q.  v.).  It  is  called  in  popular 
language  the  pit  of  the  stomach. 

EPIGE'NESIS  (Gr.  epi,  upon,  and  jrewms,  a  forma- 
tion), a  formation  upon,  or  in  addition  to,  previously 
existing  parts.  The  word  is  applied  in  physiology 
to  that  theory  of  new  formations  in  organised  beings 
which  Bupjioses  them  to  spring  from  superadded 
centres  of  vital  activity,  as  opposed  to  the  theory 
which  presumes  that  the  new  is  formed  by  a 
development  or  modification  of  the  old  structure. 
See  liErRODUCTiON. 

EPIGLO  TTIS.   See  Larynx. 

E  PIGRAM,  a  word  derived  from  the  Greek, 
and  literally  signifying  an  '  inscription.'  In  point 
of  fact,  the  epigrams  of  the  Greeks  were  simply 
inscriptions  on  tomljs,  statues,  and  monuments, 
vritten  in  ^erse,  and  marked  by  great  simplicity 


of  style,  but  having  nothing  in  common  with  what 
now  passes  under  the  name.  It  was  among  the 
Romans  that  the  epigram  first  assumed  a  satirical 
character.  Catullus  and  Martial  are  reckoned 
the  best  Latin  epigrammatists.  In  modem  times, 
an  epigram  is  understood  to  be  a  very  short  j)oe\n« 
generally  from  two  to  eight  lines,  containmg  a 
witty  or  ingenious  thought  expressed  in  pointed 
phraseology,  and  in  general  reserving  the  essence 
of  the  wit  to  the  close,  as  the  serpent  is  fabled 
to  keep  its  sting  in  its  tail.  The  French  excel  all 
other  nations  in  this  kind  of  poetry.  Their  earliest 
epigrammatist  of  any  note  was  Clement  Marot 
(1495—1544)  ;  their  best  are  Boileau,  Voltaire,  and 
Piron.  The  epigrams  of  German  writers  are  for  the 
most  part  happily  expressed  moral  proverbs,  but  the 
Xenien  of  Schiller  and  Goethe  contain  not  a  few 
sharp  and  biting  verses  of  a  satirical  character.  In 
Britain,  Pope,  Burns,  Byron,  Moore,  and  other  writers 
have  shewn  a  remarkable  power  of  e])igrammatin 
satire. 

E'PIGRAPH  (Gr.  ept,  upon,  and  grapho,  I 
write),  a  terse  inscription  placed  upon  architectural 
or  other  monuments,  for  the  purpose  of  denoting 
their  use  or  appropriation,  and  very  frequently 
worked  in  and  forming  part  of  their  ornamental 
details. 

E'PILEPSY  (Gr.  epi,  upon,  and  lamhano,  future, 
lepso,  I  seize),  a  form  of  disease  characterised  by 
sudden  insensibility,  with  convulsive  movements  of 
the  volvmtary  muscles,  and  occasionally  arrest  of 
the  breathing,  owing  to  spasm  of  the  muscles  of 
respiration,  and  temporary  closure  of  the  Glottis 
(q.  v.).  Epilepsy  was  called  by  the  ancient  Greeks 
the  '  sacred  disease.'  Owing  to  the  mysterious 
and  extraordinary  character  of  the  convulsion  of 
ei)ilepsy,  it  was  always,  in  ancient  times,  sup- 
posed to  be  due  in  a  very  special  manner  to  the 
influence  of  the  gods,  or  of  evil  spirits  ;  Hippo- 
crates, however,  combats  this  idea  in  a  special 
treatise,  in  which  he  maintains  that  epilepsy  is 
no  more  and  no  less  divine  than  all  other  dis- 
eases. The  same  idea  of  the  specially  supernatural 
character  of  epilepsy  is  shewn  forth  in  the  deeply 
rooted  oriental  notion  of  demoniac  possessio».  See 
Demoniacs.  Epilepsy  is  often  called,  in  modern 
language,  the  '  falling  sickness,'  and  this  name  is  not 
only  descriptive  of  one  of  its  most  striking  pheno- 
mena, but  also  points  distinctly  to  the  most  obvious 
danger  of  the  fit.  The  patient  is  seized,  without 
reference  to  his  condition  or  occupation  at  the 
moment,  with  insensibility,  often  so  complete  and 
sudden  as  to  lead  to  serious  accidents  and  bodily 
injuries ;  in  the  most  aggravated  cases,  he  has  no 
premonitory  sensations  whatever,  but  falls  down 
without  any  attempt  to  save  himself,  and  usually 
with  a  wild  inarticulate  cry  of  some  kind,  imme- 
diately after  which  the  face  is  violently  distorted, 
the  head  drawn  towards  one  or  other  shoulder, 
and  the  whole  body  convulsed.  These  convulsions 
follow  in  rapid  succession  for  a  few  minutes,  and 
are  attended  by  foaming  at  the  mouth,  and  by 
great  lividity,  or,  in  some  cases,  livid  pallor,  which, 
with  the  irregular  spasmodic  movements  of  the  lips, 
nostrils,  and  eyes,  give  a  frightfully  ghastly  expres* 
sion  to  the  countenance,  and  almost  invariably  lead 
the  bystanders  to  an  exaggerated  idea  of  the  imme- 
diate danger  of  the  fit.  The  immediate  danger  is, 
in  reality,  not  great,  excepting  that  the  sudden 
attack  may  lead  to  an  injurious  or  fatal  faU ;  the 
tongue,  however,  may  be  bitten  if  protruded  during 
the  convulsion,  or  the  patient  may  be  so  placed 
as  to  injure  himself  seriously  by  the  repeated  and 
unconscious  movements  of  his  body,  or  he  may 
suffocate  himself  by  accidentally  falling  with  hia 


EPILEPSY. 


face  in  water,  or  othei-wistf  closing  up  the  mouth 
and  nostrils,  or  by  dragging  upon  a  tightened  neck- 
cloth. Care  should  be  always  taken  to  avoid 
these  accidents  by  keeping  the  epileptic  as  much  as 
possible  within  view  of  persons  acquainted  with 
his  condition,  and  able  to  give  such  assistance 
as  may  be  required ;  as  well  as  by  warning  the 
patient  himself  to  avoid  all  places  in  which  a  fall 
would  be  especially  dangerous.  But  when  an  un- 
Bkilled  person  happens  to  witness  a  fit  of  epilepsy, 
he  will  do  well  to  remember  that  beyond  the  simplest 
And  most  obvious  precautions  against  the  dangers 
mentioned  above,  there  is  literally  nothing  to  be 
done  ;  and  any  attempt  to  rouse  the  patient  by 
violent  stimuli,  as  ammonia  apphed  to  the  nostrils, 
or  by  dashing  water  in  the  face,  or,  still  more,  by 
administering  medicines  hastily  recommended  by  the 
ignorant  and  thouglitless,  is  almost  certain  to  do  more 
hann  than  good.  The  tongue  should  be  looked  to,  a 
piece  of  cork  or  other  gag  being,  if  necessary,  inserted 
between  the  teeth ;  the  patient  should  be  then 
placed  on  a  mattress  or  other  soft  place  near  the 
ground ;  his  neckcloth  should  be  removed,  and  the 
dress  loosened  round  the  chest ;  the  head  should  be, 
if  possible,  a  little  raised,  and  a  free  circulation  of 
air  maintained  (this  last  precaution  being  very  apt 
to  be  neglected  in  case  of  a  crowd)  ;  with  these 
tilings  done,  it  may  be  safely  affirmed  that  in  the 
vast  majority  of  epileptic  cases  nothing  has  been  left 
undone  which  will  conduce  to  recovery.  The  ordi- 
nary course  of  the  fit  (which  usually  lasts  from  five 
to  twenty  minutes  altogether)  is  as  follows :  the 
convulsions  gradually  diminish  in  intensity,  and 
the  patient  passes  into  a  state  of  deep  but  motion- 
less stupor,  with  dilated  pupils,  and  sometimes,  but 
not  always,  with  snoring  or  noisy  breathing ;  the 
foaming  at  the  mouth  ceases,  the  colour  gradually 
returns,  and  this  state  leads  to  recovery  through 
a  more  or  less  protracted,  but  apparently  natural 
Bleep,  the  patient,  on  awaking,  being  often  quite 
unconscious  that  he  has  been  the  subject  of  any 
anxiety,  or,  indeed,  in  any  unusual  condition  what- 
ever. Although  in  all  cases  of  true  epilepsy  there 
is  a  stage  of  complete  Coma  (q.  v.),  or  unconscious- 
ness, yet  the  fit  is  often  very  transient,  and  but 
little  attended  by  convulsion,  being  also  less  sudden 
than  above  described,  and  not  necessarily  causing 
a  fall  to  the  ground ;  in  some  cases,  also,  fits  of 
greater  intensity  are  preceded  by  certain  premoni- 
tory symptoms  or  peculiar  sensations,  which  act 
as  warnings  to  the  patient  himself,  and  lead  him  to 
place  himself  in  a  position  of  safety  on  the  approach 
of  the  paroxysm.  Havdng  in  view  these  distinc- 
tions (which  are  certainly  of  considerable  practical 
im})ortance),  the  French  language,  both  popular  and 
scientific,  has  adopted  the  terms  of  grand  mal  and 
pd.it  mal  (i.  e.,  great  and  little  e\al),  as  characterising 
the  more  and  less  dangerous  forms  of  epilepsy 
respectively.  The  sensations  which  prc^ed.e  the  fit 
in  some  epileptics  have  been  termed  in  Latin  the 
aura  (i.e.,  breath)  epileptica,  from  their  supposed 
resemblance  to  a  current  of  cold  air  passing  over  the 
body,  and  proceeding  from  the  extremities  towards 
the  head.  This  desc-rijrtion  does  not,  however,  hold 
good  in  all  cases ;  and  not  unfrequently,  as  men- 
tioned above,  there  is  no  aura,  or  unusual  sensation 
of  any  kind,  preceding  the  fit.  It  must  be  mentioned, 
however,  as  bearing  on  treatment,  and  as  being  quite 
within  the  bounds  of  popular  medicine,  that  some  ol 
the  most  ancient  authorities  assert  strongly  the 

{)Ower  of  a  tight  bandage,  placed  suddenly  upon  the 
irab  in  which  the  aura  begins,  to  cvit  short,  or  even 
to  prevent  altogether,  the  fit  of  epilepsy.  Although 
iliis  alleged  fact  has  often  been  regarded  as  doubt- 
ful, it  has  never  been  altogether  discredited,  and 
baa  of  late  years  been  brought  into  renewed  notice 


by  good  observers.  It  is  even  maintained  that 
such  a  bandage,  placed  experimentally  upon  one  or 
other  of  the  limbs,  and  tightened  on  the  appioach 
of  a  fit,  has  been  found  effective  in  some  cases  in 
which  there  was  no  distinctly  local  sensation ;  and 
epileptics  have  been  repeatedly  convinced  of  the 
propriety  of  habitually  wearing  a  bandage  loosely 
applied  upon  the  arm,  which  they  have  been  able, 
by  carefully  watching  their  own  sensations,  and  by 
being  watched  in  turn  by  others,  to  get  tightened 
at  the  proper  time.  There  is  no  doubt  room  for 
fallacy  in  these  observations,  but  they  may  safely 
be  commended  to  notice,  as  involving  no  possiblw 
risk  of  mischief,  and  as  far  more  worthy  of  extended 
trial  than  the  great  majority  of  popular  remedies  ia 
epilepsy. 

But  the  fit  and  its  treatment  form  only  a  part  o£ 
the  anxieties  which  arise  out  of  a  case  of  epilepsy. 
The  ultimate  danger  of  the  disease  has  little  rela- 
tion to  the  severity  of  the  individual  fits,  except  in 
the  modified  sense  explained  above  ;  the  frequency 
of  the  attacks  being  apparently  much  more  apt  tc 
influence  the  duration  of  life  than  their  character. 
Indeed,  although  epileptics  may  survive  severa. 
severe  paroxysms  at  distant  intervals,  and  recover 
in  the  end  with  an  apparently  unbroken  constitution, 
it  rarely  happens  that  very  frequently  repeated 
attacks,  even  of  the  petit  mal,  are  unattended  by 
some  permanent  depreciation  of  the  powers  of  mind 
or  of  body.  The  most  frequent,  perhaps,  of  all  the 
more  serious  consequences  of  confirmed  epilepsy  ia 
Insanity  (q.  v.),  sometimes  assuming  the  form  of 
acute  mania  or  monomania  following  the  attacks, 
but  quite  as  frequently  tending  to  gradual  imbecility 
without  any  acute  seizure.  Sometimes  the  develop- 
ment of  the  epileptic  insanity,  or  dementia,  ia 
attended  by  palsy,  and  other  indications  of  struc- 
tural disorder  of  the  brain;  in  other  instances,  no 
such  consequences  occur,  and  the  brain  aft<;r  death 
may  be  found  to  have  very  little  tangible  disease, 
or  only  such  disease  as  is  foimd  in  numerous  other 
cases  of  functional  derangement.  Very  often,  even 
when  the  mind  remains  tolerably  entire,  there  is 
loss  of  memory,  and  a  certain  want  of  acuteness  and 
depression  of  spirits,  which  unfit  the  individual  for 
the  regular  business  of  life.  Disorders  of  the  diges- 
tion are  also  not  uncommon ;  and  there  is  frequently 
a  want  of  tone  and  vigour  in  all  the  bodily  func- 
tions, which  communicates  a  habitual  expression  of 
languor  and  reserve  to  the'epileptic.  Added  to  this, 
it  can  hardly  be  matter  of  suri)rise  that  the  know- 
ledge of  his  infirmity  should  deeply  influe.rice  the 
mind  of  the  epileptic,'  and  produce  a  dists.ste  for 
active  occupations,  especially  for  such  as  expose  him 
to  more  than  ordinary  observation. 

The  causes  and  the  radical  cure  of  epilepsy  are 
almost  equally  involved  in  mystery.  It  has  been 
supposed  by  some  to  be  dependent  on  an  increased 
afflux  of  blood  to  the  brain ;  while  by  other  observera 
and  pathological  authorities  it  has  been  attributed, 
with  about  equal  force  of  reasoning,  to  precis(jly 
the  opposite  condition.  Certain  cases  undoubtedly 
depend  upon  organic  disease,  as  tumours  or  injuries 
to  the  brain  and  its  membranes,  more  especially 
near  the  surface.  Local  sources  of  irritation  in 
other  parts  of  the  body  have  also  been  supposed 
to  be  exciting  causes  of  epilepsj'^ ;  and  cases  are 
recorded  in  which  the  disease  has  been  cured  by  the 
amputation  of  a  finger  or  the  division  of  a  nerve. 
The  attention  of  recent  obsei"vers  has  l)een  especially 
directed  to  the  medulla  oblongata  and  Spinal  Cord 
(q.  v.),  as  being  the  most  probable  physiological  seata 
of  a  disease  so  decidedly  marked  by  convulsive 
movements.  But  as  yet  little  more  than  the  most 
vague  theoretical  inferences  can  be  drawn  from  their 
researches  as  to  the  cause  eithei    ."^    the  morbid 


EPILEPSY— EPILOBIXTM. 


tendency  in  epilepsy  or  of  the  paroxysm.  One  of 
thb  most  curions  and  suggestive  of  these  recent 
facts  is  tl'  e  experiment  of  Brown-Sequard,  shewing 
that  epilepsy,  or  a  state  closely  resembling  it,  may 
be  induced  in  certain  animals  by  division  of  certain 
poi-iioD**  of  the  spinal  cord,  the  artificial  disease  con- 
tiuidn/),  long  after  the  primary  effects  of  the  injury 
have  ooased.  A  still  more  curious  and  inexplicable 
phenomenon  has  resulted  from  the  multiplication  of 
Buch  experiments ;  for  Brown-Sequard  has  shewn 
that  in  guinea-pigs  this  artificial  epilepsy  is  some- 
times propagated  to  the  offspring,  becoming,  hke  the 
natural  disease,  a  hereditary  and  congenital  morbid 
tendency.  On  these  strange  facts  it  woidd  be  pre- 
mature to  indulge  in  speculation  in  this  place,  but 
thair  great  impoi-tance  can  hardly  be  overlooked. 

The  condition  of  the  epileptic  seems  to  be 
favourably  affected  by  everything  which  conduces 
to  a  quiet  and  hopeful  state  of  the  mind,  and  to  a 
vigorous  conchtion  of  the  body.  The  treatment  of 
the  disease  should  therefore,  in  general  terms,  be  of 
the  kind  termed  Tonic  (q.v.),  and  shoidd  be  adapted 
with  care,  and  after  very  minute  and  careful  inquiry, 
to  the  removal  of  all  the  special  bad  habits,  and 
occasional  causes  of  depression,  which  tend  to  bring 
the  system  into  a  condition  hdov.i  par,  in  the  indi- 
vidual case.  Tlie  influence  of  a  happy  and  quiet 
domestic  life,  without  unhealthy  excitement,  and 
with  proper  occupations,  varied  by  amusement  and 
exercise  in  the  open  air,  can  hardly  be  over- 
estimated. The  mari'iage  of  epileptics  is,  however, 
not  too  readily  to  be  sanctioned,  as  it  has  been 
known  to  be  followed,  not  only  by  an  increase  of 
the  disease,  but  by  its  transmission  to  a  consider- 
able portion  of  the  family.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
too  absolute  rule  on  this  subject  is  not  without  its 
dangers,  and  perhaps  the  practical  difficulties  of 
the  question  are  not  to  be  met  b}"-  any  defined  or 
dogmatic  expression  of  opinion,  founded  on  the 
general  pathology  of  the  disease.  If  the  tendency 
exist,  even  slightly  developed,  upon  both  sides  in 
buch  a  connection,  it  needs  hardly  be  stated  that 
the  dciugers  of  transmission  to  the  descendants  is 
increased  in  a  very  great  degree.  Hence,  inter- 
marriages vjithin  epileptic  families  must  be  regarded 
as  always  in  the  highest  degree  imprudent.  Parents 
and  guardians  are  undoubtedly  justified  in  making 
this  disease  an  object  of  special  solicitude,  and 
reserve  or  concealment  on  this  subject  on  either 
bide,  in  the  case  of  a  proposed  marriage,  should  be 
regarded  as  equally  dishonourable  with  any  other 
form  of  deception  in  a  matter  so  important  to  the 
welfare  of  society  and  of  the  parties  concerned. 

According  to  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  respected 
of  American  physicians  (Dr  Jackson  of  Boston), 
the  epileptic  tendency  may  often  be  successfully 
treated  by  the  systematic  use  of  an  exclusively 
vegetable  diet,  or  by  a  very  considerable  reduction 
of  the  proportion  of  animal  food.  Among  the  innu- 
merable remedies  recommended  by  authorities,  the 
salts  of  iron  and  zinc  have  perhaps  the  largest 
amount  of  experience  in  their  favour ;  and  Counter- 
irritants  (q.  V.)  to  the  nape  of  the  neck,  or  between 
the  shoultlers,  either  by  blistering,  or  by  the  use 
of  the  seton,  or  even  the  actual  cautery,  has  been 
often  followed  by  prolonf^jation  of  the  intervals,  or 
decrease  in  the  severity  of  the  fits.  Dr.  Chapman's 
application  of  ice,  in  caoutchouc  bags,  to  the  spine  has 
proved  efficacious,  while  the  other  modes  prescribed 
have  often  produced  temporary  relief  without  perma- 
nent influence  on  the  course  of  the  disease. 

Some  of  the  Loioer  Animals  are  subject  to 
epilejitic  fits.  The  disease  is  common  in  dogs 
and  highly  bred  Y>^gs.  The  creatures  writhe  wi^h 
involuntary  spasms,  and  arc  for  the  time  without 
li^i^ht  or  hearing.    Sometimes  the  muscles  of  the 


throat  are  so  involved  that  fatal  suffocation  occTira. 
The  attack  is  generally  preceded  by  dulnesa.  and 
lasts  from  ten  to  thirty  minutes.  It  ia  gener- 
ally traceable  to  toq)idity  or  irregidarity  of  the 
bowels,  worms,  debility,  or  plethora.  In  dogs,  it  ia 
a  frequent  sequel  of  distemper.  In  cattle,  it  usually 
occurs  in  connection  with  the  engorgement  of  the 
first  or  third  stomachs ;  they  throw  themselvea 
violently  about,  bellowing  loudly,  but  seldom  die. 
It  is  rare  in  horses,  and  differs  from  megrims,  for 
which  it  is  often  mistaken,  but  in  which  there 
are  no  spasms.  The  treatment  consists  in  freely 
opening  the  bowels,  removing  worms,  if  any  aro 
present,  enjoining  bleeding  and  spare  diet,  if  the 
j^atient's  condition  is  high,  and  generous  feeding  and 
tonics  where  it  is  low.  The  best  preventives  are 
carefuUy  regulated  diet,  an  occasional  laxative,  with 
a  course  of  tonics,  and  especially  of  arsenic. 

EPILO'BIUM,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natm-al 
order  Onagracece,  having  four  deciduous  calycine 
segments  ;  four  petals ;  a  much  elongated,  4-sided, 
4-celled,  4-valved,  many-seeded  capsule  ;  and  seeds 
tufted  with  hairs  at  one  end.  The  species  are 
herbaceous  perennials,  natives  of  temperate  and 
cold  countries,  and  very  widely  diffused  both  in  the 
northern  and  in  the  southern  hemisphere.  Some  of 
them  are  very  ornamental,  from  the  beauty  of  their 
flowers.  Most  of  the  British  species  have  small 
flowers,  and  some  of  them  are  very  common  in 
moist  places.  K  angiistifolium,  which  differs  from 
all  the  other  British  species  in  having  the  petaJa 


Epilobimn  Angustifolium : 
1,  a  flovrer ;  2,  a  longitudinal  section  of  a  tlower,  shewinf  ttSM 
arrangement  of  the  ovules  in  the  germen  ;  3,  a  seed. 

dissimilar  in  shape  and  size,  is  frequently  planted  in 
gardens  and  shrubberies,  on  account  of  its  numer- 
ous and  beautiful  rose-coloured  flowers;  but  ita 
creeping  roots  are  apt  to  ovenun  a  flower-garden. 
It  is  sometimes  called  French  Willow,  from  the 
resemblance  of  its  stems  and  leaves  to  some  kinds 
of  willow,  and  the  name  Willow-herb  is  often 
extended  to  the  whole  genus.  It  is  found  in  very 
northern  regions,  and  its  leaves  and  young  shoots 
are  sometimes  a  grateful  addition  to  the  meala 
of  the  arctic  traveller,  although  not  hkely  to  bo 
relished  in  almost  any  other  circumstances.  The 
pith,  when  dried,  yields  a  quantity  of  sugar  to  boil- 
ing water,  and  is  used  in  Kamtchatka  for  making 
1  a  kind  of  ale,  from  which  also  vinegar  is  made. 


EPILOUUE-EPIRUa 


■  E'PILOGUE  (Gr.  epi,  upon  or  after,  and  logos,  a 
speech)  means,  in  oratory,  the  summing  up  or  con- 
clusion of  a  discourse ;  but,  in  conneotiou  -with  the 
drama,  it  denotes  the  short  speech  in  prose  or  verse 
whicli  frequently,  in  former  times,  was  subjoined 
to  plays,  especially  to  comedies.  The  epilogue  was 
always  merry  and  familiar  in  its  tone,  and  was 
intended  to  establish  a  kindly  understanding  between 
the  actor  and  the  audience,  as  well  as  to  conciliate 
the  latter  for  the  faults  of  the  play,  if  there  were 
any,  and  to  send  them  away  in  good-humour.  One 
of  the  neatest  and  prettiest  epilogues  ever  written, 
and  one  which  completely  realises  what  an  epilogue 
should  be,  is  tliat  spoken  by  Rosalind  at  the 
conclusion  of  Shakspeare's  As  You  Like  It. 

EPIME'NIDES,  a  Greek  poot  and  priest,  bom 
probably  at  Phasstus  in  Crete,  in  the  Gth  or  7th  c. 
B.C.,  and  lived  at  Cnossus.  His  history  has  only 
reached  us  in  a  mythical  form.  He  is  said  to  have 
fallen  asleep  in  a  cave  when  a  boy,  and  not  to 
have  wakened  for  57  years.  Like  Ilip  Van  Winkle, 
he  was  naturally  much  astonished  and  perplexed 
on  his  return  to  broad  daylight.  His  period  of 
slumber,  however,  had  not  passed  away  unprofit- 
ably.  His  soul,  disengaging  itself  from  its  fleshly 
prison,  betook  itself  in  the  interval  to  the  study  of 
medicine  and  natural  philosophy ;  and  when  it  had 
shuflled  on  again  its  mortal  coil,  E.  found  himself 
a  man  of  great  knowledge  and  wisdom.  Goethe 
has  written  a  poem  on  the  subject,  Des  Epimenides 
Envachen.  E.  went  to  Athens  about  596  B.C., 
where,  by  the  performance  of  various  mystical 
rites  and  sacrifices,  he  stayed  a  plague  with  which 
the  inhabitants  were  afflicted.  When  he  died  is 
not  known,  but  we  may  be  certain  that  he  did  not 
live  (as  is  fabled)  for  299  years.  That  he  wrote  the 
epic  poems  attributed  to  him,  the  longest  of  which 
was  on  the  Argonautic  expedition,  is  considered 
liiyhly  improbuhle.  Compare  Heinrich,  E.  aus  Kreta 
(Leip.  1801). 

EPIIfAL,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  Vosges,  is  situated  in  a  delightfid  district  at  the 
western  base  of  the  Vosges  moimtains,  on  both 
banks  of  the  Moselle,  about  200  miles  east-south- 
east of  Paris.  Lat.  48"  10'  N.,  long.  6°  26'  E.  It  is 
a  well-built,  handsome  town,  \vith  clean,  regular, 
though  badly  paved  streets,  and  is  surmounted  by 
the  ruins  of  an  old  castle,  the  gardens  attached 
to  which  are  much  admired.  Among  its  chief 
buildings  are  the  parish  church,  an  antique  Gothic 
structure ;  the  hospital,  formerly  a  Capuchin  con- 
vent ;  a  museum  of  pictures,  antiquities,  and  natural 
historj'^ ;  the  barracks ;  and  the  residence  of  the 
prefect  of  the  department.  E.  manufactures  chem- 
ical products,  lace,  block-tin,  wrought-iron,  pottery, 
cutlery,  paper,  and  leather,  and  has  some  trade 
in  gram,  wine,  timber,  &c.    Pop.  (1872)  10,738. 

EPIPHA'NIUS,  St,  a  Christian  bishop,  and 
writer  of  the  4th  c,  was  bom  of  Jewish  parents  in 
Palestine.  He  was  baptized  in  his  16th  year,  and 
was  educated  among  the  Egj-ptian  monks,  who 
inspired  him  with  an  aversion  to  all  liberal  science. 
He  rose  gradually  to  the  rank  of  Bishop  of  Con- 
Btantia  (formerly  Salamis)  in  Cypms,  and  continued 
in  that  office  from  367  till  his  death  in  403.  His 
polemical  zeal  was  consjjicuously  manifested  against 
Origen.  He  had  proclaimed  him  a  heretic  in  his 
writings,  and  in  394  he  went  to  Palestine,  the  focus 
of  Origen's  adherents,  and  called  upon  John,  Bishop 
of  Jerusalem,  and  the  two  monks,  Rufinus  and 
Jerome,  to  condemn  him.  A  more  legitimate  object 
of  his  violent  opposition  was  the  increasing  worship 
of  images.  Jerome  relates  how  he  indignantly  tore 
down  an  image  in  the  precincts  of  a  church  in 
Palestine,  as  bemg  contrary  to  the  divine  law.  Among 


his  writings,  collected  by  Petavius  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1622),  the  most  important  is  his  Panarion,  or 
catalogue  of  all  heresies  (80  in  number),  a  work 
which  strikingly  shews  his  unfitness  for  being  a 
historian.  His  credulity  and  want  of  honesty  are 
excessive. 

EPI'PHANY  (Gr.  EpipJidneia,  appearance), 
denoted,  among  the  heathen  Greeks,  a  festival  heid 
in  commemoration  of  the  appearance  of  a  god  in  any 
particular  place.  The  word  subsequently  passed  into 
the  usage  of  the  Christian  Church,  and  was  used  to 
designate  the  manifestation  or  appearance  of  Christ 
upon  the  earth  to  the  Gentiles,  with  especial  refer- 
ence to  th.e  day  on  which  he  was  seen  and  wor- 
shipped by  the  wise  men  who  came  from  the  East 
This  occasion  is  commemorated  in  the  church  on 
the  Cth  of  January,  the  12th  day  after  Christmas, 
and  hence  the  Epiphany  is  also  called  Twelfth 
Day.  The  Epiphany,  which  is  said  not  to  have 
been  observed  as  a  separate  festival,  but  to  havrt 
been  included  in  the  feast  of  the  Nativity  tiil 
813,  is  observed  as  a  'scarlet  day'  at  Oxford  and 
Cambridge. 

E'PIPHYTES  (Gr.  epi,  upon,  pJiyton,  a  plant), 
often  and  popularly,  but  less  correctly,  called  AiR« 
PLANTS,  are  plants  which  are  not  rooted  in  tho 
ground,  but  are  attached  to  trees,  from  the  decaying 
portions  of  the  bark  of  which,  or  of  mosses  and  lichena 
which  grow  upon  it,  they  derive  their  nutriment, 
probably,  also,  depending  upon  the  air  for  it  to  a 
larger  extent  than  other  plants  do.  Mosses  and 
lichens  themselves,  growing  upon  trees,  may  bo 
called  E.,  but  the  term  is  generally  used  of  phanero- 
gamous plants.  E.  are  not  connected  with  the  trees 
on  which  they  grow  in  the  peculiar  manner  of  tho 
misletoe,  Balanophora,  and  other  tme  parasites — • 
not  sending  roots  like  them  into  the  wood  to  suck 
the  juice  of  the  tree.  It  is  chie^y  in  warm  climates 
that  phanerogamous  E.  are  found,  and  in  those 
which  are  also  moist.  Most  of  them  prefer  shady 
situations.  Within  the  tropics,  they  often  form  an 
interesting  and  remarkable  feature  of  the  vegetation. 
Some  of  the  Bromdiacece  (as  Tilland/iia),  Cactace<s, 
Aracece,  Gesnei'acecB,  and  other  natural  orders  are  E. ; 
but  the  order  to  which  they  belong  more  than  to 
any  other  is  Orchidacece.  Many  of  the  epiphytoua 
orchids,  as  well  as  other  E.,  are  remarkable  for  theii 
beauty ;  and  the  attention  which  has  recently  been 
given  to  their  ciiltivation  in  hothoiises  has  been 
rewarded  by  the  most  perfect  success.  See  Orchids. 
Plants  which  usually  occur  as  E.  are  sometimes  also 
found  Rowing  on  rocks.  Although  seldom  foimd 
except  m  moist  climates,  E.  are  generally  capable  of 
enduring  a  considerable  amount  of  drought,  parting 
slowly  with  the  moisture  which  they  have  once 
imbibed. 

EPI'mJS,  the  ancient  name  of  a  part  of  Greecei 
bounded  on  the  E.  by  the  chain  of  Pindus,  on  the  S« 
by  the  Ambracian  Gulf,  on  the  W.  by  the  Ionian 
Sea,  and  on  the  N.  by  Illyria  and  Macedonia. 
It  formed  the  southem  part  of  modern  Albania,  or 
the  pashalic  of  Janina,  a  wild  and  moimtainous 
region,  the  haimt  of  robbers  and  semi-civilised  tribes 
in  aU  ages.  The  chief  town  was  Dodona  (q.  v.)  ;  the 
chief  rivers,  the  Acheron,  Cocytus,  Arachthus,  and 
Charadms.  Anciently,  it  was  celebrated  for  its  cattle 
and  its  breed  of  Molossian  dogs.  Its  earliest  inha- 
bitants were  probably  Pelasgians.  In  the  historic 
period,  Theopompus  speaks  of  fourteen  tribes,  most 
of  whom  were  believed  by  the  Greeks  themselves  to 
be  not  of  Hellenic  origin.  The  principal  were  the 
Chaones,  Threspoti,  and  Molossi,  tho  last  of  whom 
finally  obtained  the  entire  sovereignty  of  the  country. 
Of  the  Molossian  kings  of  E.,  the  most  distinguished 
was  Pyrrhus,  who  long  waged  successfid  war  a^^ainflt 


EriSCOPACY— EPISTOL^  OBSCUROEUM  VIRORUM. 


the  Romans.  But  after  this  race  of  kings  became 
extinct  (239—229  B.C.)  by  the  death  of  Ptolemy, 
grandson  of  Pyrrhus,  a  republican  constitution  was 
Rdo])ted,  whereupon  parties  sprang  up  among  them, 
and  the  neighbourhig  Macedonians  got  the  upper 
hand.  On  the  conquest  of  Macedonia  by  the 
Romans  (168  B.C.),  the  Epirots  were  accused  of 
haWng  assisted  Perseus,  the  Macedonian  king,  and 
the  most  revengeful  measures  were  put  in  force 
against  them,  ^^milius  Paidus,  the  Roman  general, 
plundered  and  razed  to  the  ground  the  70  towns  of 
E.,  and  sold  into  slavery  150,000  of  the  inhabitants. 
Fnom  this  period,  the  country  became  a  Roman 
province,  and  shared  the  vicissitudes  of  the  Roman 
and  Byzantine  empires,  until  1204,  when  one  of  the 
Comneni  made  himself  independent.  This  dynasty, 
known  as  the  despots  of  Albania,  ruled  E.  until 
1466,  when  it  was  finally  conquered  by  the  Turks; 
the  last  '  despot,'  Georg.  Castriota,  better  known  as 
Skanderbeg  (q.  a^),  having  for  more  than  20*  years 
heroically  resisted  the  hordes  of  the  Ottoman 
empire. 

EPI'SCOPACY  (Gr.  episcopos,  bishop  or  overseer) 
is  that  form  of  church  government  in  which  one 
order  of  the  clergy  is  superior  to  another — namely, 
bishops  or  prelates  to  priests  or  presbyters,  the 
ordinary  ministers  of  parishes  or  congregations.  It 
is  sometimes  called  diocesan  ejnscopacy,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  that  episcopacy  which  Presbyterians 
and  Independents  also  assert — the  oversight  of  flocks 
by  their  pastors.  See  Bishop.  It  is  not  essential 
to  episcopacy  that  there  shoidd  be  archbishops, 
exalted  in  rank  and  authority  above  other  bishops, 
although  of  the  same  order :  and  in  some  Episco- 
palian churches  there  are  none. 

Episcopacy  has  actually  subsisted  under  very 
various  modifications  ;  the  power  of  bishops  being 
more  or  less  absolute,  or  more  or  less  controlled  by 
synods  of  presbyters,  or  even — in  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  of  the  United  States — by  a 
diocesan  coiivention,  composed  both  of  presbyters 
and  lay  delegates.  The  power  of  the  bishop  is 
also  variously  affected  by  the  relations  subsisting 
between  church  and  state ;  and  great  differences 
exist  in  this  respect  between  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, the  Church  of  Sweden,  and  the  Church  of 
Denmark,  all  Episcopalian,  and  all  connected  with 
the  state  as  established  churches. 

The  Church  of  Rome,  the  Greek  Church,  and  other 
branches  of  the  Eastern  Church,  are  Episcopalian. 
Of  Episcopalian  Protestant  churches  not  established, 
the  most  important  are  that  in  the  United  States, 
that  in  Scotlmd,  and  the  Moravinn  Church. 

See  Anglo- Catholic  Church;  England, 
Church  of. 

EPISCO'PIUS,  Simon  (whose  Dutcy  name  was 
Bisschop),  the  head  of  the  Arminian  i)arty  after  the 
death  of  Arminius,  was  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1583, 
studied  at  Leyden,  took  his  degree  in  1600,  and  was 
ordained  pastor  of  the  village  of  Bleyswyck  near 
Rotterdam  in  1610.  In  the  following  year,  the 
States-general,  with  the  intention  of  putting  an 
end  to  the  agitations  created  by  the  controversies 
between  the  Gomarists  or  Calvinistic  party  and  the 
A-rminiins  or  Remonstrants,  ordered  a  conference 
to  be  bald  in  their  presence  at  the  Hague  between 
six  ministers  of  each  party.  E.  was  one  of  the  six 
charged  with  the  advocacy  of  Arminianism,  and 
highly  distingiiished  himself  by  his  good  temper, 
ability,  and  learning.  In  1612,  the  curators  of  the 
university  of  Leyden  appointed  him  professor  of 
theology  in  the  room  of  Gomar,  who  had  gone  to 
Seeland.  ITiis  enraged  the  leaders  of  th  orthodox 
party,  who  unscrupulously  accused  him  of  Socinian- 
ism,  and  of  having  entered  into  an  alliance  vrith 
ICS 


the  Roman  Catholics  for  the  destruction  of  Prot«»8t- 
autism.  By  this  means  the  fanaticism  of  the  popidace 
was  roused  against  him  ;  he  was  insulted  and  aljused 
in  the  street,  and  on  one  occasion  narrowly  escaped 
being  stoned  to  death.  The  house  of  his  brother  ia 
Amsterdam  was  also  sacked,  under  the  pretext  that 
it  was  a  rendezvous  of  the  Remonstrants.  In  161S, 
occurred  the  famous  Synod  of  Dort  (q.  v.).  E.  was 
present,  along  with  several  other  Arminians.  The 
Calvinists,  who  happened  to  Ije  in  an  overwhelming 
majority,  would  not  allow  him  to  speak  ;  they  tola 
him  that  the  synod  was  met  not  to  discuss,  but  to 
judge  ;  and,  in  fact,  the  whole  proceedings  exhibited 
as  revolting  a  specimen  of  higli-handed  tyrann)^  aa 
any  on  record,  even  among  ecclesiastical  tribunals. 
Expelled  from  the  church,  and  banished  from  the 
country,  E.  betook  himself  first  to  Antwerp,  and 
afterwards  to  Rouen  and  Paris,  but  in  1626  returned 
to  Rotterdam,  where  the  odium  theologicum  against 
his  party  had  become  less  virident.  Here  he  married 
in  1630,  and  four  years  after  was  made  primariua 
professor  of  divinity  in  the  newly  established  collega 
of  the  Remonstrants.  He  died  in  1643.  E.  held 
enlightened  principles  in  regard  to  religious  tolera- 
tion. Not  placing  a  high  value  on  merely  doctrinal 
views,  but  rather  believing  in  the  efficacy  of  the 
Christian  spirit  to  elevate  and  j)urify  the  charactei", 
and  seeing,  moreover,  the  presence  of  this  spirit  in 
men  holding  the  most  conflicting  opinions  (when 
not  inflamed  with  controversial  hates),  he  would 
have  wished  a  broader  and  more  catholic  bond 
of  imity  among  Christians  than  the  opinionative 
creeds  of  his  day  permitted.  His  chief  works  are 
his  Confessio  Ilemonstrantium  (1621),  Apolo(jia  pro 
Confessione  (1629),  and  Institutiones  Theologicm^ 
incomplete.  A  complete  edition  of  his  worka 
appeared  at  Amsterdam  in  2  vols.,  1650. 

EPISTLE.  The  lesson  in  the  church  ser\nce 
called  the  Epistle,  derives  its  name  from  being 
most  frequently  taken  from  the  Apostolic  Epistles, 
although  it  is  sometimes  also  taken  from  other 
parts  of  Scripture.  This  part  of  the  service  ia 
believed  to  be  as  old  as  the  6th  century. 

EPISTLE  SIDE  OF  THE  ALTAR,  the  left 

side  of  the  altar  or  comnumion  table,  looking  from 
it,  at  which  in  the  church  service  the  epistle  of  the 
day  is  read.  It  is  of  lesser  distinction  than  the  right 
or  gospel  side,  and  is  occupied  by  the  clergjonan  of 
lower  ecclesiastical  rank.  The  reader  of  the  epistle 
was  in  former  times  called  the  Epistier. 

BRISTOL^  OBSCURORUM  VIRORUM 
(Lat,  Letters  of  Obscure  Men)  is  the  title  of  a 
collection  of  satirical  letters  M^hich  appeared  at 
the  commencement  of  the  16th  c,  and  professed 
to  be  the  comi)osition  of  certain  ecclesiastics  and 
professors  in  Cologne  and  other  places  in  Rhenish 
Germany.  They  were  directed  against  the  schol- 
astics and  monks,  and  lashed  with  merciless 
severity  their  doctrines,  writings,  morals,  modes  of 
speech,  manner  of  life,  follies  and  extravagances, 
and  thus  helped  in  no  small  degree  to  bring  about 
the  Reformation.  The  controversy  of  Reuchlin 
with  the  baptized  Jew,  Pfefferkorn,  concerning 
Hebrew  punctuation^  gave  the  fu'st  occasion  to  the 
Epistolce,  and  it  is  probable  that  their  title  itself 
was  suggested  by  the  Epistolce  Clarorum  Viroi-um 
ad  JReuchlinum  Phorcensum  (1514).  They  were 
addressed  to  Octuin  Gratius  in  Deventer,  who  was 
by  no  means  so  complete  an  ignoramus  as  might  be 
supposed  from  this  circumstance,  but  who  had 
made  himself  odious  to  the  liberal  minds  of  the 
time  by  his  arrogant  pretension  and  his  detei- 
mined  hostility  to  the  spirit  of  his  age.  On  the 
first  appearance  of  the  work,  it  was  fathered  on 
Reuchhn ;  afterwards,  it  was  ascribed  to  Reuchlin, 

t7 


EPITAPH—EPITHELIUM. 


Erasmus,  and  Hutten.  More  recent  investigators 
have  inclined  to  the  belief,  that  the  first  part,  which 
Appeared  at  Hagenau  in  1515  (but  professedly  at 
Venice),  was  the  production  of  Wolfgang  Angst,  a 
learned  and  witty  book-printer  of  that  town ;  but, 
latterly,  doubt  has  also  been  expressed  whether 
even  he  had  anything  to  do  with  the  Epistol(x.  In 
the  composition  of  the  second  part  (published  in 
1519),  after  Ulrich  von  Hutten,  Erotus  Rubeanus 
had  the  most  considerable  share.  The  circimistance 
of  the  Epistolce  being  placed  in  the  catalogue  of 
forbidden  books  by  a  papal  bull,  helped  to  spread 
it  not  a  little.  Among  the  numerous  editions  of 
the  work  may  be  mentioned  those  published  at 
Frankfort  (1643),  Mettaire's  (Lond.  1703),  Muncli's 
(Leip.  1827),  and  Rotermimd's  (Hanov.  1827). 

E'PITAPH  (Gr.  epi,  upon,  and  taphos,  a  hillock, 
mound,  or  other  monument "  placed  over  a  grave). 
From  originally  signifying  a  monument,  this  word 
is  now  used  exclusively  to  designate  the  inscription 
commemorative  of  the  deceased  which  is  placed 
upon  the  monument.    This  perversion  may  in  some 
measure  have  arisen  from  the  remembrance  of  the 
funeral  orations  which  the  ancients  were  in  the 
habit  of  pronouncing  at  funerals.    But  the  epitaph, 
in  its  stricter  sense,  was  well  known  to  the  classical 
nations  of  antiquity ;  and,  indeed,  by  every  people 
a  brief  commemoration  of  the  heroic  actions  or 
personal  virtues  of  their  illustrious  dead  has  been 
regarded  as  one  of  the  worthiest  occupations  of  the 
faculties  of  the  living.    As  epitaphs  were  not  only 
engraved  on  the  most  enduring  substances,  but  from 
their  brevity  were  easily  preserved  in  the  memory 
and  orally  transmitted,  wherever  we  find  the  litera- 
ture of  a  peo])le  at  all  we  are  pretty  sure  to  discover 
specimens  of  their  epitaphs.    Pettigrew  has  trans- 
lated several  from  Egyptian  sarcophagi  (Bohn's 
edition,  p.  5),  but  they  are  of  no  great  interest.  Hero- 
dotus (vii.  228)  has  })reserved  to  us  those  which  the 
Amphictyons  caused  to  be  inscribed  on  the  columns 
which  they  raised   in   honour  of  the  heroes  of 
Thermopylre,  and  that  which  Simonides,  from  per- 
sonal friendship,  placed  on  the  tomb  of  the  prophet 
Megistias.    The  general  inscription  for  the  whole 
of  them  was  to  this  effect :  '  Four  thousand  from 
Peloponnesus  once  fought  on  this  spot  with  three 
hundred  myriads ; '  and  that  which  was  special  to 
the  Spartans  was  still  more  memorable  :  '  Stranger, 
go  tell  the  Lacedemonians  that  we  lie  here  obedient 
to  their  commands.'    The  Anthologia  Grceca,  edited 
by  Brunk,  and  subsequently  by  Jacobs,  contains 
the  largest  collection  of  Greek  epitaphs  :  of  these 
many  were  translated  and  published  by  Bohn  in 
1854,  under  the  editorial  care  of  Mr  George  Burges. 
Of   Roman   epitaphs   every  antiquarian  museum 
even  in  this  country  presents  numerous  examples ; 
for  the  form  in  which  they  were  conceived  was 
adopted  by  our  own  Romanised  forefathers,  and 
many  a  stone  bearing  the  well-known  D.  M.  {Diis 
Manibus),  or  Siste  Viator,  probably  covered  the 
j-emains  of  those  whose  veins  never  contained  a 
drop  of  Roman  blood.    A  very  interesting  collection 
of  early  Christian  epitaphs  will  be  found  in  Dr 
Charles  Maitland's  Church  in  the  Catacombs,  pub- 
lished in  1816.    The  naturally  epigrammatic  turn 
of  the  French  mind  peculiarly  adapts  it  for  this 
species  of  composition,  and  in  French  collections, 
such  as  the  Recueil     Epitaphes,  very  felicitous 
examples  are  to  be  found  both  in  Latin  and  in 
French.  Of  the  former  may  be  mentioned  the  '  Tan- 
dem felix ! '  which  the  Coiuit  de  Tenia,  who  had 
enjoyed  every  form  of  temporal  prosi)erity,  caused 
to  be  engraved  on  his  tomb  ;  and  of  the  latter,  the 
*.ouching  epitaph  to  a  mother,   '  La  premiere  au 
•endez-vous.'    A  largo  portion  of  the  earlier  monu- 
Ct-ntt?,  and  consequently  of  the  epitaphs  of  this 
98 


country,  were  destroyed  at  the  Reformation,  and 
subsequently  by  the  iconoclastic  rage  of  the  Puritans 
and  Presbyterians.  But  whcii  we  come  down  to  a 
later  date,  the  literature  of  no  people,  either  ancient 
or  modern,  can  vie  with  our  own  in  this  peculiar 
branch,  for  Avhilst  English  epitaphs  possess  the 
point  and  terseness  without  which  no  epitaph  can 
be  successful,  they  exhibit  a  feature  almost  unknown 
in  those  of  other  nations — that,  viz.,  of  wit,  or  more 
properly  speaking,  perhaps,  of  humour.  It  seecja  as 
if  the  wittiest  people  in  the  world,  as  the  English 
unquestionably  are,  had  found  it  impossible  to 
confine  their  raillery  to  the  living,  and  accordingly 
we  find  that  the  hannless  peculiarities  of  the  dead 
have  often  been  hit  off  on  a  tombstone,  with  a 
felicity  which  has  rendered  immortal  wnat  other- 
wise the  next  generation  must  have  forgotten.  Of 
this  class  of  epitaphs  our  collections  present  an 
almost  infinite  variety.  There  are  many  excellent 
old  collections  of  epitaphs,  such  as  the  Thesaurus 
Epitaphioiniia  of  Philip  Labbe,  Paris,  1666.  Of 
modern  ones,  the  best  is  that  of  Pettigrew,  pub- 
lished by  Bohn,  which  is  so  arranged  as  to  mark 
the  diversity  of  taste  prevailing  at  different  periods 
of  our  history.  See  also  the  works  of  Gniter, 
Grsesius,  Reinesius,  Muratori,  Mazochius ;  the  Monu- 
menta  Anglicana,  London,  1719;  Weever's  Ancie 
Funeral  Monuments,  &c. 

EPITHALA'MIUM  was  a  species  of  poem  which 
it  was  the  custom  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
to  sing  in  chorus  near  the  bridal-chamber  [tlvalamus) 
of  a  newly  married  couple.  Anacreon,  Stesichorus, 
and  Pindar  composed  poems  of  this  kind,  but  only 
scanty  fragments  have  been  preser\^ed.  The  epftha- 
lamium  of  Peleus  and  Thetis  by  CatuUus  is  one  of 
the  finest  specimens  of  Latin  poetry  extant ;  but 
probably  the  most  gorgeous  epithalamium  in  all 
literature,  is  that  of  the  English  poet  Spenser.  A 
collection  of  Greek  and  Latin  epithalamia  is  to  be 
found  in  Wernsdorf  s  Poetoi  Latini  Minores  (4th  vol., 
part  2). 

EPITHE'LIUM  is  the  term  applied  in  anatomy 
to  the  cell-tissue  which,  in  layers  of  various  thick- 
ness, invests  not  only  the  outer  surface  of  the 
body,  and  the  mucous  membranes  connected  with 
it — as,  for  example,  those  of  the  nose,  limgs,  intes- 
tinal canal,  &c. — but  also  the  closed  cavities  of 
the  body,  such  as  the  great  serous  membranes,  the 
ventricles  of  the  bram,  the  syno\'ial  membranes  of 
joints,  the  interior  of  the  heart  and  of  the  blood- 
vessels proceeding  to  and  from  it,  the  ducts  of 
glands,  &c. 

The  thickness  of  this  tissue  varies  extremely  with 
the  position  in  which  it  occurs.  In  some  parts  it 
consists  of  numerous  strata  of  cells,  collectively 
forming  a  layer  of  more  than  a  line  in  thickness  ; 
in  other  parts,  it  is  composed  of  only  a  few  strata, 
or  often  of  only  a  single  stratum  of  cells,  and  can 
only  be  detected  by  the  microscope. 

The  cells  of  which  the  epithelium  is  composed  are 
usually  soft  nucleated  cells  ;  they  may  be  rounded, 
polygonal,  fusiform,  cylindrical,  or  conical  in  shape, 
and  sometimes  they  possess  vibratile  cilia,  the 
appearance  and  uses  of  which  will  presently  be  ex- 
plained. 

In  his  Mamial  of  Human  Histology,  Kclliker 
adopts  the  following  arrangement.  He  considers  {a) 
epithelium  in  a  single  stratum,  and  (&)  epithelium  in 
many  layers. 

(a)  Epithelium  in  a  single  stratum  may  be  com- 
posed of 

•  1.  Mounded  polygonal  cells,  constituting  the  variety 
known  as  pavement  or  tesselated  epithelium,  and 
occurring  as  an  investment  of  the  serous  jnem- 
branes,  of  most  synovial  membranes,  of  the  lining 


EPITHELIUM. 


membrane  of  the  heart  and 
canals  of  glands,  &c. 


of  the  veins,  of  the 


Fig.l. 

Epidermis  (still  soft  like  the 
epithelium  of  internal  parts) 
ot  a  two  months'  human 
euibryo.    Majj.  350  diam. 


Fig.  2. 

Epithelial  cells  of  the  vessels  ; 
the  longer  one  from  the 
arteries,  the  shorter  ones 
from  the  veins. 


2.  Fusiform^  mperfcixlly  united  cells  (fusiform 
epithelium),  as  the  epithelium  of  the  arteries  and 
«f  many  veins. 


Fig.  3. 

Epithelium  of  the  intestinal  villi  of  the  rabbit.  Mag.  300  diam. 

3.  Cylindrical  cells  (cylinder  epithelium),  as  in  the 
intestine  from  the  stomach  to 
the  termination  of  the  aliment- 
ary canal,  in  the  excretory  ducts 
of  all  the  glands  opening  into 
the  intestine,  &c.  Various  illus- 
trations of  this  cylinder  epithe- 
lium are  given  in  the  article 
Digestion,  Organs  and  Pro- 
cess OF. 

4.  CylindHcal  or  conical  cili- 
ated  cells,  as   the  epitheliimi 
of  the  more  minute  bronchial 
tubes,  of  the  nasal  cavities,  and  of  the  uterus. 

5.  Rounded  ciliated  cells,  as  the  cihated  pavement 
etjithelhim  of  the  ventricles  of  the  brain  in  the  foetus. 


Fig.  4. 

Ciliated  cells  fronj  the 
finer  bronchial  tubes. 
Mag.  350  diam. 


Pig.  5. 

laminated  pavement  epithelium  investing  a  simple  papilla 
(with  nlood  vessels  in  the  interior)  from  the  guma  of  a  child. 
Magnified  250  diam. 

(6)  JiJ2}UheUum  in  many  layers  may  be  composed  of : 
1.  C'ulindr'\eol  or  rounded  cells  bcloiv,  and  more  or 


'attened  cells  above.  This  is  termed  laminated 
pavement  epithelium,  and  occurs  in  the  mouth,  lower 
part  of  pharynx,  oesophagus,  bladder,  &c. 

2.  Rounded  cells  below,  more  elonyated  ones  in 
the  middle,  and  ciliated  conical  ones  above.  This  ia 
termed  laminated  ciliary  epithelium,  and  occurs  in 
the  larynx,  trachea,  and  larger  bronchial  tubee,  fn 
the  greater  part  of  the  nasal  cavity,  &c. 


Fig.  6. 

Ciliated  epithelium  from  the  trachea  of  a  man.  Mag.  350  diam. 
a,  outermost  part  of  the  elastic  longitudinal  fibres;  b, 
homogeneous  outermost  layer  of  the  mucous  membrane; 
c,  deepest  round  cells  ;  d,  median  long  cells ;  e,  outermost 
conical  ciliated  cells. 

In  all  the  varieties  of  epithelium,  the  layer  of 
external  cells  is  being  constantly  disintegrated  and 
rej^laced  by  the  layer  immediately  beneath. 

The  uses  of  the  chief  varieties  of  epithelium,  espe- 
cially of  ciliated  epithelium,  require  some  notice. 

The  polygonal  or  pavement  epithehum  mainly  acts 
like  the  epidermis,  as  a  protecting  medium  to  the 
soft  parts  beneath. 

The  cylindrical  epithelium  additionally  takes  an 
active  part  in  the  process  of  secretion.  Illus- 
trations of  the  function  of  the  cells  forming  this 
variety  of  epithelium  are  given  in  the  articles 
Cells,  Animal;  Digestion,  Organs  and  Process 
OF;  and  the  subject  will  be  further  noticed  under 
the  head  Secretion. 

In  connection  with  ciliated  epithelium,  we  must 
notice  ciliary  motion  generally,  in  so  far  as  it  occurs 
in  the  animal  kingdom.  Certain  surfaces  which 
are  lubricated  by  a  fluid,  are  covered  with  a  multi- 
tude of  hair-like  processes  of  extreme  deHcacy  and 
minuteness  (their  length  varying  from  to  i^oog 
of  an  inch),  which  from  their  shape  are  termed  ciZio, 
from  cilium,  an  eyelash.  During  life,  and  for  a 
certain  period  after  death,  these  filaments  exhibit  a 
remarkable  movement,  each  cilium  bending  rapidly 
in  one  direction,  and  rapidly,  returning  to  its  original 
position  (according  to  Krause,  these  movements  range 
from  190  to  230  in  a  minute).  On  examining  a 
ciliated  surface  with  a  high  magnifying  power,  the 
motion  presents  an  appearance  somewhat  resembling 
that  of  a  cornfield  agitated  by  a  steady  breeze. 
Any  minute  objects  coming  in  contact  vnth.  the  frea 
extremities  of  the  cilia  are  urged  onward  in  tha 
direction  of  the  predominant  movement;  and  the 
best  method  of  observing  the  course  of  the  ciliary 
current  is  to  sprinlde  the  surface  with  a  Httle 
powdered  charcoal,  grains  of  which  may  speedily  be 
seen  to  move  onwards  in  a  definite  direction. 

An  easy  way  to  observe  this  phenomenon  is  to 
detach,  by  scraping  with  a  knife,  a  small  piece  ol 
epithelium  from  the  back  of  the  throat  of  a  living 
frog.  The  scales,  moistened  with  water  or  serum,  wifl 
continue  to  exhibit  the  movement  of  their  adherent 
odia  for  a  very  considerable  time,  provided  the  piece 
be  kept  duly  moistened.  On  one  occasion,  a  piece 
prepared  in  this  way  by  ^Ir  Bowman  and  Dr  Todd 
exliibited  motion  for  seventeen  hours  :  and  it  would 


EPIZOA— EPOCH. 


probably  have  continued  doing  so  for  a  longer 
tinu;,  had  not  the  moisture  around  it  evaporated; 
and  if  the  epithelium  is  not  removed  from  the 
h":dy  of  an  animal  that  has  been  killed,  the  motion 
continues  much  longer.  In  a  turtle,  after  death  by 
di  ca4)itation,  it  lasted,  in  the  mouth,  nine  days ; 
in  the  trachea  and  lungs,  thii'teen  days  ;  and  in  the 
cesophagus,  sixteen  days.  In  man  and  mammals,  it 
seldom  lasts  two  days,  and  usually  ceases  much 
Booner.  The  necessary  condition  for  their  movement 
appears  to  be  the  integrity  of  the  cells  to  which  they 
are  attached ;  for  as  soon  as  these  shrink  up  for 
want  of  moisture,  or  undergo  any  physical  change, 
the  cilia  cease  their  characteristic  action.  We  know 
nothing  with  certainty  regarding  the  mechanism  or 
source  of  ciliary  motion,  except  that  (as  it  continues 
on  detached  epithelium)  it  is  independent  of  both  the 
vascular  and  nervous  systems. 

This  phenomenon  exists  very  widely  throughout 
the  animal  kingdom.  Dr  Sharpey,  in  his  article 
Cilia*  (published  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century 
ago),  notices  its  occurrence  in  the  Infusoria,  in 
Polyps  and  their  ova,  in  Acalephje,  Actiniae,  Echino- 
dermata,  Annelida,  Mollusca,  and  the  Molluscoids 
(e.  g.,  Ascidians),  in  Reptiles,  Birds,  and  Mammals. 
Since  the  date  of  that  article,  it  has  been  dis- 
covered in  Sponges,  and  in  one  or  two  exceptional 
«ases  in  Fishes ;  but  it  has  never  been  found  in 
any  part  of  the  body  of  Articulata  (Crustaceans, 
Insects,  or  Arachnidans).  The  parts  on  which 
it  occurs  are  (1),  the  skin  or  surface  of  the  body, 
(2)  the  respiratory,  (3)  the  ahmentary,  and  (4)  the 
genito-urinary  systems ;  and  it  has  been  observed 
m  the  ova  of  numerous  classes  of  animals,  from 
Reptiles  downwards  to  Infusoria.  In  most  of  the 
parts  in  which  we  observe  it,  its  use  appears  to 
be  of  a  mechanical  nature — viz.,  to  convey  the 
fluids  or  other  matters  along  the  surfaces  on  which 
the  cilia  exist,  or,  as  in  the  Infusoria,  to  carry  the 
entire  animal  thro\igh  the  water. 

1.  Cilia  have  been  found  on  the  external  surface 
Ji  Batrachian  larvae,  in  Mollusca,  Annelida,  Echino- 
derraata,  Actiniae,  Medusce,  Poly^n,  and  Infusoria.  In 
most  cases,  their  function  is  respiratory,  but  in  many 
instances  it  is  also  locomotive  or  prehensile. 

2.  CiHary  motion  has  been  observed  on  the  lining 
membrane  of  the  air-passages  of  Mammals,  Birds, 
and  Reptiles,  where,  whatever  may  be  its  other 
uses,  it  serves  to  convey  the  secretions  along  the 
membranes,  together  with  any  foreign  matters  that 
may  be  present.  It  exists  also  on  the  external  gills 
of  Batrachian  larvae,  and  on  the  respiratory  organs 
of  Mollusca  and  Annehda.  The  cilia  which  exist 
externally  on  stiU  lower  animals  without  separate 
respiratory  organs,  assist  in  the  respiratory  process, 
by  renewing  the  water  on  the  surface. 

3.  It  occurs  in  the  mouth,  thi'oat,  and  gullet  of 
various  reptiles,  and  in  the  alimentary  canal  of  the 
Mollusca,  Echinodermata,  many  Annelida,  and  Aca- 
lephae.  It  is  not  easy,  as  Dr  Sharpey  observes,  to 
see  the  purpose  of  the  motion  in  all  these  cases.  In 
some,  it  may  merely  convey  secreted  matters  along 
the  surface  of  the  lining  membrane ;  and  in  others 
it  seems  to  serve  in  place  of  ordinary  deglutition, 
to  carry  food  into  the  stomach. 

4.  It  is  observed  on  the  surface  of  the  reproduc- 
tive organs  of  Mammals,  Birds,  and  Reptiles.  From 
the  direction  of  the  current  being  from  without 
inwards,  the  office  of  the  cilia  may  be  to  hurry  down 
the  ovum,  in  addition  to  removing  the  mucous 
secretion  of  the  membrane. 

In  Reptiles  and  Fishes,  ciliary  motion  exists 
at  the  neck  of  each  uriniferous  tube.  The  move- 
ment is  directed  towards  the  tube,  and  favours 

*  In  the  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology. 
100 


the  flow  of  the  watery  portion  tf  the  secretion 
towards  it. 

There  are  some  situations,  both  in  man  and  the 
lower  animals,  in  which  it  is  difficult  to  determine 
what  fuiictions  the  ciliary  motion  can  perform,  as, 
for  example,  in  man,  in  the  ventricles  of  the  brain ; 
and  in  the  frog,  in  the  closed  cavities  of  the  i)ericar- 
dium  and  peritoneum. 

EPIZO'A.  This  term  is  applied  to  those  para- 
sitic creatures  which  live  on  the  bodies  of  other 
animals,  and  derive  their  nourishment  from  the  skin. 
Our  space  will  only  allow  of  our  noticing  those  that 
infest  man.  They  may  be  divided  into  two  gi'oups : 
(1)  Those  which  live  upon  the  surface  of  the  skin, 
and  (2)  those  which  live  in  the  skin.  Fleas,  lice, 
bugs,  ticks,  &c.,  belong  to  the  firat  group  ;  the  Itch- 
insect  or  Sarcoptes,  the  Pimple-mite  or  Demodex 
follicular um,  and  possibly  some  other  species  of  the 
Acarida',  to  the  second. 

In  a  zoological  point  of  view,  all  the  E.  that  infest 
the  human  subject  are  Insects  or  Arachnidans.  The 
parasitic  insects  are  :  I.  Pulicida,  or  Fleas,  includ- 
ing— 1.  The  Common  Flea,  or  Pvlex-  irritcuts ;  2. 
The  Sand-flea,  or  Pulex  penetrans,  known  also  as  the 
Chigo,  Cliiggcr,  &c.  II.  Acanthida,  or  Soft  Bugs, 
including  the  common  Bed  BagorAcanthia  (s.  Cimex) 
lectularia.     III.  Pediculida,  or  Lice,  including — 

1.  The  Common  J^owQe,  or  Pediculus  capitis ;  2.  The 
Body  Louse,  or  Pedicidus  vestimenti ;  3.  The  Crab 
Louse,  or  Pediculus  (s.  Phthirius)  pubis;  4.  The  Louse 
occun'ing  in  Phthiriasis,  or  Pediculus  tahescentium. 

The  parasitic  Arachnidans  belong  to  the  order  of 
Acarida,  or  Mites ;  indeed,  most  of  the  animals 
forming  the  different  families  of  this  order  lead  a 
parasitic  existence.  We  have — I.  Demodicida,  includ- 
ing the  Pimple-mite  or  Demodex  (s.  Acarus)  foWicu- 
lorum  (the  dog  and  the  sheep  possess  each  a  special 
demodex).  II.  Sarcoptida,  including  the  Itch-mite 
ox  Sarcoptes  {q.  Acarus)  Scabiei.  (Most  of  ourdomestio 
animals  seem  to  be  infested  by  a  sj)ecial  sarcoptes, 
the  species  of  which  are  numerous.)  III.  Ixodida 
or  Ticks,  including-^  1.  The  American  Tick  or  Ixodet 
Iwminis  (common  in  Brazil) ;  2.  The  Coiamon  Wood- 
tick  (Dogs'  Tick),  or  Ixodes  ricinus.  There  are 
probably  many  species  of  Ixodes  which  are  occa- 
sionally found  on  man.  IV.  Gamasida,  or  Beetle 
Lice,  including — 1.  The  Bird-mite,  or  Dermanyssui 
avium    (occasionally   found   on   sickly  persons)  ; 

2.  The  Miana  Bug,  or  Argas  persicus  (common  in 
some  parts  of  Persia,  and  especially  at  Miana) ; 

3.  The  Chincha  Bug,  or  Argas  chinche  (occurring  in 
Columbia).  V.  Orobatida,  or  Grass-lice,  including 
the  Harvest-Bug,  or  Leptus  antumnnlis.  See  the 
articles  BuG,  Flea,  Itch-mite,  Louse,  Ticks. 

EPIZOO'TICS  (Gr.  epi,  upon,  and  zdo7i,  an 
animal)  are  diseases  of  animals  which  manifest  a 
common  character,  and  prevail  at  the  same  time 
over  considerable  tracts  of  country.  Like  epidemics, 
they  appear  to  depend  upon  some  peculiar  and  nut 
well  ascertained  atmospheric  causes ;  where  the 
cases  are  neglected  or  overcrowded,  they  also  fre- 
quently become  contagious ;  they  are  apt  to  take 
on  a  low  type  of  fever,  and  are  better  treated  by 
supporting  than  by  reducing  remedies.  Influenza 
in  horses,  and  pleuro-pnemnonia  and  vesicular 
epizootic  in  cattle,  are  examples. 

E'POCH,  in  Chronology.    See  Chronolooy. 

EPOCH,  in  Astronomy,  is  an  abbreviation  foi 
'longitude  at  the  epoch;'  it  means  the  mean  helio- 
centric longitude  of  a  planet  in  its  orbit  at  any 
given  time — the  beginning  of  a  century,  for  instance. 
The  epoch  of  a  planet  for  a  particular  year  is  its 
mean  longitude  at  mean  noon,  on  January  1  when 
it  is  leap  year,  and  on  December  31  of  the  preceding 


EPODE— EQUATION. 


year,  when  it  is  a  common  year.  The  epoch  is  one 
of  the  elements  of  a  planet's  orbit. 

E'PODE  is  the  last  part  of  the  chorus  of  the 
ancier.t  Greeks,  which  they  sung  after  the  strophe 
and  autisfcrophe,  when  the  singers  had  returned  to 
their  original  place.  The  epode  had  its  peculiar 
measure  of  syllables  and  niunber  of  verses.  See 

CUOKUS. 

E'PPING,  a  town  in  the  west  of  Essex  coxmty, 
England,  in  a  pleasant  healthy  situation,  at  the 
corth  end  of  Epping  Forest,  16  miles  north-north- 
«ast  of  London.  It  has  a  very  irregular  appearance. 
Pop.  (1871)  2275.  It  is  noted  for  its  cream,  butter, 
sausages,  and  pork.  It  sends  large  quantities  of 
butter  to  London.  Epping  Ptoyal  Forest,  formerly 
under  the  name  of  Waltham  Forest,  where  our 
ancient  kings  enjoyed  much  sport,  covered  all  Essex, 
and  extended  almost  to  Loudon.  It  is  now  limited 
to  60,000  acres  in  the  south-west  part  of  the  county. 
Of  this  tract,  only  12,000  acres  are  in  wastes  and 
woods,  the  rest  being  now  enclosed  as  private 
property.  In  the  forest,  5  mQes  from  E,,  is  Queen 
EHzabeth's  himting-lodge.  Separated  by  the  river 
Roding  from  Epping  Forest  is  Hainault  Forest, 
lately  disforested.  Here  for  many  centuries  a  fair 
was  held  under  the  enormous  Fairlop  oak,  not  now 
existing,  and  a  stag  was  yearly  turned  out  in  the 
Forest  on  Easter  Monday,  for  the  amusement  of  the 
pubhc.  To  this  day,  a  stag  is  turned  out  yearly  for 
the  amusement  of  Cockney  huntsmen. 

EPROUVETTE  is  a  machine  for  proving  or 
testing  the  strength  of  gunpowder.  It  was  invented 
or  suggested  in  the  last  century  by  Robins,  but  was 
greatly  improved  by  Dr  Hutton. 

The  gun  eprouvette  determines  the  strength  of 
gimpowder  by  the  amoimt  of  recoil  produced.  A 
small  gun,  usually  a  '  half-pounder,'  is  fixed  to  the 
lower  end  of  an  iron  rod  ;  its  base  being  adjusted 
to  an  arm  projecting  from  the  rod :  or  else  it 
is  suspended  from  an  iron  frame.  A  horizontal 
Bteel  axis  is  fixed  to  the  rod  or  frame  about  which 
the  gun  may  vibrate.  A  pointed  iron  rod  or  style 
projects  downwards  from  the  lower  side  of  the 
gun,  and  touches  a  groove  fiUed  with  soft  wax ; 
the  groove  is  so  shaped  that,  when  the  gun 
recoils,  the  point  cuts  a  path  for  itself  along  this 
wax;  and  the  length  of  this  path  determines  the 
amoimt  of  recoil.  Sometimes  a  brass  graduated  arc 
with  an  index  is  used  instead  of  the  pointed  style 
and  the  waxed  groove ;  but  the  principle  of  action 
is  just  the  same.  On  the  arc  the  recoil  should  vary 
from  20°  for  new  fine-grain  powder  to  20°  5'  for  old 
powder  of  coarse  grain.  This  system  of  proof  is 
resorted  to  annually  at  minor  and  foreign  stations 
for  the  proof  of  all  powder  in  store,  to  ascertain 
the  amount  of  deterioration;  five  rounds  consti- 
tute the  minimima  proof.  Before  the  eprouvette  is 
resorted  to,  the  powder  must  pass  the  test  of  specific 
gravity,  by  weighing  not  less  than  55  lbs.  to  the 
cubic  foot. 

The  mortar  eprouvette  determines  the  strength 
of  gunpowder  by  the  distance  to  which  a  ball  is 
projected,  instead  of  the  distance  to  which  the  piece 
recoils.  It  is  generally  a  mortar  of  8-inch  bore,  in 
which  2  to  4  ounces  of  powder  is  employed  to  propel 
an  accurately  turned  iron  shot  to  a  distance  of 
about  120  yards.  Other  things  being  equal,  the 
strongest  gunpowder  sends  the  shot  to  the  greatest 
distance  ;  and  this  is  the  usual  mode  adopted  in 
testing  gunpowder  supplied  to  the  government  by 
V&rious  contractors. 

ITie  ordinarjr  eprouvette  is  an  instrument  shaped 
'ike  a  small  pistol  without  a  barrel,  and  having  its 
breach  chamber  closed  by  a  flat  plate  connected 
with  a  strong  spring.    On  the  explosion  of  the 


powder  against  the  i)late,  it  is  driven  back  to  a 
distance  indexed  according  to  the  strength  of  the 


Eprouvette. 


powder,  and  is  retained  at  its  extreme  state  of 
propulsion  by  a  ratchet  wheel. 

E'PSOM  (said  to  have  originally  been  Ebbasham) 
is  a  small  market-town  on  the  margin  of  the 
Banstead  Downs  in  Surrey,  15  miles  south-south- 
west of  London  by  road,  and  14  miles  by  the  London 
and  South-Western  Railway.  The  famed  sulphate 
of  magnesia  springs  of  E.  gave  their  name  to  the 
Epsom  Salts  formerly  manufactured  from  them. 
This  manufacture  has  been  abandoned  from  the 
ease  with  which  these  salts  can  be  made  artificially. 
The  Royal  Medical  College,  erected  on  the  Downs, 
and  established  in  1851,  provides  education  for  about 
170  boys,  the  sons  of  medical  men,  and  affords  a 
home  to  decayed  members  of  the  profession  and  their 
widows.  Pop.  (1871)  6276.  On  the  Downs,  li  mile 
south  of  the  town,  the  famous  E.  horse-races  are  held 
yearly.  They  are  said  to  have  been  instituted  by 
Charles  I.,  but  have  become  of  greater  importance 
since  the  institution  of  the  Derby  Stakes  in  1780 
(see  Derby  Day).  The  races  last  four  days,  and  as 
many  as  100,000  persons  often  assemble  to  witness 
the  most  important  of  them. 

EPSOM  SALT,  or  SULPHATE  OF  MAG- 
NE'SIUM  (Mg2S04.7H20),  occurs  not  only  in  the 
water  of  mineral  springs,  as  at  Epsom,  Seidlitz,  and 
many  other  places ;  but  also  as  an  efiiorescence  on 
the  surface  of  various  rocks,  sometimes  along  with 
alum,  as  at  Hurlet,  in  Renfrewshire ;  and  on  the 
ground,  as  in  some  parts  of  Spain  and  of  the  Russian 
steppes.  It  sometimes  occurs  snow-white  and  very 
pure,  sometimes  discoloured  by  impurities ;  an  ^  is 
either  in  the  form  of  fine  thread-like  crystals,  or  in 
crusts,  flakes,  granules,  &c.  Its  crystals  are  prisms, 
almost  rectangular.  For  purposes  of  commerce,  it 
is  obtained  by  the  action  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid 
upon  magnesian  limestone.    See  Magnesium. 

Ejisom  salt  is  a  well-known  purgative  remedy 
much  in  use  in  household  medicine.  It  may  be 
given  in  doses  from  two  drachms  to  one  ounce, 
according  to  the  effect  required,  in  a  tumbler  of 
water.  The  disagreeable  bitter  taste  is  much  reheved 
by  acidulating  with  nearly  a  teaspoonfil  of  dilute 
sulphuric  acid  to  each  ounce  of  salt. 

E'PWORTH,  a  to\\Ti  m  the  north-west  of  LiiKoia- 
shire,  England,  30  miles  north-north- west  of  Lincohs. 
It  chiefly  consists  of  one  street,  above  two  mi  lea 
long.  The  chief  employments  are  hemp  and  flax 
dressing,  rope-making,  and  malting.  Pop.  (1871) 
2295.  John  Wesley,  founder  of  Methodism,  as  well 
as  Kilham,  founder  of  the  seceding  Wesleyans,  Avas 
born  here. 

E'QUABLE  MOTION  is  that  by  whicn  eqiial 
spaces  are  passed  over  in  equal  times. 

EQUALITY.    See  LiBERxy,  Equality,  Fe^ 

TERNITY. 

EQUA'TION,  Anjtctal,  one  of  the  most  con- 
spicuous  of  the  subordinate  fluctuations  in  the 

101 


EQUATION— EQUATION  OF  TIME. 


moon's  motion,  due  to  the  action  of  the  sun,  which 
jicreases  with  its  proximity  to  the  earth  and  her 
Batellite.  It  consists  in  an  alternate  increase  and 
decrease  in  her  longitude,  correspondhig  with  the 
earth's  situation  in  its  annual  orbit,  i.  e.,  to  its 
angular  distance  from  the  perihelion,  and  therefore 
having  a  year  instead  of  a  month,  or  aliquot  part  of 
a  month,  for  its  period.  For  an  explanation  of  the 
mode  of  its  production,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
Herschel's  Outlines  of  Astronomy ,  art.  738,  et.  seq. 
The  subject  is  too  abstruse  for  explanation  in  this 
work. 

EQUATION,  Differential,  is  an  equation 
uivohing  differential  coefficients  (see  Calculus)  ; 

BUch  is  --^  +  a~  =  x;  from  which  it  is  required 
ox^  ox 

to  find  the  relation  between  ?/  and  x.  The  theory  of 
the  solution  of  snch  equations  is  an  extension  of  the 
integral  calculus,  and  is  a  branch  of  study  of  the 
highest  importance. 

EQUATION,  Functional.   See  Functions. 

EQUATION,  Lunar.    See  Lunar  Theory. 

EQUATION  OF  E'QUINOXES  is  the  differ- 
ence  between  the  true  position  of  the  equinoxes, 
and  the  position  calcidated  on  the  supposition  that 
their  motion  is  uniform.   See  Precession. 

EQUATION  OF  LIGHT.  In  astronomical 
observations,  the  visual  ray  by  which  we  see  any 
body  is  not  that  which  it  emits  at  the  moment  we 
look  at  it,  but  that  which  it  did  emit  some  time 
before,  viz.,  the  time  occupied  by  light  in  traversing 
the  interval  which  separates  it  from  us.  If,  then,  the 
body  be  in  motion,  its  aberration,  as  due  to  the 
earth's  velocity,  must  be  appHed  as  a  correction, 
not  to  the  line  joining  the  earth's  place  at  the 
moment  of  observation  with  that  occujjied  by  the 
body,  (as  seen)  at  the  same  moment,  but  at  that 
antecedent  moment  when  the  ray  quitted  it.  Hence 
is  derived  a  rule  applied  by  astronomers  for  the 
rectification  of  observations  made  on  a  moving  body, 
viz.,  from  the  knomi  laws  of  its  motion  and  the 
earth's,  calculate  its  relative  angidar  motion  in  the 
time  taken  by  light  to  pass  from  it  to  the  earth. 
This  motion  is  the  total  amount  of  its  apparent 
displacement.  Its  effect  is  to  displace  the  body  in 
a  direction  contrary  to  its  apparent  motion,  an 
effect  one  part  of  which  is  due  to  aberration, 
properly  so  called  (see  Aberration),  resulting  from 
the  composition  of  the  motions  of  the  earth  and  of 
light,  and  another  part  to  the  fact  of  the  passage  of 
light  occupying  time.  The  equation  of  light  is  the 
allowance  to  be  made  for  the  tiirie  occupied  by  the 
light  m  traversing  a  variable  space. 

EQUATION  OF  PAYMENTS.    The  problem 

considered  under  this  head  in  books  of  arithmetic 

is  to  find  a  time  when,  if  a  sum  of  money  be  paid 

by  a  debtor,  which  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  several 

debts  paj'able  by  him  at  different  times,  no  loss 

will  be  sustained  by  either  the  debtor  or  creditor. 

The  rule  generally  given  is  as  follows :  Multijily 

each  sum  due  by  the  time  at  which  it  is  payable, 

and  then  divide  the  sum  of  the  products  by  the  sum 

of  the  debts :  the  quotient  is  the  equated  time. 

For  exunple,  if  £10  be  due  at  one  month,  and  £20  at 

two  months,  find  as  an  equivalent  when  the  whole  £30 

,  . ,  .  .  10  X  1  +  20  X  2  , , 
may  be  paid  at  once.    Ans.   ^ — —  =  If 

oO 

months.  This  nde  is,  however,  incorrect  where  the 
debts  are  imequal,  because  it  takes  no  account  of 
the  balance  of  interest  and  discount.  A  correct 
rule  for  the  case  of  two  debts  and  simple  interest 
is  subjoined.  Let  and  D  denote  the  debts,  t  and 
T  the  times  of  payment,  and  r  one  year's  interest 
103 


on  D.    Then  if  A  =  T  +  «  +  5-^,  and  B  =» 

dr 

Tt  -f-  ^-~^r~i        equated  time  will  =  ^     ~  ^ 

\/  (A*  —  4B).  When  three  or  more  debts  are  con- 
cerned, the  plan  is  to  find  by  this  formiUa  the 
equated  time  for  the  first  two,  and  then  for  their 
sum  i)ayable  at  their  equated  time,  and  the  third, 
and  so  on.  The  common  rule  is,  however,  suffi- 
ciently correct  for  ordinary  use. 

EQUATION  OF  THE  CENTRE.  K  the  earth 
moved  uniformly  round  the  sun  in  a  circle,  it 
would  be  easy  to  calcidate  its  longitude  or  distance 
from  the  line  of  equinoxes  at  any  time.  One  year 
would  be  to  the  time  since  the  vernal  equinox  as 
360°  to  the  arc  of  longitude  passed  over.  But  the 
orbit  of  the  earth  is  not  circular,  nor  is  its  motion 
uniform ;  the  orbit  is  slightly  elliptical,  and  the 
motion  is  quicker  at  perihelion  than  at  aphelion 
The  true  rule,  then,  for  ascertaining  the  earth's 
longitude  is  contained  in  the  following  proportion  : 
one  year  is  to  the  time  elapsed  as  the  whole  area  of 
the  earth's  orbit  is  to  the  area  swept  over  by  the 
radius  vector  in  the  time.  This  is  a  deduction  from 
Kepler's  law  (see  Central  Forces),  that,  in  plane- 
tary motion,  equal  areas  (not  angles)  are  swept  over 
in  equal  times.  The  area  swept  over  being  ascer- 
tained from  the  laws  of  the  earth's  motion,  and  the 
elements  of  its  orbit,  it  is  a  question  of  geometry  to 
ascertain  the  angle  corresponding  to  the  area,  or  the 
true  longitude.  In  astronomy,  the  longitude,  as 
calcidated  on  the  supposition  that  the  earth  movea 
uniforiuly  in  a  circle,  is  called  the  mean  longitude 
of  the  earth ;  and  it  happens,  from  the  orbit  being, 
as  we  said,  but  slightly  different  from  a  circle,  that 
the  mean  and  true  longitude  differ  but  slightly. 
The  quantity  by  which  the  true  and  mean  longitudes 
differ  is  called  the  equation  of  the  centre  ;  and  this  is 
sometimes  to  be  added  to,  and  sometimes  to  be 
subtracted  from  the  mean  longitude,  to  obtain  the 
true ;  and  sometimes  it  is  zero. 

EQUATION  OF  TIME.  It  will  be  seen  from 
the  article  Equation  of  the  Centre  (q.  v.)  that  the 
earth's  motion  in  the  ecliptic — or  what  is  the  same 
thing,  the  sun's  apparent  motion  in  longitude — is 
not  uniform.  This  want  of  uniformity  woidd  of 
itself  obviously  cause  an  irregularity  in  the  time  of 
the  sun's  coming  to  the  meridian  on  successive  days ; 
but  besides  this  want  of  unifoi-mity  in  the  sun's 
apparent  motion  in  the  ecliptic,  there  is  another 
cause  of  inequality  in  the  time  of  its  coming  on  the 
meridian — viz.,  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  to  the 
equinoctiaL  Even  if  the  sun  moved  in  the  equi- 
noctial, there  woidd  be  an  inequality  in  this  respect, 
owing  to  its  want  of  uniform  motion  ;  and  even  if 
it  moved  iiniformly  in  the  ecliptic,  there  would  be 
such  au  inequality,  owing  to  the  obliquity  of  its 
orbit  to  the  equinoctial.  These  two  independent 
causes  conjointly  produce  the  inequality  in  the  time 
of  its  appearance  on  the  meridian,  the  correction  for 
which  is  the  equation  of  time. 

When  the  sun's  centre  comes  to  the  meridian,  it 
is  apparent  noon,  and  if  it  moved  uniformly  on  the 
equinoctial,  this  would  always  coincide  witl  mean 
noon,  or  12  o'clock  on  a  good  solar  clock.  But  from 
the  causes  above  explamed,  mean  and  apparent  noon 
differ,  the  latter  taking  place  sometimes  as  much 
as  16^  minutes  before  the  former,  and  at  others  aa 
much  as  minutes  after.  The  difference  for  any 
day,  called,  as  we  have  said,  the  equation  of  timC;  is 
to  be  found  inserted  in  ephemerides  for  every  day 
of  the  year.  It  is  nothing  or  zero  at  four  different 
times  in  the  year,  at  wliich  the  whole  mean  and 
unequal  motions  exactly  agree,  viz.,  about  the  i.5th 
of  April,  the  15th  of  June,  the  31st  of  August,  and 


EQUATIONS. 


the  24tli  December.  At  ah  other  times,  the  suu 
is  either  too  fast  or  too  slow  for  clock-time.  In 
the  ephemerides  above  referred  to,  the  sign  +  or 
—  is  prefixed  to  the  equation  of  time,  accord- 
ing as  it  iy  to  be  added  to  or  subtracted  from 
the  apparent  time  to  give  the  mean  time.  See 
Nautical  Almanac. 

EQUATIONS.  An  equation  may  be  defined  to 
be  an  algebraical  sentence  stating  the  equality  of 
two  algebraical  expressions,  or  of  an  algebraical 
eapression  to  zero.  From  another  point  of  view,  it 
ifl  the  algebraical  expression  of  the  conditions  which 
coiuiect  known  and  imknown  quantities.  Thus 
(1).  xy  =  24,  and  (2),  +  if  =  52,  are  two  equations 
expressing  the  relations  between  the  unknown  quan- 
tities X  and  y  and  known  quantities.  Generally, 
equations  are  formed  from  observations  from  which 
an  object  of  inquiry  may  be  inferred,  but  which  do 
not  directly  touch  the  object.  Thus,  suppose  we 
wish  to  ascertain  the  lengths  of  the  sides  of  a  rect- 
angular board  which  we  have  no  means  of  measuring, 
and  that  all  the  information  we  can  get  respecting  it 
is,  that  it  covers  (say)  24  square  feet,  and  that  the 
square  on  its  diagonal  is  (say)  52  square  feet.  From 
these  facts,  we  can  form  equations  from  which  we 
may  determine  the  lengths  of  the  sides.  In  the 
first  place,  we  know  that  its  area  is  equal  to  the 
product  of  its  sides,  and  if  w^e  call  these  x  and  y, 
we  have  xy  =  24,  the  first  of  the  eqiiations  above 
given.  Again,  we  know  that  the  sum  of  the  squares 
on  the  sides  is  equal  to  the  square  on  the  diagonal ; 
hence,  we  have  the  second  equation,  x"^  +  y-  =  52. 
From  these  two  equations,  we  should  be  able  to 
determine  the  values  of  x  and  y.  The  determin- 
ation of  these  values  is  called  the  solution  of  the 
equations. 

Equations  are  of  several  kinds.  Simple  equations 
are  those  which  contain  the  unknown  quantity  in 

the  first  degree ;  thus,  ^-1-3  =  4,   is    a  simple 

equation.     Quadratic  equations  are  those  which 

contain  the  unknown  quantity  in  the  second  degree  : 

tc*  +  5a;  —  36  =  0,  is  a  quadratic  equation.  Cubic 

and  biquadratic  equations  involve  the  unkno"WTi  in 

the  third  and  fourth  powers  respectively.    For  the 

higher  equations,  there  are  no  special  names ;  they 

are  said  to  be  equations  of  the  degree  indicated  by 

the  highest  power  of  the  vmknown  which  they 

contain.    Simultaneous  equations  are  those  which 

involve  two  or  more  unknown  quantities,  and 

there  must  always  be  as  many  of  them,  in  order  to 

their  determinate  solution,  as  there  are  unknown 

quantities.    The   equations  first  mentioned — viz., 

xy  —  14:  —     +  y^  =  52,  are  simultaneous  equations. 

It  may  be  mentioned,  that  in  the  course  of  solving 

such  equations  the  principal  difficulties  encountered 

are  always  ultimately  the  same  as  in  the  solution  of 

<?quations  containing  only  one  unknown  quantity. 

For  instance,  in  the  equations  just  given,  if  we 

Bubstitute  in  the  second  the  value  of  y  as  given  by 

24  (24)* 

the  first,  or  w  =  — ,  we  have  x^  ^  ~  =  52,  which 

X  x^ 

may  be  solved  as  a  quadratic  equation.    The  general 

fche'iry  of  equations,  then,  is  principally  concerned 

wiuh  the  solution  of  equations  involving  one  unknown 

quantity  only,  for  to  this  sort  aU  others  reduce 

themselves.    Indeterminate  equations  are  such  as 

do  not  set  forth  sufiicient  relations  between  the 

unknown  quantities  for  their  absolute  determination, 

and  Avhich  accordingly  admit  of  various  solutions. 

Thus,  xy  =  24  is  an  indeterminate  equation,  which 

is  satisfied  by  the  values  x  =  3,  y  =  8 ;  or  x  —  6,y  = 

4 ;  ovx  =  2,y  =  12.  We  require  some  other  relation, 

such  as  x"^  -\-      =  52,  to  enable  us  to  fix  on  one  of 

the  sets  of  values,  x  and  y,  as  those  of  x.    For  other 


kinds  of  equations,  see  Exponent  and  Exponen 
tial,  Functions,  nnd  Difference. 

Tlie  object  of  all  coin])utation  is  the  determination 
of  numerical  values  for  unknown  quantities,  by 
means  of  the  relations  which  they  bear  to  other 
quantities  already  known.  The  solution  of  equa- 
tions, accordingly,  or,  in  other  words,  the  evolution 
of  the  unknown  quantities  involved  in  them,  is  the 
chief  business  of  algebra.  But  so  difficult  is  this 
business,  that,  except  in  the  simple  cases  whore  the 
unknown  quantity  rises  to  no  higher  than  the  second 
degree,  all  the  resources  of  algebra  are  as  yet  inade- 
quate to  eff"ect  the  solution  of  equations  m  general 
and  definite  terras.  For  equations  of  the  second 
degree,  or  quadratic  equations,  as  they  are  called, 
there  is  a  rigorous  method  of  solution  by  a  general 
formida  ;  but  as  yet  no  such  formula  has  been  dis- 
covered for  equations  even  of  the  third  degree.  It 
is  true,  that  for  equations  of  the  third  and  fourth 
degrees  general  methods  exist,  which  furnish  for- 
mulas which  express  under  a  finite  form  the  values 
of  the  roots.  See  Cakdan,  and  Cubic  Equations. 
But  all  sush  formulas  are  found  to  involve  imaginary 
expressions,  which,  except  in  particular  cases,  make 
the  actual  computations  impracticable  till  the 
formulas  are  developed  in  infinite  series,  and  the 
imaginary  terms  disai)pear  by  mutually  destroying 
one  another.  What  is  called  Cardan's  formula,  for 
instance  (and  all  others  are  reducible  to  it),  is  in  this 
predicament  whenever  the  values  of  the  unknown 
quantity  are  all  real ;  and  accordingly,  in  nearly  all 
such  cases,  the  values  are  not  obtainable  from  the 
formuljB  directly,  but  from  the  infinite  series  of 
which  they  are  the  compact  expression.  But 
though  such  formulaj  as  Cardan's  are  useless  for 
the  purpose  of  numerical  computation,  the  search 
for  them  has  led  to  most  of  the  ti'utlis  which  con- 
stitute the  general  theory  of  equations,  and  through 
which  their  numei'ical  solution  may  be  said  to  have 
been  at  last  rendered  effective  and  general.  This 
method  of  numerical  solution  is  a  purely  arithmetical 
process,  performed  upon  the  numerical  cocfficientfi 
of  equations,  and  it  is  imiversally  aiiplicable,  what- 
ever the  degree  of  the  equation  may  be.  With 
this  method  are  connected  the  names  of  Budan, 
Fourier,  Horner,  and  Sturm.  We  cannot  here  enter 
into  an  account  of  it ;  the  reader  should  cousidt  on 
the  subject  Young's  Theory  and  Solution  of  AlgC' 
hraical  Equations  of  the  Higher  Orders  ;  Peacock'a 
Treatise  on  Algebra;  and  La  Grange's  work  on 
Numerical  Solutions. 

The  rules  for  the  solution  of  the  simj^ler  forms  of 
equations  are  to  be  found  in  all  elementary  text- 
books of  algebra.  It  must  suffice  to  notice  here  a 
few  of  the  leading  general  jiroperties  of  equations. 
By  the  roots  of  an  equation  are  meant  those  values 
real  or  imaginary  of  the  unknown  which  satisfy  the 
equality ;  and  it  is  a  property  of  every  equation  to 
have  as  many  roots  and  no  more  as  there  are  imits 
in  its  degree.  Thus,  a  quadi-atic  equation  has  two 
roots ;  a  cubic  equation,  three  ;  and  a  biquadratic, 
foiu".  The  quadratic  equation  j::^  +  5a;  —  36  =  0  has 
two  roots,  -I-  9  and  —  4,  which  will  be  found  to 
satisfy  it.  Further,  the  expression  -j-  5x  —  36  = 
[x  —  9)  (.X  -I-  4)  =  0 ;  and  generally  if  the  roots  of 
an  equation 

F(a;)  =  a;n  +  A.„.,a;'»-«  ±  A^.jxn-a  ±  . . . 

±  K^x  ±  Ao  =  0 

(to  which  general  form  every  equation  of  the  titD 
degree  can  be  reduced),  are 

±  «!  ±  tta  ±  «3  •  •  •  ±  a»  •  •  • 
then  (x  T  a^)[x  ^  a^){x  T  a,)  .  . 

(a;  :f  an)  =  F(x)  =  0. 

103 


EQUATOR— EQUIANGULAR. 


Hence,  and  from  observing  the  way  in  which,  in  the 
multiplication  of  these  factors,  the  coefficients 

"^M-l,  -^/i-2  •  •  •  ^i, 
are  formed,  we  arrive  at  the  following  important 
results : 

A„_,  =  the  sum  of  the  roots,  with  their  signs 
changed. 

A„.2  =  the  sura  of  the  products  of  every  two  roots, 

with  their  signs  changed. 
A„.j  =  the  sum  of  the  products  of  every  three 

roots,  with  their  signs  changed. 
Ao    =  the  product  of  the  roots,  with  their  signs 

changed. 

The  factors,  it  will  be  observed,  are  formed  thus  : 
If  +  be  a  root,  then  x  =  a^,  and  a;  —  =  0  is  the 
factor.  If  the  root  were  —  a^,  then  a;  =  —  ;  and 
the  factor  would  be  x  +  —  0.  Observing  now 
the  way  in  which,  in  multiplying  a  series  of  such 
factors,  the  coefficients  of  the  resulting  polynomial 
are  formed,  we  arrive  at  this :  that  a  com})lete  etpia- 
tion  cannot  have  a  greater  number  of  positive  roots 
than  these  changes  of  sign  from  4-  to  -  and  from 
—  to  +  in  the  series  of  terms  forming  its  iirst 
member ;  and  that  it  cannot  have  a  greater  number 
of  negative  roots  than  there  are  permanencies  or 
repetitions  of  the  same  sign  in  proccedhig  from 
term  to  term.  From  the  same  source,  many  otlier 
general  properties  of  equations,  of  value  in  their 
arithmetical  solution,  may  be  inferred.  The  sub- 
ject is,  however,  too  vast  to  be  more  than  glanced 
ftt  here. 

EQUA'TOR,  Celestial,  is  the  great  circle  in 
the  sky  corresponding  to  the  extension  of  the 
equator  of  the  earth. 

EQUATOR,  Terrestrial,  the  great  circle  on  the 
earth's  surface  dividing  the  earth  into  the  northern 
and  southern  hemispheres,  and  half  way  between  the 
poles. 

EQUATO'RIAL,  an  important  astronomical 
instniment,  by  which  a  celestial  body  may  he 
observed  at  any  point  of  its  diurnal  course.  It  con- 
sists of  a  telescope  attached  to  a  graduated  circle, 
called  the  declination  circle,  whose  axis  penetrates 
at  right  angles  that  of  another  graduated  circle 
called  the  hour  circle,  and  is  wholly  sup})orted  by  it. 
The  pierced  axis,  which  is  called  the  principal  axis 
of  the  instrument,  turns  on  fixed  sui)ports ;  it  is 
pointed  to  the  pole  of  the  heavens,  and  the  hour 
circle  is  of  course  parallel  to  the  equinoctial.  In 
this  position,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  a  great  circle  of 
the  heavens  corresponding  to  the  declination  circle, 
passes  tLroughthe  pole,  and  is  an  hour  circle  of  the 
Leavens.  The  telescope  is  capable  of  being  moved 
in  the  plane  of  the  declination  circle.  If,  now,  the 
instrument  be  so  adjusted  that  the  index  of  the 
declination  circle  must  point  to  zero  when  an  equa- 
torial star  ia  in  the  centre  of  the  field  of  view  of  the 
telescope,  and  the  index  of  the  hour  circle  must 
ix>[s.  j  to  zero  when  the  telescope  is  in  the  meridian 
of  the  place,  it  is  clear  that  when  the  telescope  is 
directed  to  any  star,  the  index  of  the  declina- 
fcicn  circle  will  mark  the  declination  of  the  star  ; 
and  that  on  tiie  other  circle  its  right  ascension.  If 
the  telescope  be  clamped  when  directed  on  a  star,  it 
's  clear  that,  could  the  instrument  be  made  to 
lOtate  on  its  principal  axis  with  entire  uniformity 
with  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  heavens,  the  star 
wo\dd  always  appear  in  the  field  of  view.  This 
motion  of  rotation  is  commimicated  to  the  instru- 
ment by  clock-work. 

EQUE'STRIAN  ORDER,  or  E'QUITES.  This 
Wocly  originally  formed  the  cavalry  of  the  Roman 
104 


army,  and  is  said  to  have  been  instituted  by 
Romulus,  who  selected  from  the  three  principal 
Roman  tribes  300  eqnites.  This  number  waa 
afterwards  gradually  increased  to  3600,  who  were 
l^artly  of  patrician  and  i)artly  of  plebeian  rank,  and 
required  to  possess. a  certain  amount  of  property 
Each  of  these  equites  received  a  horse  from  the  state ; 
but  about  403  B.C.,  a  new  body  of  equit<is  began  to 
make  their  appearance,  who  were  obliged  to  furnish 
a  horse  at  their  own  expense.  These  were  probr^bl^' 
wealthy  novi  homines,  men  of  equestrian  fortune, 
but  not  descended  from  the  old  equites  (for  it 
should  be  observed  that  the  equestrian  digniljj 
was  hereditary).  Until  123  B.C.,  the  equites  were 
exclusively  a  military  body ;  but  in  that  year 
Cains  Gracchus  carried  a  measure,  by  which  all 
the  judices  had  to  be  selected  from  them.  Now, 
for  the  first  time,  they  became  a  distinct  order  cr 
class  in  the  state,  and  were  called  Ordo  Eque,4ris. 
In  70  B.  c,  Sulla  deprived  them  of  this  privilege ; 
but  their  power  did  not  then  decrease,  as  the 
forming  of  the  public  revenues  appears  to  have 
fallen  into  their  hands.  After  the  conspiracy  of 
Catiline,  the  equestrian  order,  which  on  that 
memoraljle  occasion  had  vigorously  supported  th« 
Consid  Cicero,  began  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  thirct 
estate  in  the  Kepublic ;  and  to  the  title  of  Senatiia 
Populusque  JRo7ncmus  was  added  et  Equestris  Ordo. 
But,  even  in  the  beginning  of  the  empire,  the 
honour,  like  many  others,  was  so  indiscriminately 
and  ])rofusely  conferred,  that  it  fell  into  contempt, 
and  the  body  gradually  became  extinct.  As  early 
as  the  later  wars  of  the  Eepublic,  the  equites  had 
ceased  to  constitute  the  common  soldiers  of  the 
Roman  cavalry,  and  figure  only  as  officers. 

EQUESTRIAN  STATUE,  the_  represen- 
tation of  a  man  on  horseback.  Equestrian  statues 
Avere  awarded  as  a  high  honour  to  military  com- 
manders and  persons  of  distinction  in  Rome,  and 
latterly  were,  for  the  most  part,  restricted  to  the 
emperors,  the  most  famous  in  existence  being  that 
of  the  Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius,  which  now  stands 
in  the  Piazza  of  the  Capitol  at  Rome.  It  is  the  only 
ancient  equestrian  statue  in  bronze  that  has  been 
preserved  ;  an  exemption  which  it  probably  owed  to 
the  fact,  that  for  centuries  it  was  supposed  to  be  a 
statue  of  Constantino.  The  action  of  the  horse  is  so 
fine,  and  the  air  of  motion  so  successfully  given  to  it, 
that  Michael  Angelo  is  said  to  have  called  out  to  it 
'  Canmiina  ! ' — (Go  on,  then  !).  It  was  originally  gilt, 
and  traces  of  the  gilding  are  still  visible  on  the 
horse's  head.  So  highly  is  this  statue  prized,  not 
only  for  its  artistic  but  its  historical  value,  that  an 
officer  used  regularly  to  be  appointed  by  the  Roman 
government  to  take  care  of  it,  under  the  designation 
of  the  Custode  del  Cavallo.  On  the  occasion  of  the 
rejoicings  by  which  Rienzi's  elevation  to  the  tribune- 
ship  was  celebrated  in  1347,  wine  was  made  to  run 
out  of  one  nostril  and  water  out  of  the  other  of  thui 
famous  horse.  The  statue  then  stood  in  front  oC  the 
Church  of  St  John  Lateran,  near  to  which  it  waa 
found,  and  a  bunch  of  flowers  has  always  been  pre- 
sented annually  to  the  chapter  of  that  basilica,  in 
acknowledgment  of  ownership,  since  it  was  removed 
to  its  present  site  on  the  Capitol.  All  European 
capitals  are  adorned,  or  disfigured,  by  nimieroaa 
equestrian  statues,  London  belonging  pre-eminently 
to  the  latter  category. 

EQUE'STRIANISM.   See  Horsebianship. 

EQUIA'NGULAR,  having  eqnal  angles.  A 
figure  is  said  to  be  equiangular  all  whose  angles  ara 
equal  to  one  another,  as  a  square,  or  any  regular 
polygon.  Also  triangles  and  other  figures  are  said 
to  be  equiangular  one  with  another  "whose  corres- 
ponding angles  are  equal. 


EQUID.E— EQUISETUM 


EQUID^,  or  SOLIDUNGULA  (L.at.  solid- 
hoofed),  a  family  of  mammalia  of  the  order  Pacli.y- 
dtTmata,  containing  only  a  small  number  of  species, 
which  so  nearly  resemble  each  other  that  almost  all 
natirrahsts  agree  in  referring  them  to  one  genns, 
Eqnus.  They  are  distinguished  from  all  other 
quadrupeds  by  the  complete  consolidation  of  the 
bones  of  the  toes,  or  the  extraordinary  development 
of  one  toe  alone  in  each  foot,  with  only  one  set  of 
phalangeal  and  of  metacarpal  or  metatarsal  bones, 
and  the  extremity  covered  by  a  single  undivided 
hoof.  There  are,  however,  two  small  protuberances 
{splint  bones)  on  each  side  of  the  metacarpal  or  meta- 
tarsal bone  {anion  or  cannon  hone),  which  represent 
other  toes.  The  E.  have  six  incisors  in  each  jaw, 
and  six  molars  on  each  side  in  each  jaw  ;  the  males 
have  also  two  small  canine  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw, 
sometimes  in  both  jaws,  which  are  almost  always 
wanting  in  the  females.  The  molars  of  the  E.  have 
square  crowns,  and  are  marked  by  laminae  of 
enamel  with  ridges  forming  four  crescents.  There 
is  a  wide  space  between  the  canine  teeth  and  the 
molars.  The  stomach  of  the  E.  is  simple,  but  the 
intestines  are  long,  and  the  caecum  extremely  large  ; 
the  digestive  organs  being  thus  very  different  from 
those  of  the  ruminants,  but  exhibiting  an  equally 
perfect  adaptation  to  the  same  kind  of  not  easily 
assimilated  food.  Another  distinctive  peculiarity 
of  the  E.  is,  that  the  females  have  two  teats  situated 
on  the  pubes,  between  the  thighs.  But  notwith- 
standing these  characters,  so  dissimilar  to  those  of 
the  ruminants,  they  approach  them  very  much  in 
their  general  conformation,  and  may  be  regarded  as 
a  connecting  link  between  pachyderms  and  rumi- 
nants. The  largely  developed  and  flexible  upper 
lip  is  a  character  which  belongs  to  the  former  rather 
than  to  the  latter  order. 

The  E.  are  now  found  in  a  truly  wUd  state  only 
in  Asia  and  Africa.  Fossil  remains  exist  in  the 
newer  geological  formations  in  great  abvmdance  in 
many  parts  of  the  Old  World  ;  very  sparingly,  how- 
ever, in  the  New,  although  the  bones  of  a  peculiar 
and  distinct  species  (Equus  curvidens),  belonging 
to  the  Pleiocene  period,  have  been  found  in  South 
America. 

The  horse  and  the  ass  are  by  far  the  most  import- 
ant species  of  this  family.  The  dziggethai  has  also 
been  domesticated  and  made  useful  to  man.  Of  the 
other  species,  the  zebra,  quagga,  and  dauw,  it  is 
generally  believed  that  they  are  incapable  of  useful 
domestication. 

EQUILA'TERAL,  having  equal  sides.  A  square 
is  equilateral.  The  equilateral  hyperbola  is  that 
whose  axes  and  conjugate  diameters  are  equal. 

EQUILI'BRIUM,  the  state  of  rest  or  balance  of 
a  body  or  system,  solid  or  fluid,  acted  upon  by 
various  forces.    See  Statics  and  Hydrostatics. 

EQUINO'CTIAL  is  the  same  with  the  celestial 
equator.  See  Equator,  Celestial.  The  equinoctial 
points  are  those  in  which  the  equinoctial  and  the 
ecliptic  intersect.  See  Ecliptic.  Equinoctial  time 
is  time  reckoned  from  the  moment  when  the  point 
of  Aries  passes  the  Vernal  Equinox.  See  Equinoxes. 
This  instant  is  selected  as  a  convenient  central  point 
of  a  uniform  reckoning  of  time  for  the  purposes  of 
aiitronomical  observers. 

E  QUINOXES.  Sometimes  the  Equinoctial  Points 
(see  Equinoctial)  are  called  the  equinoxes.  More 
commonly,  by  the  equinoxes  are  meant  the  times 
when  the  sun  enters  those  pointfj,  viz.,  21st  March 
and  22d  September,  the  former  being  called  the 
Vernal  or  Spring  Equinox,  and  the  latter  the  Autum- 
nal, When  in  the  equinoxes,  the  sun,  through  the 
earth  s  rotation  on  its  axis,  seems  to  describe  the 
circle  of  the  equate/  -  in  the  heavens,  and  the  days 


and  nights  are  of  equal  length  all  over  the  worlcL 
At  the  vernal  equinox,  the  sun  is  passin;^  horn 
south  to  north,  and  in  the  northern  hemisj)hcr6 
the  days  nre  lengthening ;  at  the  autumnal,  he  is 
passing  from  north  to  south,  and  tlie  days  aru 
shortening.  As  the  earth  moves  more  rapidly  when 
near  the  sun,  or  in  wdntcr,  the  sun's  a])parent 
motion  is  not  uniform,  and  it  happens  that  he  takes 
eight  days  more  to  pass  from  the  vernal  to  tho 
autumnal  equinox,  than  from  the  latter  to  tlio 
former.  The  equinoctial  points  are  not  staticuary 
See  Ecliptic. 

EQUI'PMENT,  E'QUIPAGE,  in  Military  ir.atr. 
ters,  are  names  given  to  certain  of  the  necessariet 
for  officers  and  soldiers.  During  the  Crimean  War 
many  officers  applied  for  and  obtained  money  aa 
compensation  for  the  loss  or  injury  of  their  equip- 
ment, comprising  horses,  horse-appointments,  bag- 
gage, saddlery,  and  accoutrements.  Equipments 
issued  to  private  soldiers  are  expected  to  last  a 
certain  number  of  years,  and  small  deductions  from 
their  pay  are  made  in  the  event  of  the  articles  not 
lasting  the  proper  time.  In  those  cases  (in  the 
English  army)  where  a  non-commissioned  officer 
receives  a  commission  on  the  ground  of  meritorious 
service,  an  allowance  of  £100,  if  in  the  infantry,  or 
£150,  if  in  the  cavalry,  is  made  to  him  to  provide  an 
equipment.  The  equipment  of  a  private  soldier  is 
often  used  as  a  name  for  the  whole  of  his  clothes, 
arms,  and  accoutrements  collectively.  The  equi- 
page of  an  army  is  of  two  kinds  :  it  includes  all  the 
furniture  of  the  camp,  such  as  tents  and  utensils, 
under  the  name  of  camp-equipage ;  field-equi- 
page comprises  saddle-horses,  baggage-horses,  and 
baggage-wagons. 

EQUISE'TUM,  a  genus  of  Cryptogamous  plants, 
the  structure  and  affinities  of  which  are  not  yet  well 
understood,  but  which  many  botanists  regard  aa 
constituting  a  sub-order  of  ferns,  whilst  others  prefer 
to  make  it  a  distinct  order,  Eqiiisetacece.  The 
English  name  Horse-tail  is  often  given  to  all  the 
species.  They  have  a 
leafless,  cylindrical,  hoi- 
low,  and  jointed  stem, 
each  joint  terminating 
in  a  membranous  and 
toothed  sheath,  which 
encloses  the  base  of  the 
one  above  it.  The  fructi- 
fication is  at  the  simimit 
of  the  stem  in  spikes, 
which  somewhat  re- 
sembles trobiles  (cones), 
and  are  formed  of  scales 
bearing  spore-cases  on 
their  lower  surface.  The 
spores  are  minute,  oval, 
or  roimd,  green,  and  each 
accompanied  with  four 
elastic  and  hygromet- 
rical  thi-eads.  These 
threads  are  sometimes 
called  elaters,  but  it  is 
by  no  means  certain 
that  they  are  of  the 
same  nature  with  the 
spiral  filaments  so  called, 
which  are  mixed  with 
the  spores  of  many 
Ilepaticce  (q.  v.).  Each 
thread  terminates  in  a 
kind  of  club.  The  stems  generally  have  lateral 
branches,  angular,  but  otherwise  similar  in  structure 
to  the  stem,  gro^v^ng  in  whorls  from  the  joints ;  some- 
times the  stem  is  simple ;  or  fertile  stems  ar«  simple, 


Equisetum  Teluiateia : 

summit  ot  fertile  stem,  jvitb 
fructiticatiou  ;  2,  a  scale,  with 
its  stalk  (laterul  view);  3, 
a  spore,  with  its  filameiita 
unrolled ;  4,  a  epore,  with 
its  filaments  h j grometricallj 
rolled  up. 


EQUITABLE  DEFENCES— EQUITY. 


and  sterile  stems  are  brarched.  The  species  of  this 
genus  contain  a  peculiar  acid  called  Equisetic  Acid. 
Astringent  and  diuretic  properties  exist  in  these 
plants,  an<l  the}'  were  formerly  used  in  medicine,  but 
are  not  now  regarded  as  of  much  value.  It  has  been 
said  that  they  are  very  injurious  to  cattle  ^vhich  eat 
them,  but  this  seems  to  require  confirmation.  They 
abonnd  chiefly  in  damp  soils,  and  sometimes  so 
much  that  tlie  plough  and  harrow,  or  the  grubber, 
must  be  employed  to  extirpate  them.  Some  of  them, 
however,  grow  in  dry  fields  and  gardens ;  whilst 
others  are  fomid  chiefly  in  ditches  or  the  banks  of 
riyers.  They  exist  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  world, 
and  are  seldom  of  large  size,  varying  from  a  few 
inches  to  a  few  feet  in  height,  but  a  comi:)aratively 
gigantic  species  has  recently  l)een  discovered  in  tro- 
pical America.  The  rough  siliceous  stems  of  some 
Bpecies  are  used  for  smoothing  and  polishing  wood, 
particularly  those  of  E.  hyemale,  which  are  imported 
into  Britain  in  considerable  quantities  from  Holland, 
under  the  name  of  Dutch  Bushes.  The  stems  of 
this  species  are  unbranched,  or  a  little  branched  only 
at  the  base.  It  is  not  uncommon  in  Britain,  and  is 
found  also,  rather  sparingly,  in  North  America.  It 
has  been  proposed  to  cultivate  it,  as  it  grows  well 
under  trees,  where  few  other  plants  wouhl  thrive. 
The  stems  of  other  species,  as  E.  ai'vense,  the  most 
common  of  all  the  British  species,  are  used  for  scour- 
iug  tin  and  pewter  vessels. 

EQUITABLE  DEFE'NCES  at  common  law 
were  introduced  by  the  Common  Law  Procedure  Act 
(15  and  IG  Vict.  c.  76,  s.  83),  whereby  it  is  enacted 
that  the  defendant  in  any  cause,  and  the  plaintiff 
in  replevin,  where  he  would  be  entitled  to  relief 
against  the  judgment  on  equitable  grounds,  may 
plead  the  facts  which  entitle  him  to  such  relief.  The 
effect  of  this  enactment  has  been  to  extend  materi- 
ally the  equitable  jurisdiction  of  common  law  courts, 
by  enabling  them  to  give  effect  to  a  plea  in  cases 
where,  th(mgh  courts  of  law  had  no  remedy,  a  court 
of  equity  would  have  afforded  unconditional  relief. 
It  has  been  remarked  by  Pollock,  C.  B.,  Clarke  v. 
Laurie  26,  Laio  Jour.  Ex.  86,  that  '  it  is  an  estab- 
lished rule  now  ....  that  no  equitable  plea  shall 
be  permitted,  except  in  a  case  w^here  the  plea  and 
decision,  and  judgment  of  the  court  upon  it,  will 
work  out  and  complete  all  the  equity  that  belongs 
to  the  matter  to  which  the  plea  refers.'  A  defend- 
ant having  pleaded  an  equitable  defence  at  law, 
is  not  jirecluded  from  resorting  to  the  Court  of 
Chancery,  although  the  common  law  court  has  full 
jurisdiction,  and  his  plea  is  a  bar  to  the  action. 
Evans  v.  Bremridge  25,  Laiv  Jour.  Ch.  102. 

EQUITABLE  ESTATES,  estates  the  right 
to  which,  according  to  the  strict  rules  of  English 
common  law,  cannot  be  sustained,  hut  which  receive 
full  effect  in  a  coiu't  of  equity.  These  estates  are  the 
Equity  of  Redemption  (q.  v.)  w^hich  a  mortgager  has 
in  his  estate,  subject  to  the  mortgage,  and  the  right 
of  cestui  que  trust  in  a  trust  estate.  Formerly,  these 
interests  were  not  even  recognised  by  courts  of  law; 
but  by  7  Geo.  IL  c.  20,  and  15  and  16  Vict.  c.  76, 
oourts  of  law  are  now  empowered  to  take  notice, 
And  give  effect  to  an  equitable  interest,  where  it 
appears  that  that  interest  is  clear  and  free  from 
question. 

EQUITABLE  MO  RTGAGE  is  where  a  per- 
son, having  an  equitable  interest  in  an  estate,  mort- 
gages that  interest.  Thus,  a  cestui  que  trust  may 
mortgage  his  estat()  under  the  trust,  or  a  mortgager, 
who  has  already  mortgaged  his  estate,  may  convey 
his  Equity  of  Redemption  (q.  v.)  in  security  of  his 
debt.  In  these  instances,  the  interest  operated 
upon  being  purely  equitable,  the  transaction  is  an 
equitable  mortgage.    An  equitable  mortgage  may 


also  be  effected  by  a  deposit  of  title-deeds  in 
security  of  debt.    See  Mortgage,  Estate. 

E'QUITY,  Courts  of,  England.    The  adminis- 
tration of  justice  in  England  is  divided  into  two 
great  branches,  usually"  known  as  common  law  and 
equity.    These  terms  serve  sufficiently  to  indicate 
the  character  of  the  principles  which  regulate  the 
practice  in  the  several  courts ;  for  although  within 
its  own  sphere  the  common  law  pays  regard  to 
equitable  principles,  yet  it  is  in  the  equity  courts 
that  pinnciples  of  equity  have  b§en  matured  into  a 
separate  science.    The  suj^reme  courts  of  equity  in 
England  are  the  Lord  Chancellor's  Court,  the  Master 
of  the  Roll's  Court,  and  the  courts  of  the  three  Vice- 
chancellors.    The  origin  of  the  separate  equitable 
jurisdiction  existing  m  England  is  to  be  found  in 
the  early  adoption  by  the  courts  of  common  law 
of  certain  set  forms  for  the  redress  of  grievances,  and 
their  refusal  to  apply  any  remedy  to  cases  which  did 
not  fall  within  those  limits.    Suitors  finding  that  in 
numerous  cases  redress  was  not  to  be  obtained  in 
the  ordinary  legal  tribunals,  had  recourse  to  the 
king  as  the  fountain  of  justice,  who,  sitting  in 
council,  heard  the   complaints  upon  their  merits 
without  reference  to  the  technicalities  of  law.  As 
early  as  the  reign  of  Edward  I.,  the  practice  began 
to  be  ado})ted  of  delegating  to  the  chancellor  the 
petitions  referred  to  the  king.    In  this  reign,  an 
attempt  w^as  made  to  devise  a  method  whereby  the 
common  law  courts  should  be  made  the  sole  tril)unal 
for  the  redress  of  grievances.     By  the  statute  of 
Westminster  the  second  (13  Edw.  I.  c.  2-1),  it  was 
enacted  that  whenever  a  case  occurred  requiring  a 
new  writ,  the  Chancery  (in  which  all  suits  took  their 
rise)  should  frame  a  new  wi'it  to  suit  the  case.  This 
statute  was   never  acted  upon  to  the  pui'poae 
intended ;  but  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  its 
provisions  were  made  use  of  by  John  Waltham,  who 
was  then  chancellor,  to  introduce  the  writ  of  Sub- 
poena (q.  v.),  returnable  to  Chancery  only,  whereby 
the  Lord  Chancellor's  court  was  made  the  forum  of 
a  large  class  of  causes.    'From  this  time,'  says  Mr 
Spence  (Chancery  Jurisdiction,  i.  338),  'suits  by 
petition  or  bill  without  any  prelimuiary  wit  became 
a  common  course  of  procediu'e  before  the  chancellor, 
as  it  had  been  in  the  coimcil.    On  the  petition  or 
bill  being  presented,  if  the  case  called  for  extra- 
ordinary interference,  a  writ  was  issued  by  the 
command  of  the  chancellor,  but  in  the  name  of  the 
king,  by  which  the  painty  complained  against  was 
summoned  to  appear  before  the  Court  of  Chancery, 
to  answer  the  complaint,  and  abide  by  the  order 
of  the  court.'    Thus  was  introduced  into  Chancery 
the  practice  of  examining  upon  oath  the  party  in 
the  cause,  a  practice  unknown  at  that  time  to 
common  law.    The  cases  heard  in  the  Chancery 
courts  were  decided  uj^on  the  princij^les  of  honesty^ 
equity,  and  conscience.    The  next  stej)  which  tended 
to  widen  the  equitable  jiuisdiction  of  the  Chancery 
courts,  was  the  exclusion  of  the  Roman  law  from  the 
courts  of  common  law.    This  was  effected  by  a  prO' 
hibition  of  the  judges  in  the  reign  of  Richard  II. 
One  result  of  this  prohibition  was  to  exclude  alto- 
gether from  the  common  law  courts  the  question  of 
trusts.    There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  common 
law  judges  had  this  aim  in  view  in  the  course  which 
they  adopted.    Tnists  were  repugnant  to  the  feudal 
law,  the  principles  of  which  were  acted  upon  in  the 
common  law  courts.    The  Court  of  Chancery  at 
once  proceeded  to  give  a  remedy  in  this  class  of 
cases,  which  has  ever  since  formed  the  most  im- 
portant branch  of  the  equitable  jurisdiction  of  tliat 
court.    The  jurisdiction  of  the  Court  of  Chancery 
in  matters  of  fraud,  which  also  forms  an  important 
branch  of  the  equitable  jurisdiction  of  the  court,  is 
to  be  traced  to  the  abolition  of  the  Star  Chamber 


EQUITY. 


(q.  V.)  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  Thus  has  sprung 
U])  in  England  the  equitable  jiirisdiction  of  the 
Court  of  Chancery.  Owing  its  existence  to  the 
jealousy  and  exclusiveness  of  the  common  law, 
which  adhered  to  ancient  customs  and  feudal  usages, 
it  has  not  inaptly  received  the  title  of  Equity.  It 
13  equitable  inasmuch  as  it  applied  a  measure  of 
justice  inaccessible  by  the  ordinary  procedure  ;  and 
equitable  in  the  principles  administered,  which  had 
reference  to  the  broad  question  of  right  unfettered 
hy  the  technicaUties  of  law.  Yet  is  it  a  great  error 
to  suppose  that  the  system  administered  in  courts 
of  equity  is  an  arbitrary  one  at  the  pleasm-e  of  the 
presiding  judge.  Such  probably  was  the  case  on 
the  first  introduction  of  such  a  tribunal ;  but  as 
time  progressed,  the  decisions  of  previous  judges 
formed  precedents  for  their  successors,  and  the 
precepts  of  the  Roman  law  were  early  adopted 
as  a  code  for  the  regidation  of  the  courts.  The 
independent  existence  of  the  equity  courts  in 
England  has  called  forth  the  animadversion  of 
other  nations.  A  practice  directly  opposed  to 
that  pursued  in  nearly  every  other  civilised  state 
could  hardly  fail  to  occasion  such  a  result.  The 
inconvenience  occasioned  to  suitors  by  the  necessity 
of  seekmg  in  different  courts  the  remedy  for  civil 
injuries,  and  the  alleged  confusion  of  judicatories, 
have  been  strongly  dwelt  upon  by  t"he  enemies  of 
this  sj'stem.  Yet  are  these  e\als  more  imaginary 
than  real.  The  relative  jurisdictions  of  common 
law  and  equity  are  now  so  clearly  delined  as  to 
leave  a  suitor  Little  doubt  in  which  court  to  seek  his 
remedy.  In  place  of  opposing  jurisdictions,  the 
courts  of  common  law  and  equity  are  rather  inde- 
pendent tribunals  established  each  for  administering 
a  separate  branch  of  a  judicial  system.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  contended  by  English  lawyers,  and 
not  w^itbout  good  reason,  that  by  the  existence 
of  the  English  equity  courts  as  an  independent 
tribunal,  a  system  of  equity  has  been  gradually 
evolved  and  established  as  fixed  and  certain  in 
its  principles  as  a  code  of  laws,  and  one  which  is 
frequently  resorted  to  for  guidance  by  foreign 
tribunals.  The  popular  delusion,  that  equity  courts 
administer  an  arbitrary  system  repugnant  to  law 
cannot  be  too  sti-ongly  controverted.  This  point 
has  been  dwelt  upon  by  all  writers  on  equity,  yet 
is  the  error  constantly  repeated  in  every  popidar 
treatise.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  equity 
jurisdiction  arose  as  ancillary  to  the  law ;  not  to 
contradict  or  overrule  legal  principles,  but  to 
remedy  their  defects.  Mr  Justice  Story  {Principles 
of  Equity  Jurisprudence,  s.  49)  remarks,  that  equity 
'  was  principally  apj)lied  to  remedy  defects  in  com- 
mon law  procedure,  and  therefore  that  equity  juris- 
diction was  maintained  on  the  same  ground  which 
now  constitutes  the  principal  cause  of  its  inter- 
ference— viz.,  that  a  wrong  is  done  for  which  there 
is  no  plain  adequate  and  complete  remedy  in  the 
courts  of  common  law.'  The  jurisdiction  of  the 
equity  courts  is  divided  under  three  principal  heads 
— exclusive,  concurrent,  and  assistant.  The  first 
consists  almost  entirely  of  the  administration  of 
trusts ;  the  second  comprises  questions  of  fraud,  of 
accr^uut,  and  also,  it  is  said  (Smith's  Principles  of 
Eqx.ity^  217),  of  specific  performance  of  agi'eements. 
Thia  matter  appears,  however,  to  fall  more  naturally 
under  the  a.ssistant  jurisdiction.  In  order  to  appre- 
ciate the  domain  of  the  equity  courts,  it  must  be 
\)on\e  in  mind  that  common  law  confines  its  remedy 
usually  to  the  awarding  of  damages,  and  to  the  pro- 
nouncing a  judgment  absolutely  in  favour  of  either 
plaintiff  or  defendant ;  equity,  on  the  other  hand, 
alone  goes  into  all  the  merits  of  the  case,  and  will 
deliver  a  modified  judgment  where  circumstances 
demand  it.    The  judges  of  the  equity  couits  at 


present  consist  of  the  Lord  Chancellor,  two  I/orcls 
Justices  of  Appeal,  the  Master  of  the  Rolls,  and 
three  Vice  Chancellors.  Until  1813,  almost  the 
whole  business  of  the  court  was  discharged  by  the 
Lord  Chancellor.  By  53  Geo.  Ill,  c.  24,  a  Vice 
Chancellor  of  England  was  api)ointcd ;  in  1833  (3 
and  4  Will.  IV.  c.  49),  rhe  Master  of  the  RcjUs  was 
required  to  hear  motions,  etc.;  and  in  1841,  two 
additional  Vice  Chancellors  were  appointed.  The 
Lords  Justices  of  A])pcal  were  created  in  1851. 
The  ordinary  business  of  tlie  equity  courts  is  trans- 
acted by  the  Master  of  the  Rolls  and  the  three 
Vice  Chancellors.  The  Lord  Chancellor  also  may 
hear  causes  in  the  first  instance,  l)ut  he  is  most 
usually  engaged  in  hearing  appeals.  The  Lord 
Chancellor  and  the  Lords  Justices  constitute  the 
court  of  appeal.  Appeals  may  be  heard  either  by 
the  Lord  Chancellor  alone,  by  the  Chancellor  and 
one  of  the  Lords  Justices,  or  by  the  two  Lords 
Justices.  From  this  court  a  further  appeal  lies  to 
the  House  of  Lords. 

EQUITY,  Principles  of,  in  their  -widest  sense, 
are  the^  principles  of  eternal  justice,  of  which  all 
human  laws  are  but  adaptations.  'Equity,'  says 
Lord  Stair  (i.  1.  s,  17),  'is  the  body  of  the  law, 
and  the  statutes  of  men  are  but  as  the  ornaments 
and  vestiture  thereof.'  In  this  sense,  equity  coin- 
cides with  the  Roman  precepts  of  law — 'honest^ 
vivere,  alterum  non  Isedere,  suum  cuique  tribuere' — ■ 
{Inst.  i.  1,  s.  3),  and  with  the  principles  of  justice  as 
laid  down  by  the  inspired  writer — '  to  do  justly,  to 
love  mercy,  and  to  walk  humbly  with  thy  God.'-  - 
Micah,  vi.  8.  As  the  object  of  human  law  is  to  give 
expression  to  these  principles,  equity  is  thus  the 
basis  of  law.  But  it  is  impossible,  in  the  nature  of 
things,  that  any  code  of  laws  should  provide  a  rem- 
edy suited  to  every  particular  case ;  it  has  there- 
fore been  found  necessary,  in  every  civilized  nation, 
to  establish  some  form  of  authority  which  should 
control  the  rigour  and  remedy  the  deficiency  of  posi- 
tive law.  Thus,  it  is  the  function  of  the  law  to  lay 
down  a  code  of  rules  whereby  the  rights  of  property 
and  the  transactions  of  commerce  shall  be  regulated; 
but  by  the  diversities  of  life  it  happens  that  various 
circumstances  v/ill  occur  to  cause  these  fixed  rules 
to  operate  harshly  or  unjustly  in  particular  cases. 
A  party  may  complain  that  a  contract  duly  entered 
into  with  all  legal  formalities  has  been  obtained  by 
fraud ;  the  owner  of  an  estate  is  incapable  from 
infancy  or  hmacy  of  managing  his  affairs  ;  a  person 
ostensibly  the  owner  of  large  property  is  found  to 
be  placed  in  possession  in  trust  only  for  the  benefit 
of  others.  In  these  and  many  other  cases,  the 
party  who,  in  compliance  with  every  rule  of  the 
law,  is  in  possession,  is  not  in  fact  the  person  who 
shoidd  in  justice  exercise  the  right.  Here  equity 
steps  in.  While,  then,  all  law  may  be  said  to  be 
equitable,  inasmuch  as  it  is  the  purpose  of  law  to 
dispense  justice,  yet,  in  the  technical  sense,  the  term 
equity  is  confined  to  those  cases  not  sjjecially  pro- 
vided for  by  positive  law.  But,  on  the  other  hand, 
experience  has  shewn  that  it  woidd  be  most  incon- 
venient, and  subversive  of  order,  if  equity  shoidd 
arbitrarily  interpose  to  remedy  every  apparent 
grievance,  and  therefore  it  is  that  the  operation  of 
equity  is  checked  within  certain  limits.  '  There  are 
many  cases  against  natural  justice  which  are  left 
wholly  to  the  conscience  of  the  party,  and  are  with- 
out any  redress,  equitable  or  legal ;  and  so  far  from 
a  court  of  equity  supplying  universally  the  defects 
of  positive  legislation,  it  is  governed  by  the  same 
rules  of  interpretation  as  a  court  of  common  law, 
and  is  often  compelled  to  stop  wli?re  common  law 
stops.  It  is  the  duty  of  every  court  of  justice, 
whether  of  law  or  of  equity,  to  considt  the  ijitention 
of  the  legislature' — Story,  Principles  of  Equity,  a.  l<k 


EQUITY  OF  EEDEMPTION— ERASMUS. 


Ilcncc  arises  the  maxim,  that  'equity  follows 
the  law.'  The  principles  of  equity,  therefore,  as 
understood  in  moderi  times,  maybe  said  to  be  those 
principles  of  natural  justice  which  are  permitted  to 
modify  the  rigour  of  positive  law.  In  applying 
these  principles  to  practice,  the  equitable  jurisdiction 
has  been  intrusted  by  all  nations,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  England  (see  Equity  Courts),  to  the  same 
courts  in  which  the  positive  law  was  administered. 
But  in  the  infancy  of  states,  the  boundaries  of  law 
and  equity,  and  the  functions  of  the  equity  judge, 
were  not  so  clearly  defined  as  in  the  i)resent  day. 
By  the  Roman  law,  a  power,  called  the  jus  honor- 
arium or  nob'de  officium,  was  reposed  in  the  praetor 
of  controlling  on  equitable  groimds  the  decisions  of 
the  ordinary  tribunals.*  Each  praetor,  on  entering 
upon  his  office,  published  an  edict  declaring  the 
principles  by  which  he  would  be  guided  in  discharg- 
ing his  duty  as  an  equitable  magistrate.  The  prin- 
ciples so  declared  were  binding  on  the  proator  during 
his  year  of  office,  but  not  on  his  successor.  There 
can,  however,  be  little  doubt  that  in  process  of  time 
a  system  of  equity  was  gradually  evolved ;  and 
ultimately,  in  ':lie  reign  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  the 
edicts  of  the  praetors  were  collected  by  a  civilian 
named  Julianus,  and  embodied  in  a  single  code 
called  the  Perpetual  Edict  (q.  v.).  According  to 
the  practice  of  modern  nations,  the  courts  of  law 
are  accustomed  to  exercise  a  certain  equitable 
jurisdiction  whereby,  within  prescribed  limits,  the 
rules  of  law  may  be  modified.  In  Scotland,  the 
equitable  power  of  the  Court  of  Session  is  called 
the  Nohile  Officium  (q.  v.). 

EQUITY  OF  REDEMPTION,  the  interest 
which  a  moilgager  has  in  an  estate  which  he  has 
mortgaged.  An  equity  of  redemption  may  be 
ieviscd,  granted,  or  entailed,  and  the  course  of 
?Iescent  to  an  equity  of  redemption  is  governed  by 
the  same  laws  as  the  descent  to  the  land  would 
have  been.  Formerly,  the  equitable  interest  of  a 
mortgager  could  not  be  recognised  in  a  court  of 
law,  but  by  7  Geo.  II.  c.  20,  it  is  provided  that 
where  no  suit  is  pending  in  a  court  of  equity,  either 
for  foreclosure  or  redemption,  but  the  mortgagee 
attempts  to  obtain  possession  by  bringing  an  action 
of  ejectment,  in  such  a  case,  the  court  may  restore 
his  estate  to  the  mortgager,  on  his  payment  of  the 
l)rincipal  and  interest  due  on  such  mortgage. 

EQUI'VALENTS,  m  Chemistry.  See  ATomc 
Weights. 

E  RA.    See  Chronology. 

EEA'SED  AND  ERA'DICATED,  heraldically 
signifies  that  an  object  is  plucked 
or  torn  off,  and  shewing  a  ragged 
edge  ;  as  opposed  to  coupe  or  coupy, 
«ut,  which  shews  a  smooth  edge.  A 
tree  plucked  up  by  the  roots  is  said 
to  be  eradicated. 

ERASI'STRATUS,  one  of  the 
most  famous  physicians  and  anato- 
Erased.        mists  of  ancient  times,  flourished  in 
the  3d  c.  r..c.,  and  is  supposed  to 
ave  been  born  at  lulis,  in  the  island  of  Ceos.  He 
resided  for  some  time  at  the  covirt  of  Seleucus 
Nicator,  king  of  Syria,  and  while  there,  acquired 
gi'eat  renown  by  discovering  and  curing  the  disease 
of  the  king's  eldest  son,  who  was  pining  for  the  love 
of  the  young  and  beautiful  Stratonice,  whom  his 
father  in  his  old  age  had  married.    Afterwards,  E. 

•  This  fimction  of  the  prajtor  commenced  in  the 
earliest  times  under  the  kings  of  Rome,  and  continued 
to  attacli  to  the  office  through  all  the  changes  which 
distracttod  the  nati  ~u. 


lived  for  some  time  at  Alexandria,  where,  giving  up 
practice,  he  devoted  hunself  with  great  energy  and 
success  to  his  anatomical  studies.  The  date  of  hia 
death,  which  seems  to  have  taken  place  in  Asia 
Minor,  is  not  known.  He  founded  a  school  of 
medicine,  wrote  several  works  on  anatomy— in 
which  branch  he  was  most  celebrated — on  prac- 
tical medicine,  and  pharmacy.  He  believed  that 
the  heart  was  the  origin  both  of  the  veins  and 
arteries,  and,  had  it  not  been  liis  conviction  that  the 
arteries  contained  air  instead  of  blood,  little  doubt 
is  entertained  but  that  he  would  have  anticipated 
Harvey  in  the  discovery  of  the  circulation  of  the 
blood.  Of  his  nuinerous  writings,  only  some  obscure 
fragments  and  titles  have  been  preserved.  Compare 
Hieronymus,  Erasistrati  et  Eradatrateorum  Historia 
(Jena,  1790). 

ERA'SMUS,  ©ESiDERius,  one  of  the  most 
vigorous  promoters  of  the  Reformation,  was  born 
at  Rotterdam,  28th  October  1467.  He  was  the 
illegitimate  son  of  a  Dutchman  named  Gheraerd, 
or  Garrit,  by  the  daughter  of  a  physician.  In 
accordance  with  the  fashion  among  scholars  of 
his  time,  he  changed  the  name  Gheraerd  into  its 
Latin  and  Greek  equivalents  Desiderius  Erasmus 
(more  correctly,  Erasmius) — meaning  desired,  loved. 
Till  his  ninth  year,  E.  was  a  chorister  in  the 
cathedral  at  Utrecht.  He  was  then  sent  to  school 
at  Deventer,  where  his  talents  began  to  display 
themselves  in  so  brilliant  a  manner,  that  it  was 
even  then  predicted  that  he  would  one  day  be  the 
most  learned  man  of  his  time.  After  the  death 
of  his  parents,  whom  he  lost  at  the  age  of  fourteen, 
his  guardians  determined  on  bringing  him  up  to 
a  religious  life,  and — with  the  intention,  it  is  said, 
of  sharing  his  small  patrimony  among  themselves — 
in  his  17th  year,  placed  him  in  the  monastery 
of  Emaus,  near  Gouda.  From  this  constrained 
manner  of  life,  however,  he  was  released  by  the 
Bishop  of  Cambray.  After  having  taken  priest's 
orders  in  1492,  he  went  to  Paris,  to  perfect  him 
self  in  theology  and  the  humane  sciences.  Here 
he  supported  himself  in  a  somewhat  precarious 
manner,  by  giving  private  lectures,  and  in  1497. 
accompanied  some  Englishmen,  who  had  been  his 
pupils,  to  England,  where  he  was  well  received  by 
the  king.  He,  however,  soon  returned  to  Paris,  and 
in  1506,  to  enrich  his  knowledge,  visited  Italy.  At 
Turin,  he  took  the  degree  of  D.D.  Shortly  after,  he 
applied  to  the  pope  for  a  dispensation  from  his 
monastic  vows,  which  was  granted.  During  the 
course  of  his  journey,  he  visited  Venice,  Parma, 
Rome,  and  other  interesting  cities,  in  company  with 
his  i)upil,  Alexander  Stuart,  a  natural  son  of  James 
IV.  of  Scotland,  who,  along  with  his  father,  was 
afterwards  slain  at  the  battle  of  Flodden.  At  Rome, 
the  most  brilliant  prospects  were  held  out  to  him. 
Cardinal  Grimani,  a  famous  lover  of  learning  in 
that  day,  offered,  out  of  his  admiration  for  E.,  to 
make  him  'partaker  of  his  house  and  fortunes.' 
Other  eminent  men  vied  with  Grimani  in  shewing 
respect  to  the  young  scholar,  among  whom  may 
be  mentioned  John  de  Medicis,  afterwards  Leo  X., 
Cardinal  Raphael  of  St  George,  and  Giles  of  Viterbo, 
genei-al  of  the  Augustines.  The  pope  (Julius  II.) 
also  offered  him  a  place  among  his  penitentiaries, 
an  office  of  considerable  consequence,  and  it  would 
appear,  a  'step  to  the  highest  preferments  in  that 
court.'  E.,  who  had  always  an  eye  to  the  main 
chance,  regi-etted,  at  a  later  period  of  his  life,  that 
he  had  not  accepted  the  offers  held  out  to  him  in 
Rome,  but  meanwhile,  having  pledged  himself  to 
return  to  England,  where  also  he  had  many  friends, 
he  set  out  for  that  country  in  1509,  after  the 
accession  of  Henry  VIII.  In  several  of  the  cities 
through  which  he  passed  he  met  with  friends  and 


ERASMUS— ERASTUS. 


patroTLS,  ^vllO  wished  him  to  settle  amongst  tliem,  but 
aa  Henry  was  a  correspondent  of  his,  E.  was  induced 
to  cherish  the  highest  hopes  of  personal  favour  from 
that  monarch,  and  coidd  not  be  prevailed  on  to  stay 
for  more  than  a  very  brief  period.  He  had  no 
sooner,  however,  arrived  in  England  than  he  found 
out  his  mistake.  At  first,  he  lodged  with  Sir  Thomas 
More,  and  dming  his  stay  with  him  composed  his 
Encomium  Morm,  or  Praise  of  Folly,  the  purpose  of 
which  is  to  expose  all  kinds  of  fools,  but  esi)ecially 
those  who  flourished  in  the  church,  not  sparing  the 
jiO'je  himself.  For  a  short  time  he  filled  the  office 
T/f  Professor  of  Greek  at  Oxford,  but  on  the  whole 
was  very  scantily  supplied  with  the  means  of  sub- 
sistence. In  1514,  he  returned  disappointed  to  the 
continent,  and  resided  chiefly  at  Basel,  where  he 
died,  12th  July  1536.  E.'s  extensive  and  profound 
learning  was  equalled  by  his  refined  taste  and 
brilliant  wit,  A  natural  love  of  independence  and 
quiet  made  him  prefer  a  life  of  learned  leisure  and 
retirement  to  one  of  g/^ater  publicity  ;  nevertheless, 
the  readiness  with  whicL  he  assumed  the  character 
of  an  adroit  man  of  the  world,  brought  upon  him  the 
hostility  of  many  of  the  nobler  spirits  of  his  time. 
He  was  no  hero,  and  he  knew  it.  He  frankly  con- 
fesses that  '  he  had  no  inclination  to  die  for  the  sake 
of  the  truth.'  Luther,  in  whom  the  soul  and  counige 
of  the  Apostle  Paul  seemed  to  be  revived,  over- 
whelmed him  with  reproaches  for  his  cowardice  in 
regard  to  the  Reformation.  But  we  must  not  forget 
that  E.  by  his  mental  constitution  was  averse  to 
enthusiasm.  He  was  a  scholar  and  a  critic,  not  a 
preacher  or  iconoclast,  and  he  was  at  least  honest 
enough  to  abstain  from  denouncing  the  oi)inions  of 
Luther,  though  he  disapproved  strongly  of  his 
violent  laaguage.  Besides,  there  was  a  tincture  of 
rationalism  in  the  great  Dutchman,  which  probably 
helped  to  chill  his  love  of  mere  LutJieranism.  But 
his  services  in  the  cause  of  science  were  great  and 
lasting,  and  his  writings  are  still  esteemed  for  the 
importance  of  the  subjects  treated  of,  and  their 
classical  style.  Besides  editing  several  of  the  ancient 
authors,  and  various  philological  and  theological 
writings,  he  prepared  the  earliest  edition  of  the 
Greek  Testament,  which  appeared  at  Basel  in  1516. 
This  is  reckoned  by  some  his  greatest  work. 
Michaelis  says  that  perhaps  there  never  existed 
an  abler-  editor  of  the  New  Testament,  and  that 
E.  possessed  in  the  highest  degree  natural  abilities, 
profound  learning,  a  readiness  in  detecting  errors, 
with  every  qualification  that  is  requisite  to  produce 
critical  sagacity.  His  best  known  woik,  however, 
is  his  Colloquia,  a  master-piece.  Of  all  his  writings, 
this  has  exercised  the  greatest  influence.  The  first 
edition  appeared  in  1522,  but  did  not  please  E.,  who 
issued  a  second  during  the  same  year.  A  third 
appeared  in  1524.  This  book,  which  was  meant, 
according  to  Erasmus,  only  to  make  youths  better 
Latinists  and  better  men,  was  condemned  by  the 
fk)rbonne,  prohibited  in  France  and  buimed  in 
Spain.  No  one  who  takes  up  the  book  will 
wonder  at  its  condenmation.  It  contains  the  most 
virulent  and  satirical  onslaughts  on  monks,  cloister 
life,  festivals,  pilgrimages,  &c.,  but  it  is  disfigured 
by  lewd  and  imchaste  passages,  which  are  wholly 
tnexcusable.  The  work  has  been  translated  into 
alniost  all  the  modern  languages.  His  Encomium 
MorifM,  or  Praise  of  Folly,  has  been  already  men- 
tioned. It  was  published  in  the  original,  with  a 
German  translation,  and  illustrations  by  Holbein, 
by  W.  G.  Becker  (Basel,  1780).  E.  himself  super- 
intended an  edition  of  his  works,  published  by 
Frobenius  in  Basel.  The  most  complete  edition  is 
that  of  Leclerc  (10  vols.,  Leyden,  1603—1606).  The 
life  of  E.  has  been  written  in  French  by  Burigny 
(2  vols.,  Paris,  1758),  in  German  by  Miiller  (Hamburg, 


1828),  and  iu  English  by  Knight  (C'ambridga, 
1726). 

ERA'STUS,  Thomas,  a  learned  i)hysician  and 
theologian,  was  born  at  Baden  in  Switzerland, 
7th  Sej)tember  1524.  His  real  name  was  Lieher 
which,  according  to  the  fashion  of  his  times,  he 
translated  into  Greek.  In  1540,  he  went  to  the 
university  of  Basel,  where  he  studied  divinity, 
philosoiihy,  and  literature.  He  subse(iuently  visited 
Italy,  where  he  betook  himself  to  medicine,  and 
obtained  the  degree  of  M.D.  from  the  university 
of  Bologna.  After  an  absence  of  nine  years,  he 
returned  to  his  own  country,  and  lived  for  some 
time  at  tlie  court  of  the  princes  of  Henneberg,  where 
he  acquired  a  great  reputation  as  a  medical  j)racti- 
tioner.  The  elector  palatine,  Frederick  III.,  now 
in\dted  him  to  his  court,  and  aj^pointed  him  first 
physician  and  counsellor  of  state.  He  also  coufeiTed 
on  him  the  chair  of  physic  in  the  university  of 
Heidelberg.  In  1581,  he  was  selected  to  fill  a 
similar  office  at  Basel,  where  he  died,  December 
31,  1583,  after  establishing  a  liberal  foimdation 
for  the  provision  and  education  of  poor  students  in 
medicine,  which  was  long  called  the  Erastlan  foimda' 
tion.  Among  E.'s  medical  works  may  be  mentioned 
his  Dlsputationum  de  Medicina  Nova  Flulippi  Para- 
celsi  (Basel,  1572—1573),  Theses  de  Contagio  (Heideb 
berg,  1574),  and  De  Occult.  Pliarmaco.  Potestatibua 
(Heidelberg,  1574).  As  a  physician,  E.  is  creditably 
characterised  by  his  distrust  of  abstract  and  d  iwlori 
theorising,  and  his  conviction  tliat  experimental 
investigation  is  the  only  road  to  knowledge.  But 
his  fame  now  rests  chiefly  on  what  he  wrote  in 
ecclesiastical  controversy.  In  his  book  De  Ccena 
Domini,  he  contended  for  the  figurative  interpreta- 
tion of  the  passage,  '  This  is  my  body,'  &c.,  and 
supported  this  view  at  the  conference  held  at 
Maulbron  between  the  divines  of  the  Palatinate 
and  those  of  Wittenberg.  But  his  great  work  is 
his  Explicatio  Qucestionis  Gravissbnce  de  Ercommiaii- 
catione.  Although  this  work  was  not  published  till 
some  years  after  his  death,  E.  had  ])ublished  the 
same  opmions  as  it  contains  in  the  fomi  of  theses, 
directed  against  Gaspar  Olevianus,  a  refugee  from 
Treves,  and  various  other  persons,  who  were  anxious 
to  confer  on  ecclesiastical  tribunals  the  power  of 
punishing  vices  and  misdemeanours.  E.  denied  the 
right  of  the  church  to  excommunicate,  exclude, 
absolve,  censure — in  short,  to  exercise  discipline. 
Denying  'the  power  of  the  keys,'  he  compared  a 
pastor  to  a  professor  of  any  science,  who  can 
merely  instruct  his  students ;  he  held  that  the 
ordinances  of  the  gospel  should  be  open  and  free 
to  all,  and  that  penalties  being  both  in  their  nature 
and  effect  civil  and  not  spiritual,  ought  to  be 
inflicted  only  by  the  civil  magistrate.  E.  formed 
no  sect,  neither  did  he  wish  to  do  so.  His  desire 
was,  in  fact,  of  an  exactly  contrary  character — viz., 
to  preserve  an  external  harmony  at  the  expense 
even  of  the  purity  of  the  visible  church.  He  would 
have  let  the  wheat  and  tares  grow  together  until 
the  end  of  the  world.  Many  eminent  men,  especi- 
ally in  the  Church  of  England,  have  shared  similar 
opinions  both  before  and  after  E.,  such  as  Cranmer, 
Redmayn,  Cox,  Whitgift,  Lightfoot,  Selden,  &c. 
The  term  Erastian  has  long  been  a  favourite 
epithet  of  reproach  in  Scotland,  but  has  not  been 
employed  with  any  great  precision.  All  persona 
who  deny  the  power  of  an  estabhshed  chm-oh  to 
alter  her  own  laws  without  the  consent  ot  the 
state — as,  for  example,  the  law  of  patronage — are 
generally  accused  of  Erastianism,  although  the 
principles  of  E.  have  literally  nothing  to  do  with 
such  a  question.  An  English  translation  of  the 
Explicatio  was  published  in  1669,  and  was  ro-edited 
by  Dr  Robert  Lee  of  Edinburgh  in  1845. 


ERASURE— ERCTLLA  Y  ZUNIGA. 


ERA'SURE,  or  RAZURE,  as  it  is  more  com- 
monly called  in  England,  from  the  Latin  rado,  to 
scrape  or  shave,  is  the  scraping  or  shaving  of  a  deed 
or  other  formal  writing.  In  England,  except  in  the 
case  of  a  will,  the  presumption,  in  the  absence  of 
rebutting  evidence,  is  that  the  erasure  was  made  at 
or  before  execution. — Doe  ex  dcm  Tatham  v.  Gatta- 
more,  17  L.  T.  Rep  74.  '  If  an  alteration  or  erasure 
has  been  made  in  any  instrument  subsequent 
to  its  execution,  that  fact  ought  to  be  mentioned 
(in  the  Abstract,  or  epitome  of  the  evidences  of 
ownership),  together  with  the  circumstances  under 
which  it  is  done,  and  more  particularly  so  as  a 
fraudulent  alteration  by  either  of  those  means,  if 
made  by  the  person  himself  taking  under  it,  would 
vitiate  his  interest  altogether.  It  was  formerly  con- 
sidered that  an  alteration,  erasure,  or  interlineation 
(q.  v.),  would  \>oid  the  whole  instrument,  even  in 
those  cases  whez'e  it  was  made  by  a  stranger ;  but 
the  law  is  now  otherwise,  as  it  is  clearly  settled 
that  no  alteration  made  by  a  stranger  will  prevent 
the  contents  of  an  instrument  from  retaining 
its  original  effect  and  operation,  where  it  can  Ije 
plainly  shewn  what  that  eflect  and  operation 
actually  was.  To  accomplish  this,  the  mutilated 
instrument  may  be  given  in  evidence  as  far  as  its 
contents  appear ;  and  intrinsic  evidence  will  be 
admitted  to  shcAV  what  portions  have  been  altered 
or  erased,  and  also  the  words  contained  in  such 
altered  or  erased  parts ;  but  if,  for  want  of  such 
evidence,  or  any  deficiency  or  imcertainty  arising 
out  of  it,  the  original  contents  of  the  instrument 
cannot  be  ascertained,  then  the  old  rule  would 
become  applicable,  or,  more  correctly  spealdng,  the 
mutilated  instrument  would  become  void  for  uncer- 
tainty.'— Hughes'  Practice  of  Conveyancing,  i.  124, 
125.  If  a  will  contains  any  alterations  or  erasure, 
the  attention  of  the  witnesses  ought  to  be  directed 
to  the  particular  parts  in  which  each  alteration 
occur,  and  they  ought  to  place  their  initials  in  the 
margin  opposite,  before  the  will  is  executed,  and  to 
notice  this  having  been  done  by  a  memorandum, 
added  to  tlie  attestation  clause  at  the  end  of  the 
will  (76.  p.  945).  See  also  1  Vict.  c.  26.  In  Scot- 
land, the  rule  as  to  erasure  is  somewhat  stricter 
than  in  England — the  legal  inference  being  that 
Buch  alterations  were  made  after  execution.  As 
to  necessary  or  bond  fide  alterations  which  may 
be  desired  by  the  parties,  corrections  of  clerical 
errors,  and  the  like,  after  the  deed  is  written 
out,  but  before  signature,  the  rule  in  Scotland  is, 
that  'the  deed  must  shew  that  they  have  been 
advisedly  adopted  by  the  party ;  and  this  will 
be  effected  by  mentioning  them  in  the  body  of 
the  writing.  Thus,  if  some  words  are  erased  and 
others  superinduced,  you  mention  that  the  super- 
induced words  were  written  on  an  erasure ;  if 
words  are  simply  delete,  that  fact  is  noticed ;  if 
words  are  added  it  ought  to  be  on  the  margin, 
and  such  additions  signed  by  the  party,  \Ai\\  his 
^^-hristian  name  on  one  side,  and  his  surname  on  the 
other ;  and  such  marginal  addition  must  be  noticed 
in  the  l)ody  of  the  writ,  so  as  to  specify  the  page  on 
which  it  occurs,  the  writer  of  it,  and  that  it  is 
subscribed  by  the  attesting  witnesses.' — Menzies's 
Lectures  on  Conveyancing,  p.  124.  The  Roman  rule 
was,  that  the  alterations  shoixld  be  made  by  the 
party  himself,  and  a  formal  clause  was  introduced 
into  their  deeds  to  this  effect,  '  Lituras,  inductiones, 
Buperinductiones,  ipse  feci.'  As  a  general  rule, 
alterations  with  the  pen  are  in  all  cases  to  be 
preferred  to  erasure ;  and  suspicion  will  be  most 
effectually  removed  by  not  obliterating  the  words 
altered  so  completely  as  to  conceal  the  nature  of 
the  correction.  '  The  worst  kind  of  deletion,'  says 
Lord  Stair,  'is  when  the  -words  deleted  cannot  be 
110 


read  (but  if  they  are  scored  that  they  can  be  read, 

it  will  appear  whether  they  be  de  suhstantialibus), 
for  if  they  cannot  bo  read,  they  will  be  esteemed  to 
be  such,  unless  the  contrary  appear  by  what  pre- 
cedes and  follows,  or  that  there  be  a  marginal  note, 
bearing  the  deletion,  from  such  a  word  to  such  a 
word,  to  be  of  consent.' 

ERATO'STHENES,  an  eminent  Greek  writer, 
called,  on  account  of  his  varied  erudition,  the  Pldl' 
ologifit,  was  born  at  Cyrene  270  B.C.  Among  his 
teachers  were  Lysanias  the  grammarian,  and  Cal- 
limachus  the  poet.  By  Ptolemy  Euergetes,  he  waa 
called  to  Alexandria  to  superintend  his  great  library. 
Here  he  died  of  voluntary  starvation,  at  the  age  of 
80,  having  become  blind,  and  wearied  of  life.  As 
an  astronomer,  E.  holds  an  eminent  rank  among 
ancient  astronomers.  He  measured  the  obliquity 
of  the  ecliptic,  and  the  result  at  which  he  arrived 
— ^az.,  that  it  was  23°  51'  20" — must  be  reckoned  a 
very  fair  observation,  considering  the  age  in  which 
he  lived.  Hipparclius  used  it,  and  so  did  the  cele- 
brated astronomer  Ptolemy.  An  astronomical  work 
which  goes  under  the  name  of  E.,  but  which  is  cer- 
tainly not  his,  is  still  extant,  and  is  called  Kataster- 
ismoi  ;  it  contains  an  account  of  the  constellations, 
their  fabulous  history,  and  the  stars  in  them.  It  ia 
believed,  however,  that  E.  did  draw  up  a  catalogue 
of  the  fixed  stars,  amounting  to  675 ;  but  it  is  lost. 
A  letter  to  Ptolemy,  king  of  Egypt,  on  the  dupli- 
cation of  the  cube,  is  the  only  complete  writing  of 
his  that  we  possess.  E.'s  greatest  claim  to  distinc- 
tion, however,  is  as  a  geometer.  In  his  attem^jit  to 
measure  the  magnitude  of  the  earth,  he  introduced 
the  method  which  is  used  at  the  present  day,  and 
found  the  circumference  of  the  earth  to  be  252,000 
stadia  ;  which,  according  to  Pliny,  is  31,500  Romaii 
miles.  But  as  it  is  not  known  what  stadiimi  E.  used, 
it  is  possible  that  he  came  nearer  the  actual  cir- 
cumdference  than  the  above  figures  indicate.  His 
work  on  geography  must  have  been  of  great  value 
in  his  times  :  it  was  the  first  tndy  scientific  treatise 
on  the  subject.  E.  worked  up  into  an  organic 
M'hole  the  scattered  information  regarding  places 
and  countries  related  in  the  books  of  travels.  &e., 
contained  in  the  Alexandrian  Library'.  He  also 
wrote  on  moral  philosophy,  history,  grammar,  &c. 
His  work  on  the  Old  Attic  Comedy  appears,  from 
the  remains  which  we  possess,  to  have  been  a  learned 
and  very  judicious  performance.  Such  fragments  of 
E's  ^\Titings  as  are  still  extant  have  been  collected 
by  Bemhardy  in  his  Eratosthenica  (Berhn,  1822). 

E'RBIUM  (sjTnbol  E)  is  a  rare  metal,  the  com- 
pounds of  which  are  found  in  a  few  scarce  minerals, 
especially  in  gadolinite,  obtained  from  Ytterby,  m 
Sweden.  In  its  compounds  and  properties  it 
resembles  the  metal  aluminium. 

ERCI'LLA  Y  ZUNIGA,  Alonso,  a  Spanish 
poet,  was  born  at  Madrid,  August  7,  1533.  He 
was  the  third  son  of  a  Spanish  jurist,  and  at  an 
early  period  became  page  to  the  Infanta  Don  Phihp, 
son  of  Charles  V.,  accompanying  him  on  his  journey 
through  the  Netherlands,  and  some  parts  of  Ger- 
many and  Italy,  and  in  1554,  to  England,  on  the 
occasion  of  the  celebration  of  Philii)'s  nuptials  with 
Queen  Mary.  Shortly  after,  E.  went  with  the  army 
dispatched  to  America  to  quell  the  insurrection  of 
the  Aiiracanians  on  the  coast  of  Chili.  The  diffi- 
culties with  which  the  Spaniards  had  to  contend- 
the  heroism  displayed  by  the  natives  in  the  unequal 
contest,  and  the  multitude  of  gallant  achievements 
hy  which  this  war  was  distinguished,  suggested  to 
E.  the  idea  of  making  it  the  subject  of  an  epic  poem. 
He  began  his  poem  on  the  spot,  about  the  year  1 558, 
occasionally  committing  his  verses,  in  the  absence  of 
paper,  to  pieces  of  leather.    An  unfornded  suspiciop 


EREBUS— ERGOT. 


of  hia  having  plotted  ai  insurrection  ij^volved 
him  in  a  painful  trial,  and  he  had  actually  ascended 
the  scatlbld  before  his  innocence  was  proved. 
Deeply  wounded,  the  brave  soldier  and  f-net  turned 
to  Spain,  but  Philip  treating  him  with  groat  coldness 
and  neglect,  E.  made  a  tour  through  France,  Italy, 
Germany,  Bohemia,  and  Hungary.  For  some  time 
he  ]ield  the  office  of  chamberlain  to  the  emperor 
Rudolf  IL,  but  in  15S0  returned  to  Madrid,  where 
he  in  vaiu  exerted  himself  to  realise  an  independ- 
ence. The  latter  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in 
obscurity  and  poverty  at  Madrid,  where  he  died, 
at  what  period  has  not  been  ascertained.  His 
historic  epos,  "SATitten  in  the  octo-syllabic  measu.re, 
and  entitled  A7-aucana,  is,  with  the  exception  of 
a  few  episodes,  a  faithful  description  of  actual 
events.  Cervantes,  in  his  Don  Quixote,  compares 
it  with  the  best  Italian  epics,  and  it  has  un- 
doubtedly not  a  little  of  the  epic  style  and  si)irit. 
The  first  part  is  the  freshest  in  character,  having 
been  completed  before  the  author's  return  to 
Europe,  where  it  wa5  first  published  separately 
(Madrid,  1569).  The  second  part  api)eared  nine 
years  later.  In  it,  E.  by  the  introduction  of  episodes, 
yielded  more  to  the  taste  of  the  time  ;  and  this  was 
BtiU  more  the  case  in  the  third  part,  which  was  first 
published,  along  with  the  two  others,  in  1590.  In 
Spain,  and  likewise  in  other  countries,  many  reprints 
of  the  poem  appeared  (the  most  elegant,  2  vols., 
Madrid,  1776 ;  the  most  accurate,  2  vols.,  Madrid, 
1828).  A  continuation  was  published  by  Don  Diego 
Santistevan  Osorio,  of  Leon  (Salamanca,  1597).  A 
German  translation  has  been  published  by  Winter- 
ling  (2  vols.,  Nuremberg,  1831). 

E'REBUS — the  name  of  one  of  the  sons  of  Chaos 
— signifies  darkness,  and  is  used  specially  to  denote 
the  dark  and  gloomy  cavern  beneath  the  earth, 
through  which  the  shades  must  pass  in  going  to 
Hades. 

ERE'CHTHEUS  or  ERICHTHO'NIUS,  and 
ERECHTHE'UM.  Ereclitheus,  an  Attic  hero,  is 
said  to  have  been  the  son  of  Hephaestus  and  the 
fiai-th,  and  to  have  been  reared  by  Athena.  One 
form  of  the  tradition  states  that  when  a  child  he 
was  placed  by  Athena  in  a  chest,  which  was 
intrusted  to  AgrauJos,  Pandrosos,  and  Herse,  the 
daughters  of  Cecrops,  with  the  strict  charge  that 
;t  was  not  to  be  opened.  Agraulos  and  Herse, 
however,  unable  to  restrain  their  curiosity,  opened 
the  chest,  and  discovering  a  child  entwined  with 
serpents,  they  were  seized  with  madness,  and  threw 
themselves  down  the  most  precipitous  part  of  the 
Acropolis.  Afterwards  Erechtheus  was  the  chief 
means  of  establishing  the  worship  of  Athena  in 
Attica.  He  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the 
Erechtheum,  the  temple  of  Athena  Polias,  guardian 
of  the  city.  This  original  Erechtheum,  which 
contained  Erechtheus's  tomb  after  his  death,  and 
which  was  called  by  his  name,  was  burned  by  the 
Persians,  but  a  new  and  magnificent  temple  was 
raised  upon  the  same  site — north  of  the  Parthenon, 
and  near  the  northern  wall  of  the  Acropolis — in 
the  beginning  of  the  4th  c.  B.C.  The  second 
Erechtheum  was  a  splendid  structure  of  the  Ionic 
order,  of  an  oblong  shape,  extending  from  east  to 
west,  abutting  in  side  chambers  at  the  western 
end,  towards  the  north  and  south,  and  having 
porticoes  adorned  with  colimins  at  its  eastern,  its 
northern,  and  southern  extremities.  It  is  now  a 
complete  ruin. 

ERE'CTION,  Lords  of,  those  of  the  nobility  in 
Scotland  to  whom  the  king,  after  the  Reformation, 
granted  lands,  or  tithes,  which  formerly  belonged  to 
the  church.  They  were  also  called  Titulars  of 
Tithes,  the  gifts  being  by  no  means  confined  to  the 


nobility.  These  titulars  had  the  same  rights  to 
erected  benefices,  both  in  lands  and  titlies,  which 
had  formerly  belonged  to  the  monasteries  and  other 
religious  houses.  The  grants  were  ni.'ide  under  the 
burden  of  providing  competent  stipends  to  tlie 

[  reformed  clergy — an  oldigation  which  was  very 
little  attended  to  by  the  grantees,  prior  to  the 

I  decrees  arbitral  of  Charles  L,  in  1629.  Ersk.  B.  iL 
tit.  10,  s.  18. 

EREMACAU'SIS  (Gr.  eremos,  waste,  and  hums, 
combustion)  is  a  term  originally  proposed  by  Lieb'^ 
to  indicate  the  slow  process  of  combustion  a^; 
ordinary  temperatures,  which  ensues  when  organic 
compounds,  such  as  wood,  are  left  exposed  to  the 
air,  and  gradually  rot  away  or  decay.  The  process 
consists  in  the  oxygen  (0)  of  the  air  combining  with 
the  hydrogen  (H)  of  the  wood  forming  water  (HO), 
and  in  less  quantity  with  the  carbon  (C)  forming 
carbonic  acid  (CO  2),  leaving  a  brown  mould  or 
powder,  called  by  chemists  ulmin,  or  humus,  in 
whicli  carbon  prej)onderates. 

E'RFURT,  a  town  and  fortress  of  Prussian 
Saxony,  capital  of  old  Thuringia,  stands  in  a  higldy 
I  cidtivated  plain,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Gera, 
I  14  miles  west  of  Weimar.     It  is  surrounded  by 
i  walls,  pierced  by  six  gates,  and  is  sti'engthened  by 
j  two  citadels,  the  Petersberg  and  the  Cyriaksburg, 
j  both  formerly  monasteries.    Among  the  numerous 
churches,   the   cathedral  and  the  Church  of  St 
j  Severus  are  the  finest.    The  cathedral  is  one  of  the 
most  venerable  Gothic  buildings  in  Germany,  and 
possesses,  besides  a  very  rich  portal,  sculptures 
dating  from  the  lltli  to  the  IGth  century.    Of  the 
convents,  only  that  of  the  Ursuline  nuns  remains. 
The  monastery  of  St  Augustine,  famous  as  the 
residence  of  Luther,  and  in  whicli  his  cell  is  still 
pointed  out,  was  converted  in  the  year  1820  into  an 
asylum  for  deserted  children.  The  other  remarkable 
buildings  are,  the  university,  founded  in  1378,  and 
suppressed  in  1816;  the  royal  academy;  the  library, 
containing  50,000  volumes  ;  numerous  educational 
establishments,  a  hospital,  two  infirmaries,  &c.  Pop. 
43,616.    Horticulture,  and  an  extensive  trade  in 
seeds,  are  carried  on.    The  principal  manufactures 
are  woollen,  silk,  cotton,  and  linen  goods,  yarn, 
shoes,  stockings,  tobacco,  leather,  &c. 

E.  is  said  to  have  been  founded  in  the  beginning 
of  the  5th  c.  by  one  Erpes,  from  whom  it  took  its 
original  name  of  Erpesford.  During  the  middle 
ages,  at  the  time  of  its  highest  prosperity,  E.  was 
strongly  fortified,  and  contained  60,000  inhabitants. 
In  740,  St  Boniface  founded  a  bishopric  at  E., 
and  in  the  year  805  it  was  converted  into  an 
entrepot  of  commerce  by  Charlemagne.  It  after- 
wards belonged  to  the  Hansedeague,  then  to  the 
elector  of  Mainz,  from  1801 — 1806  to  Prussia,  and 
from  that  time  until  1813  it  was  under  French 
rule.  E.  was  finally  restored  to  Prussia  by  the 
Congress  of  Vienna.  In  the  spring  of  1850,  the 
parliament  of  the  states,  which  had  combined 
together  for  union,  held  its  sittings  at  Erfiu't. 

E'RGOT,  a  diseased  condition  of  the  germen  of 
grasses,  sometimes  also  observed  in  some  of  the 
Gyperacece.  It  begins  to  shew  itself  when  the  ger- 
men is  young ;  different  parts  of  the  flower  assume 
a  mildewed  appearance,  and  become  covered  A\-ith 
a  white  coating  composed  of  a  multitude  of  minute 
spore-like  bodies  mixed  with  delicate  cobwebdike 
filaments  ;  a  sweet  fluid,  at  first  limpid,  afterwards 
viscid  and  yellowish,  is  exuded;  the  anthers  and 
stigmas  become  cemented  together ;  the  o\^de  sweUa 
till  it  greatly  exceeds  the  size  of  the  proper  seed, 
bursts  its  integuments,  and  becomes  elongated  and 
frequently  curved,  often  carries  on  its  apex  a  cap 
formed  of  the  agglutinated  anthers  and  stigmaa 


ERGOTISM— ERIC. 


Ergot  of  Rye. 


and  assumes  a  gray,  bro-vm,  purple,  violet,  and  at 
length  a  black  colour,  as  the  vis«id  exudation  dries 
and  hardens.  The  strxicture  di{Fers  very  much  from 
that  of  the  properly  developed  seed ;  the  qualities 
are  not  less  different,  almost  one-half  of  the  whole 
substance  consists  of  fungin  ;  and  the  cells  contain, 
instead  of  starch,  glo])ules  of  a  peculiar  fixed  oil — 
Oil  of  Ergot,  to  which  the  remarkable  qualities  of 
ergot  are  supposed  to  be  chiefly  or  entirely  due. 
Od  of  ergot  forms  about  35  ])er  cent,  of  the  ergot  of 
rye.  Ergot  appears 
to  have  been  first 
observed  in  rye,  in 
which  it  becomes  very 
conspicuous  from  the 
large  size  it  attains, 
sometimes  an  inch  or 
even  an  inch  and  a 
half  in  length.  It  is, 
however,  not  uncom- 
mon in  A\'heat  and 
barley,  although  in 
them  it  is  not  so 
conspicuous,  from  its 
general  resemblance 
to  the  ordinary  ripened 
grain.  Rye -grass  is 
often  aflectcd  with 
ergot,  as  are  many 
other  (grasses  ;  and  it 
is  of  frequent  occur- 
rence in  maize,  in 
which  also  it  attains 
its  greatest  size.  Ergot 
has  been  supposed  to 
be  merely  a  disease 
occasioned  by  wet  seasons  or  other  clinuitic  causes. 
But  it  appears  now  to  be  fully  ascertained,  that 
it  is  a  disease  occasioned  by  the  presence  of 
the  mycelium  of  a  fungus ;  the  si)ores  of  which 
may  perhaps  be  carried  to  the  flower  through 
the  juices  of  the  plant,  for  there  is  reason  to 
think  that  ergot  in  a  field  of  grain  may  be  pro- 
duced by  infected  seed.  jNIr  Quekett,  in  1838, 
described  a  fungus,  a  kind  of  Mould  (q.  v.),  which 
he  found  in  ergot,  and  to  which  he  gave  the  name 
of  ErgotfEtia  abortifaciens.  Link  and  Berkeley 
afterwards  referred  it  to  the  genus  Oidium;  and 
they,  as  well  as  others,  beheved  it  to  be  the  true 
ergot  fungus.  The  spores  of  this  ergot  mould,  how- 
ever, vegetate  readily,  under  proper  conditions  of 
warmth  and  moisture,  in  situations  very  different 
from  that  in  which  ergot  is  produced;  and  its 
presence  is  perhaps  a  consequence  rather  than  the 
cause  of  ergot.  The  true  ergot  fungus  seems  to 
have  been  discovered  by  Tulasne,  who  published  a 
description  of  it  in  1853.  That  of  the  ergot  of  rye 
is  called  Cordiceps  (or  Claviceps)  purpurea;  its 
mycelium  alone  exists  in  ergot,  but  if  the  ergoted 
grains  are  soAvn,  the  fungus  develops  itself  in  its 
perfect  form,  growing  in  little  tufts  from  the  surface 
of  the  ergot,  with  stem  about  half  an  inch  long, 
and  subglobular  head.  Allied  species  appear  to 
produce  the  ergot  of  other  grasses. 

Ergot  is  inflammable ;  the  fixed  oil  which  it  con- 
tnins,  indeed,  makes  it  burn  readily  if  brought  into 
contact  with  the  flame  of  a  candle.  It  is  a  valuable 
medicine,  exercising  a  specific  action  on  the  womb, 
particidarly  during  labour,  and  by  the  greater 
frequency  and  force  of  the  contractions  which  it 
causes  when  cautiously  administered,  often  most 
beneficially  hastening  delivery.  Its  employment 
for  this  purpose  is  said  to  have  originated — in  conse- 
quence, probably,  of  an  accidental  discovery — with  a 

Srovincial  female  practitioner  in  France.    Its  intro- 
action  into  British  practice  dates  only  from  1824. 
113 


It  is  the  ergot  of  rye  which  is  always  employed ; 
also  called  Spurred  Rye,  or  Secale  carnutum.  It 
has  been  employed  also  as  a  sedative  of  the  circula- 
tion, to  check  vaiious  kinds  of  hjemorrhage.  Ergot 
is  administered  in  various  forms — powder,  decoction, 
extract,  tincture,  oil  of  ergot,  &c. — In  large  or  fre- 
quent doses,  ergot  is  a  poison,  sometimes  producing 
convvdsions,  followed  by  death ;  sometimes  gan- 
grene of  the  extremities,  resulting  in  mutilation 
or  in  death. 

Ergot  of  rye  consists  of  35  per  cent,  of  a  peculiar 
fixed  oil,  1^  of  ergotiu,  46  of  fmigin,  the  remainder 
being  gum,  fat,  albumen,  salts,  &c.  Ergot  bums 
with  a  yellow- white  flame,  and  treated  with  water, 
yields  a  reddish  coloured  liquid  with  acid  properties. 
In  considerable  quantities,  it  is  a  poison  to  the 
lower  animals  as  well  as  to  man. 

E'RGOTISM,  the  constitutional  effect  of  Ergot 
of  Rye  (q.  v.).    See  also  Raphania. 

E'RIC  is  the  Scandinavian  form  of  the  name 
Henricus,  Enrico,  and  Henry  of  southern  nations. 
Many  kings  of  the  name  reigned  se])arately  in 
Denmark  and  Sweden,  and  some  ruled  over  the 
whole  of  Scandinavia  after  the  union  of  Calmar. 
The  memory  of  the  two  earliest  rulers  of  the  name 
in  Denmark  merits  our  notice  from  their  associa- 
tion with  the  introduction  of  Christianity.  Eric  I., 
who  died  in  8G0,  protected  tlie  Christians  in  the 
latter  part  of  his  reign,  and,  under  the  direction  of 
the  missionary  Ansgar  or  Anscliarius,  founded  the 
cathedral  of  Ribe,  the  first  Christian  clnu-ch  in  the 
land.  In  his  time,  the  Northmen  began  those  incur- 
sions into  more  southern  countries,  which  were 
destined  to  exercise  so  pennanent  an  influence  on 
European  history.  Eric  II.  followed  in  the  steps 
of  his  father,  and  permitted  Ansgar  to  prosecute 
the  laboiu-  of  converting  and  civilising  the  people, 
wdiich  won  for  him  the  title  of  the  Tutelar  Saint  of 
the  North.  To  Eric  II.  is  ascribed  the  reorganisation 
of  those  guilds  which  finally  merged  in  the  munici* 
pal  corporations  of  the  middle  ages,  but  which  were, 
at  first,  a  mere  modification  of  the  heathen  brother- 
hoods of  the  Scandinavian  heroic  ages,  and  consti- 
tuted associations,  whose  members  were  a  privileged 
class,  separated  by  distinct  laws,  rights,  and  duties 
from  the  rest  of  the  people.  Denmark  suffered  in 
the  12th  c.  in  an  equal  degree  from  the  t  vo  Erics 
who  ruled  over  her,  for  while  Eric,  surname  d  Emun, 
exhausted  the  strength  of  the  land  by  the  indomit- 
able pertinacity  with  which  he  endeavoured,  by 
force  of  arms,  to  compel  the  Vandals  and  other 
piratical  neighbours  to  accept  the  Christianity  which 
he  thrust  upon  them,  Eric  *the  Lamb'  crippled 
the  powers  and  resources  of  the  crown  by  his  pusil- 
lanimous subserviency  to  the  clergy.  The  three 
Erics  (Eric  VI.,  VII.,  and  VIII.)  who  occupied  the 
throne,  with  only  the  intermission  of  a  few  years, 
from  1241  to  1319,  are  associated  with  one  of  the 
most  disastrous  periods  of  Danish  history.  Long 
minorities,  the  suicidal  practice  of  dismembering  the 
crown-lands  in  favour  of  yoimger  branches  of  the 
royal  house,  and  futile  attempts  to  restrain  the 
ever-increasing  encroachments  of  the  church,  com- 
bined  to  bring  the  coimtry  to  the  brink  of  destruction- 
Eric  VI.  (Plogpenning)  and  Eric  VII.  (Ghpping) 
were  both  assassinated,  the  former  at  the  instigation 
of  a  brother,  and  the  latter  in  revenge  for  a  private 
injury.  Eric  VIII.,  the  last  of  the  name  before  the 
union  of  Calmar,  died  childless,  and  was  succeeded, 
in  1319,  by  his  ambitious  brother  Christopher,  who 
saw  himself  compelled  to  repay  his  partisans  at  the 
expense  of  almost  all  the  prerogatives  and  appanages 
which  stdl  belonged  to  the  crown. 

In  Sweden,  the  first  of  the  name  who  merits  om 
notice  is  King  Eric,  sumamed  the  Saint,  who  ^afl 


EIIICE.E— ERICSSON. 


slain  in  battle  in  1161,  after  a  short  reign,  which 
tvas  signalised,  in  that  age  of  anarchy,  by  the 
foundation  of  many  churches  and  monasteries,  and 
by  the  promulgation  of  an  excellent  code  of  laws, 
known  as  St  Eric's  Lag.  This  law  contained 
provisions  by  which  a  higher  status  in  society 
was  secured  to  women,  by  granting  them  a  fixed 
proportion  of  the  heritage  of  their  male  relatives, 
and  cei^ain  definite  privileges  within  their  house- 
holds.  St  Eric  waged  frequent  war  -with  the 
Finns,  and  compelled  them  to  adojit  the  outward 
forms  of  Christianity.  The  two  namesakes  and 
descendants  of  St  Eric,  who  ruled  in  Sweden 
during  the  13th  c,  and  Eric  XII.,  who  reigned  from 
1350  to  1359,  have  little  claim  to  our  notice,  for 
internal  disturbances  and  wars  with  their  neigh- 
bours brought  about  the  same  fatal  results  as  those 
which  are  associated  with  the  reigns  of  the  Erics  in 
Denmark  during  the  middle  ages.  In  1412,  on  the 
death  of  the  great  Margaret,  her  relative,  Eric  of 
Fomerania,  succeeded  to  the  triple  crown  of  Scandi- 
navia, in  accordance  with  the  articles  of  the  famous 
treaty  of  Calmar.  The  noble  heritage  that  had 
been  bequeathed  to  Eric  required  a  firmer  hand 
and  a  braver  spirit  than  his  to  keep  it  in  check  ; 
and  his  reckless  disregard  of  treaties  and  oaths,  his 
neglect  of  his  duties,  and  his  misdirected  ambition, 
led,  after  years  of  dissensions,  maladministration,  and 
disaffection,  to  the  inevitable  result  that  Eric  was 
declared  to  have  forfeited  the  respective  thrones 
of  the  several  kingdoms,  which  proceeded  to  elect 
nders  of  their  own.  The  intestine  wars  to  which 
this  condition  of  things  gave  rise,  ])lunged  the  whole 
of  Scandinavia  into  anarchy,  and  sowed  seeds  of 
dissension  among  the  three  kindred  nations,  which 
bore  fatal  fruits  in  subsequent  ages.  The  last  ten 
years  of  Eric's  life  were  spent  in  the  exercise  of 
piracy  in  the  island  of  Gothland,  whither  he  had 
retired  with  his  mistress  and  a  band  of  followers, 
and  from  whence  he  sent  forth  piratical  expeditions 
to  pillage  both  friends  and  foes.  Eric  married 
Philippa,  daughter  of  Henry  IV.  of  England,  whose 
memory  is  still  cherished  in  the  north,  on  account  of 
the  many  noble  deeds  with  which  local  tradition 
associates  her  name.  Eric  XIV.,  the  last  of  the  name 
who  reigned  in  Sweden,  had  the  distinction  of  being 
at  once  one  of  the  worst  and  one  of  the  most  unhappy 
of  the  name.  He  succeeded,  in  1560,  to  the  throne 
of  his  father,  Gustaf  Vasa,  who  was  perhaps  the 
greatest  and  worthiest  monarch  that  ever  reigned 
over  Sweden,  and  iimnediately  on  his  accession,  he 
made  known  the  difference  that  was  so  mifavourably 
to  distinguish  his  reign  from  that  of  his  father,  by 
quarrelling  with  his  brothers,  thwarting  the  nobles, 
and  opposing  the  lower  orders.  His  fickleness  and 
extravagance  were  displayed  in  a  succession  of 
embassies,  which  were  in  tm'n  sent  to  almost  every 
European  court  to  demand  a  consort  for  this  vacillat- 
ing monarch,  who  usually  changed  his  mind  before 
his  envoys  had  time  to  fulfil  their  missions.  Eliza- 
beth of  England  and  Mary  of  Scotland  were  more 
than  once  the  objects  of  his  matrimonial  schemes  ; 
but  vshen  the  resources  of  the  country  had  been 
seriously  crippled  by  these  costly  and  absurd  expe- 
ditions, Eric  married  a  Swedish  peasant-girl,  who 
ultimately  acquired  an  influence  over  him  which  was 
ascribed  by  the  superstitious  to  witchcraft,  since  she 
aione  was  able  to  control  him  in  the  violent  paroxysms 
of  blind  fury  to  which  he  was  subject.  It  is  prob- 
able that  Eric  laboured  under  remittent  attacks  of 
insanity,  and  that  to  this  cause  may  be  atti'ibuted 
the  blood-thirsty  cruelty  with  which  he  persecuted 
those  of  his  own  relatives  or  attendants  who  fell 
under  his  suspicion.  His  capricioiis  cruelties  at  length 
alienated  the  minds  of  his  subjects,  who,  wearied 
Kith  the  continuous  wars  and  disturbances  in  which 
ici 


his   evil  passions  involved  them,  threw  off  tlielK 

allegiance  in  1568,  and  solemnly  elected  his  hvoihct 
John  to  the  throne.  For  nine  years,  the  unhap[>y 
Eric  suffered  every  indignity  at  the  hands  of  tUe 
keepers  ai)pointed  Ijy  his  brother  to  guard  him,  and 
in  1577,  he  was  compelled  to  terminate  his  miseralj]? 
existence  by  swallowing  poison,  in  obedience  bo  liis 
brother's  orders.  Singular  to  say,  this  half  madman 
was  a  person  of  cultivated  understanding,  and  he 
solaced  his  captivity  with  music  and  the  composition 
of  psalms,  and  in  keeping  a  voluminous  journal. 

ERI'CE^,  or  ERICA'CE^,  a  natural  order  of 
exogenous  plants,  consisting  chiefly  of  small  shrulrtj, 
but  containing  also  some  trees.  The  leaves  are 
opposite  or  in  whorls,  entire,  destitute  of  stipules, 
often  small,  generally  evergreen  and  rigid.  The 
flowers  are  sometimes  solitary  in  the  axils  of  the 
lea\"es,  sometimes  grouped  in  different  modes  of 
inflorescence,  and  are  often  of  great  beauty,  in 
which  resj)ect  no  order  of  plants  excels  this  ;  the 
beauty  of  the  smallest  species,  and  of  those  whicli 
have  very  small  flowers,  rivalling  that  of  others 
which  are  trees  profusely  covered  with  magnificent 
clusters.  About  900  species  of  this  order  are  known, 
of  which  the  greater  number  are  natives  of  South 
Africa,  which  particidarly  aboimds  in  the  genus 
Erica,  and  its  allies — the  true  Heaths  (q.  v,} — • 
although  some  of  them  are  also  found  to  the  utmost 
limits  of  northern  vegetation.  They  are  rare  Vv'ithin 
the  tropics,  and  only  occur  at  considerable  eleva- 
tions. Few  species  are  found  in  Australia,  MfvOy 
of  the  E,  are  social  plants,  and  a  single  species  some* 
times  covers  great  tracts,  constituting  their  principal 
vegetation.  This  is  most  strikingly  exemplified  in 
the  heaths  of  Europe  and  the  North  of  Asia. 
Medicinal  properties  exist  in  some  of  the  E.,  as 
the  Bearberry  (see  Arbutus),  and  the  Ground 
Laurel  of  North  America  {Epiga^a  repens),  a  popular 
remedy  in  the  United  States  for  affections  of  the 
bowels  and  urinary  organs.  Narcotic  and  poisonous^ 
qualities  are  of  not  unfrequent  occurrence.  Sea 
Andromeda,  Azalea,  Kalmia,  Ledum,  Rhododen- 
dron, The  berries  of  some  species  are  edible  (see 
Arbutus  and  Gaultheria),  although  none  are 
much  esteemed. — The  Rhododendre^  have  some- 
times been  regarded  as  a  distinct  order,  but  are 
generally  considered  a  suborder  of  E.,  containing 
the  genera  B/iododendron,  Azalea,  Kalmia,  Ledum^ 
&c.  The  larger  leaves  and  flowez's,  and  gener 
ally  also  the  larger  plants  of  the  order,  belong  to 
this  suborder ;  which,  however,  contanis  also  many 
small  shrubs  of  subarctic  and  elevated  mountainous 
regions. 

E'RICHT  or  E'RROCHT,  Locir,  Hes  in  the 
north-west  of  Perthshire  and  soutn  of  Inverness- 
shire,  in  an  uninhabited  district,  the  wildest  and 
most  inaccessible  in  Scotland,  amid  the  Grampian 
mountains.  Its  banks  rise  steeply  from  the  water's 
edge.  It  is  fourteen  miles  long  and  nearly  one  mile 
broad,  and  it  extends  in  a  south-west  direction  +'ronu 
near  Dalwhinnie  on  the  Dunkeld  M^d  Inverness 
road.  By  one  outlet  it  joins  Loch  Rannoch,  and  by 
another  it  runs  into  Loch  Lydoch,  its  waters  ulti- 
mately reaching  the  Tay.  Its  sm-face  is  about  1500 
feet  above  the  sea,  and  it  never  freezes.  In  a  cave 
at  the  south  end  of  the  loch,  Prince  Charles  lay  hid 
in  1746. 

E'RICSSON,  John,  a  distinguished  enguieer,  was 
born  in  Sweden  in  1803.  After  serving  for  some 
time  as  an  officer  of  engineers  in  the  Swedish  army, 
he  removed  in  1826  to  England,  and  continued  to 
occupy  himself  with  improvements  chiefly  on  steam 
machinery  and  its  applications.  It  is  to  E.  that 
steam  navigation  owes  the  Screw-propeller  (q.  v.). 
In  1839  ho  went  to  New  York,  United  States,  where 

113 


ERIE— EKIOCAULACE^. 


he  Las  lived  since,  and  has  brought  out  his  improved 
caloric  engine,  etc.  He  constructed  the  iron-clad 
Monitor  which  successfully  opposed  the  Merrimack  in 
Hampton  Roads,  March  9,  1862.  See  CALORIC  En- 
gine. 

E'RIE,  one  of  the  five  great  lakes  which  empty  them- 
selves by  the  St.  Lawrence.  It  separates  Upper  Canada 
and  Michigan  on  its  left  from  Ohio,  Pennsylvania, 
and  New  York  on  its  right.  It  is  the  most  southern 
of  the  five,  receiving,  at  its  north-western  extremity, 
the  waters  of  Lakes  Superior,  Michigan,  and  Huron, 
by  the  river  Detroit,  and  discharging  them  at  its 
north-east  by  the  Niagara  into  Lake  Ontario.  With 
a  length  of  240  miles,  E.  has  a  breadth  varying  from 
30  to  nearly  GO  miles,  with  an  area  of  9600  square 
miles.  It  is  1 6  feet  below  Lake  Huron,  and  322  and 
655  rcsi)ectively  above  Lake  Ontario  and  the  Atlantic. 
At  its  south-western  extremity  are  several  islands, 
whereon  the  native  grape  finds  a  climate  more 
equable  and  an  autumn  of  longer  continuance 
than  in  the  regions  generally  in  the  same  lati- 
tude in  the  United  States,  and  where  it  has,  in 
consequence,  been  successfully  cultivated  for  sev- 
eral years  j)ast.  It  is  by  far  the  shallowest  of 
the  five  great  lakes.  Its  mean  depth  is  stated  at  120 
feet ;  and  from  this  compai-ative  shallowness,  and  the 
consequent  liability  to  a  heavy  ground  swell,  as  well 
as  on  account  of  the  small  number  of  good  harbours, 
the  navigation  is  peculiarly  difficult  and  dangerous. 
The  chief  harbours  on  the  south  or  United  States 
shore,  besides  Buffalo  and  that  of  Erie,  are  those  of 
Cleveland,  Sandusky  City,  and  Toledo;  and  on  the 
north  or  Canadian  shore,  Ports  Dover,  Burwell,  and 
Stanley.  Lake  E.  receives  no  rivers  of  any  conse- 
quence. Its  commercial  importance,  however,  has 
been  largely  increased  by  art.  It  is  connected  by  one 
canal  with  the  Hudson,  and  by  more  than  one  with 
the  Ohio,  while  on  the  British  side  it  communicates 
•.vitli  the  Ontario  by  means  of  a  still  more  available 
work,  the  ship  channel  of  the  Welland.  Its  naviga- 
tion generally  closes  in  the  beginning  of  December, 
and  the  lake  remains  more  or  less  frozen  until  March 
or  April.  The  commercial  importance  of  Lake  Erie 
has  been  greatly  increased  within  a  few  years  by  the 
establishment  of  numerous  lines  of  railroads  connect- 
ing its  ports  with  the  interior.  The  amount  of  busi- 
ness transacted  thereon  is  almost  incalculable.  Lake 
Erie  was  the  scene  of  a  nava^  engagement  between  the 
British  and  Americans,  September  10,  1813,  in  which 
the  latter  were  victorious. 

ERIE,  a  port  on  the  lake  of  its  own  name  in  the 
State  of  Pennsylvania,  stands  in  lat,  42°  8'  N.,  and 
long.  80°  10'  W.  Its  harbour,  one  of  the  largest  and 
best  on  the  coast,  is  formed  by  an  island  of  four  miles 
in  length,  which,  under  the  appellation  of  Presque 
Isle,  still  preserves  the  memory  of  its  having  been  a 
peninsula.  The  belt  of  water  Avhich  is  thus  sheltered 
is  known  as  Presque  Isle  Bay,  and  forms  a  natural 
harbour  for  the  city.  It  is  now  protected  by  a  break- 
water. It  is  3^  miles  long  and  1  mile  wide,  and 
varies  in  depth  from  9  to  25  feet.  While  much  has 
been  done  to  improve  the  natural  advantages  of  its 
position,  E,  has  been  connected  by  means  of  a  canal 
with  the  Beaver,  a  feeder  of  the  Ohio ;  and  this  work, 
independently  of  its  navigable  facilities,  affords  exten- 
sive water  power  to  mills  of  different  kinds.  It  is  the 
terminus  of  the  Philadelphia  and  Erie  Railroad,  and 
is  by  other  lines  connected  with  New  York,  Cleveland, 
8cc.  This  port  is  destined  to  become  an  important  cen- 
tre af  trade.    Pop.  (1870)  19,646;  (1880)  27,730. 

ERI'GENA,  Joannes  Scotus,  a  famous  philoso- 
pher of  the  middle  ages,  was  born  probably  in 
Treland  and  flourished  during  the  9tli  century. 
Very  little  is  known  regarding  his  history.  He 
appears  to  have  resided  priucipally  in  Erauce,  at 


the  court  of  Charles  the  Bald.    In  the  controversies 

of  his  time,  regarding  predestination  and  transulv 
stantiation,  he  took  part.  His  philosophic  opinions 
were  those  of  a  Neo-Platonist  rather  than  of  a 
scholastic.  His  love  for  the  mystic  doctrines  of  the 
old  Alexandrian  philosophers  was  shewn  by  his 
translation  of  the  writings  ascribed  to  Dionysius  the 
Areopagite,  which  proved  to  be  a  well-spring  of 
mysticism  durin;^  the  middle  ages.  E,  h^d  tnat 
God  is  the  essential  ground  of  all  things,  from  whom 
all  things  emanate,  and  into  whom  they  return 
again.  Pantheism,  therefore,  lurks  in  his  system. 
His  princi])al  work  is  De  Divlsione  Naturce  (pub- 
lished ])y  Gale,  Oxford,  1G81).  One  of  its  leading 
thoughts  is  the  identity  of  philosophy  and  religion, 
when  both  are  properly  apprehended.  E.  uttered 
his  opinions  with  great  boldness,  and  he  exhibited 
no  less  subtlety  and  strength  of  intellect  in  their 
defence.  He  expressed  his  contempt  for  theo- 
logical dogmatism,  and  vindicated  the  authority  of 
reason  over  ail  other  authority.  His  words  are : 
'  Authority  is  derived  from  reason,  and  not  reason 
from  authority ;  and  when  the  former  is  not  con- 
firmed by  the  latter,  it  possesses  no  value.'  Consult 
Hjoi't's  Joh.  E.  odervom  Ursprunrje  einer  ChrisUichen 
Pldlosophie  (Copenh.  1823),  Standenmayer's  Joh.  E, 
und  die  Wissenschaft  seiner  Zeit  (Frankfurt,  1834), 
and  Taillandier  Scot.  E.  et  la  Philosophie  Sclwlastique 
(Strasburg  and  Paris,  1843). 

ERI'GERON,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 

order  CompositcCy  suborder  CorymhifercB,  having 
heads  (flowers)  of  many  florets,  the  florets  of  the  ray 
numerous,  in  several  rows,  of  a  different  colour  from 
those  of  the  disc.  Two  or  three  species  are  natives 
of  Britain,  the  most  common  of  which,  E.  acris,  has 
a  stem  16 — 18  inches  high,  narrow  entire  leaves, 
flower-stalks  forming  a  kind  of  corymb,  flowers  with 
yellow  disc  and  pale-blue  ray.  It  has  a  powerful 
odour,  which  is  said  to  keep  away  fleas,  and  the 
name  Flea-bane  is  sometimes  given  to  the  plant. 
Its  ashes  contain  about  5  per  cent,  of  potash,  for 
the  sake  of  which  it  is  sometimes  collected  and 
burned.  E.  Philadelphicum,  a  native  of  North 
America,  with  pale-purple  ray,  and  a  fetid  smell,  is 
valued  in  the  United  States  as  a  diuretic. 

ERINA'CEUS   and   ERINACE'AD^.  Se« 

Hedgehog. 

ERI'NNA,  a  Greek  poetess,  concerning  the  date 
of  whose  birth  the  most  different  statements  are 
advanced.  According  to  some,  she  was  the  intimate 
friend  of  Sappho  (hence  she  is  likewise  called  the 
Lesbian  singer),  and  was  bom  at  Rhodes,  or  on  the 
little  island  of  Telos,  situated  west  of  Rhodes  ;  whilo 
others  maintain  that  she  lived  in  the  age  of  Demos- 
thenes ;  and  others  again,  perplexed  by  such  a  widn 
difference  in  point  of  time,  have  recourse  to  the 
hypothesis  of  two  poetesses  of  this  name.  E.  acquired 
such  celebrity  by  her  epic,  epigrammatic,  and  lyrio 
poems,  that  her  verses  were  compared  with  those  o^ 
Homer,  although  she  died  at  the  early  age  of  19» 
The  genuineness  of  the  fragments  that  still  exisi 
under  her  name,  has  been  disputed  on  good  grounds. 
These  have  been  collected  by  Schneidewin  in  tha 
Delectus  Poesis  Graecce  Elegiacce  (Gottingen,  1838). 
Compare  Malzow  De  Erinnce  Lesbice  vita  et  Heliqmis 
(Petersburg,  1836). 

ERIOBO'TRYA.    See  Loqtjat. 

ERIOCAULA'CE-^,  a  natural  order  of  endogen- 
ous plants,  nearly  allied  to  Pestiacece,  and  containing 
about  200  known  species,  many  of  which  are  aquatic 
or  marsh  plants.  The  E.  are  chiefly  natives  of  the 
tropical  parts  of  America  and  Australia.  One  spe- 
cies, Eriocaulon  septangular e,  JOINTED  PlPEWORT 
is  found  in  the  west  of  Ireland,  and  in  some  of  the 


ERIODENDRON— ERLKONIG. 


Hebri  les    a  little  grass-like  plant,  growing  in  lakes 
whicli  have  a  muclly  bottom,  and  exhibiting  small 
globular  heads  of  flowers.    From  its  botanical  affini- 
ties, and  with  reference 
/.*fi??lv.  to  geographical  distri- 

bution, no  British  plarit 
is  more  interesting.  The 
E.  form  a  remarkable 
feature  of  the  vegeta- 
tion of  some  parts  of 
South  America ;  but 
many  of  the  species 
bear  little  resemblance 
to  their  humble  north- 
ern congener,  being 
almost  shrubby,  4 — 6 
feet  high,  with  leafy, 
much-branched  stems, 
*  each  brauchlet  ter- 
minated by  a  large 
■white  ball,  composed 
of  a  vast  number  of 
smaller  heads,  placed 
on  peduncles  of  unequal 
length.'  Many  of  them 
also  grow  on  arid  moun- 
tainous regions ;  others 
in  flat  sandy  grounds, 
which  are  flooded  in  the 
wet  season. — Gardner's 
Travels  in  Brazil. 

ERIODE'NDROI^, 
a  genus  of  trees  of  the 
natural  order  Stercu- 
liacea2,  natives  of  tropi- 
JoJnted  Pipewort  [Eriocauton  cal  countries,  the  thick 
septangulare) :  woody  capsides  of  which 

a,  tuft  of  leaves,  flower-stalk  with  contain  a  kind  of  wool 
flowers,  and  part  of  creeping  surrounding  the  seeds, 
root;  6,  seed;  c,  bract  or  scale;  rpi  ,  .  °  fhore- 
d,  f-male  flower;  e,  pistil;  /,  J-Jiese  trees  are  tnere- 
male  flower.  tore  sometimes  called 

Wool-trees.  The  wool 
of  B.  Samanna  is  i^sed  in  Brazil  for  stuffing  pillows. 
E.  anfractuosum^  of  which  one  variety,  found  in  the 
East  Indies,  is  sometimes  called  E.  Indkum,  and 
another  found  in  Africa,  E.  Gmneense,  is  a  tree  of 
great  height,  150  feet  or  more.  The  African  variety 
or  species  is  called  Rimi  and  Bentang.  Park  men- 
tions it  by  the  latter  name.  Barth  says  it  is  gene- 
rally to  be  seen  growing  near  the  principal  gate  of 
large  towns  in  Hansa.  Its  wood  is  soft  and  si)ongy, 
chiefly  used  for  making  canoes.  The  seeds  of  E. 
Indicum  are  eaten  in  Celebes.  They  are  roundish, 
and  of  the  size  of  peas.  The  trees  of  this  genus 
have  palmate  leaves.  The  flowers  are  large  and 
beautiful 

ERIVA'N  (Persian,  Rewan),  the  fortified  capital 
of  Russian  Armenia,  situated  to  the  north  of  Ararat, 
in  the  elevated  pLain  of  Aras  or  Araxes,  lat,  40"  10' 
N.,  long.  44°  32'  E.,  3312  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  It  consists  of  the  town,  properly  so  called,  and 
the  fortress,  which  is  surrounded  on  three  sides  by 
high  walls,  and  provided  with  aqueducts ;  a  stone 
bridge  over  the  Zenga,  which  here  falls  into  the 
Araxes ;  a  barracks,  three  mosques,  one  of  which 
has  been  converted  into  a  Russian  church,  the 
palace  of  the  Sardar,  and  a  bazanr.  Pop.  about 
15,000,  who  are  engaged  in  agriculture  and  com- 
merce. E.  was  formerly  the  capital  of  the  Persian 
province  of  Aran,  celebrated  for  its  silk.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  16th  c,  the  khan  Rewan,  at  the 
command  of  Ishmael,  the  shah  of  Persia,  erected  a 
strong  fortress,  which  he  called  after  his  own  name. 
An  Armenian  school  was  established  at  E.  in  1629. 
but  transferred  to  Eijmiadzin  in  1631.    During  the 


last  war  between  Russia  and  Persia,  E.  a\  as  stormed 
by  the  Russian  general  Paskewitsch,  who  received  the 
surname  of  Eri\\'anski ;  and  by  the  treaty  of  ]jeac6 
concluded  at  Turknuuijai,  22d  February,  1828,  it  wan 
given  up  by  Persia  to  Russia,  along  with  the  pi'ovinco 
of  the  same  name.  It  is  now  an  important  Russian 
post,  as  in  former  times  it  formed  the  bulwark  of 
Persia  against  the  Turks,  and  afterwards  against 
Russia.  In  the  year  1840  it  was  much  devastated  by 
an  earthquake. 

E'RLANGEIS",  a  town  of  Bavaria,  is  situated  ii 
the  midst  of  a  well  cultivated  district,  on  the  righfc 
bank  of  the  Regnitz,  10  miles  north  of  Niirnburg. 
It  is  a  handsome  town,  and  is  surrounded  by  walls 
pierced  by  seven  gates  ;  its  streets — a  great  number 
of  which  were  erected  after  the  year  1706,  when  a 
fire  consumed  a  large  portion  of  the  town — are 
straight  and  regular.  It  is  divided  into  the  Old 
and  New  Towns,  the  latter  founded  in  1GS6  by 
Christian,  markgraf  of  Bayreuth.  E.  is  the  seat  of 
a  university,  of  a  gymnasium,  of  agi-icultural  and 
industrial  schools,  and  other  institutions.  The 
university,  however,  is  the  chief  building.  It  waa 
founded  in  1742,  and  is  celebrated  as  a  school  of 
Protestant  theology,  is  attended  by  between  400 
and  500  students,  has  a  library  containing  100,000 
vols,  and  1000  manuscripts,  and  also  zoological  and 
mineralogical  collections,  &c.  E.  owes  its  prosperity 
to  the  migration  thither  of  a  number  of  refugees 
from  France,  who  were  compelled  to  flee  on  the 
revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  and  who  intro- 
duced many  new  branches  of  manufacture  at 
Erlangen.  Besides  its  extensive  stocking  and  glove 
manufactories,  which  provide  the  greater  part  of 
Germany  with  their  goods,  P].  has  great  mirror  and 
tobacco  factories,  and  manufactures  of  combs  and 
horn  wave.  E.  became  a  Bavarian  possession  by  the 
treaty  of  1809.    Pop.  in  1871,  12,511. 

E'RLAU  (Hung.  Eger),  an  episcopal  city  of 
Hungary,  in  the  county  of  Heves,  of  which  it  is 
capital,  is  situated  on  both  banks  of  the  river 
Erlau,  in  a  delightftd  valley  skirted  w*ith  vine-clad 
hills.  It  is  surrounded  by  old  walls,  pierced  by 
six  gates  ;  has  four  suburbs,  in  which  the  greater 
portion  of  the  inhabitants  dwell ;  and  although  in 
general  its  streets  are  narrow  and  have  a  neglected 
appearance,  it  is  rich  in  fine  public  buildings.  The 
principal  of  these  are  the  Lyceum,  with  a  valuable 
library,  and  an  observatory  172  feet  high ;  the 
recently  built  cathe'^.<*i,  the  episcopal  palace,  the 
Franciscan  and  the  Minorite  monasteries,  a  richly 
embellished  Greek  church,  a  county  haU,  and 
the  new  barracks.  E.  has  also  a  gymnasium,  an 
episcopal  seminary,  a  normal  and  drawing  school, 
a  hospital  founded  in  1730,  which  possesses  a 
capital  of  nearly  400,000  guilders,  and  other  import- 
ant institutions.  The  two  baths,  the  Turkmhad 
and  the  Bischofshad,  both  of  which  are  much 
resorted  to  during  the  bathing-season,  are  supplied 
from  two  warm  springs  which  rise  from  the  bank 
of  the  Erlau.  The  cultivation  of  the  vine  is  the 
principal  occupation  of  the  inhabitants.  The  E, 
wine,  the  best  red  wine  of  Himgary,  is  produced  in 
considerable  quantities,  and  is  in  request  even  in 
foreign  countries.  There  are  also  manufactui'es  of 
linens,  woollens,  hats,  &c.,  and  an  important  w^eekly 
market,  wliich  has  a  beneficial  effect  upon  the  indus- 
try of  the  town.  Pop.  19,815  most  of  whom  are 
Roman  Catholic  in  religion,  and  Magj'^ar  in  race. 
E.  owes  its  imi)ortance  to  the  very  old  bishopric 
founded  here  by  St  Stephen  in  the  beginning  of  the 
11th  c,  and  which,  in  1804,  was  raised  to  an  arch- 
bishopric. 

ERLKONIG,  in  German,  is  the  name  applied  to  a 
poetical,  personified,  natural  power  which,  according 


ERMENONVILLE— ERNE. 


TO  German  poetical  authorities,  prepares  mischief 
and  ruin  for  men,  and  especially  for  children, 
rhrough  delusive  seductions.  The  name  not  con- 
nected Avith  the  root  erle,  is  sj^nonymous  with 
Elfen  Konig.  The  E.  was  introduced  into  German 
poetry  from  the  Sagas  of  the  North,  through  Herder's 
translation  of  the  Edkonig^s  Dcnu/hter  from  the 
Danish,  and  has  become  universally  known  through 
Goethe's  ballad  of  the  Erlkdn  ig. 

ERMENONVILLE,  a  village  in  the  south-east  of 
the  department  of  Oise,  in  France,  in  the  possession 
of  the  Girardin  family.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  beauti- 
ful and  extensive  parks,  and  as  being  the  resting- 
place  of  Rousseau,  for  which  reason  it  is  much  visited 
in  summer  by  stran'^^ers  from  Paris.  It  was  also 
the  residence  of  Gabrielle  d'Estrees,  the  mistress  of 
Henry  IV.,  who  inhabited  a  hunting-tower,  part  of 
which  is  still  standing,  and  bears  her  name.  It 
became  still  more  celebrated  after  the  death  of 
Rousseau  in  1778.  During  the  revolution,  his 
ashes  were  removed  to  the  Pantheon,  but  conveyed 
back  to  E.  after  the  restoration.  It  had  nearly 
been  purchased  by  the  Bande  Noire,  Init  a  larger 
sum  was  offered  by  Stanislaus  de  Girardin,  the  well 
known  Hberal  deputy,  and  E.  was  preserved  for  the 
lovers  of  art,  of  nature,  and  of 
historical  monuments. 

E'RMINE,  white  fur,  with  black 
spots ;  the  reverse  of  which,  or  a 
black  fur  with  white  spots,  also 
used  in  heraldry,  is  called  C outre 
Ermine.  Ermine  is  commonly  used 
to  difference  the  arms  of  any  mem- 
ber of  a  family  who  is  connected 
with  the  law.  A  cross  composed 
of  four  ermine  spots  is  said  to  be  a  Cross  Ermine. 

ERMINE,  or  STOAT  [Mustela  erminea),  a  species 
ofWeasel  (q.  v.),  considerably  larger  than  the  com- 
mon weasel,  but  much  resembling  it  in  general  form 
and  other  characters,  as  well  as  in  habits.  The  E. 
is  almost  ten  inches  in  length,  exclusive  of  the  tail, 
which  is  fully  four  inches  and  a  half  long.  It  is  of 
a  pale  reddish-brown  colour  in  summer,  the  under 
parts  yellowish  wliite,  the  tip  of  the  tail  black  :  in 
winter — in  cold  countries  or  severe  seasons — the 


Ermine. 


Ermine : 

Summer  and  winter  dreas. 

upper  parts  change  to  a  yellowish-white  or  almost 
pure  white,  the  tip  of  the  tail,  however,  always 
remaining  black.  This  change  takes  place  more 
frequently  in  the  northern  than  in  the  southern 
parts  of  Britain,  but  sometimes  even  in  the  south 
of  England ;  and  when  it  is  only  partially  accom- 
plished, the  animal  presents  a  piebald  appearance, 
uid  very  often  remains  so  during  the  milder  winters 
116 


of  Britain.  It  is  in  its  winter  dress  that  it  is  called 
E.,  and  yields  a  highly  valued  fur  ;  more  valuable, 
however,  when  obtained  from  the  coldeft  northern 
regions  than  from  more  southern  and  temjierate 
countries.  In  its  summer  dress  it  is  caLed  Stoat. 
It  dis])lays  indomitable  perseverance  in  the  pursuit 
of  its  prey,  which  consists  very  much  of  rats,  water- 
voles,  and  other  such  small  qtiadmpeds  ;  with  young 
hares  and  rabbits,  grouse,  partridges,  &c.  The  eggs 
of  birds  are  as  welcome  to  it  as  the  birds  them* 
selves.  The  E.  is  a  native  of  all  the  northern  parts 
of  the  world.  Its  range  extends  even  to  the  south 
of  Europe.  It  delights  in  moorish  districts,  and  is 
tolerably  abundant  in  the  north  of  Scotland.  It  is 
from  Norway,  Lapland,  Siberia,  and  the  Hudson's 
Bay  territories  that  the  E.  skins  of  commerce  are 
obtained,  which  are  used  not  only  for  ladies'  winter 
garments,  but  for  the  robes  of  kings  and  nobles,  and 
for  their  crowns  and  coronets.  E.  has  thus  obtained 
a  distinct  recognition  in  heraldry.  In  making  up 
E.  fur,  the  tails  are  inserted  in  a  regidar  manner,  so 
that  their  rich  black  shall  contrast  with  the  pure 
white  of  the  rest  of  the  fur. 

ERNE  [naliaiiitus),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  fainily 
FakonidcB,  and  of  the  eagle  group  ;  differing  from 
the  true  eagles  in  the  greater  length  of  the  bill,  in 
the  toes  and  lower  part  of  the  tarsi  being  destitute 
of  feathers,  and  generally,  also,  in  frequenting  the 
sea-coast  and  the  banks  of  lakes  and  rivers  to  feed 
on  fish,  in  feeding  like  vultures  on  can-ion  almost  as 
readily  as  on  newdy  killed  prey,  and  in  inferior 
courage.  The  only  British  species  is  the  Common 
E.  {H.  albicilla),  also  known  as  the  Sea  Eagle  ot 


Common  Erne  {ffaliceetus  albicilla). 

White-tailed  Sea  Eagle.  It  is  much  more  common  in 
Britain  than  the  Golden  Eagle,  is  sometimes  seen 
even  in  the  south  of  England  and  in  inland  districts, 
occasionally  visiting  deer-parks  to  prey  on  very 
young  fawns  or  to  devour  dead  deer ;  but  is  of  more 
frequent  occurrence  in  the  north  of  Scotland,  doing 
considerable  injury  to  flocks  jn  Sutherlandshire, 
particularly  during  the  season  of  young  lambs.  Its 
favourite  haunts,  where  it  roosts  and  makes  its 
nest,  are  the  shelves  and  ledges  of  stupendous  prpci- 
pices  on  the  coast,  where  its  scream  often  mingles 
with  the  noise  of  the  perpetual  surge.  It  sometimes 
also  breeds  on  crags  beside  inland  lakes,  as  at  the 
Lakes  of  Killamey,  and  more  rarely  even  on  trees. 
Eishes  are  certainly  its  favourite  food,  although  its 
mode  of  procuring  them  is  not  well  known ;  but 
Avater  fowl  are  also  its  very  frequent  prey.    It  is 


ERNE-ERNST  I. 


found  in  most  parts  of  Europe,  and  even  in  the 
islands  of  the  Mediterranean,  but  is  more  abundant 
in  the  north  of  Europe  and  in  Siberia.  It  is  not 
knowni  as  a  native  of  America.  In  size,  the  E.  is 
inferior  to  the  Goklen  Eagle,  being  seldom  more 
than  'J3  inches  in  its  whole  length.  The  general 
colour  of  the  plumage  is  brown,  the  head  having  a 
paler  yellowish  tinge,  the  tail  in  the  adult  bird  is 
pure  white.  The  young,  sometimes  called  the 
Cinereous  Eagle,  has  a  grayer  plumage  and  mottled 
tail. — Another  notable  species  of  this  genus  is  the 
White-headed  E.  (//.  leucocephalus)  of  America, 
also  called  the  White-headed  Eagle,  Bald  Eagle,  and 
Sea  Eagle,  the  chosen  symbol  of  the  United  States. 
It  is  a  bird  of  about  the  same  size  with  the  Common 
E.,  with  dark-brown  plumage,  and — in  an  adult  state 
— the  head,  neck,  tail,  and  belly  white.  It  is  found 
in  almost  all  parts  of  North  America,  visiting  the 
arctic  regions  in  summer,  but  abounding  chiefly  in 
the  southern  states  between  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Mississipi^i.  It  frequents  both  the  sea- coast  and  the 
lakes  and  rivers,  and  may  be  often  seen  sailing 
through  the  column  of  spray  at  the  Falls  of  Niagara. 
It  is  very  fond  of  hsli,  which  it  procures  by  wading 
in  shallow  streams,  and  also  by  compelling  the 
osprey  to  relinquish  prey  just  taken.  The  soaring 
and  evolutions  of  the  birds  in  the  air  on  such  occa- 
sions are  described  as  sublime.  The  White-headed 
E.  feeds  also  on  lambs,  fawns,  poultry,  &c. ;  kills 
swans,  geese,  and  other  water-fowl ;  and  does  not 
disdain  to  compel  vultures  to  disgorge  for  its  use  the 
carrion  which  they  have  swallowed.  On  account  of 
its  habits  and  dispositions.  Franklin  expressed  his 
regret  that  it  had  been  chosen  as  the  symbol  of  his 
country.  The  largest  species  of  the  genus  is  found 
on  the  north-west  coast  of  North  America ;  it  is 
the  H.  pelagicus  of  authors.  Australia  produces 
a  beautiful  species  {H.  leucogaster),  and  numerous 
species  are  found  in  other  parts  of  the  world, 
amongst  which  are  some  of  comparatively  small 
size,  as  the  Pondicherp.y  Kite  or  Brahmany  Kite 
(H .  ponticerianus)  of  India,  which  is  constantly  to  be 
Been  iishing  like  a  gull  in  the  rivers  of  that  country, 
and  is  by  the  Hindus  considered  sacred  to  Vishnu. 

ERNE,  a  river  and  lake  in  the  south-west  of 
Ulster  province,  Ireland.  The  river  rises  in  the  south 
of  Cavan  county,  in  the  small  but  beautifid  Lough 
Cowna.  It  runs  north  and  north-west,  merging  in 
Lough  Oughter,  in  Cavan  county,  and  in  Lough 
Erne  in  Fermanagh  county,  and  passes  Euuiskillen 
and  Ballyshannon.  It  then  flows  through  the  south 
corner  of  Donegal  county  into  Donegal  Bay.  It  has 
a  total  course  of  72  miles.  On  the  river,  at  Bally- 
shannon, is  a  salmon-leap  fall,  over  a  rocky  ledge  20 
feet  high  and  150  yards  broad,  and  the  river  leaps 
over  another  rocky  ledge  near  Belleek,  24  miles 
below  the  lower  end  of  the  loch.  Lough  Erne,  one 
of  the  finest  lochs  in  the  kingdom,  is  the  most 
attractive  feature  of  Fermanagh  county,  which  it 
bisects  lengthways,  and  almost  entirely  drains.  It 
extends  40  miles  from  south-east  to  north-west,  and 
consists  of  two  lakes,  the  upper  and  lower,  joined 
by  a  narrower  part  10  miles  long,  and  assuming  in 
parts  the  character  of  a  river,  with  Euuiskillen  mid- 
way l^etween  the  two  lakes.  The  Upper  Lough  is 
12  by  4  miles  in  extent,  10  to  75  feet  deep,  151  feet 
above  the  sea,  and  has  90  green  hilly  islets.  The 
Fjower  Lough  is  20  by  7 4  miles  in  extent,  100  to 
2C6  feet  deep,  148  feet  above  the  sea,  and  has 
'09  similar  islets.  On  one  of  the  islets  is  a  round 
cower.  They  contain  salmon,  trout,  pike,  bream, 
and  eels.  The  scenery  around  is  singularly  varied 
and  beautiful. 

ERNE'STI,  JoH.  Aug.,  the  founder  of  a  new 
Bchool  of  theology  and  philosophy,  v/as  born  at 


Tennstadt,  in  Thliringia,  4th  August  1707.  H# 
studied  at  Pforta,  Wittenl)crg,  and  Leij)sic ;  but 
after  having  been  appointed  rector  of  the  Thomas 
school  in  Leii>sic,  in  1734,  turned  his  attention 
chiefly  to  the  old  classic  literature,  and  the  studies 
connected  with  it.  In  1742,  he  became  professor 
extraordinary  of  ancient  literature  in  the  university 
of  Leipsic,  in  1756  professor  of  rhetoric,  in  1759 
professor  of  theology,  and  died  11th  September 
1781.  E.  paved  the  way  to  theological  eminence  by 
a  thorough  study  of  philology,  and  was  thus  Jed 
to  a  more  correct  exegesis  of  the  biblical  authors, 
and  to  more  liberal  views  of  theology  in  gencraL 
In  fact,  it  is  mainly  to  him  that  we  owe  the  proper 
method  of  theological  exposition,  in  so  far  as  it 
rests  upon  correct  grammatical  elucidation.  He 
shewed  his  ability  as  an  accurate  critic  and  gram- 
marian, in  his  editions  of  Xenophon's  Memorabilia 
of  Socrates;  the  Clouds  of  Aristophanes,  Horner ^ 
Calllmachus,  Polyhius,  Suetornus,  and  Tacihis;  but 
above  all,  by  his  admirable  edition  of  Cicero  (5  vols., 
Leip.  1737 — 1739),  to  which  he  added  a  Clavis 
Ciceronia,  by  way  of  supplement.  He  was  also  the 
first  reviver  of  true  and  manly  eloquence  in  Ger- 
many. His  theological  writings  are  numerous.  The 
most  remarkable  are  the  Initia  Doctrinoe  Solidiorig^ 
the  Institutio  Interpret'is  Novi  Testamenti  (which  haa 
been  translated  into  English),  the  Anti-Muratorlu* 
(1755),  and  the  Opuscula  Theologica  (1792).  Com* 
pare  Bauer  Formulce  ac  disciplince  Ernestiance  in- 
doles  (Leip.  1782).  Stallbaum  Die  Thomas-schule  zu 
Leipsic  (Leip.  1839). 

ERNST,  Elector  of  Saxony,  the  founder  of  the 
Ernestinian  line,  or  the  elder  branch  of  the  princely 
House  of  Saxony,  was  the  elder  son  of  the  Elector 
Friedrich  the  Mild,  and  of  Margaret,  Archduchess 
of  Austria.  When  only  14  years  of  age,  he  was 
seized  and  carried  ofi"  from  the  castle  of  Altenburg, 
along  with  his  brother  Albrecht,  but  was  speedily 
recaptured.  This  incident,  known  in  German  his- 
tory as  the  Stealing  of  the  Princes  {Prinzenraub), 
has  been  described  with  extraordinary  vividness  by 
Carlyle  in  the  Westminster  Review,  January  1855. 
He  succeeded  to  the  electoral  dignity  on  the  death 
of  his  father  in  1464,  bu.t  governed  in  common  with 
his  brother  for  21  years.  In  1485,  however,  E.  and 
Albrecht  divided  the  paternal  possessions,  when  the 
former  obtained  as  his  share  Thuringia,  the  half  of 
the  district  then  called  Osterland,  with  Voigtland, 
the  Franconian  estates  of  the  House,  the  electoral 
dignity,  and  the  dukedom  of  Saxony.  E.  was  a  man 
who  took  a  great  interest  in  the  welfare  of  his  peojile. 
Against  injustice,  tyranny,  and  lawlessness,  he  was 
implacable.  He  died  at  Kolditz  in  1486.  It  is  next 
to  impossible  to  trace  the  course  of  the  Ernestinian 
line  through  the  labj^rinthine  mazes  of  the  endlesa 
German  genealogies  ;  it  is  sufiicient  to  say  that  after 
1638  the  Ernestinian  line  was  represented  by  the 
Dukes  of  Weimar,  who  gradually  obtained  the  wholo 
possessions  of  the  House.  Johann,  Duke  of  Weimar, 
who  died  in  1605,  left  several  sons,  the  eldest  of 
whom,  Wilhelm,  became  the  founder  of  four  different 
branches,  all  of  which,  however,  were  reunited  under 
Ernst  August,  Duke  of  Weimar,  who  died  in  1748. 
After  1815,  the  duchy  of  Weimar  became  the  gi-aud- 
duchy  of  Saxe-Weimar- Eisenach,  and  its  present 
ruler  is  of  course  the  direct  representative  of  the 
Ernestinian  line.  The  other  three  families  by  which 
it  is  now  also  represented  are  those  of  Meinincren, 
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  and  Altenburg. 

ERNST  I.,  surnamed  the  Pious,  Duke  of  Saxe- 
Gotha  and  Altenburg,  founder  of  the  Rouse  of  Gotha. 
was  born  at  the  castle  of  Altenburg,  24th  December 
1601.  He  was  the  son  of  that  Johann,  Duke  ot 
Weimar,  mentioned  in  the  previous  article,  who  died 

117 


ERNST  IV.— ERRATA. 


in  1605,  and  was  thus  connected  -with  tlie  main 
Ernestinian  line.  E.  was  the  ninth  of  ten  brothers, 
the  youngest  of  whom  was  the  famous  Bernhard 
VQ.  V.)  von  Weimar.  He  received  an  excellent 
education  from  his  mother,  Dorothea  Maria  von 
Anhalt.  After  the  arrival  of  Gnstavua  Adolphus  in 
Germany,  E.  entered  the  Swedish  Hi:;rvice,  and  in 
various  engagements  exhibited  gi'cat  courage  and 
skill,  completing  the  victory  of  the  Protestants  at 
Lutzen,  after  the  fall  of  Gustavus.  After  the  battle 
of  Nordlingen,  26th  August  1634,  E.  withdrew  from 
the  theatre  of  strife,  and  for  the  rest  of  his  life 
devoted  him.'-.elf  to  restoring  the  prosperity  of  his 
territories,  which  had  been  frightfully  devastated 
duiing  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  He  died  in  1675. 
Of  his  9  3ven  sons,  the  eldest,  Friedrich,  continued  the 
line  of  Gotha,  while  the  third  l)ecame  the  founder  of 
the  House  of  Meiningen,  and  the  seventh,  the  founder 
of  the  House  of  Saalfeld.  E.  is  a  fine  type  of  the 
old  German  Protestant  prince.  Zealously  attached 
to  the  doctrines  and  government  of  the  Lutheran 
Church,  he  exercised  a  constant  Avatch  over  its  reli- 
gious and  educational  interests.  With  the  formalism, 
however,  that  often  characterises  '  strictly  religious ' 
people,  he  compelled  his  children  to  learn  the  wliole 
Bible  by  heart.  He  was  much  interested  in  the 
cause  of  Christianity  abroad,  and  invited  to  his  court 
the  Abbot  Gregorius  from  Abyssinia,  besides  sending 
tliither  on  a  religious  embassy  Joh.  Mich.  Wansleb 
of  Erfiu't.  He  also  carried  on  a  correspondence  with 
the  king  of  Ethiopia  and  the  Patriarch  of  Alexandria. 
His  line  became  extinct  by  the  death  of  Friedrich  IV. 
in  1825. 

ERNST  IV.  (August  Karl  Johannes  LEoroLD 
Alexander  Eduard),  Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 
and  elder  brother  of  Prince  Albert  (q.  v.),  was  born 
at  Coburg  21st  June  1818.  Both  brothers  received 
an  admirable  literary  and  scientific  education.  The 
family  to  which  he  belongs  is  a  branch  of  the  Ernes- 
tinian line,  having  been  founded  in  1680  l)y  Albrecht, 
second  son  of  Ernst  the  Pious  (q.  v.).  When  E.  had 
completed  a  university  curriculum  at  Bomi,  he  entered 
the.  military  service  of  the  king  of  Saxony,  but  left 
it  on  the  occasion  of  his  marriage  with  the  daughter 
of  the  Grand-duke  of  Baden.  In  1844,  E.  succeeded 
his  father  as  Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.  In  his 
opinions  and  aspirations,  imbued  with  the  spirit  of 
his  age,  he  has  introduced  into  his  little  dominions 
many  beneficial  reforms,  and  allayed  not  a  few  long- 
standing jealousies.  Yet  one  regrets  to  say,  that 
his  enlightened  views  of  his  duty  as  a  ruler  have 
not  been  generally  appreciated  by  his  subjects. 
During  the  stormy  period  of  1848 — 1849,  by  spon- 
taneous concessions  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the 
other  by  an  energetic  repression  of  the  political 
anarchists,  he  contrived  to  save  his  territories  from 
the  perils  of  revolution.  In  the  Slesvig-Holstein 
war,  E.  took  a  prominent  part,  and  on  the  5th  April 
1849  won  the  battle  of  Eckenforde.  E.  is  a  great 
advocate  for  the  unity  of  the  German  nation,  and 
has  taken  a  prominent  part  in  most  of  the  efforts 
made  in  that  direction.  His  leisure  hours  are 
devoted  to  music  and  the  fine  arts.  His  operas, 
Zayre  ar.d  Casilda,  are  well  known  in  Germany, 
and  recently  (1861)  he  has  published  a  pamphlet 
(wh^jh  is  virtually  an  autobiography)  vindicating 
the  principles  on  which  he  governs  his  duchy. 

EROS    See  Cupid. 

ERO'SION,  the  influence  of  a  stream  or  river 
in  hollowing  out  its  channel.  Even  the  smallest 
streams,  when  running  over  soft  strata,  as  clay 
or  sand,  cut  out  channels,  and  remove  the  eroded 
materials.  Hollows  thus  produced  have  been 
obseived  among  the  stratified  rocks.  One  that 
occurs  in  the  coalfield  of  the  forest  of  Dean  has 
118 


been  carefully  described.  Tlie  trough  was  found 
to  branch,  when  traced  in  the  progress  of  mining, 
over  a  considerable  area,  and  to  assume  all  the 
a])pearances  of  a  little  stream,  with  small  tributaries 
falling  into  it.  When  the  hollows  thus  abraded 
are  of  considerable  extent,  ^valleys  of  ^.rosion^  are 
produced.  Many  of  the  earlier  geologists  held 
that  rivers  had  hollowed  out  their  own  valleys. 
The  immense  amount  of  materials  brought  down 
by  rivers,  and  deposited  at  their  mouths  as  deltas, 
shews  without  doubt  that  they  have  contributed 
materially  to  produce  inequalities  on  the  earth's 
surface ;  but  the  examination  of  the  geological 
structure  of  valleys,  plainly  testifies  that  almost 
every  great  hydrograpliical  basin  has  derived  its 
form  originally  from  some  other  agency,  although 
its  outline  may  have  been  subsequently  altered  by 
the  continued  action  of  currents  within  it. 

ERO'TIC  (from  the  Greek  eros,  love),  signifying 
in  general  whatever  is  marked  by  love  or  passion ; 
but  the  term  is  chiefly  applied  to  poetical  pieces 
of  which  love  is  the  predominating  subject. 

EROTOMA'NIA,  a  species  of  mental  alienation 
caused  by  love.    See  Mania. 

ERPE'NIUS  (Latinised  from  Thomas  van 
Erpeu),  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  eminent  of 
European  OrientaHsts,  was  born  at  Gorkum,  in 
Holland,  7th  Sei^tember  1584.  At  an  early  age,  he 
was  sent  to  Leyden,  where  he  directed  his  attention 
first  to  theology,  but  afterwards  more  particularly 
to  the  study  of  Oriental  languages.  Having  com- 
pleted his  educational  course,  he  travelled  through 
England,  France,  Italy,  and  Germany;  and  in  1613, 
became  i)rofessor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Leyden, 
Here  he  erected  an  Arabic  press  in  his  own  house, 
caused  new  types  to  be  cut,  and  not  only  WTote  but 
printed  a  great  number  of  important  works  bearing 
on  his  favourite  studies.  The  professorship  of 
Hebrew  not  being  vacant  at  the  time  of  E.'s  transla- 
tion to  the  university  of  Leyden,  a  second  Hebrew 
chair  was  founded  expressly  for  him  in  1619.  Soon 
after  this  he  was  appointed  Oriental  interpreter  to 
the  government,  in  which  capacity  he  read  and 
wrote  replies  to  all  official  documents  coming  from 
the  East.  Such  was  the  elegance  and  purity  of  his 
Arabic,  as  written  at  this  time,  that  it  is  said  to 
have  excited  the  admiration  of  the  Emperor  of 
Morocco.  Towards  the  close  of  his  life,  tempting 
offers  of  honours  and  distinction  came  pouring  in 
upon  him  from  all  parts  of  Europe ;  but  he  was  never 
prevailed  upon  to  leave  his  native  country,  where, 
in  the  midst  of  an  eminent  career,  he  died  13th 
November  1624.  Although  the  present  standard  of 
Oriental  knowledge  in  Europe  is  much  in  advance 
of  that  of  E.'s  day,  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  was 
through  him  principally  that  Eastern,  especially 
Arabic  studies  have  become  what  they  are.  With 
hardly  any  better  material  than  a  few  awkwardly 
printed  Arabic  alphabets,  he  coutrivfld  to  write 
his  famous  grammar  [Grammatka  Araoica,  quinque 
llbris  methodice  explicata,  Leyden,  1613 ;  recent 
edition  by  Michaelis,  Gott.  1771),  which  for  200  years 
till  the  time  of  Silvestre  de  Sacy,  enjoyed  an  undis 
puted  supi'emacy  ;  and  there  are  many  who  think  his 
Eudimenta  unsurpassed,  even  at  the  present  day,  as  a 
work  for  beginners.  Among  his  other  important 
works,  the  best  known  is  his  Proverbiorum  Arabi- 
corum  Centurice  Duat  (Leyden,  1614). 

ERRA'TA,  the  list  of  errors,  with  their  coi 
rections,  placed  at  the  end  of  a  book.  From  greater 
carefulness  in  correcting  the  sheets  of  a  work  in 
passing  through  the  press,  errors  in  sense  or  typog- 
raphy are  now  much  more  rare  than  formerly; 
in  many  instances,  indeed,  books  are  now  produced 
without  a  single  error  which  needs  to  be  pointeJ 


ERRATICS— ERSCH. 


out  and  corrected.  On  the  subject  of  eiTatca,  sorne 
interesting  particulars  will  be  found  in  Disraeli's 
Curiosities  of  Literature,  of  which  the  following 
may  be  taken  as  a  specimen  :  '  Besides  the  ordinary 
errata  which  happen  in  printing  a  work,  others 
have  been  purposely  committed,  that  the  ei'rata 
may  contain  what  is  not  permitted  to  appear  in  the 
body  of  the  work.  Wherever  the  Inquisition  had 
any  power,  particidarly  at  Rome,  it  was  not  allowed 
to  employ  the  word  fatum,  or  fata,  in  any  book. 
An  author,  desirous  of  using  the  latter  word, 
adroitly  invented  this  scheme  :  he  had  printed  in 
his  book  facia,  and  in  the  errata  he  put,  "  Y  ox  facta, 
read  fata." ' 

ERRA'TICS,  the  name  given  to  the  water- worn 
blocks  of  stone  that  have  been  washed  out  of  the 
boulder  clay,  or  are  still  enclosed  in  it,  because  they 
have  generally  been  derived  from  rocks  at  a  distance. 
See  Boulders  and  Boulder-clay. 

E'RRHINES  (Gr.  en,  in,  and  rhin,  the  nose), 
medicines  administered  locally  to  produce  sneezing 
and  discharge  from  the  nostrils,  in  catarrh,  and 
in  various  disorders  of  the  head  and  eyes.  Common 
snufF,  and  various  other  vegetable  irritants  in 
powder,  have  been  used  for  this  purpose. 

E'RROR,  Proceedings  in,  the  form  by  which 
in  England  the  unsuccessful  party  in  an  action 
at  law  brings  his  case  for  consideration  before  a 
court  of  review.  The  successful  party  is  entitled 
to  issue  execution  immediately  on  the  (signing  of) 
final  Judgment  (q.  v.),  unless  execution  be  stayed 
by  due  notice  of  the  intention  of  the  opposite 
party  to  bring  the  judgment  under  review.  Error 
may  be  in  fact  or  in  law.  If  the  error  is  in  fact, 
the  case  is  heard  before  the  court  before  which 
the  action  was  originally  tried ;  if  the  error  is 
in  law,  proceedings  must  be  taken  before  the 
Court  of  Exchequer  Chamber  (q.  v.).  Where  a 
party  objects  to  the  ruling  of  the  judge,  the  form 
is  by  Bill  of  Exceptions  (q.  v.)  under  statute  of 
Westminster  the  second  (13  Ed.  I.  c.  31).  Accord- 
ing to  the  former  practice,  it  was  necessary,  in 
order  to  obtain  a  review  on  the  groimd  of  error, 
that  an  original  writ,  called  a  Writ  of  Error,  should 
be  issued.  The  writ,  if  the  error  was  in  fact,  was 
styled  coram  nobis,  where  the  case  was  in  the 
Queen's  Bench,  the  sovereign  being  presimied  to 
preside  in  that  court;  if  in  the  other  courts,  the 
writ  was  coram  vohis.  Writ  of  error  is  abolished 
by  the  Common  Law  Procedure  Act ;  and  proceedings 
in  error  now  consist  of  a  simple  memorandum  of 
error,  lodged  with  the  officer  of  the  court,  accom- 
panied, if  the  error  be  in  fact,  with  an  affidavit  of 
the  matter  constituting  the  error.  The  effect  of 
proceedings  in  error  is  to  stay  immediate  execution ; 
but  the  plaintiff  in  error  must  proceed  within  a 
certain  number  of  days.  From  judgment  in  error  in 
the  Exchequer  Chamber,  an  appeal  lies  to  the 
House  of  Lords.  Proceedings  in  error  from  the 
Coxxrt  of  Common  Pleas  of  Lancaster,  and  from  the 
Cova^;  of  Pleas  of  Durham,  and  generally  from  all 
iaterior  courts  of  record,  are  brought  before  the 
Court  of  Queen's  Bench,  from  which  appeal  lies  to 
the  Exchequer  Chamber,  and  thence  to  the  House 
of  Lords.  The  courts  of  the  city  of  London,  of  the 
Cinque  Ports,  and  of  the  Stannaries  of  Cornwall,  are 
exceptions  to  this  rule.  In  criminal  cases,  proceed- 
ings are  still  by  Writ  of  Error  (q.  v.). 

ERROR,  Writ  of,  in  civil  causes.  See  Error, 
Proceedings  in.  In  criminal  causes,  is  an  original 
writ  from  the  common  law  side  of  the  Court  of 
C'hancery,  addressed  to  the  judges  of  a  superior 
court,  by  which  they  are  authorised  to  examine  the 
record  on  which  judgment  was  given  Ln  the  inferior 


court,  and  to  confirm  or  reverse  the  judgment 
Writ  of  error  formerly  lay  for  every  suljstantial 
defect  appearing  on  the  face  of  thf  record,  for  which 
the  indictment  might  have  been  quashed  ;  Imt  by 
7  Geo.  IV.  c.  64,  it  was  provided  that  several  tech- 
nical defects  should  be  cured  by  verdict.  By  14 
and  15  Vict.  c.  100,  every  formal  defect  apparent  on 
the  face  of  the  indictment  must  be  oljjected  to 
before  the  jury  is  sworn,  and  not  after,  and  may 
then  be  amended.  Writ  of  error  now,  therriorcj 
lies  only  for  defect  in  substance  ai)pearing  en  tho 
record,  as  where  a  man  having  been  indicted  for  per- 
jury, it  appears  that  the  false  statements  were  not 
made  upon  oath.  Writ  of  error  cannot  be  obtained 
without  the  fiat  of  the  attorney-general,  which  is  not 
allowed  as  of  course,  but  is  usually  granted  on  due 
cause  shewn. 

ERRORS.    In  all  observations,  errors  must  be 
made.    The  best  instruments  have  imperfections : 
and  no  man,  however  equable  his  temperament,  can 
always  rely  on  his  making  a  proper  use  of  his  senses. 
As  in  astronomy  numerical  correctness  in  the  results 
of  instrumental  measurements  is  of  the  first  conse- 
quence, it  is  the  constant  care  of  the  observer  to 
detect  and  make  allowance  for  errors.    The  three 
principal  sources  from  which  they  may  arise  are— - 
1st,  External  or  incidental  causes,  such  as  fluctua- 
tions of  weather,  which  disturb  the  amount  of 
refraction ;  changes  of  temperature,  affecting  the 
form  and  position  of  instruments,  &c. ;  2d,  Errors 
of  observation,  being  such  as  arise  from  inexpertness, 
defective  vision,  slowness  in  seizing  the  exact  instant 
of  an  occurrence,  atmosiDheric  indistinctness,  &c. ; 
and  such  errors  as  arise  from  slips  in  clamping  and 
momentary  derangements  of  the  instrument ;  3d, 
Instrumental  defects,  owing  to  errors  in  workman- 
ship, and  such  as  arise  from  the  instrument  not  being 
properly  placed — called  errors  of  adjustment.  The 
first  two  classes  of  errors,  so  far  as  they  cannot  be 
reduced  to  known  laws,  vitiate  the  resxdts  of  obser- 
vations to  their  full  extent ;  but  being  accidental, 
they  necessarily  sometimes  diminish  and  sometimes 
increase  them.    Hence,  by  taking  nximerous  obser- 
vations under  varied  circumstances,  and  by  taking 
the  mean  or  average  of  the  results  obtained,  these 
errors  may  be  made  to  destroy  one  another  to  a  great 
extent,  and  so  far  may  be  subdued.    With  regard  to 
the  third  class,  it  is  the  peculiarity  of  astronomical 
I  observations  to  be  the  ultimate  means  of  detection 
{  of  all  defects  of  workmanship  and  adjustment  in 
'  instrimients,  which  by  their  minuteness  elude  every 
I  other  mode  of  detection.    See  Sir  John  Herschel'a 
I  Outlines  of  Astronomy,  §  138  et  seq.     It  may  be 
!  mentioned,  however,  that  the  method  of  subdmng 
j  errors  of  the  first  two  classes  by  the  law  of  average 
I  is  not  applicable  in  all  cases.    In  certain  cases, 
i  recourse  must  be  had  to  what  is  known  as  the 
method  of  least  squares.    See  Squares,  the  Least  ; 
see  also  Probabilities. 

ERSCH,  JoHANN  Samuel,  the  founder  of  Germau 
bibliography,  was  born  at  Grossglogau,  in  Lower 
Silesia,  23d  June  1766 ;  and  exhibited  from  an 
early  period  a  decided  bias  towards  that  branch 
of  literature  in  which  he  afterwards  obtained  so 
high  a  reputation.  At  Halle,  where  he  was  sent 
to  study  theology  in  1785,  he  devoted  himself  to 
historical  investigations.  After  several  vicissitudes, 
he  obtained,  in  1800,  the  office  of  hbrarian  to  the 
university  of  Jena.  Three  years  later,  he  was  called 
to  HaUe  as  professor  of  geography  and  statistics  ; 
j  and  in  1808,  was  appointed,  in  addition,  principal 
I  librarian.    He  died  at  Halle,  16th  January  1828. 

E.  was  long  engaged  in  miscellaneous  bibliographical 
I  work  for  other  scholars ;  but  in  1818,  along  with 
]  Gruber,  commenced  the  pubhcation  at  Leipsic  ol 

119 


KRSE-EKSKINE. 


the  Alhjemdne  Encyclopddie  der  WlssenscJia/ten  und 
Kiinste  (Universal  Encyclcprcdia  of  the  Sciences  and 
A.rts),  a  work  of  immense  value.  J?y  his  IJandhuch 
der  Deutschen  Liter atur  se\t  der  Mitte  des  18  Jahrh, 
his  anf  die  Neueste  Zeit  (Handbook  of  German  Liter- 
atm-e  from  the  Middle  of  the  18th  Century  to  the 
most  recent  Time,  4  vols.,  1812-1814),  he  lirst 
established  modern  German  bibliography  in  the 
technical  sense  of  the  word ;  and  by  its  com- 
pleteness, accuracy,  and  mode  of  arrangement,  it 
is  undoubtedly  fitted  to  serve  as  a  model  for  the 
imitation  of  other  nations. 

ERSE  (a  corruption  of  Irish),  the  name  given  by 
the  Lowland  peoj)le  of  Scotland  to  the  language 
spoken  by  tlae  inhabitants  of  the  Western  Highlands, 
as  being  of  Irish  origin.  See  BRE'm  and  Scots. 
The  i)roper  name  is  Gaelic  (q.v.). 

ERSE'K-UJVA'R.    See  Neuiiausel. 

E'RSKINE,  Hev.  Ebenezer,  the  founder  of  the 
Secession  Church  in  Scothxnd,  was  the  son  of  the 
Rev.  Henry  Erskine,  minister  of  Chii-nside,  in 
Berwickshire,  a  descendant  of  the  nol)le  family  of 
Mar,  and  was  born  June  22,  1G80.  He  studied  at 
Edinburgh,  and  after  acting  for  some  time  as  tutor 
and  chaplain  in  the  family  of  the  Earl  of  Ivotlies,  he 
was  licensed  to  preach  the  gospel  by  the  presbytery 
of  Kirkcaldy  in  1702.  His  abilities  and  excellent 
chai\acter  soon  brought  him  into  notice,  and  in  the 
following  year  he  was  appointed  minister  of  Poi-t- 
moak,  in  the  shire  of  Kinross.  Here  he  applied 
himself  iadefatigably  to  the  study  of  the  Scriptures, 
and  Ijecame  so  deeply  convinced  that  to  preach 
'  Christ  crucified '  was  his  grand  and  constant  duty 
as  a  minister,  that  after  some  time  the  earnestness, 
unction,  and  piety  which  now  marked  his  dis- 
courses, became  exceedingly  attractive  to  the  people 
accustomed  to  the  chilling  'legalism'  which  then 
predominated  in  the  Scottish  pulpit.  E.'s  popularity 
was  not  confined  to  the  parish  of  Portmoak  ;  serious 
Christians  from  all  parts  of  the  country  were  eager 
to  enjoy  occasionally  the  benefits  of  his  ministry, 
and  on  sacramental  occasions,  he  had  frequently 
attendants  from  the  distance  of  60  or  70  miles.  In 
1731,  he  was  translated  to  Stirling,  after  having 
discharged  the  pastoral  office  in  Portmoak  for  28 
years.  Previous  to  this  event,  however,  the  reli- 
gious peculiarities  of  E.  had  brought  him  into 
unpleasant  relations  Avith  some  of  his  brethren,  by 
the  interest  which  he  exhibited  in  a  book  called 
the  Marrow  of  Modern  Divinity,  marked  by  its 
strong  evangelicalism  of  doctrine  and  sentiment. 
After  his  transference  to  Stirling,  E.  distinguished 
himself  by  his  advocacy  of  popular  rights  in  the 
eettlenient  of  ministers ;  and  ultimately  involved 
himself  in  such  antagonism  to  the  Church  of 
Scotland,  or  at  least  to  the  ruling  party  in  it  of 
the  time,  that,  along  with  other  three  clergymen, 
he  was  deposed  in  1733.  (For  an  account  of  the 
circumstances  which  led  to  these  depositions,  see 
United  Presbyterians.)  He  was  shortly  after 
joined  by  his  brother  Ralph  and  several  other 
ministers.  They  now  virtually  formed  a  distinct 
sect,  but  they  still  continued  to  occupy  their  parish 
churches.  An  effort  was  made  in  1734  to  restore 
them  to  tlieir  legal  connection  with  the  church  ; 
it  was  unsuccessful.  In  1736,  E.  and  his  friends 
formally  seceded,  but  still  it  was  not  till  1740  that 
they  were  ejected  from  their  churches.  Shortly 
after  this,  a  furioiis,  and,  as  it  seen  s  to  people  nov/- 
a-days,  a  contemptible  squabble  broke  out  among 
the  seceders  in  regard  to  the  propriety  of  taking 
the  l)urgess-oath.  The  vesnU,  was  a  division  of  the 
sect  into  two  bodies,  tlie  Burghers  and  Anti-l)urghers. 
See  United  Presbyterian  Church.  E.  was  the 
lender  of  the  Burghers.  lie  died  in  1756. 
120 


ERSKIISTE,  Rev.  Ralph,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  Ijorn  at  Monilaws,  in  Northumberland,  March 
18,  1685,  and  after  completing  the  usual  course  of 
study  incumbent  on  a  minister,  was  ordained  to  the 
parish  church  of  Dunfermline  in  1711.  Sympa- 
thising with  the  sentiments  of  his  brother  Ebenezer, 
he  withdrew  from  the  judicatures  of  the  Established 
Church  in  1737.  In  the  controversy  concerning  the 
burgess-oath  he  also  took  part  with  his  brother.  E. 
died  November  6,  1752.  His  fame  rests  chiefly 
on  his  Gospel  Sonnets  and  other  religious  ^orka^ 
which  were  once  highly  popular. 

ERSKINE,  John,  of  Camock,  and  afterwards  of 
Cardross,  an  eminent  Scottish  jurist,  and  Professor 
of  Scots  Law  in  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  waa 
the  son  of  the  Honourable  John  fcJrskiue  of  Carnock, 
third  oon  of  Lord  Cardross,  whose  descendants  have 
now  succeeded  to  the  earldom  of  Buchan.  John 
Erskine,  the  father,  was  a  man  of  importance  in  his 
day,  not  only  on  account  of  the  family  to  which  he 
belonged,  which  even  then  had  been  prolific  in  his- 
toi  ical  characters,  but  in  consecjuence  of  his  personal 
qualities  and.  the  positions  which  he  held.  Having 
been  forced  to  quit  Scotland,  from  his  attachment  to 
the  Presbyterian  religion,  he  retired  to  Holland,  and 
became  an  officer  in  the  service  of  the  Prince  of 
Orange.  At  the  Revolution,  he  accompanied  William 
to  England,  and,  as  a  reward  for  his  services,  was 
appointed  lieutenant-governor  of  Stirling  Castle, 
and  lieutenant-colonel  of  a  regiment  of  foot.  John 
E.,  the  younger,  born  1695,  became  a  member  of 
the  Faculty  of  Advocates  in  1719,  but  did  not 
succeed  as  a  practitioner  of  the  law.  On  the  death 
of  Alexander  Bain  in  1737,  Mr  E.  was  nominated 
to  succeed  him  in  the  chair  of  Scots  Law,  an 
office  the  duties  of  which  he  performed  with  great 
reputation  for  28  years.  For  many  years  Mr  E. 
made  use  of  Sir  George  Mackenzie's  (q.  v.)  Institu- 
tions of  the  Laio  of  Scotland  as  his  text-book ;  but 
in  1754  he  published  his  well-known  Principles  oj 
the  Law  of  Scotland,  which  were  thenceforth  used 
for  that  purpose  by  himself  and  by  his  various  suc- 
cessors down  to  the  present  time.  On  his  retirement 
from  the  professorship  in  1765,  Mr  E.  occupied  him- 
self in  preparing  his  more  important  work.  The 
Institutes  of  the  Law  of  Scotland,  but  it  was  not 
published  till  1773,  five  years  after  his  death.  Mr 
E.  was  twice  married — first  to  Miss  MelviUe,  of 
the  noble  family  of  Leven  and  Melville,  by  whom 
he  left  the  afterwards  celebrated  clergyman,  John 
Erskine ;  and,  second,  Ann,  second  daughter  of 
Stirling  of  Keir,  by  whom  he  had  four  sons  and  two 
daughters.  As  a  legal  writer,  Mr  E.  is  inferior  to 
none  of  our  Scottish  jurists,  with  the  single  excep- 
tion of  Lord  Stair,  who  had  the  benefit  of  the  more 
learned  and  wider  judicial  training  of  our  earlier 
lawyers,  who  were  educated  in  a  continental  school 
In  consequence  of  the  extent  to  which  lands  changed 
hands  in  Scotland  subsequent  to  the  rebellions, 
feudal  conveyancing  became  the  most  prominent 
subject  of  study  amongst  the  lawyers  of  Mr  E.'a 
day,  and  the  principles  of  commercial  law,  of  which 
Stair  laid  the  foundation,  and  which  have  become  so 
important  in  our  own  time,  were  somewhat  tlirown 
into  the  shade.  The  labours  of  Mr  Bell  in  these 
departments  have  again  brought  the  law  of  Scot- 
land into  connection  with  the  general  current  of 
European  law  and  mercantile  practice  throughout 
the  world.  But  of  all  those  departments  which  Con- 
stitute the  law  of  Scotland,  as  developed  by  the 
usages  and  forms  of  society  in  the  country  itself, 
there  is  at  the  present  day  no  clearer,  sounder,  or 
more  trustworthy  expositor  than  Mr  Erskine. 

ERSKINE,  Rev.  Dr  John,  son  of  John 
(Erskine  of  Carnock,  the  author  of  the  Institute* 


EllSKINE. 


v/the  Law  of  Scotland,was  born  June  2, 1721,  studied 
"it  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  and  in  1743  was 
licensed  to  preach  by  the  presbytery  of  Dunblane. 
in  the  following  year,  he  was  ordained  minister 
of  Kirkintilloch,  where  he  remained  until  1753, 
when  he  was  jiresented  to  the  parish  of  Culross, 
in    the   presbytery   of    Dimfermline.     In  1758, 
he  was  translated  to  New  Greyfriars  Church,  Edin- 
burgh ;  in  1706,  the  university  of  Edinburgh  con- 
ferred on  him  the  honorary  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Divinity;  and  in  1767,  he  was  promoted  to  the 
collegiate  charge  of  Old  Greyfriars,  where  he  had  j 
for  his  colleague  Dr  Robertson.    In  the  General 
Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  he  was  for 
many  years  the  leader  of  the  popular  or  evan-  i 
gelical  party ;  and  there  the  openness  and  integ-  j 
rity  of  his  character  secured  him  the  confidence  | 
and  affection  of  his  friends,  and  the  esteem  and  { 
respect  of  his  opponents.    Between  hun  and  Prin- 
cipal Robertson,  the  leader  of  the  moderate  party, 
there  was  a  courteous  and  honourable  friendship ;  j 
and  the  funeral  sermon  which  he  preached  on  the 
death  of  his  colleague,  did  equal  honour  to  E.'s 
head  and  heart.    He  died  January  19,  1803.  E.'s 
writings  are  exceedingly  numerous.    They  consist 
of    essays,    letters,    sermons,    dissertations,    and  j 
pamphlets,  &c.,  mainly  of  a  religious  character,  and  ' 
exhibit  a  superior  degree  of  ability.    Sir  Walter 
Scott,  in  his  G^iy  Mannering,  gives  a  graphic  and 
accurate  description  of  his  powers  as  a  preacher. 

ERSKIJSTE,  Thomas,  Lord  Eeskine,  was  the 
youngest  son  of  Henry  David,  tenth  Earl  of  Buchan ; 
and  was  born  in  Edinburgh,  10th  January  1750. 
Although  his  father,  at  the  period  of  his  birth,  was 
leduced  to  an  income  of  £200  a  year,  he  transmitted 
to  him  the  blood  of  a  race  which  had  been  prolific 
in  men  of  great  ability,  and  had  been  ennobled  before 
the  era  of  genuine  history.  The  countess,  who  was 
the  daughter  of  Sir  James  Stewart  of  Goodtrees,  in 
the  county  of  Midlothian,  was  not  only  a  godly 
Presbyterian  ai>  l  a  skilful  housewife,  but  a  gifted 
and  accomplished  woman.  After  E.  had  attended 
for  some  time  the  High  School  of  Edinburgh,  the 
family  removed  to  St  Andrews,  at  the  grammar 
Bchool  of  which  place,  and  subsequently  at  the 
university,  though  never  it  would  seem  as  a  matri- 
cidated  student,  Thomas  E.  received  the  rest  of 
Buch  education  as  fell  to  his  share.  His  desire  was 
to  study  for  a  profession  ;  but  his  parents,  who  had 
Bent  his  elder  brother,  Lord  Cardross,  to  Leyden, 
and  were  educating  his  second  brother,  Henry, 
afterwards  the  well-known  Harry  Erskine,  for  the 
Scottish  bar,  could  not  afford  the  expense  of  a  third 
'earned  education,  and  sent  him  to  sea  as  a  mid- 
shipman. In  this  capacity  he  served  for  four  years, 
until  the  death  of  his  father,  when  he  purchased  a 
commission  in  the  First  Royals,  and  was  for  some 
time  stationed  at  Minorca,  where  he  employed  his 
leisure  time  in  the  study  of  English  literature.  On 
his  return  to  London,  his  birth,  his  acquirements, 
the  elegance  of  his  manners,  and  volubility  of  his 
conversation,  led  to  his  being  warmly  received  in 
the  best  circles.  It  was  then  that  he  had  the 
controversy  with  Dr  Johnson  on  the  respective 
merits  of  Fielding  and  Richardson  which  Boswell 
has  recorded ;  and  that  he  published  a  pamphlet 
on  the  prevailing  abuses  in  the  army,  which,  though 
anony  nous,  was  well  known  to  be  his,  and  obtained 
a  great  circulation.  E.  now  grew  tired  of  the  army 
as  a  profession,  in  which  he  saw  little  chance  of 
promotion  ;  and  while  in  this  humour,  an  accidental 
interview  which  he  had  with  lord  Mansfield  at  an 
aspize  court,  determined  him  to  prosecute  the  study 
of  law.  E.  was  admitted  a  student  of  Lincoln's 
Inn,  26th  April  1775,  and  on  the  13th  January 
1776,  ho  entered  his  name  on  the  books  of  Trinity 


College,  Cun)britlge,  as  a  gentleman  mmnior.vr 
Many  anecdotes  are  told  of  the  privations  which 
E.  underwent  when  studviiig  for  the  bar — how  lio 
lived  on  *  cow-heel  and  tri])e,'  dres.sed  so  shaljbily 
as  to  be  quite  rcuuu-kable,  and  boasted  that  out  of 
his  otvn  family  he  did  not  know  a  lord.  SikIi 
stories,  though  probably  exaggerated,  prove  that 
he  endured  considerable  privations — considering  his 
rank — in  fitting  himself  for  the  legal  profession. 
Lord  Campbell  says  that  'during  Easter  and  Trinity 
terms  he  excited  a  great  sensation  in  the  dinint^  hal3 
by  appearing  with  a  student's  black  gown  over 
the  scarlet  regimentals  of  the  Royals;  ^j?-(/6aL;Zj 
not  having  a  decent  suit  of  j^lciin  clothes  to  put  on: 
Though  E.  was  aided  by  his  aristocratic  connection, 
his  rise  was  still  very  wonderful.  Without  the 
advantage  of  a  business  training,  or  W'hat,  i)robably 
even  in  those  days,  was  far  more  important,  a 
bxisiness  connection,  he  rose  into  practice  with 
almost  unprecedented  rapidity.  After  his  first 
speech,  the  attorneys  actually  fiocked  round  him 
with  their  retainers,  and  in  telling  the  story,  he 
used  sometimes  to  bring  the  number  which  he 
received  before  quitting  Westminster  Hall  np  to 
sixty-five !  His  two  first  clients  were  officers  in  the 
navy — Captain  Baillie,  who  held  an  office  in  Green* 
wich  Hospital,  against  whom  a  ride  had  been 
obtained  calling  upon  him  to  shew  cause  why  a 
criminal  information  for  a  libel  reflecting  on  Lord 
Sandwich's  conduct  as  governor  of  the  charity, 
should  not  be  filed  upon  him;  and  Admiral  Keppel, 
who  was  tried  by  a  court-martial  at  Portsmouth 
for  incapacity  and  misconduct  in  an  encounter 
with  the  French  fleet  off  Ushant ;  and  in  both 
cases  E.  derived  benefit  from  his  own  early  con- 
nection with  the  service  and  the  special  information 
which  he  thus  possessed.  Admiral  Keppel  sent 
him  two  five-himdred-pound  notes  as  a  fee.  From 
this  time  forth,  E.'s  good-fortune  as  an  advocate 
was  uninterrupted.  In  1783,  he  was  returned  to 
parliament  for  Portsmouth.  Four  years  and  a  half 
after  he  was  called  to  the  bar,  he  had  cleared  £8000 
to  £9000,  besides  paying  his  debts,  he  had  got  a 
silk  gown,  business  of  at  least  £3000  a  year,  and  a 
seat  in  parliament,  and  had  made  his  brother  Lord 
Advocate.  In  parliament,  on  tiie  other  hand,  he 
failed  so  egregiously  in  his  first  si)eech  as  to  leave 
scarcely  any  hope  in  the  bosoms  of  his  admirers, 
and  what  is  very  singular,  his  failure  and  Lord 
Eldon's  took  jAace  the  same  night.  To  some  extent 
the  phenomenon  was  accounted  for  by  Sheridaii'a 
remark  when  he  said  to  him:  'Erskine,  you  are 
afraid  of  Pitt,  and  that  is  the  flabby  part  of 
your  character.'  But  notwithstanding  his  political 
mortifications,  his  professional  career  went  on 
with  increasing  brilliancy.  In  1786,  he  was  made 
Attorney-general  to  the  Prince  of  Wale-^,  by  whom 
he  was  warmly  patronised,  but  towards  him  and 
every  one  else  he  exhibited  that  manly  independence 
which  was  the  best  part  of  his  character.  The  fact 
of  his  appearing  as  counsel  for  Thomas  Paine  ia 
more  to  his  credit,  than  even  the  brave  and  honest 
speech  which  he  made  in  his  defence ;  whilst  his 
removal  in  consequence  from  his  oflice  is,  as  Lord 
Campbell  has  said,  a  lasting  disgrace  to  those  fr'„m 
whom  the  measure  proceeded.  Throughout  the 
political  trials  which  occurred  in  this  country  at 
that  troubled  period,  he  enacted  the  same  manly 
part.  When  E.  was  proposed  for  the  woolsack,  an 
office  far  beyond  his  legal  attainments,  the  king, 
George  III.,  in  consenting  exclaimed :  '  What !  whaU 
well !  well ! — but  remember  he  is  your  chancellor, 
not  mine.'  Yet  his  decisions  as  lord-chancellor, 
according  to  Lord  Campbell,  ai'e  not  so  much  l>ad 
as  superjicial,  though  by  some  equity  practitioners 
they  are  spoken  of  as  the  Apocryjplui.    E.  was 


EKYNGO— ERYTHKiEA. 


eiif^aged  in  the  defence  of  Queen  Caroline.  He  died 
17  th  November,  1823. 

ERY'NGO  {Erynfjium),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Umhelliferce,  having  simple  umbels, 
which  resemble  the  heads  of  composite  flowers,  a 
leafy  involucre  and  leafy  calyx,  and  obovate,  scaly 
fniit  destitute  both  of  ridges  and  vittte.  The  species 
are  numerous,  mostly  natives  of  the  warmer  tem- 
pei'ate  j^arts  of  the  world,  with  alternate,  shnple,  or 
divided  leaves,  which  have  marginal  spines.  One 
species  only  is  common  in  Britain,  the  Sea  Eryngo, 
or  Sea  Holly  [E.  maritimum),  which  is  frequent  on 
sandy  sea-shores  ;  a  very  stiff,  rigid,  and  glaucous 
plant.  E.  campestre  has  also  been  found  in  England 
aud  Ireland,  but  is  very  rare.  Its  root  was  formerly 


Sea  Holly  [Eryngium  maritimum) : 
(»,  a  floret ;  h,  a  petal ;  c,  a  stamen  ;  d,  the  pistil. 

much  employed  in  some  parts  of  Europe  as  a  tonic. 
That  of  E.  maritimum  is  used  in  the  same  way,  and 
possesses  the  same  proj)erties,  being  sweet  aud 
aromatic.  It  is  sold  in  a  candied  state,  and  was 
formerly  reputed  stimulant,  restorative,  and  aphro- 
disiac. Shakspeare  makes  Falstaff  allude  to  the 
snowy  colour  and  supposed  properties  of  this  now 
almost  disused  sweetmeat,  for  the  preparation  of 
which  Colchester  has  long  been  famous  above  all 
other  i>laces.  E.  root  has  also  been  used  as  an 
aj^erient  and  diuretic.  Linnteus  recommends  the 
blanched  shoots  of  E.  maritimum  as  a  substitute  for 
asparagus.  E.  ftxtidum,  a  native  of  the  warm 
parts  of  America,  is  called  Fit-weed  in  the  West 
Indies,  a  decoction  of  it  being  much  used  as  a 
remedy  in  hysterical  cases.  E.  aquaticum,  a  native 
of  low  wet  jilaces  in  North  and  South  America,  is 
called  E-attlesiiake  Weed  and  Button  Suakeroot. 
The  root  is  diaphoretic  and  expectorant,  and  has  a 
epurious  reputation  as  a  cure  for  the  bite  of  the 
rattlesnake. 

ERYSIMUM,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
Crder  Cruciferce,  tribe  Slsymbrieoi.  The  pod  is  four- 
elded.  E.  cheiranthoides,  a  branching  annual,  about 
18  inches  high,  with  lanceolate  scarcely  toothed 
leaves  and  small  yellow  flowers,  is  found  in  many 
parts  of  Europe,  and  also  in  North  America.  It  is 
not  uncommon  in  waste  places  and  cultivated 
grounds  in  Britain,  but  njay  perhaps  have  been 
©riginally  introduced  for  its  medicinal  use.  Its 
seeds  wei  a  formerly  much  employed  as  an  anthel- 
mintic, from  which  it  has  the  name  of  Worm-seed. 
It  is  also  called  Treacle  Mustard,  because  it  was 
employed  as  an  ingredient  in  the  famous  Venice 
12i 


Treacle.  E.  per/oliatum  is  cultivated  in  Jai)an  for 
the  fixed  oil  of  its  seeds.     Some  of  the  plautt 


Erysimtmi  Cheiranthoides  : 
a,  root;  b,  a  branch,  in  which  flowering  has  recently  Ijegun; 
c,  the  summit  of  a  branch  in  a  more  advanced  state,  shewing 
the  fruit ;  d,  the  calyx  ;  e,  the  parts  of  fructification,  diTested 
of  floral  enveh)pes ;  /,  a  flower. 

formerly  referred  to  E.  are  now  included  in  other 
genera,  as  Sisymbrium  (q.  v.)  and  Alliaria  (q.  v.). 

ERYSI'PELAS  (Gr.  derivation  uncertain),  an 
inflammatory  and  febrile  disease  of  the  skin, 
attended  by  diff"used  redness  and  swelling  of  the 
part  affected,  and  in  the  end  either  hy  desquamation 
or  by  vesication  of  the  cuticle,  or  scarf-skin,  in  the 
milder  forms,  and  by  suppxiration  of  the  deeper 
parts  in  the  severer  varieties  of  the  disease  (phleg- 
monous erysipelas).  Erysipelas  affects,  in  a  largo 
proportion  of  instances,  the  face  and  head ;  it  is  apt 
to  be  attended  with  severe  and  tyjjhoid  fever  (yee 
Fever),  and  often  with  great  disorder  of  the  nervous 
system,  arising  in  some  instances  from  inflammation 
of  the  membranes  of  the  brain.  In  other  parts  of 
the  body,  severe  or  phlegmonous  erysipelas  is  apt  to 
be  siicceeded  by  protracted  and  exhausting  suppura- 
tions, and  sometimes  by  diseases  of  the  bones,  or 
inflammations  of  the  internal  organs.  Erysij)elaa  is 
frequently  an  Epidemic  (q.  v.)  disease;  it  is  ako 
very  apt  to  recur  in  a  person  who  has  been  attacked 
once  or  oftener ;  and  this  is  especially  true  of  the 
form  which  affects  the  face.  It  is  seldom  that 
depletion  is  allowable  in  erysipelas,  but  the  bowels 
should  be  well  cleared  out  in  most  cases,  and  a 
Diuretic  (q.  v.)  given,  after  which  the  treatmenfc 
consists  for  the  most  part  in  watching  narrowly  the 
progress  of  the  case,  keeping  up  the  strength  as 
well  as  possible,  and  obviating  special  dangers  as 
they  occur.  In  some  cases,  iron  is  used  as  a  specific 
remedy. 

ERYTHE'MA  (Gr.  eruthaino,  I  redden),  a  minor 
form  of  Erysipelas  (q.  v.),  presenting  the  sanvs 
tendency  to  diffusion  and  redness,  but  not  sc  much 
swelling,  and  little  disposition  towards  suppuration, 
or  even  vesication.  Erythema  is  chiefly  dangero'ia 
when  it  presents  itself  in  a  wandering  shape, 
attended  with  slow  consuming  fever.  The  muriated 
tincture  of  iron,  in  doses  of  twenty  drops  in  water 
every  hour  or  two,  has  been  regarded  as  a  specific 
in  this  disease,  as  well  as  in  erysipelas.  Some  forms 
of  erythema  are  distinctly  connected  with  constitu- 
tional diseases,  as  gout,  rheumatism,  syphilis,  &c., 
and  depend  for  their  cure  on  the  removal  of  the 
cause. 

ERYTHR^'A.    See  CE>'TAURy. 


ERYTHEINA— ESAU. 


ERYTHTII'NA.    See  Coral  Flower. 

ERYTHRO'NIUM,  a  genus  of  bulbous-rooted 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Liliacece,  with  drooping 
flowers  and  the  segments  of  the  perianth  reflexed, 
E.  dens  canis,  the  Dog-tooth  Violet,  so  called 
because  of  the  resem.olance  of  its  little  white  bulbs 
to  dogs'  teeth,  is  a  well-known  ornament  of  our 
flower-borders  in  spring.  It  is  a  native  of  the 
central  parts  of  Em-ope  and  south  of  Siberia. 
Anthelmintic  proi)erties  are  ascribed  to  the  bulbs. 
Those  of  E.  Americanum  are  emetic. 

ERYTHROPHL^'UM,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the 
natural  order  Leguminosae,  sub-order  Mimosece.  E. 
Guinssnse,  a  native  of  Guinea,  is  a  very  large  tree, 
100  fost  high,  remarkable  for  the  great  quantity  of 
red  jui  36  which  every  part  of  it  contains,  and  inter- 
esting on  account  of  the  employment  of  this  juice 
by  the  natives  for  an  ordeal  to  test  the  innocence  or 
guilt  of  a  person  accused  of  crime.  The  juice  is 
swallowed  in  large  draughts,  and  those  who  remain 
uninjured  by  it  are  supposed  to  be  innocent. 

ERYTHROXYLA'CE^,  a  natural  order  of 
exogenous  plants,  allied  to  Malpighiacece.  They  are 
trees  or  shrubs,  with  alternate  simple  leaves,  stipules, 
flowers  growing  from  amidst  scale-like  bracts,  calyx 
of  five  sepals,  corolla  of  five  petals,  each  petal  having 
a  curious  appendage — a  plaited  scale — at  the  base, 
ten  stamens  united  at  the  base,  a  3- celled  ovary  with 
two  cells  empty,  and  the  third  containing  a  single 
ovide,  three  styles,  and  the  fruit  a  drupe.  Nearly 
100  species  are  known,  natives  of  warm  coimtries, 
and  chiefly  of  tropical  America.  To  this  order 
belongs  the  Coca  (q.  v.).  The  wood  of  some  of  the 
species  is  bright  red ;  that  of  Erythroxylon  (G-r. 
red  "wood)  suherosinn  is  used  in  Brazil  for  dyeing, 
and  a  permanent  red  is  obtained  from  it.  That  of 
E.  hypericifolium  is  the  Bois  dliuile  (Oil-wood)  of 
Mauritius. 

E'RZBERG.    See  Eisenerz. 

ERZERU'M,  or  EEZROU'M,  properly  Erset^um, 
a  strongly  fortified  towm  in  Turkish  Armenia,  in  lat. 
39°  55'  N.,  long.  41°  20'  E.,  not  far  from  the  northern 
source  of  the  Euphrates.  It  is  situated  in  a  high, 
but  tolerably  well  cultivated  plain  ;  its  site  being 
6800  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  climate 
is  cold  in  winter,  but  diy  in  summer.  E.  is  the 
residence  of  an  Enghsh,  a  Russian,  and  a  French 
consul ;  and  in  1854,  was  believed  to  contain  upwards 
of  40,000  inhabitants,  consisting  of  Turks,  Arme- 
nians, and  Persians,  who  carry  on  a  brisk  trade, 
and  have  thus  attained  to  a  degree  of  prosperity 
imusual  in  the  East.  The  copper  and  iron  wares 
of  E.  have  acquired  a  wide  celebrity.  Situated 
at  the  junction  of  the  important  highways  lead- 
ing from  Trebizond,  Transcaucasia,  Persia,  Kur- 
distan, Mesopotamia,  and  Anatolia,  E.  forms  an 
entrepot  of  commerce  between  Em-ope  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  interior  of  Asia,  and  particidai'ly 
Persia,  on  the  other.  The  streets,  the  houses  of 
which  are  built  of  mud,  wood,  or  sun-dried  bricks, 
are  narrow,  crooked,  and  filthy ;  and  ruins  of  forti- 
fications and  of  buildings  formerly  magnificent, 
overj-where  meet  the  eye.  The  town  consists  of 
the  fortress,  strictly  so-called,  and  four  suburbs.  The 
fortress,  w  hich  is  enclosed  by  a  high  wall,  has,  on  the 
west,  a  citadel  called  Ijkaleh,  with  many  curious 
monuments,  and  a  mosque  of  Christian  origin.  The 
fortress  also  contains  15  mosques,  the  residence  of 
the  chief  magistrate,  some  caravanseras,  and  a  few 
elegant  houses  belonging  to  the  higher  order  of 
officials  and  Mohammedan  merchants.  The  suburbs 
boast  24  mosques,  several  Armenian  churches,  and 
a  number  of  Large  bazaars  and  caravanseras.  E. 
imports  shawls,  silk  goods,  cotton,  tobacco,  rice, 
indigo,  &c. ;  and  exports  corn,  sheep,  and  cattle, 


horses,  mules,  and  gall  nuts.  The  native  manufac- 
tures here  have  been  in  part  superseded  by  British 
manufactures,  of  which  it  is  estimated  GOOO  bales, 
valued  at  £.300,000,  are  annually  retailed  in  the 
bazaars.  E.  is  a  very  ancient  town.  Its  Armenian 
name  was  Karin  or  Oarin  Khalalch  (the  city  of  the 
district  of  Garin),  whence  the  Arabian  califs  called  it 
Kali-K'alah.  Anatolius,  the  general  of  tlie  Emperor 
Theodosius  II.,  erected  here  the  fortress  of  Theo- 
dosiopolis,  in  the  5th  c,  to  the  north-west  of  the 
Syro- Armenian  trading  town  of  Arseii.  When  this 
place  was  destroyed  by  the  Seljuks,  the  inhabit- 
ants retreated  to  the  fortress  of  Theodosiopolis,  to 
which  they  gave  the  name  Arsen-er-Rum,  i.  e.,  Arsen 
of  the  Ptomans  (or  Byzantines),  whence  the  modem 
Erzerum.  After  1049  it  was  a  thrivirg  emporium; 
but  in  1201  it  fell  into  the  hands  ot  the  Seljuks, 
when  100  churches  were  destroyed,  and  140,000 
inhabitants  lost  their  lives.  In  1242,  it  came  into 
the  possession  of  the  Mongols  ;  and,  finally,  in  1517, 
into  that  of  the  Turks.  It  stiU,  however,  continued 
to  be  the  most  important  city  in  the  country,  and 
at  the  commencement  of  the  19th  c.  had  a  popu- 
lation of  100,000  inhabitants.  In  the  war  of  1829, 
between  the  Turks  and  Russians,  the  taking  of  E. 
by  the  latter  decided  the  campaign  in  Asia.  It  was 
restored  to  the  T\irks  at  the  peace  of  Adrianople. 

E'RZGEBIRGE  ('  Ore  Mountains '),  the  name 
given  to  the  chain  of  mountains,  rich  in  metals, 
stretching  in  a  south-westerly  direction,  on  the 
confines  of  Saxony  and  Bohemia,  from  the  valley 
of  the  Elbe  to  the  Fichtelgebirge,  in  long.  12°  20'  E. 
In  the  south,  it  rises  to  a  height  of  from  2000 
to  2500  feet,  forming  a  steep  wall  of  rock  ;  in  the 
west,  it  forms  broad,  slaty  plateaux,  and  gradually 
slopes  down  towards  the  Saxon  side  to  the  level  dis- 
tricts of  Altenburg  and  Leijisic.  In  consequence  of 
this  formation,  the  streams  flowing  southward  are 
small,  while  the  north  side  of  the  chain,  which  ia 
well  wooded,  presents  a  series  of  romantic,  and  occa- 
sionally fertile  and  thickly  peopled  valleys,  watered 
by  the  Mulde,  the  Pleisse,  and  their  numerous 
tributaries.  The  town  of  Gottesgabe,  the  site  of 
which  is  the  highest  in  Germany,  is  sitiiated  towards 
the  south  of  the  E.  range,  in  long.  12"  54'  E.,  at  an 
elevation  of  3162  feet.  The  Keilberg,  the  highest 
point  of  the  range,  is  3802  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  The  E.  is  chiefly  of  the  gneiss -granite  forma- 
tion, in  which  most  of  the  metal  strata  are  to  be 
found.    Porphyry  and  basalt  likewise  appear. 

E'SAU  ('hairy'  or  'rough'),  the  eldest  son  of 
Isaac,  and  twin-brother  of  Jacob.  As  E.  grew  up, 
he  became  '  a  man  of  the  field,'  a  cunning  hunter, 
and  his  father's  favourite.  He  seems  to  have  beeu 
a  wild,  rough,  hearty  Bedouin,  or  son  of  the  desert, 
thinking  nothing  of  to-morrow,  but  living  with 
joyous  carelessness  from  day  to  day.  This  is 
apparent  from  the  manner  in  which  he  allowed 
Jacob  to  defraud  him  of  his  birthright,  although  it 
carried  with  it,  besides  many  temporal  advantages, 
the  Covenant-blessing  itself.  After  this  transaction, 
E.,  when  40  years  of  age,  married  two  Canaanitish 
women,  '  which  were  a  grief  of  mind  imto  Isaac  and 
to  Rebekah'  (Gen.  xxvi.  35).  Then  follows  tfcfl 
narrative  of  Jacob's  personation  of  his  brother,  and 
his  seeming  irrevocably  the  blessing  to  himself.  E. 
now  swore  to  kill  his  brother,  whereupon  Rebekah 
sent  Jacob  to  his  uncle  Laban  in  Padanaram.  E. 
next  married  his  cousin  Mahalath,  the  daughter  of 
Ishmael ;  and  appears  to  have  established  himseK  in 
his  wife's  country,  to  the  south  of  Palestine  in  Mount 
Seir.  Here  he  lived  probably  as  a  predatory  chief. 
When  Jacob  was  returning  from  Padanaram,  E. 
encountered  him  with  400  of  his  Bedomns.  The 
meeting  was  a  touching  one.    The  wild  l)jrderer  at 


ESCALADE— ESCHELLES. 


Escalop-Shell. 


least  was  in  earnest.  *  Esau  ran  to  meet  him,  and 
embraced  him,  an'l  fell  on  his  neck,  and  kissed  him' 
(Gen.  xxxiii.  4).  His  anger  had  long  died  ont.  E. 
next  appears  at  the  burial  of  his  father  Isaac,  whom 
he  seems  to  have  loved  with  the  warm  and  simple 
iffection  of  a  child  of  nature,  and  having  obtained 
his  share  of  the  property,  '  went  into  the  country 
from  the  face  of  his  brother  Jacob'  (Gen.  xxxvi.  6). 
Fi-oni  E.  the  region  of  Momit  Seir  took  the  name 
of  Edom  (q.  v.),  and  his  posterity  are  generally  called 
Edomites. 

E'SCALADE  (Fr.  from  Lat.  scala,  a  ladder),  in 
siege  operations,  is  a  mode  of  gaining  admission 
within  the  enemy's  works.  It  consists  in  advancing 
over  the  glacis  and  covert- way ;  descending,  if 
necessary,  mto  the  ditch  by  means  of  ladders ;  and 
ascending  to  the  parapet  of  the  curtain  and  bastions 
by  the  same  ladders  differently  placed.  The  ladders 
are  either  procured  on  the  spot,  or  are  sent  out 
with  the  siege-army.  A  convenient  form  is  in 
pieces  of  12  feet  length,  fitting  end  to  end  by 
means  of  sockets.  A  firing-party  is  usually  told  off, 
to  keep  down  the  fire  of  the  enemy  upon  the  esca- 
laders,  especially  a  flank  fire  lengthwise  of  the 
ditch,  which  might  sweep  them  off  with  terrible 
rapidity.  The  leaders  of  an  escalade  constitute  a 
*  forlorn  hope.' 

ESCA'LOP-SHELLS  are  often  used  in  heraldry 
to  signify  tliat  the  bearer  has  made 
many  long  voyages  by  sea.  As  the 
Pilgrim's  (q.  v.)  emblem,  they  were 
commonly  given  to  those  who  had 
been  to  the  Crusades  ;  they  came 
to  be  regarded  as  indicating  either 
that  the  bearer  or  his  ancestor  had 
been  a  Crusader.  The  escalop-shell 
was  the  emblem  of  St  James  the 
Great,  and  is  generally  met  with 
in  churches  dedicated  to  him.  The  more  ordinary 
form  of  the  name  is  Scallop-shell  (q.  v.). 

ESCAPE  WARRANT  is  a  warrant  issued  by  a 
judge  for  the  apprehension  of  persons  who  have 
escaped  from  the  Queen's  Bench  or  Fleet  prisons. 
This  poAver  is  conferred  by  1  Anne,  s.  2,  c.  6, 
followed  by  5  Anne,  c.  9.  The  warrant  may  be 
issued  by  any  judge  of  the  court  wherein  the  action 
was  tried,  or  judgment  and  execution  obtained, 
upon  oath  in  writing,  of  the  escape  of  the  party, 
made  before  himself,  or  before  one  of  the  commis- 
fiioners  to  take  oaths.  The  apprehension  may  be 
effected  on  Sunday.  The  person  apprehended  is 
committed  to  the  charge  of  the  sheriff  of  the  county, 
who  is  made  responsible  for  his  safe  keeping. 

ESCA'PEMENT  is  the  term  applied  to  that  part 
of  the  machinery  of  a  watch  or  clock  by  which  tlie 
onward  revolving  motion  produced  by  the  moving 
power,  whether  weights  or  spring,  is  brought  into 
contact  with  the  regulating  movement  of  the  pen- 
dulum or  balance-wheel.    See  Horology. 

ESCARP',  in  Fortification,  is  the  side  or  slope 
of  the  ditch  next  the  rampart,  and  of  the  parapet 
itself.  When  the  ditch  of  a  fortress  is  dry,  the 
escarp  is  usually  faced  with  mason-work,  to  render 
it  difficult  of  ascent ;  and  behind  this  facing 
{revetemcnt)  there  are  often  passages  or  casemates 
for  defcnoo.  In  temporary  fortifications,  the  revete- 
tmnt  is  sometimes  of  wood ;  and  in  field-works, 
palisades  at  the  foot,  or  fraises  on  the  herme  or 
edge  of  the  ditch,  are  held  sufficient.  The  escarp  is 
always  made  at  as  large  an  angle  as  the  nature  of 
the  soil  will  allow ;  the  design  being  to  offer  the 
greatest  possible  obstacle  to  an  assailant. 

E'SCARS  are  large  heaps  of  gravel,  consisting 
eliiefiy  of  carboniferous  limestone,  that  were  accurau- 


lated  during  the  Pleistocene  period.  They  occur 
in  Central  Ireland,  but  are  identical  with  the  osar 
of  Sweden ;  and  under  the  name  of  kames,  they  are 
not  unknown  in  Scotland.  The  gravel  is  often 
heaped  into  narrow  ridges  40  to  80  feet  high,  and 
from  I  to  20  miles  long. 
ESCAUT.    See  Scheldt. 

E  SCHAR  (Gr.  eschara),  a  slough  or  portion  of 
dead  or  disorganised  tissue.  The  name  is  commonly 
applied  to  artificial  sloughs  produced  by  the  apf  h* 
cation  of  Caustics  (q.  v.). 

ESC H ARCTIC  (Gr.),  causing  an  eschar.  Sc-ff 
Caustic. 

ESCHEA'T  (Fr.  echoir,  from  Lat.  cadere,  to  fall 
or  happen),  an  incident  of  the  feudal  law  whereby, 
when  a  tenant  in  fee-simple  died,  leaving  no  heir 
capaljle  of  succeeding,  the  land  reverted  to  his  lord. 
By  the  earlier  usages,  this  effect  took  place  where 
there  was  no  rei)resentative  of  the  vassal  in  the 
seventh  degree,  which,  according  to  later  custom, 
i  was  extended  to  male  descendants     infinitum  {Lib. 
Fend.  i.  1,  s.  4).    According  to  the  law  of  England, 
I  escheats  are  of  two  kinds — propter  defectum  sancjuiniSf 
i  and  -propter  delictum  tenentis.    The  former  was  in 
accordance  with  the  feudal  usage ;  so  that  if  the 
j  owner  of  an  estate  in  fee-simple  dies  without  leaving 
j  an  heir,  and  without  having  disposed  of  his  estate 
!  by  deed  or  will,  the  land  revei'ts  to  the  overlord,  who 
j  in  the  present  day  is  almost  invariably  the  sove- 
reign, except  in  copyhold  estates,  which  escheat  to 
the  lord  of  the  manor.  The  most  frequent  instance  of 
I  escheat  is  in  the  case  of  the  death  of  a  bastard,  who, 
having  no  relations  but  descendants,  the  lands  on 
his  death  intestate  and  without  issue,  must  revert  to 
the  crown.  Esclieat  projjter  delictum  tenentis  is  pecu- 
,  liar  to  the  English  law.  It  happened  where  a  tenant 
in  fee-simple  had  been  guilty  of  treason  or  felony,  in 
which  case,  not  only  his  estate  in  possession,  but  any 
estat-^  wliich  might  devolve  upon  him  by  the  rulea 
I  of  descent,  escheated  to  his  lord  ;  so  that  all  who 
might  succeed  through  him  were  cut  off  from  the 
inlieritance.    This  i-ule  a|)plied  to  all  felonies,  and 
I  was  productive  of  much  hardship.   By  modern  legis- 
I  latiou,  it  has  been  proA-ided  that  attainder  for 
'  felony  shall  not  operate  as  a  bar  to  inheritance^ 
excejit  in  case  of  treason  or  miu-der  (54  Geo.  III.  c. 
I  145,  3  and  4  WiU.  IV.  c.  106,  13  and  14  Vict.  c. 
60).    This  species  of  escheat  is  to  be  distinguished 
[  from  forfeiture  of  lands  to  the  crown  for  treason, 
which  prevailed  in  other  countries  besides  England. 
See  Forfeiture.    Escheat  in  Scotland  is  of  two 
kinds:  1.  Forfeiture  to  the  crown  by  those  convicted 
{  of  treason,  and  2,  forfeiture  of  goods  by  a  debtor. 
I     The  law  of  Escheat  in  the  United  States  differs  from 
the  English  in  several  particulars.    As  it  exists  in  N. 
I  York — and  there  is  a  general  conformity  in  the  other 
states — the  ultimate  proprietor  of  lands  is  deemed  to  be 
j  the  people,  and  property  escheated  for  want  of  heirs 
reverts  to  the  state.    Escheated  lands  are  held  subject 
I  to  all  encumbrances  that  they  would  have  had  they 
i  descended.    Conviction  for  any  criminal  offence  ex- 
'  cept  treason  produces  no  forfeiture  of  lands  or  personal 
property ;  and  where  the  punishment  is  imprisonment 
for  life,  the  heirs  take  as  by  immediate  descent,  as 
they  would  have  done  upon  natural  death.    In  case  of 
outlawry,  the  lands  of  the  outlaw  are  forfeited  to  the 
state  during  the  life  of  the  offender.    The  lands  of  an 
illegitimate  who  dies  intestate  do  not  necessarily  es- 
cheat, but  descend  to  his  mother  if  living,  or,  if  she  be 
deceased,  to  her  relatives.    The  title  to  property  pur- 
chased or  inherited  by  an  alien,  there  being  no  heirs, 
is  valid  against  all  other  claimants  until  judgment  has 
been  rendered  by  some  court  declaring  the  escheat. 

ESCHELLES,  Les,  a  village  in  Savoy  (formeily 
a  Sardinian,  now  a  French  state),  is  situated  on  the 


ESCHENBACH— ESC  UETAL. 


Giiier,  12  miles  south-west  of  Chambcry.  The 
valley  beyond  this  village  and  on  the  road  to 
Chambery  is  blocked  up  by  a  huge  limestone  rock 
800  feet  high,  over  M^hich  travellers  formerly  used  to 
climb  by  means  of  ladders,  and  hence  the  name 
given  to  this  village.  Through  this  mass  of  lime- 
stone the  public  road  now  passes  by  means  of  a 
tumiel,  wliich  is  25  feet  high,  of  equal  width,  and 
1000  feet  long.  The  tunnel  was  projected  and  com- 
menced b}'  Napoleon  I.,  and  finished  in  1817  by 
the  king  of  Sardinia. 

E^SCHENBACH,  Wolfram  von,  a  celebrated 
p(*t  of  the  middle  ages,  was  born  in  the  second  half 
of  the  12th  c,  of  a  noble  family,  which  derived  its 
name  from  the  village  of  Eschenbach  near  Ansbach. 
He  received  the  honour  of  knighthood  at  Henneberg, 
and  passidd  his  life  in  knightly  fashion.  In  1204, 
he  came  to  the  court  of  Hermann,  landgraf  of 
Thuringia,  where  he  shone  among  the  poets  of  the 
time,  at  the  so-called  Wartbiirg-war  (a  rivalry  of 
the  German  minstrels  held  at  Wai-tburg  in  1206 
or  1207).  Hermann's  successor,  Liidv/ig  the  Pious, 
appears  to  have  shewn  E.  little  favour,  in  consequence 
of  which  he  withdrew  from  the  Thuringian  court 
towards  the  close  of  his  life.  He  died  some  time 
between  1219  and  1225,  and  was  buried  in  his  native 
village.  E.'s  poems  ai-e  partly  original,  and  partly 
fashioned  after  French  and  Proven9al  models.  His 
rich  fancy,  deep  sentiment,  and  vivid  power  of 
representation,  as  well  as  his  elegant  mastery  of 
language  and  versification,  give  something  of  an 
epic  character  to  his  works,  the  principal  of  which 
are  Parcival,  composed  before  1212,  Wilhelm  von 
Orange,  and  Titurel.  Besides  these,  we  have  several 
love-songs  of  his.  E.  exercised  an  important  influ- 
ence on  his  time,  but  subsequently  was  almost 
forgotten ;  and  it  is  only  recently  that  he  has  been 
restored  to  his  place  of  honour.  The  first  critical 
edition  of  his  works  was  that  by  Lachmann  (Berl. 
1833) ;  they  were  translated  into  modern  German 
by  San-Mai-tre  (2  vols.,  Magdeb.  1836—1841).  The 
best  translation  of  Parcival  and  Titurel  was  exe- 
cuted by  Simrock  (2  vols.,  Stuttg.  1842). 

E'SCHER,  JoH.  Heinr.  Alfred,  a  distinguished 
Swiss  statesman,  was  born  at  Zurich,  20th  February 
1819,  and  studied  at  Bonn  and  Berlin.  In  1842,  he 
was  created  Doctor  of  Law  at  Zurich ;  and  spent  the 
two  following  years  in  Paris,  devoting  his  attention 
chiefly  to  studies  connected  Vvdth  Roman  law.  On 
his  return  to  Zurich,  E.  became  a  lectiirer  in  the 
High  School,  the  subject  of  his  lectures  being  chiefly 
the  political  law  of  the  Swiss  confederacy.  In  1844, 
he  was  elected  member  of  the  great  council  of  the 
canton,  and  was  thus  drawn  into  the  arena  of 
practical  statesmanship.  Even  at  that  early  period, 
his  sentiments  were  decidedly  liberal.  In  January 
1845,  along  with  six  others  who  shared  his  opinions, 
he  published  the  famous  summons  to  the  popular 
Msembly  in  Unterstrass  fur  the  expulsion  of  the 
Jesuits.  His  election  into  the  Council  of  the  Interior 
bo  1845,  and  into  the  Council  of  Education  in  1846, 
Opened  a  wide  field  for  his  administrative  talents  in 
his  native  canton.  The  reorganisation  of  the  schools 
in  the  canton  of  Zurich,  according  to  the  demands 
of  the  time,  is  chiefly  his  work.  In  December  1847, 
he  became  president  of  the  great  council ;  and  in  his 
opening  speech,  recommended  the  complete  reform 
of  the  confederacy,  and  the  greatest  possible  centra- 
lisation. In  1848,  he  was  sent  as  a  deputy  to  the 
Federal  Diet ;  and,  along  with  M.  Munzinger,  was 
charged  with  the  negotiations  entered  into  between 
Switzerland  and  Austria,  in  regard  to  the  canton  of 
I'essin.  In  December  of  the  same  year,  on  the 
introduction  of  the  directorial  system,  E.  became 
president  of  the  newly  elected  Council  of  Regency. 


Since  that  time,  education,  the  reorganisation  oi 
church  policy,  the  law  establishing  the  free  choice 
of  teachers  and  clergy  by  the  congregations,  havfl 
been  the  points  to  which  his  legislative  and  admin- 
istrative energies  have  been  chiefly  directed. 

E'SCHOLTZ  BAY,  a  portion  of  tlie  Arctic 
Ocenn  in  Alitska  Territory,  forms  the  innermost  jiiirt 
of  Kotzehue  Sound,  the  first  great  inlet  to  the  north- 
east of  Behring's  Strait.  It  is  about  long.  161°  W., 
being  l)arely  on  tlie  outside  of  the  polar  circle.  It 
is  worthy  of  notice  chiefly  on  account  of  its  fossil 
remains,  which,  though  common  on  the  northern 
coast  of  Siberia,  are  comparatively  rare  on  that  of 
the  new  continent. 

ESCHSCHO'LTZIA,  a  genus  of  plants  cf  the 
natural  order  Papaveracece,  of  which  E.  CaH/oriiica 
and  other  species,  natives  of  Cahfomia,  have  now 
become  very  common  in  our  flower-gardens,  making 
a  showy  appearance  with  their  large  deep  yellow 
flowers.  The  genus  is  remarkable  for  the  calyx, 
which  separates  from  the  dilated  apex  of  the  flower- 
stalk,  being  thrown  off  by  the  expandin,^  flower, 
and  much  resembling  in  its  form  the  extinguisher 
of  a  candle. 

E'SCHWEGE,  a  town  of  the  electorate  of  Hesse* 
Cassel,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Werra,  25 
miles  east-south-east  of  Cassel.  It  consists  of  an 
old  and  new  town,  and  a  suburb;  is  surroimded 
with  walls  pierced  by  six  gates ;  and  is  well  built. 
The  only  building  of  note  is  the  castle,  which  was 
long  the  residence  of  the  landgrafs  of  Hessen- 
Rotenberg.  E.  has  manufactures  of  woollen  and 
linen  fabrics,  numerous  tanneries,  and  several  oil 
and  other  mills,  also  some  trade  in  fruit  and 
victuals.    Pop.  (1871)  7377. 

E'SCORT.    See  Convoy. 

ESCU'DO  DE  VERA'GUA  denotes  at  once  a 
river  and  an  island  on  the  Atlantic  side  of  Central 
America — the  latter  being  at  the  mouth  of  the 
former.  They  are  situated  a  little  to  the  east  of 
the  boundary  between  New  Granada  and  Costa 
Rica.  The  island  is  in  lat.  9°  N.,  and  long.  81°  30' 
W. ;  and  the  river,  being  only  15  miles  long,  derives 
its  importance,  if  any,  from  the  narrowness  of  thy 
belt  which  here  separates  the  two  oceans. 

ESCURIAL  (the  coiTcct  title  is  El  Real  sitio 
DE  San  Lorenzo  el  real  de  Escorial),  a  famous 
monastery  of  'New  Castile,  in  the  province  of 
Madrid,  and  situated  30  miles  north-west  of  the  town 
of  that  name.  This  solitary  pile  of  granite  has  been 
called  the  eighth  wonder  of  the  world,  and  at  the 
time  of  its  erection  surpassed  every  building  of  the 
kind  in  size  and  magnificence.  It  owes  its  origin 
(at  least,  so  it  is  said)  to  an  inspired  vow  made  by 
Philip  II.  dm-ing  the  battle  of  St  Quentin.  On  that 
occasion,  he  implored  the  aid  of  St  Lorenzo,  on 
whose  day,  10th  August  1557,  the  l^attle  was  fought ; 
and  vowed  that,  should  victory  be  gi-anted  to  him, 
he  would  dedicate  a  monastery  to  the  saint.  The 
E.  is  built  in  the  form  of  a  gridiron,  in  allusion  to 
the  instrument  of  St  Lorenzo's  martyrdom,  and 
forms  a  huge  rectangidar  parallelogram  744  feet  from 
north  to  south,  and  580  feet  frcni  east  to  west,  and 
divided  into  long  com-ts,  which  indicate  the  inter- 
stices of  the  bars.  Towers  at  each  angle  of  thia 
parallelogram  represent  the  feet  of  the  giidiron, 
which  is  supposed  to  be  lying  upside  down ;  and 
from  the  centre  of  one  of  the  sides,  a  range  of 
biiilding  abuts,  forming  the  royal  residence,  and 
representing  the  handle.  The  E.  was  begun  in  1563, 
and  finished  in  1584,  and  was  intended  to  serve 
as  a  palace,  mausoleum,  and  monastery.  It  has  a 
splendid  chapel  with  three  naves,  320  feet  h>ng,  and 
320  in  height  to  the  top  of  the  cupola.  The  Panthcoif^ 


ESCUTCHEON— ESLA. 


i)T  royal  fcirab,  is  a  magnificently  decorated  octagon 
chamber,  36  feet  in  diameter  by  38  feet  bigh,  in 
tbo  eight  sides  of  ■which  there  are  numerous  black 
marble  sarcophagi.  Kings  only  and  the  mothers 
of  kings  are  buried  here.  The  E,  is  an  immense 
building ;  it  is  stated  that  it  has  14,000  doors  and 
11,000  windows,  and  its  cost  was  6,000,000  ducats. 
Its  library,  previous  to  the  sack  of  the  E.  by  the 
French  in  1808,  contained  30,000  printed  and  4300 
MS.  volumes,  maiidy  treasures  of  Arabic  literature, 
of  which  a  catalogue,  but  not  a  good  one,  was  drawn 
up  by  Casiri  in  his  Bibliotheca  Arahico-IIispamca 
(2  vols.,  Madrid,  1700—1770).  They  were,  however, 
at  that  time  removed  to  Madrid ;  and  on  being  sent 
back  to  the  E.,  it  was  discovered  that  the  library 
consisted  only  of  about  20,000  volumes — a  third 
of  the  whole  having  been  lost.  The  French  also 
plixndered  the  place  of  its  valuable  collection  of 
coins,  medals,  and  pictures.  The  E.  is  now,  says 
Ford,  '  a  mere  shadow  of  the  past,'  and  is  only 
Baved  from  going  to  ruin  by  grants  of  public  money, 
which  are  occasionally  made  to  keep  it  in  repair. 

ESCU'TCHEON,  in  Heraldry,  is  synonymous 
mth  Shield  (q.  v.). 

ESCUTCHEON  OF  PRETENCE,  or  INES- 
CUTCHEON,  is  a  small  shield  placed  in  the  centre 
of  the  larger  one,  and  covering  a  portion  of  the 
charges  on  the  latter,  in  which  a  man  carries  the 
arms  of  his  wife  when  she  is  the  heiress  of  her 
family.  It  is  said  to  be  carried  surtout,  or  over-all. 
Sometimes  also  a  shield  over-all  is  given  as  a  reward 
of  honour  ;  thus,  the  Earl  of  Stirling  did  bear  two 
coats  quarterly,  and  over-all  an  inescutcheon  of  Nova 
Scotia,  because  he  was  the  first  planter  of  it. — 
Mackenzie,  Heraldry,  p.  82. 

E'SDRAS,  Books  of.  (The  word  Esdras  is  the 
Greek  form  of  Ezra,  and  indicates  that  the  books 
BO  named  do  not  exist  in  Hebrew  or  Chaldee.)  In 
the  Vulgate,  the  first  book  of  Esdras  means  tlie 
canonical  book  of  Ezra ;  and  the  second,  the 
canonical  book  of  Nehemiah ;  wliilst  the  third  and 
fourth  are  what  we  call  the  first  and  second  books 
of  Esdras.  But  in  the  Vatican  and  other  editions  of 
the  LXX.,  what  we  call  the  first  book  of  Esdras 
comes  first,  and  is  followed  by  the  canonical  book 
of  Ezra,  which  is  termed  the  second  book  of  Esdras. 
In  all  the  earlier  editions  of  the  English  Bible, 
the  order  of  the  Vulgate  is  followed.  The  Geneva 
Bible  was  the  first  to  adopt  the  classification  now 
used,  according  to  which  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  give 
their  names  to  two  canonical  books,  and  the  two 
apocryi)hal  become  first  and  second  Esdras.  As 
regards  the  first  book  of  Esdras,  it  is  for  the  most 
part  a  transcript — and  not  a  very  accurate  one — of 
Ezra  and  a  portion  of  Nehemiah,  together  with  the 
two  last  chapters  of  2d  Chronicles.  It  is  impossible 
to  ascertain  anj^thing  regarding  its  age  or  author- 
Rliip.  Josephus  quotes  it  extensively  in  his  Anti- 
quities, even  when  it  contradicts  Ezra  proper,  a  fact 
which  indicates  that  it  was  highly  valued  by  the 
Jews.  It  may  perhaps  be  interesting  to  notice  that 
the  hackneyed  phrase.  Magna  est  Veritas  et  prevalebit 
(Truth  is  great,  and  will  prevail),  is  taken  from  the 
41st  verse  of  the  4th  chapter  of  this  book.  The 
second  book  of  Esdras,  or  Revelation  of  Esdras,  is 
wholly  differ/^nt  in  character  from  the  first,  and  it 
has  even  been  doubted  whether  it  is  the  work  of  a 
Jewish  or  of  a  semi-Christian  writer.  Lawrence  and 
Hilgenfeld  argue  for  its  being  composed  28 — 25  B.C. ; 
Lucke,  shortly  after  the  death  of  Ciesar  (44  B.  c.)  ; 
while  Gfrorer,  Bauer,  and  Wieseler  assign  it  to  a 
period  as  late  as  the  reign  of  Domitian  (81 — 96  A,  D.). 
The  opinion  which  has  the  woightiest  evidence  in 
its  favour  is,  that  the  book  was  originally  the 
con> position  of  a  Jew.  but  that  it  has  been  largely 


I  interpolated  by  Christian  writers.  The  book  was 
'  probably  written  in  Egypt,  and  forms  part  of  what 
j  has  been  called  the  *  Apocalyptic  Cycle '  of  J ewish 

literature  (see  Revelation  of  St  John).  It  consista 
I  of  a  series  of  angelic  visions  and  revelations  made 
I  to  Ezra,  regai'ding  the  mysteries  of  the  moral  world, 
j  and  the  final  triumph  of  the  righteous,  who,  how- 
j  ever,  are  to  be  but  'a  very  few.'  The  descriptiona 
;  are  occasionally  very  striking,  and  even  sublime, 
j  and  if  the  doctrinal  portions  contain  the  original 

views  of  a  man  hving  before  the  apostolic  era,  the 
j  source  of  the  Pauline  phraseology  can  in  pai-t  be 
I  discovered. 

I     ESENBE'CKIA,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
'  order  Diosnuicetn.    The  bark  of  E.  fehrifwja  is  said 
to  be  equal  in  its  effects  to  Peruvian  Bark.    It  is  a 
I  tree  forty  feet  high,  a  native  of  the  south  of  Brazil. 
I     ESK  (Gaelic,  iiisg^  water),  the  name  of  several 
I  small   Scotch  rivers.     The  Dumfriesshire  Esk  is 
i  formed  by  the  confluence  of  the  Black  and  White 
[  Esk,  which  rise  on  the  borders  of  Selkirkshire,  near 
j  Ettrick  Pen,  the  centre  of  the  Southern  Ilighkinds, 
and  run  each  10  miles  south-south-east.    The  united 
stream  runs  35  miles  south,  and  forms  for  a  mile 
the  boundary  between  Scotland  and  England.  For 
the  last  8  miles  it  runs  south- south-west  in  Cumber- 
land, and  finally  falls  into  the  head  of  the  Solway 
Firth.     It  flows  in  a  Silurian,  Carboniferous,  and 
Permian  basin,  tlirough  some  charmmg  scenery, 
past  Langholm,  Canobie,  and  Longton.    The  upper 
part  of  the  valley  of  this  E.,  which  is  \Wld  and 
pastoral,  is  called  Eskdale  Muir. — The  Edinburgh- 
shire North  and  South  Esk  rise  in  the  north  of 
i  Peeblesshire,  between  the  Pentland  and  Moorfoot 
j  Hills,  and  both  run  north-north-east  through  a 
1  beautiful  tract  in  the  east  of  Edinburghshire,  the 
north  branch,  20  miles  long,  passing  Roslin  and 
;  Hawthornden,  and  the  south  branch  15  miles  long. 
The  two  branches  unite  in  Dalkeith  Park,  and  run  3 
miles  north  into  the  Firth  of  Forth  at  Musselburgh. 
The  basin  of  the  two  streams  is  chiefly  Carbonifer- 
ous.— The  Forfarshire  North  and  South  Esk.  The 
North  Esk  rises  in  the  Grampians,  in  the  north 
of  the  county,  and  runs  25  miles  south-east  into 
the  sea,  4  miles  north  of  Montrose.    At  Ganacliy 
Bridge  it  runs  hali  a  mile  through  a  sandstone 
gorge  20  to  30  feet  deep.    In  the  lower  half  of  its 
course  it  divides  Forfarshire  from  Kincardineshire. 
;  The  South  Esk  rises  in  the  Grampians  of  the  west 
[  of  Forfarshire,  and  runs  40  miles  south-east  and 
east,  crossing  the  valley  of  Strathmore.    It  passes 
Brechin,  and  ends  in  the  tidal  basin  or  lagoon  of 
!  Montrose.    The  basins  of  both  consist  of  gneiss, 
j  mica-slate,  clay-slate,  and  old  red  sandstone. 
I     E'SKI-DJU'MNA,  a  town  of  European  Turkey, 
in  the  province  of  Bulgaria,  is  situated  20  miles  west 
I  of  Shumla.    Lat.  43°  15'  N.,  long.  26°  35'  E.  Pop. 
I  6000. 

I  E'SKI-SA'GRA,  a  town  of  European  Turkey,  in 
the  pro\'ince  of  Rumili,  is  situated  at  the  southern 
base  of  the  Balkan  Moimtains,  70  miles  north-west 
of  Adrianople.  In  the  vicinity  are  numerous 
gardens  and  orchards,  and  also  several  mineral 
springs,  which  are  in  great  repute.  The  manufac- 
tures are  carjiets,  coarse  hnens,  and  leather.  Pop. 
15,000  to  20,000. 

E'SLA,  a  river  of  Spain,  and  an  important  affluent 
to  the  Douro,  rises  in  the  piw^nce  of  Palencia,  Old 
Castile,  from  the  southern  base  of  the  Asturias 
mountains,  10  miles  north-west  of  the  town  of  Valle- 
buron.  Throughout  the  whole  of  its  course  it  flows 
south-west,  and  joins  the  Douro  1.5  miles  below  tho 
town  of  Zamora.  It  is  125  miles  in  length.  Its 
waters,  which  are  joined  by  numerous  streams,  ar« 
ftell  stocked  with  fish. 


ESMERELDA— ESPARTERO. 


ESMERE'LPA.  (signifying  Emerald  in  Spanish) 
denotes  a  river,  a  town,  and  a  mouutaiu -chain,  all  in 
America. — 1.  The  river  is  in  Ecuador  (q.  v.),  rising 
near  the  city  of  Quito,  and  entering  the  Pacilic 
after  a  course  of  110  miles,  in  lat.  1'  5'  N.,  and 
long.  79°  40'  W.— 2.  The  toM^n  stands  10  mdes 
fi'om  the  mouth  of  the  river,  containing  about 
4000  inhabitants. — 3.  The  mountain-chain  stretches 
about  170  miles  easb  and  west  in  Minas  Geraes, 
an  inland  province  of  Brazil,  about  the  middle  of 
tlie  length  of  the  country. 

ES'NE,  E'SN'A,  or  E'SNEH,  the  hieroglyphic  Sen, 
and  the  Greek  LatopoUs  or  Lattdnpolis — the  city  of 
the  Latus  fish  or  Latus  nohUls,  from  the  fish  there 
worshipped— is  a  small  and  badly  built  town  of 
Upper  Egypt,  and  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Nile,  in  lat.  25°  15'  N.  The  central  portion 
of  E.  has  edifices  of  coloured  bi'ick.  It  contains 
about  4000  inhabitants,  of  whom  1500  are  Coi)ts, 
and  has  some  manufactories  of  blue  cotton,  and 
pottery.  There  are  famous  ruins  at  E.,  which 
consist  of  a  sandstone  temple,  with  a  portico  of  four 
rows  of  six  columns,  which  appears  to  have  been 
founded  by  Thothmes  III.,  whose  name  is  seen  on 
the  jambs  of  a  door.  The  temple,  however,  seems 
to  have  been  restored  or  principally  constructed  by 
Ptolemy  Euergetes  (246 — 222  B.C.),  and  the  pronaos 
was  erected  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Claudius 
(41 — 54  A.D.),  and  completed  in  that  of  Vespasian. 
The  intei-ior  is  of  the  date  of  Trajan,  the  Antonines, 
and  Geta,  whose  name,  erased  or  replaced  by  that  of 
Caracalla,  is  there  found.  The  great  temple  was 
dedicated  to  Chnumis,  Satis,  and  Har-Hek.  It  has 
a  zodiac  hke  that  of  Denderah,  formerly  thought  to 
be  of  the  most  remote  antiquity,  but  now  known  to 
be  no  older  than  the  Romans.  A  smaller  temple  with 
a  zodiac,  erected  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Euergetes, 
formerly  stood  at  E'Deyr,  2\  miles  north  of  E.,  but 
it  has  been  destroyed.  At  E.  is  also  a  stone  quay, 
bearing  the  names  of  M.  Aurelius.  This  city  was  the 
capital  of  a  nome,  and  the  coins  struck  in  it  in  the 
reign  of  Hadrian,  127 — 128  a.  d.,  represent  the  fish 
latus. — Champollion,  Not.  Descr.  p.  283;  Wilkinson, 
Mod.  Egypt,  ii.  p.  268 ;  Tochon  D' Annecy,  Medailles. 

ESO'CID^,  a  family  of  malacopterous  fishes, 
which  is  now  regarded  as  including  only  the  Pikes 
(q.  v.),  but  in  which  the  flying  fishes  {Exocoetus) 
and  other  fishes,  now  constituting  the  family  Scom- 
berasocidce  (q.  v.),  and  of  the  order  PharyngognathSj 
were  until  recently  included. 

ESOTE'RIC  (Gr.)  is  a  term  derived  from  the 
ancient  mysteries,  in  which  it  was  applied  to  those 
doctrines  that  were  designed  for  the  initiated,  in 
contradistinction  to  those  that  were  imparted  to  the 
uninitiated,  which  were  termed  exoteric.  It  is  now 
used  in  various  relations  of  an  analogous  kind. 

ESPA'LIER,  a  term  borrowed  from  the  French, 
and  signifying  a  railing  on  which  fruit-trees  are 
trained  as  on  a  wall.  Such  railings  are  very 
variously  constructed — sometimes  of  wood,  some- 
times of  iron,  sometimes  of  upright  rails  held 
together  by  a  horizontal  rail  at  top,  sometimes 
chiefly  of  horizontal  rails  with  upright  posts  for 
their  support.  Espaliers  may  be  very  conveniently 
and  cheaply  made  of  strong  iron  wire,  sustained 
by  upright  iron  or  wooden  posts,  as  in  ordinary 
wire -fences.  They  vary  in  height  from  four  to 
about  eight  feet,  according  to  situation  and  the 
size  of  the  garden.  They  have  the  advantage  of 
securing  the  friit  in  a  great  measure  from  the 
effect  of  winds,  which  often  shake  off  great  part 
of  the  crop  of  standard  trees  whilst  still  unripe : 
and  from  the  fuL  exposure  to  sun  and  air,  excellent 
fruit  is  J  roduced,  although  there  is  no  reflected  heat 
as  fr(>Tii  a  wall,  w>ich  is  therefore  still  superior. 


Espaliers  are  very  common  in  gardens  in  Britain, 
and  add  at  once  to  the  beauty  and  the  productive- 
ness of  a  garden,  the  ground  not  being  overshadowed 
as  by  standard  trees,  although,  of  course,  the  roots 
of  the  trees  render  it  unsuitable  for  many  crops  to 
some  distance  on  both  sides  of  the  espalier.  Esx)a 
liers  are  often  used  to  separate  flower-borders  from 
plots  occupied  by  culinary  vegetables.  Apples  and 
pears  are  considered  more  siatable  for  esrjaliera 
than  any  other  kinds  of  fruit  trees  commonly  culti- 
vated in  Britain.  The  treatment  is  generally  similar 
to  that  of  wall  trees,  but  the  training  is  usually  by 
horizontal  branches.  It  is  not  unusual,  when  trees 
have  become  old  and  their  branches  thick  and  firm, 
to  dispense  with  great  part  of  the  rails  necessaiy  in 
their  earlier  training. 

ESPARTE'RO,  Joaquin  Baldomero,  ex-regent 
of  Spain,  Count  of  Luchana,  Duke  of  Vittoiia,  &c., 
was  born  in  the  year  1792,  at  Granatida,  in  La 
Mancha  (Ciudad  Real),  where  his  father,  Antonio 
Espartero,  followed  the  occupation  of  a  cartwright. 
E.  was  intended  for  the  ecclesiastical  jirofession, 
and  in  1806  went  to  the  university  of  Almagro,  but 
two  years  later,  on  the  invasion  of  Spain  by  the 
French,  he  entered  the  Sacred  Battalion  {Batallon 
Sagi^ado),  so  called  from  being  composed  almost 
entirely  of  students.  After  the  close  of  the  War 
of  Independence  in  1814,  he  went  to  South  America, 
where  he  fought  against  the  insurgents ;  but  after 
the  victory  gained  by  Bolivar  at  Ayacucho,  Decem- 
ber 9,  1824,  had  put  an  end  to  the  Spanish  nde 
on  the  contment  of  America,  E.  returned  to  Spain. 
In  1832,  he  declared  himself  openly  in  favoiir  of 
the  succession  of  the  daughter  of  Ferdinand  VII. ; 
and  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  after 
the  king's  death,  he  soon  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant-general. In  August  1836,  he  succeeded  in 
saving  the  city  of  Madrid,  and  became  successively 
general-in-chief  of  the  army  in  the  north,  viceroy 
of  Navarre,  and  captain-general  of  the  Basque 
provinces.  When  the  army  of  Don  Carlos  appeared 
before  Madrid  on  the  12Lh  September  1837,  E. 
had  again  the  glory  of  saving  the  capital.  His 
successful  campaign  of  1839,  which  resulted  in  the 
expulsion  of  Don  Carlos  from  Spain,  procured  him 
the  title  of  Grandee  of  Spain,  and  Duque  de  la 
Vittoria  y  de  Morella.  In  1840,  the  queen-mother 
Christina  was  compelled  to  resign  her  office  of 
regent,  and  on  the  8th  of  May  1841,  E.  was  appointed 
by  the  Cortes  to  supply  her  place  until  the  queen 
(Isabella)  should  have  reached  her  majority.  E. 
guided  the  helm  of  the  state  with  energy,  firm- 
ness, and  ability;  but  in  1843,  an  imscrupulous 
and  unprincipled  combination  of  parties  naturally 
inimical  to  each  other,  the  Republicans  and  the 
Moderados,  brought  about  his  fall.  E.  sailed  for 
England,  where  he  resided  for  four  years.  In  1847, 
he  returned  to  Spain,  and  lived  quietly  at  Logroiio 
till  1854,  when  the  wretched  despotism  and  pro- 
fligacy with  which  the  name  of  Christina  is  asso- 
ciated, caused  an  insurrection  of  the  people,  and 
compelled  the  queen-mother  to  leave  the  kingdom. 
E.  was  again  called  to  the  head  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  conducted  the  affairs  of  the  nation  for 
two  years;  but  in  July  1856,  he  was  supplanted 
by  General  O'Donnell.  Subsequently  he  took  no  part 
in  political  agitation.  His  career  shows  that  he  was 
not  astute  enough  to  manage  parties.  An  honest  man, 
a  gallant  soldier,  and  a  sound-headed  constitutionalist, 
he  nevertheless  did  not  possess  that  tact  and  fore- 
sight which  are  necessary  to  all  politicians,  but  es- 
pecially to  those  of  Spain — the  land  whore  the  prog- 
i-ess  of  liberty  and  knowledge  is  circumvented  at 
every  step.  He  died  Jan.  9,  1879.  See  J.  S.  Elorez, 
Espartero  Ilistoria  de  sa  Vida  Militare  y  PoUtica 
(3  vols.,  Madrid,  1843—1844). 

127 


ESPARTO-ESPY. 


ESPA'RTO  {Stipa  or  Macrocldoa  tenacissima),  a 
grass  nearly  allied  to  the  well-known  and  beautiful 
Feather-grass  (q.  v.),  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe, 
and  particularly  abundant  in  some  parts  of  Spain. 
It  is  much  used  by  the  Spaniards  for  making 
sandals,  mats,  baskets,  ropes,  nets,  sacks,  &c.,  for 
which  it  is  adapted  by  the  great  strength  of  its  fibre. 

ESPE'JO,  a  small  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province 
of  Cordova,  and  20  miles  south-east  of  the  town  of 
that  name,  is  situated  on  the  slope  of  a  hill.  It  is 
comparatively  well  built,  with  wide  and  regular 
streets.  It  has  an  ancient  castle  of  the  Duke  of 
Modena  Cell.  E.  has  some  manufactures  of  linen 
and  woollen  goods,  and  some  trade  in  gi'ain,  cattle, 
and  wool.    Pop.  5284. 

ESPIISTASSE,  Julie  Jeanne  ElevOnore  de  l', 
one  of  the  most  fascinating  women  of  her  time,  and 
one  who  combined  sparkling  gifts  with  a  heart 
susceptible  of  the  strongest  atFections,  was  born  at 
Lyon,  19th  November  II'A'I,  and  was  the  illegitimate 
daughter  of  a  Madame  d' Albion.  After  the  death 
of  her  mother.  Mademoiselle  de  I'E.,  who  had 
received  an  excellent  education,  went  to  live  at  the 
house  of  her  brother-in-law,  the  Marquis  de  Vichy- 
Chamroud,  in  whose  family  she  held  the  position  of 
fjouvernante.  In  1752,  she  left  her  brother-in-law's 
house,  and  went  to  Paris  in  the  quality  of  demoiselle 
de  compagnie  to  the  Marquise  du  Defland  (q.  v.). 
The  two  ladies  lived  together  for  a  time  most 
agreeably,  until  it  became  evident  that  the  charms 
of  the  young  and  beautiful  demoiselle  had  enlisted 
on  her  side  the  admiration  of  the  circle  in  which 
Du  Deffand  had  foi-me;'ly  been  the  chief  attraction. 
Even  D'Alembert,  the  famous  encyclopedist,  who 
hitherto  had  been  the  moit  constant  admirer  of  Du 
DefFand,  now  manifested  an  entire  devotion  to  the 
younger  and  more  fascinating  Espinasse.  A  rupture 
between  the  ladies  w^as  the  consequence.  The 
friends  of  E.,  however,  obtained  for  her,  through 
the  Due  de  Choiseul,  an  annuity  from  the  king.  It 
is  said  that  D'Alembert  sought  her  hand  in  vain. 
She  died  23d  May  1770.  Her  Lettres,  &c.  (Paris, 
1809)  bear  witness  to  her  remarkable  cultivation. 

ESPINEL,  Vincent  de,  a  Spanish  poet  and 
musician,  was  born  at  Ronda  in  Granada,  28th 
December  1551.  He  studied  ac  Saiamanca,  after- 
wards entered  into  the  army,  and  travelled  as  a 
soldier  through  a  great  part  of  Spain,  France,  and 
Italy,  meeting  with  the  adventm-es  which  he  relates 
in  his  Relaciones  de  la  Vida  y  Aventuras  del  Escudero 
Marcos  de  Ohregon  (Madr.  1618,  later  1804;  in  Ger- 
man, by  Tieck,  Bres.  1827).  He  afterwards  returned 
to  his  native  country,  entered  into  holy  orders,  and 
received  a  benefice  in  Ronda,  his  native  town.  He 
was  subsequently  chaplain  in  the  royal  hospital  at 
Ronda.  The  last  years  of  his  life  were  spent  at 
Madrid,  in  the  retirement  of  the  monastery  of  Santa 
Cakilina,  where  he  died  in  1634.  He  published  a 
book  of  poems  (Madr.  1591),  containing  chiefly  Ijo-ics, 
and  a  translation  of  the  Epistola  ad  Pisones,  the  Ars 
Poetica  of  Horace.  He  was,  if  not  the  inventor,  the 
Improver  of  the  ten-line  octosyllabic  stanza.  Verses 
written  in  this  form  have,  since  E.'s  day,  been  called 
in  Spain  Espinelas.  He  was  a  performer  on  the 
guitar,  to  which  he  added  the  fifth  string. 

ESPINHA'CA  (Serra  do),  a  mountain-chain  of 
Brazil,  extends  in  a  direction  generally  parallel  with 
the  coast,  from  the  right  bank  of  the  San  Francisco 
to  the  head-waters  of  the  Uruguay.  Its  northern 
part  fonns  the  eastern  limit  of  the  basin  of  the 
former  river.  The  Serra,  as  a  whole,  is  said  to  be 
rich  in  diamonds. 

ESPI'RITU  SA'NTO,  besides  having  been  long 
applied  by  the  Spaniards  to  their  imaginary  con- 
tinent in  the  southern  hemisphere,  denotes  various 
128 


actual  localities. — 1.  E.  S.  is  a  small  maritime  pro- 
vince of  Brazil,  extending  in  S.  lat.  from  18°  30'  to 
21 '  20',  and  lying  immediately  to  the  north  of  th6 
metropolitan  province  of  Rio  Janeiro.  This  province 
contains  also  a  town  and  a  bay  of  its  own  name. — 

2.  E.  S.  is  the  largest  and  most  westerly  island  of 
the  New  Hebrides,  being  in  lat.  15°  S.,  and  long. 
167°  E.    It  is  said  to  measure  65  miles  by  20. — 

3.  E.  S.  is  a  cape  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  in  lat.  52°  38'  S., 
and  long.  68°  37'  W.— 4.  E,  S.  is  a  considerable 
town  near  the  centre  of  Cuba.  It  contains  about 
9982  inhabitants,  fully  one-half  being  wliites, — 
5.  E.  S.  is  a  bay  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  forming  j^art 
of  the  almost  contiimous  back-water  of  Texas.  It 
is  in  lat.  28°  30'  N.,  and  long.  97°  30'  W.  Towards 
the  open  sea,  it  is  breasted  by  Matagorda  Island, 
and  on  the  side  of  the  mainland,  it  receives  th« 
Guadaloupe. 

ESPLANA'DE  (in  Fort.)  is  the  open  space  inten- 
tionally left  between  the  houses  of  a  city  and  the 
glacis  of  its  citadel.  It  requires  to  be  at  least  800 
paces  broad,  that  the  enemy,  in  case  of  his  getting 
l)ossession  of  the  town,  may  not  be  able  to  assail 
the  citadel  under  cover  of  the  nearest  houses.  For 
this  purpose,  the  citadel  must  command  the  espla- 
nade, and  be  able  to  send  a  direct  lire  into  the 
streets  opening  uj)on  it.  In  old  works  on  fortifica- 
tion, the  term  is  often  applied  to  the  glacis  of  the 
counterscarp,  or  the  feN>pe  of  the  parapet  of  the 
covered  way  towards  the  country. 

ESPRINGAL,  or  SPRFNGAL,  in  the  military 
engineering  of  the  days  before  the  introduction  of 
gunpowder  into  European  warfare,  was  a  machine 
for  throwing  missiles.  These  missiles  were  either 
large  darts  called  mucJiette^,  or  arrows  winged  with 
brass,  and  called  viretons,  from  their  whirling  motion 
when  shot  forth.  The  espi-ingal  probably  resembled 
in  some  degree  the  machine  engraved  in  Balista. 

ESPRIT  D'lVA,  an  aromatic  liqueur  made  in 
Switzerland,  from  a  plant  caJed  Genipi  [Achillcea 
moschata,  or  Ptarmica  moschata;  see  Achillea). 
Like  the  Swiss  tea,  made  from  the  same  plant,  it 
possesses  sudorific  properties. 

ESPY,  Ja]\ies  p.,  one  of  the  most  original  and 
able  meteorologists  of  the  present  century,  was  the 
son  of  a  farmer  in  Western  Pennsylvania,  where 
he  was  born  in  1784  or  1785.  He  received  a  supe- 
rior education,  and,  during  the  earlier  part  of  his 
career,  was  one  of  the  best  classical  and  mathe- 
matical instructors  in  Philadelphia.  E.'s  attention 
was  first  strongly  turned  to  science  by  the  writings 
of  Dalton  and  Daniell  on  meteorology.  After  some 
time,  his  enthusiasm  became  so  great,  that  he 
resolved  to  give  up  teaching,  and  to  rely  for  the 
means  of  prosecuting  his  meteorological  researches 
upon  his  slender  savings  and  the  success  of  his 
lectures  on  the  subject,  which,  fortunately,  turned 
out  to  be  far  more  attractive  than  the  average  of 
popular  lectures.  His  first  course  was  delivered 
before  the  Franklin  Institute  of  Pennsylvania.  E.'s 
theory  of  storms  (with  which  his  name  is  specially 
connected)  drew  general  attention  to  itself,  espe- 
cially in  the  United  States.  See  Storms.  A 
memoir  on  this  subject  gained  for  him,  in  1836, 
the  Magellanic  premium  of  the  American  Philoso- 
phical Society  of  Philadelphia.  In  1841  appeared 
his  work  on  the  Philosophy  of  Storms,  regarding 
which  the  Report  of  the  Academie  des  Sciences 
(Paris)  says,  '  that  the  theory  on  which  it  is  based 

alone  accounts  for  the  phenomena  In  a 

word,  for  physical  geography,  agriculture,  naviga- 
tion, and  meteorology,  it  gives  us  new  explana- 
tions, indications  useful  for  ulterior  researches,  and 
redresses  many  accredited  errors.'  Later  in  his 
life,  E.  became  Professor  in  the  Philadelphia  High 


ESQUIMAUX— ESQUIMAUX  DOG. 


School,  and  afterwards  in  the  Franklin  Institute 
of  that  city.  He  travelled  extensively  through  the 
United  States,  lecturing  on  his  favourite  theory  of 
storms,  and  studying  the  laws  of  climate,  vmtil 
he  acquired  the  popular  title  of  the  '  Storm-king.' 
After  the  organisation  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
Bt  Washington,  he  was  commissioned  by  Dr  Henry, 
ita  superintendent,  to  pursue  his  researches.  It  was 
in  the  halls  of  the  Smithsonian  that  bis  experiments 
on  the  rate  of  cooling  of  gases  of  different  densities 
when  expanded  were  made.  The  cooling  effects  of 
expansion  on  dry  and  moist  air  also  formed  the 
subject  of  nice  experiments.  The  results  of  these 
experiments  have  thrown  much  light  on  the  forma- 
tion of  cloud  and  rain,  and  the  propelling  power  of 
winds.  They  afforded  materials  for  his  elaborate 
and  valuable  rei)orts  on  meteorology,  presented  to 
the  senate  of  the  United  States.  Four  of  these 
reports  were  published  at  the  expense  of  govern- 
ment. The  last  was  issued  in  1857,  which  embodies 
all  his  matured  opinions  on  meteorological  pheno- 
mena. This  is  by  far  the  most  valuable  work  on 
the  principles  of  the  science  at  the  present  day.  He 
died  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  24th  January  18G0,  at  the 
residence  of  his  nephew. 

E'SQUIMAUX,  or  ESKIMOS,  is  the  name  of  a 
nation  inhabiting  the  coasts  of  all  the  seas,  bays, 
inlets,  and  islands  of  America  north  of  the  60°  of 
N.  lat.  ;  from  the  eastern  coast  of  Greenland,  in 
long.  20°,  to  the  Strait  of  Behring,  in  long.  167°  W. 
On  the  Atlantic,  they  are  to  be  found  along  the 
entire  coast  of  Labrador  to  the  Strait  of  Belle- 
isle,  and  down  the  east  side  of  Hudson's  Bay  neai-ly 
as  far  as  James's  Bay ;  while  on  the  Pacific  they 
reach  as  far  as  the  peninsida  of  Alaska.  They  are 
also  to  be  met  with  on  the  Asiatic  side  of  Behring's 
Strait,  and  though  few  in  nimiber,  may  be  regarded 
as  the  most  widely  spread  nation  in  the  w^orld, 
occupying,  according  to  Mr  Gallatin,  not  less  than 
5400  miles  of  coast,  without  including  the  inlets  of 
the  sea.  '  The  Eskimo,'  says  Dr  Latham,  '  is  the 
only  family  common  to  the  Old  and  New  World — 
an  important  fact  in  itself,  and  one  made  more 
important  still  by  the  Eskimo  localities  being  the 
only  localities  where  the  two  continents  come  into 
proximity.'  Nothing,  however,  has  as  yet  come 
mt  of  a  consideration  of  this  fact  in  the  way  of 
tracing,  with  absolute  certainty,  a  connection 
between  the  E.  and  any  well-defined  Asiatic  race. 
The  name  lisoii,  Esquimciux  ov  Eskimo,  does  not  helj) 
us  in  any  such  attempt,  being  from  an  Algonquin 
or  Abenaki  word,  signifying  '  eaters  of  raw  flesh.' 
This  is  not  the  native  name,  for  they  call  themselves 
*  Inviit,'  or  '  people  ;'  the  Scandinavians  of  the  10th 
c.  called  them  '  Skroellingar,'  or  '  wretches  ; '  w'hile 
the  seamen  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  shij^s  designate 
them  as  '  Seymos,'  or  'Suckemos' — appellations, 
a^ccording  to  Pdchardson,  'evidently  derived  from 
khe  vociferous  cries  of  Seymo  or  Teymo  with  which 
the  poor  people  greet  the  arrival  of  the  ships.'  The 
E  are  usually  reckoned  by  ethnologists  to  belong  to 
the  Mongolian  race,  but  Duponceau  and  Gallatin 
fiiid  a  strong  resemblance  between  them  and  the 
Bed  Ii  dians  of  North  America,  which  is  the  view 
alsc  jaien  by  Prichard — the  last  mentioned  regard- 
ing them  as  a  kind  of  link  between  the  Northern 
Asiatic  and  American  family  of  nations.  Latham, 
on  the  other  hand,  pronounces  them  to  be  Mongolian 
in  physiognomy,  with  flat  nose,  projecting  cheek- 
bones, eyes  often  oblique,  and  skin  more  brown  than 
red  or  copper  coloured ;  thus  presenting  a  marked 
txjntrast  to  the  North  American  Indians.  Their 
language,  however,  is,  he  acknowledges,  American 
in  respect  to  its  grammatical  structure,  being  com- 
posed of  long  compound  words,  and  regidar,  though 
remarkable,  inflections.    With  respect  to  the  com- 


plexion  of  the  E.,  Sir  John  Bichardson  is  of  a  diffe* 

rent  opinion  from  any  of  these  authors,  describing  it 
as  nearly  white,  when  relieved  from  the  smoke  and 
dirt  with  which  it  is  usually  incrusted.  Many  of 
the  young  women,  he  considers,  may  even  be  called 
pretty,  when  this  operation  has  been  performed. 
'  The  young  men,'  he  says,  '  have  little  beard ;  but 
some  of  the  old  ones  have  a  tolerable  show  of  long 
gray  hairs  on  the  ujjper  lip  and  chin,  which  the  Keel 
Indians  never  have,  as  they  eradicate  all  stray  hairs. 
The  Eskimo  beard,  however,  is  in  no  instance  so  dense 
as  a  European  one.'  In  stature,  the  E.  are  usually 
represented  as  not  being  more  than  five  feet  in 
height;  but  the  authority  just  mentioned  describes 
them  as  ranging  from  five  feet  to  five  feet  ten  inches, 
and  even  more.  They  are  broad-shouldered,  and, 
when  seated  in  their  boats,  look  tall  and  muscular, 
but,  when  standing,  appear  to  lose  some  of  their 
height,  from  the  shortness  of  their  lower  extremities. 
The  E.  live  usually  throughout  their  long  lines  of 
coast  in  small  villages,  containing  about  five  or  six 
families  each.  The  men  occupy  themselves  entirely 
in  hunting,  while  the  women  perform  the  domestia 
drudgery,  which  consists  principally  in  i)reparing 
the  food,  of  which  both  sexes  consume  a  large  quan- 
tity. This  is  almost  entirely  of  an  animal  nature,  bvt 
not  without  variety,  embracing  the  reindeer,  geeso 
and  other  birds,  the  seal,  walrus,  salmon-trout,  and 
various  other  kinds  of  fish.  They  are  ex])ert  huntera 
and  fishers,  and,  aided  by  their  dogs,  make  consider- 
able havoc  among  the  arctic  animal  tribes.  "Where 
whales  are  common,  August  and  September  are 
devoted  to  the  pursuit  of  these  animals,  and  great 
joy  is  manifested  when  they  capture  any  of  them, 
as  from  the  blubber  of  these  they  get  their  svipply 
of  oil  for  lights  in  the  long  winter  reason.  Of  vege- 
tables, they  scarcely  taste  any  except  in  the  autumn, 
*  Carbon  is  supplied  to  the  system  by  the  use  of 
much  oil  and  fat  in  the  diet,  and  draughts  of  warm 
blood  from  a  newly  killed  animal  are  considered 
as  contributing  greatly  to  preserve  the  hunter  in 
health.'  The  habits  of  the  E.  are  filthy  and  revolting 
in  the  extreme.  A  great  part  of  their  food  is  con- 
sumed without  any  attempt  at  cooking  it,  and  they 
drink  the  blood  of  newly  killed  animals  as  the 
greatest  delicacy  that  could  be  oflered  them.  In 
the  short  summer,  those  who  can  aff'ord  it  live  in 
tents  ;  l)ut  in  the  winter  they  all  equally  live  in  snow- 
hiTts,  the  stench  of  which,  from  the  offal  with  which 
they  are  stored,  and  the  filthy  oil  that  gives  them 
light,  makes  them  insupportable  to  the  Euioiiean. 
The  dress  of  both  sexes  is  nearly  tlie  same,  con- 
sisting of  the  skins  of  animals,  reind»?er,  birds,  and 
even  fish — whatever  conduces  most  to  warmth, 
without  much  regard  to  appearance  ;  but  in  their 
winter  abodes  they  usually  wear  n(jthing  excej)t 
trousers.  Their  religion  consists  principally  in 
superstitious  observances,  bxit  they  believe,  we  are 
told,  in  two  greater  spirits,  and  many  lesser  ones. 
The  Moravian  mission  in  Greenland,  commenced 
by  the  benevolent  Hans  Egede  (q,  v.),  in  1721, 
has  succeeded  in  converting  many  of  them  to 
Christianity ;  and  they  are  represented  by  the 
missionaries  to  be  a  mild  and  teachable  people,  easily 
led  by  kindness  to  distinguish  between  what  is 
morally  right  and  wrong.  Where  the  missionaries, 
however,  have  rot  penetrated,  our  arctic  vo^^agers 
generally  speak  <^f  them  as  honest  among  them- 
selves, but  incorrigibly  dishonest,  and  prone  to 
lying  and  exaggeration,  in  their  intercourse  ^vith 
strangers. 

ESQUIMAUX  DOG,  a  kind  of  dog  extensively 
spread  over  the  most  northern  regions  of  North 
America  and  of  Eastern  Asia  ;  large,  powerful,  with 
long  rather  curling  hair,  tail  much  curved  over  the 
back  and  very  bushy,  short  and  pointed  ears,  aai 

I2n 


ESQUIRE— ESS  AAD  -EFFENDI. 


nomewhat  wolf-like  aspect.  These  dogs  are  much 
naad  lor  drawing  sledges.    They  are  very  sagacious, 


Esquimaux,  Dogs,  and  Sledge  for  one  person. 


•docile,  and  patient.  The  colour  is  generally  black 
and  white,  brown  and  white,  or  dingy  white. 

ESQUI'RE  (Fr.  escuier,  a  shield-bearer,  from  Lat. 
scutum,  a  shield).  The  esquire  in  chivalry  was  the 
Bhield-bearer  or  armoiu'-bearer  to  the  knight,  and 
hence  was  called  armiger  in  Latin.  He  was  a  can- 
didate for  the  honour  of  knighthood,  and  thus  stood 
to  the  knight  in  the  relation  of  a  novice  or  appren- 
tice, pretty  much  as  the  page  did  to  him.  In  this 
capacity  he  was  spoken  of  as  a  bachelor,  just  as  the 
knight-bachelor  came  latterly  to  be  distinguished 
from  him  who  had  already  attained  to  the  higher 
honours  of  chivalry.  When  fidly  equipped,  each 
knight  was  attended  by  two  esquires.  The  esquire 
was  a  gentleman,  and  had  the  right  of  bearing  arms 
on  his  own  shield  or  escutcheon,  which  is  surmounted 
by  a  helmet  placed  sideways,  Avith  its  vizor  closed, 
to  distinguish  him  from  a  knight  or  nobleman.  He 
had  also  the  sword,  the  emblem  of  chivalry,  though 
he  was  not  girded  with  the  knightly  belt.  His  spurs 
were  silver,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  golden 
spurs  of  the  knight ;  and  when  the  king  created 
esquires  of  old,  it  was  by  putting  silver  spurs  on 
their  heels,  and  collars  of  S.  S.  round  their  necks. 
Those  who  received  this  honour  directly  from  the 
sovereign  were  in  general  the  esquires  for  the  king's 
body,  or  those  whose  duty  it  was  to  attend  him  in  his 
capacity  of  a  knight ;  an  office  now  nearly  obsolete. 
Tenants  of  the  crown  who  held  by  knight's  service 
wore  a  class  of  feudal  esquires  generally  supposed  to 
con-espond  to  the  simple  ritters  or  knights  of  G-er- 
many,  as  ojjposed  to  the  ritters  who  were  gesddagen 
or  dubbed,  inasmuch  as  these  English  esquires  were 
entitled  to  claim  the  rank  of  knighthood.  .  Though 
the  title  of  esquire  has  now  come  to  be  given  without 
discrimination  to  all  persons  above  the  rank  of  a 
tradesman  or  shopkeeper,  the  following  seem  to  be 
those  whose  claim  to  it  stands  on  the  ground  either 
of  legal  right  or  of  long-established  courtesy  :  1.  All 
the  untitled  sons  of  noblemen  ;  2.  The  eldest  sons 
of  knights  and  baronets  ;  3.  The  sons  of  the  younger 
ftons  of  dukes  and  marquises,  and  their  eldest 
Bons.  AU  these  are  esquires  by  birth.  Then  there 
are  esquires  by  profession,  whose  rank  does  not 
descend  to  their  children;  and  esquires  by  office — 
ag.,  justices  of  the  peace — who  enjoy  the  title  only 
during  their  tenm-e  of  office.  To  the  former  class 
belong  officers  in  the  army  and  navy,  barristers 
ami  doctors  of  law,  and  doctors  of  medicine,  but 
not  surgeons. 

ESQUIROL,  Jean  Etiennb  Dominique,  one  of 

ISO 


the  greatest  physicians  for  the  insane  of  modem 
times,  was  born  at  Toulouse,  4th  January  1772.  H«i 
served  in  the  military  lazaretto  at  Narbonne  in  1794, 
obtained  his  degree  of  Doctor  in  1805,  and  wa? 
appointed  physician  to  the  Salp6tri(ire  at  Paris  in 
1811.  After  1817,  he  delivered  clinical  lectures 
on  the  diseases  of  the  mind,  and  their  cures  ;  in 
1818,  his  exertions  secured  the  appointment  of  a 
commission,  of  which  he  became  a  member,  for 
the  remedy  of  abuses  in  mad-houses ;  in  182.*i  he 
became  inspector-general  of  the  University  ;  and  ia 
1825,  first  physician  to  the  Maison  des  Alieii^^.  In 
the  following  year,  he  was  also  appointed  pn'ncipal 
physician  of  the  Private  Lunatic  Asylum  at  Cliar- 
enton,  which  he  had  organised  with  admirable 
skill.  At  the  July  revolution,  he  lost  all  his  publia 
offices,  and  withdrew  into  private  life>  He  dieci 
12th  December  1840.  E.  combined,  in  a  trUy  rare 
and  wonderful  manner,  the  qualifications  requisite 
for  a  physician  of  the  body  and  a  physician  of  the 
mind.  By  his  humane  and  moral  treatment  of  the 
insane,  he  often  effected  the  happiest  cures.  His 
writings  embrace  all  the  questions  connected  with 
the  treatment  of  insanity.  E.  also  paid  great  atten- 
tion to  a  very  important  subject,  viz.,  the  con- 
struction of  suitable  buildings  for  the  insane ;  and 
most  of  the  modern  lunatic  asylums  in  France,  such 
as  those  of  llouen,  Nantes,  and  Montpellier,  have 
been  built  according  to  his  suggestions  and  advice. 
His  most  important  work  is  Des  Maladies  Mentalea 
considerees  sous  les  Rapports,  Medical^  Ilygicnique 
ei  Medico-legal  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1838). 

ESQUIROS,  Henri  Alpiionse,  a  poet  and 
romaucist  of  France,  a  late  representative  in  the 
Legislative  Assembly,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1814. 
He  made  his  literary  debut  as  an  author  in  1834, 
when  he  published  a  volume  of  poems,  entitled  Les 
Ilirondelles,  which  although  highly  praised  by  M. 
Victor  Hugo,  had  but  a  very  limiiied  sale.  Les 
Hirondelles  was  followed  by  two  romances,  Le  Magi- 
cien  (1837)  and  Charlotte  Corday  (1840).  About 
this  time  he  also  published  a  philosophic  and  demo- 
cratic commentary  on  the  life  of  Christ,  under  the 
title  of  the  Evang'de  du  Feuple  (1840).  For  the 
publication  of  this  work,  E.  was  prosecuted,  and 
sentenced  to  eight  months'  imprisonment  and  to  a 
fine  of  500  francs,  30th  January  1841'.  In  the  same 
year  he  published  his  Chants  d\m  Prisonm'er,  written 
in  prison.  He  also  wrote  three  little  works  between 
1841  and  1842 — these  were  Les  Vierges  Martyr es, 
Les  Vierges  Folles,  and  Les  Vierges  Sages.  His 
Ilistoire  des Montagnards  appeared  in  1847. 

After  the  revolution  of  February  1848,  E.,  wl  om 
his  writings,  and  the  prosecutions  of  which  they  had 
been  the  object,  recommended  to  the  extreme  i)ai-ty 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly. 
Distinguished  by  his  radical  opinions,  he  was 
included,  after  the  2d  December  1851,  among  the 
number  of  members  to  be  expelled  ;  on  which  he 
retired  to  England.  His  La  Vie  Future  au  Point 
de  Vue  Socialide  appeared  in  1857 ;  and  his  La 
Morale  Universelle,  his  L^Angleterre  et  la  Vie 
Anglaise,  and  his  La  Neerlande  et  la  Vie  11  oU 
landaise  in  1859;  the  last  of  which  has  been  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Lascelles  Wraxall,  and  is 
just  published  (November,  1861)  by  Chapman  and 
Hall,  under  the  title  of  The  Dutch  at  Home. 

ESSAAD-EFFENDI,  Mohammed,  a  Turkish 
historian,  was  born  at  Constantinople,  16th  Decem- 
ber, 1790.  He  is  surnamed  Sahaf-Zudeh,  'son  of  the 
bookbinder,'  on  account  of  his  fatlier  having  })een 
president  of  a  corporation  of  bookbinders  and  libra- 
rians. At  the  age  of  18  he  became  a  teacher;  in 
1825,  he  was  appointed  historiograplier  to  tlie  Otto-* 
man  empire.    In  1831,  the  superintendence  of  the 


ESSEN— ESSENES. 


Tatawin-i-wekaii  (Table  of  P>ents),  the  official  jour- 
nal of  the  empire,  was  ])laced  in  his  hands.  In  1835, 
he  was  employed  by  the  late  Sultan  Mahmoud  on  an 
embassy  to  Mohammed,  the  son  and  successor  of 
the  king  of  Persia.  E.  has  also  the  titles  of  Grand 
Judge  of  Roumelia,  Inspector-general  of  Schools,  and 
member  of  the  Council  of  Public  Instruction. 

The  works  of  E.  comprise,  among  others,  the  Uss-i- 
Tzafer  (the  Establishment  of  Victory),  a  work  which 
has  been  translated  into  French,  and  published  by 
M.  Causin  de  Perceval,  with  the  following  title  : 
Historic  Summary  of  the  Destruction  of  the  Jani- 
zaries by  the  Sultan  Mahmoud  in  1826  (Par.  1833). 

E'SSEN,  a  town  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  situated 
between  the  Rhur  and  the  Emscher,  20  miles 
north-east  of  Dusseldorf,  stands  in  the  midst 
ci  a  rich  coal  and  iron  district.  The  town  is  sur- 
rounded by  the  high  chimneys  of  the  steam-engines 
used  in  working  the  mines.  As  it  has  risen  only 
very  recently  to  its  present  importance,  its  archi- 
tectural beauties  are  not  great ;  it  has,  however,  an 
imposing  cathedral,  containing  many  curious  reli- 
quaries, crosses,  &c.  E.  owes  its  prosperity  to  the 
inexhaustible  coal-miues  in  its  vicinity.  In  1856, 
E.,  with.  Werden,  a  small  town  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood,  produced  36,160,650  bushels  of  coal, 
one- sixth  of  which  was  sent  to  Holland.  In  the 
neighbourhood  are  great  ironworks,  a  steel  manu- 
factory, containing  9  steam-engines,  150  furnaces, 
employing  900  workmen  ;  an  iron-foundry  with  300 
workmen ;  also  extensive  establishments  for  making 
machines  and  manufacturing  zinc;  with  copper-mills, 
steam-mills,  and  manufactures  of  cloth  and  paper. 
Pop.  20,811.  Although  the  industrial  activity  of  E. 
is  oidy  of  recent  growth,  the  town  itself  is  very  old, 
and  can  trace  its  origin  to  the  famous  Benedictine 
nunnery  of  the  same  name,  founded  as  far  back  as 
873  A.  D. 

ESSENCE  DE  PETIT  GRAIN  is  obtained  by 
distillation  from  small  iniripe  oranges,  about  the 
dize  of  a  cherry,  and  is  used  as  a  perfume  in  the 
same  manner  as  Orange-flower  Water. 

E'SSENCES  are  solutions  of  the  essential  oils  in 
alcohol,  and  may  be  prepared  (1)  by  adding  recti- 
fied spirit  to  the  odoriferous  parts  of  plants,  or 
to  the  essential  oils,  and  distilling ;  or  (2)  simply  by 
adding  the  essential  oil  to  the  rectified  spirit,  and 
agitating  till  a  uniform  mixture  is  obtained.  Thus 
the  essence  of  lemons  is  merely  a  solution  of  the 
volatile  oil  of  lemons  in  rectified  spirit. 

ESSE'NES  (Essenoi,  Essaioi),  a  small  religious 
fraternity  among  the  Jews,  whose  name  and 
origin,  as  well  as  character  and  history,  are  alike 
involved  in  obscurity.  Still,  in  the  wide  field  of 
the  history  of  the  Semitic  religions,  there  are  not 
many  subjects  of  inquiry  of  greater  importance, 
or  calculated  to  inspire  a  deeper  interest.  The 
Essenes  bore  one  of  the  most  momentous  parts  in 
the  development  of  Judaism.  Christianity  stands 
in  so  close  connection  with  them,  that  John  the 
Baptist  and  Christ  himself  have  been  pronounced 
to  have  originally  issued  from  their  ranks.  More 
gurprisini;  than  all,  out  of  Essenism,  in  the  stage 
of  Sabieism,  has  sp^'img  Islam  itself,  and  in  this 
last  development  of  its  tenets  and  i^ractices  are  still 
preserved  some  of  its  principal  rites.  It  is  but 
natural  that  from  the  days  of  the  Fathers  to  our 
own,  an  infinite  number  of  wiiters,  more  or  less 
qualilii'd  for  the  task,  shoidd  have  endeavoured  to 
throw  light  on  this  mysterious  brotherhood,  but 
with  success  far  fruin  satisfactory.  The  reason  of 
this  is  obvious  enough-  Joseplius,  Philo,  Pliny, 
S'jlinus,  Eusebius,  and  the  Fathers  generally,  were 
•  c-on.si(h;red  the  sources,  and  the  only  sources,  fi'om 
wluch  the  genuine  history  of  this  fraternity  covdd  be 


deduced.  Of  these,  Pliny  indeed  has  a  geographical 
notice,  which  cannot  be  traced  to  either  Philo  or 
Josephus;  but  the  rest  have  so  evidently  derived 
their  shallow  and  contradictory  accounts  indirectly, 
and  tnrough  corrupted  channels,  from  those  two 
writers,  that  they  lose  all  claim  to  consideration. 
Of  the  two  books  of  Philo  in  which  information 
regarding  the  Essenes  is  contained,  one  {De  Vita 
Conternplativa)  is  proved  to  have  been  written  about 
three  centuries  after  Philo's  death  by  a  Chiistian 
monk  as  a  panegyric  on  ascetic  monachism.  The 
other  {Quod  Omnis)  is,  to  say  the  least,  of  doubtful 
genuineness,  and  is,  moreover,  at  variance  with 
Josephus.  As  to  Josephus  himself,  it  is  now  pretty 
generally  allowed  that  his  Essenes  stand  in  much 
the  same  relation  to  the  historical  Essenes  as  tha 
ideal  inhabitants  of  the  Germania  of  Tacitus  stand 
to  the  real  Germans  of  his  time.  Strange  that  for 
so  many  centuries  the  real  and  genuine  sources — 
the  Talmudical  writings — should  never  have  been 
thought  of.  These,  together  with  Josephus  and 
Philo,  Pliny,  and  the  Arabians  Macrisi  and  Abul- 
farag,  will  perhaps  better  enable  us  to  form  an  idea, 
not  only  of  the  real  state  of  this  community,  but, 
what  is  of  no  less  moment,  to  trace  the  process 
by  which  they  gradually  arrived  at  their  peculiar 
mode  of  life  and  worship.  We  need  not  remind  the 
reader  that  we  must  strictly  confine  ourselves  here 
to  an  epitome  of  facts  and  conclusions. 

We  have  to  premise,  that  exception  must  at 
the  outset  be  taken  to  the  opening  statement  of 
Joseplius,  that  there  were  three  difii"erent  '  sects ' 
among  the  Jews  :  the  Pharisees,  the  Sadducees,  and 
the  Essenes — a  statement  which  has  been  copied 
and  accepted  from  that  day  to  the  present.  The 
Sadducees  were  a  political  party,  nothing  more 
or  less,  and,  as  a  matter  of  course,  held  religious 
views  antagonistic  to,  or  rather  they  did  not  accept 
the  traditions  of,  their  adversaries,  the  Pharisees, 
who,  again,  forming  as  they  did,  the  bulk  of  the 
nation,  cannot  rightly  be  called  a  sect.  Least  of  all 
were  the  Essenes  such.  They  were  Pharisees  of 
stronger  convictions,  and  carried  out  the  Phaiisaic 
views  with  a  consistency  which  made  them  ridi- 
culous even  in  the  eyes  of  their  own  mother-party 
(Sota,  26,  a.) ;  neither  were  they  known  by  the  nam  as 
of  Essenes,  this  being  a  very  late  designation, 
derived  either  from  a  Chaldee  word  Sacha,  and 
meaning  Bathers,  or  Baptists;  or  from  Asa,  meaning 
Healers.  The  Mishna,  Beraitha,  and  Talmud  speak 
of  these  advanced  Pharisees  in  general  as  Chasidim 
{Assidaioi,  Pious  Men),  Nazirim  (Abstinents),  Toble 
Shachttrith  (Plemerobaptists),  Banai  (Builders),  and 
Chaberim  (Friends).  The  Arabic  book  of  Maccabees 
calls  the  Essenes  simply  Assidaioi,  and  Macrisi 
speaks  of  '  Nazirs,  Essenes,  and  Baptists '  as  all 
being  '  Asaniun,'  or  Essenes. 

The  Nazirhood,  a  kind  of  voluntary  priesthood., 
enjoining  abstinence  from  wme,  flesh,  and  othei- 
sensual  enjoyments,  had,  in  the  troid:)lous  times  oi 
anti-Syrian  agitation,  and  the  genei'al  upheavin.^  o£ 
society,  found  numerous  adherents  {Tosifta  Nazir^ 
c.  4 ;  Talm.  Babli  Berach.  48,  a.  1 ;  Mace.  ii.  49 ; 
Jos.  Antiq.  xviii.  1) ;  and  gradually  there  sprang 
up  (contrary  to  the  Bible,  which  restricts  this 
asceticism  to  a  certain  period)  a  host  of  men  calling 
themselves  '  Nazirs  for  ever ' — Nazire  olam  {Nazir, 
4,  a.).  Pharisees  of  a  spiritual  and  contemplative 
bias,  with  no  natural  taste  for  the  confiicts  and 
activity  of  political  or  public  life,  or  wearied,  per- 
haps, with  the  vanity  of  human  aims,  took  this  vow 
of  Nazirship  for  life,  and  constituted  themselves 
into  a  sort  of  religious  club.  Levitical  purity  iu 
its  strictest  and  highest  sense  made  them  draw 
closer  and  closer  the  innumerable  '■fences '  which  tha 
traditional  law  had  erected  round  the  biblical  law. 

121 


ESSENTIAL  0IL5— ESSEQUIBO. 


Any  one,  friend  or  foe,  could,  at  any  moment,  by 
having  touched  something  impure,  disturb  this 
purity  for  the  time,  and  necessitate  new  and  endless 
purifications.  Thus  it  became  necessary,  or  at  least 
expedient,  that  those  among  them  who  could  break 
all  ties  of  friendship  and  family,  should  retire  into 
a  solitude  net  easily  approachable  by  a  stranger  to 
their  commimity.  Food,  again,  could  not  be  pre- 
pared save  by  those  of  the  brethren  who  knew  and 
stfictly  obeyed  the  hy|)er-traditioual  injunctions. 
Their  dress,  every  implement  of  daily  use,  had  to  be 
made  under  similarly  stringent  laws  of  purity.  A 
tatural  consequence  of  this  their  exalte  ^  notion  of 
outward  priesthood,  was — the  different  phases  of 
woman's  life  taken  into  consideration — their  general 
celil  acy.  (The  explanation  given  by  Josephus — the 
fear  of  the  corruption  of  both  towns  and  women — is 
entirely  gratuitous,  and  utterly  in  discordance  with 
the  Jewish  notions  of  the  time.)  In  this  state  of 
voluntary  isolation,  trading  was  out  of  the  ques- 
tion ;  they  tilled  the  ground,  and  lived  on  the  fruits 
of  the  earth.  Taking  their  meals,  and  these  of  the 
coarsest  and  plainest  description,  in  common,  they 
idealised  the  table  into  an  altar,  and,  prayer  having 
been  said,  they  remained  standing  silently  round 
it  during  the  repast.  That  they  had  no  individual 
property,  follows  of  course,  and  their  communistic 
motto,  which  the  Mishna  (Aboth)  has  preserved  to 
us — '  Mine  is  thine,  and  thine  is  mine  ' — explains 
itself.  We  need  not  enlarge  further  on  their  small 
eccentricities — on  the  white  linen  garment,  the  apron 
(kenaphaim),  the  scoop  or  shovel ;  they  are  one  and 
all,  signs  and  symbols  of  Levitical  purity,  the  scoop 
reminding  us  of  a  certain  Mosaic  ordinance  during 
the  wanclerings  in  the  desert,  the  apron  becoming 
necessary  from  the  frequent  ablution  of  their  hands. 
Every  morning,  they  bathed,  like  the  priests  who 
ministered  in  the  temple,  in  pure  spring  water. 
They  abhorred  blood  as  a  source  of  impurity,  and 
for  this  reason,  probably,  some  of  them  abstained 
also  from  going  up  to  the  temple,  where  sacrifices 
were  daily  offered;  others  we  find  present  at  a 
festival  in  the  temple  (Succah,  51,  53).  Their  offer- 
ings were  sent  alive  under  the  care  of  messengers. 
But  these  were  but  outward  signs  of  purity,  stepping- 
etones  to  inner  piety,  to  commmiion  with  God, 
which  was  only  to  be  acquired,  according  to  their 
notion,  by  solitude  and  an  ascetic  life.  The  belief 
in  the  efficacy  of  the  most  rigid  simplicity  and  will- 
ing self-sacrifice,  they  held  in  common  with  the 
Pharisees;  their  horror  of  oaths,  their  frequent 
prayers,  their  occupation  with  mystical  doctrine, 
were  their  own.  Untroubled  by  the  noise  of  war 
or  the  strife  of  parties,  leading  a  life  diA'ided  between 
the  bath,  ablutions,  contemplation,  and  prayer; 
despising  the  body  and  bodily  wants ;  what  more 
natural  than  that  by  degrees  they  should  be 
led  into  a  kind  of  mystical  enthusiasm  and  fanati- 
cism. They  allegorised,  they  symbolised ;  and  their 
efforts  culminated  in  seeing  the  unseen.  Absorbed 
in  the  attempt  to  fathom  the  •  mj^steries  of  the 
nature  of  God,  one  of  their  principal  occupations 
fras  the  study  of  the  name  of  God ;  of  that  unpro- 
ni>ua  "jeable  name  which  only  the  High-priest  dared 
utter  once  a  year  in  the  Holy  of  Holies  during  the 
most  awful  and  solemn  service  on  the  Day  of  Atone- 
ment. The  knowledge  of  that  name  in  four,  in 
twelve,  and  in  twenty-four  letters,  would  give  them 
the  jiower  of  prophecy  and  of  '  receiving  the  Holy 
Ghost.' 

Angelology,  derived  from  the  Magi,  formed  a  pro- 
minent feature  of  their  creed.  In  course  of  time, 
they  w'ere  looked  upon  by  the  vulgar  as  saints 
and  workers  of  miracles.  A  wonderful  l)ook  of 
cures  {SepJier  li^/itoth),  which  Talmudic,  Arabic,  and 
Byzantine  authorities  alike  ascribe  to  Solomon,  was 
132 


in  their  hands,  and  with  this,  *  by  the  aid  of  certain 
roots  and  stones,'  by  the  imposition  of  hands,  and 
certain  whisperings— a  practice  strongly  condemned 
by  the  Pharisees  (Synhedr.  90,  a.)— they  cast  out 
demons,  and  healed  the  sick.  Philoso]>hy  they 
regarded  in  so  far  only  as  it  treated  of  the  existence 
of  God.  Jehovah  is  the  original  light;  from  Him 
proceed  a  number  of  spirits  (the  Platonic  Ideas),  and 
at  their  head  stands  the  Wisdom,  or  Loijos,  into 
which,  after  death,  the  soul  is  again  absorbed.  Theit 
code  of  Ethics  was  threefold— the  love  of  God,  of 
virtue,  and  of  man;  their  scale  of  perfectibility 
reaching  its  acme  in  the  communion  with  the  Holy 
Ghost  (Ruach  Hakodesh),  (Mishn.  Sota,  09).  In  fine, 
mixing  up,  in  the  strangest  manner,  the  most 
exalted  and  the  most  puerile  notions,  they  became 
the  forerunners  of  the  Christian  Gnostics  and  of  the 
Jewish  Cabbalists,  and,  it  may  b^,  of  many  secret, 
still  existing  orders,  who  may  have  derived  from 
this  source  their  ceremonies  and  the  gradations  of 
initiation. 

They  seem  never  to  have  numbered  more  than 
4000,  including  even  those  Nazirs  or  Essenes  who 
remained  in  their  own  families.  Their  colony 
appears  to  have  been  established  chiefly  near  the 
Dead  Sea,  and  it  is  undoubtedly  this  colony  which 
has  served  Josejihus  as  a  basis  to  his  romantic 
Essene  republic.  But,  however  distant  from  each 
other  they  might  be,  a  constant  intercommunica- 
tion was  kept  up  through  a  body  of  delegates,  or 
angels  (Malachim).  As  they  had  sprung  from  the 
Pharisees,  so  they  again  merged  into  them — part  of 
them,  we  should  rather  say;  the  remaining  part 
became  Therajjeiitae,  or  Christians.  See  Thera- 
PEUT^  and  Jewish  Sects.  The  Talmud  gives  a 
distinct  account  of  their  ceasing  to  exist  as  a  sepa- 
rate community  (Bechorot,  27),  and  so  soon  aftei- 
their  extinction  did  they  fall  into  oblivion,  that  m 
the  third  century  we  find  a  J e-wash  Sage  asking  who 
these  HemerobajHlsts  had  been  (Berachot,  22,  1). 

Much  has  been  written  and  said  of  a  certain 
literature  which  they  possessed;  on  this  we  are 
unable  to  decide,  deprived  as  we  are  of  all  trust- 
worthy authority.  One  fragment  only  remains;  it 
is  quoted  in  the  Talmud  (Jerusch.  Berachoth.  End) 
in  the  following  words  :  '  It  is  written  in  the  book 
of  the  Chasldim,  If  thou  leavest  it  (the  divine  law) 
for  one  day,  it  will  leave  thee  for  two.' 

In  addition  to  the  Talmud  and  Midrash,  we 
refer  the  reader  to  Joseph.  Antiq.  xv.  10,  xviii.  1; 
Jeiu.  War,  ii.  7,  8;  Philo,  Quod  Omnis  Proh.  lib. 
§  12;  Plinius,  Hist  Natur.  v.  17;  Eiiiphan.  Hares. 
xxix. ;  Hieron.,  C3a-ill.,  Chrysost.,  &c.  Beckermann, 
Geschichtl.  Nachr.  axis  derti  Alterth.  iiber  die  Ess., 
&c.  (Berl.  1821);  Gratz,  Gesch.  d.  Juden  (Leip. 
1856) ;  Franhel  in  Zeitschr.  far  die  Relig.  Inter., 
&c.,  iii.  (Berl.  1844),  &c.;  and  Monatsschr,  Fiir 
Gesch.  und  Wissensch.,  &c.  ii.  (Leip.  1852),  &c. ; 
Sprenger,  Leben  u.  Lehre  Moliammads  (Berl.  1861). 

ESSE'NTIAL  OILS.    See  Oils. 

ESSEQUI'BO,  the  most  westerly  of  the  great 
rivers  of  British  Guiana,  enters  the  Atlantic  near 
the  territory  of  Venezuela,  in  lat.  7°  N.,  and  long. 
58°  40'  W.  It  forms,  at  its  mouth,  an  estuary  of 
twenty  miles  in  width ;  and  it  is  favourably  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Demerara  and  the  Berbice  by 
the  absence  of  a  bar.  It  appears  to  excel  the  other 
streams  of  the  country  as  well  in  length  and  volume 
as  in  its  navigable  facilities,  and  to  be  practicable 
for  large  ships  up  to  its  first  falls — a  distance  of 
60  miles  from  the  sea.  The  greater  part  of  ita 
course  of  450  miles  is  through  forests  of  the  most 
gigantic  vegetation.  Its  basin,  speaking  generally, 
corresponds  with  the  county  of  the  same  name.. 
This  subdivision  of  the  colony  is  inferior,  uulesn 


ESSEX— ESTABLISHED  CHURCH. 


m  purely  natural  resources,  to  either  of  the  two 
others  in  vahie  and  importance — Denierara  and 
Berbice  respectively  containing  the  principal  settle- 
ments, George  Town  and  New  Amsterdam. 

E'SSEX,  a  maritime  county  of  the  south-east  of 
England,  having  the  North  Sea  on  the  E. ;  the 
Thames  estuary,  dividing  it  from  Kent,  on  the  S. ; 
Middlesex  and  llertford  on  the  W. ;  and  Cambridge 
and  Suffolk  on  the  north.  Its  greatest  length  from 
north-east  to  south-west  is  G3  miles,  and  the  greatest 
breadth  from  east  to  west  is  54  miles.  It  has 
1,060,549  statute  acres,  nine-tenths  being  arable  or 
in  grass,  and  a  twentieth  in  wood.  The  surface 
towards  the  Thames  and  sea  is  flat,  marshy,  and 
broken  into  peninsulas,  creeks,  and  islets.  The 
coast-line  is  85  miles  long.  Some  of  the  marshes 
extend  four  or  five  miles  inland.  At  one  part,  two 
to  two  and  a  half  miles'  breadth  of  sand  is  dry  at 
low  water.  Some  cliffs  at  the  Naze  are  35  feet 
high.  The  centre  and  north  of  the  county  are 
beautifully  diversified  and  richly  wooded,  the 
highest  point  being  Langdou  Hill,  620  feet  above 
the  sea.  Besides  the  Thames,  the  other  chief  rivers 
are  the  Stour,  50  miles  long ;  Blackwater,  46  miles ; 
Lea,  Roding,  Crouch,  and  Chelmer.  The  east  of  the 
county  is  mostly  on  London  clay,  with  limestone 
beds  near  Harwich.  In  the  north-west,  chalk 
appears.  In  the  middle  and  north,  there  is  much 
diluvium,  with  chalk  fragments.  Crag  occurs  near 
Norwich,  and  stones  of  phosphate  of  lime  are  found 
here  and  there.  The  climate  is  moist  on  the  coast, 
but  clear,  healthy,  and  with  little  rain  in  the  interior. 
There  are  frequent  cold  fogs  in  spring  and  autumn. 
The  soil  is  mostly  a  fertile  loam  on  marly  alluvimn. 
The  county  is  almost  wholly  agricultural.  The  cliief 
crops  are  wheat,  barley,  oats,  beans,  potatoes,  saffron, 
caraway,  and  hops.  Essex  wheat  is  superior.  Great 
numbers  of  calves  are  fattened  for  the  London 
market,  and  there  are  large  sheep-flocks.  Essex 
has  valuable  oyster-fisheries  and  silk  manufactures. 
Pop.  in  1861,  404,644;  in  1871,  466,427.  The 
county  is  almost  entirely  in  the  diocese  of  Roch- 
ester. Essex  returns  six  menihers  to  parlia- 
ment. The  chief  town^are  Chelmsford,  the  capital, 
Colchester,  Maldon,  and  Harwich.  E.  was  once 
forest-land,  and  the  seat  of  a  powerful  tribe,  the 
Trinobantes,  whose  famous  chiefs,  Caractacus  and 
Boadicea,  were  overthrown  by  the  Romans.  E. 
constituted  part  of  the  Roman  Flaola  Ccesariensls. 
It  has  afforded  many  Roman  remains,  and  a  Roman 
road  once  passed  through  Colchester,  which  was  ah 
important  Roman  station.  The  Saxon  kingdom  of 
Essex  or  East  Sexe  (527 — 823),  included  London  and 
parts  of  Middlesex,  Hertford,  Bedford,  and  Essex. 

ESSEX,  Robert  Devereux,  Earl  of,  son  of 
Walter  Devereux,  first  earl  of  E.,  was  born  at 
Netherwood  in  Herefordshire,  lOtli  November  1567; 
entered  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  at  the  age  of 
ten,  where  he  remained  for  four  years.  Lord  Bur- 
leigh, to  whose  guardianship  he  had  been  intrusted, 
introduced  the  handsome  and  gifted  youth  at  cornet 
in  1584.  Here,  by  his  agreeable  manners,  his  appear- 
ance, and  takiits,  he  established  himself  among 
trtjops  of  friends,  and  gained  the  special  favour  of 
Elizabeth.  In  1585,  he  accompanied  the  Earl  of 
Leiccfeter  to  Holland,  where  he  distinguished  himself 
at  the  battle  of  Zutphen,  and  on  his  return  to  Eng- 
land was  made  Master  of  the  Horse  and  Knight  of 
the  Garter.  After  the  death  of  Leicester,  E.  con- 
tinued to  rise  in  the  favour  of  Elizabeth,  who  loaded 
liim  with  honours.  In  1591,  he  commanded  the 
forces  sent  to  the  assistance  of  Henry  IV.  of  France 
against  the  Spaniards,  but  achieved  no  success.  The 
next  few  years  v/ere  spent  in  endeavouring  to  get 
the  letter  of  Burliugh — the  wisest,  the  most  prudent, 


and  the  most  politic  of  all  Elizaboth's  advisers,  Iv 
1596  he  was  appointed  joint-commaiider  with  Lord 
Howard  in  the  expedition  against  Sjjain,  to  which 
Burleigh  was  strongly  opposed;  and  though  E.  dis- 
played all  his  wonted  courage,  and  contributed  to 
the  capture  of  Cadiz,  which  caused  immense  loss  to 
the  Spaniards,  yet  the  expedition  resulted  in  nothing, 
and  E.  had  to  defend  himself  against  various  accu- 
sations on  his  return.  In  1597,  he  was  made  Earl 
Marshal  of  England,  and,  on  the  death  of  Lord  Bur- 
leigh, Chancellor  of  Cambridge.  In  1598  occurred 
the  first  fatal  mistake  in  E.'s  career.  Presuming 
upon  Elizabeth's  admiration  and  feminine  fondnesi? 
for  his  person,  he  differed  from  her  about  some  trifling 
matter,  and  angrily  and  rudely  turned  his  back 
upon  her  m  the  presence  of  some  of  the  council, 
and  her  majesty,  whose  language  was  hardly  more 
delicate  than  her  father's,  gave  him  a  vigorous  box 
on  the  ears,  telling  him  to  '  go  and  be  hanged.'  A 
violent  quarrel  ensued,  which,  though  apparently 
smoothed  up,  was  never  really  so.  E.  was  afterwards, 
in  1599,  sent  to  Ireland — part  of  which  at  that  time 
was  in  a  state  of  rebellion — as  lord-lieutenant  of  that 
country;  but  here  his  government  was  ill-advised 
and  ineffectual,  and  after  a  few  unimportant  under- 
takings, he  concluded  a  truce  with  the  rebels,  which 
was  regarded  at  coui-t  as  high  treason.  In  order  to 
confront  his  enemies,  he  hastened  back  to  Loudon, 
contrary  to  the  queen's  express  commands,  and 
forced  his  way  into  Elizabeth's  bedchamber.  Justly 
offended,  the  queen  deprived  him  of  his  dignities, 
and  commanded  that  he  should  be  called  to  account 
for  his  behaviour.  E.,  advancing  from  one  degree  of 
foolhardihood  to  another,  tried  to  excite  an  insvu'- 
rection  in  London.  He  was  imprisoned,  tried,  and 
found  guilty.  Elizabeth  long  delayed  signing  the 
warrant  for  his  execution,  in  the  hope  that  he  would 
implore  her  pardon.  He  was  beheaded  on  the  25th 
February  1601,  after  defending  himself  with  pride 
and  dignity.  E.  was  rash,  bold,  and  presumptuous  ; 
but  brave,  generous,  and  affectionate,  and  the  friend 
and  patron  of  literary  men. 
ES-SIOUT.    See  Siout. 

E'SSLINGEN,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Ger- 
many, in  the  kingdom  of  Wurtemberg,  is  situated 
near  the  right  bank  of  the  Necker,  in  the  centre  of 
a  pleasing  and  fertile  district,  seven  miles  east-south- 
east of  Stuttgart.  It  consists  of  the  town  proper, 
and  five  suburbs,  and  is  surrounded  by  strong  walls, 
and  fortified  by  towers.  The  chief  buildings  are 
the  Frauenkirche — a  sj)lendid  edifice  in  the  purest 
Gothic  style,  built  in  1440,  and  surmounted  by  a 
spire  230  feet  high-  the  old  and  new  town-houses, 
and  the  old  castle.  It  has  the  greatest  machine- 
making  trade  of  the  kingdom,  has  manufactures  of 
a  wine  called  Esslingen  champagne,  of  woollens, 
and  cotton  and  woollen  yarns,  lackered  iron,  silver- 
plate  and  tin  wares,  and  i)aper,  with  a  good  trade  ia 
wine  and  agricultural  produce.    Pop.  (1871)  17.941. 

E.  was  founded  in  the  8th  c,  and  received  in  1209 
the  rights  of  a  free  city  of  the  German  empire. 
The  long  and  bloody  quarrel  which  existed  between 
it  and  the  House  of  Wui'temberg  was  brought  to 
an  end  at  the  peace  of  Lungville  (1802),  when  E., 
with  its  territory  was  assigned  to  the  duchy  of 
WUitemberg. 

ESSOUAN,  or  ESWAN.    See  Assouan. 

ESTABLISHED  CHURCH,  a  church  estab- 
lished  and  maintained  by  a  statt  -or  the  teaching  of 
Christianity  in  a  particular  form  within  its  boun- 
daries. Subsequent  to  the  Pvcfonnation,  many  of 
the  opinions  which  had  given  sanctity  to  the  Churcn 
of  Rome  still  kept  possession  of  men  s  minds ; 
amongst  these  was  the  notion,  that  the  c\\i\  go* 
vernment  of  each  state  was    ound  to  maintaiu  a 


ESTABLISHED  CHURCH— ESTATE. 


particular  form  of  Christianity.  Tlie  same  fallacious 
reasoning,  which  in  more  recent  times  has  led  to  the 
search  for  one  absolutely  best  form  of  civil  govern- 
ment, was  at  work  then  with  reference  to  the  church. 
The  Koman  Catholic  Church  Avas  not  the  best  form 
—  of  that  the  Protestant  states  had  become  con- 
viccsd — but  all  forms  were  not  therefore  indifferent ; 
and  if  one  was  better  than  another,  and  another 
bettcT  than  that,  there  must  be  an  aljsolutely  best, 
which  the  st<",te  Avas  bound  to  discover,  and  when 
discovered,  tf<  substitute  for  that  which  had  been 
atolislied.  The  idea  that  the  good  or  bad  qualities 
of  forms  of  government,  whether  civil  or  ecclesi- 
astical, so  long  as  they  did  not  violate  the  funda- 
mental doctrines  of  Christianity  or  morality,  were 
relative,  and  not  absolute,  and  that  whilst  one  might 
be  the  best  for  men  in  one  stage  of  development  or 
of  one  particular  temperament,  another  might  be 
the  best  for  those  who  differed  from  them  in  these 
respects,  did  not  belong  to  that  ago.  Each  Protes- 
tant state  consequently  established  a  church,  con- 
formity to  the  tenets  of  which  it  enforced,  not  only 
upon  those  who  as  ministers  were  henceforth  to 
enjoy  the  property  wdiich  in  Koman  Catholic  times 
had  been  devoted  to  the  sjiiritual  interests  of  the 
community,  but  verj'-  often  on  its  own  civil  servants 
and  advisers.  The  benefit  of  the  arrangement  was, 
that,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  the  means  which 
the  comminiity  had  set  apart  for  its  own  spiritual 
improvement  were  protected  from  the  spoliation  of 
pi'ivate  indiAnduals  ;  and  this  benefit  was  secured 
more  effectually  the  more  com})letely  the  new 
church  took  the  place  of  the  old — in  England,  for 
example,  better  than  in  Scotland ;  but  as  each  of  the 
Protestant  states  had  substituted  one  fonn  of  church- 
government  for  another,  and  as  the  same  form  had 
not  been  adopted  by  them  all,  the  idea  of  there 
being  one  form  which  was  absolutely  preferable  to 
the  others,  though  not  abolished,  was  rudely  shaken. 
In  England,  Queeu  Elizabeth  had  stated  in  her  cele- 
brated declaration,  that  she,  as  head  of  the  church, 
*  would  not  endure  any  varying  or  departing  in  the 
least  degree'  from  the  doctrines  of  the  Episcopal 
Church  of  England  as  set  forth  in  the  Thirty-nine 
Articles ;  and  yet  Presbyterianism  was  established 
in  England  in  1649.  In  Scotland,  where  Presby- 
terianism had  at  first  taken  root,  Episcoj^alianism 
had  more  than  once  become  the  law  of  the  land. 
The  effect  of  such  occurrences  was  to  counteract 
the  belief  in  any  oi.-^  form  as  the  form  for  all  Chris- 
tendom, and  to  facilitate  dissent  and  the  formation 
of  sects.  The  pastors  of  these  sects  Avere  not  at  first 
recognised  by  the  law  as  entitled  to  any  of  the 
privileges  of  Christian  ministers.  Whatever  they 
might  be  to  theu'  owoi  flock,  to  the  state  they  were 
laymen,  and  their  churches  were  mere  secular 
lecture-rooms,  or,  at  most,  places  of  meeting  for 
private  devotion.  See  Nonconformists,  Dissent- 
ers, Church,  &c.  Gradually  this  view  became  modi- 
tied,  and  the  civil  consequences  attaching  to  sacred 
rites,  when  performed  by  a  clergyman  of  tlie  estab- 
lishment, were  extended  to  them  when  performed  by 
dissenters.  See  Marriage.  But  though  many  of 
the  privileges,  and  all  the  liberties  belonging  to  the 
established  church,  have  now  been  extended  to 
dissenting  bodies,  including  Roman  Catholics  (see 
Roman  Catholic  Emancipation)  and  Jews  (see 
Jew),  the  established  churches  of  the  three  divisions 
of  the  United  Kingdom,  are  alone  supported  by  the 
state,  and  are  still  guarded  from  spoliation  by  the 
Coronation  Oath  (q.  v.)  of  the  sovereign.  With  the 
exception  of  the  grant  to  the  Roman  Catholic  college 
of  Maynooth,  and  the  Tieginm  Doinim  (q.  v.)  to  the 
Presbyterian  ministers  in  Ireland,  there  is  no  endow- 
ment of  other  sects  from  the  public  funds,  as  in 
France ;  and  the  emoluments  of  the  established 
131 


church,  though  modified  in  their  distribution  by  the 
labours  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Commissioners  (q.  v.), 
have  not  yet  been  appropriated  to  any  other  than 
religious  uses  in  connection  with  that  church. 

The  cause  of  established  churches  is  very  generally 
maintained  on  the  ground  of  the  alleged  duty  ot  the 
state  to  provide  for  the  religious  instruction  of  the 
whole  body  of  the  people,  as  most  essential  to  their 
moral  welfare,  and  so  to  the  general  prosperity  of 
the  community.  It  is  furthei  argued,  in  support  of 
the  same  cause,  that  civil  rulers,  or  the  people  aa 
associated  in  a  free  state,  are  nnder  a  moral  obliga- 
tion of  the  highest  kind,  to  acknowledge  God,  his 
law,  and  his  ordinances  Concerning  which,  and 
other  arguments,  for  and  against  established  churche'% 
as  far  as  it  belongs  to  the  scheme  of  this  work  to 
give  notices  of  them,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
article  Voluntaryism.  It  may  here,  however,  be 
observed,  that  the  arguments  just  mentioned  do  not 
necessarily  infer,  even  when  admitted  to  the  utmost, 
that  the  state  is  bound  to  support  in  any  exclusive 
way  a  particular  sect  or  denomination,  xinless,  on  the 
further  assum])tion  that  religious  truth  and  worth 
belong  to  that  denomination  alone.  Nor  does  the 
endoivment  of  a  church  by  the  state  necessarily  follow 
from  the  fullest  adoption  of  the  principles  thus  con- 
tended for.  And,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  a  p(>int 
which  may  very  reasonably  be  disputed,  how  far  the 
common  argimients  against  state  endowments  are 
applicable  to  those  endowments  which  were  not 
originally  bestowed  by  the  state,  but  wdiich  the 
state  has,  from  a  very  early  })eriod,  recognised  as 
belonging  to  the  chiirch  ;  a  description  which  will 
be  found  to  comprehend  great  part  of  the  existing 
endowments  of  established  churches.  The  exclusive 
possession  of  them  by  a  particiilar  denomination,  and 
their  rightful  a])propriation  to  religious  uses,  are, 
however,  distinct  questions. 

ESTA'TE.  In  the  law  of  England,  an  estate 
in  lands,  tenements,  or  hereditaments,  signifies  such 
interest  as  the  tenant  hath  tlierein  ;  so  that  if  a 
man  grants  all  his  estate  in  Dale  to  A.  and  his 
heirs,  everything  that  he  can  possibly  grant  shall 
pass  thereby. — Blackstone,  Comm.  ii.  10.3.  The  first 
division  of  estates  is  into  legal  and  equitable.  By 
the  former  is  signified  the  estate  which  a  man  has 
by  the  common  law  ;  by  the  latter,  the  interest 
which  has  been  created  by  the  operation  of  a  coui-t 
of  equity.  See  Equitable  Estates,  Uses,  Trusts. 
Legal  estates  are  considered  in  England  with  refer- 
ence to  the  quantity  of  the  estate,  the  time  of  enjoy- 
ment, and  the  number  of  persons  who  may  unite 
in  the  enjoyment.  Under  the  first  head,  estates  are 
either  freehold  or  less  than  freehold.  Freehold 
estates,  again,  are  divided  into  freeholds  of  inherit- 
ance, or  Fees  (q.  v.) ;  and  freeholds  not  of  inherit- 
ance, or  for  life.  An  estate  for  life  may  be  for  the 
life  of  the  person  to  whom  it  is  granted,  or  for 
that  of  another  person,  or  for  more  than  one  life. 
A  person  holding  an  estate  for  the  life  of  another  is 
called  tenant  pur  autre  vie.  An  estate  pur  autre  vie 
being  a  freehold,  descends,  in  case  of  the  death  of 
the  tenant  during  the  term,  to  his  heir,  and  not  to 
his  executor.  An  estate  by  the  Courtesy  of  England 
(q.  v.),  and  an  estate  in  Dower  (q.  v.),  are  estates  for 
life.  A  conveyance  to  A.  B.,  without  mention  of 
heirs,  makes  the  grantee  tenant  for  life.  •  An  estate 
to  a  woman  during  her  widowhood,  or  to  a  man 
until  the  occurrence  of  a  specified  event,  as  till  he 
receive  a  benefice,  will  be  construed  to  be  an  estate 
for  life.  Tenants  for  life  are  entitled  to  take 
Estovers  (q.  v.),  but  they  must  not  commit  Waste 
(q.  v.).  'J'he  representatives  of  a  tenant  for  life  are 
also  usually  entitled  to  take  the  Emblements  (q.  v.) 
on  the  expiry  of  the  term.  Estates  less  than  free- 
hold are  called  also  chattels  real.    This  species  of 


ESTATE  TAII^ESTELLA. 


estate,  on  the  death  of  the  tenant,  pasnes,  like  other 
Chattels  ( j.  v.)  to  the  executor,  and  not  to  the  heir. 
They  are  divided  into  estates  for  years,  estates  at 
will,  and  estates  on  suiFerance.  See  Leases.  Estates, 
with  reference  to  the  time  of  their  enjoyment,  may 
be  either  in  possession  or  in  expectancy.  An  estate 
in  possession  comprehends  not  only  an  estate  in  the 
actual  occupation  of  the  tenant,  but  one  from  which 
he  has  been  wronj^fully  ousted.  In  this  latter  case, 
the  hiw  regards  the  rightful  tenant  as  having  the 
actual  estate,  to  which  is  attached  the  Right  of 
Entry  (q.  v.).  An  estate  in  expectancy  may  be  either 
in  Reversion  or  Remainder  (q.  v.).  Estates  of 
this  character  form  a  large  portion  of  the  rights 
to  land  in  England,  and  are  the  subject  of  some 
of  the  most  subtle  learning  of  the  English  law. 
With  reference  to  the  number  of  persons  entitled 
to  the  enjoyment,  estates  may  be  in  severalty,  in 
joint-tenancy,  in  co-parcenary,  or  in  common.  An 
estate  in  severalty  is  where  the  sole  right  to  the 
estate  is  in  a  single  person.  See  Joint- Tenancy, 
Coparcenary,  Tenancy  in  Common. 
ESTATE  TAIL.    See  Entail. 

ESTATES  OF  THE  REALM.  The  three 
estates  of  the  realm  are  not  King,  Lords,  and 
Commons,  as  is  popularly  believed,  but  the  Lords 
Spiritual,  the  Lords  Temporal,  and  the  Commons. 
The  ancient  parliament  of  Scotland  consisted  of  the 
king  and  the  three  estates  of  the  realm,  by  which 
latter  was  meant — 1st,  the  archbishops,  bishops, 
abbots,  and  mitred  priors ;  2d,  the  barons,  under 
which  head  were  comprehended  not  only  the 
nobility,  but  the  conmiissioners  of  shires  and 
stewartries ;  and  3d,  the  commissioners  from  the 
royal  burghs.  All  these  assembled  in  one  house, 
and  formed  one  meeting,  by  a  majority  of  the 
votes  of  which  all  matters,  whether  legislative  or 

J'udicial,  were  determined.— Ersk.  b.  i.  tit.  3,  s.  2. 
5ellV  Dictionary.    See  States. 

E'STE  (ancient  Ateste),  a  town  of  Venice,  is 
beautifully  situated  on  the  southern  slope  of  the 
Euganean  Hills,  17  miles  south-south-west  of  Padua, 
.-t  is  an  old  town,  and  has  a  decidedly  Lombard 
appearance,  many  of  the  houses  being  supported  by 
arches.  It  has  several  interesting  buddings,  among 
which  the  chief  are  theRocca,  or  castle  of  Este,  with 
ft  grim-looking  donjon  tower,  overhanging  the  town, 
and  the  chui'ch  of  San  Martino,  in  the  Romanesque 
style,  surmounted  by  a  campanile,  which  slopes  as 
mut;h  as  the  Leaning  Tower  of  Pisa.  Both  church 
and  tower  have  been  sadly  disfigured  by  an  attempt 
to  modernise  them.  E.  manufactures  silk  goods, 
saltpetre,  hats,  and  earthenware  and  has  numerous 
silk-mills  and  whetstone  quarries  in  the  vicinity. 
Pop.  8000. 

E  STE,  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  illustrious 
families  of  Italy,  which,  according  to  the  historian 
Muratori,  owed  its  origin  to  those  petty  princes  who 
governed  IXiscany  in  the  times  of  the  Carlovingians, 
»nd  who  were  in  all  probability  of  the  race  of  the 
Longobards.  The  first  whose  figure  is  more  than  a 
mere  shadow  is  Adalbert,  who  died  about  917  A.  d. 
The  grandson  or  grani  nephew  of  Adalbert,  named 
Obt  rto,  was  one  of  the  Italian  nobles  who  ofi"ered 
the  crown  of  Italy  to  Otho  of  Saxony.  He  is  after- 
wai'is  styled  Comes  soon,  palatii^  and  appears  to 
have  been  one  of  the  greatest  personages  in  the 
realm ;  he  married  a  daughter  of  Otho's,  and  died 
about  972  a.d.  In  later  times,  the  family  of  E. 
received  from  the  emperors  several  districts  and 
counties  to  be  held  as  fiefs  of  the  empire.  The 
family  divided,  at  an  early  period,  Into  two  branches, 
the  German  and  Italian.  The  fo>;mer  was  founded 
oy  Welf  or  Guelfo  IV,,  who  received  the  inves- 
titure of  the  duchy  of  Bavaria  from  the  Emperor 


Henry  IV.  in  1070.  The  Houses  of  Brunswick  and 
Hanover,  and  consequently  the  sovereigns  of  Great 
Britain,  also  called  Este-Guelfs,  are  dci^ceaded  from 
this  person.  In  the  12th,  13th,  and  14tli  centuries, 
the  history  of  the  E.  family,  as  heads  of  the  Guelf 
jtarty,  is  interwoven  with  the  destinies  of  tlie  other 
r'diug  families  and  small  republics  of  Northern 
Italy.  During  this  period,  they  first  gained  posses- 
sion of  Ferrara  and  the  march  of  Ancona  (1208 
A.  D.),  and  afterwards  of  Modena  and  Regi^io  (1288 
— 1289),  and  were  widely  celebrated  as  the  ])att  on3 
of  art  and  literature.  One  of  the  most  illi  strioua 
was  Azzo  VII.,  who  encouraged  Provencal  trouba- 
dours to  settle  at  his  court  at  Ferrara,  and  also 
founded  schools  in  that  city.  Alfonso  1.  (died 
1534)  was  equally  distinguished  as  a  soldier  and 
a  statesman,  and  was  celebrated  by  all  the  poeta 
of  his  time,  particularly  by  Ariosto.  His  second 
wife  was  the  notorious  Lucrezia  Borgia.  His  quarrel 
with  the  Popes  Julius  II.,  Leo  X.,  and  Clement  VII., 
was  unfortunate,  as  an  interdict  was  laid  ujion  hini 
for  his  adherence  to  the  league  of  Cambray,  and  hia 
papal  fiefs  declared  to  be  forfeited.  After  the  siege 
of  Rome,  in  1527,  the  duke  was  restored  to  hia 
former  possessions  by  Charles  V.  His  successor, 
Ercole  or  Hercules  II.,  who  married  Reuate, 
daughter  of  Louis  XII.  of  France  and  Anne  of 
Brittany,  attached  himself  to  Charles  V.  He  and 
his  brother,  a  dignitary  of  the  Cathohc  Church,  were 
also  liberal  patrons  of  art  and  science  ;  the  latter 
erected  the  magnificent  Villa  d'Este  at  Tivoli.  The 
next  prince,  Alfonso  11.  (died  1597),  w-ould  have  been 
noways  inferior  to  the  preceding  but  for  his  immo- 
derate love  of  splendour,  his  inordinate  ambition, 
and  the  cruelty  he  displayed  towards  the  poet  Tasso, 
whose  eccentricities,  however,  it  must  be  confessed, 
were  enough  to  try  the  patience  of  any  reasonable 
mortal.  Alfonso  IV.,  who  flourished  in  the  lattor 
half  of  the  17th  c,  was  very  fond  of  the  fine  arts, 
and  founded  the  Este  gallery  of  paintings,  liinaldo 
(died  1737),  by  his  marriage  with  the  daughter  of 
the  Duke  of  Brunswick-Lunenburg,  united  the  Ger- 
man and  Italian  Houses,  separated  since  1070.  The 
male  line  of  the  House  of  E.  became  extinct  on  the 
death  of  Ercole  III.  in  1803,  his  possessions  iiaving 
been  previously  seized  by  the  French  invaders, 
and  annexed  to  the  Cisalpine  Republic.  His  only 
daughter  married  the  Archduke  Ferdinand,  third 
son  of  Francis,  emperor  of  Austria.  Their  eldest 
son,  Francis  IV.,  by  the  treaty  of  1814-1815,  was 
restored  to  the  territoi'ies  which  had  belonged  to  his 
maternal  ancestors,  comprising  the  duchy  of  Modena; 
and,  on  his  mother's  death,  obtained  the  duchies  or 
Massa  and  Carrara.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Francis  V.,  21st  January  1846.  The  connection 
which  the  family  of  E.,  like  others  of  the  snudl 
Italian  principalities,  had  formed  with  Austria,  gave 
it,  of  course,  pro- Austrian  sympathies,  the  result  of 
which  has  been  fatal  to  its  popularity  and  dynastic 
existence.  In  1860,  the  sentiment  of  Italian  unity 
and  independence,  which  for  the  previous  15  or  20 
years  had  been  steadily  fostered  by  tlie  policy  of 
Sardinia,  triumphed  in  a  universal  explosion  of 
national  feeling,  which  swept  Italy  clean  of  all  her 
petty  I'ulers,  and  subsequently  united  the  peninsula 
under  the  single  authority  of  Victor  Emmanuel  as 
king  of  Italy,  Rome  becoming  the  capital  of  the 
kingdom  in  1870. 

ESTE'LLA,  .an  ancient  city  of  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  Navarre,  is  pleasantly  situated  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Ega,  about  27  miles  south-west  of 
Pamplona.  It  is  a  weil-buQt,  clean  town,  with  several 
squares,  and  has,  in  the  environs,  a  variety  of 
agreeable  promenades  and  pleasure-grounds.  It  has 
two  interesting  churches,  both  old,  and  one  of  them, 
San  Juan,  a  tine  building  with  a  very  lefty  tower* 


ESTEPA— ESTHONIA. 


The  manufactures  are  woollen  and  linen  fabrics, 
brandy,  and  earthenware.  A  tolerable  wine  is  made 
in  the  vicinity.  E.  has  some  trade  in  fruits,  wool, 
hardware,  and  grain.  Pop.  about  6000.  Here  Don 
Carlos  was  proclaimed  king  in  November  1S33  ; 
find  here,  in  February  1839,  six  of  his  officers  were 
treacherously  betrayed  and  executed  without  even  a 
form  of  trial. 

ESTE'PA,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of 
Seville,  and  GO  miles  east-south-east  of  the  town  of 
that  name.  It  is,  on  the  whole,  well  built ;  has 
imr  squares,  and  nximerous  religious  edifices,  among 
which  are  the  churches  of  Santa  Maria  and  San 
Sebastian ;  the  former,  a  noble  specimen  of  Gothic, 
liaving  three  naves,  and  a  richly  ornamented  interior. 
It  has  manufactures  of  coarse  cloth,  baize,  and  oil, 
with  a  trade  in  grain,  fruits,  oil,  brandy,  wool,  and 
cattle.  In  the  vicinity  are  marble  and  building- 
«tone  quarries.    Pop.  8133. 

ESTEPO'NA,  a  inaritune  town  of  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  Malaga,  and  25  miles  north-north-east 
of  Gibraltar.  It  is  well  and  regularly  built ;  its 
streets  wide,  clean,  and  well  paved.  It  supplies 
Gibraltar  witVi  fruits  and  vegetaliles  ;  and  its  chief 
industrial  features  are  its  fishing,  linen- weaving, 
and  manufactures  of  leather.    Pop.  9400. 

E'STERHAZY,  an  ancient  Hmigarian  family, 
afterwards  raised  to  tlie  rank  of  princes  of  the 
empii'e,  the  representative  of  which  is  at  present 
the  richest  landed  proprietor  in  Austria.  The 
family  divided  into  three  main  branches — the 
Esesznek,  Altsohl  or  Zolyom,  and  Forchtenstein 
lines.  A  descendant  of  the  last  family,  Nicholas 
de  Esterhazy,  born  in  1765,  travelled  over  a  great 
part  of  Europe,  and  resided  for  a  considerable 
time  in  England,  France,  aud  Italy.  He  founded 
the  splendid  collection  of  pictures  at  Vienna.  He 
also  made  a  choice  collection  of  drawings  aud 
engravings.  When  Napoleon,  in  1809,  entertained 
the  notion  of  weakening  Austria  by  the  separation 
of  Huugaiy,  he  made  overtures  to  Prince  Esterhazy 
respectmg  the  crown  of  Hungary,  which,  however, 
were  declined.  The  great  Haydn  composed  most  of 
his  works  at  the  court  of  Prince  Nicholas.  His 
gon.  Prince  Paid  Anton  d'Esterhazy,  born  in  1786, 
entered  at  an  early  age  on  a  diplomatic  career. 
After  the  peace  of  Vienna,  he  went  as  ambassador 
to  the  court  of  Westphalia.  From  1815  to  1818,  he 
represented  the  Austrian  government  at  London. 
He  filled  the  same  office  between  1830  and  1838, 
and  distinguished  himself  by  his  diplomatic  tact 
and  ability.  In  1842,  he  returned  home,  and  con- 
tinued to  exert  himself  in  the  cause  of  political 
and  literary  progress.  In  March  1848,  he  became 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  in  the  cabinet  presided 
over  by  Batthyani  ;  but  when  the  struggle  between 
Austria  and  Hungary  broke  out,  he  exhibited  more 
prudence  than  heroism  by  retiring  from  public 
affairs  altogether.  Died  July  1866.  Prince  Nich- 
olns  Piiul  Charles  Esterhazy,  born  25th  June  1817, 
married  Lady  Sarah  Villiers,  daughter  of  the  Earl 
of  Jersey. 

E'STHER  (the  word  signifies  '  the  planet  Venus ') 
is  the  I*ersian  name  of  Hadassah,  daughter  of  Abi- 
hail,  the  son  of  Shimei,  the  son  of  Kish,  a  Benjamite. 
She  is  represented  in  Scriptiire  as  an  ori)han,  and 
as  having  been  brought  up  by  her  cousin  Mordecai, 
an  officer  in  the  household  of  the  Persian  monarch 
Ahasuerus.  Her  history,  as  recorded  in  the  book  of 
Esther,  is  well  known  and  extremely  interesting. 
When  the  misconduct  of  Vashti  had  cost  her  her 
*  royal  estate,'  all  '  the  fair  young  virgins '  of  the 
kingdom  were  gathered  together,  that  Ahasuerus 
might  choose  a  successor.  He  selected  Hadassah, 
who  received  the  name  of  E.  on  a(,coimt  of  her 


loveliness.  The  ^eat  event  of  her  life  was  tb« 
saving  of  her  Jewish  countrymen  from  the  horrors 
of  that  universal  massacre  planned  by  the  malice 
of  Haman,  and  consented  to  by  the  thoughtless 
cruelty  of  an  Oriental  despot.  The  details  of  this 
event  are  too  famUiar  to  require  narration.  It  is 
sufficient  to  say  that  K's  success  was  signal ; 
and  the  feast  which  she  and  her  cousin  Mordecai 
appointed  in  memory  of  their  deliverance — viz.,  tho 
feast  of  Purim  (i.  e.,  of  Lots),  is,  in  consequence,  cele- 
brated with  great  enthusiasm.  E.  is  not  mentioned 
in  profane  history,  whence  it  has  been  inferred  by 
some  that  she  was  not  exactly  the  wife  of  Ahaauoua 
(Xerxes),  but  rather  the  favourite  of  bis  haieaL 
to  which  she  undoubtedly  belonged;  for,  as  we 
read  (ii.  8),  E.  was  consigned  *  to  the  custody  of 
Hegai,  keeper  of  the  women.'  This  hypothesis  ia 
rendered  j^robable  by  the  fact,  that  the  Persian 
kings  did  not  choose  wives  from  their  harem,  but 
from  the  principal  Persian  families,  or  else  from  the 
daughters  of  foreign  potentates. 

ESTHER,  Book  of,  one  of  the  very  latest  of 
the  canonical  works  of  the  Old  Testament,  and 
commonly,  but  without  a  shadow  of  evidence,  sup- 
posed to  be  written  by  Mordecai  or  Ezra.  This 
is  the  view  of  Ahenesra,  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
Augustine,  Gerhard,  and  others.  The  Talmud 
assigns  the  authorship  to  the  members  of  the  Great 
Synagogue,  a  semi-mythical  body,  who  are  made 
use  of  by  Jewish  rabbis  and  Christian  divines  as  a 
sort  of  heus  ex  nmchina  to  solve  every  difficulty. 
According  to  the  opinions  of  the  most  learned  and 
unprejudiced  critics,  the  date  of  its  composition 
must  be  placed  after  the  downfall  of  the  Persian 
monarchy.  The  language  is  much  later  than  that 
of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  and  the  fact  of  occasional 
explanation  of  Persian  customs  fits  the  peilod  oi 
the  Seleucidie  better  than  an  earlier  one.  The 
Hebrew  text  is  that  which  has  been  followed  in  the 
English  version ;  but  the  Septuagint  is  fuU  of  late 
interpolations  and  additions  by  Alexandrian  Jews. 
The  book  is  held  in  the  highest  reverence  by  the 
Jews ;  so  much  so,  that  Maimonides  declared  that, 
in  the  days  of  the  Messiah,  eveiy  Jewish  scri])ture 
woidd  be  forgotten  except  the  book  of  Esther 
and  the  Pentateuch.  The  book  is  not  written  in  a 
theocratic  spirit,  like  the  rest  of  Jewish  literature. 
Nothing  is  directly  attributed  to  God ;  in  fact, 
his  name  is  not  once  mentioned.  Neither  is  there 
the  remotest  trace  of  religious  feeling  of  any  kind. 
Luther,  in  his  usual  off-hand  hasty  way,  expressed 
his  contempt  for  the  book,  in  spite  of  the  admiration 
which  the  Jews  bestowed  on  it,  censuring  it  for  its 
'heathenish  extravagance,'  and  declaring  that,  in 
his  judgment,  it  was  *more  worthy  than  all  of 
being  excluded  from  the  canon.'  The  absence  of  all 
recognition  of  God,  perplexed  some  of  the  ancient 
Jewish  commentators,  who  therefore  invented  the 
hjrpothesis,  that  the  book  was  originally  a  part  of 
the  Persian  chronicles,  probably  executed  by  JSIor- 
decai ;  and  that,  being  mtended  for  the  heathen^  the 
sacred  name  was  wisely  left  out ! 

ESTHO'NIA,  called  by  the  inhabitants  Ibem- 
selves  Wiroma  (i.  e.,  the  Border-land),  a  Eussian 
government,  and  one  of  the  Baltic  Provinces  (q.  v.), 
extends  immediately  south  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland ; 
has  an  area  of  7597  square  miles,  and  a  population 
of  about  300,000.  It  was  conquered  (1182—1241) 
by  the  Danes,  who  sold  it  to  the  Teutonic  knights 
in  1346.  It  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Swedes 
in  1561,  bat  was  tJiken  from  them  by  Peter  the 
Great  in  1710,  and  by  the  treaty  of  Nystadt,  was 
finally  secured  to  Russia  in  1721.  One- third  cf 
the  entire  sui*face,  which  is  in  general  flat,  is  under 
cultivation  and  produces  great  quajitities  of  rv» 


ESTOC— ESZER. 


and  barley ;  the  remaining  two-tliirds  are  chiefly 
composed  of  sandy  tracts  and  marshes,  strewn  in 
many  places  with  large  blocks  of  granite ;  there 
are  also  extensive  forests  of  birch  and  pine.  The 
government  of  E.  is  divided  into  four  circles;  its 
priccipal  town  is  Reval  or  Ilevel  (q,  v.). 

The  inhabitants  are  divided  into  Esthlanders 
and  Esths.  The  former  are  a  mixture  of  Swedes, 
Germans,  and  Russians,  and  comprise  the  nobles 
and  the  to\vu-popvdations.  The  latter  belong  to  the 
Finnish  race,  and  are  the  original  possessors  of  the 
soil.  Their  language  is  soft  and  musical,  and  is 
divided  into  two  leading  dialects,  that  of  Revel  and 
that  of  Dorpart.  They  also  possess  a  literature  rich 
in  splendid  national  songs.  See  Keus,  Esthnisclie 
VolksUeder  (Reval,  1850—1851).  They  are  indus- 
tiious,  kind-hearted,  and  in  the  main  religious  and 
attached  to  the  Protestant  doctrines.  A  great  part 
of  Livonia  is  peopled  with  Esths,  the  entire  number 
of  whom  in  the  Baltic  provinces  is  about  650,000. 

ESTO'C  (Italian),  a  small  dagger  worn  at  the 
girdle,  called  in  Elizal^ethan  times  a  Tucke. 

ESTOILE,  or  STAR,  in  Heraldry,  differs  from  the 
Mullet  (q.  V.)  by  having  six  waved  points ;  the 
mullet  consisting  of  five  plain  points. 

ESTO'PPEL,  an  impediment  or  bar  to  a  right  of 
action,  arising  from  a  man's  own  act.  It  is  called 
an  estoppel  or  conclusion,  because  a  man's  own  act 
or  acceptance  stoppeth  or  closeth  up  his  mouth  to 
allege  or  plead  the  truth. — Co.  Litt.  .352  a.  Estoppels 
are  of  three  kinds — 1.  By  matter  of  record,  where 
any  judgment  has  been  given  in  a  court  of  record, 
the  parties  to  the  suit  are  estopped  from  afterwards 
alleging  such  matters  as  would  be  contradictory 
to  the  record.  2.  By  matter  in  writing.  Thus,  a 
party  who  has  executed  a  deed  wall  be  precluded 
from  afterwards  denjdng,  in  any  action  brought 
upon  that  instrument,  the  fact  of  which  it  is 
evidence.  3.  By  matter  in  paijs,  as  by  livery,  by 
entry,  by  acceptance  of  rent,  &c. — by  any  of  which 
acts  a  man  is  barred  from  pleading  anything  to  the 
contrary.  The  principle  of  estoppel  is  that  what  a 
man  has  once  solemnly  alleged  is  to  be  presumed  to 
be  true,  and  therefore  he  should  not  be  suffei-ed  to 
contradict.  The  doctrine  of  estoppel  prevails  in 
America  as  vrell  as  in  England.  In  Scotland  also, 
the  same  principle  is  recognised,  under  the  name  of 
Personal  Exception  (q.v.). 

ESTO'VER  (Fr.  esfoffcr,  to  furnish),  an  incident 
to  the  estate  of  a  tenant  for  life  or  for  j^ears.  It  is 
the  right  which  the  tenant  has  to  make  use  of  the 
wood  on  the  estate  for  certain  definite  purposes. 
Estovers,  or  botes  (Saxon),  are  of  three  kinds— house- 
bote, which  is  twofold — viz.,  estoverium  cedijicandi 
et  ardmdi,  a  right  to  wood  for  fuel  and  repairs  of 
the  house,  ploughbote,  estoverium  arandi,  wood  for 
ploughs  and  carts ;  and  haybote,  estoverium  claudendi, 
vrood  for  repairing  hedges  and  fences. — Co.  Litt. 
41  b. 

ESTREA'T  (Lat.  extractum),  in  English  Law,  a 
true  extract  copy  or  note  of  some  original  writing 
or  record,  and  specially  of  fines  or  amercements, 
as  entered  in  the  rolls  of  a  court,  to  be  levied  by 
bailiffs  or  other  ofticers.  When,  however,  it  is 
applied  to  a  Recognisance  (q.  v.),  it  signifies  that 
the  recognisance  itself  is  estreated,  or  taken  out 
from  among  the  other  records,  and  sent  to  the 
Exchequer. — Blackstone,  Comm.  iv.  253.  If  the 
condition  of  a  recognisance  be  broken,  the  recog- 
nisance is  forfeited ;  and  on  its  being  estreated, 
the  parties  l)ecome  debtors  to  the  crown  for  the 
Bums  in  which  they  are  r-ound.— ArcJibold,  Crim. 
Practice,  78.  The  Court  of  Exchequer  has  power 
over  pejvalties  and  forfeitures  incurred  at  assizes, 
ui'J  jan  discharge  or  compound  them  at  its  discre- 


tion ;  but  that  court  has  no  power  over  recognisancea 
forfeited  before  justices  of  the  peace. 

ESTREMADU'RA,  previous  to  the  new  distri- 
bution of  the  country,  a  province  of  Spain,  situated 
between  Portugal  and  New  Castile,  and  watered  hy 
the  Tagus  and  the  Guadiana.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
N.  by  Leon,  on  the  S.  by  Andalusia,  and,  since 
1833,  has  been  divided  into  the  two  provinces  of 
Badajos  and  Caceres.  It  has  an  area  of  14,.329 
square  miles,  and  contains  (1870)  734,377  inhabitants 
Although  a  continuation  of  the  high  table  land 
of  New  Castile,  E.  is  not,  like  it,  a  uniform  plain, 
but  is  mountainous  on  the  north  and  south,  and  is 
well  watered,  the  slopes  of  the  hills  being  covered 
with  wood,  and  the  valleys  with  rich  grass.  Not- 
withstanding the  fertility  of  the  soil,  the  land  has 
lain  desolate  and  uncultivated  ever  since  the  expid- 
sion  of  the  Moors  in  the  13th  century.  This  ia 
chiefly  to  be  attributed  to  tljf  Mesta,  or  right  of 
pasture,  which  causes  the  lan^i  to  be  regarded  aa 
the  common  property  of  the  possessors  of  flocks. 
The  breeding  of  goats,  swine,  horses,  asses,  and 
mides  is  much  attended  to.  Silk  and  honey  form 
no  inconsiderable  branches  of  trade.  Corn  is  still 
imported.  The  mines,  which  were  formerly  very 
productive,  are  no  longer  wrought.  Commerce  is 
confined  almost  entirely  to  a  contraband  trade  with 
Portugal.  Tlie  inhabitants  are  poor,  ajid,  from  the 
want  of  roads,  isolated  from  the  rest  of  Spain,  and 
consequently  in  a  low  state  of  civilisation.  They 
make  excellent  soldiers,  however,  and  have  produced 
a  series  of  brave  conqulstadores  and  generals. 

ESTREMADURA,  next  to  Alemtejo,  the  largest 
province  of  Portugal,  has  an  area  of  8834  sq.  miles, 
and  including  the  capital,  Lisbon,  contains  835,880 
inhabitants.  The  greater  part  of  the  country  ia 
hilly,  but  the  hills  do  not  attain  any  great  elevation. 
To  the  west  of  the  estuary  of  the  Tagus  are  the 
granite  mountains  of  the  feerra  da  Cintra,  varying 
from  1500  to  1800  feet  in  height,  ana  terminating 
in  the  Cabo  de  Roca.  To  the  south  of  the  Tagua 
are  Ixarren  moors,  partly  broken  by  moi-asses,  and 
the  limestone  chain  of  Arrabida,  rising  to  a  height 
of  1000  feet,  and  terminating  in  the  Cabo  de  EspicheL 
Many  districts  are  extremely  fertile,  others  are 
barren  and  uncidtivated.  The  Tagus,  which  is  only 
navigable  as  far  as  Abrantes,  receives  the  waters  of 
the  Zezeres,  the  Sorraya,  and  the  Caidia,  and  ia 
strewn  with  islands  at  its  mouth.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions of  the  country  are  wine,  oil,  fruits,  corn, 
and  cork ;  but  even  the  sandy  plains  are  covered 
with  cistus,  rosemary,  myrtles,  and  other  flowej-ing 
and  fragrant  plants.  The  breeding  of  cattle  is  not 
much  attended  to.  The  minerals  are  marble,  coal, 
and  sea- salt.  This  province  has  been  frequently 
visited  by  earthquakes. 

ESTREMO'Z,  a  fortified  town  of  Portugal  in  the 
province  of  Alemtejo,  is  23  miles  north-east  of  Evora, 
and  about  the  same  distance  east  of  Elvas.  It  ia 
built  round  the  base  of  the  hill  on  which  its  omje 
formidable  castle,  erected  in  1360,  is  placed.  It  ncv 
ranks  as  the  f oiu-th  or  fifth  stronghold  in  PortugaL 
E.  is  famous  for  its  manufactures  of  earthenware ; 
its  jars,  which  are  made  of  a  porous  clay,  and  Live 
the  property  of  keeping  water  singularly  cool,  are  of 
elegant  shape,  and  are  used  all  over  the  peninsula. 
The  earthenware  manufactures  of  E.  seem  to  have 
continued  unchanged  since  Roman  times,  as  imtil 
the  present  day  the  forms  into  whi'^h  the  jars  are 
cast  are  purely  classical.  In  the  neighbourhood  of 
E.  is  a  marble  quarry.    Pop.  6500. 

E'SZEK,  a  royal  free  town  of  Slavonia,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Drave,  twelve  miles  ai)0ve  ita 
confluence  with  the  Danube,  is  the  chief  to^\^l  ol 
the  district  of  Veroecze,  and  is  the  most  prosperoiui 


ETAMPES— ETHER. 


trading  town  of  Slavonia.  Since  the  Drave  began 
to  be  uavij^ated  doNvn wards  to  E.  by  steamers,  the 
town  has  driven  a  prosperous  trade  in  corn,  wood, 
pigs,  u*on,  deals,  wine,  and  flax.  The  fortress  of 
Eszek,  known  in  Roman  times  under  the  name  of 
Mursia,  is  protected  by  a  fort  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Drave.  In  the  fortress  the  counnander's 
dwelling  and  the  town-house,  and  in  the  lower 
town  the  county  buildings,  are  specially  worthy  of 
menti(ja.  During  the  Hungarian  revolution,  the 
(■own  was  at  first  held  by  Count  Casimir  Batthyanyi, 
but  capitulated,  after  a  siege  of  several  weeks,  to 
the  Austrian  general,  Baron  Trebersberg.  Pop. 
17,24  7,  more  than  one  half  of  whom  are  Roman 
Catholics,  the  rest  being  Greek  Catholics,  Protes- 
tants, and  Jews. 

ETAMPES  (anc.  Stampcp),  a  'to\vn  of  France,  in 
tihe  department  of  Seiue-et-Oise,  is  situated  32  miles 
south-south- west  of  Paris,  on  the  Orleans  Railway, 
tt  consists  mainly  of  one  street,  about  four  miles 
long.  The  chief  buildings  are  the  ecclesiastical 
edifices.  E.  possesses  a  })ublic  granary,  capable  of 
containing  1400  tons  of  wheat.  In  and  around  E. 
there  are  upwards  of  40  flour-nulls,  constantly 
employed  in  providing  for  the  Paris  market ;  con- 
Biderable  quantities  of  garden-stutF  also  ai'e  sent 
from  this  neighbourhood  to  the  capital.    Pop.  8000. 

ETANG  DE  BERRE,  a  salt-lake  of  France,  in 
the  south  of  the  department  of  Bouches-du-Rhone, 
communicates  with  the  sea  by  a  narrow  channel, 
called  Tour-le-Bouc,  and  is  11  miles  long  by  9  broad 
at  its  widest  part.  This  lake  contains  great  quan- 
tities of  eels  and  other  fish.  Salt-works  are  in 
operation  on  its  banks. 

ETAWAH,  a  town  of  the  Doab,  stands  near  the 
left  bank  of  the  Jumna,  about  70  miles  below  Agra, 
in  lat.  20°  46'  N.,  and  long.  79°  4'  E.  Tliough  it 
is,  on  the  whole,  a  dreary  and  mean  place,  yet  it 
presents  some  remains  of  ancient  grandeur,  more 
partioidarly  many  of  those  ghats  or  flights  of  stairs 
which  facilitate  the  approach  to  the  river  for  the 
purpose  of  ritual  ablution.  It  contains  (1872)  30,549 
inhal)itants;  and  its  prosperity,  such  as  it  is,  is 
owing  chiefly  to  its  position  at  the  junction  of  the 
two  roads  which  lead  to  Agra  from  Cawnpore  and 
Calpee. 

ETA'WAH,  the  district  of  which  the  town  above 
mentioned  is  the  capital,  belongs  to  the  sub-presi- 
dency of  the  North-west  Provinces.  It  lies  entirely 
in  the  basin  of  the  Jumna,  and  almost  exclusively 
within  the  Doab,  stretching  in  N.  lat.  from  26° 
21'  to  27°  9',  and  in  E.  long,  from  78'  46'  to  79' 
49',  and  containing  1674  square  miles,  and  about 
700,000  inhabitants.  The  district  was  at  one  time 
famous  for  the  murderous  fanaticism  of  the  Thugs, 
67  cor]  ses  of  their  strangled  victims  having  been 
found  in  the  wells  during  a  single  year. 

ETCHIXG.    See  Engraving. 

ETCHING  UPON  GLASS.    See  Glass. 

B'l'H  ELBERT,  king  of  Kent,  and  fourth  in  direct 
dspscmt  from  the  great  Hengist,  was  born  in  the 
yivt  552,  and  succeeded  to  the  tlirone  in  about  the 
«'glith  year  of  his  age.  The  re])resentativpi  of  the 
firfjt  Sakon  king  who  nded  in  England,  and  envious 
on  th.it  account  of  the  title  of  Bretwalda,  then 
■snjoyt^d  by  Cealwin  of  Wessex,  E.  rashly  undertook 
an  ex])e<lition  against  that  king  in  568,  a  venture 
whi  -h,  had  he  known  the  extent  of  country  covered 
by  the  West  Saxons,  he  would  ])robably  never  have 
made.  The  rival  kings  met  at  Wibbandune,  now 
Wimbliidon,  iu  Surrey,  where  a  great  battle  took 
place,  resulting  in  the  defeat  of  Ethelbert.  This  is 
recorded  as  being  the  first  battle  that  ever  occurred 
between  Anglo-Saxon  sovereigns.    Taught  by  dis- 

m 


aster  and  danger,  E.  be;ame  more  prudent.  Hii 
subsequent  schemes  were  more  successful,  and,  about 
the  year  590,  he  was  acknowledged  as  Bretwalda 
of  the  Saxon  octarchy,  a  dignity  which  he  main- 
tained to  the  close  of  his  reign  and  life.  In  570,  E. 
married  Bertha,  a  Frank  ish  princess.  The  lady  was 
a  Christian,  and  it  is  said  had  stipulated,  as  a  con- 
dition of  her  marriage,  that  she  should  be  alio  ved, 
after  her  arrival  in  Kent,  to  practise  her  own  reli- 
gion. Her  amiable  piety  had  completely  disarmed 
E.  of  all  violence  against  the  Christian  religion  long 
before  the  most  important  event  of  his  life  took 
place,  viz.,  the  formal  introduction  of  Christianity 
into  his  kingdom.  This  was  efiected  by  means  of 
the  ministrations  of  St  Augustine,  who  was  sent  to 
Britain  by  Poi)e  Gregory,  and  who  landed  in  Kent 
in  596.  In  the  following  year  the  king  himself  was 
converted,  and  (yliristianity  established  among  the 
hitherto  pagan  Saxons.  After  his  conversion  and 
baptism,  he  founded  the  bishopric  of  Rochester, 
and,  in  concert  with  his  nephew  Sebert,  king  of 
Essex — who  also  had  been  converted — erected  the 
church  of  St  Paul's  in  London.    He  died  in  616. 

E.  is  also  distinguished  as  the  author  of  the  first 
written  Saxon  laws.  These  are  the  Dooms,  as  they 
are  called  by  Bede,  '  which  he  established  with  the 
consent  of  his  Witan  in  the  days  of  St  Augustine.* 
They  are  in  the  Saxon  language,  and  are  the  earliest 
written  laws  that  exist  in  any  modern  tongue. 

ETHELRE'DA,  St,  a  daughter  of  the  king  of 
the  East  Angles,  in  the  7th  c.  canonised  for  lier 
saintly  virtues,  and  whose  festival  in  the  calendar 
is  October  17.  Her  name  was  popularly  abbreviated 
or  corrupted  into  St  Audrey.  At  a  fair  in  the  Isle 
of  Ely,  called  after  her  St  Audrey's  Fair,  it  was 
customary  to  sell  a  common  kind  of  lace,  which 
came  to  be  known  as  St  Audrey's  lace.  Tmvdry, 
as  applied  to  any  inferior  kind  of  frijipeiy,  is  believed 
to  be  a  corrupt  use  of  the  term  St  Audrey. 

E'THER  (otherwise  called  Ethylic  Ether,  Vinio 
Ether,  and  Sulphuric  Ether)  is  prepared  from 
alcohol  by  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  at  an  ele- 
vated temperature.  On  the  small  scale,  the  appar- 
atus which  may  be  employed  for  the  purpose  is  tb"* 
retort  and  receiver,  into  which  a  mixture  of  equ*l 


weights  of  spirits  of  wine,  or  rectified  epirit  and  o3 
of  vitriol,  or,  by  volume,  2  of  alcohol  and  1  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  are  placed,  and  heat  being  cautiously 
applied,  a  liquid  distils  over,  which  consists  of 
ether  and  water.  In  a  short  time,  the  contents 
of  the  retort  begin  to  blacken,  and  the  operation 
must  be  stopped,  or  the  distillate  will  become  con- 
taminated with  suli)hurous  acid.  On  the  large 
scale,  a  modification  of  the  process  is  carried  on, 
which  renders  it  theoretically  a  '  continuous  process, 
though,  pi-actically,  there  is  a  limit  to  the  amount  of 
ether  distilled  over. 

The  conversion  of  alcohol  (C4H5  0,H0)  into  ether 
(C^H^O)  and  water  (HO)  by  oil  of  vitriol  (HOSOJ, 
was  at  one  time  considered  to  be  due  simply  to 
the  strong  affinity  of  the  oil  of  vitriol  for  water, 
which  enabled  it  to  take  possession  of  the  one  atcip 


ETHER— ETIII0I5. 


of  water,  the  elements  of  which  form  the  only 
difference  in  the  ultimate  composition  of  alcohol 
and  ether.    This  simple  mode  of  explaining  the 

{)roces3  of  etherification,  however,  does  not  acknow- 
edge  that  the  atom  of  water  is  not  retained  by 
the  oil  of  vitriol,  but  is  given  off  side  by  side  with 
the  ether  in  mechanical  solution  therewith.  The 
theory  of  the  process  now  generally  accepted  is  too 
comj)lex  for  introduction  here. 

Ether  is  a  colourless,  transparent,  volatile  liquid 
of  great  mobility  and  high  refractive  power,  and 
possessing  a  fragrant  odour,  and  a  fiery,  passing  to 
a  cooling,  taste.  When  pure,  it  has  the  specific 
gravity  720  (water  -  1000)  at  60°  F.,  though  the 
commercial  specimens  are  never  free  from  water  and 
alcohol,  and  have  the  density  740.  It  boils  at  94'8'' 
F.  (the  commercial  at  96°),  and  yields  a  very  dense 
vapour,  the  specific  gravity  of  which  is  2586,  as 
compared  with  air  1000.  When  reduced  to  a  temper- 
ature of  —  24°  F.,  ether  freezes.  It  volatilises  spon- 
taneously when  placed  in  an  imconfined  position, 
as  in  the  palm  of  the  hand,  and  vaporises  so  quickly 
as  to  produce  intense  cold.  Indeed,  when  water 
is  covered  with  ether,  and  the  latter  assisted  in 
its  evaporation  by  being  blown  upon,  it  escapes  so 
readily  as  to  r'^duce  the  temperatvire  of  the  water 
to  32°  F.,  when  it  freezes.  It  is  very  inflammable, 
burning  with  a  yellow- white  flame ;  and  mixed 
with  air  or  oxygen,  it  gives  ri^c  to  a  dangerous 
explosive  mixture,  and  hence  gr^-at  care  requires 
to  be  taken  in  its  distillation  to  keep  all  lights 
and  fires  out  of  the  room  where  the  vapours 
are  condensing.  When  ether  is  added  to  its  own 
bulk  of  water,  briskly  agitated,  and  allowed  to 
settle,  the  two  liquids  appear  to  separate  again ; 
but  it  is  foimd  that  the  ether  has  taken  up 
one- eighth  of  its  volume  of  the  water,  whilst  the 
latter  has  dissolved  the  same  quantity  of  ether. 
It  is  readily  miscible  with  alcohol  in  all  proportions. 
Ether  is  one  of  the  best  solvents  for  the  oils  and 
fats,  and  hence  is  employed  in  analysis  for  the 
Bolution  and  separation  of  the  oils  from  other 
organic  matters,  as  in  the  analysis  of  oil-cakes,  &c 
It  is  also  a  good  solvent  of  iodine,  siL^phur,  phos- 
phorus, and  of  strychnine,  and  other  alkaloids,  as 
well  as  of  corrosive  sublimate,  and  other  salts. 

Ether  is  useful  in  the  preparation  of  freezing 
mixtures,  and  the  mixture  of  ether  and  solid  car- 
bonic acid  gives  rise  to  the  lowest  temi)erature 
which  has  as  yet  been  attained.  When  inhaled 
by  man  and  the  lower  animals,  ether  first  produces 
stimulating  and  intoxicating  effects,  but  afterwards 
it  gives  rise  to  drowsiness,  accompanied  by  complete 
insensibility,  which  entitles  ether  to  be  regarded  as 
an  important  anaesthetic  agent ;  and,  indeed,  for  some 
time  it  was  the  only  agent  used  for  producing  Anaes- 
thesia (q.  V.)  in  operations,  but  has  been  entirely 
superseded  by  the  employment  of  chloroform. 

Sc-veral  ethers  ai-e  employed  in  the  arts  as  substi- 
tutes for  fruit  essences,  because  of  their  great  fra- 
grancy,  the  most  important  of  which  are: 
Acfctir;  Ether  (Acetate  of  Ethyl),  C4TI8O2. 

Bntyiic  Ether  nJntyrate  of  Klhyl),  C6II12O2,  Pine  Apple  Oil,  etc. 
Daproic  Ether  (Caproate  of  Ethyl),  CsHieO-i,  Essence  of  Melons. 
Pelargonic  Ktlier,  C11II22O2,  Ess.  of  Quinces  and  Whisky  flavour. 
(Enanthic  Ether  (Oinanthylate  of  Ethyl),  C9llig02,  Oi!  of  "VVine. 

Hiere  are  other  ethers  in  whose  production  ordi- 
nary el  her  is  not  employed,  and  which  contain  no 
ethyl,  but  substitute  other  hydro-carbons,  such  as 

Aniyl  Acetic  Ether  (Acetate  of  Amyl),  C7II14O2,  Jargonelle 
Pear  Oil. 

Amyl  Valeric  Ether  (Valerate  of  Amyl),  CioTr2oO.  Apple  Oil. 
Methyl  Salicylic  Ether  (Salicylate  of  Methyl)  C9II10O3,  Oil  of 
Winter  Cirecn. 

ETHER,  sometimes  JETHER,  the  name  given  to 
the  medium  which  is  assumed  in  astronomy  and 
physics  as  filling  all  space.     It  was  shown  by 


Newton,  that  if  light  consisted  of  mateiial  particles 
projected  from  luminous  bodies,  these  must  move 
fcusler  in  solids  and  liquids  than  in  air,  in  order  that 
the  laws  of  refraction  might  be  satisfied  in  their 
motions.     Huyghens,  on  the  other  hand,  shewed, 
that  to  account  for  the  same  laws  on  the  supposition 
that  light  consisted  in  the  undulatory  motions  of  an 
elastic  medium,  it  must  move  more  slowly  in  solids 
and  fluids  than  in  gases.     Fizeau  and  Foucault 
have  lately,  by  different  methods,  measured  these 
velocities  relatively,  and  have  found  Huygliens's 
prediction  to  be  correct.     Light,  then,  consists  in 
the  vibratory  motion  of  a  medium,  which  must,  oi 
course,  fill  all  space.    This  is  called  Ether.    As  yet, 
we  have  no  idea  as  to  its  ultimate  nature  ;  some 
of  our  greatest  philosophers,  even,  have  supposed 
that  it  may  be  of  the  class  of  ordinary  gases, 
and  that  our  atmosphere,  for  instance,  is  not  finite 
in  extent,   but   pervades,   with   greatly  reduced 
density,  all  interplanetary  and  interstellar  space. 
Many  objections,  however,  may  easily  be  raised 
against  this    supposition.     Meanwhile,  we  may 
■  remark  that  the  mathematical  theory  of  light,  on 
1  the  hypothesis  of  undulations,  requires  that  the 
vibrating  medium  should  possess  properties  more 
j  nearly  allied  to  those  of  an  elastic  solid  than  those 
I  of  a  liqtiid  or  a  gas.    The  ether  being  required  for 
,  the  explanation  of  the  existence  and  the  propa- 
'  gation  of  light,  it  becomes  a  matter  of  importance 
\  to  inquire  how  many  more  of  the  physical  forcea 
I  may  be  referred  to  the  same  cause  or  medium. 
'  Radiant  heat  most  certainly  may,  and,  in  all  prob- 
I  ability,   gravitation,  molecular  actions,  magnetio,. 
'  electric,  and  electro-dynamic  attractions  and  repul- 
sions, are  also  to  be  thus  explained.    As  to  sensible 
and  latent  heat,  electricity  and  magnetism  them* 
;  selves,  the  necessity  is  not  so  clear;  but  even  these 
I  have  been  of  late  almost  satisfactorily  explaine(3 
I  by  the  hyi^othesis  of  the  all-pervading  ether.  See 
Force.    In  the  article  just  referred  to,  a  good  deal 
more  will  be  found  with  reference  to  this  subject, 
;  and  especially  with  reference  to  the  impossibility 
[  of  the  ether's  consisting  of  air  or  other  gases,  which 
are  made  up  of  distinct  and  separated  particles. 

E'THICS,  a  word  of  Greek  origin,  meaning  nearly 
the  same  thing  as  the  more  familiar  tei-m  Morals. 
The  science,  treating  of  the  nature  and  grounds  oi 
j  Moral  Obligation,  and  expounding  our  various  duties, 
is  called  sometimes  by  the  one  term,  and  sometimes 
i  by  the  other.    This  is  a  subject  wherein  opinions  so 
different  from  each  other  have  been,  and  are  still 
i  held,  that  a  writer's  task  must  lie  first  in  ex})laining 
what  are  the  chief  points  in  dispute,  and  next  in 
I  giving  an  accoujit  of  the  positions  taken  up  by  the 
opposing  schools. 

There  are  two  distinct  questions  connected  with 
the  Theory  of  Morals.  The  first  is  the  properly 
ethical  question,  and  is,  what  is  the  criterion  of  a 
moral  act  ?  otherwise  expressed  as  the  vioral  stan- 
dard— the  circumstance  determining  an  action  to  be 
right,  and  not  wrong,  nor  simply  indifferent  as  regards 
right  and  wrong.  What  determines  us  to  single  out 
some  conduct  as  the  subject  of  moral  approhationy 
and  other  conduct  as  the  subject  of  moral  disap- 
probation? We  consider  murder,  theft,  breach  of 
promises  or  contracts,  resistance  to  authority,  cruelty, 
ingratitude,  slander,  holding  of  slaves,  polygamy,  to 
be  wrong,  or  immoral ;  and  the  science  of  ethics  ia 
called  upon  to  assign  the  reason,  or  reasons,  why 
these  various  actions  are  so  accounted. 

The  other  question  is  properly  psychological ;  in 
other  words,  relates  to  the  constitution  of  the  human 
mind.  It  is,  by  what  faculty  of  our  nature  do  we 
recognise  this  difference  in  actions  ?  Is  it  by  one  oi 
our  ordinary  intellectual  faculties,  such  as  Reason t 
or  by  some  of  our  emotional  susceptibilities,  as  Lov* 

139 


r 


ETHICS. 


and  Hatred  ?  or  by  a  mixed  faculty  like  Prudence  ? 
or  by  something  peculiar  and  distinct,  relating  to 
ihis  one  object  and  no  other,  as  the  eye  is  formed 
for  recognising  colour,  and  the  ear  for  sound? 
This  question  has  been  often  improperly  mixed  up 
with  the  other,  although  there  are  certain  theories 
wherein  the  answer  to  the  first  depends  on  the 
answer  to  the  second. 

As  regards  the  Standard  of  Morals,  it  should  be 
premised  that  Punishment  for  neglect  is  what  shews 
an  action  to  be  obligatory.  We  may  dislike  a  man's 
conduct ;  but  if  we  do  not  consider  it  deserving  of 
punishment,  it  is  not  immoral  in  our  eyes.  People's 
imiTudexTces,  whereby  they  hurt  themselves  alone, 
s,re  disajiproved  of ;  but  there  is  seldom  any  disposi- 
tion to  step  in  by  way  of  penalty  in  order  to  prevent 
Buch  conduct ;  the  disapprobation,  therefore,  is  not 
of  the  moral  kind.  The  punishment  inflicted  by 
society  is  partly  legal,  or  through  the  civil  govern- 
ment, and  partly  by  public  opinion,  which,  by 
attaching  a  stigma  to  certain  conduct,  is  able  to 
•nspire  no  less  dread  than  the  civil  authority.  The 
punishment,  by  society  acting  in  this  way,  is  some- 
times called  the  popiilar  sanction,  to  distinguish  it 
from  the  legal  sanction.  Dishonour  is  another  name 
for  the  same  thing.  Many  kinds  of  conduct  toler- 
ated by  law,  are  still  punished  by  the  loss  of  public 
esteem  and  the  infliction  of  disgrace.  Cowardice, 
eccentricity,  heterodoxy  beyond  certain  limits, 
expose  the  individual  to  public  censure.  Many 
kinds  of  inhumanity,  as  maltreating  dependents, 
have  no  other  check  than  expressed  disapprobation. 

There  have  been  various  theories  to  account  for 
the  singling  out  of  some  actions  to  be  authoritatively 
forbidden  by  Law  and  Society — that  is,  forbidden 
by  the  sanction  of  punishment.  Some  have  said 
that  the  will  of  the  Deity,  or  divine  revelation,  has 
indicated  what  we  are  not  to  do,  and  that  there  is 
nothing  left  to  us  but  to  conform  to  what  is  thus 
prescribed  ;  others,  as  Cudworth,  maintain,  on  the 
contrary,  that  what  the  Deity  commands  must  be 
Buch  as  oui'  o^^^l  conscience  approves,  otherwise  we 
could  not  give  Him  the  character  of  being  independ- 
ently good  and  just.  It  has  been  said  that  llight 
Reason  shews  us  the  difference  between  right  and 
wrong ;  this  was  Cudworth's  own  view.  Samuel 
Clarke  conceived  that  there  was  an  eternal  and 
intrinsic  fitness  in  the  things  considered  as  right,  and 
an  unfitness  in  the  wrong,  '  with  a  regard  to  which 
the  will  of  God  always  chooses,  and  which  ought 
likewise  to  determine  the  wills  of  all  subordinate 
rational  beings.'  Both  these  writers  aimed  at  reply- 
ing to  Hobbes,  who  had  maintained  that  the  Civil 
Magistrate  is  supreme  in  Morality  as  well  as  in 
Politics  ;  meaning,  however,  in  all  probability,  that 
the  magisti'ate  himself  ought  to  frame  his  dictates 
in  one,  as  in  the  other,  with  a  view  to  the  public 
good,  which  would  be  a  Utilitarian  view.  The 
phrase,  'the  Moral  Sense,'  which  now  represents 
perhaps  the  most  prevalent  moral  theory,  occurs 
first  in  Lord  Shaftesbury's  Inquiry  Concerning 
Virtue,  from  whom  it  was  adopted  by  Hutcheson, 
and  has  since  passed  into  general  currency.  Some- 
times it  has  been  maintained  that  a  regard  to  Self- 
biterest  is  the  only  ultimate  rule  of  right,  which  has 
a  very  different  meaning,  accoi-ding  as  we  look  at 
Belf  exclusive,  or  inclusive,  of  other  men's  wellbeing. 
The  most  enlarged  benevolence,  in  one  view,  is  but 
an  aspect  of  self.  Adam  Smith,  in  his  Theory  of 
Moral  Sentiments,  laid  down  as  the  criterion  of  right, 
the  '  sym[)atlietic  feelings  of  the  impartial  and  well- 
informed  spectator.'  But  although  this  theory 
acknowledges  our  bias  in  the  capacity  of  agents,  it 
presumes  us  to  be  infallible  when  acting  as  judges 
or  critics,  a  position  by  no  means  self-evident.  The  | 
rpectator  has  his  own  faiUngs  as  well  as  the  actor, 
no  ' 


unless  specially  qualified  by  nature  and  education 
to  play  the  part  of  a  moral  judge.  But  to  pass  on. 
Jeremy  Bentham  is  known  as  the  most  distinguished 
propounder  of  the  principle  of  Utility  as  the  basis  of 
morals,  a  principle  explained  by  him  as  in  contrast, 
first  to  Asceticism,  and  next  to  '  Sympathy  and 
Antipathy,'  by  which  he  meant  to  describe  all  those 
systems,  such  as  the  Moral  Sense  theory,  that  are 
grounded  in  internal  feeling,  instead  of  a  regard 
to  outward  consequences.  In  opposing  Utility  to 
Asceticism,  he  intended  to  imply  that  there  was  no 
merit  attaching  to  self-denial  as  such,  and  that  thti 
infliction  of  pain,  or  the  surrender  of  pleasure,  could 
only  be  justified  by  being  the  means  of  procLuing  a 
greater  amount  of  happiness  than  was  Ijst.  Paley 
also  repudiated  the  doctrine  of  a  Moral  Sense,  and 
held  that  virtue  is  'the  doing  good  to  mankind, 
in  obedience  to  the  will  of  God,  and  for  the  sake 
of  everlasting  happiness.'  The  utilitarian  theory 
of  Bentham,  with  various  modifications,  has  been 
defended  and  expounded  by  James  Mill,  in  hia 
Analysis  of  the  Human  Mind,  and  in  his  anonymous 
Fragment  on  Mackintosh ;  by  John  Austin,  in  hia 
Province  of  Jurisprudence  Determined ;  and  by  Mr 
John  Stuart  Mill  in  his  Dissertations  and  Discussions^ 
and  in  Fraser's  Magazine  (Oct.  to  Dec.  1861). 

The  great  controversy  may  be  said  to  lie  between 
the  adherents  of  the  Moral  Sense  in  some  form  or 
other,  and  those  that  deny  both  the  existence  of  a 
separate  faculty  in  the  mind  for  perceiving  mora 
distinctions,  and  the  validity  of  the  determina- 
tions of  the  individual  conscience ;  maintaining 
that  morality  ought  to  be  founded  on  a  regard  to 
the  wellbeing  of  mankind,  and  that  exclusively; 
and  that  rules  of  morality  grounded  on  any  other 
motives  are  indefensible.  In  short,  the  question- 
is.  Is  morality  an  intuition  of  the  mind,  or  is  it  like 
the  government  of  the  state,  a  positive  institution, 
on  which  different  societies  may  differ,  and  which 
may  be  set  up  or  be  abrogated  at  the  pleasure  of 
the  society  ? 

The  theory  of  Intuitive  Morality  was  vigorously 
assailed  by  Locke  in  his  Essay  on  tlie  Under standinrj 
(book  i.  chap.  3) ;  and  we  may  venture  to  say  that 
his  objections  to  what  he  caUed  '  Innate  Practical 
Principles '  have  never  been  answered.  These  objec- 
tions have  been  given  in  a  condensed  form  by  Paley 
{Moral  Philosophy,  book  i.).  Locke  urged  that, 
in  point  of  fact,  there  are  no  principles  universally 
received  among  men  ;  that  moral  rules  require  a 
reason  to  be  given  for  them,  which  ought  not  to  be 
necessary,  if  they  are  innate ;  that  virtue  is  gene- 
rally approved  of,  not  because  innate,  but  because 
profitable  ;  that  innumerable  enormities  have  been 
practised  in  various  countries  without  even  causing 
remorse ;  that  the  moral  rules  of  some  nations  are 
flatly  contradicted  by  others  ;  that  no  one  has  ever 
been  able  to  tell  what  the  innate  rules  are ;  that  we 
do  not  find  children  possessed  of  any  moral  rules, 
&c.  It  has  been  attempted  to  reply  to  the  objection, 
founded  on  the  great  variety  and  opposition  of  moral 
rules  in  different  places  and  times,  by  saying  that 
although  the  substance  of  the  moral  codes  differ— 
one  part  of  the  world  being  monogamous  and  chaste, 
while  other  nations  allow  promiscuous  intercourse 
of  the  sexes — all  agree  in  enjoining  some  moral 
rules  ;  nowhere  is  there  an  absence  of  social  and 
moral  obligations.  But  this  is  to  depart  fiom  the 
original  question,  which  was  to  assign  the  standard 
of  morals,  the  criterion  for  determining  which  of  two 
opposite  courses — monogamy  or  polygamy — is  the 
correct  or  moral  course.  The  intuitive  moralists 
say  that  human  nature  is  endowed  with  an  instinct 
which  at  once  approves  the  right  and  disapproves  of 
the  wrong,  and  that  we  need  go  no  further  than  our 
own  conscience  to  settle  the  point.    Now,  when  the 


ETHICS. 


existence  of  contradictory  consciences  is  pointed 
out,  it  is  not  to  the  purpose  to  say  that  these 
are  still  consciences,  and  indicate  something  as 
obligatory  ;  this  all  admit :  what  we  desire  is,  to 
determine  which  we  are  to  follow. 

Dr  Whewell,  in  his  Elements  of  Morality,  has 
proposed  a  way  out  of  this  serious  difficulty  by 
setting  up  a  supreme  or  Standard  Conscience,  by 
which  the  individual  conscience  may  be  squared 
and  cori'ected ;  but  he  has  not  told  us  who  are  the 
men  whose  conscience  is  the  standard ;  it  being 
obvious  that  the  human  race,  as  a  whole,  do  not 
recognise  any  such,  although  eacli  separate  com- 
muaity  might  consent  to  take  some  of  its  most 
estijaable  citizens,  or  the  interpreters  of  its  religious 
code,  as  models  to  conform  to. 

The  following  is  one  view  of  the  nature  and 
origin  of  our  moral  principles  which  would  seem 
free  from  the  grave  objections  above  alluded 
to.  If  we  set  aside  for  the  present  the  question 
as  to  the  proper  standard  of  morals,  the  criterion 
that  we  should  consider  the  right  criterion,  if 
we  had  to  enact  a  code  of  morals  for  the  first 
time,  and  if  we  look  at  the  moral  principles  that 
have  prevailed  in  different  nations  and  times,  we 
ehall  find  that  they  have  been  dictated  from  two 
distinct  kinds  of  motives.  The  one  is  Utility,  in 
the  sense  of  the  common  safety  of  men  living 
in  society.  The  prohibitions  against  manslaying, 
theft,  breach  of  bargain,  rebellion,  are  necessary, 
wherever  men  have  formed  themselves  into  com- 
munities ;  and  it  is  the  agreement  in  such  matters 
as  these — although  subject  still  to  very  great 
varieties — that  makes  up  the  amoimt  of  unifor- 
mity actually  observed  in  the  moral  codes  of 
nations.  If  the  society  did  not  agree  to  protect  life 
and  property,  by  punishing  the  miirderer  and  the 
thief,  nothing  woidd  be  gained  by  coming  under 
the  sway  of  Government,  and  human  beings  would 
not  be  got  to  associate  themselves  in  tribes  or 
nations.  The  common  end  gives  a  common  char- 
acter to  the  means,  without  supposing  a  special 
instinct  to  suggest  that  stealing  is  WTong.  But,  in 
the  second  place,  there  have  been,  in  the  moral  codes 
of  all  countries,  prohibitions  not  connected  with  any 
public  utility,  but  prompted  by  strong  sentimental 
likings  or  aversions,  which  have  acquired  the  force 
of  law,  and  are  made  the  foundation  of  compulsory 
enactments.  Of  this  kind  is  the  antipathy  of  the 
Jew  and  the  Mohammedan  to  the  pig,  the  Hindu 
repugnance  to  animal  food  generally,  and  the  usages 
of  a  merely  ceremonial  kind  prevailing  among  many 
nations,  which  are  as  stringently  enforced  by  law 
and  public  opinion  as  the  sacredness  of  life  and 
property.  For  a  woman,  among  the  Mussulmans, 
to  expose  her  face  in  public,  is  as  great  an  offence 
as  going  naked  would  be  with  us  ;  while,  among 
•avage  tribes,  in  warm  climates,  where  clothing 
ii  little  required,  it  is  no  shame  to  expose  the 
whole  person.  For  these  practices,  no  reason  can 
he  given ;  the  public  sentiment  has  determined 
lome  things  to  be  right  and  others  wrong,  without 
reference  to  any  public  or  private  utility ;  and 
it  is  in  these  enactments,  foimded  on  liking  or 
disliking,  that  nations  have  diff'ered  most  widely, 
the  difference  often  amounting  to  contrariety.  The 
ancient  Greeks  held  it  as  a  sacred  obligation  to 
drink  wine  in  honour  of  Dionysus  (Bacchus) ;  the 
Nazarenes  among  the  Jews  and  the  Mohammedans 
entertained  an  opposite  view.  A  legislator  for  the 
North  American  Indians  might  prohibit  alcoholic 
liquors  on  the  ground  of  public  utility,  the  natives 
not  being  able  to  control  themselves  under  stimu- 
lants; but  the  prohibition  of  wine  in  those  other 
instances  is  probably  a  species  of  asceticism,  or  an 
aversion  to  human  pleasures  as  such,  which  belongs 


to  the  domain  of  sentiment,  and  not  to  the  consider- 
ation of  utility. 

Looking  at  the  many  capricious  injunctions  that 
owe  their  origin  to  fancies  such  as  these,  it  may  be 
doubted  whether  the  human  race  can  ever  gain 
anything  by  departing  from  the  principle  of  utility 
as  the  sole  criterion  of  good  morality ;  and  there  is 
an  increasing  tendency  to  recognise  the  supremacy 
of  this  principle  both  in  Morals  and  in  Legislation- 
Justice,  truth,  purity,  although  sometimes  viewed 
sentimentally,  or  as  being  ends  themselves,  are  in 
men's  practice  looked  upon  more  and  more  as  of  tha 
natiire  of  means,  the  promotion  of  human  happinesa 
being  the  end. 

A  great  number  of  the  existing  moral  rules  can  be 
traced  to  a  distinct  historical  origin,  proving  still 
more  decisively  that  they  are  not  the  suggestions 
of  a  universal  instinct  of  the  human  mind.  The 
Mohammedan  code  of  morals  came  from  Mohammed ; 
Confucius  was  the  moral  legislator  of  one  large 
section  of  the  Chinese.  The  making  of  the  marriage 
tie  irrevocable  in  Christendom  was  an  exercise  of 
papal  authority  in  the  13th  c,  and  has  since  been 
repealed  in  some  Protestant  countries,  although 
retained  in  Catholic  states.  See  Divorce,  Mar- 
riage. The  sentiment  which  forbids  the  holding 
of  human  beings  as  slaves  is  chiefly  the  groAvth  of 
the  last  two  or  three  centuries. 

AlthovTgh  the  doctrine  of  intuitive  morality  is,  in 
this  view,  denied,  it  is  still  admitted  that  there  is 
such  a  power  in  the  mind  as  Conscience,  which 
warns  us  when  we  are  doing  wrong,  and  is  to  a 
certain  extent  a  force  to  make  us  do  right.  But 
it  cannot  be  shewn  that  we  are  born  with  any 
such  principle,  combining  both  enlightenment  and 
motive  power.  Conscience  is  a  growth.  There 
are  in  our  constitution  certain  primitive  impulses 
that  so  far  coincide  with  what  is  our  duty,  and 
therefore  contribute  to  the  formation  of  the  Con- 
science ;  these  are  principally  Self-preservation,  or 
a  regard  to  ourselves,  and  Sympathy,  or  a  regard 
to  others.  There  are  many  duties  that  we  are 
prompted  to  for  our  own  interest,  such  as  telling 
the  truth,  in  order  that  people  may  confide  in  us ; 
obeying  the  laws;  to  avoid  punishment,  &c.  But 
we  cannot  perform  all  our  social  duties  if  we  look 
merely  to  ourselves.  We  miist,  in  addition  to  pru- 
dence, have  a  source  of  disinterested  action,  inducing 
us  both  to  avoid  injuring  our  fellow-beings  in  the 
promotion  of  our  own  selfishness,  and  occasionally 
to  sacrifice  ourselves  for  the  sake  of  others.  Such  a 
principle  exists  in  our  mental  nature,  although  not 
of  equal  strength  in  all  minds.  Being  provided 
with  these  two  primitive  springs  of  action,  "vve  are 
susceptible  of  being  educated  to  the  sense  of  moral 
obligation.  The  child  is  first  taught  obedience  by 
penalties,  and  is  made  to  associate  pain  with  for- 
bidden actions.  This  is  the  germ  of  conscience. 
Habits  of  avoiding  what  is  prohibited  under  penal- 
ties are  gradually  formed,  and  the  sense  of  Authority 
and  Law  is  thereby  acquired.  When  the  powers  of 
observation  and  reason  come  to  matiu-ity,  the  indi- 
vidual sees  why  the  restrictions  of  duty  have  been 
imposed,  and  is  then  ready  of  his  own  accord,  and 
apart  from  the  fear  of  pimishment,  to  behave  rightly. 
The  Conscience,  grounded  on  Fear,  then  becomes  the 
Conscience  grounded  on  spontaneous  approval. 

Conscience  thus  foUows,  and  does  not  precede, 
the  experience  of  human  authority.  Authority, 
sanctioned  by  punishment,  is  the  type  and  the 
starting-point,  even  when  the  conscience  takes 
an  independent  flight,  and  adopts  rules  for  itself 
diff'erent  from  those  that  entered  into  its  education. 
The  great  mass  of  human  beings  have  nothing  more 
than  the  slavish  conscience,  or  the  habits  imparted 
by  the  exercise  of  the  parental  and  public  authority 


ETHICS— ETHIOPIA- 


wliicl  shews  what  is  the  most  natural  foundation  of 
moral  sentiment.  The  persons  that  judge  of  right 
tor  tliemselves,  instead  of  implicitly  receiving  the 
maxims  peculiar  to  the  society  where  they  grow 
up,  are  so  few  as  to  be  the  exception  everywhere  ; 
their  conscience  does  not  prove  what  is  the  usual 
endowment  of  human  nature  in  this  respect. 

Inquiries  of  the  nature  of  those  above  sketched, 
proceed  upon  the  assumption  that  moral  distinc- 
tions have  their  ground  in  the  constitution  of  the 
world  and  of  man's  nature,  and  may  be  discovered 
by  the  exercise  of  human  reason,  as  the  other  laws 
of  the  universe  are.  But  practically,  the  rules  of 
morality  have,  in  almost  all  communities,  been  more 
or  less  dependent  upon  a  belief  in  divine  laws  super- 
naturally  revealed.  The  relation  of  these  to  scien- 
tific ethics  will  be  considered  vmder  Revelation. 

ETHIO'PIA,  the  biblical  Kush.  Originally,  all 
the  nations  inhabiting  the  southern  part  of  the 
globe,  as  known  to  the  ancients  ;  or  rather,  all  men 
of  dark-brown  or  black  colour,  were  called  Ethio- 
pians (Gr.  aitlio — dps,  sunbm-ned).  Later,  this  name 
was  given  more  particularly  to  the  inhabitants  of 
the  countries  south  of  Libya  and  Egypt,  or  the 
'U])])er  Nile,  extending  from  10°— 25°  N.  lat.,  45° 
^58°  E.  long.— the  present  Nubia,  Sennaar,  Kor- 
dofan,  Abyssinia.  The  accounts  which  the  ancients 
have  left  us  with  respect  to  this  ])oople  are,  even 
whei'e  they  ai'e  not  of  an  entirely  fabulous  nature, 
extremely  scanty  and  vmtrustworthy,  as  both 
Oreeks  and  Romans  never  got  beyond  Napata, 
19°  N.  lat.  We  will  just  mention  that  from  the 
Homeric  age  down  to  Ptolemy — who  is  somewhat 
better  informed — these  regions  were  peopled  by 
Pygmies,  Troglodytes  (dwellers  in  caverns),  Blem- 
myes  (hideous  men),  Macrobii  (long-lived  men),  &c., 
besides  being  divided  into  the  lands  of  cinnamon, 
myrrh,  of  elephant-eaters,  fish-eaters,  tortoise-eaters, 
serpent-eaters,  &c.  The  only  portion  of  ancient 
records  which  does  contain  something  akin  to  his- 
torical accounts,  is  that  which  refers  to  Meroe,  an 
island  formed  by  the  rivers  Astaphus  and  Astaboras, 
tributaries  of  the  Nile.  There  stood,  from  times 
immemorial,  an  oracle  of  Jupiter  Ammon.  This, 
and  the  central  portion  of  the  island,  together  with 
the  extraordinary  fertility  of  its  soil,  the  abund- 
ance of  animals,  metals,  &c.,  made  it  not  only 
the  chief  place  of  resort  for  all  the  inhabitants  of 
the  adjacent  parts,  especially  the  numerous  nomad 
tribes,  but  also  the  emporium  for  India,  Arabia, 
Ethjo]>ia,  Egy{)t,  Libya,  and  Carthage.  Thus  it 
grew  so  rapidly,  that  about  1000  B.C.  it  counted 
among  the  most  powerful  states  of  the  ancient 
world  ;  and  about  760,  having  ever  since  Sesostris 
been  tributary  to  Egyi)t,  it  succeeded,  under 
Sabacus,  in  shakirg  off  the  Egyptian  yoke,  and 
continued,  in  its  turn,  to  hold  Egypt  for  aboxat 
eixty  years.  During  the  reign  of  Psammetichus, 
240,000  Egyptians  settled  in  Meroe,  which,  the 
gi'eater  part  of  the  immigrants  being  artisans, 
traders,  &c.,  rose  stiU  higher.  Many  new  cities 
were  built,  and  the  state  w  as  in  the  most  flourishing 
condition,  when  it  was  conquered  by  Cambyses, 
about  530  B.C.  He  fortified  the  capital  town,  and 
called  it  Meroe.  After  the  destruction  of  Thebes 
by  Cam})yse3,  most  of  the  inhabitants  of  that  city 
took  refuge  there,  and  made  the  country  still  more 
Egyjjtian.  Ergamenes  transformed  its  theocracy 
into  a  military 'monarchy,  in  the  3d  century.  Under 
Augustus,  Meroe  was  conquered,  and  a  Queen 
Candace  is  mentioned  as  his  vassal.  Under  Nero, 
nothing  but  ruins  marked  the  place  of  this  once 
powerful  and  highly  civilised  state.  Up  to  this 
day,  remnants  of  mighty  buildings,  covei-ed  with 
Bcul])tures — representations  of  priestly  ceremonies, 
battles,  &c.— and  half- defaced  inscriptions  hewn  in 
i-i'i 


rocks,  besides  rows  of  broken  sphinxes  and  colossi, 
are  frequently  met  with  in  those  parts. 

Their  religion,  art,  form  of  government,  and 
civilisation,  generally  iDcing — in  their  chief  features 
at  least — so  identical  with  the  Egyptian  as  to  have 
given  rise  to  the  question,  which  of  the  two  nations 
imparted  their  knowledge  to  the  other,  we  will 
refer  the  reader  for  these  points  to  the  article 
Egypt  ;  and  will  proceed  now  to  say  a  few  words 
on  the  history  of  the  descendants  of  the  ancient 
Ethiopians — the  inhabitants  of  the  present  Habesch, 
or  Abyssinia — as  we  derive  it  from  their  very  poor 
and  scanty  native  chronicles. 

According  to  these,  the  son  of  Solomon  and  the 
Queen  of  Sheba  (Makeda  as  they,  Balkis  a^i  the 
Arabian  historians  call  her),  named  Menilehek,  was 
the  first  king  of  the  Ethiojuans.  Few  kings'  names 
occur  up  to  the  time  of  Christ,  when  Ba/en  occu- 
pied the  throne.  The  missionary  Frumentius  (330) 
found  two  brothers  (Christians)  reigning — Abreha 
and  Azbeha.  During  the  time  of  the  Greelc  emperor 
Justin  (522),  King  Elezbaas  destroyed  the  state  of 
the  Homerites  in  Asia,  in  order  to  revenge  their 
persecutions  of  Cliristians ;  and  was  canonised. 
From  960  to  1300,  another  dynasty,  the  Zagoean, 
held  the  chief  power,  all  the  members  of  the 
Solomonic  dynasty,  save  one,  having  been  murdered 
by  Esal,  who  made  her  son  icmg.  In  1300,  Ikon- 
Amlak,  a  descendant  of  this  one  scion  of  the 
house  of  David,  who  had  fled  to  Sheba,  regained 
I)ossession  of  the  country,  and  made  Sheba,  instead 
of  Axum,  the  seat  of  government.  To  this  day, 
his  family  niles  the  country.  Frequent  revolutions 
within,  more  especially  brought  about  by  the 
religious  squabbles  imported  by  the  Pori/Uguese 
towards  the  end  of  the  15th  c,  and  a  host  of 
enemies  all  around — the  most  formidable  of  whom 
were  wild  nomad  tribes  of  the  desert — forced  the 
kings  more  than  once  to  apply  for  foreign  help ; 
amongst  others,  that  of  the  Turks  in  1508  ;  and 
the  affairs  of  the  modern  state  have  at  all  times 
been  anything  but  prosperous.  Special  mention 
is  made  of  King  Zara- Jakob  (Constantine),  1434 — 
1468,  who  sent  an  embassy  to  the  church-councU 
at  Florence ;  of  Aznaf-Saged  (Claudius),  1540 — 
1559,  during  whose  reign  Christoph.  de  Gama  from 
Portugal  lived  in  Ethiopia,  and  made  common 
cause  with  him  against  his  enemies.  This  king  also 
wrote  a  confession  of  faith,  in  which  he  defended 
his  church  both  against  Jesuits  and  the  charge  of 
leaning  towards  Jiidaism.  Socinios  (1605 — 1632) 
openly  professed  Roman  views ;  but  his  son 
Facilides  soon  expelled  the  Jesuits  and  their  friends 
from  the  country,  and  put  an  end  to  the  Roman 
influence.  Among  these  friends  was  also  Abba 
Gregorius,  later  the  friend  of  the  great  Ethiopolo- 
gist  Ludolf,  who,  having  made  his  acquaintance 
at  Rome,  induced  him  to  migrate  to  Gotha,  where 
he  also  remained  until  his  death.  Under  Joaa 
(1753 — 1769),  the  Gallas,  a  nomad  tribe,  hitlicrto 
the  mightiest  and  most  dangerous  enemies  of  the 
Ethiopians,  not  only  gained  admission  to  all  the 
offices  in  the  state,  but  acquired  almost  absolute 
power.  One  of  them  (Susul  Michael),  holding  the 
place  of  Rilsh,  or  prime- minister  and  chief-com- 
mander of  the  troops,  proved  a  veiy  great  friend  to 
Bruce,  to  whom  he  also  intrusted  the  government 
of  a  province.  Since  Salt's  visit,  the  country 
remains  convidsed  Math  internal  revolutions,  sedi- 
tions, &c.,  there  being  several  pretenders  in  the 
field.  The  taxes  of  the  country  are  mostly  paid  in 
kind — raw  material,  metal,  horses,  &c.  The  king 
resides  but  rarely  in  the  city,  and  for  the  most  part 
remains  with  his  soldiers  in  the  camp.  His  o&ciaJ 
name  is  Negus,  or,  in  full,  Negus  Nagass  Za-itjopja, 
King  of  the  Kings  (?f  Ethiopia — afiudtug  to  the 


ETHIOPIA 


ETHIOPS. 


chiefs  of  the  towns  and  provinces.  The  soldiers  re- 
ceive no  pay,  but  rely  on  plunder,  and  are  said  to  be 
very  valorous.    See  art.  Abyssinia. 

Eniigrauts,  as  were  beyond  doubt  the  earliest 
settlers  in  Ethiopia,  from  the  other  side  of  the 
Arabian  isthmus,  it  is  but  natural  that  the  structure 
of  their  language,  as  well  as  that  of  their  own 
bodies,  should  bear  traces  of  their  Shemitic  origin. 
The  reason  of  this  emigration  is  contained  in  the 
\  ery  name  of  this  language,  which  is  called  Geez — 
free,  affording  a  nnost  striking  parallel  to  the  desig- 
nation Franc — French.  Free  places  of  habitation 
were  what  they  came  in  search  of.  The  name 
Ethiopian,  or,  as  they  call  it,  Ithiopjawan,  they 
adopted  from  the  Greeks  at  a  very  late  period.  This 
their  oldest  language,  Leshana  Geez,  was  suppressed 
by  a  royal  decree  of  Ikon-Amlak,  in  the  14th  c,  and 
the  Ainharic  adopted  a-s  the  court  language.  Ever 
since,  it  has,  with  exception  of  the  province  of 
Tigre,  where  it  is  still  spoken  (with  slight  idiomatic 
changes),  remained  the  Leshana  Mazhaf,  the  lan- 
guage of  books  and  of  the  church.  It  is  exclusively 
used  in  writing,  even  of  ordinary  letters,  and  the 
educated  alone  imderstand  it.  Its  general  structure 
comes  as  close  to  that  of  the  Arabic  as  a  dialect  can 
and  must.  A  great  many  of  its  words  are  still 
classical  Arabic ;  others  resemble  more  the  Hebrew 
and  its  two  Chaldee  dialects,  the  Aramaic  and 
Syriac ;  others,  again,  belong  to  African  dialects ;  and 
many,  as  the  names  of  the  months,  are  Greek.  It 
has  2G  letters,  22  of  which  bear  the  ancient  Shemitic 
stamp,  and  exhibit  the  greatest  likeness  to  the 
Phoenician,  the  common  original  alphabet ;  and 
sevea  vov/els,  including  a  very  short  e,  which  sounds 
precisely  like  the  Hebrew  SchSwa.  These  vowels 
are  represented  by  little  hooks,  and  remain  insepar- 
ably attached  to  their  respective  letters  ;  and  as 
the  Geez,  imlike  all  its  sister-languages,  is  never 
written  without  vowels,  the  alphabet  becomes  a 
syllabary  with  182  characters.  Another  difference 
exists  in  its  being  written  from  left  to  right — a 
circumstance  from  which  some  have  concluded  that 
the  Greeks  introduced  writing  in  Ethiopia  ;  for- 
getting, in  the  first  place,  that  Greek  itself  was 
frequently  written  from  right  to  left,  and  that 
Zend,  certain  cuneiforms,  hieroglyphs,  &c.,  are  like- 
wise written  from  left  to  right.  We  cannot  enter 
here  into  the  grammatical  niinutiie  of  the  language  ; 
we  will  only  mention  that  out  of  the  ten  conjuga- 
tions, eight  are  Arabic ;  that  there  is  a  double 
infinitive,  but  no  participle  and  no  dual ;  that  the 
formation  of  the  so-called  plural,  and  of  declension 
generally,  point  to  that  very  remote  period  when 
the  Hebrew  and  Arabic  made  use  of  the  same  gram- 
matical processes.  There  are  no  diacritical  marks 
employed  in  writing ;  the  letters  are  not  combined, 
and  the  words  are  separated  by  two  dots. 

Although  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  existence 
of  a  rich  literature  in  a  flourishing  country  like 
Ethiopia  anterior  to  Christ,  stiU,  owing  both  to 
frequent  internal  convulsions,  and  the  misguided 
zeal  of  the  early  Christian  missionaries,  who  here 
and  elsewhere  considered  it  their  first  duty  to 
destroy  all  the  ancient  records  of  which  they  could 
get  hold,  nothing  but  a  few  half-erased  inscriptions 
nave  survived.  The  earliest  existing  document  of 
post-Christian  literature  is  a  complete  translation  of 
the  Bible,  probably  by  Frumentius.  See  Frumentius. 
The  Old  Testament,  probably  a  translation  from  the 
Alexandrine  version  of  the  LXX.,  consists  of  four 
parts :  1,  the  Law  or  Octateuchos  (five  books  of 
Moses,  Joshua,  Judges,  Ruth) ;  2,  Kings ;  3,  Solo- 
mon ;  4,  Prophets,  and  two  books  of  the  Maccabees. 
The  New  Testament  consists  of — 1,  Gospels ;  2, 
Acts  ;  3,  Paulus  ;  4,  Apostolus.  A  very  peciiliar 
t-ook,  Jlenor.h,  belongs  also  to  the  literature  of  the 


Old  Testament.  See  Enoch.  The  New  Testament 
comprises  likewise  another  book,  Senodas,  contain- 
ing the  pseudo- Clementine  or  apostolical  constitu- 
tions.  The  Ethiopians  have  a  liturgy  {Kanon 
Kedaso — Holy  Kanon)  and  a  symlx>Iico-dogmatical 
work  [Ilaimanota  Abau — Belief  of  the  Fathers),  con- 
taining portions  of  homilies  of  the  Greek  Fathers, 
Athanasius,  Basil  the  Great,  Chrysostom,  Cyril, 
Gregory  of  Nyssa  and  Nazianzen.  Besides  tliese, 
they  have  martyrologies,  called  Synaxar.  They 
employ  in  this  their  sacred  literature  a  peculiar 
kind  of  rhythm  without  a  distinct  metre.  Any 
number  of  rhyming  lines  forms  a  stanza,  without 
reference  to  the  number  of  words  constituting 
the  verse,  or  of  verses  constituting  the  stanza.  They 
also  use  certain  phrases  as  a  refrain — not  unliks 
the  manner  of  the  mediaeval  Hebrew  Pizmon.  See 
Jewish  Liturgy.  As  to  genei-al  literature,  they 
have  neither  a  written  book  of  laws,  nor  a  gram- 
mar of  their  own  language,  nor,  in  fact,  any- 
thing worth  mentioning,  except  a  Chronicle  of 
Axum  and  Chronicles  of  Abyssinia.  They  are  very 
fond,  however,  of  riddles,  wise  saws,  and  the  like, 
so  fascinating  to  the  Eastern  mind.  They  have 
a  Dictionary,  but  most  of  its  explanations  and 
translations  are  utterly  wrong.  No  wonder  the 
learned  in  Europe  should  have  been  sorely  puzzled 
by  such  a  language,  and  that  they  should,  after 
long  consideration,  have  pronounced  it  to  be  either 
'  Chaldee '  or  '  Indian,'  while  Bruce  held  it  to  be 
the  language  of  Adam  and  Eve.  Potgen,  a  Cologne 
church-provost,  happening  to  be  at  Rome  at  the 
beginning  of  the  16th  c,  there  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  native  Ethiopians,  and  became  the  first  to 
enlighten  the  world  on  the  natxire  of  this  occult 
language.  After  him  came  the  Carmelite  Jacob 
Marianus  Victorius  from  Reate,  who  wrote  Institw 
tlones  Linguce  Chalda^ce  S.  jEthiop.  (Rome,  1548), 
an  entirely  worthless  book  ;  then  Wemmers,  who  in 
1G83  published  an  Ethiopian  gi'ammar  and  diction- 
ary. The  principal  investigator,  however,  is  Hiob 
Ludolf  fromGotha,  who,  aided  by  the  Abba  Gregoriua 
before  mentioned,  and  supported  by  his  own  extra- 
ordinary linguistic  talents  and  indomitable  energy, 
acquired  such  a  power  over  this  language,  that  not- 
withstanding the  number  of  eminent  Orientalists, 
such  as  Piatt,  Lawrence,  Dom,  Hupfeld,  Hoffmann, 
Roediger,  Ewald,  Isenberg,  Blumenbach,  &c.,  who 
have  since  his  time  bestowed  much  attention  upon 
it,  his  books  still  hold  the  first  place.  It  is 
hardly  necessary  to  add,  that  the  Ethiopian  is  one 
of  the  most  important  and  indisi^ensable  languages 
to  the  Shemitic  scholar,  containing  as  it  does  a 
great  many  words  and  forms  of  a  date  anterior 
to  the  separation  of  the  different  Shemitic  dialects. 
Among  the  most  important  Ethiopian  books  printed 
in  Europe  are  the  Psalms,  edited  with  a  Latin 
translation  by  Ludolf  (Frankfort,  1701) ;  the  New 
Testament,  in  two  volvunes  (Rome,  1548) ;  the 
book  of  Henoch  (Lond.  1840) ;  Ascensio  Isaice  Yatis^ 
with  a  Latin  translation  by  Lawrence  (Oxford, 
1819) ;  Didascalia,  or  apostolical  constitution  of  the 
Abyssinian  Church,  vnth  an  English  translation  by 
Piatt  (Lond.  1834,  &c.).— Ludolf 's  works  are—  Gram* 
matica  ^Ethiopia  (Lond.  1661) ;  Lexicon  JEthiopicum 
(Frankfort,  1699) ;  Ilistoria  jEthiopica  (Frankfort, 
1681).  See  also  Heeren,  Historical  Researches; 
CaiUiau,  Voyage  d  Meroe ;  Salt,  Bruce,  RuppeU^ 
&c.,  Travels. 

E'THIOPS,  or  ^'THIOPS  (Gr.  aido,  I  bum,  and 
ops,  countenance  ;  being  of  a  black  or  burned  coun- 
tenance), is  a  term  applied  by  the  ancient  chemista 
to  certain  oxides  and  sulphides  of  the  metals  which 
possessed  a  dull,  dingy,  or  black  appearance.  Thua, 
Ethiops  Martialis  was  the  mixture  of  protoxide  and 
peroxide  of  iron,  known  as  the  black  oxide ;  Elhiops 

143 


ETHMOID  BONE-ETHNOLOGY. 


Mineral^  or  Ethiops  Narcoticus,  the  black  gray  sul- 
phuret  of  mercury  procured  by  triturating  in  a  mortar 
u  mixture  of  mercury  and  sulphur ;  and  Ethiops  per 
se  was  obtained  by  agitating  commercial  mercury  for 
weeks  or  months,  when  the  oxygen  of  the  air  slowly 
formed  the  black  oxide  of  mercury. 

ETHMOrD  BONE,  The  (so  called  from  ethmos, 
a  sieve),  is  one  of  the  eight  bones  which  collectively 
form  the  cavity  of  the  cranium.  It  is  of  a  somewhat 
cubical  form,  and  is  situated  between  the  two  orbits 
of  the  eye,  at  the  root  of  the  nose.  Its  upper  surface 
is  perforated  by  a  number  of  small  openings  (whence 
its  name),  through  which  the  filaments  of  the  olfac- 
tory nerve  pass  downwards  from  the  interior  of  the 
&kull  to  the  seat  of  the  sense  of  smell,  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  nose.  It  consists  of  a  perpendicular  cen- 
tral plate  or  lamella,  which  articulates  with  the  vo- 
mer and  with  the  central  fibro-cartilage,  and  thus 
assists  in  forming  the  septum  or  partition  between  the 
two  nostrils.  The  lateral  masses  present  a  very  com- 
plicated arrangement,  and  are  so  planned  as  to  give  in 
a  small  space  a  very  large  amount  of  surface,  on 
which  the  filaments  of  the  olfactory  nerve  are  spread. 
In  comparative  anatomy,  we  find  a  direct  ratio  be- 
tween the  development  of  these  masses  and  the  acute- 
ness  of  the  sense  of  smell.  See  Nose  and  the 
Sense  of  Smell. 

ETHNO'LOGY  (Gr.  ethnos,  nation  or  race,  and 
logos,  discourse)  is  the  science  that  treats  of  the  varie- 
ties in  the  human  race ;  their  most  marked  physical, 
mental,  and  moral  characteristics,  when  compared  one 
with  the  other ;  their  present  geographical  distribu- 
tion on  the  globe;  their  history  traced  l)ackwards, 
Avith  the  aid  of  written  documents  and  natural  or 
monumental  remains,  to  the  earliest  attainable  point ; 
and  finally,  the  languages  of  the  various  nations  and 
tribes  of  mankind,  whether  still  spoken  or  extinct, 
classified  and  compared  with  the  view,  by  their 
means,  of  determining  the  chief  points  of  resemblance 
or  dissimilarity  among  the  nations  of  the  earth.  Ac- 
cording to  this  definition,  framed  after  the  latest  and 
best  authorities,  it  is  a  science  that  involves  in  its 
study  that  of  comparative  physiology,  also  of  geogra- 
phy, history  and  archaeology,  and  comparative  philol- 
ogy. It  is  therefore  a  mixed  or  composite  science, 
embracing  a  variety  of  subjects  formerly  not  thought 
to  belong  to  it,  but  now  deemed  necessary  for  its  suc- 
cessful cultivation.  It  has  been  often  confounded 
with  ethnography,  in  which  is  implied  a  simple  de- 
scription of  the  nations  of  the  earth  ;  but  ethnology 
takes  a  wider  range,  and  while  it  comprehends  tlie 
former,  embraces  much  besides  ;  indeed,  in  its  widest 
sense,  it  is  now  understood  as  involving  a  discussion 
of  the  important  questions :  'What  is  species?'  and 
*  What  is  variety?'  also,  of  the  doctrine  of  hybridity, 
and  of  the  difficult  problem  concerning  the  origin 
of  mankind  ;  that  is  to  say,  a  sifting  of  the  evidence 
for  or  against  the  absolute  unity  of  the  human 
race. 

Ethnology,  however,  is  a  science  still  comparatively 
in  its  infancy ;  and  although  it  has  made  considerable 
progress  since  the  researches  of  Camper  and  Blumen- 
bach,  especially  in  this  country,  owing  to  the  inde- 
fatigable exertions  of  Dr.  Pritchard,  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that,  as  in  the  case  of  other  sciences — geology,  for  in- 
stance, and  comparative  philology,  also  of  modern 
growth— when  it  comes  to  be  better  understood  and 
more  widely  cultivated,  apart  from  prejudice  of  what- 
ever kind,  its  limits  will  be  more  accurately  defined, 
and  the  study  of  it  narrowed  to  a  more  reasonable 
area  than  it  at  present  occupies. 

As  it  is,  there  is  no  alternative  but  to  treat  of  the 
subject  according  to  the  definition  given  above, 
which  our  space  obliges  us  to  do  as  briefly  as 
possible. 


No  one  can  look  at  an  Englishman,  a  Red  Indian, 
and  a  Negro,  without  at  once  noticing  the  differ- 
ences between  the  three,  not  only  as  regards  the 
colour  of  their  skin,  but  the  shape  of  the  skull,  the 
texture  of  the  hair,  and  the  character  of  the  several 
features,  as  eyes,  lips,  nose,  and  cheek-bones.  What 
strikes  the  ordinary  observer  chiefly  is,  of  course, 
the  difference  of  complexion  ;  but  the  anatomist  ia 
fully  as  much  interested  in  the  shape  of  the  skuU, 
The  first  thoroughly  scientific  writer  who  endea* 
voured  to  lay  down  a  method  of  distinguishing 
between  the  different  races  of  mankind  by  a  com. 
parison  of  the  shape  and  size  of  the  skull  was 
Peter  Camper,  a  distinguished  Dutch  anatomist  of 
last  century.  He  laid  down  a  technical  rule  for 
ascertaining  the  facial  line,  and  determining  the 
amount  of  the  facial  angle,  which  he  has  thua 
described  :  '  The  basis  on  which  the  distinction  of 
nations  is  founded  may  be  displayed  by  two  straight 
hues,  one  of  which  is  to  be  drawn  through  the 
meatus  auditorius  to  the  base  of  the  nose,  and  the 
other  touching  the  prominent  centre  of  the  forehead, 
and  falling  thence  on  the  most  advancing  part  of 
the  upper  jaw-bone,  the  .head  being  viewed  in 
profile.  In  the  angle  produced  by  these  two  lines 
may  be  said  to  consist  not  only  the  distinctions 
between  the  skulls  of  the  several  species  of  animals, 
but  also  those  which  are  found  to  exist  between 
different  nations ;  and  it  might  be  concluded  that 
nature  has  availed  herself,  at  the  same  time,  of  thia 
angle  to  mark  out  the  diversities  of  the  animal  king- 
dom, and  to  establish  a  sort  of  scale  from  the  inferior 
tribes  up  to  the  most  beautiful  forms  which  are 
found  in  the  human  species.  Thus,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  heads  of  birds  display  the  smallest  angle, 
and  that  it  always  becomes  of  greater  extent  in 
proportion  as  the  animal  approaches  more  nearly 
to  the  human  figure.  Thus,  there  is  one  species  of 
the  ape  tribe  in  which  the  head  has  a  facial  angle  of 
42  degrees  ;  in  another  animal  of  the  same  family, 
which  is  one  of  those  Simise  most  approximating  in 
figure  to  mankind,  the  facial  angle  contains  exactly 
50  degrees.  Next  to  this  is  the  head  of  the  African 
Negro,  which,  as  well  as  that  of  the  Kalmuk,  forma 
an  angle  of  70  degrees ;  while  the  angle  discovered  in 
the  heads  of  Europeans  contains  80  degrees.  On 
this  difference  of  10  degrees  in  the  f.acial  angle  the 
superior  beauty  of  the  European  depends ;  while 
that  high  character  of  sublime  beauty  which  is  so 
striking  in  some  works  of  ancient  statuary,  as  in  the 
head  of  Apollo,  and  in  the  Medusa  of  Sisocles,  ia 
given  by  an  angle  which  amounts  to  100  degrees.' 

Camper's  method,  however,  although  ingenious, 
was  found  practically  to  be  of  little  use,  and  waa 
soon  abandoned  for  the  vertical  method,  or  norma 
verticalis,  of  viewing  the  human  skull,  invented  by 
Blumeiibach.  The  object  sought  in  comparing  and 
arranging  skulls  being  to  collect  in  one  survey  the 
greatest  number  of  characteristic  peculiarities — '  The 
best  way,'  says  Blumenbach,  '  of  obtaining  this  end 
is  to  place  a  series  of  skulls  with  the  cheek-bones  op 
the  same  horizontal  line  resting  on  the  lower  jaws ; 
and  then  viewing  them  from  behind,  and  fixing  the 
eye  on  the  vertex  of  each,  to  mark  all  the  varieties 
in  the  shape  of  parts  that  contribute  most  to  the 
national  character,  whether  they  consist  in  th« 
direction  of  the  maxillary  and  malar  bones,  in  the 
breadth  or  narrowness  of  the  oval  figure  presented 
by  the  vertex,  or  in  the  flattened  or  vaulted  form 
of  the  frontal  bone.'  Founding  upon  this  mode  of 
admeasurement  applied  to  a  large  collection  of 
skulls  of  different  nations,  accumulated  by  himself, 
Blumenbach  classified  the  human  family  into  tb* 
following  five  varieties — viz.,  the  Caucasian,  Mon- 
golian, Ethiopian,  Malay,  and  American.  In  the  first 
of  these — which  he  made  to  include  the  CaucaaiaQJi 


ETHNOLOGY. 


or  Circassians  Proper,  the  Celts,  the  Teutons,  the 
Shemites,  the  Libyan  family,  the  Nilotic  family,  and 
the  Hindustanic  family — the  skidl  is  large  and  oval, 
the  forehead  expanded,  the  nasal  bones  arched,  the 
chin  full,  and  the  teeth  vertical.    In  the  second — 


'•They  were  neither  nomades  nor  savages,  nor  do 
they  display  in  their  crania  either  of  the  forms 
principally  belonging  to  races  in  those  diHcreat 
states  of  existence.  They  had  all  heads  of  an 
1  oval  or  elliptico-spherical  form,  which  are  ohrjerved 


which  embraces  the  Chinese  and  Indo-Chinese,  the  i  to  prevail  chiefly  among  nations  who  have  their 
natives  of  the  polar  regions,  the  Mongol  Tartars,  ;  faculties  developed  by  civilisation.'  As  tiiey  can- 
and  the  Turks — the  skull  is  oblong,  but  flattened  at  not,  however,  by  any  means  be  made  to  compre- 
the  sides,  the  forehead  low  and  receding,  the  nose  bend  all  the  types  of  man,  after  the  Egyi)tian3,  ho 


broad  and  short,  and  the  cheek-bones  broad  and  flat, 
with  salient  zygomatic  arches.  In  the  third—  embrac 
ing  the  Negroes,  Kafirs,  Hottentots,  Australians, 


describes  the  great  body  of  the  nations  of  Africa, 
embracing  tril^es  sunk  in  the  lowest  state  of  degra- 
dation ;  and  after  the  Aryans,  or  Indo-Europeaua, 


Alforians  and  Oceanic  Negroes — the  skidl  is  long  and  the  people  of  High  Asia,  chiefly  nomades,  inha- 
narrow,  the  forehead  low,  the  nose  broad  and  flat,  [  biting  \dst  steppes,  and  never  rising  in  the  scala 
ttie  cheek-bones  prominent,  the  jaws  projecting  like  |  of  civilisation  beyond  the  condition  of  wandering 
a  muzzle,  the  lips  thick,  and  the  chin  small.  In  }  shepherds,  though  in  this  capacity  possessing  some 
Uie  foTirth — embracing  the  Malays  and  Polynesians  j  wealth,  and  acquainted  with  the  use  of  clothing, 
generally — the  skull  is  high  and  square,  the  forehead  i  tents,  and  W' agons.  '  These  classes  of  nations,' 
low,  the  nose  short  and  broad,  and  the  jaws  pro-  j  he  observes,  '  have  difi'erent  physical  characters, 
jecting.  In  the  fifth — embracing  the  American  I  Among  the  African  savages  we  find  the  prognaUioiL4 
family  and  the  Toltican  family — the  skuU  is  small,  j  fonn  of  the  head  and  all  its  accompaniments ;  and 
with  the  apex  higli,  and  the  back  part  flat,  the  j  these  traits  display  themselves  in  proportion  to  the 
forehead  receding,  the  cheek-bones  high,  the  nose  I  moral  and  physical  degradation  of  the  race.  In 
aquiline,  the  mouth  large,  and  the  lips  tumid.  I  Northern  Asia,  most  of  the  inhabitants  have  the 

This  classification  of  the  human  family,  with  the  pyramidal  and  broad-faced  skulls.'  Ptefening  ouj" 
added  characteristics  under  each  class,  of  complexion,  !  readers  to  the  articles  Aryan  Pace,  Egypt,  and 
hair,  and  eyes,  is,  upon  the  whole,  the  most  popular,  j  Shemitic  Nations  respectively,  for  detailed  infor- 
Blumenbach  having  taken  considerable  pains  to  :  mation  on  the  subject  of  these  three  grand  divj- 
elaborate  it,  and  present  it  to  the  world  in  a  form  '  sions  of  mankind,  we  shall  here  only  notice  Dr 

Prichard's  subdivisions  of  one  of  them,  namely,  the 
Aryan  race. 

The  great  Aryan  or  Indo-European  race,  which 
extends  itself  from  the  mouth  of  the  Ganges  to  the 
British  Islands  and  the  northern  extremities  of 
Scandin.avia,  divides  itself,  according  to  Prichard, 
into  two  branches — viz.,  the  parent  stock  in  Asia, 
and  the  colonies  that  it  successively  sent  forth  into 
Europe.  The  Asian  branch  comprises  :  1.  Hindus; 
2.  Persians ;  3.  Afghans ;  4.  Baluchi  and  Brahui ; 
5.  Kurds  ;  6.  Armenians  ;  and  7.  Ossetines.  Tlio 
collective  body  of  the  European  nations  are  now 
generally  regarded  as  a  series  of  colonies  from  Asia. 
The  proof  turns  mainly  on  a  comparison  of  languages ; 
the  ancient  Sanscrit  being  regarded  by  the  most 


acceptable  to  scientific  inquirers.  Later  researchcs_ 
however,  have  proved  it  to  be  not  quite  tenable. 
Thus,  Cuvier  reduced  the  five  classes  of  Blumenbach 
to  three — \'iz.,  the  Caucasian,  Mongolian,  and 
Ethiopian,  treating  the  Malay  and  American  as 
subdivisions  of  the  Mongolian.  Jacquinot  does  the 
same.  Dr  Prichard,  who  brought  to  the  study 
of  ethnology  not  only  a  large  acquaintance  with 
physiology,  but  a  considerable  knowledge  of  lan- 
guages, admits  a  greater  number  of  varieties  than 
Blumenbach,  but  divides  his  Caucasian  class  into 
two  independent  groups,  which  he  calls  the  Syro- 
Arabian  or  Semitic,  and  the  Aryan  or  Indo- Ger- 
manic. Moreover,  he  objects  to  the  term  Caucasian, 
as  representing  the  notion  that  mankind  had  their 

origin  on  mountain  heights.  For  himself,  Prichard  '  competent  judges  as  the  parent  not  only  of  the 
holds  with  the  view  that  it  was  rather  on  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages,  but  of  the  Teutonic, 


banks  of  large  rivers  and  their  estuaries  that  the 
primitive    nations   developed  themselves.     '  The 


with  its  several  ramifications  of  the  Slavonic,  Lettish, 
Lithuanian,  and  even  Celtic.    Dr  Prichard  hiinseil 


cradles  or  nurseries  of  the  first  nations,  of  those  :  was  the  first  to  point  out  the  aflSnity  of  the  Celtio 


at  least  who  became  populous,  and  have  left  a 
name  celebrated  in  later  times,  appear  to  have 
been  extensive  plains  or  valleys,   traversed  by 


with  the  Sanscx'it,  Greek,  Latin,  and  Teutonic,  in  a 
memoir  published  by  him  in  1831,  on  the  Eastern 
Origin  of  the  Celtic  Nations.    Later  philologers  have 


navigable  channels,  and  irrigated  by  perennial  and  confirmed  the  view  taken  by  him,  and  he  is  perhapp 
fertilising  streams.    Three  such  regions  were  the  i  correct  also  in  the  conclusion,  that  they  were  the 


scenes  of  the  earliest  civilisation  of  the  human 
race,  of  the  first  foundation  of  cities,  of  the 
earliest  political  institutions,  and  of  the  invention 
t)f  the  arts  which  embellish  human  life.  In  one 
of  tl'.ese,  the  Semitic  or  Syro- Arabian  nations 
ex)  hanged  the  simi)le  habits  of  wandering  shep- 
herds for  the  si)lendour  and  luxury  of  Nineveh 
and  Babylon.  In  a  second,  the  Indo-European 
or  Japetic  people  brought  to  perfection  the  most 
alaborate  of  human  dialects,  destined  to  become  in 
S>fter-times,  and  under  different  modifications,  the 
mother-tongue  of  the  nations  of  Europe.  In  a  third, 
the  land  of  Ham,  watered  by  the  Nile,  were  invented 
hierogl}^)hical  literature,  and  the  arts  in  which 
Egjrpt  far  8uq)assed  all  the  rest  of  the  world  in 
the  earlier  ages  of  history.'  Dr  Prichard,  in  his 
well-known  Natural  History  of  Man,  commences 
with  a  description  of  these  three  divisions  of  the 
human  race,  not  as  discriminated  one  from  the 
other  by  the  form  of  the  skull,  but  as  comprising 
nearly  all  the  civilised  communities,  and  indeed 
mo8t»of  the  tribes  of  people  known  to  antiquity. 
16« 


first  great  immigration  of  the  Aryans  into  Europe, 
who  were  afterwards  conquered,  and  their  numbers 
considerably  reduced  by  fresh  advancing  colonies 
from  the  same  parent  hive.  But  there  are  other 
nations  or  tribes  of  Europe  which  no  efforts  of  the 
philologists  have  succeeded  in  tracing  to  the  Aryan 
stock ;  such  are  the  Lapps,  Finns,  Tschudes,  and 
Ugrians  of  the  North,  and  the  Euskaldunes,  now 
principally  represented  by  the  Basques  in  the  West. 
To  these,  Dr  Prichard  has  given  the  aj)pellation  of 
AUoi)hylian  (Gr.  alios,  another,  and  pkule,  tribe), 
thereby  signifying  their  independence  of  the  Aryan 
stock.  The  progenitors  of  these  tribes  were  probably 
the  inhabitants  of  Europe,  prior  to  the  first  Aryan 
immigration. 

After  these  several  races,  Dr  Prichard  treats  of 
the  native  tribes  of  the  austral  seas  and  the  great 
Southern  Ocean,  and  finally,  of  the  nativ^e  inha- 
bitants of  America.  In  every  case,  he  carefidly 
describes  the  physical  appearance  or  structm-e,  the 
geographical  habitat,  history,  and  migrations  (if  any), 
the  language,  uud  the  moral  and  psychical  attnbute? 

146 


ETHNOLOGY. 


of  the  nation  or  tribe  immediately  broiight  nnder 
notice.  His  information  has  generally  been  obtained 
from  the  best  sources,  and  hence  bis  works  may  be 
regarded  as  a  storehouse  of  knowledge  upon  the 
Bubject  of  ethnology. 

But  both  before  and  since  Blumenbach  and 
Prichard,  there  have  been  several  classifications  of 
the  human  race  proposed,  the  simplest  of  which 
is  perhaps  that  of  Dr  Latham,  into  1.  Mongolidaj ; 
2.  Atlantidoe  ;  3.  Japetidae.  This  writer  is  properly 
regarded  as  the  chief  living  exponent  of  the 
science  of  ethnology  in  this  country.  Following 
in  tiie  track  of  Prichard,  and  possessing,  like 
hi.a,  a  considerable  acquaintance  with  physiology 
and  nistory,  he  distances  him  altogether  in  the 
department  of  comparative  philology.  His  contri- 
b  .itions  to  the  science  of  ethnology,  borrowed  from 
this  particular  branch  of  study,  are  consequently  of 
the  highest  value.  But  there  is  one  important 
question,  with  respect  to  which  the  suffrages  of 
the  Ijest  philologers  are  rather  with  Prichard  than 
with  Latham — viz.,  the  origin  of  the  Aryan  or  Indo 
Euro]>eiin  race.  Prichard,  as  we  have  seen,  refers  it 
to  Asia,  while  Latham  claims  it  for  Europe. 

Other  classifications  might  be  mentioned ;  but 
these  we  shall  leave,  especially  as  the  best  autho- 
rities, even  those  of  rival  schools,  do  not  at  present 
raucli  insist  on  classification ;  probably  from  a  con 
viction  of  the  hopelessness  of  laying  down  any 
definite  scheme  in  which  all  coidd  be  brought  to 
agree,  in  the  existing  state  of  the  science.  That 
a  classification  will  at  last  come,  when  more  facts 
shall  have  been  accumulated,  there  is  every  reason 
to  believe  ;  but  this  will  scarcely  happen  before 
one  great  question  at  least  shall  have  been  set  at 
rest,  which  now  divides  the  cidtivators  of  ethnology 
into  two  hostile  camps. 

This  question  is  the  all  important  one :  '  What 
is  species  ? '  Men  may  go  on  classifying,  but  what 
do  tliey  classify?  Is  it  species,  or  is  it  varieties? 
Prichard  and  Latham  in  this  country,  with  a  large 
band  of  followers,  maintain  that  the  numerous  tribes 
of  men  upon  the  earth  constitute  essentially  but  one 
epecies ;  that  they  have  all  sprung  from  a  single 
pair ;  and  that  the  differences  obsers^able  among 
them,  even  in  the  extr^ne  cases  of  the  European 
And  the  Negro,  may  all  be  accounted  for  by  the 
iutiuences  of  climate,  food,  and  other  cu'cumstances 
»n)erating  through  a  long  series  of  ages,  and  which 
thus  produce  the  peculiar  characteristics  that  no 
one  can  fail  to  notice  in  a  comparison  of  one  with 
the  other.  It  is  a  well-ascertained  fact  in  respect 
of  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms  generally, 
that  although  by  the  union  of  two  species  hybrid 
animals  and  hybrid  plants  may  be  produced, 
especially  in  the  domestic  state,  still  there  is  no 
p()Y;er  of  reproduction  among  the  hybrids  them- 
selves ;  in  mules,  for  instance,  and  the  offspring  of 
tlie  dog  and  the  wolf,  also  in  various  tribes  of  birds ; 
nature  appearing  to  have  set  her  ban  upon  any 
permanent  invasion  of  her  law  with  respect  to  the 
distinctness  of  species.  With  the  races  of  man, 
however,  this  is  not  the  case.  The  European  and 
the  Negro  intermarry,  likewise  the  Spaniard  and  the 
iodiau  of  South  America  ;  both  have  offspring,  and 
that  off3])ring  is  quite  as  capable  of  reproduction  as 
individuals  of  the  same  parent  nation.  Whence 
it  is  argued,  that  all  nations  and  tribes  of  men  are 
originally  of  the  same  sj)ecie3.  The  diversities  among 
them,  say  Prichard  and  his  school,  are  not  greater 
than  \v^e  continually  see  among  the  different  iDreeds 
of  dogs,  horses,  sheep,  and  oxen,  which  are  never- 
theless universally  regarded  as  nothing  more  than 
varieties.  Indeed,  within  the  historical  period,  and 
so  lale  even  as  since  the  discovery  of  America  in 
tho  loth  c,  such  marked  changes  have  taken  place 

146 


in  the  animals  transported  to  that  continent  from 
Europe,  that  they  would  scarcely  seem  to  have 
descended  from  the  same  stock.    And  if  this  has 
been  the  case  among  the  lower  auimalo  within 
such  a  limited  period  as  that  mentioned,  is  nothing 
to  be  allowed  for  the  influence  of  cliciate  ana 
other  agencies  in  modifying  the  aspect  cf  man, 
and  producing  those  varieties  observable  in  him 
after  a  long  lapse  of  ages  ?     Man,  although  a 
cosmopolite,  and  subduing  all  things  to  himself, 
'capable  of  living  under  every  clime,  from  the 
shores  of  the  ley  Sea,  where  the  frozen  soil  never 
softens  under  his  feet,  to  the  burning  sands  of  eqriar 
torial  plains,  where  even  reptiles  perish  from  he^f 
and  drought,'  is  nevertheless  himself  to  a  certain 
extent  the  creature  of  the  circumstances  by  which 
he  is  surrounded.    '  He  modifies  the  agencies  of  the 
elements  upon  himself ;  but  do  not  these  agencies  also 
modify  him  ?    Have  they  not  rendered  him  in  hia 
very  organisation  different  in  different  regions,  and 
imder  various  modes  of  existence  imposed  by  physi- 
cal and  moral  conditions  ?    How  different  a  being  is 
the  Esquimaux,  who,  in  his  burrow  amid  northern 
ices,  gorges  himself  with  the  blubber  of  whales,  from 
the  lean  and  hungry  Numidian,  who  pursues  the  lion 
under  a  vertical  sun  !    And  how  different,  whether 
compared  with  the  skin-clad  and  oily  fisher  of  the 
icebergs,  or  with  the  naked  hunter  of  the  Sahara, 
are  the  luxurious  inmates  of  eastern  harems,  or  the 
energetic  and  intellectual  inhabitants  of  the  cities 
of  Europe  ! '    Notwithstanding  all  these  differences, 
however,  inasmuch  as  no  impediment  whatever 
exists  to  the  perpetuation  of  mankind  when  the 
most  dissimilar  varieties  are  blended  together,  '  we 
hence  derive  a  conclusive  proof,  unless  there  be  in 
the  instance  of  human  races  an  excejjtion  to  the 
universally  prevalent  law  of  organised  nature,  that 
all  the  tiibes  of  men  are  of  one  family.'  Thia 
conclusion  of  Prichard,  based  upon  physiological 
grounds,  is  strongly  supported  by  Dr  Latham  with 
arguments  drawn  from  philology.     Dr  Latham, 
taking  it  as  a  matter  of  fact  that  all  the  languages 
of  mankind  have  had  a  common  origin,  argues  from 
it  in  favour  of  an  original  unity  of  race.  Thia 
common  origin  of  languages,  however,  is  a  thing  by 
no  means  proved;  for  although  Klaproth,  Fiirst, 
and  Delitzsch  have  taken  great  pains  to  establish 
an  affinity  between  the  Sanscrit  and  the  Hebrew, 
M.  Renan  and  other  excellent  authorities  regard  the 
attempt  as  unsuccessful,  and,  even  were  it  other- 
wise, '  the  Chinese,'  says  a  late  writer  (Farrar, 
Essay  on  the  Origin  of  Language),  'must  always 
remain  a  stumbling-block  in  the  way  of  aU  theoriea 
respecting  a  primitiA^e  language.    Radical  as  is  the 
dissimilarity  between  Aryan  and  Semitic  languages, 
and  wide  as  is  the  abyss  between  their  grammatical 
systems,  yet  they  almost  appear  like  sisters  when 
compared  Avith  the  Chinese,  which  has  nothing  like 
the  organic  principle  of  grammar  at  all.  Indeed, 
so  wide  is  the  difference  between  Chinese  and 
Sanscrit,  that  the  richness  of  human  intelligence  in 
the  formation  of  language  receives  no  more  striking 
illustration  than  the  fact,  that  these  languages  hi\ir© 
absolutely  nothing  in  common  except  the  end  at 
which  they  aim.    This  end  is  in  both  cases  the 
expression  of  thought,  and  it  is  attained  as  well 
in  Chinese  as  in  the  grammatical  languages,  although 
the  means  are  wholly  different.' 

Having  thus  made  the  reader  in  some  degree 
acquainted  with  the  views  of  Drs.  Prichard  and 
Latham  on  the  subject  of  ethnology,  we  now  pro 
ceed  to  inform  him  of  the  totally  different  views  and 
conclusions  of  the  American  school  of  ethnology. 
This  school  was  founded  by  the  late  Dr.  Morton, 
of  Philadelphia,  an  erudite  and  active  man  of 
science,  who  laboured  for  many  years  in  forming 


ETHNOLOGY. 


a  collection  of  human  crania  of  all  nations,  and  of  ! 
ancient  as  well  as  modern  ages,  with  the  design  of 
still  further  carrying  out  Blumenbach's  researches 
into  the  varieties  of  mankind  by  a  comi^arison  of 
crania,  according  to  the  method  he  had  proposed. 
This  collection  of  crania  was  begun  in  1830,  and  at 
the  time  of  Morton's  death  in  1851,  amounted  to  the 
large  number  of  918  human  crauia,  to  which  were 
afterwards  added  51 ;  and  it,  besides,  included  278 
crania  of  mammals,  271  of  birds,  and  88  of  reptiles — 
in  all,  1606  skulls,  being  the  largest  collection  of  the 
kind  ever  formed,  and  which,  fortunately  for  the 
purposes  of  science,  is  now  deposited  in  the  Museum 
of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  at  Philadelphia. 
Simultaneously  with  this  accumulation  of  crania, 
Dr  Morton  carried  on  his  researches  in  ethnology, 
not,  however,  in  the  restricted  sense  in  which  he 
began,  following  Blumenbach's  classification,  but 
availing  himself  of  the  latest  discoveries  of  Prichard, 
and  the  other  English  and  continental  \vriter3.  One 
of  the  results  of  his  labours  was  the  publication, 
in  1839,  of  a  handsome  work,  entitled  Crania  AmeH- 
cana,  which  was  followed  in  1844  by  the  Crania 
jEgyptiaca,  in  the  collection  of  which  he  had  been 
much  aided  by  Mr  G.  \i.  Gliddon.  '  In  this  work,' 
says  his  biogra})her,  Dr  Patterson,  '  Morton  found 
himself  compelled  to  differ  in  opinion  from  the 
majority  of  scholars,  in  regard  to  certain  points  of 
primary  importance.'  The  great  question  of  the 
unity  or  diversity  of  mankind  in  their  origin  was 
one  that  early  forced  itself  upon  his  attention,  and 
the  conclusion  at  which  he  arrived,  after  much 
patient  investigation,  was  in  favour  of  the  latter 
view.  He  was  slow  to  publish  any  opinion  on  the 
subject,  probably  reserving  it  for  a  work  upon 
which  he  was  engaged,  to  be  entitled  the  Elements 
of  Ethnolo(jy.  His  opinion,  however,  was  well  known 
to  his  friends.  In  a  note  to  a  paper  in  SiUiman's 
Journal  for  1847,  he  says:  *I  may  here  observe 
that  whenever  I  have  ventured  an  opinion  on  this 
question,  it  has  been  in  favour  of  the  doctrine 
of  primeval  diversities  among  men  ;  an  original 
adaptation  of  the  several  races  to  those  varied 
circumstances  of  climate  and  locality  which,  while 
congenial  to  the  one,  are  destructive  to  the  other ; 
and  subsequent  investigations  have  confirmed  me 
in  these  views.'  In  a  letter  to  Dr  Nott,  dated 
January  1850,  he  lays  down  the  following  proposi- 
tion :  '  That  our  species  had  its  origin,  not  in  one, 
but  in  several  or  in  many  creations,  and  that  these 
diverging  from  their  primitive  centres,  met  and 
amalgamated  in  the  progress  of  time,  and  have  thus 
given  rise  to  those  intermediate  links  of  organisation 
which  now  connect  the  extremes  together.  Here 
is  the  truth  divested  of  mystery;  a  system  that 
explains  the  otherwise  unintelligible  phenomena  so 
remarkably  stamped  on  the  races  of  men.'  His 
latest  utterance  upon  the  subject  is  contained  in  a 
letter  written  to  Mr  G.  R.  Gliddon,  in  April  1851, 
only  a  fortnight  before  the  WTi'ter's  decease,  which 
concluc'es  as  follows :  '  The  doctrine  of  the  original 
diversity  of  mankind  unfolds  itself  to  me  more  and 
more  w,th  the  distinctness  of  revelation.'  His 
views  U|)on  this  and  other  points  of  dispute  among 
etlinc)h)gi3^a  have  been  since  embodied  in  a  remark- 
able work,  entitled  Types  of  Mankind;  or,  Eihno- 
loijunl  RtAcarclies  based  upon  Ifie  A  ncient  3Io7cumentSy 
Painthiffs,  Sculpture!^,  and  Urania  of  Races^  and  njjon 
their  Natural,  Oeotjraphical,  Philological,  and  Bibli- 
cal Jlistory  ;  illuHtrated  by  select ionn  from  the  inedited 
Pape7's  of  aS',  G.  Morton.,  M.l).,  and  by  additional  con- 
tribuiions  from  Profcsaor  L.  AyasKiz,  W.  Usher,  M.D., 
and  Professor  Jf.  .S.  Patterson.  By  J.  C.  Nott,  M.D., 
and  G.  K.  Gliddon  (Philadelphia,  1854).  In  this  com- 
posite work,  pcrhaj)s  the  most  remarkable  feature  is 
the  paper  contr-.buted  by  the  celebrated  naturalist, 


I  Professor  Agassiz,  in  suj)port  of  Dr  Morton's  theory 
as  to  the  original  diversity  of  the  human  races. 

The  paper  by  Agassiz  is  entitled,  Sketch  of  th6 
Natural  Proirinces  of  the  A  nimal  World,  and  tJieir 
Relation  to  Uie  Difj'erent  Types  of  Man.  It  waa 
drawn  up  by  the  writer  from  a  conviction  that 
much  might  be  gained  in  the  study  of  ethnography 
by  observing  the  natural  relations  between  the 
different  races  of  man  and  the  plants  and  animals 
inhabiting  the  same  regions.  The  sketch  given  by 
him  is  intended  to  shew,  that  'the  boundaiies 
within  which  the  different  natural  combinationa  ot 
animals  are  known  to  be  circumscribed  Ui>ou  the 
surface  of  our  earth  coincide  with  the  natural  range 
of  distinct  types  of  man.  Such  natural  combinations 
of  animals  circumscribed  within  definite  boundaries 
are  called  Faunoi,  whatever  be  their  home — land, 
sea,  or  water.'  There  are  eight  regions  of  tli« 
earth,  according  to  Agassiz,  each  contaJning  its 
own  faunae,  and  its  own  peculiar  type  of  man ;  and 
his  main  conclusion  from  a  consideration  of  these 
several  faunee  is  as  follows :  '  That  the  diversity 
among  animals  is  a  fact  determined  by  the  will 
of  the  Creator,  and  their  geographical  distribution 
part  of  the  general  plan  which  unites  all  organised 
beings  into  one  great  organic  conception ;  whence  it 
follows  that  what  are  called  human  races,  down  to 
their  specialisation  as  nations,  are  distinct  primor- 
dial forms  of  the  tj^e  of  man.'  Messrs  Nott  and 
Gliddon,  in  their  work  quoted,  appeal  triumphantly 
to  this  theory  of  Agassi^s  in  support  of  their  \'iew 
as  to  the  primitive  diversity  of  the  races  of  man- 
kind ;  and  in  a  subsequent  M'ork,  Indigenous  Races 
of  the  Earth  (Philadelphia,  1857),  have  inserted  a 
further  communication  from  the  writer,  in  which, 
whde  he  reiterates  his  formerly  expressed  opinion, 
that  the  races  of  man,  so  far  as  concerns  their 
geographical  distribution,  are  subject  to  the  same 
circumscription  as  the  other  members  of  the  animal 
kingdom,  he  observes :  '  Even  if  this  fact  stood 
isolated,  it  would  shew  how  intimately  the  plan 
of  the  animal  creation  is  Hnked  with  that  of 
manJcind.  But  this  is  not  aU.  There  are  other 
features,  occurring  among  animals,  which  require 
the  most  carefid  consideration,  inasmuch  as  they 
bear  precisely  upon  the  question  at  issue,  whether 
mankmd  originated  from  one  stock  or  from  several 
stocks,  or  by  nations.  These  features,  well  lal0^vll 
to  every  zoologist,  have  led  to  as  conflicting  views 
respecting  the  imity  or  plurality  of  certain  types  of 
animals  as  are  prevailing  respecting  the  unity  or 
plurality  of  the  origin  of  the  human  races.  The 
controversy  which  has  been  carried  on  among 
zoologists  upon  this  point,  shews  that  the  difii- 
cidties  respecting  the  races  of  men  are  not  peculiar 
to  the  question  of  man,  but  involve  the  inves- 
tigation of  the  whole  animal  kingdom — though, 
strange  as  it  may  appear,  they  have  always  been 
considered  without  the  least  reference  to  one 
another.' 

This  theory  of  Agassiz,  it  must  be  stated,  has  been 
much  controverted,  as  lilcewise  the  opmions  gener- 
ally of  Dr  Morton  and  the  American  school  of 
ethnology,  partly  on  biblical,  and  partly  on  scien- 
tific grounds.  Indeed,  from  the  confiict  of  opinions 
as  to  the  origin  of  the  human  race,  if  the  solution 
of  this  question  were  the  sole  object  of  ethnologyj 
the  science  might  be  said  to  be  in  a  very  unsatis* 
factory  state.  But  this  is  not  the  case.  The 
question  at  issue  is  one  that  may  well  be  left  in 
abeyance  for  the  present.  Without  it,  the  field  of 
inquiry  is  sufficiently  wide,  and  is  well  cidtivated 
by  skilled  labourers,  who  continuaU}--  bring  the 
product  of  their  researches  in  phyuiolog}'',  geo- 
graphy, archreology,  and  comparative  philology  tr» 
enrich  and  fructify  the  newly  turned-up  soil. 


ETHYL-ETIENNE. 


Subjoined  is  a  tabular  view  of  the  diflFerent  races 
vi  mankind,  according  to  the  classification  of  Dr. 
Latham : 

1,  MONGOLID^. 

Physical  Characteristics. — Face  broad  and  flat ; 
frontal  profile  retiring  or  depressed ;  maxillary 
profile  moderately  prognathic  or  projecting,  rarely 
orthognatic ;  eyes  often  oblique ;  skin  rarely  a  true 
white,  rarely  a  jet  black ;  irides  generally  dark ; 
hair  straight,  and  lank,  and  black,  rarely  light- 
ColooTtid,  sometimes  curly,  rarely  woolly.  Lan- 
guages— aptotic  and  agglutinate,  rarely  with  a  true 
lunalgamate  inflection.  See  Languagk.  Distribu- 
ti<n — i  sia,  Polynesia,  America.  Influence  upon  the 
hhtory  of  the  world,  material  rather  than  moral. 

A.  Altaic  Mongolid^. — 1.  Seriform  stock,  em- 
bracing Chinese,  Tibetans,  Anaraese,  Siamese,  Kam- 
bojians,  Burmese,  the  Mon,  and  numerous  unplaced 
tribes.  2.  Ttiranian  stock,  embracing  the  Mongo- 
lian branch,  the  Tungusian  branch,  the  Turk  branch, 
*nd  the  Ugrian  branch. 

B.  DioscuRiAN  MoNGOLTD^. — 1.  Georgians.  2. 
Lesgians.    3.  Mizjeji.    4.  Ir6n.    5.  Circassians. 

C.  OcKA-Nic  MoNGOLTD.^:. — 1.  Amphinesian  stock, 
embracing  Protonesians,  Polynesians,  Male^asi  (?). 
2.  Kelceno7iesian  stock,  embracing  the  natives  of 
New  Guinea,  New  Ireland,  Solomon's  Isles,  Louisade, 
New  Caledonia,  Australia,  and  Tasmania. 

D.  Hyperborean  Mongolid^ — 1.  Samoeids. 

2.  Yeniseians.    3.  Yukahiri. 

E.  Peninsular  Mongolidje. — 1.  Koreans.  2. 
Japanese.  3.  The  Aino.  4.  Koriaks.  5.  Kamska- 
dales. 

F.  American  Mongolid^. — Embracing  the  vari- 
ous native  tribes  of  North  and  South  America. 

G.  Indian  Mongglid^. — 1.  Tamid.    2.  Pulinda. 

3.  Brahui.  4.  Indo-Gaugetic.  5.  Purbutti.  6.  Caah- 
Diirian.    7.  Cingalese.    8.  Maldivian. 

TI.  ATLANTln^. 

Physical  Characteristics. — Maxillary  profile  pro- 
jecting ;  nasal,  generally  flat ;  frontal,  retiring ; 
cranium,  dolikhokephalic ;  the  parietal  diameter 
being  generally  narrow ;  eyes  rarely  oblique ;  skin 
often  jet-black,  very  rarely  approaching  a  pure 
white;  hair  crisp,  woolly,  rarely  straight,  still  more 
rarely  light-coloured.  Languages,  with,  an  agglutin- 
ate, rarely  an  amalgamate  inflection.  Distribution, 
Africa.  Influence  on  the  history  of  the  worldy  incon- 
siderable. 

A.  Negro  Atlantid^. — Embracing  various  negro 
tribes. 

B.  Kaffre  Atlantid^. — Kaffre  tribes,  &c. 

C.  Hottentot  Atlantid^. — 1.  Hottentots.  2. 
Saabs.    3.  Dammaras, 

D.  Nilotic  Atlantic^. — 1.  Gallas.  2.  Agows 
and  Fiilasha.  3.  Nubians.  4.  Bishari.  5.  M'Kuafi, 
&c. 

E.  Amazirgh  Atlanttd^ 

F.  Egyptian  Atlantid^e. 

G.  Semitic  Atlantidje. — 1.  Syrians.  2.  Assy- 
rians. 3.  Babylonians.  4.  Beni  Terah  (Edomites, 
Jews,  Sam.aritans,  &c.).  5.  Arabs.  6.  Ethiojdans. 
7»  Canaanites,  &c. 

nr.  jAPBTiD«. 

Physical  Characteristics. — Maxillary  profile  but 
I'title  projecting;  nasal  often  prominent;  frontal 
sometimes  nearly  vertical ;  face  rarely  very  flat, 
moderately  broad ;  skull  generally  dolikhokephalic  ; 
eyes  rarely  oblique  ;  skin  white  or  brunette  ;  hair 
never  woolly,  often  light-coloured ;  irides  black, 
blue,  gray.  Languages,  with  amalgamate  inflections, 
vr  else  anaptotic  ;  rarely  agglutinate,  never  aptotic. 
Distribution,  Europe.  Influence  on  the  history  of  the 
world,  greater  than  that  of  either  the  MongoUdae 
or  the  Atlautidae,  moral  as  well  as  materiaL 
148 


A.  Occidental  Japetid^;. — Kelts. 

B.  Indo-Germanic  Japetidjs. — 1.  European 
class,  embracing  Goths,  Teutons  (Moeso-Goths, 
High  and  Low  Germans,  Franks),  Scandinavians, 
Sarmatians,  Slavonians  {Russians,  Servians,  Illy rians, 
Bohemians,  Poles,  Serbs),  Mediterranean  Indo- 
Germans  (Hellenic  branch,  Italian  branch).  2. 
Iranian  class,  embracing  Persians,  Kurds,  Beluchi, 
Patans  (Afghans),  Tajiks,  Siaposh,  Lugmani, 
Dardoh,  Wokhan.  3.  Unplaced  stocks,  Armenians, 
Iberians,  Albanians.  4.  Extinct  stocks,  Pelasgi, 
Etniscans,  popidations  of  Asia  Minor. 

E'THYL  (symbol.  Calls)  is  the  starting  point  of 
the  family  group,  of  which  ordinary  ether  and  alcohol 
are  members. 

Mhyl,  C2H5. 

Mher,    CiHioO,  Oxide  of  Ethyl. 

Alcohol,  C2H5.H.O.  Ilydrated  Oxide  of  Ethyl. 
It  may  be  prepared  by  acting  upon  iodide  of  ethyl  by 
granulated  zinc,  when  the  ethyl  is  liberated,  and  may 
be  obtained  as  a  colourless,  inflammable  gas,  of  an 
agreeable  odour,  insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble  in 
alcohol. 

ETHY'LAMINE  is  a  substance  strongly  resembling 
ordinary  ammonia  and  hartshorn  in  odour  and  other 
properties.  It  is  found  in  coal-tar,  in  the  oil  obtained 
during  the  destructive  distillation  of  bones,  in  tho 
gases  evolved  during  putrefaction,  and  may  be  pro* 
duced  by  certain  complicated  chemical  processes. 
Ethylamine  is  a  mobile  liquid  of  specific  gravity  696 
(water  =  1000),  and  boils  at  66°  F.  It  has  a  strong 
ammbniacal  odour,  has  an  alkaline  action  with  colour- 
ing matters,  forms  white  fumes  with  strong  acids, 
and  in  composition  is  analogous  to  gaseous  ammonia 
(Nils  or  NHHH),  with  one  of  the  atoms  of  hydrogen 
replaced  by  ethyl  (C2H5  or  Ae),  and  is  represented  hv 

the  symbol  C2H7N  or  N^  H 

(C2  H.,. 

ETIENNE,  St,  an  important  manufacturing 
town  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Loire,  is 
situated  on  both  banks  of  the  Furena,  an  afliuent 
of  the  Loire,  in  the  centre  of  a  valuable  and  exten- 
sive coal-field,  30  miles  south-south-west  of  Lyon  by 
rail,  and  about  2S8  miles  south-south-east  of  Paris. 
It  is  surrounded  by  coal-mines,  is  seated  upon 
coal-deposits,  and  has  galleries  driven  even  beneath 
its  streets.  The  stream  on  which  the  town  ia 
built  fiu-nishes  invaluable  water-power  to  move  its 
machinery,  and  its  waters  are  also  of  great  use  ioi 
tempering  iron  and  steel.  The  old  town  of  St  E.  ia 
badly  built,  and  the  new  town,  which  has  sprung  up 
very  quickly,  is  destitute  of  architectural  harmony. 
The  newer  houses  are  built  of  a  fine  white  sand- 
stone, and  are  frequently  five  and  six  stories  in 
height ;  but  they  rapidly  become  tarnished  and 
begrimed  by  the  perpetual  cloud  of  coal-smoke 
which  hangs  over  the  town.  The  most  note- 
worthy building  is  the  H6tel-de-Ville,  which  con- 
tains the  Musee  Industrial,  with  specimens  of  the 
manufactures  of  the  town,  and  of  the  minerals 
and  fossils  of  the  neighbourhood.  St  E.  is  famous 
for  its  manufactures  of  ribbons  and  firearms.  The 
ribbon-manufactories  contain  30,000  looms,  and  tho 
annual  value  of  their  produce  is  estimated  at 
60,000,000  francs  (£2,375,000)  in  value.  They  are 
unrivalled  in  elegance  of  design,  and  in  richness 
and  delicacy  of  colour,  and  are  exported  to  all 
parts  of  the  world.  There  are  extensive  private 
manufactories  of  firearms,  besides  an  imperial  fire- 
arms manufactory,  which  supplies  most  of  the 
muskets  of  the  French  army.  St  E.  haq  also 
extensive  manufactures  of  bayonets,  scythes,  nails, 
saw-blades,  foils,  anvils,  vices,  files,  and  also  of 
silks,   velvets,  lace,    embroidery,   muslins,  glass. 


ETIQUETTE— ETNA. 


Ujatbtjr,  and  paper.  From  the  coal-field  on  which 
St  E.  is  situated,  about  600,000  tons  of  coal  are 
raised  annually.  On  the  1st  January  1856,  St  E. 
was  constituted  the  cai)ital  of  the  department,  in 
place  of  the  town  of  Montbrison.  St  E.  arose 
originally  from  a  castle  built  in  the  10th  c.  by  the 
Counts  of  Forez.  It  increased  greatly  in  the  15th 
c,  and  in  1771  it  had  20,000  inhabitants;  in  1851, 
49,614;  in  1856,  99,677;  in  1866,  96,620;  imd  in 
1872,  110,814  inhabitants. 

ETIQUE'TTE  (Fr.  a  ticket,  supposed  to  be  from 
the  Celtic  tocyn,  a  little  piece  or  slip— a  token). 
Ori2;inaUy,  etiquette  signified  a  little  piece  of  paper 
affiled  to  a  l)ag  or  other  object  to  signify  its 
contents.  The  word  came  probably  to  possess  the 
seojndary  meaning  which  we  now  attach  to  it,  of 
t\\e  forms  or  decorums  observed  in  the  intercourse 
of  life,  more  particularly  on  state  occasions,  from  its 
having  been  customary  to  deliver  such  tickets, 
instructing  each  person  who  was  to  take  part  in  the 
ceremony  as  to  the  part  which  he  was  expected  to 
play.  The  cards  which  are  still  delivered  to  the 
mourners  at  funerals,  and  those  on  which  the  order 
of  the  dances  is  set  forth  at  balls  and  evening 
parties,  are  of  this  nature.  Popular  pubhcations  are 
constantly  issuing  from  the  press  for  the  purpose  of 
teaching  etiquette,  or  the  rules  of  behaviour  in  good 
society.  They  will,  for  the  most  part,  be  found  far 
less  trustworthy  than  the  promptings  of  nature, 
where  the  individual  possesses  a  reasonable  amount 
of  reverence  for  others,  and  respect  for  himself.  Yet 
there  are  certain  conventionalities  which  can  only 
be  learned  by  instruction  of  some  kind,  or  by 
observation,  and  the  observation  may  be  attended 
with  impleasant  circumstances. 

E'TIVE,  a  sea-loch  in  the  north  of  Argyleshire, 
ninning  inland  from  the  Firth  of  Lorn,  20  miles 
east  and  north-east,  with  a  breadth  of  a  quarter 
fe-"  three  miles.  It  is  bordered  by  granite  in  its  upper 
part,  and  by  trap  in  its  lower.  Near  its  mouth, 
there  is  mica-slate  on  the  north  side',  and  Permian 
strata  on  the  south.  The  river  Awe,  the  outlet  of 
Loch  Awe,  falls  into  the  loch  at  the  bend,  where 
also  is  the  ferry  of  Bunawe,  and  the  small  river 
Etive  falls  into  it  at  its  north-east  end.  The  loch 
abounds  in  seals,  salmon,  porpoises,  and  cod.  The 
Bcenery  aroimd  the  upper  half  of  the  loch  is  grand 
and  romantic.  To  the  east  rise  Ben  Cruachan,  3670 
feet,  and  Ben  Starive,  2500  feet,  and  to  the  north 
Ben  Mahrgage.  The  loch  admits  small  coasting- 
Vessels.  Ardchattan  Priory,  founded  in  the  13th 
c,  on  the  site  of  a  monastery  of  the  6th  or  7th  c, 
is  now  in  ruins.  Connel  Ferry,  in  the  lower  part  of 
the  loch,  and  near  a  vitrified  fort,  is  only  680  feet 
broad,  and  is  a  very  turbident  cataract,  three  or  four 
feet  high  at  half-tide,  caused  by  a  sunken  reef  of 
rocks,  partly  bare  at  low  water.  At  the  south  side 
of  the  mouth  of  Loch  E.,  three  miles  north  of  Oban, 
on  a  projecting  conglomerate  rock  10  to  30  feet  high, 
are  the  ruins  of  DunstafFnage  Castle,  the  ancient 
Bt  rough  old  of  the  Macdougals,  a  building  in  what  is 
called  the  Edwardian  style  of  the  end  of  the  13th 
or  beginning  of  the  14th  c,  with  walls  400  feet  in 
circumference,  30  to  50  feet  high,  and  10  feet  thick, 
and  with  three  round  towers.  DunstafFnage  is  sup- 
posed by  some  to  have  been  the  seat  of  the  Dalriadic 
Scottish  monarchy  (see  Dalriada),  and  from  this 
place  the  famous  slab  or  Stone  of  Destiny  (Lia  Fail), 
now  in  the  coronation-chair,  Westminster  Abbey, 
is  said  to  have  been  taken  in  843  by  Kenneth 
Macalpine  to  Scone,  whence  Edward  I.  removed  it 
to  London. 

E'TNA,  or  .ETNA  (now  Monte  Gibello),  is  the 
largest  volcano  in  Europe.  It  is  an  isolated  moun- 
lain«  situated  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Sicily,  and  cut  i 


off  from  the  chain  of  mountains  which  run  parallel 
with  the  northern  shore  of  the  island,  by  a  small 
vaUey,  through  which  flows  the  Alcantara,  and  from 
the  southern  chain  by  a  larger  valley,  which  forma 
the  basin  of  the  Giaretta.  Its  eastern  side  rises 
directly  from  the  Mediterranean,  thirty  miles  of 
coast  being  formed  by  the  streams  of  its  lavas.  Its 
base  is  almost  90  miles  in  circumference,  and 
from  this  it  rises  like  an  immense  cone  to  the  height 
of  10,874  feet. 

The  history  of  E.  does  not  carry  us  far  Lack 
geologically ;  an  active  volcano  in  tlie  later  portion 
of  the  Tertiary  period,  it  continues  still  to  poui' 
forth  materials;  and  the  ejected  ashes,  dust,  and 
lapilli,  together  with  the  streams  of  molten  lava, 
have,  in  the  course  of  untold  ages,  built  up  this 
immense  mountain.  One  central  crater  has  been 
the  prevailing  outlet  for  these  materials,  and  they 
have  consequently  arranged  themselves  into  ono 
central  and  dominant  mound — the  cone-shaped  E. ; 
but  innumerable  secondary  and  surrounding  craters, 
each  forming,  by  its  ejected  matter,  an  external 
smaller  cone,  exist  on  Etna.  Many  of  these,  in  the 
progress  of  the  growth  of  the  mountain,  have  been 
covered  and  hid  by  the  more  recent  eruptions. 
Eighty  of  them  may  be  counted  surrounding  the 
upper  portion  of  E.,  many  being  hills  of  considerable 
altitude,  but  all  of  them  appearing  only  as  trifling 


Distant  View  of  Etna. 

irregularities  when  viewed  at  a  distance  as  subor- 
dinate points  of  so  imposing  and  colossal  a  mountain. 
Seen  from  the  summit,  they  present  a  beautiful 
aspect ;  some  bare  and  barren,  others  covered  with 
the  dark  and  sombre  pine,  or  with  the  gayer  and 
more  varied  foliage  of  the  oak,  the  beech,  and  tho 
hawthorn,  and  all  arranged  in  pictm-esque  groupa 
of  various  heights  and  sizes.  But  the  most  remark- 
able feature  in  E.  is  the  Val  del  Bove,  an  immense 
gully  excavating  the  eastern  flank  of  the  moimtain, 
five  miles  across,  and  surrounded  by  nearly  vertical 
precipices  from  1000  to  5000  feet  high,  on  which  are 
shewn  sections  of  innmnerable  lava-streamii  and 
beds  of  scoria3,  traversed  by  highly  incUned  dikes. 
It  has  a  singularlv  dreary  and  blasted  appearance. 

The  summit  of  E.  rises  considerably  abcve  the 
line  of  vegetation,  and  consequently  presents,  excepfc 
where  covered  with  snow,  a  dreary  waste  of  black 
lava,  scoriae,  and  ashes,  in  the  centre  of  which,  in  a 
desolate  plain,  rises  the  crater-bearing  cone.  This 
is  called  the  Desert  region.  It  is  followed  by  six  or 
seven  miles  of  the  Woody  region,  in  which  luxuriant 
forests  of  pine,  oak,  beech,  poplar,  and  hawthorn 
abound,  together  with  rich  pasturage  for  herds  and 
flocks.  A  varying  breadth  of  from  two  to  eleven 
miles  of  cultivated  region  sun-ounds  the  base  of 
Etna.  Its  great  products  are  corn,  oil,  wiae,  fiuil* 
and  aromatic  herbs. 

149 


ETOLIA— ] 


ETRURIA. 


The  first  recorded  eruption  of  E.  took  place  476 
B.  C.  Tlie  most  remarkable  that  have  occurred 
since  are  the  following:  1169  A.  D.,  when  Catania 
and  15,000  of  its  inhabitants  were  destroyed;  1527, 
in  whi(;h   two  villages   and   many  human  beings 

{)enshed  ;  the  eruption  which  continued  at  intervals 
rom  1()64  to  1673,  and  destroyed  many  villages 
with  their  inhabitants.  Numerous  chasms  were 
formed  at  this  time ;  from  one  several  miles  long 
and  four  or  five  feet  wide  were  emitted  a  bright 
light  and  strong  sulphurous  vapour ;  from  another, 
bl»ik  smoke  and  quantities  of  stones  were  given 
l>ut  ;  and  from  others,  streams  of  lava.  In  1673, 
iMi  immense  volume  of  salt  (?)  water  rushed  down 
ihe  Hioui  tain  :  by  some,  it  is  supposed  to  have  been 
ejected  from  the  crater,  but  it  is  more  probable  that 
it  arose  from  the  sudden  melting  of  the  snow^s  which 
covered  the  summit  of  the  mountain.  The  last 
great  erupl  'ion  took  place  in  1852.  Immense  clouds 
of  ash-gray  dust  were  ejected,  covering  the  whole  of 
fhe  surrounling  countr3\  From  two  new  mouths 
on  the  eastern  flank  th^re  issued  vast  torrents  of 
lava,  one  taking  the  direction  of  Zaffarana,  the 
other  floAving  towards  Giarra.  The  one  stream 
•was  two  miles  broad,  and  at  one  time  as  much  as 
170  feet  deep.  It  moved  at  the  rate  of  about  GOO 
feet  in  the  hour ;  but  when  it  descended  abnipt 
cliffs  on  the  mountain  side,  it  was  precipitated  like 
a  torrent  in  fiery  cascades. 

The  minerals  peculiar  to  volcanic  rocks  occur  at 
E.,  such  as  chrysolite,  zeolite,  selenite,  alum,  nitre, 
vitriol,  copper,  mercury,  and  spicular  iron. 

ETOLIA.    See  iExoLiA. 

E'TON,  a  towTi  in  the  south  of  Buckinghamshire, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Thames,  42  miles  south- 
south-east  of  Buckingham,  and  22  miles  west-south- 
west of  London,  near  the  Slough  station  of  the  Great 
Western  Eailway.  It  lies  opposite  to  Windsor,  in 
Berkshire,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  bridge 
over  the  Thames.  Though  in  separate  counties, 
these  two  towns  really  form  one.  E.  chiefly  con- 
sists of  one  long  well-paved  street,  and  is  mainly 
dependent  on  the  coUege.  Pop.  (1 87 1 )  28 1 6,  exclusive 
of  the  Eton  boys. 

ETON  COLLEGE  is  one  among  the  most 
famous  educational  establishments  in  England.  It 
was  founded  in  1440  by  Henry  VI.,  under  the 
title  of  '  The  College  of  the  Blessed  Mary  of  Eton 
beside  Windsor.'  The  original  foundation  consisted 
of  a  provost,  10  priests,  4  clerks,  6  choristers,  25 
poor  grammar-scholars,  a  master,  and  25  poor  infirm 
men.  The  king  provided  for  the  estabhshment  out 
of  his  own  demesne  lands  and  the  estates  of  certain 
alien  priories.  A  supplementary  charter  was  granted 
in  1441,  in  which  year  also  the  College  buildings 
were  commenced.  Henry  was  very  solicitous  that 
the  work  should  be  of  a  durable  kind.  Some  of  the 
buildings  were  finished  in  1443,  and  were  handed 
over  by  the  royal  commissioners  to  the  provost, 
cle^k.  and  scholars.  Political  troubles  of  various 
.'tinds  retarded  the  completion  of  the  buildings 
Jail  1523.  Bishor  Waynfleete  was  the  first  head- 
raaater,  and  aft^^rw^ards  a  munificent  supporter  of 
she  Oollege.  The  institution  passed  through  much 
peril  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.,  and  again  in  the 
wmc  of  the  Commonwealth  ;  but  it  surmounted  the 
dangers,  and  the  increasing  value  of  its  estates 
brought  in  a  large  income. 

The  present  foundation  consists  of  a  provost,  7 
fellows  (one  of  whom  is  vice-i)rovost),  3  conducts, 
7  clerks,  10  lay-clerks,  70  scholars,  and  10  choristers, 
besides  officers  and  servants.  Most  of  the  scholars 
are,  at  the  age  of  17,  elected  to  valuable  scholar- 
ships at  King's  College,  Cambridge  ;  several  smaller 
Bcholarships  at  other  colleges,  both  at  Oxford  and 


Cambridge,  together  with  sundry  exhibitions  and 
prizes,  are  also  open  to  them.  Among  these  is  a 
prize  for  the  French  language,  given  by  the  late 
Prince  Consort.  The  scholars  are  lodged  within  th« 
College  walls. 

The  main  portion  of  the  establishment,  however 
numbering  nearly  900,  consists  of  the  oppidaiia^ 
students  who  live  out  of  the  college,  and  whose 
friends  pay  liberally  for  their  education.  The 
tuition  is  the  same  for  them  as  for  the  collegcra  or 
scholars.  There  are  an  upper  and  a  lower  schocl, 
managed  by  a  head-master  and  lower  master,  wiib 
a  large  staff  of  assistants.  Considerable  discussioji 
has  taken  place  within  the  last  few  years  concerning 
the  kind  of  education  received  at  Eton,  the  cost  at 
which  it  is  obtained,  and  the  enormous  incomes 
derived  by  some  of  the  officials.  The  course  of 
education  has  not  undergone  much  change,  except 
that  the  study  of  mathematics  has  been  recently 
(1848)  made  a  necessary  part  of  the  school  l)usiness; 
it  is  still  of  the  medieval  character,  which  regards 
Greek  and  Latin  as  the  basis  of  all  good  education ; 
and  does  not  bestow  much  attention  on  modern 
science.  There  is,  however,  great  prestige  connected 
with  the  College ;  and  the  Etonians,  in  their  after- 
career,  generally  look  back  with  affection  upon  it. 

The  chief  buildings  of  the  College  consist  of  the 
chapel,  the  hall,  the  library,  the  schools,  the 
provost's  and  master's  apartments,  and  the  lodg- 
ings of  the  fellows,  surrounding  two  quadrangles  ; 
together  with  the  boys'  library  and  sleeping  ai)art- 
ments,  in  a  cluster  called  the  New  Buildings, 
attached  to  the  northern  side  of  the  older  group. 
The  chapel  is  mostly  of  stone,  the  other  buildings 
of  brick  ;  and  the  effect  of  the  whole  is  very  pictur- 
esque, as  seen  from  the  terrace  of  Windsor  Castle, 
on  the  other  side  of  the  Thames.  The  chai)el  is 
an  especially  beautiful  object.  The  houses  of  the 
masters  are  generally  fitted  up  for  the  reception  of 
oppidans  as  boarders. 

ETRURIA,  TYRRHE'NIA,  TU'SCIA,  desig- 
nated, at  a  period  anterior  to  the  foundation  of 
Rome,  nearly  the  whole  of  Italy,  together  with 
some  of  its  most  important  western  islands.  Its 
northern  part,  from  the  Alps  to  the  Apennines,  was 
known  under  the  name  of  Etruria  Circurapadana ; 
its  southern,  from  the  Tiber  down  to  the  Gulf  of 
Psestum,  or,  according  to  some,  to  the  Sicilian  Sea, 
under  that  of  Etruria  Campaniana ;  while  the  central 
portion,  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Apennines  and 
the  river  Macra,  S.  and  R  by  the  Tiber,  and  W.  by 
the  Tyrrhenian  Sea,  was  called  Etruria  Propria. 
The  two  first,  however,  did  not  long  remain  Etrus- 
can territory,  but  were  either  reconquered  by  the 
surrounding  tribes  to  whom  they  had  originally 
belonged,  or  fell  into  the  hands  of  new  immi- 
grants. No  historical  records  of  that  brief  period 
of  any  moment  having  yet  come  to  hght,  they 
do  not  claim  our  attention  ;  while  Etruria  Proper, 
scanty  though  our  information  about  it  stiU  be, 
deserves  our  interest  in  the  highest  degree.  For  its 
physical  featiu'es,  we  refer  the  reader  to  Tuscany, 
Lucca,  and  the  Transtiberine  portion  of  the  present 
Papal  Dominions;  and  have  only  to  remark,  that 
vast  expanses  of  that  coimtry,  which  now  are  either 
covered  with  deep  forest,  or  are  shvmned  on  account 
of  the  malaria,  were  in  those  times  fruitful,  densely 
peopled  regions.  For  political,  or  rather  adminis- 
trative purposes,  Etruria  Proper  was  divided  into 
twelve  sovereign  cities,  or  rather  cantons,  among 
which  the  most  important  were  Tarquinii  (Corneto), 
the  cradle  of  the  royal  family  of  the  Tarquins,  who 
at  one  time  wielded  the  sceptre  of  Rome ;  Caere 
(Agylla,  Cervetri),  which,  during  the  war  of  Rome 
with  the  Gauls,  offered  a  refuge  to  the  Komao 
Flamen  Quirinals  and  Vestal  Virgins ;  Veii,  the 


ETRURIA. 


greatest  and  most  powerful  city  of  Etruria,  with 
100,000  inhabitants,  which  carried  on  seven  wars 
with  Rome  ;  Chisium  (Kamars,  Chiusi),  the  chief 
of  which,  Porseua,  as  principal  commander  of  the 
Etruscan  troops,  dictated  a  humiliating  peace  to 
Rome  after  she  had  expelled  the  Tarquins  ;  Perusia 
(Perugia),  destroyed  in  the  Perusian  civil  war  (40)  ; 
Arretium  (Arezzo),  birth])lace  of  Maecenas.  Of  other 
not  sovereign  places  may  be  mentioned  Luca  (Lucca), 
Pisie  (Pisa),  on  the  Arnus,  with  the  Portus  Pisauus, 
now  Leghorn,  and  Elorentia  (Firenze,  Florence),  on 
the  Amus. 

To  what  nation  the  inhabitants — called  Etruscans 
(=  Ext(?ri,  strangers)  or  Tuscans  in  the  Roman, 
Tyrrheni  or  Tyrseni  {Turrenoi,  Tursenoi)  in  the 
Greek,  and  Raseua  (Tesne  Rasne)  in  their  own  lan- 
guage—originally belonged,  and  what  country  they 
came  from,  is  a  question  which  was  debated  many 
hundred  j'-ears  before  Christ,  and  is  not  settled  j^et. 
AU  the  most  ancient  writers,  save  one  of  the  most 
trustworthy,  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  implicitly 
follow  Herodotus,  who — confoimding  them,  perhaps, 
as  is  his  wont,  with  the  Lydian  Turrenoi,  or  inha- 
bitants of  the  city  of  Tyrrha — pronounces  them 
to  be  Lydians,  although  there  is  not  the  slightest 
similarity  bet  ■veen  these  two  nations,  and  althovigh 
Xanthus,  the  Lydian  historian,  knows  nothing  what- 
ever about  a  fabled  famine  of  eighteen  years'  dura- 
tion in  Lydia,  followed  by  an  emigration  to  Italy 
under  a  Prince  Tyrrhenus.  Dionysius  himself  offers 
no  opinion ;  he  calls  them  an  indioenous  race — 
which  means  nothing ;  and  it  is  surprising  that  some 
modern  investigators  shovdd,  despairing  of  a  rational 
solution  of  the  old  riddle,  have  fallen  back  upon 
this  evasive  theory  of  *  autochthons.'  Thucydides, 
in  first  mixing  up  the  Torrhebian  pirates  with 
the  Pelasgian  fiUibusters,  gave  rise  to  the  most 
hopeless  confusion  about  their  very  name.  As  to 
the  innumerable  theories  and  hypotheses  that  have 
Deen  put  forward  since  his  day,  we  will  only  men- 
tion that  while  Ciampi  and  Collar  hold  them  to  be 
of  Slavonic  origin,  Freret  calls  them  Celts ;  Micali, 
Albanese  ;  Lami,  Pfitzmaier,  and  Stickel,  Semitics  ; 
and  others  variously  make  them  Goths,  Scandi- 
navians, Basques,  Assyrians,  Phoenicians,  Egjq^tians, 
and  Armenians.  The  most  rational  and  generally 
accepted  opinion  is  that  of  Niebuhr — modified  more 
or  less  by  Ottfried  Miiller,  Lanzi,  Lepsius,  Steub — 
of  their  being,  when  they  first  appear  in  history, 
a  mixture  of  an  eastern  tribe,  which  had  settled  for 
a  while  in  the  Rhaetian  Alps  (the  Tyrol  of  to-day), 
and  Pelasgians,  whom  they  had  found  in  their  new 
Italian  seats ;  these  latter  having,  in  their  turn,  since 
their  immigration,  mixed  with  the  Umbrians,  the 
oldest  historical  inhabitants  of  those  parts.  But,  as 
we  said  before,  this  is  only  the  most  rational  opinion 
that  rose  out  of  an  ocean  of  wild  speculation  :  so  far 
from  any  authentic  proofs  ha\'ing  been  brought 
forward  in  its  support,  the  question  stands  to-day 
precisely  where  it  stood  when  Dionysius  wrote : — 
'The  Etruscans  do  not  resemble  any  people  in 
lunguage  and  manners.' 

Immense  as  was  their  influence  on  Roman,  and, 
fact,  on  European  civilisation,  very  little  is  known 
with  respect  to  their  political  history.  Chiefly 
oulti  eating  the  arts  of  peace,  they  still  seem,  long 
after  their  heroic  period,  to  have  been  powerful 
enct^gh  to  scare  away  any  invader,  and  tliis  prob- 
ably is  the  reason  why  historians  have  so  little  to 
record  of  them ;  but  their  decline  may  be  said  to 
Ktand  in  an  inverted  ratio  to  the  rise  of  Rome.  The 
7th  and  earlier  half  of  the  6th  c.  B.  c.  had  been  the 
most  powerful  and  flourishing  epoch  of  the  Etruscan 
Btate  in  its  widest  sense — which  then  probably 
had  been  in  existence  for  four  or  five  hundred  years. 
Whether  they  had  put  then-  Tarquiuii  as  govei-nors 


over  conquered  Rome,  or  whetlier,  on  the  contrary, 
the  reign  of  this  P^trnscun  family  would  denote 
the  subjugation  of  Southern  Etruria  by  Rome  her- 
self, is  not  quite  clear  ;  but  the  expulsion  of  the  last 
Roman  king,  Tarqninius  (Tarchon),  called  Superhus, 
was  followed,  about  507  u.  c,  by  a  war  between 
the  Etruscans,  under  Porsena  of  Clusium,  and  the 
Romans,  which,  although  ending  in  a  most  igno- 
minious peace,  dictated  within  the  walls  of  Rome, 
did  not  bring  about  the  restoration  of  the  Tar- 
quinian  dynasty.  From  the  wars  between  Veil 
and  Rome,  which  began  in  486,  and  ended — inter- 
rupted only  by  an  occasional  armistice — '395  P..  C, 
with  the  destruction  of  Veil,  dates  the  gradual  but 
sure  extinction  of  Etruria  as  an  indei>endent  state. 
The  Gauls  advancing  from  the  north,  the  Etruscans 
were  forced  to  conclude  a  foi-ty  years'  truce  with 
their  adversaries  at  any  price ;  but  these  over,  and 
"the  Romans  being  engaged  with  the  Samnites,  the 
Etruscans  recommenced  the  hostilities  more  liorccly 
than  ever.  In  the  course  of  this  last  war,  the 
Romans  succeeded,  309  B.C.,  imder  Q.  Fabius 
Maximus,  in  twice  defeating  them,  and  Fabiua 
crossed  the  Ciminian  forest— the  frontier  sacred 
from  time  immemorial;  and  when,  283  B.C.,  P. 
Cornelius  Dolabella  had  beaten  both  them  and 
their  Gallic  auxiliaries  in  a  decisive  and  sanguiuaiy 
battle  at  the  Vadimonian  Lake,  Etruria  became  a 
Roman  province ;  and  about  two  hundred  years 
later,  the  Lex  Julia  conferred  upon  her  inhabitants, 
as  a  reward  for  their  fidelity,  the  right  of  citizen- 
ship. Up  to  that  time,  they  had  succeeded  in  keep- 
ing up  their  own  singularly  distinct  creed,  customs, 
traditions,  language — their  nationality,  in  fact ; 
when  Sulla,  82  B.  c,  infuriated  by  the  part  they 
had  taken  against  him,  liberally  bestowed  great 
portions  of  their  land  upon  his  veterans  ;  and  some 
fifty  years  later,  Octavianus  planted  his  military 
colonies  there.  This  wrought  and  completed  the 
transformation  of  that  mysterious  conglomeration 
of  heterogeneous  races  and  tribes,  hitherto  called 
Etrurians,  into  Romans.  Once  more,  well-nigh 
2000  years  after  its  extinction,  the  kingdom  of 
Etruria  (Hetruria)'  rose  before  the  eyes  of  the 
world.  The  peace  of  Luneville  re-created  it,  and 
conferred  it  on  the  hereditary  prince,  Louis  of 
Pai-ma ;  after  whose  death,  his  widow,  the  Infanta 
Louisa  of  Spain,  administered  the  government  for 
their  son,  Charles  Louis,  up  to  1807,  when  it  became 
a  French  province.  From  1809,  it  again  bore  the 
name  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Tuscany;  and  to 
TusCANv — which  in  our  days  forms  a  pro-sauce 
of  the  Italian  kingdom,  as  it  did  of  yore — and  to 
Italy,  we  refer  for  its  modern  history. 

We  have  spoken  above  of  twelve  cities  as  forming 
the  confederacy  of  Etruria  Proper.  Similar  con- 
federacies of  twelve  cities  were  established,  inde- 
pendently of  each  other,  in  the  two  other  Etrurian. 
The  cities  themse  res,  however,  cannot  be  fixed 
now  in  all  cases.  From  the  fact  of  more  than 
twelve  autonomous  ones  being  recorded  in  Etruria 
Proper,  it  would  appear  that  some  among  these 
twelve  confederates,  or  populi,  possessed  more  than 
one  capital  city,  each  populus,  however,  bcincj 
limited  to  one  representative  vote  in  the  general 
council.  The  members  of  the  confederacy  were 
bound  to  appear  regularly  at  an  annual  religiou-a 
assembly  near  the  temple  of  Voltumna,  a  locality 
which  we  are  as  yet  unable  to  point  out.  Here 
great  fairs  were  held  for  the  people ;  common  opera- 
tions of  war  being  discussed  by  the  principes,  and  a 
general-in-chief  for  the  ensuing  year  elected  from 
their  number.  Each  city  or  canton,  in  the  earher 
times  at  least,  had  a  king  (Lucximo,  Lauchme  = 
Inspired),  chosen  for  life,  who  at  the  8  ime  time  acted 
as  high-priest ;  and  a  hereditary  uobiliby,  which  nloA<» 


ETRURIA. 


was  elitjible  to  the  higher  offices  of  state.  Next 
to  them,  in  the  political  and  social  scale,  came  the 
peoi)le,  properly  so  called — free,  not  subject  person- 
ally to  the  nobility;  lowest  stood  a  great  number 
of  clients  or  bondmen,  probably  the  descendants  of 
subjected  original  inhabitants.  On  the  whole,  the 
federal  interdependence  between  the  cities  was  far 
from  close.  Single  cities  carried  on  wars  in  which 
the  others  took  no  part ;  and  when  the  confederacy 
resolved  on  general  action,  there  were  always  some 
membt^rs  which,  for  some  reason  or  other,  stood 
aloof.  It  ai)pears  from  this  that  the  Etruscan  con- 
*<titution  was  analogous  to  the  Greek  and  Roman 
if.\  their  earliest  stages  :  the  community  develops 
itself  into  a  ]>olis  or  city,  chooses  a  head,^or  rather 
high-[)riest,  and  enters  into  a  more  or  less*  intimate 
alliance  with  its  neighbouring  cities ;  but,  beside 
that  kiu^  of  its  own,  recognises  a  common  chief 
only  in  time  of  war. 

The  F]truscans  were,  as  a  people,  less  warlike  than 
any  of  their  neighbours,  especially  the  Romans,  and 
(ionspicuous  is  their  want  of  anything  like  cavalry. 
Theirs  was  also  the  nn-Italic  custom  of  hiring 
noldiers,  and  their  energies  seem  principally  to  have 
been  directed  to  the  more  profitable  occupations  of 
trade  and  agriculture.  One  of  the  chief  articles  of 
their  commerce  was  amber,  which  Germans  brought 
from  the  Baltic  to  Etruria  Circumpadana,  whence 
it  was  conveyed  to  Greece  by  sea.  In  the  western 
parts  of  the  Mediterranean,  they  were  formidable  as 
pii-ates ;  while  they  were  Avelcomed  by  the  Cartha- 
ginians and  the  Greeks  of  Magna  Graecia,  as  im- 
porters of  indigenous  products  of  nature  and  art, 
which  they  exchanged  for  the  wealth  of  the  East 
and  South.  That  their  commerce  within  Italy  must 
have  been  very  extensive,  appears  from  the  fact,  that 
all  the  states  of  Central  Italy  adopted  their  system 
of  coinage,  based,  like  their  tables  of  weights  and 
measures,  and  many  of  their  political  institutions, 
on  the  duodecimal  system. 

The  striking  contrast  between  the  Etruscans  and 
their  Italic  and  Greek  neighboiurs,  which  appears  in. 
the  short  thickset  frames,  the  large  heads  and 
bidky  extremities  of  the  former,  and  the  slender 
limbs  and  graceful  harmony  in  the  whole  structure 
of  the  latter,  and  which  runs  with  equal  distinctness 
through  tlie  intellectual  lives  of  the  three  nations, 
manifests  itself  nowhere  with  greater  power  than  in 
their  religions.  Equally  distant  from  the  abstract, 
clear  rationalism  of  the  Latins,  and  the  plastic  joy- 
fulness  of  Hellenic  image-worship,  the  Etruscans 
were,  as  far  as  their  dumb  fragments  shew — for 
what  we  llnd  on  them  of  human  words  we  do  not 
understand — chained  in  a  dark  and  dotard  mysti- 
cism, such  as  a  blending  of  a  half-forgotten  Eastern 
symbol -service  with  barbarous  religious  practices 
of  northern  savages,  grafted  upon  archaic  Greek 
notions,  might  j^roduce.  In  their  Pantheon,  the 
predominance  belongs  to    the  evil,  mischievous 

g"od3  ;  their  prisoners  are  welcome  sacrifices  to  the 
eavenly  powers ;  they  have  no  silent  depths  where 
the  '  good  spirits '  of  their  departed  dwell,  but  a  hell 
of  the  most  hideous  description,  and  a  heaven  where 
permanent  intoxication  is  the  bliss  that  awaits  the 
virtuous.  They  divide  their  gods  into  two  classes, 
and  they  place  them  in  the  most  northern,  and  there- 
fore most  immovable  point  of  the  world,  whence 
they  can  best  overlook  it.  The  upper  section  is 
formed  by  shrouded,  hidden  gods  (Involuti),  of  uncer- 
tain numlier,  who  act  awfidly  and  mysteriously,  and 
twelve  lower  gods  of  both  sexes,  called  Consentes, 
Complices.  Tinia  (Zeus,  Jupiter)  is  the  chief  of  these 
latter,  and  stands  between  the  two  divisions  of  the 
gods,  receiving  orders  for  destruction  from  the  upper 
ouea,  while  the  lower  ones  form  his  ordinary  council, 
am',  olxiy  his  behests.    Nine  of  these  (Novensdes) 

162 


hur-  lightnings  at  various  times  and  with  peculiai 
effects.  The  three  of  these  deities  which  seem  to 
have  been  the  principal  objects  of  worship  were 
Tinia  himself,  armed  with  three  different  kinda 
of  lightning,  Cupra  (Hera  or  Juno)  and  Menrfa 
(Minerva,  Pallas  Athene).  Gods  most  peculiarly 
Etruscan  are  Vejovis,  an  evil  Jupiter,  whose  thun- 
derbolts have  the  i)ower  to  deafen,  and  Nortia,  the 
goddess  of  Fate,  also  called  Lasa  Mean.  Besides 
these,  they  put  a  host  of  demons  over  the  different 
portions  of  the  creation : — the  heavens,  the  earili, 
and  the  lower  regions  (Penates,  Lares,  and  Manea% 
Their  deities  have  generally  wings ;  and  before  tlie 
Assyrian  bulls  had  come  to  light,  some  antiquaries 
established  from  this  a  connection  with  the  Hebrew 
winged  cherubim.  Characteristic  in  the  highest 
degree  is  their  * disciptina,*  or  art  of  'divination. 
This  had  been  revealed  by  Tages,  a  grandson  of 
Jupiter,  who  was  dug  out  near  Tarquinii,  in  the 
shape  of  a  childlike  dwarf  with  gray  hair — a  most 
striking  caricature  of  these  both  childish  and  senile 
practices — and  who  died  immediately  after  having 
communicated  these  mysteries.  They  were  at  first 
the  property  of  the  noble  families ;  but  in  the 
course  of  time,  as  others  were  initiated,  and  schools 
for  j)riests  were  founded,  these  mystical  and  awe- 
striking  teachings  came  to  be  written  down.  It  is 
saddeumg  to  observe  here  again  in  what  monstrous 
insanities  the  spirit  of  man  occasionally  revels,  and 
that,  too,  in  the  i)rovince  of  what  is  noblest  and 
highest— religion.  The  'disciplina'  was  developed 
into  an  exact  science,  fully  as  minutely  and  casuisti- 
cally  sharpening  its  points  and  splitting  its  hairs  as 
Hindu  or  Mohammedan  theology  would.  It  taught 
what  gods  hurled  the  different  kinds  of  lightning ; 
how,  by  the  colour  and  the  peculiar  quarter  of  the 
sky,  the  author  of  the  bolt  might  be  recognised ; 
whether  the  evil  denoted  was  a  lasting  or  a  passing 
one ;  whether  the  decree  was  irrevocable  or  covdd 
be  postponed ;  how  the  lightning  was  to  be  coaxed 
down,  and  how  it  was  to  be  buried.  This  was  the 
speciality  of  the  Fulgurales.  The  Haruspices  had  as 
their  share  the  explanation  of  portents,  prodigies, 
monsters,  the  flight  and  cries  of  birds,  the  entrails 
of  sacrificial  animals ;  while  others  ministered  in  the 
holy  rites  at  the  foundation  of  cities,  the  building 
of  gates,  houses,  &c.  Their  ceremonies  (a  word 
derived  from  their  town  Caere)  were  endless  and 
silly,  but  the  show  and  pomp  with  which  their 
priests  knew  how  to  surround  these  juggleries,  and 
from  which  the  Romans  largely  borrowed,  made 
them  acceptable  in  the  eyes  of  the  herd ;  and 
although  Rome  herself,  with  all  her  augurs,  called 
Etruria  '  the  mother  of  superstition,'  there  was  a 
certain  odour  of  tithes  and  fees  about  these  rites 
which  made  many  anxious  to  '  preserve  religion  in 
its  primeval  purity.' 

In  the  entire  absence  of  anything  like  a  genuine 
Etruscan  account,  even  the  outlines  of  the  relation 
between  their  religion  and  that  of  the  Greeks  oa 
the  one  hand  and  the  Romans  on  the  other  arc 
exceedingly  difficult  to  trace ;  so  much,  however,  ii 
certain,  that  they  adopted  and  assimilated  msnvj 
points  of  archaic  Greek  theology,  and  clothe!  them 
in  a  garb  of  their  own,  and  that  this  process  waa 
gone  through  and  repeated  still  more  completely 
by  the  Romans,  in  their  turn,  with  respect  to  the 
religious  notions  of  the  Etruscans.  The  articles  on 
Greek  and  Roman  religion  will  furnish  further  infor- 
mation on  this  point. 

The  high  degree  of  civilization  which  the  Etrus- 
cans possessed  long  before  Rome  was  heard  of  ia 
testified  by  innumerable  works  of  masonry  and  art. 
Tlie  Etruscans  were  of  an  eminently  practical  turn 
of  mind,  and  domestic,  like  the  north.  Trusting  to 
their  priests  for  reconciliation  with  the  gods,  who 


ETRURIA. 


always  seemed  irate,  but  whose  angry  deirees  could 
easily  be  foreseen  and  averted,  they  set  to  work  in 
developing  the  inner  resoiurces  of  the  country,  and 
in  making  tke  best  use  of  their  intercourse  with 
foreign  countries.  They  thus  became  eminent  in 
agriculture,  navigation,  military  tactics,  medicine, 
astronomy,  and  the  like ;  and  in  all  these,  as  well 
as  in  some  of  the  very  minutiae  of  their  dress 
and  furniture,  the  Romans  became  their  ready 
disciples  and  imitators.  The  division  of  the  year 
into  twelve  months,  of  the  months  into  kalends 
'4nd  nones  and  ides,  the  designation  of  the  numerals, 
were  Etruscan  ;  from  the  same  source  were  derived 
the  toga  prcBiexta  as  well  as  the  pomp  of  triumphs, 
the  lictors  and  apparitors,  down  to  the  ivory 
cunile  chairs.  The  towns  of  the  Etruscans  were 
clean  and  healthy,  owing  to  their  perfect  system  of 
drainage  and  sewerage ;  they  tunnelled  and  exca- 
vated, they  embanked  and  irrigated,  they  turned 
swamps  into  cities,  changed  the  course  of  streams, 
and  excelled  in  all  kinds  of  usefid  public  and 
private  works.  Their  ideal  was  not  the  beautiful 
or  the  spiritual,  but  a  comfortable,  and,  if  possible, 
luxurious  existence.  As  a  special  proof  of  their  love 
for  their  own  hearth,  a  quality  probably  imported 
from  the  north,  we  might  adduce  their  invention 
of  the  atrium,  the  common  sitting-room  of  the 
family,  where  the  master  of  the  house  sat  sur- 
roimded  by  his  penates  and  the  figures  of  his 
ancestors,  while  the  wife  and  her  handmaidens  plied 
the  labours  of  the  loom  or  the  distalF.  As  in  the 
Germanic  nations,  woman  stood  in  high  estimation. 
She  was  the  companion,  not  the  slave  of  the  hus- 
band, and  thus  had  certainly  not  a  little  share  in 
the  softening  of  their  primitive  wildness,  and  in 
counteracting  the  sombreness  of  their  creed.  That 
we  find  them  even  in  their  tomb-jiaintings  engaged 
in  convivial  carousings,  dancing,  races,  athletic 
games,  and  tnat  they  liked  their  very  worship 
accompanied  by  the  sound  of  flutes,  horns,  and 
trumpets,  only  she  ,vs  that  that  glorious  sky  of  theirs, 
their  intercourse  with  the  nations,  their  wealth  and 
culture,  had  gradually  caused  their  antique  and 
gloomy  austerity  to  wear  off,  even  as  it  wore  oflf 
with  the  ilomans  and  other  peoples ;  for  to  assume 
with  some  that  the  boisterous  scenes  to  which  we 
allude  were  caused  more  or  less  by  the  despair 
arising  from  the  loss  of  their  independence,  would  be 
going  somewhat  too  far.  Licentiousness  is  the  sure 
forerunner  of  the  fall  of  a  nation,  but  a  whole  people 
does  not  take  refuge  in  enjoyment  when  their  all  is 
lost.  We  know  little  of  Etruscan  Hterature  ;  it 
seems  to  have  consisted  mostly  of  rituals,  religious 
hymns,  and  some  historical  works.  Whether  the 
Fesceunines,  certain  mocking-songs,  sung  in  alternate 
verses,  with  musical  accompaniment,  at  nuptials, 
originated  with  them  or  not,  is  not  decided. 

We  have  alluded  to  the  high  proficiency  of  this 
people  in  architecture ;  they  were,  in  fact,  so 
renowned  in  this  craft  throughout  the  antique 
world,  that,  as  Solomon  called  Phoenicians  to  Jeru- 
salem to  build  his  temple,  so  the  Romans  sought 
ia  Etruria  the  framers  of  their  grandest  masonic 
structures,  such  as  the  Cloaka  Maxima,  the  Temple 
of  Jupiter  on  the  Capitol,  &c.  The  peculiarly 
fantastic,  and,  withal,  powerful  mind  which  speaks 
in  all  their  institutions,  equally  pervades  their 
architectural  productions ;  but,  at  the  same  time, 
everything  they  built,  they  built  either  for  practical 
or  pious  purf>oses.  We  cannot  here  enter  into  a 
discussion  of  their  manner  as  it  appears  in  various 
epvichs,  but  it  never  reached  anything  like  a  distinct 
national  completeness,  their  eagerness  to  profit  by 
forei(;n  examples  not  allowing  them  to  develop  it 
to  the  full  unalloyed.  Of  their  walls  and  gates, 
temples  and  porticoes,  theatres  and  ampliitheatres, 


bridges  and  sewers,  gigantic,  and,  in  the  earliest 
times,  Cyclopean — evidently  erected,  in  Eastern 
fashion,  by  hosts  of  slaves — very  little  is  extant 
in  so  complete  a  form  as  to  give  us  an  exact  insight 
into  their  mode  of  construction  ;  and  were  it  not  for 
their  tombs,  our  knowledge  would  be  exceedingly 
limited.  The^e  form  one  of  the  most  peculiar  fea- 
tures in  Etruscan  antiquities.  Hewn  in  rocks,  either 
below  the  ground  or  in  the  face  of  a  cliff,  they  were 
adorned  outside  with  a  somewhat  Egyptian  fayade 
of  a  temple  or  a  house,  which  the  insides  themselvei 
most  exactly  reproduce,  with  all  their  internal 
decorations,  furniture,  and  utensils.  Of  the  paintings 
which  run  round  the  walls,  and  which  are  ouj 
safest  aijd  most  complete  guides  to  the  mner  life 
of  this  nation,  we  will  say  more  presently.  We 
must  not,  in  conclusion,  omit  to  mention  that 
their  temples  bore  in  primitive  times,  and  always 
retained,  in  some  measure,  so  far  as  we  can  judge, 
the  unfinished  character  of  ',\xe  wood-buildinga 
of  northern  mountain  tribes — a  square,  half-house, 
half- fortification,  overloaded  with  quaint  ornamen- 
tation. 

In  their  plastic  and  pictorial  arts,  Winckelmanu 
has  established  three  distinct  styles — to  which 
Dennis  has  added  a  fourth — viz.,  the  Egyptian,  with 
Babylonian  analogies,  the  Etruscan  or  Tyrrhene 
proper,  the  Hellenic,  and  that  of  the  decadence. 
Characteristic  of  the  first  style  are  the  prev^aieuce 
of  straight  lines,  right  angles,  faces  of  an  oblong, 
contracted  oval,  with  a  pointed  chin,  eyea  mostly 
di-awn  upwards,  the  arms  hanging  close  to  the  side, 
the  legs  close  together,  the  drapery  long,  in  straight 
parallel  lines,  the  hair  disposed  in  tiers  of  curia. 
In  this  style,  the  attitude  is  constrained,  the  action 
stiff  and  cramped.  The  progress  shewn  by  the 
second  style  is  the  greater  attention  bestowed  on 
the  delineation  of  the  muscles,  which  swell  out  in 
disproportionate  prominences  on  the  now  almost 
entirely  nude  body.  The  two  remaining  styles 
explain  themselves.  Their  statuary,  as  it  apj)ear3 
chiefly  on  sarcophagi  and  cinerary  urns,  suggests 
likewise  an  Egyi:)tian  origin.  The  figures  are  those 
of  their  own  mystical  and  awful  Hades,  instead  of 
the  Bacchic  processions  of  Greece  and  Rome.  The 
grouping  follows  rather  a  pictorial  than  a  plastic 
principle  ;  the  motion  is  hasty  and  forced  ;  but  the 
features  of  the  deceased,  hewn  on  the  lid,  have  aU 
the  rude  accuracy  of  a  spiritless  portrait.  Statues 
of  deities  in  wood  and  stone  have  indeed  been 
foimd,  but  very  rarely.  Of  high  renown  were  their 
ornaments  and  utensils  in  balked  clay  (terra  cotta), 
in  the  manufacture  of  which  objects  the  Veientes 
were  especially  famous.  Rome,  at  a  very  early 
period,  possessed  of  this  material  a  quadriga  and 
the  statue  of  Summanus,  made  by  Etruscans.  Of 
the  art  of  working  in  bronze,  the  Etruscans  were 
supposed  to  be  the  inventors  :  that  they  brought 
it  to  a  very  high  degree  of  perfection,  is  evident 
from  the  examples  which  remain  to  us.  £tatueg 
and  utensils  were  manufactured  and  exported  in 
immense  quantities,  not  only  to  Rome,  but  to 
every  part  of  the  known  world.  Of  figures  oil 
a  large  scale  still  extant,  we  may  mention  tlif 
renowned  She-wolf  of  the  Capitol,  the  Chimsera  ii. 
the  Museum  of  Florence,  the  Warri-)r  of  Todi  in  iiia 
Etruscan  Museum  of  the  Vatican  ;  a  portrait-statua 
of  an  Orator,  with  the  inscription  Aule  ^leteH,  in 
Florence ;  and  the  Boy  with  the  Goose  at  Leydeu. 
The  various  objects  of  ornament  and  use,  found 
in  great  numbers  in  tombs,  such  as  candelabra, 
cups,  tripods,  chaldrons,  couches,  discs ;  articles 
of  armour,  as  helmets,  cuirasses,  &c. ;  musical  instru- 
ments, fans,  cists  or  caskets,  are  most  of  them 
models  of  exquisite  finish  and  artistic  skill.  Their 
gems  are  as  numerous  as  those  of  Egyx^t,  and,  like 


ETRURIA. 


them,  cut  into  the  form  of  the  scarahceus  or  beetle. 
They  were  exclusively  intaglios,  and  of  cornelian, 
eardonyx,  and  agate.  On  these  the  Etruscan 
artists  represent  groups  fi-om  the  Greek  mythology, 
or  the  heroic  cycle,  bereft,  as  they  seem  to  have 
been,  of  heroic  legends  of  their  own.  They 
arc  most  frequently  found  at  Chiusi  and  Vulci, 
and  were  worn  as  charms  and  amulets.  Special 
mention  should  be  made  of  the  metal  specula, 
or  mirrors,  with  figures  scratched  upon  the  concave 


!  side,  the  fi'ont  or  convex  side  being  highly  polished, 
These  ranged  over  all  the  phases  of  Etruscan  art, 
and  are  especially  and  peculiarly  Etruscan.  None 
but  Etruscan  inscriptions  have  ever  been  found 
upon  them.  Tliey  will,  no  doubt,  prove  eventually 
of  the  highest  importance,  not  only  by  enabling 
us  to  follow  the  gradations  of  artistic  devclojjnient 
step  by  step,  but  by  furnishing  us  with  lists 
of  names  of  gods  and  persons,  and,  it  may  b«» 
of  objects. 


Etruscan  Mirror  from  Vulci,  with  Phuphluns  (Bacchus),  Semla  (Semele),  and  Apulu  (Apollo). 
Half  size.   After  a  drawing  by  Mr  George  Scharf. 

Of  the  vases  and  urns  which  are  found  in  innu- 
merable quantities  in  Etruscan  tombs,  we  cannot 
treat  here,  as  they  are  admitted  on  all  hands  to  be, 
with  very  few  exceptions,  Greek,  both  in  design 
and  workmanship  ;  we  must  refer  the  reader  to  the 
ttpticial  article  on  Vases  ;  but  a  few  words  may  be 
wadded  on  the  before-mentioned  tomb-paintings.  They 
are  found  chiefly  in  the  cemeteries  of  Tarquinii  and 
CJlusium  ;  and  they  are  all  the  more  important,  as 
they  lead  us  with  minute  accuracy  from  the  very 
cradle  of  the  individual,  through  the  various  scenes  of 
his  entire  life,  to  its  close ;  and  this  throughout  the 
existence  of  the  nation  itself,  beginning  before  the 
foundation  of  Rome,  and  ending  in  the  Emi)ire; 
while  we  follow  the  style  in  its  gradual  development 
from  the  Egyptian  to  Gra3co-Roman  perfection. 
One  of  the  annexed  specimens,  taken  from  a  tomb 
at  Corneto,  represents  a  death-bed  scene ;  but  most 
of  the  other  i)aintings,  especially  at  Tarquinii,  are  of 
a  very  different  description,  as  the  other  specimens 
164 


shew.  Life  in  its  merriest  aspects  gleams  m  the 
most  vivid  of  colours  all  round — dancing,  feasling, 
loving,  hunting.  The  Etruscans  of  later  times  had 
learned  in  the  school  of  the  Hellenes  to  dread  death 
less,  and  to  think  of  the  other  world  as  one  of 
continued  joyfulness. 

We  conclude  with  the  Etruscan  language.  Brevity 
on  that  point  will  be  the  more  pardonable,  as  our 
real  knowledge  of  it  is  next  to  none.  Scarce  as 
the  inscriptions  themselves  are,  still  one  might 
have  supposed  that  our  days,  whicl^  have  seen  the 
riddle  of  the  cuneiform  character  solved,  might 
have  decided  ere  now  whether  the  Etmscan  be 
'  aboriginal '  or  Celtic,  Slavonic  or  Albanese,  Greek 
or  Rliffltian,  Latin  or  Semitic,  Turanic  or  Armenian, 
hieroglyphs,  or  any  other  of  the  languages  which 
the  ditt'erent  savans  have  pronounced  it  to  be.  Our 
present  information  with  respect  to  this  peculiar 
idiom  consists  in  the  following  items :  It  has 
twenty-one  letters,  like   the  ancient   Greek,  and 


ETRURIA. 


reads  from  right  to  left.  In  transcribing  words 
from  other  lan^iages,  it  softens  its  gutturals  and 
aspirates,  and  mterchanges  cognate  letters,  most 
frequently  transforming  d  into  t — for  instance, 
Odysseus  =  Utage  ;  Polydeukes  =  Pultuke  ;  Adria  = 
HatrL  The  most  frequent  termination  is  e :  Peleus 
becomes  Pele;  Tydeiis,  Tyde.  'Aifil'  and  *Avil  ril' 
probably  mean  *he  lired,'  or  'he  lived  years,'  since 
we  find  these  words  always  followed  by  numerals. 
ThiB  question  of  their  language  is  naturally  identical 


supposes  the  whole  to  be  a  manifesto  or  solemn 
accusation  of  some  expelled  Ilasena  against  the 
Clensi  (Clusii). 

'Py*?^  n^h  -in 

bah    ul'Amme       I'areta        tanna         I'at  hu 

'This  we  have  put  up  as  a  sign  for  the  land  and  the 
peoples  therein.' 

Of  the  very  numerous  writers  who  have  treated 


with  that  of  their  origin,  and  tliey  will  both  ha.\e  to 
be  settled  finally  together.  In  the  meantime  we 
may,  without  prejudice,  say  that  there  is  something 
very  seductive  about  Stickcl's  Semitic  explanation 
of  some  of  these  inscriptions.  We  subjoin,  in  order 
to  give  the  reader  an  opportunity  of  judging  of  the 
character  itself,  and  also  for  the  sake  of  curiosity, 
the  first  and  part  of  the  second  line  of  a  large 
inscription  found  in  1822,  at  Perugia,  with  a  Hebrew 
transcript,  and   Stickcl's  Semitic  translation,  lits 


on  Etruria  and  Etruscans,  we  will  mention 
Diodorus,  Strabo,  Dionysius,  Athenseus,  Cincius  in 
his  Annals,  Cato  in  OrigineSy  Varro  in  De  Lingua 
Latina.  Aulus  Coecina's  De  Etrusca  Disciplina,  as 
well  as  the  Emperor  Claudius'  twenty  books  of 
Tyrrhenian  history,  are  lost,  but  some  portions  of 
them  have  survived,  embodied  in  contemporaneous 
and  later  works.  In  modem  times,  we  have 
Dempster,  ii'/rwr 2a  Ee{jalis  (Florence,  ]'''23 — 1724); 
Gori,  Musevm  Ehmscum  (Florence,  i;37 — 1773); 
Inghirami,  Monumenti  Eti-uschi  (1821 — 1826) ;  Micali, 
Storia  degli  antidd  popoli  1  taliani ;  Ottfried  MU]ier, 


ETSCH- 


[— ETTY. 


Die  Etrusker  (Breslau,  1828)  ;  Micali,  Monumenti 
[nediti,  &c.  (Kome  and  Paris);  Dennis,  Cities  and 
Cemeteries  of  Etruria  (London,  1849) ;  Abeken, 
Kugler,  Lenoir,  Hittorf,  Amaduzzi,  Monimsen, 
Bnnsen,  Gerhard,  &c.,  and  the  Transactions  of  the 
many  arch£eological  societies  and  institutes. 
ETSCH.    See  Adig4 

ETSHMIA'DZIN",  a  remarkable  Armenian  con- 
vent in  Erivan,  a  Transcaucasian  province  of  Russia, 
and  a])Out  16  miles  west  of  the  town  of  Erivan.  It 
is  of  great  extent,  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  30  feet  iu 
height,  and  1^  mile  in  circuit.  This  wall  encloses 
f:everal  distinct  churches,  each  of  which  is  presided 
over  by  a  bishop,  is  cruciform  in  shape,  and  is 
surmounted  by  a  kind  of  cupola  crowned  by  a  low 
spire.  For  many  centuries,  this  has  been  the  seat 
of  the  Catholicos  (the  head  or  patriarch  of  the 
Armenian  Church).  This  patriarch  presides  at  the 
synodical  meetings,  but  cannot  pass  a  decree  without 
its  having  the  approval  of  the  moderator,  an  official 
appointed  by  the  Russian  emperor,  in  whose  hands 
the  control  of  the  convent  virtually  rests.  In  the 
convent  library  there  are  635  manuscripts,  462  of 
which  are  in  the  Armenian  language. 

ETTMULLER,  Ernst  Moritz  Ludwio,  an  able 
writer  on  German  antiquities,  was  born  5th  October 
1802,  at  Gersdorf,  near  Lobau,  in  Upper  Lusatia, 
and  studied  medicine  at  Leipsic  from  1823  to  1820, 
but  subsequently  the  language  and  history  of  his 
native  country.  In  1830,  having  taken  his  degree 
of  Ph.D.  at  Jena,  he  began  to  deliver  lectures  there 
on  the  German  poets  of  the  middle  ages ;  but  in  1833 
he  was  called  to  the  ZUrich  Academy  as  teacher  of 
the  German  language  and  literature.  E.'s  literary 
activity  has  been  exhibited  chiefly  in  the  editing  of 
the  hterary  remains  of  the  Middle  High-German, 
and  older  Low-German  dialects.  To  the  former 
helongh.\&  SantOswaldes Leben  (Zurich,  1835);  Hade- 
louhes  Lieder  und  Spriiche  (ZUrich,  1840);  HeinricICa 
Von  Meissen  des  Frouwenlobes  Lieder,  Lelc/ie,  und 
Spriiche  (Quedliub.  1843) ;  Frawen  Helclien  Silne 
(Zurich,  1846) ;  HeinridCs  Von  Veldecke  Eneide 
(Zurich,  1852).  Of  poems  composed  in  Low  German 
he  published,  among  others,  Theophilics  (Quedlinb. 
1849);  and  Wizldwes  IV.,  des  Fiirsten  Von  Biigen^ 
Lieder  und  Spriiche  (Quedlinb.  1852).  In  1850 
appeared,  under  his  editorship,  an  Anglo-Saxon 
chrestomathy,  entitled  Enqla  and  Seaxna  Scdpas 
and  bdceras  ;  and  in  the  following  year  his  Lexicon 
Anglo- Saxonkum,  -which  supplied  a  want  long  felt 
in  Germany.  At  an  earlier  period  in  his  literary 
career,  E.  paid  great  attention  to  the  old  Norse 
literature,  and  in  this  department  we  have  from  him 
an  edition  of  the  Voluspd,  &c.  K  has  also  written 
poetry,  as  well  as  edited  it.  His  Deutsche  Stamm- 
Iconige  appeared  at  Zm-ich  in  1844,  his  Kaiser  Karl 
d.  Or.  und  das  Frdnkische  Jungfrauenheer  in  1847, 
and  his  Karl  d.  Or.  und  der  Heilige  Ooar  in  1852. 

E'TTRICK,  a  pastoral  vale  in  the  south  of 
Selkirkshire,  watered  by  the  Ettrick  river,  which 
rises  amid  bleak  hills  in  the  south-west  corner 
of  this  county  near  Ettrick  Pen,  2258  feet  high, 
and  rims  28  miles  north-east,  and  falls  into  the 
TweecL  Its  chief  affluent  is  the  Yarrow,  which 
runs  25  miles  from  the  west,  through  one  of  the 
loveliest  of  Scotch  vales,  and  the  scene  of  many 
a  plaintive  song.  Ettrick  Forest,  a  royal  hunting 
tract,  swarming  ^vith  deer  till  the  time  of  James  V., 
included  Selkirkshire  and  some  tracts  to  the 
north-  In  Ettrick  Vale,  at  Tushielaw,  dwelt  the 
celebrated  freebooter  or  king  of  the  Border,  Adam 
Scot,  who  was  summarily  executed  by  James  V. 
The  district  derives  some  note  from  two  persons  in 
modem  times — Thomas  Boston  (q.  v.),  a  Scottish 
divine,  who  was  minister  of  the  parish  of  Ettrick ; 


and  J ames  Hogg,  the  Scottish  poet,  who,  having  been 
originally  a  shepherd  in  this  part  of  the  country 
became  known  as  '  the  Ettrick  Shepherd.' 

ETTY,  William,  R.A.  This  distinguished  artist 
was  born  at  York,  March  10,  1787.  His  father  was 
a  miller  and  spice-maker.  Before  he  was  twelve 
years  of  age,  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  printer,  and 
served  out  his  dreary  term  of  seven  years,  the 
irksome  drudgery  of  which  he  himself  often  after- 
wards was  in  the  habit  of  narrating,  occasionally 
soothed  by  dreams  of,  on  some  future  day,  bein^ 
an  artist.  Freed  at  last,  and  assisted  by  Bovaa 
relatives,  in  1805,  at  the  age  of  18,  he  entered  on 
the  study  of  art,  and,  after  a  year's  probation,  was 
admitted  as  a  Royal  Academy  student.  His  career 
is  very  interesting  and  instructive.  It  exhibits  one 
gifted  with  enthusiasm  for  art,  high  resolutions,  and 
great  industry  and  perseverance,  for  a  series  of 
years  invariably  surpassed  by  many  of  his  fellow- 
students,  and,  as  has  been  recorded,  '  looked  on 
by  his  companions  as  a  worthy  plodding  person, 
with  no  chance  of  ever  becoming  a  good  painter.' 
Neither  prizes  nor  medals  fell  to  his  share  as  a 
student ;  and  for  several  years  his  pictures  were 
rejected  at  the  Royal  Academy  and  British  Insti- 
tution Exhibitions.  It  was  only  after  six  years 
of  hard  study  that  he  obtained  a  place  for  a 
I)icture  in  the  Exhibition  of  the  Iloyal  Academy; 
and  his  works  only  began  to  attract  notice  in 
1820,  when  the  artist  was  33  years  of  age,  and 
as  he  himself  has  said,  '  having  exhibited  nine 
years  to  no  purpose.'  But  the  circumstance  of 
E.'s  genius  being  so  long  unappreciated,  did  not 
so  much  arise  from  his  works  evincing  no  talent, 
as  from  his  class  of  subjects,  and  those  technical 
qualities  for  which  his  works  are  remarkable,  not 
being  appreciated  at  the  time  ;  for  long  before  his 
pictures  were  saleable,  his  powers  were  highly 
ajipreciated  by  his  professional  brethren.  On  his 
return  from  Italy  in  1822,  where  \x%  had  been 
studying  the  great  Venetian  colourists,  he  was 
elected  an  Associate  of  the  Academ}'.  In  1824,  his 
cheJ-cV oeuvre,  '  The  Combat — Woman  pleading  for 
the  Vanquished,'  was  purchased  by  an  artist,  John 
Martin.  In  1828,  he  was  elected  Academician  by 
the  members  of  the  Royal  Academy ;  while  in  the 
same  year  the  Royal  Scottish  Academy  testified 
its  high  appreciation  of  his  talents  by  purchasing 
the  most  important  of  his  efforts,  the  historical 
work  illustrating  the  history  of  Judith  and  Holo- 
fernes.  Testimonials  so  high  soon  had  their  eflfect ; 
E.'s  pictures  came  into  great  request,  and  brought 
large  prices,  and  he  was  enabled  amply  to  repay 
those  who,  trusting  to  his  energies,  had  assisted 
him  when  he  entered  on  the  contest,  in  which, 
after  so  arduous  a  struggle,  he  gained  so  much 
honour.  He  always  cherished  a  love  and  rever- 
ence for  York,  his  native  city,  and  had  retired 
there  some  time  previous  to  his  death,  which  took 
place  on  November  30,  1849. 

K  had  an  exquisite  feeling  for  colour,  which  ho 
most  assiduously  cultivated  by  studying  the  works 
of  the  great  Venetian  masters,  and  constantly 
painting  from  the  life  ;  and  though,  in  his  drawing, 
carelessness  and  incorrectness  may  often  be  observed, 
it  is  never  vidgar,  and  often  possesses  much  eleva- 
tion and  largeness  of  style.  He  generally  chose 
•subjects  that  afforded  scope  for  colour,  in  which  the 
nude  and  rich  draperies  were  disi>layed.  He  executed 
nine  pictures  on  a  very  large  scale,  viz. :  '  The 
Combat ; '  series  of  three  pictures  illustrating  the 
delivery  of  Bethulia  by  Judith  ;  '  Benaiah  slaymg 
two  Lion-like  Men  of  Moab ' — these  five,  which  are 
the  best  of  his  large  works,  were  pur^^hased  by  the 
Royal  Scottish  Academy,  and  are  nov»  in  the  Scot- 
tish National  Gallery — '  The  Syrens,*  now  in  the 


ETYMOLOGY— EI  CALYPTUS. 


Manchester  Institution ;  and  three  pictures  illustrat- 
ing the  history  of  Joan  of  Arc.  His  smaller  works 
are  numerous.  Besides  his  lareje  works  above  referred 
to,  he  sent  for  exhibition  to  the  Eoyal  Academy 
and  British  Institution,  between  1811  and  1849 
inclusive,  no  less  than  230  j)ictures,  many  of  them 
composed  of  numerous  figures,  and  all  remarkable 
for  exquisite  colour.  The  following  may  be  parti- 
cularly noted  :  '  The  Coral-finders  ; '  '  Venus  and 
her  youthful  Satellites  arriving  at  the  Isle  of 
Paphos  ; '  '  Cleopatra's  Arrival  in  Cilicia ; '  a  com- 
position from  the  eleventh  book  of  Paradise  Lost 
(♦  Bevy  of  Fair  Women ') ;  '  The  Storm  ; '  '  Sabrina ; ' 
*  The  Warrior  Arming  ; '  '  Youth  at  the  Prow,  and 
Pleasure  at  the  Helm  ; '  *  The  Dance,'  from  Homer's 
description  of  Acbilles's  Shield  ;  '  Britomart  redeems 
Fair  Amoret ; '  '  Dance  on  the  Sands,  and  yet  no 
Footing  seen  ; '  *  Amoret  Chained.' — Compare  E.'s 
Life  by  Gilchrist  (Bogue,  London,  1855). 

ETYMO'LOGY  (Gr.)  is  that  part  of  grammar 
that  treats  of  the  derivation  of  words.  It  embraces 
the  consideration  of  the  elements  of  words,  or  letters 
and  syllables,  the  different  kinds  of  words,  their 
forms,  and  the  notions  they  convey ;  and  lastly,  the 
modes  of  their  formation  by  derivation  and  com- 
position. Etymological  inquiries  have  formed  a 
favourite  pursuit  from  the  earliest  times.  In  the 
book  of  Genesis,  nimierous  indications  are  given  of 
the  denvation  of  proper  names.  Homer  also  attemi)ts 
etymologies  of  the  names  of  gods  and  men,  which, 
however,  can  only  be  looked  upon  as  more  or  less 
ingenious  fancies.  The  grammarians  of  Alexandria 
and  Varro  among  the  Romans  tried  to  base  their 
etymologies  on  something  like  principle ;  but  the 
wildest  conjectures  continued  to  be  indulged  in, 
and  the  results  were  little  better  than  guess-work 
down  to  a  very  recent  period.  As  philology  extended 
its  sphere,  and  became  acquainted  with  the  languages 
and  grammarians  of  the  East,  who  far  excelled  those 
of  the  West  in  this  particular,  etymology  took  on  a 
new  form.  It  no  longer  sought  the  relations  of  the 
words  of  a  single  language  exclusively  within  itself, 
but  extended  its  view  to  a  whole  group,  e.  g.,  the 
Teutonic,  or  wider  still,  to  a  whole  family,  as  the 
Indo-European,  or  Aryan  (q.  v.),  and  became  a  new 
science  under  the  name  of  Comparative  Grammar. 
See  Language. 

Btymologicum  Marjnnm  is  the  name  of  a  Greek 
lexicon,  the  oldest  of  the  kind,  professing  to  give 
the  roots  of  the  words.  It  appears  to  belong  to  the 
10th  c.  ;  the  author's  name  is  unknown.  The 
etymologies  are  mere  guesses,  sometimes  right,  often 
wildly  absurd ;  but  the  book  is  valuable,  as  con- 
taining many  traditions  and  notices  of  the  meanings 
of  old  and  imusual  words.  There  is  an  edition  by 
Sohiifer  (Leip.  1816) ;  one  by  Sturz,  called  Etymo- 
logi'mm  Gudianum  (Leip.  1818) ;  and  another  by 
G?i;iford  (Oxf.  1849). 

EU,  a  tolerably  well-built  town  of  France,  in 
the  dojjartment  of  the  Lower  Seine,  in  Norman  iy, 
situated  near  the  mouth  of  the  Bresle,  93  miles 
lorth-north-west  of  Paris.  It  is  remarkable  for  its 
tine  Gothic  church,  and  for  the  Chateau  d'Eu,  a 
kiw  building  of  red  brick,  with  high  tent-shaped 
roofs  of  slate.  E.  has  manufactures  of  sail-cloth, 
ropes,  soap,  lace,  and  silk.  Pop.  4416.  In  the  11th 
and  12th  centuries,  E.  was  in  the  possession  of  the 
counts  of  the  same  name,  a  collateral  branch  of  the 
Norman  royal  family.  After  various  vicissitudes, 
it  was  purchased  by  Mademoiselle  de  Montpensier 
in  1G75,  whose  fanciful  taste  has  perpetuated  itself 
in  the  architecture  and  decoration  of  the  chateau. 
At  a  later  period,  it  came  into  the  possession  of 
the  Duke  of  Maine,  from  whom  it  passed  to  the 
Duke  of  Penthibvre  the  maternal  grandfather  of 


Louis  Philippe,  who  succeeded  to  it  in  1821.  Louis 
Pliilippe  expended  large  sums  on  the  embellishmenl' 
of  the  chJlteau,  and  especially  on  its  magnilicent 
park  and  the  unique  portrait-gallery.  It  has  recently 
acquired  a  new  historical  association  through  the 
visits  of  the  queen  of  England  in  1843  and  184.5. 
The  eldest  son  of  the  Duke  of  Nemours  (bom  29th 
April  1842)  received  from  his  royal  grandfather  the 
title  of  Count  d'Eu.  Compare  v  atout,  Le  Chdteau 
d'Eu,  Notices  Historiques  (5  vols.,  Paris,  1836),  bin 
Eesidences  Royales  (Paris,  1839). 

EUBCE'A  (ancient,  ^'wJoia;  Turkish,  ^*7ri/)o;  ItaL 
Negroponte),  the  largest  island  in  the  J^gean  Sea, 
forms  a  portion  of  the  present  kingdom  of  Greece. 
Until  recently,  it  was  called  Ne^ropont.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Trikeri  Channel,  and 
on  the  W.  by  those  of  Talanta  and  Egripo.  it 
extends  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  mainland ;  is 
105  English  «.tatute  miles  long,  and  30  miles  in 
extreme  breadth,  although  in  one  part  its  breadth 
is  scarcely  four  miles.  At  the  narrowest  part,  it 
is  connected  with  the  mainland  by  a  bridge.  The 
island  is  intersected  by  a  chain  of  mountains, 
nmning  north-west  and  south-east,  and  attaining 
in  the  centre,  in  the  range  of  Mount  Delphi,  an 
elevation  of  about  4500  feet.  Copper  and  other 
metals  are  obtained  in  the  island,  which  also 
contains  numerous  hot  springs.  The  pastures  are 
excellent,  and  the  declivities  of  the  moimtaina 
covered  with  forests  of  fir-trees.  The  climate  ig 
salubrious,  the  valleys  well  watered  and  very  fertile, 
but  little  cultivated.  The  chief  products  are  cotton, 
oil,  wine,  wheat,  fruit,  and  honeJ^  The  inhabitants 
are  chiefly  engaged  in  the  breeding  of  cattle ;  they 
export  wool,  hides,  and  cheese,  as  well  as  oil  and 
grain.  The  chief  towns  are  Chalcis  (q.  v.)  on  the 
north,  and  Carystos  on  the  south  coast,  the  latter 
having  a  population  of  3000.  E.  was  peopled  in  the 
early  historic  times  chiefly  by  Ionic  Greeks,  and 
afterwards  by  colonists  from  Athens,  who  formed  a 
number  of  independent  cities  or  states.  These  were 
Rt  first  monarchical  in  their  constitution,  but  at  a 
later  period  democratic.  They  soon  rose  to  power 
and  prosperity.  After  the  Persian  wars,  however, 
E.  was  subjugated  by  the  Athenians,  under  whose 
rule  it  continued  till  they,  in  their  turn,  were  sub- 
dued by  Philip  of  Macedon.  By  the  llomans,  it  was 
finally  imited  with  the  province  of  Achaia  under 
Vespasian.  In  1204,  it  came  into  the  possession  of 
the  Venetians,  and  received  the  name  of  Negroponte. 
In  the  year  1470,  the  island  was  taken  by  the  Turks, 
in  whose  hands  it  remained  till  1821,  when  the 
inhabitants  rose  to  vindicate  their  independence  at 
the  call  of  the  beautiful  Modena  ]Ma\irogenia.  It 
now  forms  a  portion  of  the  modem  kingdom  of 
Greece,  and  has  a  popuJation  (1870)  of  82,541. 

EUCALY'PTUS,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  3Iyrtacece,  sub-order  Leptospermece,  containing 
a  large  number  of  species,  mostly  natives  of  Aus- 
traha,  and  which,  along  with  trees  of  nearly  allied 
genera,  form  one  of  the  most  characteristic  features 
of  the  vegetation  of  that  part  of  the  world.  The 
genus  occurs  also,  although  much  more  sparingly,  in 
the  Malayan  Archipelago.  The  trees  of  this  genus 
have  entire  and  leathery  leaves,  in  which  a  notable 
quantity  of  a  volatile  aromatic  oil  is  usually  present. 
The  leaves,  instead  of  having  one  of  their  surfaces 
towards  the  sky,  and  the  other  towards  the  earth, 
are  often  placed  with  their  edges  in  these  directions, 
so  that  each  side  is  equally  exposed  to  the  light. 
Many  of  the  species  abound  in  resinous  secretions, 
and  are  therefore  called  Gum-trees  in  Austraha. 
Some  of  them  attain  a  great  size ;  some  are  found 
with  trunks  from  eight  to  sixteen  feet  in  diameter ; 
a  plank  148  feet  in  length  was  exhibited  at  the 

157 


EUCHARIST— EUDOCIA. 


Great  Exhibition  of  1851.  They  are  of  very  rapid 
growth ;  and  their  timber,  when  green,  is  soft,  so 
that  they  are  easily  felled,  spht,  or  sawn  up ;  but 
when  dry,  it  becomes  very  hard.  It  is  used  for  a 
great  variety  of  purposes,  amongst  which  may  be 
mentioned  ship-building.  The  bark  of  many  of  the 
species  abounds  in  tannin,  and  has  become  to  some 
extent  an  article  of  commerce.  Some  kinds  of  it 
are  said  to  be  twice  as  strong  as  oak-bark.  The 
bark  of  some  is  remarkable  for  its  hardness  ;  whilst 
some  throw  off  their  outer  bark  in  longitudinal 
strips  or  ribbons,  which,  hanging  down  from  their 
stems  and  branches,  have  a  very  singular  appear- 
ance.— Among  the  resinous  secretions  of  this  genus 
is  the  substance  called  .Botany  Bay  Kino,  which  is 
used  in  medicine  as  a  substitute  for  Kino  (q.  v.).  It 
is  the  produce  of  E.  resini/era,  a  species  with  ovato- 
lanceolate  leaves,  known  in  Australia  as  the  Red 
Qmi  Tree  and  Iron  Bark  Tree,  a  very  lofty  tree, 
ftttaiuing  a  height  of  150 — 200  feet.  When  the 
bark  is  wounded,  a  red  juice  flows  very  freely,  and 
hardens  in  the  air  into  masses  of  irregidar  form, 
inodorous,  transparent,  almost  black  when  large,  but 
of  a  beaiitifid  ruby  red  in  smaU  and  thin  fragments. 
Botany  Bay  Kino  is  said  to  consist  chiedy  of  a 
peculiar  principle  called  Eucalt/pthi,  analogous  to 
tannin.  About  sixty  gallons  of  juice  may  sometimes 
be  obtained  from  a  single  tree,  or,  in  the  course  of 
a  year,  as  much  as  five  hundred  pounds  of  kmo. — E. 
robusta,  Stringy  Bark  Tree,  also  a  lofty  tree,  yields 
a  most  beautiful  red  gvim,  which  is  found  Idling 
large  cavities  in  its  stem,  between  the  concentric 
circles  of  wooci — E.  mannifera  yields,  from  its  leaves, 
an  exudation  resembling  manna,  less  nauseous,  and 
of  similar  medicinal  properties.  It  contains  a 
saccharine  substance,  different  from  mamiite,  from 
glucose,  and  from  aU  previously  known  kinds  of  sugar. 
Another  similar  exudation,  from  the  leaves  of  E. 
dumosa,  is  sometimes  seen  spread  over  large  districts 
like  snow,  and  used  by  the  natives  as  food.  Other 
fipecies  also  yield  exudations  of  this  kind,  which  are 
described  as  sometimes  dropping  from  the  leaves  in 
<soagidated  tears  as  large  as  an  almond. — E.  Gunnii, 
when  wounded,  jdelds  a  copious  supply  of  a  refresh- 
ing .and  slightly  aperient  liquid,  which  ferments  and 
forms  a  kind  of  beer.  The  tree  grows  in  Tasmania. 
It  is  not  improbable  that  some  of  the  Eucalypti  of 
the  higher  parts  of  Tasmania  may  be  found  hardy 
enough  for  the  climate  of  the  south  of  England, 
where,  indeed,  some  of  them  may  already  occasionally 
be  seen  in  the  open  air. 

EUCHARIST.    See  Lord's  Supper. 

EUCHLO'RINE  is  a  very  explosive  green- 
coloured  gas,  possessing  \  leaching  properties,  and  is 
prepared  by  heating  gc.?tly  a  mixture  of  2  parts 
hydrochloric  acid,  2  of  Trater,  and  1  of  chlorate  of 
potash.  It  explodes  when  merely  touched  with  a 
hot  wire,  and  is  most  likely  composed  of  a  mixture  of 
chlorine  and  perchloric  acid  (CleOisH-eKHO). 

EU'CLID,  sometimes  called  the  father  of  mathe- 
matics, was  born  at  Alexandria,  about  300  B.  c.  We 
know  little  more  of  his  history  than  that  he  belonged 
to  the  Platonic  school  of  philosophy,  and  taught 
mathematics  in  the  famous  school  of  Alexandria, 
during  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Soter.  Though  he  did 
not  create  the  science  of  mathematics,  as  is  some- 
times re[)resented,  he  made  prodigious  advances, 
eoi)ecial]y  b}'  his  rigorous  method  and  arrangement. 
In  this  respect  he  has  perhaj)s  never  been  excelled, 
and  his  Elements  of  Geometry  continue  to  the  present 
day  to  hold  their  place  as  a  text-book  of  that 
science.  Besides  the  Elements,  there  are  extant 
treatises  on  music,  optics,  data,  &c.,  ascribed  to  E., 
the  authenticity  of  some  of  which  is  doubtfid.  The 
best  etlitioua  of  the  whole  reputed  works  of  E.  are 


those  of  David  Gregory  (Oxf.  1703)  and  PejTard 
(3  vols.,  Par.  1814—1818).  The  oldest  Greek  edition 
of  the  Elements  appeared  at  Basel,  1533;  the  best 
is  that  of  August  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  IS2C).  Of  Enghsh 
editions  of  E.'s  Elements,  those  of  Simpson  and 
Playfair  are  considered  the  best.  There  is  a  full 
accomit  of  everything  connecled  with  E.  and  Ilia 
works  in  Smith's  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  liorruxn 
Biography. 

EUCLID,  of  Megara,  a  Greek  philosopher,  has 
often  been  confounded  ^vith  the  mathematician  of 
the  same  name.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest  disciples 
of  Socrates.  Although  Megara  lay  at  a  considerabio 
distance  from  Athens,  and  aU  Megarians  were  for- 
bidden to  enter  the  Athenian  temtories  under  pain 
of  death,  E.  came  into  the  city  in  the  evening  in 
female  disguise,  to  enjoy  the  instruction  of  Socrates. 
After  the  death  of  his  master,  he  established  a  school 
of  his  own,  which  received  the  name  of  the  Megario 
School.  His  death  took  place  about  424  b.  C.  The 
basis  of  his  system  was  the  Eleatic  dogma  of  a  one, 
only,  universal,  substance  or  existence.  Blending 
with  this  the  Socratic  idea  of  the  i)redommance  of 
the  moral  element,  E.  held  this  one  real  existence  to 
be  the  good,  though  it  receives  various  names  under 
its  special  manifestations. 

EUDIO'METER  (Gr.  eudioH,  good,  and  matron, 
measurer)  i^  an  instrument  ori;L;inally  introduced  as 
a  measurer  of  the  goodness  of  air  in  any  locality,  but 
I  which  is  now  employed  generally  in  the  analysis  of 
I  gases  for  the  determination  of  the  natm-e  and  pro- 
;  portions  of  the  constituents  of  any  gaseous  mixture. 
:  The  instrimient  is  now  made  of  glass  in  the  form 
!  of  a  tube,  which  is  hermetically  sealed  at  one  end, 
!  and  open  at  the  other.    The  tube  may  be  straight, 
j  or  bent  in  the  shape  of  the  letter  U.    In  either 
!  case,  the  tube  is  graduated  or  marked  off  in  equal- 
sized  divisions  from  the  closed  end  onwards,  so  as 
,  to  admit  of  the  volume  of  gas  placed  within  being 
accurately  measured ;  and  two  platinum  wires  are 
inserted  through  the  glass  near  the  shut  end  of  the 
tube,  and  closely  approach,  but  do  not  touch,  each 
;  other.    These  wires  are  intended  for  the  conveyance 
:  of  electric  sparks  through  any  mixture  of  gases,  so 
I  as  to  cause  the  Qombustion  of  certain  of  them.  For 
the  modes  of  manipulating  with  the  eudiometer,  see 
Gas,  Analysis  of. 

!     EUDO  CIA,  the  name  of  several  Byzantine  prin- 
cesses,  of  whom  the  most  important  is  the  wife  of 
the  Emperor  Theodosius  II.    She  was  the  daughter 
of  the  sophist  Leontius  or  Leon,  and  was  educated 
by  her  father,  who  instructed  her  in  the  literature 
of  Greece  and  Rome,  in  rhetoric,  geometry,  arith- 
:  metic,  and  astronomy.    Her  accomplishments  and 
her  singular  beauty  were  reckoned  by  Leontius  a 
sufficient  fortune,  for  at  his  death  he  left  all  his 
property  to  her  two  brothers.    E.  appealed  to  the 
j  emperor  at  Constantinople.    Pulcheria,  the  sister  of 
I  Theodosius,  was  interested  in  the  maiden,  and 
j  thought  she  woidd  make  a  suitable  wife  for  the 
,  emperor.  But  as  E.  (or,  more  properly,  Athenaia,  for 
this  was  her  name  until  her  baptism)  had  been 
brought  up  a  pagan,  it  was  necessary  first  to  con- 
i  vert  her.    This  was  easily  accomi^hshed.    E.  was 
married  to  the  emperor  in  421  a.  d.     For  many 
I  years,  however,  Pulcheria  ruled  in  the  imperial 
I  household  and  councds,  E.,  according  to  Nicephorus, 
*  submitting  to  her  as  mother  and  Augusta ; '  but  in 
I  447,  a  quarrel  broke  out  between  them  in  regard  to 
!  the  Eutychian  heresy,  of  which  E.  had  become  a  sup- 
porter.   At  first,  E.  was  triumphant,  and  Pulcheria 
was  banished  ;  but  in  a  short  time  the  emperor  waa 
reconciled  to  his  sister,  and  treated  E.  so  sharply 
I  that  she  retired  to  Jerusalem,  where  she  died  460 — 
461  A.  D.    Her  latter  days  were  spent  in  works  of 


EUDOXUS— EUGENIA. 


piety  and  charity.  She  enriched  churches,  rebuilt  the 
walls  of  the  Holy  City,  and  founded  many  monas- 
teries and  hospitals.  Through  the  influence  of  the 
famous  S3Tneou  Stilites,  she  was  induced  to  renoimce 
Eutychianism,  and  become  an  orthodox  Catholic 
Christian.  E.  was  a  poetess  of  considerable  merit. 
She  wa-ote  a  poem  in  heroic  verse  on  the  victory 
obtained  by  the  troops  of  Theodosius  over  the  Per- 
sians, 421  or  422  a.  d.  ;  a  paraphrase  of  eight  books 
of  Scripture,  a  paraphrase  of  Daniel  and  Zechariali, 
and  a  poem  in  three  books  on  the  history  and 
martyrdom  of  Cyprian  and  Justina.  The  authorship 
of  Homero-Gentones  has  also  (but  without  sufficient 
reason)  been  attributed  to  her.  This  is  a  work  com- 
posed of  verses  taken  from  Homer,  and  so  arranged 
as  to  appear  a  history  of  the  fall  of  man  and  of  his 
redemption  by  Christ.    It  has  been  often  published. 

EUDO'XUS,  of  Cnidus,  called  by  Cicero  the  prince 
of  astronomers,  flourished  about  366  b.  c.  He  studied 
under  Plato  for  some  time,  and  afterwards  went  to 
Egypt,  where  he  resided  for  thirteen  years,  and  had 
much  intercourse  with  the  Egy{)tian  priesthood, 
from  whom  he  is  supposed  to  have  derived  his  supe- 
rior knowledge.  His  last  years  are  said  to  have  been 
spent  on  the  summit  of  a  high  hill,  that  he  might 
have  the  starry  heavens  ever  before  his  eyes.  There 
is  little  reason  for  believing  that  E.  deserves  any 
great  admiration  for  his  attainments  in  astronomy. 
He  probably  introduced  the  sphere  into  Greece,  and 
may  have  corrected  the  length  of  the  year,  upon 
Egyptian  information,  but  he  appears  to  have  been 
but  an  indifferent  observer  of  heavenly  phenomena, 
and  Delambre  considers  that  he  was  ignorant  of 
geometry.  E.'s  works  are  entirely  lost,  and  our 
only  reliable  sources  of  information  regarding  him 
are  the  poem  of  Aratus  and  the  commentary  of 
Hipparchus. 

EUGENE,  FRAN901S  (le  Prince  Frangois-Eugene 
de  Savoie-Carignan),  better  known  as  Prince  Eugene, 
equally  distinguished  as  a  general  and  as  a  states- 
man, was  born  at  Paris,  18th  October  1663.  He 
was  the  son  of  Eugene  Maurice,  Count  of  Soissons, 
and  of  Olympia  Mancini,  a  niece  of  Cardinal 
Mazarin.  He  was  intended  for  the  church ;  but 
the  banishment  of  his  mother  to  the  Low  Coun- 
tries, by  the  orders  of  Louis  XIV.,  was  so  deeply 
resented  by  him,  that  he  indignantly  renounced  his 
country,  and  entered  the  service  of  the  Emperor 
Leopold  as  a  volunteer  against  the  Turks.  Subse- 
quently, the  French  government  made  him  the  most 
flattering  offers,  but  he  never  returned  to  the  service 
of  his  native  country.  He  displayed  extraordinary 
military  talent  ii»  the  Turkish  war,  especially  at  the 
famous  siege  of  Vienna  in  1683,  and  soon  rose  to  a 
high  position  in  the  army.  lu  the  Coalition  War 
against  Louis  XIV.  in  Italy,  he  took  an  active  part ; 
and  in  1691,  he  was  raised  to  the  command  of  the 
imperial  army  in  Piedmont.  On  his  return  to 
Vienna,  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  army  of 
Hungary,  and  defeated  the  Turks,  with  immense 
slaughter,  in  the  famous  battle  of  Zenta,  Sei)tember 
11,  1697.  The  booty  obtained  was  almost  incredible, 
amounting  to  several  millions  sterling.  In  1701 
broke  out  the  Spanish  War  of  Succession.  E.  for 
two  years  commanded  the  army  of  Italy,  but  his 
forces  were  too  small  for  him  to  accomplish  anything 
of  importance.  In  the  year  1703,  being  appointed 
president  of  the  council  of  war,  he  became  thence- 
forth the  prime  mover  of  every  undertaking.  He 
first  took  the  command  of  the  imperial  army  in 
Germany,  and  along  with  Marlborough  gained  a 
brilliant  victory  at  the  battle  of  Blenheim,  13th 
August  1704,  when  the  two  commanders  defeated 
the  French  and  Bavarian  ai-my.  E.  afterwards  saved 
Xurio,  and  expelled  the  French  from  Italy  in  the 


year  1706.  He  shared,  too,  with  Marlborough  the 
glory  of  the  fields  of  Oudenarde  (in  1708)  and  Mal- 
plaqiiet  (in  1709) ;  but  being  crij)pled  in  his  resourcea 
by  the  retirement  of  Holland  and  England  from  the 
contest,  he  was  unable  to  witht'tand  the  enemy^  on 
the  Rhine,  and  his  defeat  by  Villara  at  Deuain, 
24th  July  1712,  was  followed  by  other  disasters, 
until  the  peace  of  Rastadt  put  an  end  to  the  war. 
In  17 16,  on  the  recommencement  of  the  war  against 
the  Turks,  E.  defeated  an  army  of  180,000  men  at 
Peterwardcin,  took  Temeswar,  and  in  the  year  1717j 
after  a  bloody  battle,  gained  possession  of  Belgrade, 
After  the  peace  of  Passarowicz,  which  was  con- 
cluded in  the  following  year,  he  returned  covered 
with  glory  to  Vienna,  where,  during  the  succeeding 
years  of  peace,  he  hiboured  with  unwearied  energy 
in  the  cabinet.  When  the  question  of  the  succes- 
sion to  the  throne  of  Poland  brought  on  a  new  war 
wath  France,  E.  appeared  again  on  the  Rhine ; 
but  being  now  advanced  in  years,  and  destitute  of 
sufficient  resources,  he  was  unable  to  accomplish 
anything  of  importance.  After  the  peace,  he 
retiu-ned  to  Vienna,  where  he  died,  21st  April  1736. 
E.  was  small  in  stature,  with  thin  face,  an  .1  long  nose ; 
he  was  simple  in  dress  and  manner,  and  indulged 
profusely  in  snuff".  An  enthusiast  in  his  profession, 
and  a  strict  disciplinarian,  he  was  also  kind-hearted 
and  sympathetic,  and  always  carefully  attended  to 
the  v/ants  of  his  men.  He  introduced  no  new 
tactics  in  the  art  of  war,  and  was  deficient  in  the 
guidance  and  command  of  masses ;  but  by  his  rapidity 
of  perception  and  decision,  and  faculty  for  making 
the  best  of  existing  circumstances,  which  was  his 
forte,  he  raised  the  prestige  of  the  Austrian  arms  to 
an  eminence  unequalled  before  or  since  his  time. 
He  successively  served  under  three  emperors,  of 
whom  he  was  wont  to  say,  that  in  Leopold  I.  he 
had  a  father,  in  Joseph  I.  a  brother,  and  in  Charles 
VI.  a  master.  E.'s  political  writings,  published  by 
Sartori,  are  important  for  the  light  they  throw  upon 
the  history  and  manners  of  the  time.  Compare 
Dimiont,  Ifistoire  Militaire  du  Prince  Eugene  ;  Fer- 
rari, De  Bebus  Gestls  Eugenii  (Rome,  1747) ;  Kausler, 
Lehen  des  Prinzen  Eugen  von  Savoyen,  &c. ;  and 
Campbell's  Military  History  of  Prince  Eugene  and 
the  Duke  of  Marlborough. 

EUGE'NIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Myrtacece,  nearly  allied  to  Myrtus  (see  Mvrtle), 
and  diff"ering  only  in  having  a  4-parted  instead  of 
a  5-cleft  calyx,  four  instead  of  five  petals,  and  a 
1 — 2-celled  berry,  with  one  seed  in  each  cell.  The 
species  are  trees  and  shrubs,  natives  chiefly  of 
tropical  and  sub-tropical  countries.  The  dried 
fruit  of  E.  Pimento  and  E.  acris  forms  the  spice 
well  known  as  allspice,  Jamaica  pepper,  or  Pimexto 
(q.  v.).  The  seeds  of  E.  Tabasco  are  also  used  as  a 
condiment.  Other  species  yield  some  of  the  finest 
fruits  of  tropical  regions,  remarkable  for  their  deli- 
cious balsamic  odours.  Among  these  is  the  Malay 
Apple  [E.  Malaccensis),  a  native  of  the  Malayan 
archipelago  and  of  the  South  Sea  Islands,  a  low 
tree,  with  ovate-oblong  smooth  leathery  leaves,  and 
fruit  in  size  and  shape  resembling  a  small  apple,  of  a 
beautifid  red  colour,  and  with  a  white  juicy  juilp. 
This  fruit  has  an  agreeable  odour,  like  that  of  tho 
rose,  whence  it  is  sometimes  called  Rose  Apple  ;  a 
name  which,  on  the  same  account,  is  often  extended 
to  the  fruits  of  allied  species,  as  E.  aquea,  and  which 
is  very  often  given  to  the  Jambos  or  Jamrosadk 
(E.  Jambos  or  Jamhosa  vulgaris),  an  East  Indian 
fruit,  now  cultivated  in  all  tropical  coimtries.  This 
fruit  is  pear-shaped,  about  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg, 
white  or  red.  The  tree  is  about  20  or  30  feet  high, 
much  branched,  with  leaves  somewhat  like  those  of 
the  peach,  and  greenish-yellow  flowers  in  terminal 
bunches.  E.  caultjlora,  a  Brazilian  species,  cultivated 

159 


EUGEXIE-MARTE  DE  MONTIJO— EULER. 


hi  most  of  the  gardens  of  the  diamond  and  gold 
districts  of  the  south  of  Brazil,  yields  a  very  fine 
fruit  of  a  black  colour,  about  the  size  of  a  greengage 
plum,  called  the  Jabuticaba  or  Jaboticaburos. 
Similar  fi'uits  are  produced  by  other  Brazilian 
Bpecies,  particularly  E.  dysenteriai,  E.  inocarpa,  and 
E.  JJrnziliensis.  The  Bastard  Guava  {E.  pseudo- 
psidnim)  and  the  Cayenne  Cherry  {E.  cotonifolia 


Cayenne  Cherry  {Eugenia  Michelii). 


and  E.  Michelii)  produce  fruits  which  are  held  in 
considerable  esteem  in  the  West  Indies.  One 
Bpecies  only,  the  Ugni  {E.  Ugni),  a  native  of  Chili, 
appears  to  be  sufficiently  hardy  for  the  climate  of 
Britain  ;  it  endures  at  least  that  of  the  south  of 
England  :  it  has  been  recently  introduced,  and  much 
extolled  as  a  fruit  shrub.  Its  flowers  are  very  fra- 
grant, and  its  fruit  pleasant.  It  is  much  cultivated 
in  Chili,  and  a  very  refreshing  beverage,  with  an 
agreeable  balsamic  odour,  is  made  of  the  expressed 
juice  mixed  with  water.  The  fruit  is  of  the  size 
of  a  black  currant,  somewhat  flattened,  and  of  a 
brownish-red  colour. — The  bark  of  many  species 
of  E.  is  very  rich  in  tannin.  Some  produce  good 
timber. 

EUGENIE-MARIE  DE  MONTIJO,  empress 
of  the  French,  was  born  at  Granada,  in  Spain, 
6th  May  1826,  and  is  the  second  daughter  of  the 
Count  of  Montijo  and  of  Marie  Manuela  Kirk- 
patrick.  She  is  descended,  on  the  father's  side, 
from  an  old  and  noble  Spanish  family,  which,  by 
marriages  at  various  times,  acquired  the  right  to 
assume  the  names  of  Guzman,  Fernandez,  Cordova, 
La  Cerda,  and  Levia,  and  contracted  alliances  with 
the  noble  families  of  Tgba,  Banos,  and  Mora.  By 
her  mother — also  bom  in  Spain,  and  the  daughter 
of  Mr  Kirkpatrick,  who  was  for  some  time  English 
consid  at  the  Spanish  seaport  of  Malaga — she  is 
connected  with  an  ancient  Scottish  family — the 
Kirkpatricks  of  Closeburn — which  still  exists,  but  no 
longer  in  possession  of  their  original  property.  She 
was  educated  principally  at  Madrid,  and  spent  a 
great  portion  of  her  youth  in  travelling  with  her 
mother,  under  the  name  of  the  Countess  de  T6ba. 
In  1851,  she  appeared  at  the  files  d'Elysie  in 
Paris,  where  her  beauty  and  graceful  demeanour 
attracted  the  notice  and  excited  the  admiration  of 
the  emperor  of  the  French,  Napoleon  III.,  who  mar- 
rie/1  her  on  the  30th  January,  1853,  at  Notre  Dame. 
On  that  occasion  an  amnesty  was  granted  to  4312 
political  prisoners.  One  son,  the  fruit  of  this  union, 
was  born  16th  March,  1856.  On  the  deposition  of 
the  emperor  in  September,  1870,  and  the  declai'ation 
of  a  republic,  E.  fled  almost  alone  from  France,  and 
took  refuge  in  England. 

EUGE'NIUS  is  the  name  of  four  popes,  of  whom 
the  last  is  the  most  important.  Eugenius  IV., 
160 


originally  called  Gabriele  Condulmero,  was  a  native 
of  Venice,  and  was  elevated  to  the  pontificate  in 
March  1431.  The  great  event  in  his  career  was  the 
schism  created  in  the  church  by  the  proceedings  of 
the  Council  of  Basel,  which  had  been  convoked  by 
E.'8  predecessor,  Martin  V.,  and  had  exhibited  a 
strong  tendency  to  ecclesiaf^tical  refonn,  and  to  limit 
the  j)ai)al  authority.  E.  was  kept  in  perpetual 
trouble  by  this  coimcil,  and  at  last,  having  been 
compelled  to  flee  from  Rome,  opened  a  new  council 
at  Ferrara  in  1438,  and  issued  a  bull  of  excom- 
munication against  the  bishops  assembled  at  Basel, 
whom  he  pronounced  to  be  '  a  satanic  conclave, 
which  was  spreading  the  abomination  of  desolation 
into  the  bosom  of  the  church.'  The  result  was, 
that  the  council  of  Basel  formally  deposed  him  from 
his  pontifical  office  in  1439,  and  elected  in  his  stead 
Amadeus  VIII.,  Duke  of  Savoy,  under  the  title  of 
Felix  V.  The  conduct  of  France  and  Germany 
seemed  to  warrant  this  bold  step,  for  Charles 
VII.  had  introduced  into  the  former  country  the 
decrees  of  the  Council  of  Basel,  with  some  modi- 
fications, through  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  (1438), 
and  the  same  thing  happened  in  Germany  by 
means  of  the  Deed  of  Acceptance  (1439).  At  the 
Council  of  Ferrara,  John  Paleologus  IL,  emperor 
of  Constantinople,  and  upwards  of  twenty  Greek 
biehops,  presented  themselves,  and  a  union  between 
the  two  great  divisions  of  Christendom — the  Greek 
and  Latin  Church — was  for  a  moment  effected  in 
July  1439.  Discord,  however,  broke  out  almost 
immediately,  and  the  two  have  ever  since  remained 
separate.  E.'s  rival,  Felix,  did  not  obtain  much 
recognition,  and  after  the  death  of  the  former  at 
Rome,  in  1447,  he  had  to  give  way  in  favour 
of  Nicholas  V.  E.'s  pontificate  was  stormy  and 
unhappy,  and  in  his  old  age  he  is  said  to  have 
regretted  that  he  ever  left  his  monastery. 

EU'GUBINE  TABLES  (Lat.  Tabulm  Evgu- 
hinoi),  the  name  given  to  seven  bronze  tablets,  the 
inscriptions  on  which  present  a  comprehensive  and 
very  remarkable  memorial  of  the  Umbrian  language. 
They  were  discovered  in  1444  at  Gubbio  (the  ancient 
Iguvium  or  Eugubium),  where  they  are  still  pre- 
served. The  characters  on  four  of  the  tablets  are 
Umbrian,  on  two  Latin,  and  on  one  partly  Latin 
and  partly  Umbrian.  The  language  employed,  ho"W' 
ever,  is  in  all  cases  the  same,  and  difiers  both  from 
Etruscan  and  Latin,  but  resembles  somewhat  the 
older  forms  of  the  latter,  and  also  the  Oscan  dialects, 
so  far  as  we  know  them.  The  subjects  of  the 
inscriptions  are  directions  concerning  sacrificial 
usages  and  forms  of  prayer,  and  they  seem  to  have 
been  inscribed  three  or  four  centuries  before  the 
Christian  era.  Philip  Bonarota  first  published  them 
in  a  complete  form  in  Dempster's  Etruria  Regalis 
(2  vols.,  Florence,  1723—1724).  The  first  really 
judicious  attempt  at  interpretation  was  that  at 
Lanzi,  in  his  Saggio  di  Lingvu  Etrusca  (3  vols., 
Rome,  1789),  who  points  out  the  important  fact  that 
they  related  to  saciificial  usages,  &c.  His  views 
have  been  carried  out  by  Ottfried  Miiller  in  his 
work  Die  Etrusker ;  Lepsius,  De  Tabtdis  Eugubinis, 
&c.  The  most  accurate  copy  of  the  inscriptions  is 
that  given  by  Lepsius  in  his  Inscriptiones  UmbriccB 
et  Oscce  (Leip.  1841) ;  the  best  and  most  complete 
work  on  the  language  and  contents  of  the  tablets 
is  that  of  Aufrecht  and  KirchhofF,  entitled 
Umbrischen  Sp^-ax:h.  Denkmdler  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1849 
—1851). 

EU'LER,  Leonard,  one  of  the  greatest  ol 
mathematicians,  was  born  at  Basel,  April  15,  1707 
and  received  his  first  instructions  in  the  science, 
for  which  he  afterwards  did  so  much,  from  hia 
father,  who  was  pastor  of  the  neighbouring  village 


EU  iMENIDES-EUNUCH. 


of  Rieclien.  At  the  university  of  Basel,  he  studied 
under  John  Bernouilli,  and  was  the  friend  of  Daniel 
and  Nicholas  Bernouilli.  At  the  age  of  19,  he 
was  second  in  the  contest  for  a  prize  offered  by 
the  Academy  of  Paris  for  the  best  treatise  on  the 
masting  of  ships.  His  friends,  the  Bernouillis,  had 
been  called  to  St  Petersburg  by  Catharine  I.,  when 
she  founded  the  Academy,  and  they  now  induced 
E.  to  settle  in  that  capital,  in  1730,  as  Professor 
of  Physics.  Thi-ee  years  later,  he  exchanged  his 
professorship  for  a  place  in  the  Academy.  From 
that  time,  he  continued  to  labour  in  the  field  of 
mathematics  with  an  ardour  really  astonishing. 
More  than  half  the  mathematical  treatises  in  the 
46  quarto  volumes  published  by  the  St  Petersburg 
Academy  from  1727  to  1783  are  by  E.,  and  at  his 
death  he  left  more  than  200  treatises  in  MS.,  which 
were  afterwards  published  by  the  Academy.  The 
Paris  Academy  of  Science  awarded  him  the  prize  on 
ten  several  occasions,  one  of  which  was  his  treatise 
on  Tides,  1740.  In  1741,  he  accepted  the  invitation 
of  Frederick  the  Great  to  Berlin.  He  afterwards, 
1766,  returned  to  St  Petersburg,  where  he  was 
made  director  of  the  mathematical  department  of 
the  Academy,  and  died  Sei^tember  7,  1783.  The 
last  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  total  blindness. 

E.  was  of  an  amiable  and  religious  character, 
always  cheerfvd  and  good  humoured ;  in  society, 
he  was  distinguished  for  his  agreeable  wit.  It 
was  doubtless  his  residence  in  St  Petersburg  that 
led  him  to  the  application  of  mathematics  to  the 
building  and  management  of  ships,  as  embodied 
in  his  Theorie  de  la  Construction  et  de  la  Manoiuvre 
des  Valsseaux  (Petersb.  1773).  The  great  problems 
left  by  Newiion  to  his  successors  were  the  objects 
of  his  unceasing  research.  On  physical  subjects, 
E.  often  adopted  extremely  untenable  hypotheses. 
He  occupied  himself  also  with  philosophy  in  the 
proper  sense  of  the  word.  He  undertook  to 
prove  the  immateriality  of  the  soul,  and  to  defend 
revelation  against  freethinkers.  In  his  Lettres  d 
line  Princesse  d'Allemagne  sur  quelques  Sujets  de 
F/iysique  et  de  FhUosophle  (3  vols.,  Berl.  1768 ; 
new  ed.,  Par.  1812 ;  and  which  have  also  been 
translated  into  English),  he  attacked  Leibnitz's 
system  of  monads  and  of  a  pre-established  har- 
mony. But  this  was  not  the  field  in  which  he  was 
best  calculated  to  shine ;  his  proper  domain  was 
the  abstruser  parts  of  pure  mathematics.  His 
most  important  works  of  this  class  are  his  Theory 
of  Planetary  Motion,  Introduction  to  the  Analysis  of 
Infinites,  Institutions  of  the  Differential  and  of  the 
Integral  Calculus,  and  Dioptrics,  which  are  all,  as 
well  as  his  Ojniscula  Analytica,  in  Latin.  His 
Introduction  to  Algebra  is  well  known. 

EUME'NIDES  (literally,  the  well-mii}ded  or 
benign  goddesses)  was  the  euphemistic  name  of 
certain  fearful  beings,  whose  true  name  of  Erinnyes 
(from  erino,  I  hunt  up,  or  erinuo,  I  am  angry)  it  was 
considered  unlawful  to  utter.  Their  Latin  name 
was  Furice  or  Dine.  We  find  them  mentioned  by 
the  earliest  poets,  and  they  play  a  prominent  part 
in  the  writings  of  the  tragedians,  where  their  sphere 
of  action  is  much  extended.  In  the  earliest  times, 
Homer  and  Hesiod  represent  them  as  avenging  and 
punishing  perjury  and  murder,  as  also  the  violation 
of  filial  duty  and  of  the  rite  of  hospitality ;  they 
were  also  regarded  as  goddesses  of  Fate  (like  the 
Parcse),  and  had  a  share  in  the  grim  Providence 
which  h  1  the  doomed  ones  into  the  way  of  calamity. 
A  part  of  their  function  was  also  to  hinder  man 
from  acquiring  too  much  knowledge  of  the  future. 
In  tliese  poets,  their  number  is  sometimes  undefined  ; 
Bometiines  they  appear  as  one.  The  limitation  to 
the  number  three,  as  Avell  as  their  names  Alecto, 
Megaera,  and  Tisiphone,  is  of  a  later  period,  a  whole 
187 


chorus  of  Erinnyes  appearing  in  the  writitfB  o« 

^schylus.  According  to  Homer,  they  dwelt  id 
Erebus,  and  with  this  the  duration  after  death  of 
the  punishments  which  they  inflict  is  connected. 
Hesiod  calls  them  the  daughters  of  Ge  and  L^ranus. 
^schylus  describes  them  as  having  the  features 
of  gorgons  and  harpies,  their  bodies  covered  with 
black,  serpents  twined  in  their  hair,  and  blood 
dripping  from  their  eyes.  The  later  poets  and 
sculptors  represented  them  in  the  more  pleasing 
form  of  winged  virgins,  attired  in  the  garb  cl 
huntresses,  bearing  torches  in  their  hands,  anj 
with  a  wreath  of  serpents  round  their  heads. 
Gradually,  they  came  to  be  considered  goddesses 
of  the  infernal  regions,  who  punished  crimes  after 
death,  but  seldom  appeared  on  earth.  In  Athens, 
their  worship,  which,  like  that  of  the  other  infernal 
deities,  was  conducted  in  silence,  was  held  in  great 
honour.  The  sacrifices  offered  to  them  were  black 
sheep  and  libations  of  nephalia — i.  e.,  honey  mixed 
with  water.  The  turtle-dove  and  the  narcissiuj 
were  sacred  to  them.  They  had  a  sanctuary  in  tlio 
vicinity  of  the  Areopagus,  and  one  at  Colonus. 

EUMO'LPUS  (the  'sweet  singer')  was,  in  the 
later  mythology  of  Greece,  the  son  of  Poseidon  and 
Chione.  He  was  brought  up  in  Ethiopia,  whence 
he  went  to  Thrace,  and  afterwards  passed  into 
Attica,  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  Thracians,  to 
assist  the  Eleusinians  in  their  war  against  Eroch- 
theus,  king  of  Athens.  E.  and  his  sons  are  said 
to  have  been  slain  in  battle.  He  is  spoken  of  aa 
the  founder  of  the  Eleusinian  mysteries.  A  dis- 
tinction is  made  by  some  of  the  ancient  writers 
between  this  E.  and  a  son  of  Musseus  bearing  the 
same  name.  The  latter  is  represented  as  a  scholar 
of  Or[)heus,  and  the  instructor  of  Hercules ;  but 
E.'s  history,  like  all  mythological  stories,  is  involved 
in  great  obscurity  and  confusion.  The  name  of  E. 
is  one  of  the  series  of  those  old  priestly  singers  who, 
by  the  institution  of  religious  ceremonies,  spread 
culture  and  morality  among  the  rude  inhabitants 
of  HeUas.  An  illustrious  Athenian  family,  tha 
EumolpidcB,  derived  their  descent  from  E.,  and  held 
the  office  of  priests  of  Demeter  in  Eleusis. 

EUNO'MIUS,  the  founder  of  the  Arian  sect  of 
Eunomians,  was  born  in  the  village  of  Dacora,  in 
Cappadocia,  and  was  first  a  lawyer,  then  a  soldier, 
and  ultimately  took  holy  orders.  In  360,  he  was 
appointed  Bishop  of  Cyzicum.  In  the  great  con- 
troversy regarding  the  nature  of  the  Trinity  which 
raged  during  the  4th  r.,  E.  was  conspicuous  by  hia 
advocacy  of  the  view  that  the  Father  alone  was 
eternal  and  supreme  ;  that  the  Son  was  generated 
of  Him  ;  and  the  Holy  Spirit,  again,  of  the  Son.  His 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is  sometimes  called  the 
Anomoian  ('dissimilar'),  to  distinguish  it,  on  the 
one  hand,  from  the  Homoiousian  ('similar'),  held 
by  the  semi-Arians,  and,  on  the  other,  from  the 
IFomoousian  ('identical'),  held  by  the  Athanasian 
or  Trinitarian  party.  It  was  thus  the  extreme  of 
Arianism.  In  defence  of  his  peculiar  views,  E.  is 
said  to  have  shewn  superior  ability,  although  his 
opponents  also  accuse  him  of  being  verbose  and 
inflated  in  his  style.  His  life  was  much  chequered. 
He  was  banished  from  one  place  to  another,  until 
at  length  he  obtained  permission  to  retire  to  his 
native  village,  where  he  died  in  394.  His  -VN-ritinga 
have  entirely  perished,  with  the  exception  of  a 
fragment  here  and  there  preserved  in  the  WTitings 
of  his  adversaries. 

Eir'NUCH.  The  original  signification  of  this 
word  (Gr.  eunuchos,  one  who  has  charge  of  a  bed) 
points  to  the  office  that  this  class  of  persons  ful- 
filled, and  still  fulfil  in  the  East — that,  namely,  of 
taking  charge  of  the  women's  apartments  or  harems. 


EUOMPHALUS— EUPEN. 


The  barbarous  practice  of  employing  castrated  maless 
as  guardians  of  the  other  sex,  is  an  accompaniment 
of  polygamy,  and  is  therefore  chiefly  met  with  in 
the  East  and  in  North  Africa.  If  it  has  appeared 
in  countries  where  monogamy  was  the  law,  it  was 
in  consequence  of  the  introduction  of  Oriental  luxury, 
as  was  the  case  under  the  Roman  emperors.  The 
practice  is  of  grea*;  antiquity,  and  seems  to  have 
originated  in  Libya,  and  from  that  to  have  spread 
to  Egypt  and  the  East.  Syria  and  Asia  Minor 
were  the  most  notorious  in  this  respect.  In  Greece, 
it  never  obtained  any  great  footing ;  for  although 
Greek  women  were  kept  in  seclusion,  polygamy 
itself  never  prevailed.  The  later  Romans  kept 
eunuchs,  but  they  were  mostly  imported.  In  the 
Byzantine  empire,  on  the  contrary,  castration  and 
keeping  of  eunuchs  were  very  prevalent.  This  class 
played  a  prominent  part  in  the  court  of  the  Eastern 
Empire,  and  the  word  eunuch  came  to  bo  the  title 
of  an  office  similar  to  that  of  chamberlain.  In 
modern  times,  the  practice  is  mostly  confined  to 
Mohammedan  countries,  and  the  eunuchs  are  chiefly 
brought  as  slaves  from  the  interior  of  Africa. 

EUO'MPHALUS,  a  large  genus  of  fossil  gastero- 
podous  shells,  characterised  by  its  depressed  and 
discoidal  shell,  with  angled  or  coronated  whorls, 
five-sided  mouth,  and  very  large  umbilicus.  The 
operculum  was  shelly,  round,  and  multi-spiral.  The 
genu3  seems  related  to  Trochus.    It  appears  among 


Euomphalos  Bisoors. 


the  earliest  tenants  of  the  globe,  and  keeps  its  place 
till  the  Triassic  period.  No  less  than  eighty  species 
have  been  described.  Our  figure  represents  one 
fro'ja  the  Wenlock  limestone. 
EUONYMUS.  See  Spindle  Tree. 
EUPATO'RIA  (formerly  Koslov),  a  thriving 
maritime  town  of  Russia,  in  the  government  of 
Taurida,  is  situated  on  a  bay  in  the  west  coast  of 
the  Crimea,  15  miles  north-west  of  Old  Fort,  and 
38  miles  north-west  of  Simferopol.  The  town 
stands  on  the  border  of  a  monotonous  pastoral 
steppe,  and  is  surrounded  by  low  hills.  Seen  from 
the  sea,  it  presents,  with  its  occasional  minarets 
and  its  houses  roofed  with  red  tiles,  a  somewhat 
picturesque  appearance.  The  principal  building  is 
the  Tartar  mosque,  built  by  Devlet-Ghiri  Khan  in 
1552,  and  reckoned  the  finest  in  the  Crimea.  E. 
exports  corn,  wool,  and  salt.  Its  harbour  is  shallow, 
and  is  sheltered  only  from  the  north  and  north- 
east winds.  Pop.  13,340,  mostly  Crim-Tartars  and 
Jews,  who  are  engaged  chiefly  as  farmers  and  shep- 
herds, and  possess  an  immense  number  of  oxen  and 
sheep,  and  a  large  area  of  badly  cultivated  land- 
On  the  14th  September  1854,  a  portion  of  the 
Anglo-French  invading  army  landed  here,  and  occu- 
pied and  fortified  the  town.  It  was  also  the  scene 
of  a  battle  between  the  Russians  and  Turks,  17th 
February  1855,  in  which  the  latter  were  victorious. 

EUPATO'RIUM,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Compositce,  sub-order  Gorymhiferce, 
having  small  flowers  (heads  of  flowers)  in  corymbs, 
florets  all  tubular  and  hermaphrodite,  club-shaped 
stigmas  imbricated  bracts,  a  naked  receptacle,  and 

162 


a  hairy  pappus.  The  species  are  numerous,  and 
mostly  American.  One  only  is  British,  the  conunon 
Hemp  Agrimony  (ZiJ.  cayina^mwrn),  a  slightly  aromatic 
perennial  plant,  growing  mostly  in  marshy  places, 
and  on  the  banks  of  streams.  The  root  was  for- 
merly employed  as  a  purgative,  and  the  plant  wa« 


Hemp  Agrimony  [Eupatorium  cannahiwumy. 

also  used  as  a  diuretic  and  as  a  vulnerary.— 

Thorough-wort  {E.  per/oliatum),  a  species  having 
the  opposite  leaves  joined  at  the  base,  is  very 
common  in  low  grounds  in  North  America,  and  is 
a  popular  medicine,  much  esteemed  and  used  in 
that  country.  It  is  often  administered  in  inter- 
mittent fevers.  It  acts  powerfully  as  a  sudorific, 
and  is  often  very  beneficial  in  catarrh  and  influenza. 
It  is  also  emetic  and  purgative,  and,  in  small  doses, 
tonic.  The  whole  plant  is  very  bitter. — Other 
North  American  species  possess  similar  properties, 
and  the  root  of  one,  known  as  Gravel-root  {E. 
purpureum),  is  employed  as  a  diuretic  for  relief  of 
the  disease  from  which  it  derives  its  name. — The 
Ayapana  {E.  Ayapana),  a  half-shrubby  species, 
native  of  the  north  of  Brazil,  has  a  high  reputation 
in  that  country  as  a  cure  for  snake-bites,  and  haa 
been  introduced  into  the  East  Indies.  It  is  a  very 
powerful  sudorific,  and  is  also  diuretic. — The  famous 
Peruvian  vulnerary,  Matico,  has  been  referred,  but 
uncertainly,  to  a  shrubby  species  of  this  genus,  E, 
glutinosum. — GuACO  or  HuACO,  much  valued  in  Peru 
as  a  cure  for  snake-bites,  is  supposed  to  belong  to 
the  allied  genus  Mikania. 

EU'PEN,  a  flourishing  manufacturing  town  of 
Rhenish  Pnissia,  is  situated  in  a  beautiful  valley 
on  the  Weeze,  within  2  miles  of  the  Belgian 
frontier,  and  9  miles  south-south-west  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle.  It  is  well  built  and  open,  including 
within  its  limits  several  gardens  and  meadows.  E. 
has  the  most  floiu-ishing  woollen  m^Miufactures  of 
any  town  in  Prussia — containing  nr  less  than  14 
woollen  mills,  working  nearly  1000  looms,  and 
giving  employment  to  between  3000  and  4000 
persons.    E.  haa  also  dye  works,  machine-making, 


EUPHEMISM— EUPHRASIA. 


«incl  other  manufactures.  It  owes  the  prosperity  of  its 
manufactures  chiefl_v  to  a  number  of  French  refu<!;ees, 
who  settled  here  after  the  peace  of  Luneville.  "  Popu- 
lation in  1867,  14,211. 

EU'PHEMISM  (Gr.  eu,  well,  and  phemi,  T 
speak)  is  a  figure  of  rhetoric  by  which  an  unpleasant 
or  offensive  matter  is  designated  in  indirect  and 
milder  terms.  Thus,  instead  of  directly  calling  up  an 
unpleasant  image  by  the  word  died^  we  say,  'he  was 
gathered  to  his  fathers.'  The  ancients  used  a  multi- 
tude of  euphemisms,  to  avoid  words  that  were 
thought  to  be  ominous  of  evil,  or  offensive  to  the 
unseen  powers.  They  spoke,  for  example,  of  the 
Eumenides,  or  'benign  goddesses,'  instead  of  the 
Furies  ;  just  as  the  elves  and  fairies  of  modern 
superstition  are  spoken  of  as  '  good  neighbours.' 

EU'PHON",  or  EU'PHONON,  a  musical  instru- 
ment invented  by  Chladni  in  1790.  It  is  similar  in 
tone  to  the  harmonica,  and,  like  it,  the  tone  is  pro- 
duced from  the  sounding  body  by  the  finger  direct, 
without  mechanism,  and  is  regidated  in  quality  and 
effect  by  the  taste  and  feelings  of  the  performer, 
who  can  produce  tones  from  the  most  delicate  pian- 
issimo to  fortissimo.  In  1822,  Chladni  exhibited 
an  improved  euphon,  of  which  a  detailed  description 
is  given  by  himself  in  the  Leipsic  Musik-zeitung  of 
that  year,  page  805. 

EUPHO'RBIA,  Oil  of,  or  OIL  OF  CAPER 
SPURGE,  an  extremely  acrid  fixed  oil,  obtained  by 
expression,  or  by  the  aid  of  alcohol  or  ether,  from 
the  seeds  of  the  Caper  Spurge  {Euphorbia  Lathyris), 


Caper  Spurge  [Euphorbia  Lathyris). 


k  ]plant  conmion  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  and 
naturalised  in  some  places  in  Britain.  See  Spuege. 
Oil  of  euphorbia  has  much  resemblance  to  oroton  oil 
in  its  properties,  although  less  powerful,  and  is  some- 
times used  as  a  substitute  for  it,  m  doses  of  from 
three  to  ten  di'ops.  It  is  good  for  use  only  when 
recently  extracted. 

EUPHORBIA'CE^,  a  very  extensive  natural 
order  of  exogenous  plants,  containing  upwards  of  2500 
known  species — trees,  shrubs,  and  herbaceous  plants. 
Ihey  abound  chiefly  in' warm  countries,  and  most  of 
all  in  troi)ical  America.  The  few  species  found  in 
the  colder  parts  of  the  world  are  all  herbaceous.  The 
contmaon  Box  reaches  a  more  northern  limit  than 
any  other  shrubby  species.  The  otl^  r  British  spei  ies 
are  different  kinds  of  Spurge  {Euphorbia)  and  Dog's 
Mercury  (Mercvrialis).  The  E.  usually  abovmd  in 
an  acrid  and  poisonous  milky  juice  ;  although  there 
are  species  of  which  the  juice  is  bland  or  becomes 


bland  through  the  application  of  heat,  so  that  their 
leaves  may  be  used  as  food.  The  leaves  in  this 
order  exhibit  great  diversities.  The  inflorescence  is 
also  various.  Amongst  those  most  remarkable  for 
the  acridity  of  their  juice  are  the  Manciiineel 
(q.  V.)  and  Eccccecaria  afjallocha,  an  East  Indian  tree 
— formerly  sui)posed  to  yield  one  of  the  kinds  of 
aloes- wood — the  smoke  from  the  burning  of  which 
is  extremely  dangerous  to  the  eyes.  The  juice 
of  many  of  the  spurges  is  also  very  acrid.  Many 
of  the  E.  are  valued  for  their  medicinal  properties, 
different  parts  of  the  plant  being  iu  some  instance* 
employed,  and  in  some  the  resins  and  oils  which 
they  yield.  Thus  the  juice  of  some  of  the  spurges, 
the  roots  or  bark  of  the  roots  of  others,  thf  bark  of 
different  species  of  Croton  (Cascarilla  Bark,  Copalcho 
Bark),  &c.,  are  used  in  medicine ;  and  to  plants  of 
this  order  we  are  indebted  for  euphorbium,  oil  of 
euphorbia,  castor  oil,  croton  oil,  &c.  A  few  of  the 
E.  yield  balsamic  products  of  exquisite  fragrance 
(see  Croton)  ;  a  few,  although  their  juice  is 
poisonous,  yield  a  wholesome  starch  in  considerable 
abundance  (see  Manioc)  ;  a  few  are  cidtivated  and 
used  as  pot-herbs,  particularly  species  of  Plukmetia 
in  the  East  Indies ;  a  few  yield  wholesome  and 
agreeable  sub-acid  fruits,  as  Cicca  disticha  and  G. 
racemosa  in  the  East  Indies ;  the  seeds  of  some 
are  eatable,  as  those  of  the  Candle-nut  (q.  v.),  of 
Omplialea  diandra,a.  Jamaica  tree,  and  of  Conceveiba 
Ouianensis,  the  latter  being  esteemed  particidarly 
delicious  ;  the  oil  of  the  seeds  is  also  in  some  cases 
used  for  food,  like  other  bland  oils  (see  Candle- 
nut)  ;  but  more  frequently  it  is  used  for  burning, 
as  castor  oil,  candle-nut  oil,  the  oil  of  Ela;ococca 
verrucosa  in  Japan  and  Mauritius,  and  the  concrete 
oil  of  Stillingia  seb'ifera,  which  is  used  in  China  for 
making  candles,  and  in  medical  preparations  as  a 
substitute  for  lard. — The  dye-stuff  called  Turnsole 
(q.  V.)  is  obtained  from  a  plant  of  this  order ;  and  a 
bright  red  is  imparted  to  silk  by  the  roots  of 
Rottlera  tinctoria,  a  native  of  Circassia,  and  by  a  red 
powder  with  which  its  seed-vessels  are  covered.  The 
timber  of  some  of  the  E,  is  valuable.  African  Teak 
(q.  V.)  belongs  to  this  order.  The  red-coloured  wood 
of  Stylodiscus  tr'ifoUatus  is  used  in  Java  for  making 
masts.  Some  of  the  E.  are  often  cultivated  in 
gardens  and  hothouses,  more  frequently  for  their 
curious  appearance  than  for  their  beauty ;  but  the 
large  deep  crimson  bracts  of  Poinsettia  pulcherrimay 
a  native  of  Madagascar,  make  it  a  very  attractive 
plant. 

EUPHO'RBIUM,  an  extremely  acrid  gum 
resin,  obtained  from  several  species  of  Euphorbia  or 
Spurge  (q.  v.),  as  E.  offic'marum  and  E.  antiquorum, 
in  the  north  of  Africa,  Arabia,  and  the  East 
Indies,  and  E.  Canariensis  in  the  Canary  Islands. 
It  is  obtained  by  incisions  in  the  branches,  whence 
issues  a  corrosive  milky  juice,  which  dries  in  the 
Sim,  and  becomes  a  yellowish-gray  waxy  gum  resin. 
The  persons  who  collect  ii  are  obliged  to  defend 
their  mouths  and  nostrils  by  a  cloth,  as  its  particles 
produce  incessant  sneezing,  violent  inflammation  of 
the  nostrils,  and  a  very  painfid  burning  sensation  in 
the  mouth.  On  account  of  its  excessive  acridity, 
it  is  now  less  used  in  medicine  than  formerly ; 
although  it  is  still  occasionally  mixed  with  Bur- 
gundy pitch  or  other  substances  to  make  rubifacient 
plasters  for  chronic  affections  of  the  joints ;  its 
alcoholic  tincture  is  used  as  -a  caustic  in  carious 
ulcers,  and  its  powder,  mixed  with  much  starch  or 
flour,  as  an  errliine  in  chronic  affections  of  the  eyes, 
ears,  or  brain.  It  was  formerly  administered  as  an 
emetic  and  drastic  purgative,  but  is  dangerously 
violent  in  its  action. 

EUPHRASIA.    See  Eyebrioht. 

163 


EUPHRATES— EURE-ET-.  OIR. 


EUrHHA'TES  (in  the  Oriental  languages,  Fmt, 
Phrat^  or  Forat)  is  the  largest  river  in  Western 
Abia,  and,  Avith  the  Tigris,  forms  the  most  important 
river  system  of  that  quarter  of  the  world.  It  has  its 
source  in  the  heart  of  Armenia  in  two  branches — 
the  Kara  Su  and  the  Murad,  of  which  the  former 
rises  25  miles  north-east  of  the  town  of  Erzenun, 
and  flows  south-west  to  a  point  10  miles  north  of 
Keban'  Ma' den,  where  it  is  met  by  the  Murad, 
which  rises  on  the  southern  slope  of  Alii  Tagh,  and 
flows  west-south-west  to  the  point  of  confluence. 
From  Keban'  Ma'den,  the  E.  flows  in  a  general 
jouthein  direction,  with  a  tendency,  however,  to 
struggle  westward  towards  the  JNIediterranean.  In 
this  ])art  of  its  course,  it  breaks  through  the  Taurus, 
and  flows  among  the  mountains  for  45  miles, 
emerging  at  Sumeisat,  M'hence  it  continues  navi- 
gable to  the  sea— a  distance  of  1195  miles— and 
passing  Bir,  at  which  point  it  is  628  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  100  miles  distant 
from  its  nearest  shore.  After  passing  Samosta,  it 
changes  its  direction,  and  flo"\ving  south,  separates 
for  a  considerable  distance  Mesopotamia  from  Syria 
and  the  deserts  of  Syrian  Arabia.  Curving  to  the 
south-east,  it  flows  on  without  receivmg  almost  any 
tributaries  for  about  700  miles,  until  it  is  joined 
at  Kurnah  or  Kornah  by  the  waters  of  the  Tigris. 
From  Kurnah,  the  river,  taking  the  name  of  the 
Shatt-el-Aral),  continues  to  flow  in  a  south-east  direc- 
tion, until.,  after  being  united  by  a  canal  with  the 
Karun  from  the  mountains  of  Persia,  it  empties 
itself,  by  several  arms,  into  the  Persian  Gulf,  90 
miles  below  Kurnah.  The  total  length  of  the  E.  is 
IGOO  miles  ;  the  area  drained  by  all  the  v/aters 
which  enter  the  Persian  Gulf  by  the  Shatt-el-Arab, 
is  108,000  miles ;  and  the  volume  of  water  discharged 
by  it  is  401,010  cubic  feet  per  second,  or  72,910 
cubic  feet  more  than  that  discharged  by  the  Danube 
in  the  same  time.  The  avei*age  width  of  the  Shatt- 
el-Arab  is  upv/ards  of  GOO  feet ;  it  is  navigable  in 
mid-stream  for  vessels  of  500  tons. 

The  water  of  the  E.,  although  muddy,  is  not 
nnwhohjsome.  Its  inundations,  caused  by  the  melt- 
ing of  the  snows,  take  place  chiefly  from  the  begin- 
ning of  March  till  the  end  of  May ;  and  in  ancient 
times,  when  canals  and  embankments  regulated 
these  immdations,  exercised  the  same  beneficial 
effect  on  the  country  as  those  of  the  Nile  on  Eg3r[)t. 
See  Babylonia. 

EUPHROSYNE  (i.  e.,  the  joyous  one),  one  of 
the  Graces  (q.  v.). 

EU'PHUISM  (Gr.  eupliues,  of  \'igorous  growth; 
eloquent),  a  term  ^^sed  in  English  literature  to 
denote  an  affected  and  bombastic  style  of  language, 
fashionable  for  a  short  period  at  the  court  of  Queen 
Elizabeth.  The  word  was  formed  from  the  title  of 
the  book  which  brought  the  style  into  vogue,  the 
EuijJmes  of  John  Lyly  (q.  v.). 

EU'PIONE  (Gr.  €.u,  good,  and  pion,  oil)  is  an 
extremely  mobile  oil,  obtained  from  the  lighter 
portions  of  the  liquid  pjroducts  of  the  destructive 
riistiL'ation  of  wood  (wood-tar),  coal  (coal-tar),  and 
animal  matter,  and  in  the  distillation  of  rape-seed 
oil.  It  may  be  obtained  in  a  sufficient  state  of 
purity  jy  acting  upon  the  crude  tars  and  oils  by 
concentrated  sidphuric  acid,  or  a  mixture  of  sulphuric 
acid  and  nitre,  which  removes  the  majority  of  the 
other  ingredients  ;  and  on  the  distdlation  of  the 
portion  which  resisted  the  action  of  the  acid,  the 
lirst  part  which  passes  over  is  the  eupione.  Ac- 
cording to  Erankland,  it  is  essentially  a  hydride  of 
amyl  (C5H12).  It  is  an  extremely  mobile  liquid, 
having  the  density  of  G55  (water  =  1000),  and  is 
thin,  colourless,  and  tasteless,  whilst  it  i)ossesses  a 
pleasant  aromatic  odour.-  It  boils  at  11 F.,  and 
164 


distils  readily  ;  whilst,  when  set  fire  to,  it  is  very 
inflammable,  burning  with  a  white  flame  of  con« 
siderable  luminosity  and  penetrating  power.  It 
makes  a  greasy  stain  on  paper,  is  insoluble  in 
water,  very  slightly  soluble  in  alcohol,  but  readily 
miscible  with  ethers  and  oils  in  general. 

EU'PODA,  a  family  of  coleopterous  insects  of  the 
tetramerous  section  of  the  order,  deriving  their 
name  (Gr.  well-footed)  from-  the  great  size  of  the 
hinder  thighs  of  many  of  the  species.  They  feed 
on  the  stems  and  leaves  of  plants,  some  of  them 
on  aquatic  plants,  the  roots  of  which  afford  food  to 
their  larvjE.  The  body  is  oblong ;  the  antennae 
filiform.  Some  of  the  eupoda  are  among  the  most 
splendid  of  tropical  insects.  Britain  produces  a 
number  of  small  species. 

EURE,  a  department  in  the  north-west  of  France, 
immediately  south  of  the  department  of  Seine 
Inf«5rieure,  contains  an  area  of  2262  square  miles. 
Population  (1872)  377,874.  Its  surface  is  unusually 
level,  as  the  highest  eminences  in  the  department 
are  not  more  than  300  feet  in  height.  The  principal 
river  is  the  Seine,  which  entering  the  department 
from  the  south-east,  flows  through  it  in  a  north- 
west direction  to  Pont  de  I'Arche,  below  which  the 
course  of  this  river  is  in  the  department  of  Seine 
Inferieure.  The  Eure,  from  which  this  department 
derives  its  name,  and  the  llille,  both  affluents 
to  the  Seine,  are  the  only  other  important  rivei's. 
The  climate  is  mild,  moist,  and  foggy.  Great  part 
of  the  level  coimtry  is  covered  with  a  loamy  alluvial 
soil  upon  a  stratum  of  limestone ;  while  the  remain- 
der is  composed  of  chalk,  flint,  and  tufa.  Along 
the  Seine,  the  soil  is  in  some  parts  sandy,  stony, 
and  barren,  but  the  greater  part  is  very  fertile. 
The  chief  natural  products  are  com,  hemp,  flax, 
vegetables,  and  fruit,  particularly  apples  and  pears, 
from  which  large  quantities  of  cider  and  perry  are 
made.  The  breeding  of  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep,  ia 
favoured  by  extensive  meadows  and  pasture-lauds. 
Iron  is  found  in  considerable  quantities.  There  are 
extensive  iron  and  coj)per  woi'ks  and  pin  manufac- 
tories. Cotton  goods,  cloth,  linen,  paper,  glass  and 
stoneware  are  likewise  manufactured.  The  depart- 
ment of  Eure  is  divided  into  five  arrondissementa 
— Evreux,  Louviers,  Les  Andelys,  Bernaj',  and  Pont. 
Audemer.    The  capital  is  Evreux  (q.  v.). 

EURE,  a  river  of  the  north-west  of  France,  and 
a  tributary  of  the  Seine,  rises  in  the  department  of 
Orne,  flows  first  south-east  into  the  centre  of  the 
department  of  Eure-et-Loir,  then  north  and  noi-th- 
west  through  the  departments  of  Eure-et-Loir  and 
Eure,  and  joins  the  Seine  on  the  left  above  Pont-de- 
TAi-che,  after  a  course  of  about  100  miles.  Only 
that  portion  of  the  K  which  is  in  the  department 
of  Eure  is  navigable. 

EURE-ET-LOIR,  a  department  of  France, 
formed  chiefly  from  the  province  of  Orleannais, 
extends  between  lat.  47°  57' — 48°  55'  N.,  and  long. 
0°  47'— 2°  E.  Area,  2248  sq.  m.  Pop.  (1872) 
282,622.  It  is  watered  mainly  hy  the  Eure  in  the 
north,  and  the  Loir  in  the  south,  the  two  rivers 
from  which  it  takes  its  name.  Tliis  department 
lies  on  the  water-shed  between  the  Bay  of  Biscay 
and  the  English  Channel.  It  is  in  general  level, 
the  east  and  south  being  occupied  by  high  and 
extensive  flats ;  while  in  the  west,  the  scenery  is 
finely  varied  hj  hill  and  valley.  The  soil  is 
fertile,  and,  especially  toward  the  east  and  south, 
is  admirably  adapted  for  wheat.  Hops  grow 
spontaneously  in  some  quarters.  In  the  forests,  the 
oak  and  birch  are  the  prevailing  trees.  The  rivers, 
none  of  which  are  navigable  in  this  department, 
furnish  valuable  water  power  for  the  numerous  mills 
of  various  kinds  that  are  situated  on  their  banks. 


EURIPIDilS— EUROPE. 


Iroii  is  the  only  mineral  foiind  and  worked  to  any 
great  extent ;  but  the  chief  articles  of  trade  are 
corn,  flour,  and  wool.  The  department  is  divided 
into  the  four  arrondissements  of  Chartres,  Ch&,teau- 
Dun,  Dreux,  and  Nogent-le-Rotrou,  with  the  town 
of  Chartres  for  capital. 

EURI'PIDES,  the  latest  of  the  three  great  Greek 
ts'agedians,  was  born  at  Salamis,  480  B.C.,  on  the 
\ery  daj  (23d  September),  it  is  said,  of  the  glorious 
victory  gained  by  the  Greeks  over  the  Persians 
near  that  island.  The  Arundel  Marble,  however, 
givos  as  the  date  of  his  birth  485  B.C.,  while  Miiller, 
following  Eratosthenes,  makes  it  four  years  later. 
His  education  was  very  good.  At  first,  he  was 
trained  to  gymnastic  exercises  (in  consequence  of  the 
prediction  of  an  oracle  that  he  should  be  crowned 
with 'sacred garlands');  he  next  turned  his  attention 
to  painting ;  then  studied  philosophy  under  Anax- 
agoras,  and  rhetoric  under  Prodicus,  and  formed  a 
lasting  friendship  ^vith  Socrates.  The  first  play  of 
E.'s  which  was  performed  was  the  Peliades  (4oG  b.  c). 
In  441  b,  c,  he  gained  the  first  prize  fur  tragedy, 
and  continued  to  write  for  the  Athenian  stage  until 
408  B.  c,  when  he  accepted  an  invitation  to  the 
court  of  Archelaus,  king  of  Macedonia.  Scandal 
has  invented  other  reasons  for  E.'s  leaving  Athens, 
but  they  are  unworthy  of  notice.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  killed  (406  b.  c.)  by  dogs,  which  were  set 
upon  him  by  two  brother-poets  who  envied  him  his 
reputation.  In  E.'s  time,  Greek  tragedy  had  been 
brought  to  its  highest  perfection  by  Sophocles,  who 
was  fifteen  years  older  than  Euripides.  The  latter, 
however,  was  the  second  favourite  author  of  his 
time ;  nay,  on  more  than  one  occasion,  his  tragedies 
were  jweferred  to  those  of  Sophocles  ;  but  his  liberal 
and  even  neologistic  tendencies  in  regard  to  religion, 
excited  the  hostility  of  tLit  witty  but  scurrilous 
champion  of  Greek  orthodoxy  Aristophanes,  who 
frequently  ridiculed  E.  in  cutting  parodies.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  E.  was  systematically  abused 
by  the  Athenian  Tory  party,  of  whom  Aristophanes 
was  the  literary  chieL  and  to  whose  unscrupulous 
opposition  it  was  owing  that  he  gained  the  prize 
only  five  times  out  of  75  competitions.  But  against 
the  censure  of  Aristophanes,  may  be  set  the  praise 
of  two  much  greater  men— Aristotle  and  John 
Milton.  E.'s  plays  are  reckoned  by  some  to  have 
amomited  to  75,  by  others  to  92.  Only  18  have 
come  down  to  us.  These  are — Alcestis  (438  b.  c), 
Medea  (431  B.C.),  Ilippolytus  (428  B.C.),  Hecuba 
(424  B.C.),  Ileradeldce  (421  B.C.?),  Supplices  (421 
B.  c.  ?),  Ion  (date  not  ascertainable),  Hercules 
Furens  (date  not  ascertainable),  AndromacJie  (420 
—417  B.C.),  Troades  (415  B.C.),  Electra  (415— 
tl3  B.C.),  Helena  (412  B.C.),  Iplugeneia  in  Tauris 
(date  uncertain),  Orestes  (408  b.  c),  Fhmiisscc 
(probably  same  year),  Bacchce  (probably  written  in 
Macedonia),  Iphigeneia  in  Aulis  (posthumously 
represented  in  Athens) ;  and  finally,  Cyclops  (uncer- 
tain). Rhesus,  attributed  to  E.,  is  probably  not 
genuine.  Concerning  E.,  and  his  tragedies,  A.  W. 
Schlegel  remarks  :  '  Of  few  authors  can  so  much 
good  and  evil  be  predicated  with  equal  truth.  He 
was  a  man  of  infinite  talent,  skilled  in  the  most 
varied  intellectual  arts ;  but  although  abounding 
in  brilliant  and  amiable  qualities,  he  wanted  the 
sublime  earnestness  and  artistic  skill  which  we 
admire  in  iEschylus  and  Sophocles.  He  aspires 
only  to  please,  no  matter  by  what  means.  For  this 
reason,  he  is  so  frequently  unequal  to  himself ; 
producing  at  times  passages  of  exquisite  beauty, 
and  frequently  sinking  into  positive  vulgarity.' 
The  main  object  of  E.  was  to  excite  emotion,  and 
his  works  laid  open  a  totally  new  world  (in  liter- 
ature), that  of  the  heart,  which,  beyond  dispute, 
oofltribiited  much  to  their  popularity.    On  the  other 


hand,  his  inartistic  and  careless  plots  compelling 
him  to  a  constant  use  of  the  Deus  ex  maddna 
solution  of  dilficulties,  and  occasionally  even  the 
subjects  of  his  art  themselves,  leave  ample  room 
for  criticism.  Archelaus  refused  to  allow  his  bones 
to  be  removed  to  Athens,  and  erected  a  splendid 
monument  to  him  in  Pella,  with  the  inscripl  ion : 
'Never,  0  Euripides,  will  thy  memory  be  forgotten  !' 
Still  more  honourable  was  the  inscription  on  tho 
cenotaph  erected  to  him  by  the  Athenians  on  the 
way  to  the  Pirieus :  '  All  Greece  is  the  monument  of 
Euripides ;  Macedonian  earth  covers  but  his  Ijor  eiL 
Sophocles,  Avho  survived  him,  publicly  lamented  hia 
loss ;  and  the  orator  Lycurgus  af tervv'ards  er'^cted 
a  statue  to  him  in  the  theatre  at  Athens.  Tho 
editio  princeps  of  E.  appeared,  it  is  thought,  at 
Florence,  toward  tlie  end  of  the  15th  century. 
The  best  modern  editio  as  are  those  of  Be<;k  (Leip. 
1778-1788),  Matthiae  (Leip.  1813—1829),  and  the 
Glasgow  edition  of  1821.  An  English  translation 
in  verse,  by  Potter,  appeared  at  Oxford  in  1814. 

EU'ROPE,  the  smallest,  but  also  the  most  highly 
civilised  and  most  populous  of  the  three  great  divi- 
sions of  the  old  continent.  It  is  separated  from 
America  on  the  west  and  north-west  by  tho  Atlantic ; 
from  Africa  on  the  south  by  the  Mediterranean;  and 
from  Asia  by  the  Archipelago,  Sea  of  Marmora, 
Black  Sea,  Caucasian  ridge,  Caspian  Sea,  Ural  liiver 
and  Mountains,  and  the  Kara  Elver.  It  is  in  the 
form  of  a  huge  peninsula,  projecting  from  the 
north-west  of  Asia.  Its  extent  from  Cape  St  Vincent 
on  the  south-west  to  the  mouth  of  the  Kara  Kiver 
on  the  north-east  is  3400  mdus  ;  and  from  Cape 
Nordkun,  the  most  northerly  point  of  the  Scandi- 
navian mainland,  to  Cape  Matapan,  the  southmost 
point  of  Greece,  2400  miles.  The  continent  of  E., 
irrespective  of  islands,  lies  within  lat.  36°  1'— 71°  6' 
N.,  and  long.  9°  30'  W.— 68°  30'  E.  Its  area  ig 
estimated  at  nearly  3,800,000  square  miles ;  and  its 
coast-line,  more  extensive  in  proportion  to  its  size 
than  that  of  any  other  great  natural  division  of  the 
globe,  Is  estimated  at  19,500  miles  ;  giving  a  propor- 
tion of  1  linear  mile  of  coast  for  every  190  square 
miles  of  surface.  It  has  a  population  of  299.000,000, 
which  gives  an  average  of  about  80  for  every  square 
mile. 

The  body  of  the  Eiirci^ean  continent  divides 
itself  naturally  into  two  great  portions— the  great 
plain  in  the  north-east,  and  the  Highlands  in  the 
south-west,  the  mountainous  peninsula  of  Scandi- 
navia, lying,  as  it  were,  apart  from  cither,  being 
to  some  extent  exceptional.  The  plain  occupiea 
about  two-thirds  (2,500,000  square  miles)  of  the 
entire  extent  of  the  continent.  It  reaches  from 
the  eastern  boundary  of  E.,  north  to  the  shores  of 
the  Arctic  Ocean,  south  to  Mount  Caucasus  and 
the  Black  Sea,  and  westward  over  the  whole  extent 
of  the  conthient ;  gradually,  hovrever,  becoming 
narrower  in  its  progi-ess  west.  In  shape,  this  plain 
resembles  a  triangle;  its  base  rests  on  the  eastern 
boundary,  and  it  may  be  said  to  reach  its  apex  oa 
the  shores  of  Holland.  It  separates  the  two  moun- 
tain systems  of  E. — the  Scandinavian  system  (jic-e 
Scandinavia)  on  the  north,  and  on  the  south  the 
system  of  Southern  Europe.  See  Alps,  Apennines, 
Balkan,  Carpathian  JMountains,  Cevennes, 
Pyrenees,  &c. 

Jutting  out  in  nimierous  peninsulas,  and  indented 
by  extensive  bays  and  gulfs,  E.  has  no  town  at  a 
nmch  greater  distance  from  the  sea  than  400  miles, 
save  those  in  the  centre  of  the  eastern  plain ;  but 
even  here,  by  means  of  numberless  rivers  and  the 
canals,  which,  from  the  nature  of  the  country,  are 
easily  constmcted  and  maintained,  a  splendid  system 
ol  communication  by  water  now  exists.  See  Voiga, 
DuNA,  Dnieper,  Niemen,  &c.;  also  IlustiA. 

16d 


EUROPE. 


As  the  detaUs  of  the  geography  of  E.  are  given 
under  the  names  of  its  several  political  divisions,  and 
of  its  lakes,  rivers,  etc.,  little  falls  to  be  said  under 


the  present  head.  Appended,  however,  is  a  table  oi 
the  different  countries,  Avith  their  extent,  their  pop- 
ulation, etc.,  according  to  the  most  recent  returns: 


States. 


Andorra  

Anstro-Hungarian  Monarchy  

]ielgiiim  

Britain  (Great)  and  Ireland  

Beninarlc,  Faroes,  and  Iceland  

France  

German  JiJnipire  

Prussia  (witli  Lauenburg)  , 

Alsace-Lorraine  

Anlialt  

Baden  , 

Bavaria  

Bremen  *.  , 

Branswick  

Hamburg  , 

Hesse  , 

Lippe-Detmold.  , 

Liibeck  

Mecklenburg-Schwerin.-  , 

Mecklenbarg-Strelitz  

Oldenburg  

Keuss-Greiz  

Reuss-Schleiz  

Saxe-Altenbu  rg  , 

Saxe-Cobu  rg-Gotha  

Saxe-Meiningen  

Saxe-Weimar  

Saxony  

Scliaumburg-Lippe  

Schwarzburg-Kudolstadt  

Sehwarzburg-Sondershausen... 

Waldeck  

Wiirteraburg  

Greece  and  Ionian  Isles.  

Italy  

Lichtenstein  

Monaco  

Montenegro  

Netherlands  

Portugal,  Azores,  and  Madeira... 
Eoumania,  Moldavia,  and  Wal-  i 

lacbia  j 

Russia  (in  Europe)  

San  Marino  

Servia  

Spain  

Sweden  and  Norway  

Switzerland  

Turkey  (in  Europe)  


Form  of  Government. 


Republic,  with  a  sovereign  council  

Limited  Monarchy,  two  chambers  

Limited  Monarchy,  two  chambers  

Limited  Monarchy,  two  houses  of  parliament  

Limited  Monarchy,  two  chambers  

Republic,  one  chamber  

Limited  Monarchy,  two  cliambers  

Limited  Monarchy,  two  chambers  

Crownland  (Reichsland)  

Duchy,  Limited  Sovereignty,  one  chamber  

Grand  Duchy,  Limited  Sovereignty,  two  chambers- 
Limited  Monarcliy,  two  cliambers  

Free  City,  senate  "and  burgher  assembly  

Duchy,  Limited  Sovereignty,  one  chamber  

Free  City,  senate  and  burgher  assembly  

Grand  Duchy,  Limited  Sovereignty,  tv/o  chambers., 

Principality,  Limited  Sovereignty,  one  chamber  

Free  City,  senate  and  burgher  assembly  

Grand  Duchy,  Limited  Sovereignty,  one  chamber.... 
((  i(  li  11 

(I  i<  ((  ti 

Principality,  Limited  Sovereignty,  one  chamber  

Duchy,  Limited  Sovereignty,  one  chamber  

Duchy,  Limited  Sov.,  one  chamber  for  each  duchy.. 

Duchy,  Limited  Sovereignty,  one  chamber  

(J rand  Duchy,  Limited  Sovereignty,  one  chamber... 

Limited  Monarchy,  two  chambers  

Principality,  Limited  Sovereignty,  one  chamber  

(t  ti  II  (I 

Limited  Monarchy,  two  chambers  

Limited  Monarchy,  one  chamber  

Limited  Monarchy,  two  chamberfe  

Principality,  one  chamber  

Principality,  Limited  Sovereignty  

Limited  Sovereignty,  two  chambers  

Limited  Monarchy,  two  chambers  

Principality,  two  chambers  

Absolute  Monarchy  

Republic,  sovereign  council  

Principality  

Limited  Monarchy,  two  chambers  

Limited  Monarchy,  two  chambers  for  each  country 

Republican  Confederation  and  Federal  Diet  

Absolute  Sovereignty  


square 
miles. 


lo5 
238,000 
11,300 
121, (iUO 
14,5G0 
201,t;00 
(208,(513) 
134,381 
5,590 
896 
5,850 
29,280 
97 
1,425 
158 
2,962 
438 
110 
5,136 
1,130 
2,470 
123 
320 
510 
760 
955 
1,403 
5,780 
170 
367 
332 
438 
7,532 
19,350 
112,890 
60 
5 

1,680 
13,584 
35,900 

46,130 

2,059,000 
21 
16,810 
195,000 
288,600 
15,800 
132,350 


3,733,008 


Popula- 
tion. 


12,000 
35,904,435 
5,087,105 
31,857,338 
1,822,492 
36,102,921 
(41,060,695) 
24,656,078 
1,549,587 
203,437 
1,461,562 
4,852,026 
122,402 
311,764 
338,974 
852,894 
111,135 
52,158 
557,897 
96,982 
312,596 
45,094 
89,032 
142,122 
174,339 
187,957 
286,183 
2,556,244 
32,059 
75,523 
67,191 
56,224 
1,818,539 
1,457,894 
26,716,809 
8,060 
3,127 
130,000 
3,835,111 
4,360,974 

4,500,000 

71,195,394 
7,303 
1,319,283 

16,835,506 
5,960,775 
2,669,147 

10,510,000 


301,356,369 


Tiiese  statistics  are  necessarily  founded  on  data  obtained  prior  to  the  changes  made  in  1878  in  the  Balkan  Peninsula, 
and  the  constitution  of  the  Principality  of  Bulgaria. 


Oeologrj. — The  typical  basin  of  deposition  for  the 
Redimentary  rocks  is  that  which  takes  its  name  from 
Faris,  while  to  the  S.  E.  lies  the  basin  of  Bordeaux, 
separated  by  a  plateau  of  granite  and  gneiss;  to  the 
N.,  on  the  other  side  of  the  channel,  is  the  London 
basil),  to  the  N.  E.  the  basin  of  the  Lower  Rhine,  and 
further  E.  comes  the  basin  of  the  Lower  Weser,  and 
to  the  S.  E.  is  the  Prague  basin.  Nearly  the  half  of 
European  Russia  belongs  to  the  Moscow  basin,  Avhich 
S.  E.  is  contertninous  with  the  basin  of  the  Caspian, 
'i'lie  whole  of  the  S.  of  the  continent  belongs  to  the 
Mediterranean  basin.  The  general  geology  is  most 
conveniently  considered  under  the  different  countries. 
See  also  Alps,  Pyrenees,  etc. 

Natural  History. — As  tlie  mountain  systems  and 
plains  of  Europe  extend  into  Asia,  their  fauna  and 
flora  in  corresponding  latitudes  have  many  points  of 
reseml)lance.  Thus  in  Europe,  on  the  Mediterranean, 
they  I'esemhle  those  of  Syria  and  Asia  Minor,  and  are 
sub-tropical ;  in  the  northern  regions  they  are  similar 
to  those  of  the  great  plains  of  Central  Asia  and  Siberia  r 
and  the  Arctic  flora  is  that  common  to  both  Asia  and 
America.  Tlie  European  countries  near  the  Mediter- 
ranean produce  fewer  of  the  shrubbery  and  odoriferous 
Labiates  than  the  Caucasus  and  adjoining  regions, 
ICG 


whilst  the  CaropJiTjllacece  are  more  abundant.  The 
extreme  abundance  of  Cistacece  may  be  mentioned  as  a 
peculiar  feature  of  the  flora  of  Spain  and  Portugal, 
The  Primulacece  are  particularly  plentiful  in  all  the  Al- 
pine regions  of  the  south  of  E.,  but  this  characteristic 
is  in  some  measure  shared  by  the  Himalaya.  A  great 
abundance  of  umbelliferous  and  cruciferous  plants  is  a 
characteristic  of  all  Europe.  In  no  other  part  of  the 
world  do  they  form  so  large  a  proportion  of  the  flora. 

The  temperature  of  the  western  and  northern  parts 
of  E.  being  raised  by  the  Gulf  Stream  and  the  winds 
from  the  great  mass  of  dry  and  desert  land  in  Africa 
above  what  is  elsewhere  found  in  similar  latitudes,  the 
flora  and  fauna  exhibit  a  corresponding  character, 
affected,  however,  by  the  great  amount  of  moisture 
derived  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  ;  and  also  to  a  still 
greater  degree  by  the  com])arative  uniformity  of  tem- 
perature Avhich  the  proximity  of  the  ocean  produces. 
The  effect  of  the  last  mentioned  causes  is  so  great  that 
the  northern  limit  of  some  plants  is  sooner  reached  on 
the  shores  of  the  Atlantic  than  in  the  more  central 
parts  of  E.,  where  the  winters  are  much  colder,  and 
the  average  tetnperature  of  the  year  is  lower.  Cf  ihis 
the  vine  is  a  notable  example,  and  maize  w^y  bo 
mentioned  as  another.    Plants  which  require  s  mild 


EURYALE— EUSEBIUS. 


winter  will  not  grow  in  the  north — and  scarcely- 
even  in  the  centre  of  E. — but  they  advance  along  the 
western  coast  imder  the  influence  of  the  maritime 
climate.  Thus  the  myrtle — although  not  indi- 
genous— grows  even  in  the  south  of  England. 

Amongst  plants,  the  date  palm,  and  amongst 
animals  a  species  of  ape,  are  found  in  the  south  of 
E.  (the  ape  only  on  the  Rock  of  Gibraltar) ;  whilst 
some  strictly  African  birds  are  frequent  visitants, 
and  many  birds — as  the  cuckoo,  swallow,  &c. — are 
ocQ'mon  to  E.  and  Africa,  inhabitants  in  summer 
even  of  very  northern  regions,  and  returning  in 
•R  inter  to  tha  warm  south. 

Of  the  plants  now  most  commonly  associated  in 
our  thoughts  with  the  southern  countries  of  E., 
many  have  probably  been  introduced  from  Africa, 
or  from  the  East.  This  has  probably  been  the  case 
even  with  the  m3a-tle,  and  certainly  has  been  the 
case  with  the  vine,  the  olive,  the  orange,  lemon, 
&c.,  the  fig,  the  peach,  the  almond,  the  apricot,  &c. 
Some  of  the  most  extensively  cultivated  fruits  are 
certainly  indigenous  to  E.,  as  the  apple,  pear,  plum, 
and  cherry,  although  even  of  these  the  first  improved 
varieties  may  have  been  introduced  from  the  earlier 
Beats  of  civilisation  in  the  East.  Among  the  wild 
animals  of  E.  at  the  present  day,  the  aurochs  or 
bison  is  still  reckoned ;  and  the  ox  existed  at  no 
very  remote  period  in  a  truly  wild  state.  The  rein- 
deer inhabits  the  extreme  north  of  E. ;  the  elk,  the 
stag,  the  fallow-deer,  and  the  roebuck,  are  found 
in  more  southern  regions  ;  the  ibex  or  bouquetin 
exists  on  the  high  central  mountains  ;  two  species 
of  antelope — the  chamois  of  the  Alps,  and  the 
saiga  of  the  Russian  plains — connect  the  European 
faiuia  with  the  Asiatic  and  African.  Of  carnivorous 
animals,  the  most  worthy  of  notice  are  the  bear,  the 
wolf,  the  fox,  and  the  lynx. 

The  abundance  of  lakes  and  streams  in  the 
northern  parts  of  E.  is  accompanied  with  a  corre- 
sponding abimdance  of  water-fowl  {Anatldce)  and  of 
fish.  Of  the  latter,  the  SalmonidcB  are  the  most 
valuable,  and  the  Cyprinidce  next  to  them.  The 
European  seas  afford  valuable  fisneries,  particxdarly 
of  heiTing  and  of  cod  in  the  north,  and  of  tunny, 
anchovy,  &c.,  in  the  Mediterranean. 

The  common  hive  bee  and  the  Ligurian  bee  may 
probably  be  regarded  as  natives  of  Europe.  The 
ailk-worm  was  introduced  from  the  East.  Another 
valuable  insect,  the  cochineal  insect,  was  introduced 
from  America ;  but  the  Cayitharis,  or  Blistering  Fly, 
is  truly  indigenous  to  the  south  of  Europe. 

EURY'ALE,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Nyinphcmcece,  or  Water-lilies,  closely  allied  to 
Victoria  (q.  v.),  although  of  very  different  appear- 
ance. E.  ferox  is  a  water-lily  with  small  red  or 
violet-coloiired  flowers,  leaves  about  a  foot  in 
diameter,  the  leaf-stalks  and  calyces  covered  with 
stiff  prickles ;  a  native  of  India  and  China.  The 
fruit  is  round,  soft,  pulpy,  and  of  the  size  of  a 
small  orange,  composed  of  a  number  of  carpels, 
and  containing  round  black  seeds  as  large  as  peas, 
which  are  full  of  a  nutritious  agreeable  farina,  and 
pre  eaten  roasted.  The  root-stock  also  contains 
Etarcb,  Avliich  maybe  separated  and  used  for  food; 
and  the  root  itself  is  eaten.  The  plant  is  said  to  have 
been  in  cultivation  in  China  for  upwards  of  three 
thousand  years. 

EUSE'BIUS,  of  Csesarea,  the  father  of  ecclesias- 
tical history,  was  born  in  Palestine  about  264  A.  D. 
He  took  the  surname  of  Pamphili  from  his  friend 
Pamphilufi^  Bishop  of  Caesarea,  whom  he  faithfully 
attended  for  the  two  years  (307 — 309)  in  which  he 
suffered  imprisonments  during  the  persecution  of 
Diocletian.  lie  then  went  to  Tyre,  and  afterwards 
to  Egypt,  vhere  he  himself  was  thrown  into  prison 


on  account  of  his  religion.  In  315,  he  succeeded 
Agapius  as  Bishop  of  Csesarea,  took  a  prominent 
part  at  the  Council  of  Nice  in  327,  and  died 
about  340. — E.  was  the  head  of  the  serai- Arian  or 
moderate  party  in  the  Council  of  Nice.  That 
party  were  averse  to  discussing  the  nature  of  the 
Trinity,  and  woidd  have  preferred  the  simplicity 
of  ►Scripture  language  in  speaking  about  the  God- 
head to  the  metaphysical  distinctions  of  either 
side.  They  regarded  Trinitarianism,  on  the  one 
hand,  as  logically  indefensible,  but,  on  the  other, 
they  recognised  the  fact,  that  Scripture  sometimes 
spoke  of  the  Son  in  terms  not  compatible  with  tho 
views  of  Arius,  and  therefore  they  wislied  each  man 
to  enjoy  the  vitmost  freedom  in  his  interpretation 
of  Scripture  on  this  point.  E.  thought  that  the 
great  thing  was  to  lay  to  heart  the  truth,  that 
'  God  so  loved  the  world  that  he  gaf  e  his  only 
begotten  Son,  that  whosoever  believeth  on  him 
should  not  perish,  but  have  everlasting  life.'  The 
promise  is  to  him  that  believeth  on  him,  not,  he 
argues,  to  him  that  knoivs  how  he  is  generated  from 
the  Father.  He  was  very  reluctant  to  accept  the 
term  homoouslos  (of  the  same  substance),  devised 
by  Athanasius  to  describe  the  equality  of  the  Sou 
with  the  Father,  and  retained  the  kindliest  feeUnga 
towards  Arius  after  the  views  of  the  latter  were 
condemned.  His  moderation  and  other  excellent 
quahties  procured  him  the  favour  of  Constantine, 
who  declared  that  he  was  fit  to  be  the  bishop  of 
almost  the  whole  world.  E.  has  the  reputation  of 
being  the  most  learned  Father  of  the  church  after 
Origen.  His  chief  works  are — 1.  The  Chronicon, 
a  history  of  the  world  down  to  the  celebration  of 
Constantine's  Vicennalia  at  Nicomedeia  and  Rome, 
327  and  328  A.  d.  It  is  valuable  as  containing 
extracts  from  such  writers  as  Berosus,  Sanchonia- 
thon,  Polyhistor,  Cephalion,  and  Manetho.  It  was 
first  published  in  a  complete  state  by  Mai  and 
Zohrab,  at  Milan,  in  1818,  from  an  Armenian 
MS.  version  discovered  at  Constantinople.  2.  The 
Prceparatio  Evangelica,  in  15  books,  a  collection 
of  such  statements  in  old  heathen  authors  aa 
were  fitted  to  make  the  mind  regard  the  evidences 
of  Christianity  in  a  favourable  light.  It  was  trans- 
lated into  Latin,  and  appeared  at  Treviso  in  1480. 
The  Greek  text  was  first  published  at  Paris  in 
1544.  3.  Demonstratio  Evangelica,  in  20  books,  a 
work  intended  to  convince  the  Jews  of  the  truth  of 
Christianity  from  the  evidence  of  their  own  Scrip- 
tures. A  Latin  version  of  this  was  printed  as  early 
as  1498;  the  Greek  original  did  not  appear  till  1544, 
when  it  was  published  along  with  the  Prceparatio 
at  Paris,  by  R.  Stephens.  4.  The  Ecclesiastical 
History,  in  ten  books.  This  relates  the  principal 
occurrences  which  took  place  m  the  Christian 
Church  till  the  year  324,  and  contains  the  residts  of 
his  studies  in  numerous  libraries,  and  even  in  the 
imperial  archives,  the  Emperor  Constantine  having 
ordered,  at  E.'s  request,  an  examination  of  all  docu- 
ments relative  to  the  history  of  martyrs.  One 
drawback  of  the  work  is,  that  E.,  on  principle,  with- 
holds all  account  of  the  wickedness  and  dissensions 
of  Christians,  inasmuch  as  he  did  not  consider  svich 
stories  for  the  edification  of  the  church.  A  Latin 
translation  of  the  work  by  Rufinus  was  published 
at  Rome  in  1474;  the  Greek  text  at  Paris  in  J  549, 
and  at  Geneva  in  1612.  Among  the  more  recent 
editions  are  those  of  Heinichen  (Leip.  1827)  and 
Burton  (Oxford,  1838).  The  Ecclesiastical  History 
has  been  translated  mto  English,  German,  French, 
&c.  Besides  the  foregoing  works,  may  be  men- 
tioned the  De  Martyribus  Palestince,  a  book  against 
Hierocles ;  another  against  Marcellus ;  and  a  L  ifi 
of  Constantine.  The  first  edition  of  aU  E.'s  w^orka 
appeared  at  Basel  in  1542. 

l«7 


EUSEBlCJS-EUTEPiPE. 


EUSE'BIUS,  of  Einisa,  Avas  born  at  Edessa, 
studied  at  Alexandria,  and  was  the  pupil  of  Eusebius 
Pampliili,  and  the  friend  of  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia. 
Averse  to  all  theological  controversies,  he  declined 
the  bishopric  of  Alexandria,  vacant  by  the  deposi- 
tion of  Athanasius.  He  was  afterwards,  however, 
appointed  Bishop  of  Emisa,  but  during  his  ordination, 
a  Christian  mob,  accusing  him  of  'mathematics' 
and  magic,  created  a  tumult,  and  obliged  him  to 
flee  for  his  life.  Subsequently,  he  returned  to  Emisa, 
where  he  was  '  tolerated,'  in  s])ite  of  his  danjrerous 
knowledge !  He  died  at  Antioch  in  36U.  The 
Emperor  Constantius  was  much  attached  to  E.,  and 
used  to  take  him  with  him  on  his  military  expedi- 
Hons.  E.  was  accused  of  Sabcllianism  (q.  v.),  and 
Jerome  calls  him  'the  ringleader  of  the  Arian  party.' 
Jerome,  however,  was  rash  in  his  epithets,  and  it  is 
more  probable  that  he  belonged  to  the  party  of  his 
namesake  of  Csesarea,  the  Semi-Arians,  or  i)eace- 
party,  who  wished  the  doctrine  of  the  Godhead 
expressed  in  the  language  of  Scripture,  and  not  of 
theology.  The  homilies  extant  under  his  name 
have  been  puljlished  by  Augusti  (Elberf.  1829). 
The  genuine  ones  display  great  eloquence.  Other 
writings  by  him,  as,  for  exam])le,  the  QucBstiones  XX. 
Kvangelicoi,  and  part  of  the  Commeiitarius  in  Lucam, 
were  published  by  Mai,  in  the  Scriptormn  Vetei-um 
Nova  Collectio  (vol.  i.  Homo,  1825).  See  Thilo, 
Ueber  die  ScJiriften  des  E.  von  Emisa  (Halle,  1832). 

EUSE'BIUS,  of  Nicomcdia,  Patriarch  of  Con- 
etantinople,  was  born  about  324  A.  d.  He  was 
first  tutor  to  the  Emperor  Julian,  to  whom  he  was 
related  by  the  mother's  side  ;  then  Bishop  of  Beryta 
(Beyrout),  in  Syria,  and  afterv/ards  of  Nicomedia. 
In  order  to  secure  his  position,  he  appeared  as  the 
defender  of  Arius  at  the  Council  of  Nice,  and  after- 
sxards  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  Arian 
party.  Under  the  Emperor  Constantiue,  whom  he 
baptized  in  337,  he  became  Patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople. He  died  in  the  year  342,  after  having,  in 
tJie  pre"\aous  yctxv,  held  an  assembly  of  the  church 
for  the  establishment  of  Arianism  at  Antioch.  It  is 
not  easy  to  get  at  his  real  character.  We  have 
no  ecclesiastical  works  by  Arian  w^riters,  oiir  only 
sources  of  information  as  regards  the  character  and 
opinions  of  that  party  being  their  enemies — the 
orthodox  party ;  yet,  making  the  ordinary  allow- 
ance for  partisanship,  there  would  seem  to  be 
Bufhcient  reason  for  concluding  that  E.  was  cunning 
and  double-tongued  when  occasion  required,  and 
Imperious  and  violent  w^hen  he  had  power  in  his 
hands.  Athanasius  considered  him  not  the  disciple, 
but  rather  the  teacher  of  Arius.  From  him  the 
Arians  are  sometimes  styled  Eusebians.  See 
Neander,  Kirchengescldchte,  vol.  ii.  p.  773,  &c. 

EUSTACHIAN  TUBE.    See  Ear. 

EUSTACHIAN  VALVE.    See  Fcetus. 

EUSTA'CHIUS,  Bartolommeo,  an  Italian 
anatomist,  who  was  born  in  the  early  part  of  the 
iGth  c,  and  died  in  1574.  Few  particulars  are 
known  regarding  his  life,  but  we  learn  from  the 
introduction  to  one  of  his  works,  that  in  1562  he 
was  professor  of  medicine  in  the  Collegio  della 
Sapienza  at  Home.  His  name  is  indelibly  associated 
with  anatomical  science,  through  his  discoveries  of 
the  tube  in  the  auditory  apparatus,  and  the  valvular 
structure  in  the  heart,  which  have  been  called  after 
him.  He  was  the  first  to  give  an  accurate  descrip- 
tion of  the  thoracic  duct,  and  was  probably  the 
first  to  notice  and  describe  the  stapes  (one  of  the 
chain  of  small  bones  crossing  the  tympanic  cavity 
of  the  ear),  a  discovery  which,  however,  Fallopius 
assigns  to  Ingrassias.  He  likewise  contributed 
materially  to  the  diffusion  of  more  accurate  know- 
Ledge  regarding  the  development  and  evolution  of 


the  teeth,  and  the  structure  of  the  kidney.  Tliese 

discoveries  are  recorded  in  his  Opuscula  Anatomical 
published  at  Venice  in  1563.  He  was  the  first 
anatomical  writer  who  illustrated  his  works  with 
good  engravings  on  copper.  The  Tabula  AnatomiccB^ 
which  he  was  probably  unable  to  publish  in  con- 
sequence of  the  poverty  of  which  he  comjilains  in 
the  introduction  to  which  we  have  already  referred, 
did  not  appear  until  1714,  when  they  were  edited, 
with  explanatory  remarks,  by  I-ancisi.  Their  value 
is  sufficiently  evidenced  by  the  fact,  that  Albinug 
published  a  neAV  edition,  with  an  excellent  Latin 
commentary,  in  1743,  at  Leyden;  that  Bonn  jro-t- 
lished  a  Dutch  edition  in  1798  at  Amsterdam ;  and 
that  a  German  edition  appeared  in  1800.  Lauth,  ii\ 
his  Historij  of  Anatomical  Discovery,  remarks  that  if 
the  Tabidoi  had  a^^peared  in  E.'s  lifetime,  anatomy 
woidd  liave  attained  the  perfection  of  the  18th  c, 
nearly  200  years  earlier.  E,  Vesalius,  and  Fallopius 
may  be  legarded  as  the  three  great  fomiders  of 
modern  anatomy. 

EUSTA'THIUS,  the  celebrated  Greek  commen- 
tator on  Homer  and  the  geographer  Dionysius,  was 
born  at  Constantinople.  He  was  at  first  a  monk, 
then  a  deacon  and  teacher  of  rhetoric  in  his  native 
city,  and,  in  the  year  1155,  was  appointed  Arch- 
bishop of  Thcssalonica,  where  he  died  in  1198.  E. 
was  profoundly  versed  in  the  ancient  classic  authors, 
and  a  man  of  prodigious  acquirements,  as  is  proved 
by  his  commentaries.  The  number  of  authors  whom 
he  quotes  is  almost  incredible,  and  the  value  of  his 
quotations  is  heightened  by  the  consideration,  that 
most  of  the  works  from  which  he  extracts  are  no 
longer  extant.  His  most  important  work  is  hia 
Commentary  on  the  Iliad  arid  Odyssey  of  Homer. 
The  first  edition  appeared  at  Home  1542 — 1550 ; 
the  last  at  Leip.  1625—1829.  The  work  is  open 
to  objection  on  the  score  of  method,  and  is  diffuse 
and  digressive,  but  it  is  nevertheless  a  vast  mine  of 
knowledge  for  students  of  Homer.  Of  a  similar 
character  is  E.'s  Commentary  on  Dionysius,  first 
printed  by  Stephens  (Paris,  1547),  and  lastly  in 
Bernhardy's  edition  of  Dionysius  (Leip.  1828).  Of 
his  commentary  on  the  hymns  of  Pindar,  only  the 
Procemium  has  come  down  to  us.  It  %vas  first  pub- 
lished by  Tafel  in  1832,  along  with  E.'s  theological 
treatises  and  letters. 

EUSTA'TIUS,  St,  one  of  the  Dutch  West  India 
Islands,  lies  near  the  north-east  bend  of  the  great 
arch  of  the  Antilles,  about  twelve  miles  to  the 
north-west  of  St  Christopher.  Lat.  17°  31'  N.,  and 
long.  63°  5'  W.  Area,  190  square  miles.  St  E.  is 
a  pyramidal  rock  of  volcanic  formation,  shewing 
two  extinct  craters,  and  being  still  subject  to 
earthquakes.  Hurricanes  also  of  intense  severity 
occur,  more  particidarly  in  August  and  September. 
Along  its  entire  circuit  of  29  miles,  St  E.  has  only 
one  landing-place,  which,  besides  being  difficult  of 
access,  is  strongly  fortified.  The  whole  mountain  ia 
fertile,  producing  in  abundance  not  merely  com- 
mercial crops,  such  as  sugar,  cotton,  and  tobacco^ 
but  also  provisions  of  various  kinds,  such  as  maiz^% 
hogs,  goats,  and  poultry.    Pop.  about  3270. 

EUTE'RPE  (i.  e.,  she  who  delights),  one  of  tfca 
nine  Muses,  was  the  daughter  of  Zeus  and  Mnemosyne. 
She  was  the  muse  of  lyric  poetry,  and  is  represented 
in  ancient  works  of  art  with  a  flute  in  her  hand. 
See  Muses. 

EUTE'RPE,  a  genus  of  palms,  having  male  and 
female  flowers  intermingled  on  the  same  spadix,  the 
spadices  springing  from  beneath  the  leaves ;  the 
spathe  entire,  membranaceous,  and  deciduous.  They 
are  very  elegant  palms,  with  lofty,  slender,  smooth 
faintly  ringed  stems,  and  pinnate  leaves,  forming  a 
graceful  feathery  plume ;  the  bases  of  the  leaf-stalks 


EUTKOPIUS— EVANGELICAL. 


sheathing  far  down  the  stem,  and  so  forming  a 
thick  cohimn  of  several  feet  in  length  at  its  summit. 
To  this  gemis  the  cabbage  palm  of  the  West  Indies, 
and  the  Assai  palm  of  the  banlcs  of  the  Amazon,  are 
often  referred.    Se(  Areca  and  Assai. 

EUTRO'PIUS,  a  Latin  historian,  concerning 
whom  we  only  know  that  he  filled  the  office  of 
secretary  to  the  Emperor  Constantine,  fought 
against  the  Persians  under  Julian,  and  was  still  alive 
in  the  reign  of  Valens.  The  period  of  his  death  is 
imknown.  His  Breviarum  Historioi  Itomanoi,  giving 
a  short  narrative  of  Koman  history  from  the  foun- 
dation of  the  city  to  the  time  of  the  Emperor 
Valens,  is  written  in  an  extremely  simple  and  pure 
style,  and  appears  to  have  been  originally  intended 
for  the  use  of  schools.  It  became  very  popular  as 
the  taste  for  original  investigation  declined,  in  that 
dark  period  between  the  death  of  the  old  world  and 
the  birth  of  the  new ;  and  is  either  copied  or 
followed  by  the  early  monkish  annalists.  An  t  iition 
with  enlargements,  however,  was  published  by  _  'aul, 
8on  of  Warnefrid  ud  Theodolinda,  generally  known 
as  Paulus  Diacouus.  Others  continued  it  down  to 
the  year  813.  The  History  eiqisted  in  three  distinct 
forms  at  the  revival  of  letters :  there  was  first 
the  genuine  work  of  E.  in  ten  books ;  second, 
the  expanded  editions  of  Paul ;  and  third,  a  very 
complete,  but  also  largely  interpolated  copy  con- 
tained in  the  Historia  Miscella.  The  editio  jmnceps, 
printed  at  Rome  in  1471,  was  from  the  impure 
text  of  Paul.  The  best  editions  in  modern  times 
are  those  of  Tzschucke  (Leip.  1796,  improved  1804), 
and  of  Grosse  (Halle,  1813 ;  Leip.  1825). 

EU'TYCHES,  a  Byzantine  ecclesiastic  of  the 
5th  c,  and  a  zealous  but  imskilful  representative 
of  the  dogmatic  opinions  of  Cyril  of  Alexandria. 
In  opposing  the  doctrines  of  Nestorius,  he  fell 
into  the  opposite  extreme,  and  taught  that  after 
the  union  of  the  two  natures  in  Jesus  Christ,  the 
human  nature  was  absorbed  in  the  divine;  an 
opinion  which  spread  extensively  through  the  Alex- 
andrian Church.  E.  was  in  consequence  summoned 
before  a  synod  at  Constantinople  in  the  year  448, 
and  deposed  by  Elavianus,  patriarch  of  that  city; 
but  his  cause  was  warmly  espoused  by  the  eunuch 
Chrysaphius,  chief  minister  of  the  Emperor  Theo- 
dosius  II.,  and  Dioscurus,  Bishoj)  of  Alexandria, 
who  were  both  opposed  to  Elavianus.  Chrysaphius 
induced  the  emperor  to  call  a  general  council  at 
Ephesus  in  the  following  year,  under  the  presidency 
ot  Dioscurus.  Measures  were  taken  beforehand  to 
Beoure  a  triumph  over  the  anti-Eutychians.  Soldiers 
were  admitted  to  the  deliberations  of  the  council, 
to  overawe  the  party  of  Elavianus  ;  while  a  crowd 
of  fierce  Egyptian  monks,  devotedly  attached  to 
whatever  was  popular  in  Alexandria,  or  had  been 
countenanced  by  their  old  pupil  Cyril,  drowned 
by  their  fanatical  outcries  the  voices  of  those 
who  ventured  to  speak  against  Eutyches.  The 
result  was  that  the  judgment  c.f  the  previous 
council  was  reversed ;  Elavianus  and  his  adherents 
were  deposed,  and  the  doctrine  of  E.  alfn-med 
to  be  orthodox,  and  in  accordance  with  the  Nicene 
creel.  His  triumph,  however,  lasted  only  two 
years;  in  4.51,  Eutychianism  was  pronounced  heresy 
at  the  Council  of  Chalcedor,  attended  by  650 
bishops ;  and  in  opposition  to  his  views  it  was 
declared  that  in  Christ  the  two  natures  were 
united  without  confusion  or  conversion  of  substance. 
Kothing  further  is  known  concerning  E.  except 
that  Leo  wrote  to  the  Emperor  Marcian  to  banish 
him  from  the  capital.  The  sect  of  Eutychians, 
however,  under  the  name  of  Monophysites,  con- 
tinued to  exist  quietly  for  a  century  after  his  death, 
*Ji  the  Armenian,  Ethiopian,  and  Coptic  churches, 


when  it  awoke  to  new  life  under  the  auspices  of  JaA)h 
Baradicus,  wlio  died  Bishop  of  Edessa,  588  A.  D.  Ilia 
followers  were  called  Jacobites,  and  liave  perpetuated 
the  Monophysite  doctrine  in  the  Armenian  and  Cojjtic 
churches  to  the  present  day.  Sec  Neandcr,  Jurdien- 
(/esc/dc/Ue,  vol.  iii.  p.  1079,  etc. 

EU''XINE  (Gr.  Uuxinos,  hospitable)  is  the  namo 
ap|)lied  by  the  ancients  to  the  Black  Sea  (q.  v  ). 
Before  receiving  this  name  it  was  called  Axenog 
Pontos,  the  inhospitable  sea,  because  of  the  blark 
and  turbulent  weather  so  frequently  ascribed  tc 
it  by  the  ancient  poets,  and  the  reported  canoi- 
balism  of  the  Scythian  tribes  who  lined  its  northern 
shores.  It  seems  to  have  been  called  the  Euxin% 
or  hospitable  sea,  after  the  establishment  of  Greek 
colonies  on  its  borders,  and  when  its  waters  were 
thrown  open  to  Greek  commerce. 

EVA'NDER,  a  semi-mythical  Grecian  hero  of 
antiquity,  was,  according  to  Ptoman  traditions,  the 
son  of  Hermes,  by  Carmenta  or  Tiburtis.  About 
60  years  before  the  Trojan  war,  he  is  said  to  have 
led  a  Pelasgian  colony  from  PaUantium,  in  Arcadia, 
to  Italy,  and  to  have  landed  on  the  banks  of  the 
Tiber,  and  near  the  foot  of  the  Palatine  Hill.  Here 
he  built  a  town,  naming  it  PaUantium,  after  the  one 
in  Arcadia.  At  a  later  period,  it  was  incorporated 
with  Rome,  and  is  affirmed  to  have  originated 
the  names  Palatinus  and  Palatitim.  Tradition 
represented  E.  as  having  done  much  to  introduce 
the  habits  of  social  life  among  his  neighbours ; 
he  prescribed  for  them  milder  laws,  and  taught 
them,  among  other  arto,  those  of  music  and  writing. 
To  him  is  also  ascribed  the  introduction  of  the 
worship  of  the  Lycasan  Pan,  with  that  of  Demeter, 
Poseidon,  and  other  deities.  Virgil  represents  him 
as  being  still  alive  when  ^neas  arrived  in  Latium 
after  the  sack  of  Troy.  E.  was  worshipped  both  at 
PaUantium,  in  Arcadia,  and  at  Rome. 

EVAXGB'LICAL  is  an  adjective  derived  from 
the  Gr.  euo.nggelion,  '  good  news,'  or  '  the  Gospel,* 
and  is  applied  in  general  to  anything  which  is 
marked  by  the  spirit  of  the  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ. 
Thus,  we  speak  of  an  evangelical  sermon,  of  evan- 
gelical piety,  evangelical  views,  &c.,  though  it  ia 
but  right  to  mention  that  the  term  '  evangelical* 
in  such  a  connection  is  used  by  a  portion  of  the 
religious  community  to  denote,  not  so  much  a  spirit 
or  sentiment  resembling  that  of  the  Saviour,  but 
certain  peculiar  theological  opinions,  which  are  held 
to  constitute  the  only  true  and  complete  expression 
of  Christian  belief.  In  England  and  Scotland,  dis- 
senters have  generally  laid  claim  to  be  considered 
more  '  evangelical'  than  the  national  churches — i.  e., 
they  conceive  that  they  have  borne,  and  stiU  bear, 
more  decided  testimony  than  their  brethren  of  the 
Establishment  to  the  truth  of  such  doctrines  as  the 
total  depravity  of  human  nature,  the  imputation  of 
Adam's  sin  to  his  posterity,  the  expiatory  charactel 
of  Christ's  sufferings,  justification  by  faith  in  the 
atoning  efficacy  of  these  sufiferings,  &c.  In  the 
Anglican  Church,  however,  the  rise  cf  the  Puseyrte 
or  Tractarian  party  has  brought  into  prominenca 
an  antagonistic  party,  resembUng  disseciers  veiy 
much  in  their  theological  tenets.  This  ]arty(;all3 
itself,  par  excellence,  '  Evangelical.' — In  Pi  iissia,  the 
term  Evangelical  has  been  employed  by  the  goTem« 
ment  since  1817  to  designate  the  national  Protestant 
Church,  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Reformed  or 
Calvinistic  and  the  Lutheran  Churches,  a  union 
imhappily  too  much  enforced  by  severe  and  even 
coercive  measures,  and  which,  partly  on  that  account, 
and  j)artly  from  the  invincible  repugnance  of  tlie 
more  extreme  or  High  Church  Lutherans,  has  not 
been  so  perfectly  accomplished  as  the  government 
wished.    See  Prussia. 

1«9 


EVANGELICAL  ALLIAI^CE^  EVANS. 


EVANGELICAL  ALLIANCE,  an  association 
of  'Evangelical  Christians,  l)clongiiig  to  various 
churches  and  countries,'  formed  in  1845,  'to  asso- 
ciate and  concentrate  the  strength  ol"  an  ciiliglitcned 
Protestantism  against  the  encroachments  of  Poj^ery 
and  Puseyism,  and  to  promote  the  interests  of  a 
scriptural  Christianity.'  Its  origin  is  to  be  ascribed 
to  a  deep  sense  of  the  evil  of  the  divisions  existing 
among  Protestants,  who  nevertheless  agree  in  hold- 
ing the  essential  principles  of  the  Keformation, 
A  number  of  circumstances  concurred  to  direct 
the  attention  of  Christians,  both  in  England  and 
Scotland,  very  strongly  to  this  subject ;  and  a 
re(j[uisition,  signed  by  ministers  and  others  belong- 
ing to  various  denominations  in  Scotland,  was 
addicssed  to  '  the  evangelical  churches  of  England, 
Wales,  and  Ireland,'  convening  a  meeting  to  be 
held  at  Liverpool  in  October  1845.  To  this  requi- 
sition a  cordial  response  was  given ;  the  meet- 
ing was  numerously  attended  by  persons  of  great 
influence,  both  in  tlie  established  and  dissenting 
churclies  ;  great  harmony  prevailed  ;  and  the  E.  A. 
was  then  organised.  It  now  has  branches  in  the 
most  important  cities  and  towns  of  Britain,  and  of 
many  other  i)arts  of  the  world ;  it  has  contributed 
to  the  ])romotion  of  Christian  union,  fellowship,  and 
brotherly  co-operation,  and  at  least  as  evidently  on 
the  continent  of  Europe  as  in  Britain  ;  affording 
at  the  same  time  much  encouragement  to  those  who 
in  various  countries  of  the  continent  were  struggling 
in  the  feebleness  of  isolation  against  all  the  forms 
of  opinion  most  adverse  to  the  i)rinciples  of  the 
Reformation,  but  to  whose  su]>port  the  strength 
of  British  Protestantism  has  been  in  some  measure 
brought.  The  E.  A.  seeks,  by  various  means,  to 
promote  the  cause  of  'Evangelical  Protestantism,' 
and  to  oppose  'Infidelity,  Popery,  and  other  forms 
of  superstition,  error,  and  profaneness,  especially  the 
profanation  of  the  Lord's  Day.'  It  has  also  ven- 
tured to  remonstrate  against  the  persecution  still 
practised  in  some  Protestant  countries  of  the  north 
of  Euro])e  both  against  Protestant  dissenters  and 
Roman  Catholics,  and  thus  has  sought  to  extend 
the  influence  of  the  principles  of  toleration.  The 
meetings  which  have  been  held  under  its  auspices 
in  continental  cities  have  also  led  to  much  tem- 
perate and  friendly  discussion  on  various  important 
questions.  Great  meetings  of  the  E.  A.  were 
held  at  Paris  in  1855,  at  Berlin  in  1857,  at  Geneva  in 
1861,  and  at  New  York  in  1873. 

The  E.  A.  adopted  as  its  basis  a  brief  statement 
of  the  points  of  doctrine  on  which  its  members  must 
hold  '  what  are  usually  understood  to  be  evangelical 
views.'  This  gave  rise  to  objections  against  it  on  the 
part  of  some  who  would  gladly  have  joined  it,  but 
for  an  apprehension  of  compromising  principles  to 
which  they  did  not  think  due  place  was  given. 
The  High  Church  party  in  the  Church  of  England, 
and  in  the  churches  of  Germany,  Sweden,  &c.,  have 
been  consistent  opponents  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance. 
It  is  of  course  equally  opposed,  on  other  grounds,  by 
rationalists. 

Its  basis  excludes  those  who,  although  otherwise 
holding  evangelical  doctrines,  deny  'the  divine  insti- 
tution of  the  Christian  ministry,  and  the  authority 
and  perpetuity  of  the  ordinances  of  baptism  and  the 
Lord's  Supper.'  Few  Americans  were  formerly  con- 
nected with  the  E.  A.,  owing  to  difficulties  arising  out 
of  the  question  of  slavery. 

EVANGELICAL  ASSOCIATION,  a  religious 
body  which  was  organised  in  1803  among  Germans 
in  the  United  States  of  North  America,  and  has 
considerably  extended  itself  both  in  that  country 
and  in  Canada,  being  no  longer  chiefly  confined, 
as  it  was  at  first,  to  German  immigrants  and 
their  descendants  using  the  German  language.  Its 

170 


doctrines  are  a  modified  Calvinism ;  its  church 
government  a  modified  episcopacy. 

EVANGELICAL  UNION,  the  name  assumed 
by  a  religious  body  constituted  in  Scotland  in  1 S43 
by  the  Rev.  James  Morison  of  Kilmarnock  ind 
other  ministers  whose  doctrinal  views  had  been 
condemned  in  the  United  Secession  Church,  to 
which  they  previously  belonjc^ed,  and  the  con;,Te- 
gations  adhering  to  them.  They  were  soon  af  ter- 
wards joined  by  a  number  of  ministers  and  con- 
gregations of  similar  views,  previously  connected 
with  the  Congregational  Union  or  Independents  ol 
Scotland,  and  have  since  extended  themselves  con- 
siderably in  Scotland  and  the  north  of  England. 
Their  doctrinal  views  are  those  which,  from  the 
name  of  Mr  Morison,  have  now  become  known  in 
Scotland  as  Morisonian.  See  Morisonianism. 
Their  church-government  is  Independent,  but  in 
some  of  the  congregations  originally  Presbyterian, 
the  ofBce  of  the  eldership  is  retained.  A  notable 
practice  of  this  denomination  is  the  very  frequent 
advertising  of  sermons  and  their  subjects. 

EVA'NGELIST,  literally,  a  bringer  of  good 
tidings.  It  designates,  in  the  New  Testament,  a 
person  appointed  by  an  apostle  to  itinerate  among 
the  heathen,  and  so  prei)are  the  way  for  resident 
instructors.  The  evangelist,  therefore,  had  no 
])articular  flock  assigned  to  him,  and  is  to  be  dis- 
tinguished both  from  bishops  and  ordinary  pastors. 
Later  in  the  history  of  the  early  church,  the  evan- 
gelist figures,  according  to  Eusebius,  as  'a  deliverer 
of  the  written  gospels  to  those  w'ho  w^ere  ignorant 
of  the  faith.'  This  may  possibly  imply  that  he 
acted  as  a  colporteur,  by  distributing  copies  of  the 
gospels,  or  that  he  read  them  to  the  heathen,  and 
so  made  them  familiar  with  their  contents. — The 
word  evangelist  is  also  used  to  denote  the  four 
writers  of  the  life  and  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ, 
these  being  evangelists  ('  bringers  of  good  tidings  'j 
par  excellence. 

E'VANS,  Lieutenant-general  Sir  De  Lacy, 
G.C.B.,  born  at  Moig,  in  Ireland,  1787  ;  entered 
the  army  as  ensign  in  1807 ;  in  1812,  joined  the 
3d  Light  Dragoons,  with  whom  he  saw  much 
Peninsular  service.  In  1814,  he  was  present  as 
brevet  lieutenant-colonel  of  an  infantry  regiment 
at  the  captm-e  of  Washington,  the  attack  on  Bal- 
timore, and  the  operations  before  New  Orleans. 
He  was  next  at  Waterloo.  In  1830 — 1831,  he  sat 
for  Rye,  and  in  1833  was  elected  on  the  Liberal 
interest  for  Westminster,  which  he  represented 
until  1841.  The  cause  of  the  young  queen  of 
Spain  was  believed  by  the  English  ministry  to  be 
identified  with  that  of  freedom  and  constitutional 
government,  and  an  order  in  council  was  issued  in 
1835,  authorising  the  raising  of  10,000  men  for 
service  in  Spain,  and  expressing  the  king's  desire 
that  his  subjects  should  take  part  with  the  queen  of 
Spain,  his  ally,  by  entering  the  new  corps.  The  com- 
mand of  the  British  auxiliary  legion  was  offered  to 
E.,  and  he  was  allowed  by  his  constituents  to  accept 
it  without  vacating  his  seat  for  Westminster.  E.'s 
principal  military  exploits  at  the  head  of  the  British 
Legion  were  the  storm  and  capture  of  the  Carlist 
lines  of  Ayetta,  near  St  Sebastian,  in  1836  ;  the  storm 
and  capture  of  Irun ;  and  the  capture  of  Oyarzun 
and  Fontarabia.  For  these  services,  he  received  the 
grand  crosses  of  St  Feidinand  and  Charles  III.  At 
the  general  election  for  1841,  E.  was  defeated  for 
Westminster,  but  was  re-elected  in  1846,  and  con- 
tinues to  hold  his  seat  (1861)  by  an  undisputed 
tenure.  He  was  promoted  to  .he  I'ank  of  maior 
general  of  the  British  army  in  1846,  and  obtained 
the  colonelcy  of  the  21st 'Foot  in  1853.  On  the 
declaration  of  war  against  Russia,  he  was  appointed 


EVANSVILLE— EVAPORATION. 


to  command  tlio  second  division  of  the  army  sent 
out  to  the  Crimea,  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general.  His  division  was  hotly  engaged  in  the 
battle  of  the  Alma,  and  E.  received  a  severe  con- 
tusion of  the  shoulder.  On  the  2Gth  October,  during 
tlie  siege  of  Sebastopol,  his  division  was  attacked  by 
a  force  of  GOOO  Kussians.  E.  met  the  enemy  with 
grijat  gallantry,  and  drove  them  back  into  the  town. 
In  February  1855,  E.  attended  in  his  place,  and 
rocoived  the  public  thanks  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, through  the  Speaker,  for  his  services  in  the 
Crimen.  He  ^vas  rewarded  by  the  crown  with  the 
Grand  Cross  of  the  Bath,  and  by  the  Emperor  of  the 
French  with  the  Grand  Cordon  of  the  Legion  of 
Honour.  He  also  received  the  degree  of  D.C.L.  from 
the  university  of  Oxford.  He  took  a  frequent  part 
in  debates  on  matters  of  army  administration.  In 
politics,  he  has  always  belonged  to  the  party  of  '  ad- 
vanced Liberals.'    He  died  January  9,  1870. 

E'VANSVILLE,  a  flourishing  town  of  Indiana, 
in  the  United  States,  stands  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Ohio,  about  150  miles  south-west  of  Indiana- 
polis. It  is  very  advantageously  situated  for  trade. 
From  E.  downwards,  the  na^^gation  is  seldom 
interrupted  either  by  drought  or  by  ice  ;  and  here 
terminates  the  Wabash  and  Erie  Canal,  the  longest 
woik  of  the  kind  in  the  American  republic.  Thus, 
the  place  connects  the  Lower  Ohio  at  once  with  the 
inland  lakes  and  with  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Coal 
and  iron  ore  abound  in  the  vicinity.  Pop.  in  1860, 
1,1,484;  in  1870,  22,830. 

EVA'PORATION,  the  conversion  of  a  fluid  or 
solid  into  vapour.  Steam,  vaj^ours  of  alcohol,  cam- 
phor, iodine,  &c.,  are  familiar  instances.  All  fluids 
are  surrounded  by  vapour  at  common  temperatures ; 
but  for  every  substance  there  is  a  limiting  tem- 
perature, below  which  no  evaporation  takes  place. 
The  pressure,  or  tension,  of  a  vapom-  depends  mainly 
upon  the  nature  of  the  substance  evai)orated,  and 
the  temperature  to  which  it  is  raised.  The  full 
amount  of  vapour,  however,  is  not  produced 
instantaneously,  and  therefore,  in  general,  time  is  an 
element  in  the  question  as  well  as  temperature. 
See  Diffusion. 

The  Boiling-point  (q.  v.)  is  the  temperature  at 
which  vapour  is  freely  given  off — i.  e.,  at  which  the 
tension  of  the  vapour  of  a  substance  is  equal  to  the 
atmospheric  pressure.  Dalton  gave  an  empirical 
law,  which,  however,  is  only  at  all  approximate  for 
temperatures  near  the  boiling-point :  '  The  tension 
of  the  vapour  of  a  substance  rises  in  geometric,  as  the 
tempei'ature  rises  in  arithmetic,  progression.'  It  is 
sufficient  for  our  present  purpose  to  notice,  that  the 
tension  increases  very  rapidly  with  the  tempera- 
ture. Some  curious  consequences  result  from  this. 
Thus,  water  boils  at  212°  F.,  under  a  pressure  of  30 
inches,  or  at  that  temperature  l;he  tension  of  its 
vapour  is  one  atmosphere.  At  162''  F.,  or  50°  below 
its  boiling-point,  its  vapoi\r  has  a  tension  of  10  inches 
of  mercury,  and  it  wiU  therefore  boil,  if  j)laced  in 
the  receiver  of  an  air-pump,  as  soon  as  two-thirds  of 
the  air  h  ave  been  extracted. 

If  a  little  water  be  boiled  in  an  open  flask  till  the 
•team  has  displaced  a  great  part  of  the  contained  air, 
and  the  11  ask  be  then  tightly  corked,  the  water  will- 
gradually  cool.  If  the  flask  be  now  dipped  in  cold 
water,  boiling  recommences,  the  cold  water  having 
(50udensed  some  of  the  vapour,  and  so  diminished  the 
pressure  on  the  contained  liquid.  Dip  the  flask 
m  hot  water,  and  the  boiling  ceases.  These  appear- 
ances may  be  obtained  several  times  in  succession. 

A  fluid  cannot  be  heated  above  its  boiling-uoint. 
at  the  ordinary  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  ;  but 
if  it  be  heated  ni  a  closed  vessel,  the  tension  of 
the  vapour  produced  is  to  be  taken  in  addition  to  the 


former  pressure,  and  the  boiling-point  rises  with  it. 
Thus,  when  the  pressure  is  equivalent  to  2  aimo 
si)heres,  the  boding-point  of  water  is  raised  40°  F 
At  such  temjjeratures,  its  solvent  powers  are  greatly 
increased.  Many  mijKU-ais  wiiich  are  found  in  fine 
crystals  are  supposed  to  have  been  deposited  from 
water  v/hich  had  dissolved  them  in  large  quan- 
tities, under  the  combined  influences  of  pressure  and 
temperature.  Papin's  Digester  (q.  v.)  depends  upon 
this  principle. 

The  amount  of  evay)oration  from  a  fluid  depends 
tipon  many  circumstances.  As,  exce})t  in  the  case 
of  actual  boihng,  it  takes  place  only  at  the  surface, 
the  amount  of  surface  exposed  is  an  important 
consideration  where  rapid  and  copious  evaporation  ia 
requii'ed,  as  in  steam-boilers,  salt-i)ans,  &c.  When,  on 
the  contrary,  it  is  desirable  to  j)revent  evaporation 
as  much  as  possible,  a  layer  of  od,  preventing  direct 
contact  with  the  air,  is  of  great  use.  The  rate  of 
evaporation  depends  also  on  the  pressure,  and  varies, 
according  to  Daniell,  nearly  inversely  as  the  latter. 
His  experiments,  which  appear  trustworthy,  were 
made  in  an  exhausted  receiver,  and  the  vapour  was 
removed  as  it  was  formed. 

In  the  conversion  of  a  fluid  into  vapour,  a  quantity 
of  heat  disappears  ;  i.  e.,  is  required  to  produce  and 
maintain  the  gaseous  state.  Thus,  the  temperature 
of  steam  at  SO  inches  is  the  same  (to  the  ther- 
mometer) as  that  of  the  boiling  water  from  which 
it  comes  off ;  but  the  heat  necessary  to  convert  a 
pound  of  water  at  212°  into  steam  at  212°  would 
raise  nearly  1000  pounds  of  water  from  GO"  to  61°. 
See  Heat.  When,  therefore,  a  fluid  evaporates,  the 
vapour  carries  off  heat  from  the  fluid,  and  thus  evap- 
oration produces  cold.  This,  of  course,  is  matter  of 
daily  observation.  Porous  earthenware  jars  are  em- 
ployed to  cool  water  in  summer  in  this  climate  ;  and 
in  India,  ice  is  produced  by  exposing  water  in  shallow 
pans,  laid  on  straw,  to  the  combined  effects  of  evap- 
oration and  radiation  at  night. 

On  the  same  principle  depends  Sir  John  Leslie's 
method  of  freezing  water.  The  water  is  placed  in 
a  flat  porous  dish,  over  a  large  surface  of  strong 
sul]thuric  acid,  and  the  whole  covered  with  the 
receiver  of  an  air-pump.  When  a  good  vacmma 
has  been  produced,  there  is,  of  coiu-se,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  a  rapid  evaporation,  and  the  acid 
eagerly  absorbing  the  vapour  as  it  is  formed,  the  pro- 
cess goes  on  witliout  further  working  of  the  pvunp, 
till  the  residual  water  has  become  a  solid  cake  of 
ice.  A  most  extraordinary  example  of  this  produc- 
tion of  cold  is  afforded  by  the  freezing  of  water  on 
a  white  hot  plate — by  no  means  a  difficidt  experi- 
ment. A  platinum  capside  is  heated  nearly  to 
whiteness  by  a  lamp  placed  underneath ;  a  little 
water,  mixed  with  sulphurous  acid,  Avhich  is  an 
extremely  volatile  liquid  (indeed  it  is  gaseous  at 
ordinary  temperatures  and  pressures),  is  poiired  upon 
the  plate.  The  acid  instantly  evaporates,  and  the  cold 
produced  freezes  the  water,  which  can  be  dropped 
from,  the  hot  plate  on  the  hand  as  a  lump  of  ice. 

Another  remarkable  instance  of  this  occurs  in  the 
formation  of  solid  carbonic  acid.  The  liqxiid  acid  ia 
forced  by  the  pressure  of  its  own  vapour  in  a  fine 
stream  into  the  air  from  a  nozzle  in  the  strong  iron 
vessel  in  which  it  is  contained.  It  evaporates  so 
rapidly  in  air  that  a  portion  of  the  stream  is  frozen, 
and  the  delicate  snowlike  mass  can  be  collected  by 
proper  apparatus. 

Having  thus  briefly  examined  some  of  the  cif- 
cumstances  connected  with  evaporation,  we  may 
proceed  to  mention  some  of  its  important  bearings 
on  meteorology.  In  this  respect,  it  is  one  of  the 
most  effective  of  all  the  gigantic  i)roc  esses  that  are 
continually  going  on  around  us.  Watery  vapour  is 
continually  rising  invisible  in  the  air  ;  meetinr  with 


EYR-EYENING  SCHOOLS. 


a  colder  stratum  of  the  atmosi)herc,  or  the  cold 
ridge  of  a  mountain,  -.1  becomes  condensed  into 
mists  or  clouds ;  the  finv.  particles  of  these  unite 
into  larger  groups,  and  fall  as  rain,  hail,  or  snow — to 
be  again  evaporated  by  heat  from  the  moist  ground, 
or  from  rivers,  lakes,  and  seas.  Even  when  other- 
wise invisible,  its  presence  may  be  detected  by  its 
deposition  as  Dew  (q.v.),  and,  according  to  Clausius, 
in  the  blue  of  the  sky,  and  the  gorgeoiis  tints  of  sun- 
rise and  sunset.  There  is  little  doubt  of  its  being 
also  intimately  connected  with  the  scintilhition  of 
the  fixed  stars.  See  Scintillation.  Atmospheric 
electricity  is  largely  due  to  evaporation,  directly  as 
well  as  indirectly,  on  account  of  the  amounts  of 
vapour  contained  in  different  currents  of  air.  It  is 
matter  of  everyday  observation  how  much  the 
drying  of  the  ground,  or  evai)oration  generally,  is 
promoted  by  a  brisk  'A^ind.  This  linds  its  explanation 
m  the  constant  removal  of  the  va])our  as  it  is  formed, 
the  diffusion  of  the  vapour  taking  place  into  com- 
paratively dry  air  instead  of  the  moist  atmosphere 
into  which  it  would  take  place  in  a  calm.  See  E.AIN 
and  Atmospheric  Electricity. 

EVE  (Heb.  Chaiwah,  i.  e.,  the  living),  the  name, 
according  to  the  Hebrew  narrative,  of  the  wife  of 
the  first  man,  and  so  the  mother  of  the  human  race. 
See  Adam  and  Eve. 

EVE'CTION",  a  lunar  inequality  resulting  from 
the  combined  effect  of  the  irregularity  of  the  motion 
of  the  perigee,  and  alternate  increase  and  decrease 
of  the  eccentricity  of  the  moon's  orbit.  Sec  Lunar 
Theory. 

E'VELYN,  John,  a  well-knowTi  \ATiter  of  the  17th 
c,  was  born  October  31,  1620,  at  Wotton,  the  seat 
of  the  Evelyn  family,  in  Suri-ey.  He  was  educated 
ttt  the  free  school  of  Lewes,  and  subsequently  at 
Balliol  College,  Oxford.  In  1040,  he  entered  the 
Middle  Temple,  and  in  the  following  year,  prompted 
by  the  ommous  appearance  of  public  affairs,  and 
after  having  witnessed  the  trial  of  Strafford,  he  set 
out  for  the  continent,  returning,  however,  in  the 
B.utumn  of  the  same  year.  In  1642,  upon  offering 
his  serWces  to  Charles  I.,  he  was  accepted  as  a 
volunteer  in  Prince  Rupert's  troop,  but  m  1643  he 
again  went  to  the  continent,  where  he  mainly  lived 
during  the  following  eight  years.  After  1652  he 
settled  in  England,  where  he  lived  studiously  and 
in  private  till  the  Restoration,  after  which  he  was 
much  employed  by  the  government.  On  the  organi- 
Bation  of  the  Iloyal  Society,  he  became  one  of 
the  first  members,  and  was  an  industrious  contri- 
butor to  its  Transactions.  He  succeeded  in  1699 
to  the  family  estate  at  Wotton,  and  there,  after  a 
long,  studious,  and  highly  usefid  life,  he  died  27th 
February  1706. 

His  pen  seems  to  have  been  constantly  employed, 
and  that  upon  a  great  variety  of  subjects.  Art, 
architecture,  gardening,  conxmerce,  &c.,  were  aU 
treated  of  by  E.,  and  in  such  a  manner  as  to  pro- 
duce the  most  beneficial  results  on  his  own  time. 
His  inrineipal  works  are — Sculptura,  or  the  History 
and  Art  of  Chalcography  and  Engraving  on  Copper, 
1662 ;  Silva,  or  a  Discourse  of  Forest  Trees,  cC-c, 
16C4 ;  and  his  Memoirs  (first  published  in  1818). 
It  is  to  the  last  of  these  works  E.  owes  the  celebrity 
he  now  enjoys.  The  Memoirs  are  written  in  the 
form  of  a  diary,  by  one  who  had  accustomed  himself 
to  habits  of  close  observation,  and  continued  dui'ing 
a  period  of  about  70  years — and  these  the  most 
dramatic  in  the  recent  history  of  England.  They 
are  of  inestimab'a  value.  Sir  Walter  Scott  said 
that  *he  had  never  seen  a  mine  so  rich.'  A  new 
edition  was  published  in  1850,  and  another  in  1854. 

EYENING  PRIMROSE.    See  (Engthera. 

172 


EYENING  SCHOOLS  maybe  divided  into  two 
classes :  1.  Those  which,  either  ic  the  form  of 
lectures  or  lessons,  caiTy  further  the  education 
received  at  school ;  2.  Those  which  exist  to  supple- 
ment the  defects  of  early  training,  or,  it  may  be,  to 
give  the  simplest  rudiments  of  elementary  instruc- 
tion to  adults  who  are  under  the  disadvantage  of 
being  pupils  for  the  first  time  in  tlieir  lives.  The 
former  are  found  chiefly  in  comiection  with  riecha- 
nics'  institutes*  (which  are  now  very  numero-is  in 
Groat  Britain,  and  form  one  of  the  most  impoitait 
educational  agencies  we  have),  existing  day  school/, 
and  congregational  organisations ;  the  latter  more 
frequently  fall  under  the  head  of  parochial  mis- 
sionary work,  or  are  connected  with  factoriea. 
These  latter  constitute  the  class  of  evening  schools 
which  engage  the  largest  share  of  interest  in  the 
present  condition  of  England,  and  which  present 
the  greatest  difficidties  in  worldng. 

Tlic  total  number  of  evening  scliools  of  this  hum- 
bler class  in  operation  (under  government  inspection) 
in  England  and  Wales  ■was,  in  1874,  about  2060*  of 
these,  1560  were  conducted  by  the  Church  of  Engl.uid, 
325  by  dissenting  Protestant  denominations,  163  by 
Roman  Catholics,  and  15  by  school  boards.  Tlie  total 
number  of  scholars  in  attendance  was  G6,388,  of 
whom  48,511  were  male.  In  Scotland,  primayy 
evening  schools  are  not  so  usual  as  in  England  ;  and 
this  is  no  doubt  to  be  greatly  attributed  to  the  more 
general  diffusion  of  education  among  children  of  the 
poorer  classes. 

Considering  the  large  proportion  of  the  present 
adult  popidation  unable  to  read  or  write,  the  number 
of  evening  schools  is  miserably  inadequate.  But 
the  necessity  for  their  institution  has  not  yet  been 
sufficiently  felt  by  the  country,  to  lead  to  their 
taking  a  much  more  important  place  in  the 
educational  machinery  of  the  nation  than  they 
have  hitherto  done.  Her  Majesty's  inspectors,  the 
Royal  Commissioners  (1861),  and  the  clergy  of  all 
denominations,  strongly  recommend  their  greater 
extension.  *  If  the  education  of  the  country  were 
in  a  good  state,'  say  the  commissioners,  'evening 
schools  would  be  nearly  universal,  and  would  serve 
to  compensate  the  scantiness  of  the  instruction 
given  in  day  schools,  by  giving  more  advanced 
instruction  to  an  older  cla^s  of  scholars.' 

State  Aid,  and  Voluntary  and  Paid  Teachers. — 
Many  educationists  have  come  to  the  conclusion, 
that  the  hope  of  retaining  children  in  school 
mitil  they  have  obtained  as  much  instruction  as 
is  requisite  for  their  guidance  in  life,  is  a  vaiu 
one,  and  consequently  look  to  evening  schools  as 
an  indispensable  part  of  a  national  system  of 
education,  and  consider  them  entitled  to  look  to 
the  state  for  encouragement  and  support  to  an 
equal  extent  with  day  schools.  Bishoj)  Hinds  was 
the  first  publicly  to  suggest  that  evening  schools 
fairly  come  within  the  si)here  of  state  action,  in  a 
letter  to  Mr  Senior,  printed  in  1839.  The  recent 
inquiries  have  brought  out  that  the  majority  of 
those  who  frequent  existing  evfening  schools  have 
never  received  any  elementary  instruction,  or  have 
forgotten  what  they  once  knew,  and  that  a  large 
proportion  are  either  adults  or  adolescent  young 
men  and  women.  They  attend  for  the  purpose  of 
learning  to  read,  write,  and  cypher.  Though  in  many 
instances,  especially  where  no  fee  is  charged,  the 
irregularity  and  unpunctuality  of  the  attendance 
are  great,  yet  in  the  majority  of  cases  there  is  an 
earnest  desire  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  to  benefit 
by  the  instruction  they  receive.  It  is  a  question 
of  some  national  importance  how  far  schools  of  thii 

*The  Workinj^man's  College  in  London,  and  the 
School  of  Art,«^  iu  Edinburgh,  both  belong  to  thia  clasft 


EVENING  SCHOOLS— EVERETT. 


Bupplementary  class  should  be  left  to  the  action'  of 
private  philanthropy.  It  is  also  a  question,  to  some 
extent  implied  in  the  other,  wliether  the  peculiarly 
delicate  work  required  in  evening  schools  is  not 
more  efficiertly  discharged  by  voluntary  than  by 
paid  laboure 

1.  As  to  the  first  question,  it  may  be  safely 
said,  that  all  would  desire  to  see  those  wholesome 
chamiels  of  benevolence  which  connect  the  poor 
and  the  rich  free  from  government  interference ; 
but  if,  in  our  devotion  to  a  theory,  we  neglect 
the  work,  it  becomes  the  duty  of  the  state  to 
Be.';  to  it,  to  the  extent  of  encouragement  at  least, 
if  not  of  direction.  Since  Bishop  Hinds'  letter, 
to  which  we  have  referred  above,  the  education 
committee  of  the  privy  council  have  recognised  this 
duty,  and  have  given  aid  to  a  small  extent  to  all 
evening  schools  complyixig  with  certain  conditions, 
and  in  connection  with  day  schools.  By  the 
revised  code  recently  issued  by  the  privy  council, 
evening  schools  of  this  class  are  allowed  to  claim 
from  the  parliamentary  grant  Id.  for  every  attend- 
ance of  a  pupil  above  twelve  attendances.  The 
schools  miist  be  taught  by  certificated  masters,  and 
lay  persons  are  alone  recognised.  To  all  those 
schools  frequented  for  the  purpose  of  confirming  or 
extending  previous  knowledge,  this  new  code  will 
be  of  great  assistance,  as  there  is  a  tendency  to 
engage  trained  teachers  for  such  schools ;  to  those 
which  are  chiefly  frequented  by  adults  wholly  igno- 
rant of  the  simplest  elements,  and  chiefly  conducted 
by  voluntary  teachers,  it  will  afford  little  or  no 
advantage,  because  the  conductors  will  not  be  able 
to  claim  so  lai-ge  a  simi  as  would  suffice  to  pay  the 
salaries  of  certificated  masters.  Nor,  perhajis,  is  it 
desirable  to  interfere  with  this  particular  class  of 
evening  schools ;  it  is  of  more  importance,  so  far 
as  state  aid  is  concerned,  that  the  education  of  the 
primary  school  should  be  confirmed  by  the  establish- 
ment of  evening  schools  for  hoys  aiid  girls.  There 
's  active  benevolence  enough  abroad  to  overtake 
the  ignorance  of  the  adult  population,  if  properly 
stimidated  by  the  various  religious  bodies. 

The  proposed  new  arrangements  as  to  payment 
may  also  lead  to  the  greater  separation  of  such 
schools  into  schools  for  boys  and  girls  above  13 
and  under  18,  and  schools  for  adidts.  It  is  found 
that  boys  and  men,  girls  and  women,  do  not  work 
well  together. 

2.  As  to  the  second  question :  in  those  evening 
schools  which  are  only  a  continuation  of  the  day 
school,  the  same  method  will  generally  be  found 
to  suit  as  in  the  primary  schools ;  and  therefore  it 
seems  advisable  that  they  should  be  conducted  by 
paid  certificated  teachers,  acting  under  managers  (as 
in  the  case  of  ordinary  day  schools),  and  claiming 
grants  from  the  privy  council.  Those  schools,  again, 
which  are  frequented  by  adults,  who  come  to  receive 
the  elements  of  reading,  wiiting,  and  arithmetic 
for  the  first  time,  require  more  delicate  handling, 
an(i  a  greater  consideration  of  individual  character 
and  wants  than  are  requisite  in  a  school  attended 
by  boys  and  girls.  In  such  cases,  voluntary  effort 
nn'Jer  the  influence  of  religious  or  merely  philan- 
thropic motives  appears  to  be  the  best  agency.  The 
ignorance  of  method  displayed  by  such  teachers, 
and  the  irregidar  manner  in  which  many  of  them 
hang  to  their  work,  are  no  doubt  serious  difficulties ; 
but  they  may  be  overcome  by  the  institution  of 
diocesan  or  other  unions,  in  imitation  of  the  East 
Lancashire  Union  of  evening  schools  under  the 
presidency  of  Sir  J.  P.  K.  Shuttleworth,  with  each  of 
which  might  be  connected  an  organizing  master,  who 
should  itinerate  among  the  schools,  giving  the  benefit 
of  his  superior  knowkidge  of  metliod. 

J^ubjecls  a-^id  Method. — As  to  subjects  to  be  taught, 


we  have  little  to  say  to  that  class  of  evening  schools 
which  continue  the  work  of  the  day  school.  It  is 
be  presumed  that  practical  instruction  (and  what 
else  should  be  aimed  at  in  such  schools?)  will 
embrace  the  elements  of  those  sciences  which  be;  r 
most  directly  on  life.  We  refer  to  social  economy 
and  the  laws  of  health.  Evening  schools  of  the 
humbler  and  more  urgent  sort  will  necessarily  con- 
fine themselves  to  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic, 
inventing  such  methods  of  teaching  those  subjects 
as  will  most  directly  touch  the  intelligence  and 
engage  the  interest.  The  short  period  of  attendance 
requires  that  much  be  done  rather  than  mxiny  things. 
Through  a  well-constructed  course  of  reading-booka 
(unfortunately,  there  is  no  reading  series  for  aaurcs 
worthy  of  mention),  all  the  general  culture  and 
specific  information  attainable  will  best  be  given. 
If  such  reading-books  do  not  furnish  adequate 
information  on  social  economy  in  its  domestic  and 
its  wider  social  relations,  and  on  the  laws  of 
health,  they  sadly  misunderstand  their  j^osition  in 
educational  literature.  Instruction  in  writing  and 
arithmetic  should  be  given  in  such  a  way  as  will 
naturally  connect  itseK  with  the  lives  and  daily 
necessities  of  the  learners.  But  this  is  not  the 
place  to  treat  of  the  subject  of  method. 

History. — Although  we  have  directed  attention 
to  the  fact,  that  Bishop  Hinds  was  the  first  in  this 
countiy  to  advocate  state  recognition  for  evening 
schools,  he  was  by  no  means  the  first  to  feel  the 
necessity  that  existed  for  them.  The  first  school 
established  exclusively  for  advdts  was  at  Bala,  in 
Merionethshire,  in  1811,  by  the  Rev.  T.  Charles.  In 
1812,  a  similar  school  was  set  on  foot  in  Bristol  by 
William  Smith  and  Stephen  Prout,  a  school  which 
led  to  the  establishment  of  the  '  Bristol  Institution 
for  instructing  adults  to  read  the  Holy  Scriptures.' 
In  1813,  writing  was  included  in  the  school  pro- 
gramme ;  and  in  1816,  a  society  of  the  same  kmd 
was  founded  in  London.  In  the  com'se  of  a  few 
years,  thirty  towns  possessed  similar  schools.  Tha 
first  evening  school  proper  for  instructing  boys  and 
girls  who  had  to  work  all  day  for  a  livelihood,  was 
founded  in  1806  at  Bristol,  by  the  'Benevolent 
Evening  Schools'  Society.'  The  present  statistics  of 
evening  schools  have  been  already  given. 

In  other  countries  of  Europe,  evening  schools, 
where  they  exist,  have  mainly  in  view  the  continu- 
ance of  the  education  already  received  in  primai'}^ 
schools.  In  France,  however,  the  wants  of  untaught 
adults  have  been  provided  for  by  the  establislmient 
by  law  of  evening  schools  suited  to  them.  In  all 
the  states  of  Germany,  provision  is  made  more  or 
less  in  the  country  districts,  and  always  in  the 
large  towns,  for  continuing  the  instruction  given 
in  the  primary  schools.  Schools  for  those  who 
wish  to  learn  reading  and  WTiting  for  the  first  tima 
seem  scarcely  to  exist,  probably  because  they  are 
not  needed.  The  schools  which  do  exist  have  a 
greater  affinity  to  our  Mechanics'  Institutes  than 
to  any  other  kind  of  institution  in  this  country. 
The  instruction  is  given  on  Sundays  and  holidays, 
and  in  many  places  also  on  one  or  two  evenings  in 
the  week.  But  Sunday  instruction  seems  alone  to 
have  been  originally  contemplated.  The  subjects 
taught  are  the  ordinary  branches,  with  geography, 
free-hand  and  geometrical  drawing,  geometry,  and 
in  some  cases  the  elements  of  natural  science  and 
the  laws  of  health.  These  institutions  are  supported 
by  the  funds  of  the  commune  or  district;  in  seme 
cases  supplemented  by  the  state. 

E'VERETT,  Alexander  Hill,  an  American 
diplomatist  and  author,  was  bom  at  Boston,  in 
Massachusetts,  19th  March  1792,  and  entered 
Harvard  College  in  1802.  In  1806,  although  the 
youngest  of  the  a'u-vni,  he  graduated  w_th  the 

-23 


KVEEETT— EVEESLEY. 


hif^hest  honours.  After  practising  for  some  time 
ns  a  lawyer,  he  was  appointed  United  States 
ambassador  at  the  Hague  in  1818,  and  went  in 
the  same  capacity  to  Spain  in  1825.  Four  years 
afterwards  he  returned  to  the  United  States, 
where  he  became  proprietor  and  editor  of  Tlie 
North  American  Review  (1830 — 1835),  and  also 
occupied  a  seat  in  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts. 
In  the  winter  of  1840,  he  resided,  as  a  confidential 
agent  of  the  United  States  government,  in  the 
Island  of  Cuba.  He  sailed  for  China  as  minister- 
plenipotentiary  for  that  empire  in  1845,  and  died 
at  Canton,  June  28,  1847.  E.  was  a  man  of  gi-eat 
versatility  of  talent  and  of  extensive  erudition. 
Politics  and  belles-lettres,  political  economy  and 
poetry,  statistics  and  {esthetics,  alternately  engaged 
his  thoughts  and  pen.  His  writhigs  are — Europe, 
or  a  General  Survey  of  the  Political  Situation  of 
the  Principal  Powers,  &c.  (London  and  Boston, 
1822) ;  New  Ideas  on  Population,  &c.  (London  and 
Boston,  1822)  ;  America,  or  a  Genei^al  Sw^ey  of 
the  Political  Situation  of  the  several  Poivers  of  the 
Western  Continent,  &c.  (Phila.  1827),  in  which  he 
labours  to  shew  that  Kussia  and  the  United  States 
must  in  the  long-run  share  the  continent  between 
them  ;  Critical  and  Miscellaneous  Essays  (two  series, 
Boston,  1845  and  1847).  These  are  on  a  vast  variety 
of  subjects,  and  are  probably  the  most  interesting 
productions  of  his  pen.  E.  also  published  a  volume 
of  poems  in  1845. 

EVERETT,  Edwakd,  a  younger  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  bom  in  1794  at  Dorchester,  near 
Boston,  Massachusetts,  entered  Harvard  College  in 
1807,  and  took  his  degree  in  1811.  He  was  for 
Bome  time  a  Unitarian  clergyman  in  the  town  of 
Cambridge,  and  in  this  capacity  had  the  reputation 
of  being  one  of  the  most  eloquent  and  pathetic 
preachers  in  the  United  States.  In  1815,  he  was 
elected  professor  of  the  Greek  Language  and  Litera- 
ture in  Harvard  College ;  and  to  qualify  himself 
more  thoroughly  for  his  work,  he  \asited  Europe, 
where  he  residet^.  for  four  years,  and  had  a  distin- 
guished circle  of  acquaintance,  including  Scott, 
Byron,  Jeffrey,  Eomilly,  Davy,  &c.  M.  Cousin, 
the  French  philosopher  and  translator  of  Plato, 
pronounced  him  'one  of  the  best  Grecians  he  ever 
knew.'  In  1820,  E.  became  editor  of  The  North 
American  Review;  and  in  1824,  a  member  of  the 
United  States  Congress,  sitting  in  the  House  of 
Representatives  for  ten  years.  In  1835,  he  was 
appointed  governor  of  Massachusetts ;  and  in  1841, 
minister  plenipotentiary  to  the  court  of  St  James's. 
While  in  England,  he  received  from  the  universities 
of  Oxford,  Cambridge,  and  Dublin  the  degree  of 
D.C.L.  On  his  return  to  America  in  1845,  he  was 
elected  president  of  Harvard  College ;  on  the  decease 
of  Daniel  Webster,  he  became  secretary  of  state ; 
and  in  1853,  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts  chose 
him  as  a  member  of  the  senate  of  the  United 
States. 

In  1854  he  resigned  his  seat  in  the  senate,  and  soon 
after  laboured  assiduously  in  aid  of  a  fund  for  the 
purchase  of  Mt.  Vernon  and  the  burial  place  of  Wash- 
ington for  the  American  people.  In  1860  he  was 
Union  Conservative  candidate  for  the  Vice  Presidency. 
When  Mr.  E.  perceived  the  war  inevitable,  he  gave  his 
influence  in  favor  of  the  Federal  Government.  He 
died  January  15,  1865. 

E'VERGREENS  are  those  trees  and  shrubs  of 
which  the  leaves  do  not  fall  off  in  autumn,  but 
retain  their .  freshness  and  verdure  throughout  the 
winter,  and  perform  their  functions  during  more 
than  one  season.  Evergreen  leaves  are  generally  of 
thicker  and  firmer  texture  than  the  leaves  of  deci- 
1(1  ^us  trees  and  shrubs  They  have  also  fewer  pores 
174 


or  Stomata  (q.  v.),  and  these  confintd  to  their  under 
surface.  Evergreen  leaves  are  sometimes  very  small, 
as  in  firs  and  heaths ;  sometimes  pretty  laige,  as  ia 
rhododendrons,  laurels,  magnolias,  &c.  E.,  both 
trees  and  shrubs,  have  always  been  much  sought 
after  by  the  landscape  gardener,  and  for  j)urpose3  of 
ornament  and  shelter.  Some  orders  of  plants  consist 
exclusively,  or  nearly  so,  of  E.,  whilst  in  others 
they  exist  only  as  exceptional  si)ecie8.  Most  of  the 
Coniferce  are  E. ;  and  the  sombre  green  of  })ines, 
firs,  cypresses,  &c.,  is  a  prevalent  cTiaracteristic  of 
northern  scenery  both  in  summer  and  wnnter; 
whilst  the  undiminished  thickness  of  the  foliage 
afibrds  winter  shelter  to  animals  which  could  not 
so  well  exist  in  forests  composed  merely  of  decidu- 
ous trees.  Holly  and  ivy  are  amongst  the  finest 
British  E. ;  the  box,  privet,  and  different  kinds 
of  bay  and  laurel,  rhododendron,  phyllirea,  myrtle, 
&c.,  are  also  familiar  to  every  one.  As  instances 
of  genera  in  which  some  species  are  evergreen 
and  others  deciduous,  may  be  mentioned  barberry 
and  cytisus.  JMany  fine  new  ornamental  E.  have 
recently  been  introduced.  As  suitable  for  imparting 
a  lively  appearance,  boughs  of  E.  are  largely 
employed  in  Great  Britain  to  decorate  the  walls  of 
public  places  of  assemblage,  triumphal  arches,  &c., 
on  festive  occasions. 

EVERLA'STING  FLOWER,  the  popular  name 
of  certain  plants,  the  flowers  of  which  suflEer  little 
change  of  appearance  in  drying,  and  may  be  kept 
for  years  without  much  diminution  of  beauty.  Tliey 
are  plants  of  the  order  Camposifce,  having  their 
flowers  (heads  of  flowers)  surrounded  with  an  invo- 
lucre ;  the  scales  of  which  resemble  the  petals  of 
a  corolla,  but  are  rigid,  membranous,  and  contain 
little  moisture.  Some  species  of  Cudweed  (q.  v.) 
{Gnaphalium)  are  often  called  E.  F.,  and  the  other 
plants  which  bear  the  name  belong  to  nearly  allied 
genera,  but  particularly  to  the  genus  Helichrysitm, 
which  contains  a  great  number  of  species,  mostly 
natives  of  Africa.  //.  arenarium  is  frequent  on 
dry  sandy  soils  in  many  parts  of  Europe  and  the 
central  latitudes  of  Asia.  It  is  covered  with  a  gray 
felted  down,  and  has  yellow  flowers,  which,  when 
rubbed,  emit  a  faint  aromatic  odour.  It  is  often 
worn  on  the  continent  of  Europe  as  an  ornament 
in  the  hat,  particularly  by  wagoners.  //.  angusti- 
folium  and  H.  Stcechas — shrubby  species,  natives  of 
the  south  of  Europe— have  larger  yellow  flowers. 
Some  of  the  species  have  a  powerful  and  plt^asant 
aromatic  odour.  No  species  of  Helichrysum  is  a 
native  of  Britain.  Several  kinds  of  K  F.  are  fre- 
quently to  be  seen  in  our  gardens,  others  in  green- 
houses. The  French  call  them  Immortelles,  and  in 
France  they  are  often  woven  into  circular  wreaths, 
and  placed  beside  recent  graves,  as  emblems  of 
immortality. 

E'VERSLEY,  Viscount,  ex-Speaker  of  the  House 
of  Commons.  Charles  Shaw  Lefevre,  born  in 
1794,  is  descended  maternally  from  the  Lefevres, 
who  came  to  England  from  Rouen  on  the  revocation 
of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  He  was  educated  at 
Winchester  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  called 
to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1819,  entered 
parliament  in  1830  as  member  for  Downton,  and 
represented  Hants  from  1831  to  1857.  In  1839  h6 
was  chosen  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons  ; 
and  re-elected  in  the  parliaments  of  1841,  1847,  and 
1852.  He  retired  from  the  office  in  1857,  with  a 
peerage  and  a  pension  of  £4000  a  year.  During  the 
eighteen  years  of  his  Speakership,  he  suggested  and 
carried  out  many  improvements  in  the  forms  and 
procedure  of  the  Lower  House,  tending  to  the 
dispatch  of  business.  Tall,  and  dignified  in  person, 
affable  and  accessible  to  the  younger  members,  tc 


EVESHAM-  -EVIDENCE. 


whom  he  was  ever  ready  to  impart  the  results  of 
his  knowledge  and  experience,  profoundly  versed 
in  the  laws  of  debate  and  practice  of  the  House, 
he  was  admirably  qualified,  by  nature  and  training, 
to  enjoy  the  distinction  of  '  first  commoner  of  Eng- 
land,' and  to  preside  over  the  greatest  deliberative 
assembly  in  the  world.  His  impartiality  was  never 
questioned,  and  his  retirement  from  the  Lower 
House  was  universally  regretted.  He  was  appointed 
governor  and  captain  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and 
governor  of  Carisbrooke  Castle  in  October  1857. 

E'VESHAM,  originally  Eovesham,  a  municipal 
and  parliamentary  borough  in  the  south-east  of 
Worcestershire,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  navigable 
Avon,  15  miles  south-east  of  Worcester.  It  lies 
in  a  beautiful  and  fertile  vale,  in  which  are  many 
market-gardens  and  orchards.  It  has  some  manu- 
factures of  agricultural  implements.  Pop.  (1871) 
4887.  It  sends  two  members  to  parliament.  An 
abbey  was  foimded  here  about  700 ;  and  there  still 
exists  a  bell-tower,  28  feet  square  at  the  base,  and 
110  feet  high,  erected  by  Bishop  Lichfield  immedi- 
ately before  the  Reformation.  Here  Prince  Edward, 
afterwards  Edward  L,  defeated  Simon  Montfort, 
Earl  of  Leicester,  in  1265. 

EVI'CTI(.»N,  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  is  the 
dispossessing  one  of  property,  whether  in  land 
or  movables,  in  virtue  of  a  preferable  title  in  the 
person  of  him  by  whom  the  eviction  is  made.  The 
same  expression  is  used  in  England  as  to  property 
in  land ;  but  while  the  tenant  is  merely  deprived  of 
possession,  it  is  called  Ouster. 

E'VIDENCE,  Legal.  Evidence  is  either  parole 
or  written,  the  former  consisting  of  the  statements 
of  witnesses  appearing  personally  in  court,  and  which 
statements  must  be  attested  by  an  oath  or  solemn 
declaration ;  the  latter  consisting  of  records,  deeds, 
tind  other  writings. 

The  tendency,  both  in  England  and  Scotland,  of 
late  years,  has  been  to  abolish  all  restrictions  on  the 
admissibility  of  witnesses,  and  to  bring  the  rule 
practically  to  what  Blackstone  stated  it  to  be  in 
the'^ry,  viz.,  '  all  witnesses  that  have  the  use  of 
their  reason  are  to  be  received  and  examined.'  The 
ground  on  which  witnesses  were  formerly  excluded 
was  untrustworthiness,  arising  either  from  the 
character  of  the  witnesses  or  their  interest  in  the 
%\ut.  Under  the  former  head  fell  those  who  were 
legally  Infamous  (q. v.);  whilst  the  latter  included, 
first,  the  pArty  to  the  suit  himself,  and  then  all  who 
were  connected  with  him  by  the  ties  of  family,  or 
even  of  business,  in  any  appreciable  degree.  Gradu- 
iilly,  however,  it  came  to  be  seen  that,  though 
witnesses  subject  to  these  objections  were  less 
valuable  than  others  to  the  party  adducing  them,  it 
by  no  means  followed  that  their  testimony  was  of 
no  value  at  all,  and  that  the  safer  course  in  all  cases 
was  to  examine  them,  and  then  to  allow  their  testi- 
mony to  be  invalidated  by  proof  of  their  interest  in 
the  cause  direct  or  indirect,  or  of  their  having  been 
convicted  of  such  crimes  as  to  render  it  unlikely 
that  they  should  speak  the  truth.  The  objections 
have  thus  become  objections  not  to  the  admis- 
sibility or  competency,  but  to  the  credibility  of 
witnesses.  The  first  of  the  very  important  statutes 
by  which  these  changes  were  effected  was  9  Geo. 
I  v.  c.  32,  which  permitted  Quakers  and  Moravians 
to  substitute  a  solemn  affirmation  for  an  oath ; 
admitted  the  party  whose  name  had  been  forged 
as  a  witness  in  prosecutions  for  forgery ;  and  pro- 
vided that  no  misdemeanour  (except  perjury)  shaU 
render  a  party  an  incompetent  witness  after  he 
hafl  undergoue  the  pimishinent.  Then  came  the 
Scotch  Act  3  and  4  Vict.  c.  59,  afterwards  referred 
to,  and  the  Erglish  Ant  6  and  7  Vict.  c.  85,  which 


rovided  that  no  person  offered  as  a  witness  shall 

creafter  be  excluded,  by  reason  of  incapacity 
from  crime  or  interest,  from  giving  evidence  either 
in  person  or  by  deposition  on  any  issue  or  in(]uiry 
civil  or  criminal,  but  shall  be  admitted  notwith- 
standing he  may  have  an  interest  in  the  matter 
in  question,  or  in  the  event  of  the  trial  or  [)ro- 
ceeding,  and  notwithstanding  that  he  may  have 
been  previously  convicted  of  any  crime  or  offence. 
The  same  principle  was  extended  by  14  and  15 
Vict.  c.  99  to  the  parties  to  a  cause,  who  are  not 
only  competent,  but  compellable  to  give  evidence 
on  behalf  of  either  or  any  of  the  parties — subject 
only  to  exception  where  the  question  tends  to  crimi- 
nate the  person  examined,  or  where  it  is  i)ut  in 
any  action  for  breach  of  promise  of  marriage,  or  any 
action  or  proceeding  instituted  in  consecjuence  of 
adultery.  By  16  and  17  Vict.  c.  83,  the  former 
stat.  14  and  15  Vict.  c.  99,  was  amended  to  the 
effect,  that  the  husband  or  wife  of  the  party 
shall  be  in  thS  same  position  with  the  party  him- 
seK — subject  only  to  these  exceptions,  first,  that 
the  husband  or  wife  cannot  give  evidence  for  or 
against  each  other  in  criminal  proceedings,  or 
proceedings  in  consequence  of  adultery,  and  that 
they  cannot  be  compelled  to  disclose  matters  which 
they  have  learned  by  communications  from  each 
other  during  the  marriage.  The  statutes  by  which 
the  corresponding  changes  were  effected  in  Scotland 
were  3  and  4  Vict.  c.  59,  15  and  16  Vict.  c.  27,  and 
16  and  17  Vict.  c.  20. 

The  Oath  (q.  v.)  to  *  speak  the  truth,  the  whole 
truth,  and  nothing  but  the  truth,'  is  administered 
to  witnesses  in  England  on  the  New  Testament, 
in  Scotland,  holding  up  the  right  hand.  Quakers 
and  members  of  other  denominations  who  object 
to  the  use  of  an  oath,  as  formerly  observed,  emit 
a  solemn  Affirmation  (q.  v.) ;  and  persons  who  are 
not  Christians  are  sworn,  or  otherwise  bound  over 
to  speak  the  truth  by  such  forms  as  are  conceived 
to  be  appropriate  to  their  respective  creeds.  The 
test  of  the  amount  of  religious  belief  which  will 
suffice  to  render  a  witness  admissible,  has  been 
generally  considered  to  be  a  belief  in  future  rewards 
and  punishments ;  but  there  is  no  decision  which 
fixes  the  point,  and  in  England,  belief  in  a  God 
whose  rewards  and  punishments  extend  only  to  this 
life  is  considered  sufi&cient  (Starkie,  4th  ed.  p.  116; 
Dickson,  p.  849).  There  seems  reason  to  think,  how- 
ever, that  this  restriction  is  removed  by  1  and  2 
Vict.  c.  105,  which  provides  that  all  persons  shall  be 
bound  by  the  oath  administered  in  the  form  and 
with  such  ceremonies  as  such  persons  shall  declare 
to  be  binding. 

It  is  a  general  rule  of  the  law  of  evidence,  that  a 
witness  is  not  bound  to  criminate  himself,  and  he 
may  consequently  decline  to  answer  any  question 
that  tends  to  expose  him  to  punishment  as  a 
criminal,  or  to  penal  liability,  or  to  forfeitiu-e  of  any 
kind.  If  the  effect  of  the  question  be  merely  to 
establish  that  he  owes  a  debt,  or  is  otherwise 
subject  to  a  civil  suit,  the  exception  will  not  hold, 
and  he  will  be  boimd  to  answer  it  (46  Geo.  III. 
c.  37).  The  rule  in  England  is,  that  a  counsel, 
attorney,  or  solicitor  is  not  bound,  or  even  entitled,  to 
di\ailge  the  secrets  of  the  cause  with  which  he  has 
been  intrusted;  and  the  recent  Scottish  Act  15  and  16 
Vict.  c.  27,  s.  1,  preserves  the  same  exception  with 
reference  to  agents  who  shall  at  the  time  when  so 
adduced  be  acting  in  that  capacity.  Neither  can 
official  persons  be  called  upon  to  disclose  matters  of 
state,  the  publication  of  which  might  be  prejudicial 
to  the  community.  All  other  professional  persons, 
however — lawyers  not  engaged  in  the  cause,  physi- 
cians, surgeons,  and  divines,  must  divulge  all  secreta 
relevant  to  the  issue  with  which  they  have  become 

17& 


EVIDENCE— EVIL. 


acquaintecl,  even  in  the  strictest  professional  confi- 
dence. See  Confessional.  Neither  will  a  servant 
nor  private  friend  be  allowed  to  Avithhold  a  relevant 
act,  though  of  the  most  delicate  nature. 

One  witness  in  England  is  suflicient  in  law,  if  the 
jury  are  willing  to  accept  a  fact  on  his  testimony, 
and  in  long  chains  of  evidence  it  is  often  impossible 
that  more  than  one  witness  should  be  adduced  to 
make  out  some  of  the  links  of  it.  In  general, 
however,  there  will  be  some  fact  or  circumstance 
which  wUl  act  as  a  supplementary  adminicle,  if  the 
testimony  be  reliable ;  and  it  is  this  fact  which  has 
rendered  the  practical  effect  of  the  opposite  rule, 
which  demands  two  witnesses,  in  Scotland,  not  very 
different.  The  want  of  a  second  witness  is  usually 
supplied  by  a  witness  to  circumstances  which  are 
corroborative  of  the  evidence  of  the  first;  and  where 
the  one  witness  is  not  so  corroborated  in  England,  he 
will  rarely  be  believed.  It  is  a  rule  that  none  but 
the  best  evidence  shall  be  adduced,  which  means 
that  secondary  shall  not  be  substituted  for  primary 
evidence  where  the  latter  is  accessible ;  a  rule 
founded  on  the  presumption  that  such  a  substitution 
is  probably  prompted  by  a  sinister  motive.  This 
ride  applies  to  written  as  well  as  oral  testimony, 
and  excludes  copies  of  documents,  just  as  it 
excludes  the '  hearsay '  of  witnesses.  See  Oath,  J ury, 
Witness,  Deed,  Testing,  &c.  The  best  works  on 
evidence  in  English  are  Starkie  (English),  Greenleaf 
'American),  and  Dickson  (Scotch). 

E'VIL  may  be  generally  defined  as  that  which 
is  opposed  to  the  divine  order  of  the  universe.  It 
requires  only  a  superficial  observation  to  perceive, 
that  there  are  many  apparent  exceptions  to  the 
pervading  harmony  and  happiness  of  creation : 
there  are  convulsions  in  the  physical  world;  there 
are  suffering,  decay,  and  death  throughoiit  the  whole 
range  of  organic  existence ;  and  the  appellation  of  evil 
is  commoidy  applied  to  such  phenomena.  In  the 
face  of  the  human  consciousness,  such  phenomena 
appear  to  be  infractions  of  the  general  order  and 
good,  and  it  pronounces  them  evil.  How  far  the 
internal  feeling  of  wrong  has  been  quickened  and 
educated  by  such  outward  facts,  it  Avould  be 
difficult  to  say,  but,  beyond  doubt,  they  have  exer- 
cised upon  it  a  powerful  influence.  Every  form  of 
religion  testifies  to  the  recognition  of  evQ  in  the 
external  world,  and  superstition  in  aU  its  shapes 
mainly  rests  upon  it. 

But  it  is  in  the  sphere  of  moral  life  alone  that  the 
conception  of  evil  can  be  said  to  hold  good.  After 
the  light  of  science  has  explored  the  secrets  of  nature, 
and  shevm  how  all  its  apparent  anomalies  are 
merely  manifestations  of  a  comprehensive  harmony, 
the  idea  of  evil  is  dispelled  from  the  material  and 
merely  organic  creation.  '  Whatever  is,  is  best,'  is 
seen  to  be  everywhere  the  law  of  this  creation. 
There  remains,  however,  the  ineradicable  feeling  of 
evil  in  human  life  and  manners  and  history.  There 
is  in  the  moral  consciousness  of  man  a  sense  of 
violated  order,  of  transgi-ession  of  divine  law,  or 
what  is  called  sin,  which  is  evil  in  its  essential  form. 
This  fact  of  evil  is  everywhere  appealed  to  by  the 
Christian  religion ;  it  is  the  aim  of  this  religion  to 
deliver  men  from  its  power  and  misery.  Every 
ethical  and  judicial  code  is  based  upon  its  recog- 
nition, and  is  designed  to  protect  human  society 
from  its  injurious  consequences.  It  cannot  be 
better  or  more  clearly  defined  than  in  the  language 
already  given,  viz.,  the  transgression  of  the  divine 
law  revealed  in  conscience  and  in  Scripture. 

The  question  of  the  origin  of  evil  has  been  greatly 
discussed,  and  received  various  answers.  The  sim- 
plest and  most  direct  of  these  answers  is  that  which 
maintains  a  double  origin  of  things,  or  a  system  of 
dualism.  This  conception  lies  at  the  bases  of  many 
17" 


forms  of  religion  ;  it  may  be  said  to  be  the  funda- 
mental concejjtion  of  all  mere  nature  religions. 
Interpreting  the  obvious  appearances  of  nature, 
they  embody  in  divine  personalities  its  contending 
manifestations  of  light  and  darkness,  benignity  and 
terror.  The  opposition  of  Ormuzd  and  Ahriman 
in  the  old  Zoroastrian  faith  is  one  of  the  most  con- 
spicuous examples  of  this  religious  dualism.  Mani- 
cheism,  which  spread  so  widely  in  the  4th  and  5th 
centuries,  and  the  Syrian  gnosticism  from  which  it 
sprung,  are  also  historical  illustrations  of  the  same 
principle. 

The  dualistic  theory  of  the  origin  of  evil,  how- 
ever, coidd  not  obviously  maintain  itself  with  the 
advance  of  specidation  and  the  spread  of  Christian 
truth.  It  was  no  less  clearly  a  postulate  of  the 
cultivated  reason  than  a  dictate  of  divine  revela- 
tion, that  the  world  proceeded  from  C me  absolutely 
Divine  Creator,  holy  and  good,  of  whom,  and 
through  v/hom,  and  to  whom  are  i*ll  things.  It 
was  necessary,  therefore,  to  recorcile  the  appearance 
of  evil  with  this  fundamental  admiitjion. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Fail,  eftpejially  in  the  later 
form  of  development  wlich  corrects  it  with  the 
existence  of  a  devil  or  evil  spirit,  tempting  man 
in  the  shape  of  the  serpent,  was  supposed  to 
explain  the  appearance  of  evil  in  human  history. 
Being  tempted  of  the  devil,  man  sinned,  and  so 
feU  from  his  obedience  to  the  divine  law.  This  is 
the  doctrine  of  orthodox  Christian  theology,  and 
the  answer  which  it  gives  to  ^e  inquiry,  how 
sin  came  into  the  world  ?  And  imny  minds  never 
think  of  carrying  the  inquiry  further.  It  is  clear, 
however,  that  this  explanation  of  the  historical 
origin  of  evil  leaves  the  question  of  its  real  and 
absolute  origin  unsettled.  The  devil  being  assumed 
as  the  cause  of  man's  sin,  the  further  question 
arises,  whence  the  devil?  Is  he  an  absolute  per- 
sonality? in  which  case  we  are  landed  in  tbe 
old  theory  of  dualism ;  or  is  he,  according  to  tbe 
traditionary  Christian  conception,  a  fallen  angel  ?  in 
which  case  the  question  just  returns,  whence  the 
spring  of  evil  in  him  ?  There  is  no  real  explanation 
gained  by  this  removal  of  the  question ;  it  is  still 
the  same  difficulty — whence  the  origin  of  evil  in  the 
creation  of  an  all-perfect  being,  almighty  as  well 
as  all-vvise  and  good  ? 

Speculation  may  please  itself  with  ingenious 
answers  to  this  question,  but  in  truth  it  admita 
of  no  satisfactory  solution.  Some,  for  example, 
have  argued  that  evil,  like  darkness  or  cold,  is  an 
indispensable  element  of  alternation  or  contrast  in 
liimian  life.  All  individual  reality  is  only  the  pro- 
duct of  opposite  forces  working  together.  Character 
could  only  arise  from  the  interaction  of  opposing 
ethical  influences  of  good  and  evil.  In  nature,  we 
have  attraction  and  repulsion,  rest  and  motion, 
positive  and  negative  electricity ;  why  should  it  be 
different  in  the  sphere  of  morals  ?  Here,  too,  there 
must  be  polarity.  Good  can  only  exist  in  contra- 
distinction to  evil ;  the  one  no  less  than  the  other 
is  necessary  to  constitute  the  drama  of  hrmian 
life  and  history.  Others,  again,  have  argued,  that 
evil  is  the  result  of  what  is  called  metaphysical 
imperfection.  God  alone  can  be  perfectly  good.  The 
creature,  in  its  very  nature,  is  limited,  defective ; 
and  evil  is  nothing  else  than  the  evidence  of  this 
limitation  in  man.  It  is  not  something  real  or 
positive,  but  only  a  privation.  It  is  in  morals  what 
cold  and  darkness  are  in  physics,  a  pure  negation. 
Thus  have  argued  such  profound  thinkers  as 
Augustine  and  Leibnitz.  But  it  requires  but  little 
penetration  to  see  that  such  arguments,  however 
ingenious,  and  so  far  well  founded,  do  not  meet  the 
essential  diflficulty  of  the  problem.  If  evil  be,  accord- 
ing to  such  views,  a  necessary  element  of  hujnan  ^ife, 


EVIL— EVOLUTE 


AND  INVOLUTE. 


ia  the  one  case,  in  order  to  develop  its  activity, 
in  the  other  case,  as  cUnging  to  its  creaturely  limi- 
tations, then  plainly  it  is  not,  in  the  orthodox 
sense  of  the  word,  evil.  It  is  not,  and  cannot  be  a 
contradiction  of  the  true  idea  of  human  life,  and  at 
the  san'.e  time  a  necessary  element  of  it.  Whatever 
necessarily  belongs  to  life,  must  help  its  true  develop- 
ment, and  not  injure  and  destroy  it;  must  be  good, 
in  shoi-t,  and  not  evil.  Such  theories,  therefore,  only 
solve  the  problem  by  eliminating  the  fact.  The 
origin  of  evil  must  remain  for  ever  inscrutable  ;  nor 
1-3  it  wonderful  that  it  should.  It  is  only  in  its 
ultimate  sense  conceivable  as  a  quality  of  moral 
freedom,  and  moral  freedom  in  man  or  any  cieated 
being  is  a  profound  mystery.  It  is  something  which 
*  we  apprehend,  but  which  we  can  neither  comprehend 
nor  ooomunicate.' 
EVIL,  King's.   See  Scrofula. 

EVIL  EYE.  Both  in  ancient  and  modern  times, 
the  belief  that  some  persons  have  the  power  of 
iniuring  others  by  looking  upon  them,  has  been 
widely  diffused.  The  Greeks  frequently  speak  of 
the  Ophtlialmos  Baslcanos  (or  evil  eye),  which  they 
conceived  to  be  specially  dangerous  to  children ;  and 
the  Romans  used  the  verb  fascinare  to  express  the 
same  fact.  Pliny  speaks — not  on  his  own  authority, 
however — of  'those  among  the  Triballians  and 
TUyrians,  who  with  their  very  eyesight  can  witch 
{effascinent),  yea,  and  kill  those  whom  they  look 
wistly  upon  any  long  time ; '  and  Plutarch  states,  on 
the  authority  of  Philaretus,  that  '  the  Thybiens  who 
inhabited  Pontus  were  deadly,  not  only  to  babes, 
but  to  men  grown,  and  that  whomsoever  their  eye, 
speech,  or  breath  would  reach,  were  sure  to  fall  sick, 
and  pine  away.'  Menalcas,  in  Virgil  [Ed.  iii.  102), 
also  complains  that  some  evil  eye  has  fascinated  his 
young  lambs — 

Nescio  quis  teneros  oculus  mihi  fascinat  agnos. 

The  principal  amulet  used  by  the  ancients  was  the 
"phallus  or  fascinurriy  as  the  Romans  called  it,  which 
was  hung  round  the  neck  of  children.  Of  course, 
this  superstition,  like  aU  others,  flourished  in  Euroi^e 
during  the  middle  ages.  See  Reginald  Scot's  Dis- 
coveinj  of  Witchcraft ;  the  Opusculum  de  Fascino  of 
John  Lazarus  Gutierrez,  a  Spanish  physician,  pub- 
lished in  1653  ;  and  the  Tractatus  de  Fascinatione  of 
John  Christian  Froramann,  a  physician  of  Saxe- 
Coburg,  published  in  1675.  In  the  British  Isles,  also, 
the  belief  in  the  power  of  the  evil  eye  is  of  old 
date,  and  is  by  no  means  dead,  at  least  in  Ireland 
and  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  In  these  countries 
(as  elsewhere),  it  was  once  a  very  common  super- 
stition that  cattle  were  subject  to  injury  in  this 
way.  Witches  had  the  power  to  a  malignant  degree  ; 
and  various  charms,  such  as  tv/ining  mountain-ash 
among  the  hair  of  the  cow's  tail,  were  used  to  avert 
or  destroy  their  noxious  influence.  In  the  East 
it  w  IS  and  is  no  less  prevalent.  The  Persians  have 
Yarii  lis  methods  of  discovering  the  special  kind 
of  fascination  by  which  a  person  is  afflicted ;  and 
Dallaway,  in  his  Account  of  Constantinople  (Lond. 
1797),  affirms  that  '  nothing  can  exceed  the  supersti- 
4io3  of  the  Turks  respecting  the  evil  eye  of  an  enemy 
Wr  infidel.  Passages  from  the  Koran  are  painted  on 
thj  outside  of  the  houses,  globes  of  glass  are  sus- 
pended from  the  ceiling,  and  a  part  of  the  super- 
fluous caparison  of  their  horses  is  designed  to  attract 
attention,  and  divert  a  sinister  influence.'  Hobhouse, 
in  his  Travels,  bears  equally  conclusive  testimony  to 
the  prevalence  of  this  superstition  in  the  Turkish 
empire,  not  among  Mohammedans  only,  but  also 
among  Christians  ;  while  Lane,  in  his  Modern  Egyp- 
tio.ns  (1836),  gives  an  account  of  the  precautions 
taken  by  the  Egyptians  to  avoid  the  influence  of 
c-il  eye.  The  American  Indians  partake  of  the 
16i 


same  belief ;  and  it  ifj  not  improbable  that  if  the  ^la^ 
tor  were  still  more  profoundly  investigated,  it  woulJ 
be  found  that  every  nation  that  exists,  or  lias  existed, 
with  anything  like  a  developed  system  of  superstition, 
believes  or  has  believed  in  the  reality  of  fascination  in 
some  form  or  other. 

The  universality  of  this  superstition  goes  far  to 
prove  that  it  has  what  may  be  called  a  natural 
origin  ;  and,  indeed,  when  we  consider  that  the  cTje 
is  the  most  expressive  organ  of  the  soul  or  mind 
of  man,  that  through  it  are  shot  forth,  as  it  were, 
into  the  visible  world  of  the  senses,  the  hidden 
passions,  emotions,  and  desires  of  our  nature,  we  wUl 
not  wonder  that  in  the  '  times  of  ignorance,'  when 
men  could  give  no  rational  or  scientific  account  of 
almost  any  physiological  phenomena,  if  connected 
with  psychology,  the  eye  should  have  been  super- 
stitiously  imagined  to  be  a  centre  of  malignant 
influence.  The  eye  is,  in  point  of  fact,  as  potent  as 
superstition  dreams  :  the  error  lay  not  in  the  recog« 
nition  of  its  power,  but  in  exjilaining  the  mode  of  its 
operation.  The  person  who  felt  himself  under  the 
spell  of  a  powerfid  gaze,  was  too  agitated  to  calmly 
consider  the  cause  of  his  terrors,  and  attributed  to 
another  results  for  which  he  himself  was  mainly 
responsible.  It  was  really  he  that  gave  to  the  eye 
of  his  fellow-creature  its  baleful  influence  ;  and  he 
quailed  less  before  the  force  of  character  which  it 
indicated,  than  before  the  fearful  fancies  with  which 
his  own  timiditj'  had  invested  it.  For  this  disease, 
wherever  it  has  existed,  or  does  yet  exist,  there  ia 
no  cure  but  that  solid  culture  of  the  understanding 
from  which  comes  a  true  strength  of  will  and  brain. 
See  Fascination  by  Serpents. 

E'VOLUTE  AND  I'N  VOLUTE.  See  Curvatcrb 
and  Osculating  Circle.  The  evolute  of  any  curve 
is  the  locus  of  the  centre  of  its  osculating  circle, 
and  relative  to  its  evolute,  the  curve  is  called 
the  involute.  This  is  the  simplest  definition  that 
can  be  given  of  an  evolute  and  involute,  which  are 
relative  terms.  There  is  another,  hov^ever,  which 
may  represent  the  relation  of  tlie  ci^rves  more 
clearly  to  those  who  are  not  mathematicians.  If 
on  any  curve  a  string  be  closely  Avrapped,  and  if  the 
string  be  fastened  at  one  of  its  ends,  and  free  at  the 
other ;  and  then  if  we  unwind  the  string  from  the 
curve,  keeping  it  constantly  stretched,  the  curve 
which  would  be  traced  out  by  a  pencil  fixed  to  the 
free  end  of  the  string,  is  called  the  involute  of  that 
from  which  the  string  is  unwound,  and  relative  to 
it,  the  latter  is  called  the  evolute.  It  is  clear  tha«; 
the  involute  might  otherwise  be  described  by  fasten- 
ing a  string  at  one  extremity  of  the  evolute,  and 
wrapping  it  thereupon,  keeping  it  always  stretched. 
From  either  definition,  it  is  clear  that  a  norm.-^-l  to 
the  involute  at  any  point  is  a  tangent  to  *-ho 
evolute,  and  that  the  difference  in  length  between 
any  two  radii  of  curvature  to  the  involute  is  eq»al 
to  the  length  of  the  arc  of  the  evolute  intercepted 
between  them.  The  nature  of  evolutes  M^as  fir^it 
considered  by  Huyghens,  who  shewed  that  the 
evolute  to  a  common  cycloid  is  another  equal 
cycloid,  a  property  of  that  curve  wliich  he  employed 
in  making  a  pendulum  vibrate  in  a  cycloid.  To 
describe  the  involute  of  a  circle,  proceed  as  follows  ? 
Let  a  be  the  centre  of  the  circle,  and  h  the  extremity 
of  the  string  to  be  unwound  from  its  circum- 
ference. Divide  the  circle,  or  part  of  the  circle, 
according  to  the  length  of  curve  required,  into  any 
niimber  of  equal  parts,  as  c,  d,  e,  &c. ;  through  these, 
from  a,  draw  radial  lines  ;  from  the  points  where 
these  touch  the  circle,  draw,  at  right  angles  to  the 
lines  ac,  ad,  &c.,  other  hues,  as  in  the  (ha^am. 
With  the  distance  ch  as  radius,  from  the  point  c, 
describe  an  arc  61,  cutting  the  line  cl  in  1.  From 
the  point  d,  with  rfl,  describe  an  arc  1  2,  cutting  tha 

177 


EVOLUTION  AND  INVOLUTION— EVREUX. 


line  i2  in  2.  From  e,  with  e2,  describe  an  aVc  2  ,3, 
cuttwig  the  line  e3  in  3.    With  radiiis  /3,  from  /, 


describe  an  arc  3  4,  ciitting  fA  in  the  point  4.  Pro- 
eced  in  this  way,  descril>ing  arcs  which  pass  through 
the  points  5,  6,  7,  8,  and  9.  The  involute  will  thus 
be  formed. 

EVOLU'TION  AND  INVOLU'TION,  algebraical 
terms,  the  former  signifying  the  extraction  of  roots, 
and  tlie  latter  tJie  ramnq  to  powers.  When  any 
immber  is  multiplied  by  itself,  the  product  is  called 
its  square,  or  second  power.  If  we  midtiply  the 
square  by  the  number  again,  we  get  the  cube,  or 
third  power;  and  so  on.  This  process  is  called 
involution.  Evolution  is  the  inverse  process,  by 
which  a  number  being  presented,  we  may  ascertain 
a  particular  root  of  it,  say  the  fourth ;  or  that  number 
which,  being  multiplied  into  unity  a  particular 
number  of  times,  say  four  times,  the  product  will 
be  the  number  presented.  Both  subjects  will  be 
found  treated  in  all  algebraical  text-books.  Evolu- 
tion is  more  particidarly  considered  under  the  head 

ElXTRACTION  OF  EoOTS. 

EVOIiU'TIONS,  in  military  matters,  are  the 
movements  of  troops  in  order  to  change  position. 
The  object  may  be  to  maintain  or  sustain  a  post, 
to  occupy  a  new  post,  to  improve  an  attack,  or  to 
improve  a  defence.  All  such  movements  as  march- 
ing, counter-marching,  route-marching,  changing 
front,  forming  line,  facing,  wheeling,  making  column 
or  line,  making  6chelon  or  square,  defiling,  deploy- 
ing, &c.,  come  under  the  general  heading  of  evolu- 
tions. More  minute  descriptions  of  these  and  other 
motions  will  be  given  under  Tactics,  Military 
AND  Naval.  Other  things  being  equal,  the  best 
evolutions  are  those  which  occupy  least  time  and 
least  space.  The  word  evolution  equally  applies  to 
the  movement  of  ships  in  a  fleet. 

E'VORA  (ancient  Ehora),  a  city  of  Portugal, 
capital  of  the  province  of  Alemtejo,  and,  after 
Coimbra,  and  perhaps  Thomar,  the  most  interest- 
ing city  in  the  country,  is  beautifully  situated  on 
a  fertile  and  elevated  plain,  48  miles  west-south-  i 
west  of  Badajoz,  and  about  80  miles  east  of  Lisbon. 
It  was  once  a  place  of  considerable  strength ;  but  its 
ramparts,  and  the  towers  which  flanked  them,  its 
citadel,  its  forts,  and  its  watch-towers,  are  now  in  a 
hopelessly  ruinous  condition.  The  town  itself  is  not 
well  built,  it3  streets  are  narrow  and  winding,  and 
its  houses  old  and  badly  planned.  It  has  a  cathe- 
dral, a  large  Gothic  edifice,  founded  in  1186,  the 
choir  of  which,  rebuilt  in  1721,  is  in  the  Italian 
style,  and  is  richly  adorned  with  marbles  of  various 
colours.  E.  has  been  the  see  of  an  archbishop 
since  1541 ;  has  an  archiepiscopal  library,  containing 
upwards  of  50,000  volumes  ;  and  several  pictures  of 
{Treat  merit,  attributed  to  Gran  Vasco.  It  has 
manufactures  of  ironware  and  leather,  and  a  well- 
attended  annual  fair.  Pop.  about  12,000 
178 


E.  is  a  very  ancient  city.  Quintus  Sertoriua  took 
it  in  80  B.C.  It  was  also  conquered  by  the  Moors  in 
712,  but  recovered  from  them  in  1166.  The  Roman 
antiquities  of  E.  are  unrivalled  in  the  Peninsula. 
Among  these,  the  temple  of  Diana,  used  as  a  slaughter- 
house for  some  time  previous  to  the  year  IS^M, 
exhibits  in  its  fine  Corinthian  columns  admirable* 
pro}>ortion  and  delicacy  of  sculpture.  There  is  also 
an  a(|ueduct,  1200  paces  in  length,  erected  by  Quintua 
Sertorius;  but  the  most  beautiful  Roman  relic,  and 
one  of  the  most  perfect  pieces  of  ancient  architectui* 
in  existence,  is  tlie  tower  which  rises  in  the  city  at 
the  extremity  of  tlie  aqueduct.  It  is  12  feet  6  inchai 
in  diameter,  and  is  surroimded  by  eight  columni 
of  the  Ionic  order.  Ionic  pilasters  decorate  the 
second  story,  and  the  top  is  crowned  with  a  hemi- 
spherical dome.  It  is  wholly  constructed  of  brie  If, 
and  covered  with  cement  of  sucii  a  durable  natiu  b, 
that,  although  this  delicate  structure  has  existvd 
since  70  B.C.,  few  parts  of  it  seem  to  have  hQi,n 
impaired  by  time. 

EVREMOND,  Charles  Margotelle  de  St 
Denis,  Seigneur  de  St,  an  author  and  wit  of  the 
17th  c,  was  born  at  St  Denis-le-Gut.8t,  in  Nor- 
mandy, April  1,  1613.  He  entered  the  army  about 
the  age  of  15,  l^ecame  an  ensign  in  less  than  a  year, 
and  in  16.'}7  had  the  command  of  a  company  of  foot. 
About  this  time,  he  gained  the  favour  and  friendship 
of  Turenne,  Grammont,  the  Prince  of  Conde,  and 
others  of  high  rank,  all  of  whom  were  delighted 
with  the  wit  and  cheerfiduess  of  his  conversation. 
Having  talked  himself  into  the  esteem  of  these 
men,  it  was  not  long,  however,  imtil,  by  the  same 
means,  he  brought  himself  under  their  displeasure. 
In  1661  his  unbridled  indulgence  in  raillery  com- 
pelled him  to  take  refuge  in  England.  Many 
attemi)ts  were  made  at  the  French  court  to  induce 
Louis  XIV.  to  recall  St  E.,  whose  accomplishments, 
gaiety,  and  wit  rendered  him  the  delight  of  aU 
who  had  not  smarted  from  his  sarcasm,  but  Louia 
remained  immovable,  until  1689,  when  he  granted 
the  exile  permission  to  return.  It  was  now,  how- 
ever, too  late.  St  E.  had  by  this  time  surrounded 
himself  with  an  admiring  circle  of  the  wits  and 
beauties  of  the  English  court,  and  resolved  to 
remain  where  he  was.  He  died  in  his  91st  year,  in 
September  1703. 

St  E.'s  works,  comprising  comedies,  classical 
essays,  &c.,  were  first  correctly  published  by  Des 
Maizeaux,  with  a  life  of  the  author  (Lond.  1705). 
The  works  are  also  translated  into  English  by  the 
same  editor. 

EVREUX  (anciently  Mediolanum,  and  more 
recently  Eburovices),  an  episcopal  city  of  France, 
in  the  depai-tment  of  Eure,  of  which  it  is  the  capital, 
is  pleasantly  situated  in  a  valley  on  the  Iton,  a 
feeder  of  the  Eure,  60  miles  west-north-west  of 
Paris.  It  is  weU  built,  its  streets  regular,  and  the 
environs  prettily  laid  out  in  promenades,  gardens, 
and  vineyards.  The  principal  building  of  R  i« 
the  cathedral,  which  dates  from  the  11th  cettoiy. 
The  other  buildings  of  note  are  the  abbey  ch'uch 
of  St  Thaurin,  originally  built  over  the  tomb  of  St 
Thaurin,  the  first  bishop  of  E.,  and  having  a  shrine 
executed  in  the  13th  c,  which  once  contained 
his  relics ;  the  Bishop's  Palace,  built  in  1484 ;  and 
the  Tour  de  VHorloge  of  the  same  century.  E. 
has  extensive  manufactures  of  bed  ticking,  woollen 
stuffs,  cotton  yarn,  leather,  vinegar,  and  a  trade  in  itv 
manufactures,  and  in  grain,  seeds,  timber,  and  liquors. 
Population,  12,877. 

E.  is  remarkable  for  the  numerous  sieges  which  it 
has  sustained.  It  was  taken  by  Clovis  from  the 
Romans ;  was  sacked  and  plundered  in  892  by  the 
Northmen,  under  RoUo ;  was  burned  bv  Henry  L  ol 


EVKEUX 


— EWALD. 


Euglivnd  in  1119;  and  in  1194  and  1199  it  was  twice 
ca]>turt'd  by  Philippe  Anguste,  king  of  France,  into 
whose  liands,  after  a  short  time,  it  permanently 
came.  It  was  frequently  taken  and  recovered  in 
the  wars  between  France  and  England  during  the 
reigns  of  Heury  V.  and  Henry  VI.  of  the  latter 
country. 

ViEiL  EvREUX  {Old  Evreux),  a  ^^llage  near  E., 
md  the  supj»osed  site  of  the  ancient  Mediolanum, 
lias  some  ancient  remains  of  a  theatre,  an  aqueduct, 
•,nd  fortifications. 

EWALD,  Georo  IlEiisrRTCii  August  von,  one  of 
the  grentesfc  of  modern  Orientalists,  was  born  16th 
November  1803,  at  Gottiiigen.  He  exhibited  a  pre- 
dilection for  Oriental  literature  even  in  his  school- 
cays.  He  studied  at  the  university  of  his  native 
1 1  ice,  and  while  still  a  student,  wrote  a  work  on  the 
Com{)Osition  of  Genesis  {Die  Compodtion  der  Genesis, 
Braunschw.  1823).  In  1823,  he  became  a  teacher  at 
the  Wolf enblittel  g3annasium  ;  in  1827,extraordinar3'-, 
and  in  1831,  ordinary,  professor  of  philosojjhy  at 
Gottiugen  ;  and  in  1835,  was  appointed  nominal 
professor  of  the  Oriental  languages.  Travels  in 
search  of  Oriental  MSS.  led  him,  in  1826,  1829,  and 
183G,  to  Berlin,  Paris,  and  Italy.  After  the  death 
of  Eichhorn,  the  critical  exegesis  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment was  included  in  his  duties  as  professor  of  the 
Oriental  tongues.  The  first,  and  i)erhaps  the  most 
important  fruit  of  his  new  labours,  was  his  Gritical 
Grammar  of  the  Hebrew  Language  {Kritisclie  Gram- 
mat  ik  der  Hebr.  Spradie,  Leip.  1S27),  an  abridgment 
of  which  was  published  at  Leii)sic  in  1835,  under  the 
title  of  Grammar  of  the  Hebrew  Language  {Gi^am- 
malih  der  Ilehr.  Sin-ache;  5th  edit.  1844);  and  a  still 
simpler  epitome  in  1842,  entitled  Hebrew  Grammar 
for  Beginners  {Ilebr.  Spracldehre  fi'ir  Anfdnger). 
Before  this,  however,  E.  had  acquired  a  high  repu- 
tation by  his  work  on  Canticles  {Hohe  Lied  Salo7no''s, 
Gott.  182G);  his  Commentary  on  the  A\^ov:x\ypse  {Com- 
mentarius  in  Apocah/psin,  Lei]).  1828);  his  Poetical 
Books  of  the  Old  Testament,  in  4  vols.  {Die  Poeti- 
echen  Biicher  des  Alten  Bimdes,  Gott.  18.35—1837); 
and  his  Prophets  of  the  Old  Testament,  in  2  vols. 
{Die  Pwpheten  des  Alten  Bundes,  2  Bde.  Stutt. 
1840).  Between  the  years  1843—1850,  E.  published 
at  Gottingen  an  important  work  in  4  vols.,  on  the 
History  of  the  People  of  Israel  until  the  Time  of 
Christ  {Geschichie  des  Volkes  Israel  bis  aiif  Christus), 
and  a  subsidiary  volume  on  the  Antiquities  of  the 
People  of  Israel  {Die  Alter tliiuner  des  Volkes  Israel). 
The  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  together  with  its 
two  continuations,  The  History  of  Christ  and  his 
Time  {Geschichte  Christus  und  seiner  Zeit,  1857),  and 
The  History  of  the  Apostolic  Age,  &c.  {Geschichte 
des  ApostoUschen  Zeitalters  bis  zur  Zerstdrung  Jeru- 
salenis.  1858),  is  regarded  as  E.'s  greatest  work. 
But  J  elvish  history  and  literature  did  not  limit 
the  sphere  of  E.'s  wonderful  activity.  His  lectures 
at  Gottingen  embraced  the  literature  of  the  Arabic, 
Persian,  Aramaic,  and  Sanscrit  tongiies,  and  gave 
birth  to  such  w^orks  as  that  on  "the  Metres  of 
the  Arabian  Songs  {De  Metris  Carminum  Arabic- 
vrum,  Leip.  1825);  on  Some  of  the  Older  Sanscrit 
Metres  {Ueber  elnige  ciltere  Sanscrit- Metra,  Gott. 
1827),  an  epitome  of  the  Arabic  author  Wakidi's 
work  on  Mesoi)otamia  {De  Mesopotamice  expugnatce 
Histcria,  Gott.  1827),  and  a  Grammar  of  Arabic, 
entitled  Grammntica  Critica  Linfpire  Arabicce  cum 
brevi  Metrorum  Doctrina,  2  Bde.  (Leip.  1831 — 1833). 
In  1832,  Yj.  published  at  Gottingen  several  very 
hnportant  Dissertations  on  Oriental  and  Biblical 
Literature  (^AbhandUnigen  zur  orient,  und  hibliachen 
Literature,  and  planned  the  well-known  periodical, 
Journal  for  the  Knowledge  of  the  East  {ZeitscJirift 
fur  die  Kunde  des  Morgenlanda).  E.,  however,  Avas 
uot  only  a  scholar  and  a  philologist,  but  a  man  of 


strong  political  convictions.  Having,  a'ong  with 
six  of  his  colleagues  (the  others  were  tlie  brothers 
Grimm,  Dahlnuinn,  Gervinus,  Weber,  and  Albrechc;, 
protested  against  the  abolition  of  constitutional 
law  and  liberty  in  Hanover  by  the  new  sovereign, 
Ernest  Augustus  (])reviously  Duke  of  (Cumber- 
land), he  was  dismissed  from  his  situation,  12th 
December  1837,  and  went  to  England  to  investi 
gate  its  public  libraries,  whence  he  was  called  to 
Tubingen  in  1838,  as  professor  of  theology.  Here 
he  remained  for  ten  years,  and,  partly  on  account  of 
the  catholicity  of  his  views,  and  the  imjieriousma^ 
of  his  temper,  was  involved  in  many  strifes.  In 
1841,  he  was  ennobled  by  the  king  of  Wiirtemburg. 

In  1848  E.  returned  to  Gottingen,  where  he  estalj- 
lislied  a  Year-book  of  Biblical  Science  {Jahrbach  cUr 
biblischen  VVissenschaft),  in  which,  as  well  as  in  his 
work  on  the  Synoptic  Gospels  (Die  drei  erstem 
Evangelien,  Gott.  1850),  and  works  on  the  Epistle.** 
of  Paul  {Die  Sendschreiben  des  Apostles  Patdns  Uber- 
setzt  and  erkldrt^  Gott.  1857),  he  strove  to  give  a 
firmer  basis  to  New  Testament  criticism  and  exegesis. 
Subsequently  E.  paid  great  attention  to  Ethiopic  lit- 
erature, a  result  of  which  was  bis  valuable  Disserta- 
tion on  the  Book  of  Pmoch  {Uber  des  yEthiopiscl^ien 
Baches  Henoch  Evtutehuug,  &c.,  Gott.  1856).  He 
also  published  Das  Sendschreiben  an  die  Ilebriler  und 
Jacohos*  Riindschrelbpn  (1871),  and  Sieben  Send- 
schreiben des  Neuen  Bundes  (1871).  The  distinguish- 
ing peculiai-ity  of  E.  as  a  theologian  and  critic  was 
his  love  for  the  concrete  forms  in  which  divine  truths 
are  revealed  in  history,  and  his  dislike  of  tbe  abstrac- 
tions into  which  they  are  refined  away  by  over-specu- 
lative theologians.  He  regarded  it  as  the  especial 
glory  of  the  Jewish  people,  that  they  never  lost  sight 
of  the  concrete,  as  the  Persians  and  Hindus,  for  ex- 
ample, did,  with  whom  the  realities  of  religion  van- 
ished into  the  most  intangible  dreams,  but  kept  it  ever 
before  them  until,  in  the  fulness  of  times,  there  was 
born  in  •their  midst  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  the  Perfect 
and  Only  One,  in  whom  humanity  reached  its  spiritual 
consummation.  E.'s  position  in  the  variegated  field  of 
German  theology  is  not  easy  to  define.  He  refused  to 
class  himself  or  to  be  classed  with  any  party.  He  was 
equally  opposed  to  the  extreme  left  represented  in  Tu- 
bingen, and  to  the  extreme  right  represented  in  the 
modern  Lutheran  movement  headed  by  Hengstenberg, 
denouncing,  with  an  eloquence  unequalled  in  any  the- 
ological chair  in  Germany,  the  '  heathenism  '  of  Luther- 
ans, Komanists,  and  Kationalists.    He  died  May  1875. 

EWALD,  Johannes,  one  of  the  best  lyi-ic  poets 
of  Denmark,  was  born  at  Copenhagen  on  the  18th 
November  1743,  and  died  in  the  same  city  in  1781, 
after  a  life  of  checkered  adventure,  trouble,  and 
privation.  At  the  age  of  11,  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  E.  was  admitted  into  the  Slesvig  College.  In 
his  l(3th  year,  when  his  friends  were  about  to  send 
him  to  the  university  of  Copenhagen,  the  restless 
impatience  of  restraint  w^hich  had  always  character- 
ised him,  led  him  to  make  his  escape  to  Germany, 
w^here  he  entered  as  a  private  soldier  in  the  arm^ 
of  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia,  from  which  tLt 
soon  deserted  to  the  Austrians.  His  bravery  havina 
attracted  the  notice  of  his  superiors,  he  w^as  offered 
a  commission,  but  this  he  refused  to  accept,  as 
it  woidd  have  obliged  him  to  become  a  Catholic  ; 
and  having  induced  his  friends  to  purchas*^  liis 
discharge,  he  returned  to  Copenhagen  in  1760.  after- 
having  taken  part  in  the  great  cam])aigns  of  1759 
— 17G().  He  now  began  the  study  of  theology,  bat 
a  disappointment  in  love  drove  him  to  abandon 
it,  and  give  his  attention  solely  to  poetiy.  The 
first  production  of  E.  which  attracted  general  notice, 
was  the  funeral  ode  wldch  he  WTote  on  the  death 
of  Frederick  V.  of  Denmark  in  1767,  and  which 
exliibited  so  much  original  genius,  that  it  at  one* 


EXAMINATION  OF  A  BAN'KRUPT— EXAMINATIONS  FOR  THE  PUBTJC  SERVICE. 


raised  the  young  poet  to  the  rank  of  one  of  the 
best  writers  of  his  country.  This  successful  attempt 
was  ra]^i(lly  followed  by  the  appearance  of  numerous 
tragedies,  operas,  and  songs,  which  are  remarkable 
for  great  lyrical  beauty.  In  1770  appeared  the 
prose  tragedy  of  Rolf  Krar/e,  which  gives  evidence 
of  a  careful  study  of  Sliakspeare  and  the  Eng- 
lish dramatists  of  the  Elizabethan  age.  Although 
Balder's  Doed  (1773),  which  breathes  the  heroic 
spiiit  of  the  ancient  bards  of  the  north,  and  exhibits 
•the  specially  national  tendency  of  E.'s  genius,  is 
.^garda?!  by  some  critics  as  his  chef-d^ (£uvre, 
^'xakerne^  'The  Fishermen'  (1780),  probably  deserves 
to  rank  equally  high,  when  considered  as  a  mere 
lyrical  production.  His  hal>its  of  dissipation,  and 
the  decided  opinions  which  he  expressed  in  refer- 
ence to  politics,  brought  him  into  difficulties  of 
every  kind,  while  his  infirmities  of  temjier,  and 
irregvdarities  of  conduct,  estranged  the  affection  of 
his  nearest  relatives,  and  in  the  latter  years  of  his 
unhappy  life  he  was  often  indebted  to  the  charity  of 
strangers  for  the  means  of  subsistence.  Some  of  his 
nautical  songs  have  been  raised  to  the  dignity  of 
national  odes,  and  many  of  his  occasional  pieces  rank 
among  the  sweetest  poems  of  his  country.  He  was 
engaged  at  the  time  of  his  death  in  compiling  an 
autobiography,  and  in  bringing  out  the  comjdete 
edition  of  his  \^'Titings,  which  finally  appeared  in 
1792.  His  works  have  also  been  edited  by  F.  L. 
Liebenberg  (Cojien.  1850 — 1855) ;  and  a  life  of  E., 
compiled  from  hitherto  unpublished  materials,  has 
recently  appeared  from  the  pen  of  F.  C.  Olsen,  of 
Copenliagen. 

EXAMINATION  OF  A  BANKRUPT.  See 
Bankruptcy. 

EXAMINATION  OF  A  PRISONER,  in  Scot- 
land.   See  Declaration. 

EXAMINATION  OF  A  WITNESS.  See 
Evidence.  ^ 

EXAMINATIONS  FOR  THE  PUBLIC 
SERVICE.  Up  to  the  year  1855,  all  the  junior 
appointments  in  the  several  branches  of  the  Civil 
Service  w^ere  made  upon  a  system  which  was 
practically  one  of  simple  and  unchecked  nomination. 
Examinations  nominally  existed  in  a  few  of  the 
departments,  but  they  had  degenerated  into  an 
unmeaning  form.  The  departmental  examiners, 
who  were  taken  from  other  duties  for  this  temporary 
purpose,  and  were  closely  connected  with  the 
particidar  department,  were  too  much  afraid  of  the 
clamour  of  individuals  to  be  very  stringent  in  their 
requirements,  and  keep  up  the  standard  of  examina- 
tion. In  one  important  board,  not  a  single  candidate 
had  been  rejected  for  twelve  years.  The  consequence 
was,  that  persons  were  often  appointed  who  were 
objectionable  on  account  of  age,  broken  state  of 
health,  and  bad  character,  as  well  as  from  want  of 
proper  intellectual  qualifications. 

Changes  in  the  Civil  Service  have  been  made 
/icuietimes  by  the  legislature,  sometimes  by  the 
>3s:ccutive,  but  chiefly,  as  in  the  present  instance,  by 
\hi\  latter.  Some  years  ago,  a  commission  was 
Ap]»ointcd  to  consider  plans  for  its  entire  reorgan- 
isation. This  commission,  v/hich  included  the 
names  of  Sir  Charles  Trevelyan  and  Sir  Stafford 
North  cote,  made  its  re])ort  in  1853,  and  strongly 
recommen  led  competitive  examinations,  as  the 
mode  of  making  the  appointments  in  the  first 
instance.  In  the  following  year,  a  plan  for  improv- 
ing the  system  was  promised  in  the  Queen's 
Bpeech,  but  nothing  further  was  done.  In  May 
1855,  an  order  in  council  was  issued,  appointing  tlie 
present  Civil  Service  Commissioners,  and  defining 
their  duties.  This  order  is  still  in  force,  and  directs 
the  commissioners  to  examine  into  and  certify  the 
180 


qualifications  of  young  men  nominated  to  juaiof 
situations  in  the  Ci^^l  Service.  Before  granting  the 
certificate,  they  are  to  ascertain  the  four  following 
things :  the  age,  health,  character,  and  the  know- 
ledge and  ability  of  the  Candida  cpa.  All  the  details 
as  to  each  of  these  points — such  as  limits  of  age, 
and  the  subjects  of  examination — are  settled  at  the 
discretion  of  the  heads  of  the  several  departments  ; 
while  the  decision,  on  individual  cases,  rests  solely 
with  the  commissioners. 

As  the  nature  of  the  requirements  expected  from 
the  candidates  de])ends  on  the  heads  of  the  several 
departments,  considerable  variety  may  be  expected 
in  the  different  branches  of  the  service.  As  the 
system  has  not  yet  reached  a  settled  state,  the  exact 
details  of  the  examination  for  the  various  otficea 
must  be  sought  from  time  to  time  in  the  latest  of  the 
annual  reports  of  the  Civil  Sei-vice  Commissioners  ; 
but  the  following  general  account  of  its  present 
state  may  be  given  here.  Leaving  out  of  account 
labourers  and  artisans,  the  persons  employed  in  the 
public  service  may  be  divided  into  two  great  classes : 
the  first  including  all  those  who  may  be  called  by 
the  general  name  of  clerks,  and  whose  occupation  is 
mainly  of  a  sedentary,  and  more  or  less  of  an  intel- 
lectual character ;  the  other  embracing  all  the 
inferior  appointments — such  as  excise  officers,  tide- 
waiters,  and  letter-carriers,  wdiose  emi^oymenta 
require  in  a  special  degree  physical  strength  ?.nd 
activity.  For  the  latter  class,  the  examination  is 
of  a  purely  elementary  character,  and  is  for  the 
most  part  confined  to  reading,  writing,  spelling,  and 
arithmetic.  The  principle  of  competitive  examin- 
ations has  not  been  applied,  and  is  not  intended 
to  be  applied,  to  this  class  of  public  servants,  but 
their  health  and  moral  qualifications  are  strictly 
investigated. 

As  to  the  first  class,  the  system  is  still  in  a  state 
of  transition.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  order  of 
1855  directs  the  commissioners  to  examine  young 
men  who  have  been  nomiimted.  Under  tliis  order, 
three  varieties  of  examination  are  now  in  operation. 
The  first  is  a  simple  test  examination.  When  a 
vacancy  occurs,  a  single  person  is  nominated  by  the 
head  of  the  department  or  other  projjcr  authority, 
and  this  person  is  afterwards  submitted  to  examina» 
tion.  The  second  is  a  system  of  limited  competition. 
When  a  vacancy  occurs,  several  persons  are  nomi- 
nated, and  being  submitted  to  examination,  the 
appointment  is  obtained  by  the  best  of  this  limited 
number.  The  third  is  the  system  of  oj^en  competi- 
tion, which  has  been  employed  in  the  cases  where 
the  right  of  nomination  has  been  wholly  surrendered. 
A  simple  test  examination  seems  to  have  been  all 
that  was  contemplated  in  the  order  of  1855,  bat 
since  that  time  there  has  been  a  steady  advance 
towards  competitive  examinations.  Resolutions  have 
passed  the  House  of  Commons  recognising  the  advan- 
tages of  competition,  and  a  parliamentary  committee, 
appointed  in  1859,  has  reported  in  favour  of  pro- 
ceeding further  in  that  direction.  At  present,  the 
principle  of  open  competition  prevails  in  the  Indiap. 
Civil  Service,  in  the  Medical  Service  and  Pullio 
Works  Dejiartment  in  India,  and  in  the  scientific 
branches  of  the  Military  Service.  The  principle  of 
limited  competition  prevails  in  about  three-fourths 
of  the  higher  departments,  while  in  the  remainder 
of  these,  and  in  all  the  lower  grades  of  the  service, 
from  tide-waiters  downwards,  there  is  a  simple  teat 
examination. 

The  number  of  nominations  to  which  the  order  in 
councd  has  been  applied  from  1855  to  the  end  of 
18G0  is  13,491.  Of  these,  9962  were  nominations  of 
one  only,  to  whom,  therefore,  as  explained  above,  a 
simple  test  examination  was  applied.  Tlie  comniis- 
sioners  rejected  2289.    Out  of  these  2289,  all  but 


EXAMIXATIOXS  FOR  THE  FUBLIC  SERVICE. 


920  failed  either  in  arithmetic  or  spelling ;  some,  of 
couise,  in  ether  subjects  also.  It  may  therefore 
be  said  that  more  than  2000  pei-sons  deticient  in  the 
ordinary  rudiments  of  a  good  education  have  been 
nomiuated  to  the  Civil  i5er%'ice  in  six  years,  and 
excluded  by  the  examination.  During  tlie  same 
period,  about  600  of  tliose  nominated  were  ineligible 
on  account  of  age,  health,  or  character.  In  compar- 
iug  the  numl^er  of  certificates  granted  vnth  the 
miml^er  of  rejections  in  each  year,  it  ai)pears  that 
the  proportion  of  the  latter  has  dimini^ed  in  the 
"attcr  years. 

Up  to  lSo9,  the  far  greater  proportion  of  aU 
appointments  made  under  the  new  system  has  been 
made  by  nomination  of  a  single  i:)erson  followed  by 
a  test  examination.  But  the  experience  had  in  the 
working  of  the  system  has  conN-inced  the  commis- 
Bioners  and  the  parliamentary  committee  of  the 
wisdom  of  advancing  in  the  direction  of  competition. 
The  minimum  standard  is  dithcidt  to  maintain.  It 
causes  delay  and  inconvenience  by  the  rejection  of 
cantlidates,  and  the  necessity  of  pro^-idilig  others. 
The  rejections  throv*-  unpleasant  discredit  on  the 
patron,  and  if  frequent,  it  is  ascribed  not  to  the  unlit- 
aess  of  the  candidates,  but  to  the  standard  being 
fixed  too  high.  The  candidate  is  aggiieved  at  the 
loss  of  an  appointment  which  he  had  looked  on  as  his 
ovm,  and  the  patron  is  likely  to  shai-e  the  feeling. 
In  the  competitive  system,  these  evils  do  not  exist. 
The  nimiber  of  competitoi-s  will  itself  keep  up  the 
standard  ;  the  candidate  is  not  rejected  as  imfit, 
but  only  gives  way  to  one  fitter  ;  and  the  standard 
cannot  be  said  to  be  fixed  too  high,  for  the  fact  of 
candidates  coming  forward  shews  that  the  prize  is 
worth  the  trouble'^of  attainment.  On  these  grounds, 
the  commissioners  recommend  the  gi'adual  introduc- 
tion of  open  competitive  examinations  into  all  the 
departments  of  the  service,  but  in  the  meantime 
think  it  a  safer  cotrrse  to  continue  and  extend  the 
system  of  hmited  competition.  Ex}>erience,  however, 
has  she%vn  that  the  latter  is  often  a  sj^stem  of  com- 
petition more  in  name  than  in  reality,  and  that 
some  conditions  are  recpiisite  to  make  it  effective. 
In  1859,  1107  persons  were  nominated  to  compete 
for  258  situations  ;  of  these,  only  397  were  com- 
petent, the  remaining  710  being  wholly  imfit  for 
any  appointment.  The  real  competition  took  place 
between  397  persons.  The  experience  of  1860  con- 
firms this  view.  In  a  competition  for  42  clerkships 
at  the  Admiralty,  of  66  candidates,  only  2-4  were 
competent,  being  less  than  the  number  of  situations ; 
80  that  competition  in  that  case  woidd  have  given 
woise  results  than  a  simple  test  examination.  With 
Uie  view  of  rendering  it  more  eflfective,  the  parha- 
mentary  committee  of  1859  have  recommended  some 
moaitications  in  the  system,  which  the  commissioners 
intend  to  carry  oivt.  In  future,  no  candidate  will 
be  admitted  to  enter  into  the  competition  who  has 
not  previously  passed  the  test  of  fitness  ;  and  the 
competition  for  each  vacancy  \vill  take  place  among 
at  le<ast  five  of  such  qualified  persons.  The  test 
examination  vnll  be  mainly  confined  to  writing, 
8f  elling,  arithmetic,  and  making  a  precis  of  a  given 
Bet  of  papers.  It  is  at  the  same  time  further  recom- 
mended that  the  experiment  of  open  competition, 
as  tried  in  the  Indian  CivH  Service,  be  from  time  to 
ti^e  rejxjated  in  other  departments. 

The  mode  of  making  the  appointments  to  the 
Civil  .SerWce  has  of  late  years  been  much  discussed, 
and  tho  permanent  nature  of  the  appointments 
makes  the  question  one  of  much  importance.  The 
tneiabers  of  this  sen'ice  remaining  in  office  through 
all  j^jlitical  changes,  and  aiding  each  minister  in 
turn  by  their  knowledge  of  business  and  of  official 
^Ittails,  form,  in  fact,  a  class  of  professional  public 
»i<i-va-its,  entering  their  profession  as  others  do  while 


young,  in  the  hope  of  rising  gradually  to  its  higfivr 
gi-ades.     It  is  admitted  on  all  hands  that  these 
persons  should  not  be  liable  to  be  turned  out  and 
thus  deprived    of  the   l)enefit  of    their  previous 
service,  except  for  positive  misconduct ;  and  since 
there  is  no  way  of  getting  rid  of  them  except  by 
making  them  pensionei-s  on  the  public  purse,  it  lb 
clearly  of  the  greatest  importance  that  the  appoint- 
,  ments  shoidd  be  well  made  in  the  first  instance, 
j     It  is  said  on  the  one  hand,  that,  apart  from  aa 
'  examination,  there  is  no  imaginable  plar:  that  can 
j  enable  the  head  of  a  department,  overworked  as  he 
'  often  is,  to  acquire  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the 
[  character,  habits,  and  abilities  of  successive  gencra- 
,  tions  of  young  men  ;  that  even  with  this  knc  wledge, 
j  and  much  more  in  its  absence,  there  is  much  to  be 
feared  from  partiality  and  private    or  political 
j  interest.    The  minister  must  depend  on  the  recom- 
:  mendations  of  others,  and  will  be  obliged  to  comply 
I  with   the   importunities  of  friends   and  pohtical 
J  supporters.     These  •«ill  naturallj'  desire  to  serve 
'  their  friends  rather  than  the  pubhc,  and  their 
j  friends  are  best  served  by  the  advancement  of  their 
I  least  competent  children.     Hence,  there  is  good 
reason  for  supposing  that  the  choice  widd  bfl 
j  somewhat  worse  than  if  made  blindfold  from  a 
I  ballot-box. 

Though  the  new  S3-stem  has  not  yet  been  long 
enough  in  operation  to  give  sufficient  grounds  from 
experience  for  pronouncing  a  strong  opinion,  the 
commissioners  do  not  hesitate  to  declare  in  their 
latest  report  that  competitive  examinations,  com- 
j  bined  "o-ith  proper  conditions  as  to  age,  health, 
I  and  character,  and  with  the   check  of  a  period 
'  of  probation,  and  with  promotion  by  merit  from 
I  class  to  class,  is  the  best  mode  of  providing  for  the 
]  public  ser^-ice. 

The  objections  which  have  been  urged  on  the 
I  other  hand  are  mainly  reducible  to  the  two  which 
;  follow.    It  is  said,  in  the  first  place,  that  in  com- 
petitive examinations  too  much  credit  is  given  to 
scholastic  requirements  v.-hieh  are  not  required  for 
the  serN-ice,    To  this  it  is  replied,  that  persons  being 
appointed  in  early  life,  not  as  ha%-ing  learned,  but  in 
order  to  learn,  then*  profession,  the  only  thing  by 
which  the  best  candidates  can  be  discriminated  ia 
'  their  proficiency  in  the  ordinary'  branches  of  a  hberal 
j  education ;  fm-ther,  that  due  weight  is  always  given 
j  to  acquirements  that  are  strictly  practical — writing, 
arithmetic,  spelling,  English  composition,  and  the 
I  power  of  framing  a  jyrecis  of  a  given  set  of  papers, 
'  so  that  whatever  be  the  scholastic  requirements  of 
the  successfid  candidate,  there  is  enough  of  the 
practical  to  qtialify  him  for  his  oflace ;  and  lastly, 
I  that  examinations  in  language,  literature,  and  science 
are  extremely  useful  in  ascertaining  the  relative 
ability,  industry'-,  and  cultivation  of  the  candidates, 
and  that  it  is  as  a£Fording  e%-idence  of  these  that 
I  they  are  principally  regarded. 

It  is  contended,  in  the  second  place,  that  thera 
are  very  important  moral  qualities  which  are  noi 
'  taken  into  account  in  a  competitive  examination 
!  This  must  be  at  once  admitted,  for  although  suoh 
qualities  as  perseverance  and  energy  may  to  som© 
extent  be  indicated  by  superiority  of  acquirements, 
there  are   others,   such  as  judgment,  discretion, 
fidelity,    strength   of   will,  regarding  wliich  no 
certain  conclusions  can  be  tlrawn.     It  has,  however, 
been  justly  observeil,  that  this  class  of  qualities 
can   be   shewn   only  by  conduct,  and  that  the 
early  age  at  which  the  appointments  are  made 
^vill  have  rarely  afi"orded  sufficient  opportunitiea 
'  for  gi\'ing  proof  of  them ;  to  which  it  may  be 
I  added,  that  the  pre^'ious  conduct  and  disposition 
I  of  candidates  is  rarely  knovN-n  to  the  head  of  the 
;  depai-tment  or  other  authority  who   makes  tha 

181 


EXANTHEMATA— EXCHANGE. 


appointment.  If  these  qualities  are  not  tested  by 
competitive  examinations,  neither  were  they  tested 
under  the  system  previously  in  existence;  and  the 
obiection,  therefore,  apparently  amounts  to  this, 
that  having  the  means  of  testing  the  intellectual 
qualities  and  acquirements  of  the  candidate,  we 
«»ught  to  abandon  it  because  it  does  not  include  all 
the  mural  qualities,  while  at  the  same  time  there  is 
no  satisfactory  mode  of  testing  the  latter. 

It  is  obvious  that  whenever  several  persons  apply 
for  the  same  thing,  there  must  be  competition  in 
one  way  or  other :  it  will  be  either  in  the  way  of 
influence — in  which  case  a  person  is  selected  not 
because  hie  is  the  fitter  man,  but  to  gratify  some  one 
else — or  by  testimonials,  which  is  not  altogether 
satisfactoiy.  The  remaining  plan  is  competition  by 
examination.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  besides 
its  other  advantages,  the  latter  gives  an  impetus  to 
education  through  the  whole  country,  stimulates 
exertion,  and  encourages  habits  of  industry — habits 
which,  once  acquired,  remain,  and  become  apjilicable 
to  the  public  service. 

EXANTHEMATA  (from  a  Greek  verb,  to 
effloresce,  or  come  out  in  a  rash),  a  class  of  febrile 
diseases  (see  Fever)  attended  by  distinctive  erup- 
tions on  the  skin,  appearing  at  a  definite  period,^ 
and  running  a  recognisable  coiirse.  To  this  class 
belong  small- pox,  chicken-pox,  measles,  scarlet  fever, 
and,  according  to  some  authorities,  plague,  tyi)hus, 
erysipelas,  &c. 

E'XARCH  was  the  title  first  conferred  by 
Justinian  on  his  commander-in-chief  and  vicegerent 
in  Italy.  The  conquest  of  Italy  by  the  Goths  in  the 
early  part  of  the  Cth  c.  was  a  severe  blow  to  the 
Byzantine  pride  ;  and  Justinian  determined  to  wipe 
out  the  disgrace,  and  recover  the  imperial  territories. 
The  execution  of  this  project  was  intrusted  at  first 
to  Belisarius  (q.  v.),  and  afterwards  to  Narses  (q.v.), 
by  whom  the  reconqnest  of  Italy  was  effected. 
The  latter  was  the  first  who  bore  the  title  of  exarch ; 
and  the  district  over  which  he  ruled  was  called  the 
Exarchate.  The  seat  of  the  exarchs  was  Ravenna, 
the  different  to-wus  and  territories  belonging  to 
them  being  governed  by  subordinate  rulers,  styled 
Duces  or  Dukes.  The  extent  of  the  exarchate,  how- 
ever, was  gradually  diminished,  until  it  embraced 
only  the  country  about  Ravenna,  the  present 
Romagna,  and  the  coasts  of  Rimini  as  far  as  Ancona. 
This  was  brought  about  partly  by  the  conquests  of 
the  Longobards,  partly  by  the  dukes  of  Venice  and 
Naples  making  themselves  independent.  In  the 
year  728,  even  this  small  portion  fell,  for  a  short 
time,  into  the  hands  of  the  Longobards.  In  752, 
Astulf,  or  Astolphus,  king  of  the  Longobards,  put 
an  end  to  the  Byzantine  ride  at  Ravenna ;  but  in 
755,  hfe  was  compelled  to  resign  the  exarchate  to 
Pejjin  the  Less,  king  of  the  Franks,  who  gave  it 
over  to  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  Stephanus  11. — In  the 
Chiistian  Church,  exarch  was  originally  a  title  of 
the  bishops,  afterwards  of  a  bishop  who  presided 
i'Ver  several  others — a  primate.  It  was  borne  by  the 
i/ishops  of  Alexandria,  Antioch,  Ephesus,  Caesarea, 
and  Constantinople,  till  it  was  finally  exchanged  for 
the  title  of  Patriarch.  A  superior  over  several 
monasteries  was  also  called  in  ancient  times  an 
sxarch.  The  same  title  is  also  borne,  in  the  modern 
Greek  Church,  by  the  person  who  '  visits '  officially, 
as  a  sort  of  legate  of  the  patriarch,  the  clergy  and 
churches  in  a  province. 

EXCA'MBION,  in  Scotland,  is  the  legal  name 
for  an  exchange  of  land?.  Heirs  possessing  under 
deeds  of  entail  are  empowered  by  the  so-called 
lilontgomery  Act  (10  Geo.  III.  c.  51)  to  exchange 
or  rxcamb  certain  portions  of  the  entailed  lands. 
Tha  portions  exchanged   must  not  include  the 


principal  mansion-house  or  offices,  or  the  garden,  park, 
home-farm,  or  pohcy,  or  more  than  one-fourth  in 
value  of  the  estate.  As  to  the  conditions  under 
which,  and  the  proceedings  by  which,  excambions 
of  entailed  lands  are  effected,  see  Bell's  Law 
Dictlonanj. 

EXCELLENCE,  or  EXCELLENCY,  a  title 
now  given  to  ambassadors,  as  rej^resenting  not  the 
affairs  alone,  but  the  persons  of  sovereign  pi-iucea, 
to  whom  it  was  formerly  applied.  The  j^nvilege 
of  being  addressed  as  '  Your  Excellence,'  and  of 
demanding  a  private  interview  with  the  ])rince  to 
whom  he  is  accredited,  are  the  chief  distinctions 
between  the  i)rivileges  of  an  ambassador,  and  an 
envoy  or  minister  plenipotentiary.  See  AMBiVJiSADOR, 
Embassy. 

EXCHA'NGE,  a  term  applied  to  buildings  or 
places  of  resort  for  merchants.  The  naine  Bourse 
(Purse)  is  ai)i)lied  in  France  and  Belgium  to  a  resort 
of  this  kind  ;  and  in  Hamburg,  and  some  other 
German  cities,  there  is  the  equivalent  word  Borse. 
Exchanges  have  usually  comi)rehended  an  o])en 
quadrangle,  surrounded  by  an  arcade,  free  to  all 
l)ersons  ;  but  in  some  cases  large  reading-rooins 
now  constitute  resorts  of  this  kind,  and  these  are 
oi)cn  only  to  a  body  of  sul)scribers,  and  visitors 
wdiom  they  introduce.  Of  this  description  are  the 
Exchanges  of  Manchester  and  Glasgow. 

Exchanges  originated  in  the  commercial  cities  of 
Italy,  Germany,  and  the  Netherlands,  from  which 
last-named  country  they  were  coi)ied  by  England. 
The  merit  of  introducing  them  is  due  to  Sir  Tliomas 
Greshani,  who,  having  resided  as  British  agent  at 
Antwerp  in  1550,  chose  the  Bourse  of  that  city  as  a 
model  for  the  Royal  Exchange  of  London.  Their 
institution  in  England  is  therefore  coincident  with 
the  rise  of  commercial  prosperity  at  the  middle  of 
the  16th  century.  The  first  stone  of  Gresham's 
Burse,  for  so  it  was  originally  called,  was  laid  June 
G,  156G,  a  site  being  found  for  it  by  removing  eighty 
houses  in  Cornhill,  and  it  was  finished  in  November 
15G7.  It  consisted  of  a  quadrangle  with  an  arcade  ; 
above  "was  a  corridor  with  stalls,  for  the  sale  of 
wares.  This  corridor  was  called  the  joa?^/i— believed 
to  be  a  corruption  of  bahn—Ger.  for  path  or  walk. 
Outside  were  shops.  On  January  23,  1570 — 1571, 
the  Burse  was  ceremoniously  opened  by  Queen 
Elizal)eth  immediately  after  dining  at  the  house  of 
Sir  Thomas  Gresham  in  Bishopsgate  Street.  Ilavina 
viewed  the  whole  Burse,  the  queen,  by  herald  and 
trumpet,  caused  it  to  be  proclaimed  '  The  Royal 
Exchange.'  This  first  Exchange  of  London  was 
almost  entirely  destroyed  by  the  great  fire  of  166G. 
A  new  Exchange  was  forthwith  erected  on  the  spot, 
and  opened  September  28,  16G9.  This  second  Royal 
Exchange  had  the  same  fate  ;  it  was  destroyed  by 
fire,  January  10,  1838.  The  foundation-stone  of 
the  third  Exchange  was  laid  by  Prince  Albert, 
January  17,  1842.  Completed  in  three  years,  at  a 
cost  of  £150,000,  from  the  designs  of  W.  Tite,  it 
was  opened  January  1,  1845,  by  Queen  Victoria, 
who  declared  it  '  to  be  her  royal  will  and  pleasure 
that  this  building  be  hereafter  called  The  Royal 
Exchange.' 

The  term  Exchange  seems  to  have  been  naturally 
adopted  from  the  circumstance  that  buying  and 
exchanging  of  merchandise,  and  also  exchanging  and 
paying  away  of  money,  formed  the  chief  object  of 
concourse.  In  the  present  day,  early  intelligence 
in  matters  affecting  commerce  and  public  finance 
forins  a  principal  attraction  of  this  kind  of  resort. 
Although  open  daily,  there  are  usually  certain  days 
and  hours  of  meeting  Avhen  the  throng  is  consider- 
able. The  meeting  is  familuu-ly  called  'Change, 
as,  for  example,  'Change  commences  at  1  o'clock, 


EXCHANGE. 


and  it  is  worth  while  seeing  the  crowd  that  comes 
thronging  at  that  hour. — Miirray's  JIandhook,  \ 
article  '  Hamburg.'  The  two  great  ilays  of  meeting 
at  the  Royal  Exchange,  London,  are  'J'uesdays  and 
Fr  days,  and  the  busiest  time  is  from  8  to  4  o'clock. 
Af  this  time  are  seen  the  greatest  ])eople  on 
CI  ange  ;  some  of  whom,  such  as  the  Rothschilds, 
oc  ;ui)y  a  well-known  spot. 

[n  London,  there  are  several  other  Exchanges, 
b'jt  for  special  purposes;  among  these  are  the 
C(  m  Exchange  in  Mark  Lane,  and  the  Coal 
Exc'u  ingc  in  Lower  Thames  Street.  Exeter  Change, 
which  was  a  sort  of  bazaar,  with  a  menagerie  of 
wild  l»custs,  stood  in  the  Strand,  upon  or  near 
tlie  s^.te  of  the  house  of  the  Earl  of  P]xcter ;  the 
buihl  ng,  as  an  interruption  to  the  thoroughfare, 
was  removed  in  1829.  The  Bourse  at  Paris  an(l 
at  ALirseille,  also  the  Merchants'  Plxchange,  in  Wall 
Street,  New  Yoi*k,  may  be  mentioned  as  l)uildings 
of  great  extent  and  elegance.  Lately,  some  liand- 
some  and  commodious  Corn  Exchanges,  as  resorts 
for  grain- dealers,  have  been  erected  in  various 
towns  in  Great  Britain. 

EXCHANGE,  in  Political  Economy,  is  sometimes 
applied  to  the  conversion  of  the  money  of  one 
country  into  its  equivalent  in  the  money  of  another 
— as  by  stating  the  relation  which  French  napoleons 
and  francs  bear  to  British  pounds.  The  technical 
meaning  of  the  word  has  now,  however,  come  to 
be  the  difference  between  the  actual  value  of  money, 
taken  by  the  standard  of  bullion,  in  any  two  places 
with  relation  to  each  other.  lf„  in  London,  it  costs 
more  than  £100  to  pay  £100  in  St  Petersburg,  the 
rate  of  exchange  is  against  the  former  town,  and 
in  favour  of  the  latter  ;  an  inhabitant  of  which  will 
be  able  to  pay  a  debt  of  £100  in  London  with  less 
than  £100  worth  of  b\dlion  in  St  Petersburg.  The 
process  will  be  best  exiilained  by  analysing  it 
through  means  of  simple  examples.  If  Thomson 
&  Co.  of  London  buy  £100  worth  of  wine  from  De 
la  Rue  of  Paris,  and  De  la  Rue,  on  the  other 
hand,  buy  £100  worth  of  cotton  goods  from 
Thomson  &  Co.  of  London,  the  two  debts,  ivere 
tliere  no  others  between  the  merchants  of  tJie  same 
towns,  would  extinguish  each  other,  and  there 
would  be  no  necessity  either  for  transmitting  money 
or  drawing  bills  of  exchange.  Suppose,  however, 
that  it  is  not  De  la  Rue,  but  his  neighbour 
Bonchamp  who  has  bought  the  £100  worth  of  cotton 
goods  from  Thomson  &  Co.,  then  the  debts  of  all 
will  be  settled  by  Bonchamp  paying  £100  to  De  la 
Rue  on  Thomson  &  Co.'s  account.  Suppose,  next,  the 
case  of  De  la  Rue  being  due  nothmg  to  Thomson 
&  Co.,  and  Bonchamp  being  due  them  only  £50,  a 
like  sum  has  to  be  otherM'ise  foimcL  Van  Pradt  of 
Amsterdam  is  due  precisely  this  sum  to  Thomson 
&  Co.,  while  either  De  la  Rue  or  Bonchamp  is  due 
the  same  amount  to  Van  Pradt  for  a  purchase  of 
Gouda  cheeses ;  then  it  is  clear  that  the  several 
dfibta  can  be  adjusted  among  them  without  the 
traup  iiission  of  bullion.  It  will  cost  some  trouble 
to  a<ijust  the  payrnents,  however,  and  this  trouble 
will  have  to  be  paid  for.  As  in  paying  Thomson  & 
Co.  iJieir  debt  of  £100,  De  la  Ptue  will  have  to  pay 
for  this  trouble,  the  rate  of  exchange  will  be  against 
him.  If  the  debt,  or  any  part  of  it,  cannot  be  met 
by  such  an  adjustment  out  of  cross  debts  and  credits, 
ic  will  be  necessary  for  the  debtor  to  send  bullion 
to  his  creditor ;  and  this  being  an  expensive  process, 
it  throws  the  rate  of  exchange  against  the  debtor 
wlio  so  pays.  For  instance,  if  the  sum  due  by  the 
Frenchmen  to  Van  Pradt  was  only  £25  instead  of 
£50,  then  De  la  Rue  would  have  had  to  be  at  the 
expense  of  sending  £25  to  London  in  biUlion.  No 
such  actual  transactions  take  place  in  the  existing 
mercantile  world,  because  the   accounts  in  debtor 


and  creditor  connected  with  the  three  towns  above 
referred  to  are  to  he  counted  in  thousands,  md 
ramify  into  other  towns;  hut  the  ahovc  examples 
may  he  hehl  to  represent  the  groups  of  debtors  and 
creditors,  as  algcl)raic  signs  represent  <|uantities. 
The  individual  mercliants  in  one  trading  town  liave 
no  idea  how  the  surplus  of  debit  or  credit  may  lio 
hetween  the«n,  far  less  can  they  tell  how  it  may  bo 
adjusted  by  debits  and  credits  in  other  towns;  but 
through  the  agency  of  hankers,  bill-discounters,  and 
other  persons  who  deal  in  money,  the  relationa 
of  all  trading  places  towanls  each  other  are  in  a 
constant  state  of  shifting  and  adjustment  ;  and  an^ 
one  who  has  to  jiay  a  debt  in  any  tradiug-jnaco  can 
find  out  how  much  he  has  to  give  to  get  that  debt 
paid,  and  can  pay  it  accordingly.  When,  through 
the  oj)eration  of  these  complicated  transactioi  s,  you 
require  to  give  more  than  £100  in  Londnr,  to  get 
that  amount  paid  in  Paris,  then  the  rate  of  c  tchangQ 
is  against  London,  and  is  in  favour  of  Pans,  where 
less  than  £100  in  cash  will  ])ay  a  del)t  o\  £100  in 
London.  The  diflerence  will  generally  dt.'))end  on 
the  difficulty  of  adjusting  questions  of  del  it  and 
credit  throughout  the  field  of  Euioj)ean  commerce, 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  get  the  debt  paid.  If  it 
cannot  be  paid  by  adjustment,  then  bullion  must 
be  sent ;  and  thus  it  is  generally  said,  that  the  rata 
of  exchange  against  any  place  is  limited  by  the 
charge  of  transmitting  bullion  to  it.  The  rate  o^ 
exchange  is  liable  to  be  brought  to  a  level  also 
by  commercial  ex])ortation  and  importation,  since, 
whenever  it  is  exjtensive  to  get  money  sent  to  a 
country,  there  is  a  ten)ptation  to  send  goods  to  that 
country,  to  compensate  the  dcl)t.  In  the  genera] 
circle  of  transactions  of  this  kind,  the  state  or  town 
which  has  the  largest  amount  of  transactions  will 
have  the  largest  number  of  debtors  and  of  creditors, 
and  will  thus  afford  the  chief  facility  for  each 
compensating  the  other.  It  is  thus  that  London  is 
the  centre  of  the  money-market,  where  all  the  debts 
and  credits  in  the  world  may  be  said  to  meet  and 
extinguish  each  other.  While  the  ohl  notions 
about  the  Balance  of  Trade  (q.  v.)  existed,  it  was 
supposed  that  the  nation  which  the  exchange  was 
against  was  going  to  ruin  ;  whde  that  which  it  was 
in  favour  of  was  pros])ering  through  the  other's  loss. 
At  jn-esent,  it  is  inconvenient  and  expensive  to  a 
countiy  to  have  the  exchange  against  it.  An 
adverse  exchange  generally  indicates  a  sort  of  breals 
in  the  circle  of  trade,  which  it  would  be  advanta- 
geous to  fill  up,  and  may  be  caused  by  the  commerca 
of  a  country  decreasing ;  on  the  other  hand,  how- 
ever, the  imports  for  which  a  country  pays  in  cash 
or  in  expensive  bills,  may  be  the  same  as  a  highly 
advantageous  traffic.  Gold- producing  countries 
find  bullion  their  most  advantageous  ex])ort,  and 
the  same  is  tlie  case  with  countries  into  which  gold 
has  flowed  in  excess. 

EXCHANGE,  Deed  of,  in  English  law,  a  common 
law  assurance,  whereby  persons  severally  seised  oi 
lands,  mutually  grant  them  in  exchange,  each  his> 
own  land  for  that  of  the  other.  In  order  to  a  valid 
exchange,  five  things  are  necessary:  1.  The  two  sub- 
jects must  be  of  the  same  nature,  as  lands  for  lands, 
chattels  for  chattels,  but  not  real  for  personal  estate. 

2.  The  parties  must  take  an  equal  estate  ;  thus,  an 
estate  in  fee  cannot  be  exchanged  for  an  estate  taiL 

3.  The  word  'exchange'  must  be  used.  4.  There 
must  be  entry,  and  if  either  party  die  before  entry, 
his  heir  may  avoid  the  exchange.  5.  Since  the 
statute  of  Frauds  (29  Car.  II.  c.  3),  if  the  interest  be 
larger  than  a  term  for  three  years,  the  exchange 
must  be  in  writing.  A  mutual  warranty  and  right 
01  entry  was  formerly  implied  in  an  exchange.  Thia 
effect  of  the  deed  has  been  taken  away  by  8  and 
9  Vict.  c.  106,  s.  4.    By  the  8  and  9  Vict.  c.  118, 


EXCHAIsGES-EXCHEQUEIl. 


t,  92,  called  the  Common  Enclosure  Act,  the 
commissioners  are  empowered  to  make  exchanges 
for  the  better  cariying  out  of  the  purposes  of  the 
act.  A  deed  of  exchange  closely  resembles  in  its 
particulars  an  Excambion  (q.  v.)  in  Scotland. 

EXCHA'NGES,  Military,  are  certain  arrange- 
ments made  between  officers  of  the  English  army. 
An  officer  may  exchange,  or  change  ])laces,  in  the 
Guards,  or  Line,  with  another  of  equal  rank  in  any 
regiment  of  the  above  corps,  by  mutual  consent,  and 
cn  payment  of  such  a  sum  as  shall  represent  the 
difference  of  value  between  the  commission  vacated 
and  that  assumed.  As  each  of  the  exchanging 
officers  enters  his  new  corjis  at  the  bottom  of  his 
rank,  exchange  benefits  officers,  especially  those 
unable  to  purchase  promotion,  who  remain  in  their 
original  regiment,  by  advancing  them  towards  the 
top  of  the  list,  and  therefore  nearer  to  promotion  on 
a  non-purchase  vacancy  occurring.  An  officer  on 
fuU-pay  may  exchange  with  another  on  half-pay, 
provided  a  youuger  life  be  not  thereby  added  to 
the  half -pay  list,  and  subject  always  to  the  con- 
tjent  of  the  Secretary  for  War.  If  the  rank  be 
one  of  those  which  are  purchasable  (see  Commls- 
SiONS,  Army),  a  payment  of  money  from  one  officer 
to  another  is  necessary  to  complete  an  exchange 
between  full-pay  and  half-pay ;  the  amount  having 
relation  legally  to  the  regulated,  actually  to  the 
market  value  of  each  kind  of  commission,  as  noticed 
in  the  article  just  cited.  Exchanges  are  ordinarily 
arranged  by  the  army  agents. 

EXCHE'QUER,  Chancellor  of  the.  The  office 
of  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  in  modern  times, 
will  be  accurately  described  when  we  say  that  he 
is  the  first  finance  minister  of  the  Crown.  Strictly 
Bpeaking,  he  is  the  under-treasurer,  the  office  of 
Lord  High  Treasurer  being  now  vested  in  the  Lords 
Commissioners  of  the  Treasury.  When  the  Prime 
Minister  is  a  member  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
he  sometimes  holds  the  office  of  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer.  The  judicial  functions  of  the  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Exchequer  may  now  be  considered 
matter  of  history.  See  Exchequer,  Court  of. 
When  the  chief  baron  and  the  barons  are  equally 
divided  in  opmion,  he  may  be  required  to  rehear 
the  cause  with  the  barons,  and  to  give  his  opinion. 
But  the  last  instance  in  which  this  was  done  was 
in  1735 ;  and  though  the  decision  which  Sir  Robert 
Walpole  gave  is  said  to  have  given  great  satisfac- 
tion, the  custom  is  not  Idiely  to  be  reverted  to. 

EXCHEQUER,  Court  of,  one  of  the  supreme 
courts  of  common  law  in  England.  The  Court 
cf  Exchequer  was  originally  the  court  wherein 
all  matters  relating  to  the  royal  revenues  were 
adjudicated  upon.  It  is  said  (Madox,  Hist,  of  Fx. 
L  177)  that  as  early  as  the  reign  of  William  the 
Conqueror  a  Court  of  Exchequer  was  in  existence. 
This  was  probably  nothing  more  than  a  branch  of 
the  Aula  Regia,  or  great  council  of  the  nation  ;  but 
cn  the  subdivision  of  that  court  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  I.,  the  Court  of  Exchequer  acquired  a 
scpaiate  and  independent  position.  The  special 
dtity  then  assigned  to  the  court  was  to  order  the 
revenues  of  the  crown,  and  to  recover  the  king's 
debts  and  duties.  The  court  was  then  denominated 
the  Smccarium,  a  word  derived,  it  is  said,  from 
ecaccns  or  scaccum,  a  chess-board ;  and  it  was  so  called 
becauise  a  checkered  cloth  was  anciently  wont  to  be 
laid  upon  the  table  of  the  court  (Madox,  Hist,  of 
Ex.),  a  practice  which,  until  the  late  act,  prevailed 
in  the  Court  of  Exchequer  in  Scotland.  The  court 
formerly  consisted  of  two  divisions,  an  equity,  and 
n  common  law  or  plea  side.  Lord  Coke  {Inst.  iv. 
118)  appears  to  doubt  whether  the  equitable  juris- 
diction of  the  court  can  be  traced  back  further  than 
iS4 


the  statute  33  Henry  VIII.  c.  39.  This  equitable 
jurisdiction  of  the  Exchequer  was  abolished  by  5 
Vict.  c.  5,  and  transferred  to  the  Court  of  Chancery. 
On  the  first  institution  of  the  court,  the  business 
was  chiefly  confined  to  matters  connected  with  the 
royal  revenue,  but  a  privilege  was  conceded  to  all 
the  king's  debtors  and  farmers,  and  all  accountants 
of  the  Exchequer,  to  sue  and  implead  all  manner  of 
persons.  This  privilege  was  exercised  by  mearjs  ot 
a  writ  of  qico  ninus  (now  abolished  by  2  Will.  IV. 
c.  39),  wherein  it  was  set  forth  that  the  pl'iintiff, 
being  a  debtoi  of  the  king,  was,  l)y  reason  of 
wrong  done  to  him  by  the  defendant,  deprived  off 
the  means  of  discharging  his  deht  to  the  crowL 
{quo  m'/nus  sufficiens  cxistit).  The  benefit  of  this 
writ  was  by  degrees  extended  to  all  the  lieges,  on 
the  fiction  that  they  were  crown  debtors.  By  this 
means  the  Court  of  Exchequer  acquired  a  concurrent 
jurisdiction  with  the  other  courts  of  common  law. 
The  judges  of  the  Exchequer  consisted  originally  of 
the  lord  treasurer,  the  chancellor  of  the  Exchequer, 
and  three  ])uisne  judges ;  these  last  were  called  barona 
of  the  Exchequer.  The  title  of  baron  is  said  by  Mr 
Selden  {Tit.  of  Hon.  2,  5,  16)  to  have  been  given  to 
the  judges  in  the  Exchequer  because  they  were 
anciently  made  of  such  as  were  barons  of  the  king- 
dom. The  chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  sat  only  on 
the  equity  side  of  the  court.  The  last  occasion  on 
which  he  was  called  upon  to  exercise  his  judicial 
functions  was  in  the  case  of  Naish  v.  the  East  India 
Company,  when  the  judges  were  equally  divided  in 
o]union.  This  case  occurred  in  Michaelmas  term 
1735,  when  Sir  Bobert  Walpole  was  chancellor  of 
the  Exchequer,  and  his  judgment  is  said  to  havo 
given  general  satisfaction.  The  court  now  consists 
of  five  judges — viz.,  the  chief  baron,  and  four  barona 
of  Exchequer.  From  this  court  an  appeal  lies  in 
Error  (q.  v.)  to  the  Court  of  Exchequer  Chamber. 

The  Court  of  Exchequer  Cliamher  was  originally  a 
court  of  all  the  judges  in  England  assembled  for 
decision  of  matters  of  law  (Coke,  Inst.  iv.  110,  119). 
Lord  Campbell  states,  that  the  lord  chancellor  was 
in  the  habit  of  adjourning  cases  of  extraordinary 
importance  into  the  Exchequer,  that  he  might  have 
the  opinion  of  the  twelve  judges  {Lives  of  the  Chan' 
cellors,  i.  10).  But  the  ordinary  jurisdiction  of  the 
Court  of  Exchequer  Chamber  is  as  a  court  of  error, 
in  which  capacity  it  reviews  the  judgments  of  the 
three  courts  of  common  law.  This  court  was  estab- 
lished by  31  Edw.  I.  c.  12,  for  the  purpose  of 
reviewing  the  decisions  of  the  common  law  side  of 
the  Court  of  Exchequer,  and  was  composed  of  the 
judges  of  the  other  two  courts — viz.,  the  Queen'a 
Bench  and  the  Common  Pleas.  By  27  Eliz.  c.  8,  it 
was  enacted  that  the  judges  of  the  Common  Pleaa 
and  Exchequer  shovdd  form  a  second  Court  of 
Exchequer  Chamber,  for  review  of  certain  cases  in 
the  Queen's  Bench.  And  now,  by  11  Geo.  IV.,  and 
1  Will.  IV.  c.  70,  the  Court  of  Exchequer  Chamber 
is  constituted  the  court  of  re\dew  for  all  proceedinga 
in  Error  (q.  v.)  from  the  courts  of  common  If.w,  the 
judges  ot  two  ot  the  courts  always  forming  the  court 
of  appeal  for  the  proceedings  of  the  third.  The 
Court  of  Exchequer  Chamber  is  also,  by  1  Will.  IV. 
c.  70,  constituted  the  court  of  review  fo-  criminal 
cases  on  writ  of  error  from  the  Queen's  Bench. 

In  Scotland,  before  the  Union,  the  Exchequer  was 
the  king's  revenue  court.  It  consisted  of  the  treas- 
urer, the  treasurer-depute,  and  as  many  of  the  loixls 
of  Exchequer  as  the  king  was  pleased  to  appoint 
(Ersk.  i.  3,  30).  The  Scottish  Court  of  Exchequer 
was  continued  by  the  19  th  article  of  the  treatA"^  of 
Union,  until  a  new  court  should  be  established, 
which  was  effected  by  6  Anne,  c.  26.  A  primitive 
jurisdiction  was  conferred  on  the  court  as  to  ques» 
tions  relating  to  revenues  and  customs  of  excise  and 


EXCHEQUER 


BILLS— EXCISE. 


as  to  all  honours  and  estates  real  and  personal,  and 
forfeitures  and  penalties  arising  to  the  crown  within 
Scotland.  But  questions  of  title  to  lands,  honours, 
&c.,  were  reserved  to  the  Court  of  Session.  The 
j?idges  of  the  coui-t  were,  the  high  treasurer  of  Great 
Britain,  the  chief  baron,  and  four  other  barons, 
and  English  barristers  as  well  as  Scotch  advocates 
were  allowed  to  practise  in  the  court.  In  cases  of 
difficulty,  and  where  there  was  a  collision  of  juris- 
dictions, it  was  fomierly  not  unusual  to  hold  confer- 
ences with  the  barons ;  and  the  form  of  desiring  the 
conference  was  to  send  the  lord  advocate,  and,  in 
his  absence,  the  solicitor-general,  to  request  a  meet- 
ing, though  it  has  been  doubted  whether  they  were 
boimd  to  carry  the  message  (Shand's  Practice,  27). 
By  2  Will.  IV.  c.  54,  it  was  provided  that  successors 
should  not  be  appointed  to  such  of  the  barons  as 
should  retire  or  die,  and  that  the  duties  of  the  court 
should  be  discharged  by  a  judge  of  the  Court  of 
Session.  And  now,  by  19  and  20  Vict.  c.  56,  the 
Court  of  Exchequer  is  abolished,  and  the  jurisdiction 
transferred  entirely  to  the  Court  of  Session. 

The  Court  of  Exchequer  Chamber  in  Ireland  was 
established  by  40  Geo.  III.  c.  39.  It  consists  of 
the  cliief  justices,  chief  baron,  and  the  rest  of  the 
justices  and  barons,  or  any  nine  of  them. 

EXCHEQUER  BILLS,  biUs  issued  at  the 
Exchequer  under  the  authority  of  acts  of  parlia- 
ment, as  seciu'ity  for  money  advanced  to  the 
government.  They  contain  an  engagement  on  the 
part  of  the  government  for  the  payment  of  the 
principal  sums  advanced  with  interest.  These  bills 
form  the  chief  ppH  of  the  unfunded  debt  of  the 
country.  They  \.  ^r**  first  issued  in  the  reign  of 
William  III.,  in  the  year  1G96,  and  were  drawn 
for  various  amounts  from  £100  to  £5.  At  that 
time  they  bore  interest  at  the  rate  of  threepence 
per  day  on  a  Lvaidred  pounds  (Macaulay,  Ilistortj  of 
England,  iv.  700).  The  interest  was  reduced  to  Id. 
during  the  reign  of  Anne.  During  the  war  1793 — 
1814,  the  rate  ■>f  interest  was  usually  Z\d.  At 
present,  it  is  generally  from  1  l^d.  to  l^d.  per  £100 
per  diem.  Holders  of  these  bills  are  exempt  from 
all  risk,  except  that  arising  from  the  amount  of 
premium  or  discount  they  may  have  given  for 
them.  The  bills  pass  from  hand  to  hand  as  mr^ney, 
and  are  payable  at  the  Treasury  at  par.  They 
may  also  be  paid  to  government  in  discharge  for 
taxes.  When  it  is  intended  to  pay  off  outstiinding 
Exchequer  bills,  public  notice  is  given  by  advertise- 
ment. The  advances  of  money  to  the  government 
by  the  Bank  of  England  are  made  on  Exchequer 
bills.  These  bills  are  a  convenient  means  whereby 
the  government  can  meet  a  sudden  demand  for 
unusual  expenditure.  Thus,  during  the  pressure  of 
tlie  Indian  mutiny  (18.56 — 1858),  the  amount  due  on 
Excliequer  bills  greatly  exceeded  that  of  the  years 
which  immediately  preceded  and  followed.  Amount 
of  Exchequer  bills  unprovided  for  during  each  of  the 
following  four  years  was:  (1870—71)  £5, .391, 000; 
(1871—72)  £5^155,100;  (1872-73)  £4,829,100; 
(1873  —  74)  £4,479,600. 

EXCrPIENT  (Lat.  excipio,  I  receive),  an  inert  or 
isligLtly  active  substance,  introduced  into  a  medical 
prescription  as  a  vehicle,  or  medium  of  administration 
for  the  strictly  medicinal  ingredients.  Thus,  conserve 
of  red  roses,  or  bread  crumb,  is  used  to  make  up  pills ; 
sulphate  of  potass,  or  white  sugar,  in  medicinal  pow- 
ders ;  water,  mucilage,  Avhite  of  egg,  and  many  other 
substances,  in  fluid  mixtures. 

EXCrSE,  the  name  of  a  tax  on  commodities,  from 
the  Latin  excisns,  cut  oft",  as  being  a  portion  of  the 
VHlue  of  the  conimodity  cut  off  and  set  apart  for 
the  revenue  l)eforc  the  commodity  is  sold.  This  is 
ftct  its  actual  uature,  bowevei',  for  the  manufac- ' 


turer  who  looks  to  a  profit  on  his  outlay  does  not 
give  part  of  the  value  to  the  revenue;  he  merely 
counts  the  tax  as  i)art  of  his  cx])enditure,  which  he 
intends  to  get  back  with  a  prodt,  so  that  it  con- 
stitutes an  addition  to  the  ultinuite  price  which  the 
I)urchaser  or  consumer  has  to  pay.  A  tax  on  com- 
modities sold  and  bought  is  a  very  obvious  one, 
adopted  in  almost  every  country  where  taxes  have 
been  raised  otherwise  than  on  the  land  or  by  the 
head  ;  but  it  has  generally  appeared  in  the  simple 
shape  of  a  toll  on  goods  brought  to  market,  and  the 
complicated  arrangements  for  offici.ully  watchitg 
the  ])rocess  of  a  numufactux'e  through  all  ts  stages, 
for  the  puri)ose  of  seeing  that  none  of  the  dues  of 
the  revenue  are  evaded,  is  of  comparatively  modem 
origin.  It  had  been  for  some  time  successfully 
practised  in  Holland,  when  the  Long  Parliament, 
who  were  looking  about  for  a  fruitful  source  of 
revenue,  observing  how  productive  it  had  been 
there,  established  an  excise  on  liquors  in  England 
in  1643.  It  was  continued  at  the  Restoration  by 
the  same  statute  which  abolished  aids,  escuages, 
and  the  other  feudal  exactions,  along  with  the 
Coui-t  of  Wards  established  for  enforcing  them, 
and  the  royal  preiogatives  of  purveyance  and  pre- 
emption. The  excise  may  thus  be  considered  the 
price  paid  for  the  abolition  of  the  biu-dens  of  the 
feudal  system.  Though  always  unpopidar,  the 
excise  in  some  form  or  other  has  ever  since  con- 
tinued to  be  a  material  element  in  the  taxation 
and  revenue  of  Britain.  In  the  earlier  part  of 
last  century.  Sir  Robert  Walpole  entertained  the 
notion  of  enlarging  its  productiveness  while  miti- 
gating its  proportional  pressure,  by  the  bonding 
system,  which  suspends  the  exaction  of  the  duty 
imtil  the  goods  are  sold,  and  thus  leaves  the  manu- 
facturer all  his  capital  to  be  devted  to  produc- 
tion. See  Warehousing  System.  But  the  rumour 
of  an  enlargement  of  the  unpopular  excise  duty 
created  a  general  excitement,  and  the  memorable 
cry  of  '  Liberty,  Property,  and  no  Excise  '  compelled 
Walpole  to  abandon  his  project. 

An  excise,  when  compared  with  other  taxes,  has 
its  good  and  its  bad  features :  it  is  a  method  of 
extracting  money  for  national  purposes  from  per- 
sonal expenditure  on  luxuries,  and  is  especially 
serviceable  when  fed  from  those  luxuries  the  use 
of  which  in  excess  becomes  a  vice.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  renders  necessary  a  system  of  inquisitorial 
inspection  not  only  very  offensive  to  all  free  people, 
but  very  open  to  abuse  and  fraud ;  while  at  the 
same  time  excessively  high  duties,  and  duties  on 
commodities  strictly  of  domestic  manufactiu-e,  lead 
to  smuggling  and  all  its  demoralising  consequences. 
The  evils  of  an  excise  w^ere  formerly  aggravated  by 
the  practice  of  farming  the  duties — that  is,  by 
letting  them  to  the  highest  bidder,  whose  interest  it 
became,  hke  any  other  contractor,  to  make  the 
greatest  possible  profit  by  his  speculation,  and  con- 
sequently to  exact  the  duties  in  the  most  rigoroui 
manner.  In  every  well-regulated  revenue  systera, 
it  is  of  course  only  fair  to  all  parties  that  the  daty 
as  the  law  lays  it  on  shoidd  be  fuUy  exacted ;  but 
in  the  ago  of  farming,  the  arrangements  were  all 
slovenly,  and  there  was  much  latitude  of  power  in 
the  hands  of  the  farmers.  The  farming  system 
became  very  oppressive  in  France,  especially  in  the 
f/abelle  or  excise  on  that  necessary  of  life,  salt.  It 
is  a  curious  fact,  however,  that  when  the  farming  of 
the  excise  was  abolished  in  Scotland  by  the  Union, 
the  people  grumbled,  saying  they  were  easier  luule; 
the  farmers,  their  own  neighboiu^,  wdio  acted  on 
the  principle  of  '  live  and  let  live,'  than  under  the 
officers  sent  down  from  England,  who  rigidly 
collected  the  impost. 

An  excise  works  most  easily  when  it  ia  laid  o» 

185 


EXCITANTS— EXCOMMUNICATION. 


some  comniotlity  banished  from  domestic  production 
and  crejitctl  l)y  maiiui'iicturers  on  a  lar<?e  scale.  In 
a  great  distillery,  the  excise  olKcer  is  almost  a  por- 
tion ot"  the  cstal)lishmcnt,  Avho  has  an  eye  on  every 
srep  of  the  process,  with  the  view  of  seeing  that 
the  commodity  does  not  get  into  the  market  with- 
out government  obtaining  its  ))roi>cr  share — some- 
times far  the  greater  part — of  the  market  price. 
The  social  influence  of  such  an  arrangement  is  very 
dillercnt  from  that  of  the  old  candle  and  salt  duties, 
which  made  it  the  function  of  the  exciseman  to 
p<  unce  on  a  farmer's  family  melting  the  surplus 
tallow  of  the  last  killed  sheep,  or  of  a  fisherman 
boiling  sea- water  to  ])rocure  salt  for  his  j)otatoes. 
The  manufacturer,  however,  though  he  has  the 
benelit  of  the  bonding  system,  feels  the  excise  regu- 
lations to  be  a  pei-]>etual  drag  and  hinderance  in  his 
0[>erations,  since  there  are  nndtitudes  of  miniite 


chicory,  which  was  excised  for  the  purpose 
obviating  the  adiilteratiov.  of  coffee. 

E'XCITANTS,  or  SlI'MULANTS,  are  these 
pharmaceutical  preparations  Avhich,  acting  through 
the  nervous  system,  tend  to  increase  the  action  of 
the  heart  and  other  organs.  They  all  possess  more 
or  less  of  a  pungent  and  acrid  taste,  and  give  rise 
to  a  sensation  of  warmth  when  placed  on  a  tender 
part  of  the  skin.  The  class  is  a  very  unmercua 
one,  and  the  application  of  excitants  or  stimnliuit* 
to  the  human  subject  should  always  be  nnder  thfl 
supervision  of  a  qualified  medical  practitioner. 

EXCLU'SION  BILL,  a  proposed  meao.cre  fof 
excluding  the  Duke  of  York,  afterwards  James  II., 
fi'om  the  succession  to  the  throne,  on  account  of  his 
avowed  Catholicism.  A  bill  to  this  effect  passed 
the  Commons  in  1679,  but  was  thrown  out  by  the 


operations  which  he  cannot  perform  without  sending   Upper  House    As  the  new  parliament  summoned 


special  notice  to  the  excise  department,  or  having 
an  officer  actually  present.  This  renders  it  neces- 
sary, too,  that  all  the  steps  of  the  process  should 
not  merely  be  defined  as  between  the  manufacturer 
and  the  ofhcer,  but  shotild  be  set  forth  in  an  act  of 


in  1G81  seemed  determined  to  revert  to  this  measure, 
it  was  dissolved,  and  Charles  ruled  henceforth 
without  control.    See  Charles  II.,  James  II. 

EXCOMMUNICA'TION  is  exclusion  from  the 
fellowship  of  the  Christian  Church.    The  ancient 


parliament;  and  hence  deviations  for  tlie  purpose  of  I  Komans  had  something  analogous  in  the  exclusioi. 


economy,  or  by  way  of  exj)eriment,  become  difficult, 
and  sometimes  impracticable.  As  difficulties  with 
which  the  producer  has  to  contend,  these  things 
rccjuire  him  to  lay  on  the  selling  ju'ice  of  the  com- 
nunlity  a  larger  addition,  by  reason  of  the  excise, 
than  the  actual  amount  of  the  duty. 

No  method  of  taxation  requires  a  nicer  adjust- 
ment to  the  social  condition  of  a  country  than  an 
excise.  Thus,  in  England,  in  the  year  1746,  a  duty 
of  2().s.  a  gallon  was  laid  on  spirits,  with  the  view  of 
sup])ressing  the  vice  of  drunkenness,  which,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  greatly  increased,  for  the  law  became 
a  dea<l  letter,  and  the  smuggler  fully  supplied  the 
market,  although  within  the  two  years  in  which  the 
law  was  in  force,  no  fewer  than  12,000  ] tersons  were, 
according  to  Tindal's  Histoiy,  convicted  of  offences 
against  the  act.  In  Scotland,  the  duty,  which  was 
6n.  G(L  a  gallon,  had  to  be  reduced  in  1823  to  2s.,  on 
account  of  the  prevalence  of  smuggling — half  the 
consumption  of  the  country,  in  fact,  paying  no  duty 
whatever. 

Tlie  duty  has  since  then  been  gradunlly  raised,  until 
it  now  amounts  to  lOs'.  a  gallon,  forming  a  vast  reve- 
nue. Tlie  whole  excise  revenue  of  the  United  King- 
dom for  1870  amounted  to  £21.852,762,  of  which 
nearly  four-tilths  were  supplied  from  the  consumption 
of  li(|"uor — viz.,  £10.969,188  from  spirits,  and  £6,483- 
612  from  malt;  and  there  were  besides  the  licence- 
duties  for  selling  liquors.  The  productiveness  of 
this  great  source  of  revenue,  and  the  expense  and 


of  persons  from  the  temples  and  from  participation 
of  the  sacrifices,  which  persons  were  also  given  over 
with  awful  ceremonies  to  the  Furies.  The  Mosaic 
Law  decreed  excommunication  in  case  of  certain 
offences  ;  and  the  intimate  connection  of  things  civil 
and  ecclesiastical  under  the  Jewish  polity,  rendered 
it  terrible  even  as  a  temporal  punishment.  The 
Jews,  in  practice,  had  three  degrees  of  excommuni- 
cation. The  first,  Niddui,  was  an  exclusion  from 
the  synagogue  for  thirty  days,  that  the  offender 
might  be  ashamed.  The  second,  Cherem,  was  also 
for  thirty  days,  but  beside  exclusion  from  the 
synagogue,  carried  with  it  a  prohibition  to  all  other 
Jews  o'  any  intercourse  with  the  individual,  and 
was  often  proclaimed  with  sound  of  trumpet.  The 
third,  Shammaina  or  Anathema  Maranatha  (sec 
1  Cor.  xvi.  22),  was  exclusion  from  the  synagogue 
and  privileges  of  the  Jewish  Chm-ch  for  life,  with 
loss  of  civil  rights,  and  was  accompanied  with 
terrible  curses,  in  which  the  offender  was  given  over 
to  the  judgment  of  God.  In  the  Christian  Church, 
excommunication  has  in  all  ages  been  practised, 
as  indeed  every  society  must  necessarily  have  the 
power  of  excluding  unworthy  members  and  those 
who  refuse  to  comply  with  its  rules,  and  the  New 
Testament  plainly  recognises  and  establishes  this 
right  in  the  church.  But  two  different  degrees  of 
excommxmication  were  soon  distinguished — the  first 
or  lesser,  a  mere  exclusion  from  the  Lord's  Table 
and  from  other  privileges  of  members  of  th3  church ; 


annoj'^ance  connected  with  the  levying  of  a  duty  on  ;  the  second  or  greater,  pronounced  upon  obstinate 
other  miscellaneous  commodities,  has  led  to  the  j  offenders  and  persons  who  departed  from  orthodox 
gradual  removal  of  many  excise  duties,  as,  for  i  doctrine,  more  solemn  and  awful,  and  not  so  easily 
instance,  on  salt,  candles,  leather,  glass,  soap,  and  capable  of  being  revoked.  Penances  and  public 
lastly,  on  paper,  which  was  reheved  on  the  1st  of  \  professions  of  repentance  were  required ;  and  in 
Ootol)er  1 86 1.  Africa  and  Spain,  the  absolution  of  lapsed  persors 

Th  -  AJ  was  formerly  a  separate  department  with  a  '  (i.  e.,  those  who  in  time  of  persecution  had  yieldci 
7cry  c.^njplex  machinery  for  the  administration  of  |  to  the  force  of  temptation,  and  fallen  awcy  from 


*ihe  excise.  It  is  now  superintended  by  the  com- 
la'Rsioners  of  inland  revenue ;  and  for  the  purposes 
of  local  collection  and  inspection,  the  country  is 
divide  I  into  districts,  in  each  of  which  there  is 
generally  a  collector  and  a  certain  number  of 
supervisors. 

Certain  taxes  which  are  not  properly  of  the 
nature  of  excise,  but  rather  of  licence  duties  for 
following  j)articular  pm'suits,  are  collected  in  the 
excise  dei»artment,  as,  for  instance,  the  duties 
payal)le  by  auctioneers,  by  letters  of  horses  and 
carriage.-!,  tobacco- dealers,  and  soap-makers.  The 


their  Christian  profession  by  the  crime  of  actuixl 
!  sacrifice  to  idols)  was  forbidden,  except  at  the  hour 
I  of  death,  or  in  cases  where  martyrs  interceded  for 
{  them.  But  for  a  long  time,  no  civil  consequences 
{  were  connected  with  excommimication.  Aftei  wards, 
the  greater  excommimication  was  accompanie i  with 
I  loss  of  political  rights,  and  exclusion  from  public 
j  offices.  The  power  of  excommunication  also,  tvhich 
j  had  been  at  first  in  the  church  as  a  bod;y',  gradually 
I  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  bishops,  and  more 
especially  of  the  popes,  who  did  not  3crup^©  to 
I  exercise  it  against  entire  commimitie.51  at  cnoe. 


only  article  j>roperly  excisable  besides  liquors  is  j  The  capitularies  of  Pepin  the  Less,  irv  the  8!i]i  0.f 


EXCRETION— EXE. 


ordained  that  the  greater  excommunication  should 
be  ftUowed  by  banishment  from  the  country.  The 
Romau  Catholic  Church  pronounces  tlie  sentence 
of  excoLnmunication  with  many  circumstances  of 
ternble  solemnity,  and  it  contains  a  prohibition  to 
all  Christian  })erson3  of  all  intercourse  with  the 
|!ersou  excommunicated,  and  of  extending  to  him 
even  the  most  ordinary  social  offices.  The  latest 
'  examples '  made  by  the  pope  were  Napoleon  I. 
in  1809,  and  Victor  Emmanuel,  king  of  Italy, 
in  18G0  ;  neither  of  whom,  however,  was  excom- 
municated by  name,  the  pope  having  confined 
himself  to  a  solemn  and  reiterated  publication 
of  the  penalties  decreed  by  his  predecessors 
against  those  who  unjustly  invaded  the  territories 
of  the  Holy  See,  usurped  or  violated  its  rights, 
or  \dolently  impeded  their  free  exercise.  Pope 
Innocent  III.,  in  the  Lateran  Council  (1215), 
declared  that  excommunication  put  an  end  to  all 
civil  rights  and  dignities,  and  to  the  possession  of 
any  property.  The  excommiuiicatiou  of  a  sovereign 
was  r(;garded  as  freeing  subjects  from  their  alle- 
giance, and  in  the  year  1102,  this  sentence  was 
pronoimced  against  the  Emj)eror  Henry  IV., 
an  examine  which  subsequent  popes  likewise 
ventured  to  follow.  But  the  fearful  weapons  with 
which  the  popes  armed  themselves  in  this  power 
of  excommunication,  were  rendered  much  less 
effective  through  their  incautious  employment,  the 
evident  worldly  motives  by  wiiich  it  was  sometimes 
governed,  and  the  excommunications  which  rival 
popes  hurled  against  each  other  during  the  time 
of  the  great  papal  schism.  The  Greek  Church 
also  makes  use  of  excommunication,  and  every  year 
at  Constantino])le,  on  a  certain  Sunday,  the  greater 
ban  is  pronounced  against  the  Roman  Catholic 
Cluirch. — The  Reformers  retained  only  that  power 
of  excommunication  which  a])peared  to  them  to  be 
inherent  in  the  constitution  of  the  Christian  society, 
and  to  be  sanctioned  by  the  Word  of  God ;  nor 
have  any  civil  consequences  been  generally  con- 
nected with  it  in  Protestant  countries.  To  connect 
such  conseqiiences  with  excommunication  in  any 
measure  whatever,  is  cei*tainly  inconsistent  with 
the  principles  of  the  Reformation.  Nevertheless,  in 
England,  until  the  53d  of  Geo.  III.  c.  127,  and  in 
Ireland,  until  the  54th,  c.  68,  persons  excommuni- 
cated were  debarred  from  bringing  or  maintaining 
actions,  from  serving  as  jurymen,  from  appearing  as 
witnesses  in  any  cause,  and  from  practising  as 
attorneys  in  any  of  the  courts  of  the  realm.  All 
these  disalnlities  were  removed  by  the  statutes 
al)ove  named ;  and  the  excommunicated  were 
declared  no  longer  liable  to  any  penalty,  except 
•such  imprisonment,  not  exceeding  six  months,  as 
the  court  pronouncing  or  declaring  such  person 
excommunicate  shall  direct.' 

In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  power  of 
ercommunicating  is  held  to  reside,  not  in  the  con- 
gi  3gation,  but  in  the  bishop ;  and  this  is  believed 
to  be  ID  exact  accordance  with  the  remarkable  pro- 
ceeding commemorated  in  the  First  Ei)istle  of  St 
Paul  to  the  Corinthians  (1  Cor.  v.  3-5),  and  with  all 
■jhe  cailiest  recorded  examples  of  its  exercise.  Like 
ill  the  other  powers  of  the  episcopate,  it  is  held  to 
belong  in  an  especial  and  eminent  degree,  to  the 
Romar  bishop,  as  primate  of  the  church  ;  but  it  is 
by  no  means  believed  to  belong  to  him  exclusively, 
nor  haa  such  exclusive  right  ever  been  claimed  by  the 
bishops  of  Rome.  On  the  contrary,  bishops  within 
their  sees,  archbishops  while  exercising  visitatorial 
jurisdiction,  heads  of  religious  orders  within  their 
o^[n  communities,  all  possess  the  power  to  issue 
excommunication,  not  only  by  the  ancient  law  of 
the  church,  but  also  by  the  mfist  modern  discipline. 
As  U  thfi  i)rolubition  of  intercourse  with  the  excom- 


municated, a  wide  distinction  is  made  bct'.vocn  thos* 
who  are  called  'tolerated'  and  those  who  are  'not 
tolerated.'  Only  in  tlie  case  of  tlie  latter  (a  case 
extremely  rare  and  confined  to  hercsiarchs  and 
other  signal  offenders  again.st  tlie  faith  or  public 
order  of  the  church)  is  the  ancient  and  sca'ip- 
tural  prohibition  of  intercourse  enforced.  With  tlie 
'tolerated,'  since  the  celebrated  decree  of  Pope 
Martin  V.  in  the  Council  of  Constance,  the  faithful 
are  X)ermitted  to  maintain  the  ordinary  intercourse. 
It  is  a  mistake,  likewise,  to  ascribe  to  Catholics  the 
doctrine, '  that  excommunication  may  be  pronounced 
against  the  dead.'  The  contrary  is  expressly  laid 
down  by  all  canonists  (Liguori,  Theolo'jia  Moralis, 
lib.  vii.  n.  13,  1).  In  the  cases  in  which  this  is  said 
to  have  been  done,  the  supposed  '  excommunica- 
tion of  the  dead'  was  merely  a  declaration  that  the 
deceased  individual  had,  wldle  living,  been  guilty  of 
some  crime  to  which  ejcommunlcation  is  altad,id 
hy  the  clmrch  laws.  Catholic  writers,  moreover, 
explain  that  the  civil  effects  of  excommunication 
in  the  medieval  period — such  as  incapacity  to 
exercise  jiolitical  rights,  and  even  forfeiture  of  the 
allegiance  of  subjects — were  annexed  thereunto  by 
the  civil  law  itself,  or  at  least  by  a  common  inter- 
national understanding  in  that  age.  Examjjles  are 
alleged  in  the  law  of  Spain,  as  laid  down  in  the 
Sixth  Council  of  Toledo — a  mixed  civil  and  ecclesi- 
astical congress — (638) ;  in  the  law  of  France,  as 
admitted  by  Charles  le  Chauve  (859) ;  in  the  Saxon 
and  in  the  Swabian  codes  ;  and  even  in  the  English 
laws  of  Edward  the  Confessor ;  all  which,  and  many 
similar  laws,  proceed  on  the  great  general  principle 
of  these  medieval  monarchies,  viz.,  that  orthodoxy 
and  communion  with  the  Holy  See  were  a  necessary 
condition  of  the  tenure  of  supreme  civil  power;  just 
as  by  the  1  Will,  and  Mary,  s.  2,  c.  2,  profession  of 
Protestantism  is  made  the  condition  of  succession 
to  the  throne  of  England.  Hence,  it  is  argued,  the 
medieval  popes,  in  exccmmunicating  sovereigns,  and 
declaring  their  subjects  released  from  allegiance, 
did  but  declare  what  was,  by  the  public  law  of  the 
jjeriod,  the  civil  effect  of  the  exercise  of  what  in  them 
was  a  spiritual  authority. 

By  the  discipline  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
kings  or  queens,  and  their  children,  are  not  included 
in  any  general  sentence  of  exco^xmunication,  unless 
they  be  specially  named. 

i^:XCRETION.    See  Secretion. 

EXCULPA'TION,  Letters  or,  in  the  law 

Scotland,  are  the  warrants  granted  to  the  accused 
party,  or  panel  as  he  is  called,  in  a  criminal  prose- 
cution, to  enable  him  to  cite  and  compel  the  attend- 
ance of  such  witnesses  as  he  may  judge  necessary 
for  his  defence.  These  letters  are  issued  as  a  mattei 
of  course,  on  application  at  the  Justiciary  Office,  if 
tne  prosecution  be  in  the  High  Court,  or  to  the 
sberiff  c^erk  in  cases  of  Sheriff  Court  libels.  If  there 
be  any  special  defence,  such  as  alibi,  a  writtec 
statement  of  its  nature  along  with  the  articles  to  be 
fomided  on,  and  a  list  of  the  witnesses  to  be  called, 
must  be  lodged  with  the  clerk  of  courf  the  day 
before  the  trial. 

EXE,-  a  river  of  the  south-west  of  England,  risen 
in  Exraoor,  in  the  west  of  Somersetshu-e,  and  flows 
19  miles  south-east  to  the  borders  of  Devonshire, 
and  then  35  miles  south  through  the  east  part  oi 
that  county  into  the  Enghsh  Channel  at  Exmouth, 
The  lower  rive  miles  form  a  tideway  a  Jiiile  broad 
at  high  water,  with  wooded  and  picturesque  shores, 
and  navigable  for  large  vessels.  The  chief  tributaries 
are  the  Barle,  24  miles  long,  Batham,  Loman,  Culm, 
Dart,  Creedy,  and  Chst.  The  E.  passes  Didverton, 
Brompton,  Exeter,  and  Topsham.  It  has  a  clear  and 
merry  current  thi'ough  wooded  and  romuit'c  val'^H. 


F>CECUTION-EXECUTION  OF  CMMINALS. 


fCXECU'TION,  in  the  la./  of  Scotland,  signifies 
tlie  attestation  by  a  Mcssenger-at-arms  (q.  v.),  or  other 
officer  of  the  law,  that  he  has  given  a  citation,  or 
carried  through  a  Diligence  (q.  v.),  in  terms  of  the 
warrant  of  the  judge.  It  corresponds  to  an  affidavit 
of  service  of  writ  or  summons  in  the  common  law 
courts,  and  of  a  bill  or  claim  in  Chancery.  Execu- 
tions must  be  subscribed  by  the  messenger  or  other 
executor,  and  by  one  or  two  witnesses ;  and  where 
the  execution  consists  of  more  pages  than  one,  each 
page,  or  at  least  each  leaf,  niu  t  be  so  attested.  Tlie 
witnesses  are  witnesses  to  tit  fact  of  service,  not 
merely  to  the  sul)scription  oi  vhe  messenger;  and 
tbe  execution  ought  strictly  to  bear  tliat  they  are 
witnesses  to  the  premises.  Till  tue  ■'oassiu!?;;  of  recent 
acts  (1  and  2  Vict.  c.  114,  kc.  ;  scv*  Evidence),  two 
witnesses  were  necessary  to  all  exe  mtions,  but  one 
is  now  sufficient,  except  in  cases  of  ^  oinding,  where 

o  are  still  required.  (Bell's  Law  Dktioiianj,  and 
authorities  cited.) 

EXECUTION,  Criminal.  See  Cai-ital  PuNisn- 

MENT. 

EXECUTION,  Military  and  Naval,  usually 
takes  ])]ace  by  hanging  or  shooting,  according  to 
the  rank  of  tlie  offender  and  the  nature  of  the 
oiTence.  In  some  rare  instances,  blowing  from  the 
diouth  of  a  gnn  has  been  resorted  to.  For  ])arti- 
CTilars  of  the  acts  for  which  death  is  awarded,  see 
Punishments,  Military  and  Naval,  and  Mutiny 
AlCT. 

EXECUTION  OF  CRIMINALS.  See  Capital 
Punishment.  Executions  take  place  publicly  in  the 
iJnited  Kingdom,  and,  as  far  as  known,  all  other 
countries,  with  tlie  exception  of  the  United  States, 
Bavai'ia,  and  the  colony  of  Victoria,  where  they  take 
place  within  the  precincts  of  the  prison,  in  the  sight 
of  certain  officials  and  others  who  are  imdted  to 
be  ])resent.  As  one  of  the  main  objects  of  capital 
punishments  is  to  strike  terror  by  exani[)le,  this 
method  of  private  executions,  as  it  may  be  called, 
Qecessarily  fails  in  an  essential  feature  ;  but  this 
defect  is  held  to  be  more  than  compensated  by  tlie 
prevention  of  what  is  in  reality  a  brutalising  public 
spectacle.  In  London,  executions  took  place  for 
the  most  part  at  Tyburn  until  1783,  when  a  scaffold 
erected  in  front  of  Nev/-gate  prison  became  the 
common  place  of  execution.  '  The  gallows  was  built 
with  three  cross-beams  for  as  many  rows  of  sufFevvfs ; 
and  between  February  and  December  1785,  ninety- 
six  persons  suffered  by  the  "  new  drop,"  substituted 
for  the  cart.  About  1786,  here  was  the  last  execu- 
tion followed  by  burning  the  body  ;  when  a  woman 
was  hung  on  a  low  gibbet,  and  life  being  extinct, 
fagots  were  piled  around  her  and  over  her  head, 
£re  W9,s  set  to  the  pile,  and  the  corpse  burned  to 
ashes.  On  one  occasion  the  old  mode  of  execution 
was  renewed  :  a  triangular  gallows  was  set  up  in  the 
road  opposite  Green-Arbom"  Court,  and  the  cart  was 
drawn  from  under  the  criminal's  feet.' — Timbs's 
Curiosities  of  London.  To  render  executions  more 
impressive,  they  were  in  some  cases  ordered  to  take 
place  near  the  scene  of  guilt ;  but  this  is  now 
seldom  practised.  As  in  London,  the  ordinary  place 
of  execution  in  most  towns  in  Great  Britain  and 
Iniiand  is  outside  the  prison.  At  Edinburgh,  execu- 
"iions  took  place  chiifly  in  the  Grassmarket,  until 
1734,  when  they  were  transferred  to  a  platform 
&.1  the  west  end  of  the  Tolbooth  or  ancient  prison, 
a  building  removed  in  1817.  Executions  now  take 
place  on  a  scaffold  erected  in  the  open  street,  near 
the  site  of  the  old  prison.  The  interval  between 
sentence  and  execution  is  now  in  most  places  about 
three  -^veeks,  the  nature  of  the  crime  not  making 
•ny  difference  in  tliis  respect.  In  all  parts  of  the 
British  Empire,  the  convict  imder  sentence  of  death 
18/ 


is  allowed  to  make  choice  of  the  spiritual  adviijtjr 
who  shall  attend  on  him  ;  and  generally,  everything; 
that  humauicy  can  suggest  is  done  to  assuage  the 
bitterness  of  his  fate. '  At  one  time,  the  bodies  of 
murderers  after  execution  were,  in  terms  of  their 
sentence,  delivered  to  professors  of  anatomy  foi 
dissection ;  and  it  woidd  appear  that  in  some 
instances  the  mangled  coi*pse  was  made  a  kind  of 
pu1)lic  show.  Such  took  place  on  the  execution  of 
Earl  Ferrers,  1760.  The  body  having  been  con- 
veyed from  Tyburn  in  his  lordship's  landau -and- stt 
to  Surgeon's  Hall,  was,  after  being  disembowelled 
and  laid  open  in  the  neck  and  breast,  exposed  to 
public  view  in  a  first-floor  room.  A  print  of  the 
time  depicts  this  odious  exhibition.  The  ordering 
of  the  bodies  to  be  dissected,  having  led  to  great 
abuse,  was  abolished  in  1832  ;  since  this  period,  the 
bodies  of  executed  murderers  are  l)uried  within  the 
precincts  of  the  prison,  and  the  bodies  of  other  male- 
factors are  given  to  their  friends.  See  Anatomy  (in 
Law).  It  was  also  at  one  time  customary  to  hang  the 
bodies  of  certain  malefactors  in  chains  after  ex  ecu- 
tion — as,  for  example,  the  bodies  of  jiii'ates  were  so 
hung  on  the  banks  of  the  Thames — but  this  usage, 
revolting  to  public  feeling,  is  likewise  abandoned. 
From  the  improved  state  of  the  criminal  law,  death- 
sentences  are  now  of  comimratively  rare  occurrence, 
and  still  more  rarely  are  such  sentences  executed, 
for,  except  in  cases  of  deliberate  and  aggravated 
murder,  the  extreme  se  \tcuce  of  the  law  is  now 
usually  commuted  by  th>  crown  into  penal  servi- 
tude for  life.  The  secret-'ry  of  state,  however,  to 
whom  practically  belongs  the  attribute  of  mercy, 
exercises  his  power  in  thi>,  respect  with  obviously 
much  care  and  discretion.  The  pardoning  power  of 
governors  in  the  United  States  is  said  to  be  greatly 
abused. 

In  the  progress  of  manners,  a  great  change  has 
taken  place  in  the  public  attendance  at  executions. 
Formerly,  persons  belonging  to  the  higher  and 
middle  ranks  were  habitually  present  at  these  dismal 
exhibitions  ;  many  hiring  windows  at  a  consider- 
able sum  for  the  occasion.  Literature  furnishes 
us  with  various  instances  of  persons  of  cultivated 
mind  attending  regularly  from  a  morbid  love  of 
the  spectacle;  George  Selwyn  was  fond  of  seeing 
executions.  His  friend  Gilly  Williams,  writing  to 
him  of  the  condemnation  of  John  Wesket  (January 
9,  1765)  for  robbing  the  house  of  his  master,  the 
Earl  of  Hamngton,  says :  '  Harrington's  porter 
was  condemned  yesterday.  Cadogan  and  I  have 
already  bespoke  places  at  the  Brazier's.  I  jiresume 
we  shall  have  your  honours  company,  if  your 
stomach  is  not  too  squeamish  for  a  single  swim.' 
— Selwyn's  Gorresjmndence,  vol.  i.  p.  323.  The  Eail 
of  Carlisle,  writing  to  Selwyn,  speaks  of  having 
attended  the  execution  of  Hackman,  .i  murderer, 
April  19,  1779. — Ibid.vol.  iv.  p.  35.  James  Boswell, 
the  biographer  of  Johnson,  had  a  passion  for  seeing 
executions,  and  even  for  accompanying  criminals  to 
the  gallows.  He  was  indulged  with  a  seat  in  the 
mourning  coach  to  Tyburn,  along  with  the  above- 
named  Hackman,  the  ordinary  of  Newgate,  and 
sheriff's  officer.  Visiting  Johnson  on  the  23d  of 
June  1784,  he  mentions  that  he  has  just  come  from 
the  shocking  sight  of  fifteen  men  hanged  at  Newgat*. 
Boswell's  Johnson,  vol.  viii.  p.  331,  Croker's  edition. 
At  executions,  there  are  still  considerable  crowds, 
but  they  consist  chiefly  of  the  lowest  and  most 
depraved  of  the  population.  During  the  excesses  of 
the  French  Revolution,  the  executions  in  Paris  were 
enjoyed  as  a  sj)ectacle  by  crowds  of  female  Jacol)ins. 
From  the  circumstance  of  these  furies  employing 
themselves  with  knitting  needles  while  attending 
daily  at  the  scaffold,  they  became  familiarly  known  aa 
the  Tricoteuses  (Knitters).    Some  further  information 


EXECUTION  OF  DEED— EXECUTIOXER. 


concerninj[>-  executions  will  be  found  in  Drowning, 
Gallows,  Guillotine,  Hanged  Dhawn  and 
Quartered  ;  Hanging,  INTaiden,  Newgate,  Par- 
ricide, I'lRATE,  Pressing  TO  Death,  and  Tyburn. 

EXECUTION  OF  DEED,  the  perfonnance  of 
the  ceromonies  required  by  law  in  order  to  make  a 
deed  binding  and  effectual.  These  ceremonies  in 
England  consist  in  signing,  sealing,  and  deliverinfi'. 
According  to  the  ancient  common  law  of  England, 
signntiu'e  Avas  not  necessary  to  a  deed.  By  20 
Car.  11.  c.  3  (statute  of  Erauds),  signing  was  required 
for  almost  all  deeds.  But  it  is  still  a  question  which 
has  not  been  positively  decided  whether,  when  a 
seal  is  used,  it  is  necessary  that  the  parties  should 
sign.  When  a  party,  from  any  cause,  is  unable  to 
write,  it  is  usual  for  him  to  place  his  mark  in  the 
place  of  signature.  But  a  marlc  is  unnecessary,  and 
giguature  by  another,  at  request  of  the  party,  is 
enough.  Sealing  is  the  most  ancient  form  of  authen- 
tication of  deeds.  In  England,  deeds  are  technically 
known  as  deeds  under  seal.  A  seal  is  absolutely 
essential  to  tlie  validity  of  an  English  deed,  but  any 
species  of  seal  is  sufficient,  and  in  practice  a  common 
wafer  is  usually  appended.  Delivery  is  the  third 
requisite  to  authenticate  a  deed.  Delivery  may  be 
made  either  to  the  grantee  or  to  another  person  for 
him.  In  the  former  case,  the  deed  becomes  absolute; 
in  the  latter,  it  is  called  an  Escroio,  and  does 
not  acquire  its  full  effect  till  the  conditions  are 
fulfilled.  Witnesses  are  not  absolutely  required  to 
a  deed  in  England,  but  in  practice  it  is  usual  that 
one  or  moi-e  mtnesses  should  sign.  As  a  rule,  a 
deed  must  be  read,  if  required,  by  a  party  to  it ;  and 
if  not  read,  it  is  void  as  to  the  party  requesting. 
Where  a  person  is  ordered  m  Chancery  to  execute  a 
deed  or  other  instrument,  and  is  in  prison  for  failure 
to  comply  with  the  order,  the  court  may  make  an 
order  that  the  instrument  be  executed  by  the 
officer  of  the  court ;  and  the  execution  having  been 
60  made,  the  instrument  is  equally  valid  as  if 
signed  by  the  jiarty.  The  execution  of  wills  in 
England  is  regadated  by  7  Will.  IV.  and  1  Vict, 
c.  26.  By  this  statute  it  is  required  that  every  will 
shall  be  signed  at  the  foot  or  end  by  the  testator  in 
presence  of  two  witnesses.    See  Will. 

In  Scotland,  sealing  was  formerly  an  essential 
requisite  for  execution ;  but  that  practice  was  by  158i 
c.  4  dispensed  with  in  regard  to  registered  deeds, 
and  has  long  fallen  into  disuse.  The  solemnities  of 
execution  are  now  regidated  by  the  old  acts  1540 
c.  117,  and  1681  c.  5.  By  the  former  of  these  acts,  the 
signature  of  the  maker  of  the  de^d  is  required,  and 
by  the  latter,  the  presence  of  two  witnesses  is  made 
essential.  In  order  to  a  valid  execution  of  a  deed 
or  will  in  Scotland,  it  is  necessary  that  the  maker 
should  sign  in  the  presence  of  two  witnesses,  or 
should  in  their  presence  acknowledge  his  signatiu"e, 
and  that  the  witnesses  slioidd  then  sign  their  own 
names,  writing  after  them  the  word  '  witness.'  In 
case  the  maker  of  the  deed  cannot  write,  the  deed 
is  signed  in  his  presence  by  two  notaries,  in  presence 
of  four  witnesses.  But  in  case  of  a  will,  one  notary 
and  two  witnesses  are  sufficient.  A  deed  thus 
witnessed  is  received  as  conchisive  proof  of  the  facts 
which  it  sets  forth.  Subscription  by  initials  has 
been  permitted  in  Scotland.  But  this  mode  of 
execution  is  irregidar,  and  where  it  has  been 
adopted,  proof  has  been  required  that  de  facto  the 
signature  was  so  made.  There  is  one  exception  to  the 
nde  that  witnesses  must  attest  the  signatiu-e — viz., 
that  of  a  deed  or  other  instrument  the  whole  or  the 
essential  parts  of  which  are  holograph  of  the  tes- 
tator. This  instrument  is  valid  without  witnesses. 
Bills  and  promissory-notes,  receipts  and  mercan- 
tile accounts,  do  not  require  to  be  holograph  or 
»tteate<l. 


EXECUTION  ON  CIVIL  PROCESS  is  tho 
method  whereby  a  court  of  justice  enforces  its 
judgment  on  the  person  or  estate  of  those  against 
whom  judgment  has  been  given.  TTie  common  law 
of  England  allows  Jbur  different  writs  to  issue 
against  refractory  debtors — viz.,  a  fieri  facias  (called 
commonly  a  fi.  fa.),  a  capias  ad  mt'isfacienlum  (ca. 
sa.),  levari  facias,  and  elegit.  These  writs  issue  from 
the  court  where  the  record  is  on  which  the  proceed- 
ings are  grounded,  and  are  addressed  to  the  sheriil' 
of  the  county.  By  a  fi,.  fa.  the  goods  and  chattels 
of  a  debtor  may  be  attached.  This  writ  lies  against 
privileged  j)ersons,  peers,  &c.  A  writ  of  ca.  sa.  ia 
directed  against  the  person  of  a  debtor.  It  does  not 
lie  against  privileged  persons.  Under  this  writ,  the 
sheriff  may  imprison  a  debtor,  and  detain  him  until 
the  debt  has  been  satisfied.  A  writ  so  stringent  in 
its  effect  is  regarded  by  the  law  as  the  last  remedy ; 
hence,  when  a  ca.  sa.  has  been  issued,  no  other  wi-it 
can  proceed  against  the  debtor.  But  if  a  fi.fa.  has 
been  first  issued  for  a  part  of  the  debt,  a  ca.  sa.  will 
still  lie  for  the  remainder.  By  7  and  8  Vict.  c.  96, 
s.  58,  a  ca.  sa.  -cannot  be  issued  for  a  debt  undei  £20, 
unless  it  ai:)pear  that  the  debt  has  been  fraudulently 
incurred.  A  levari  facias  is  now  seldom  used.  It  is 
directed  against  a  man's  goods  and  the  profits  of  his 
lands.  The  writ  of  elegit  is  of  very  ancient  date.  It 
is  directed  against  the  lands  themselves.  See 
Elegit. 

J)i  Chancery,  execution  against  the  estate  is  effected 
by  writ  of  fieri  facias,  or  writ  of  elegit.  Execution 
against  the  person  is  by  wi*it  of  attachment.  Should 
this  latter  wiit  be  returned  non  est  inventus,  the 
party  prosecuting  has  it  in  his  option  to  take  out  a 
writ  of  sequestration,  which  issues  of  course,  or  to 
obtain  an  order  for  the  serjeant-at-anns.  An  attach- 
ment does  not  lie  against  a  peer  or  other  privileged 
person,  but  an  order  called  a  sequestration  nisi  in 
issued.  In  cases  of  contempt,  the  Court  of  Chancery 
has  also  power  to  order  personal  commitment. 
Previous  to  1  and  2  Vict.  c.  110,  and  the  orders  of 
court  consequent  thereon,  the  performance  of  a 
decree  in  Chancery  could  only  be  enforced  by  process 
against  the  person. 

Execution  for  debt  in  Scotland,  or,  as  it  is  tech- 
nically  expressed,  diligence  in  execution,  is  either 
real  or  personal :  by  the  former,  the  debtor's  lands 
may  be  attached ;  by  the  latter,  his  person  and  his 
movables.  In  order  to  entitle  a  creditor  to  use 
diligence  against  the  person  or  estate  of  his  debtor, 
the  debt  on  which  the  diligence  proceeds  must  be 
duly  constituted  by  a  liquid  document,  or  by  a 
decree,  or  by  an  action  in  which  decree  is  sought. 
In  this  latter  case,  the  law  in  peculiat*  circumstances 
allows  diligence  on  the  dependance,  in  order  that  a 
party  may  not  be  deprived  of  his  remedy  during  the 
currency  of  the  action,  but  such  diligence  depends 
for  its  effect  upon  the  judgment  in  the  cause.  In 
the  case  of  bonds  and  other  instruments  registered 
for  execution  (see  Kegistration),  the  law  allows 
summary  diligence  to  proceed  ;  that  is  to  say,  execu- 
tion may  proceed  without  the  need  of  further  appli- 
cation to  the  court.  Diligence  against  heritage 
includes  Inhibition,  Adjudication,  Ranking 
AND  Sale,  Poinding  op  the  Ground.  Personal 
diligence  is  by  PIoRNiNG  AND  Caption,  Arrest- 
ment, and  Forthcoming.  See  these  several 
hends. 

EXECU'TIONER,  the  official  who  inflicts  capital 
punishment.  In  England,  it  is  the  province  of  the 
sheriff  to  perform  this  as  well  as  every  other  minis- 
terial duty  enjoined  by  the  criminal  courts,  but  prac' 
tically  he  acts  by  his  servants  or  officers,  and  he  only 
attends  to  see  the  law  properly  carried  out.  In  royal 
burghs  in  Scotland,  this  duty  is  imp'*Bed  on  the  civio 
magistracy,  one  of  whom  attends  for  the  purpose.  In 

189 


EXECUTIONER. 


times  happily  bygone,  so  numerous  were  the  public 
♦»x<5Cution3,  that  almost  every  county  and  town  had 
its  executioner,  as  an  acknowledged  officer  of  justice, 
with  a  salary  for  his  subsistence.  Yet,  we  learn  that 
on  certain  occasions,  so  odiou^  and  so  onerous  was 
the  duty  to  be  performed,  that  a  special  executioner 
was  employed.  Such  was  the  case  at  the  execution 
of  Charles  I.  The  task  oi  putting  this  unfortunate 
monarch  to  death  is  well  known  to  have  been  per- 
fonned  by  two  men,  who,  from  a  dread  probably  of 
the  vengeance  of  the  Royalists,  had  concealed  their 
faces  under  visors.  In  consequence  of  the  mystery 
thus  assumed,  public  curiosity  was  much  excited, 
and  several  persons  fell  under  the  suspicion  of 
having  been  concerned  in  the  bloody  deed  ;  rumour 
even  went  so  far  as  to  decide  who  was  the  wielder 
of  the  axe,  and  who  held  u]i  the  head.  It  cannot  be 
Baid,  however,  that  any  certainty  was  ever  arrived 
at  on  the  subject.  See  Chamhers'a  Edinburgh 
Journal^  first  series,  vol.  iv.  p.  317. 

Like  many  other  offices,  that  of  executioner  seems  to 
have  been  at  one  time  hereditary  in  England.  Shak- 
Bl)eare,  in  Cor'tolanits  (act  ii.  scene  1), makes  Menenius, 
one  of  the  characters  in  the  play,  speak  of  '  hereditary 
hangmen.'  In  several  German  states,  the  office  of 
Headsman  (q.  v.)  is  said  to  have  been  also  heredi- 
tary; certain  families  being  thus,  as  it  were,  con- 
demned to  perpetual  infamy.  The  last  headsman  of 
the  Tower  of  London  died  in  18G1.  The  office  was 
latterly  a  mere  sinecure,  and  has  not  been  fdled  up. 
In  some  parts  of  England,  the  office  was  annexed  to 
other  posts  ;  for  instance,  the  porter  of  the  city  of 
Canterb\iry  was  executioner  for  the  county  of  Kent, 
in  the  time  of  Henry  II.  and  Henry  III.,  for  which 
he  had  an  allowance  of  20s.  per  annum  from  the 
sheriff,  who  was  reimbui'sed  by  the  Exchequer.  The 
sum  of  thirteenpence-halfpenny  was  long  popularly 
tpoken  of  as  '  hangman's  wages;'  such  sum,  equal 
to  a  merk  Scots,  being  the  fee  at  one  time  paid  to 
the  executioner  when  he  officiated.  In  the  17th  c, 
this  sum,  small  as  it  now  appears,  was  considerably 
above  the  wages  of  a  skilled  mechanic. 

From  Gregory  Brandon,  the  London  executioner 
in  the  reign  of  James  L,  the  name  Gregory  was 
employed  as  a  familiar  designation  for  executioners 
for  a  considerable  period.  Brandon  had  the  address 
to  procure  a  coat-armorial  from  the  College  of 
Heralds,  and  became  an  esquire  by  virtue  of  his 
office.  One  of  his  successors  was  named  Dun,  or 
*  Squire  Dun,'  as  he  was  called.  Dun  is  referred  to 
In  Butler's  Ghost,  published  in  1682 : 

For  you  yourself  to  act '  Squire  Dun,' 
Such  ignominy  ne'er  saw  the  sun. 

He  was  succeeded  about  the  above  year  by  John 
or  Jack  Ketch,  commemorated  by  Dryden  {Epilogue 
to  the  Duke  of  Guise),  and  his  name  has  since  been 
synonymous  with  hangman. — Cunningham's  Hand- 
hook  of  London,  article  Tyburn. 

Executioners  have,  in  some  instances,  come  to 
trouble.  John  Price,  the  London  executioner,  was 
cirecuted  31st  May  1718  for  murder.  In  the  account 
of  him,  it  is  stated  that  one  day,  on  returning  from 
Tyburn,  he  was  arrested  for  a  debt,  which  he  dis- 
charged by  a  small  sum  in  his  pocket,  along  with 
the  proceeds  of  the  clothes  of  three  felons  he 
had  just  executed. — Old  Bailey  Chronicle,  i.  p.  147. 
If  this  work  can  be  credited,  the  executioner  was 
fcbout  the  same  time  arrested  while  accompanying 
John  Meff,  a  criminal,  to  Tyburn.  This  arrest,  which 
is  amusingly  dejncted  in  an  engraving,  stayed  the 
execution  of  MefF;  being  conducted  back  to  j^ew- 
gate,  his  sentence  was  commuted  to  transportation 
for  seven  years,  but  having  returned  to  England 
before  the  period  expired,  he  was  taken  and  exe- 
cuted- On  the  24th  May  1736,  tho  'xecutioner,  on 
190 


returning  from  Tyburn,  after  executing  five  felons, 
picked  the  pocket  of  a  woman  of  3.'?.  6c^.  (Hone's 
Every- Day  Book,  ii.  p.  095),  but  what  was  hif 
punishment  is  n6t  related.  In  1682,  Alexander 
Cockburn,  hangman  of  Edinburgh,  was  executecl 
for  the  murder  of  a  Bedesman,  or  privileged 
mendicant.  Early  in  the  18th  c,  the  executiocer 
of  Edinburgh  was  John  Dalgliesh,  who  acted  tv'^ 
the  execution  of  Wilson  the  smuggler  in  1736,  an4 
is  alluded  to  in  the  Heart  of  Mid- Lothian.  It 
was  he  who  also  officiated  at  the  execution  of  the 
celebrated  Maggie  Dickson,  a  woman  condemned 
in  1738  for  infanticide,  but  who  came  to  life  again 
after  enduring  the  sentence  of  the  law,  and  lived 
unmolested  for  years  afterwards,  as  a  hawker  of 
salt  in  the  streets  of  Edinburgh.  It  is  said  of 
Dalgliesh,  that,  in  whipping  a  criminal,  he  made 
a  point  of  laying  on  the  lash  'according  to  his 
conscience,'  which  shewed  him  to  have  been  a  most 
considerate  executioner.  John  High,  or  Heich, 
accepted  the  office  of  Edinburgh  executioner  in  1784, 
in  order  to  escape  punishment  for  stealing  poultry ; 
he  died  in  1817.  See  Traditions  of  Edinburgh,  by 
11.  Chambers.  The  emoluments  of  the  Edinburgh 
executioner  at  one  time  comprehended  a  l  ecompense 
in  land  in  the  markets  of  the  city — viz.,  a  lock 
or  handful,  and  a  gowpen  or  double  handful,  of 
meal  from  each  sack ;  hence  he  received  the  desig- 
nation of  Lockman.  These  emoluments  were  latterly 
commuted  into  a  regular  salary  of  12s.  per  week, 
besides  a  free  house,  and  a  special  fee  of  £1,  lis.  6d. 
at  each  execution ;  from  the  Exchequer  the  execu- 
tioner also  received  a  small  annual  allowance  as 
Deemster  (q.  v.).  The  last  of  the  Edinburgh  execu- 
tioners was  John  Scott,  whom  it  was  customary  to 
confine  in  jail  for  eight  days  previous  to  an  execu- 
tion, in  order  to  insure  his  attendance ;  the  expenseB 
incurred  by  him  during  one  of  these  periods  of 
seclusion  being,  as  we  find,  £1,  2s.  6d.,  which  sura 
was  discharged  by  the  city.  Scott  was  killed  by 
a  malicious  assault  in  1847.  Since  this  pei-iod, 
Edinburgh  has  had  no  regular  hangman,  but,  like 
all  other  places  in  Great  Britain,  depends  on  the 
services  of  the  London  executioner,  who  is  hired 
for  the  occasion.  This  personage  is  the  well-known 
William  Calcraft.  For  an  execution  at  Edinburgh 
in  1854,  Calcraft's  fee  and  expenses  amounted  to 
£33,  145.  ;  his  assistant  received  £5,  5s. ;  and  for 
taking  charge  of  both,  the  city  criminal  officers 
were  paid  £1,  Is.  :  total  expenses  for  the  execution, 
£40,  independently  of  the  cost  of  erecting  the 
scaffold.  In  1815,  the  magistrates  of  Glasgow 
entered  into  an  arrangement  by  stamped  indenture 
with  Thomas  Young,  who  engaged  to  act  as  execu- 
tioner at  a  recompense  of  £1  per  week,  a  fiee  house, 
with  coal  and  candles,  a  pair  of  shoes  and  stockmgs 
once  a  year,  and  a  fee  of  a  guinea  at  each  execu- 
tion. At  Young's  death  in  1837,  his  successor,  John 
Murdoch,  was  recompensed  differently.  He  waa 
paid  £1  per  month,  by  way  of  retainer,  and  the  sum 
of  £10  for  an  execution.  Since  his  death,  Calcraft 
has  officiated.  Besides  the  usual  emoluments  or  fees 
derived  by  executioners,  they  have  from  early  times 
claimed  the  clothes  of  those  w)io  suffer  at  their  hands 
as  a  perquisite  of  office.    See  Perquisite. 

The  most  noted  executioner  of  Paris  was  the 
late  M.  Sanson,  who  officiated  at  the  mournful 
death  scene  of  Louis  XVI.,  and  is  said  to  have 
possessed  acquirements  and  feelings  not  to  be  ex- 
pected from  one  of  his  degrading  profession.  He  was 
latterly  assisted  by  his  son,  M.  Henri  Sanson.  The 
Parisian  executioner  is  familiarly  styled  *  Monsieur  de 
Paris.' 

No  professional  executioner  is  employed  at  capita 
punishments  in  the  United  States.  There  the  sen- 
tence is  executed  by  the  sheriff,  with  the  assistance 


EXECUTIVE  -EXEG  ESIS. 


of  an  under- jailer ;  this  last  official  performing 
the  fatal  toilet  of  the  criminal,  while  tlie  sheriff,  by  | 
a  movement  affecting  the  drop,  puts  liim  to  death  in 
virtue  of  the  sentence  and  the  law  of  the  state. 
This  seems  an  advance  on  the  practice  in  England, 
where,  however,  it  could  not  be  introduced,  for  the 
Bimi)le  reason,  that  no  one  fit  for  the  rank  of  sheriff 
or  magistrate  would  accept  of  office  with  an  obliga- 
tion to  perform  the  duty  of  executioner  in  person. 
The  military  executioner  attached  to  an  army  is 
styled  Provost- marshal  (q.  v.). 

EXECUTIVE.    See  Government. 

EXE'CUTOR,  IN  England,  the  person  to  whom 
the  execution  of  a  last  will  and  testament  of  personal 
estate  is  by  testamentary  appointment  confided 
(Williams  on  Executors,  197).  The  mere  nomination 
of  an  executor,  without  giving  any  legacy  or  appoint- 
ing anything  to  be  done  by  him,  is  sufficient  to  make 
a  will.  The  appointment  of  an  executor  can  only  be 
by  a  will,  the  person  who  takes  charge  of  the  estate 
of  an  intestate  being  called  an  Administrator  (q.  v.). 
The  appointment  may  be  either  express  or  con- 
structive, i.  e.,  gathered  from  the  general  terms  of 
the  will.  The  first  duty  of  an  executor  is  to  take 
Probate  (q.  v.)  of  the  will.  He  derives  his  title 
solely  from  the  will ;  the  estate  vests  in  him  from 
the  death  of  the  testator,  at  which  time  his  resjion- 
sibility  begins,  and  from  which  time  he  may  enter 
upon  all  the  duties  of  managing  the  estate.  But 
his  position  will  not  be  recognised  as  suitor  in  any 
court  until  he  has  taken  probate.  The  whole 
personal  estate  vests  in  the  executor;  and  if  tlie 
testator  has  made  no  disposition  of  the  residue, 
it  devolves,  by  common  law  and  equity,  upon  the 
executor.  But  equity  will  endeavour  so  far  to 
carry  out  the  intentions  of  the  testator  as  not  to 
give  the  beneficial  interest  to  the  executor,  where 
there  appears  from  the  ^vill  a  necessary  implication 
that  he  should  not  receive  it.  By  21  Henry  VIII. 
c.  5,  an  executor  is  bound  to  prepare  an  inventory 
of  the  personal  estate.  In  practice,  this  is  not 
usually  done  unless  required  ;  but  if  required,  it 
must  be  produced.  An  executor  may  raise  actions 
in  respect  to  the  estate  in  his  charge  ;  and  generally 
it  may  be  said  that  his  powers,  duties,  and  liabilities 
are  commensurate  with  those  of  the  deceased.  He 
may  enter  the  house  of  the  heir  in  order  to  remove 
the  personal  property.  The  first  claims  to  be 
discharged  are  those  of  the  fimeral  and  the  expenses 
of  probate.  He  must  then  pay  the  debts  ;  and  he 
is  responsible  for  paying  them  in  due  order,  so 
that  those  having  a  legal  preference  shall  first  be 
discharged.  An  executor  is  not  bound  to  accept  the 
office ;  but  if  he  administer,  he  cannot  then  renounce 
the  executorship  without  cause.  On  the  death  of 
an  executor  the  office  does  not  pass  to  his  executor. 

An  executor  to  a  will  in  Scotland  is  called  a 
testamentary  executor,  to  distinguish  him  from  the 
next  of  kin,  who  are  styled  executors.  The  term 
executor  is  given  to  aU  who  manage  the  estate  of 
a  deceased,  whether  appointed  by  will  or  by  autho- 
rity of  the  court.  The  former  are  called  executors 
nominate ;  the  latter,  executors  dative.  All  executors 
must,  before  entering  upon  their  duties,  obtain 
Confirmation  (q.  v.)  from  the  Commissary  Court. 
This  is  equivalent  to  probate  in  England.  But  in 
Scotland,  no  right  vests  in  the  executor  until  after 
confirmation,  except  a  title  to  sue,  being  exactly  the 
reverse  of  the  English  rule.  An  executor  acting 
without  confirmation  is  called  a  Vitious  Introviitter 
(q.  v.).  Executors  must,  on  entering  upon  their 
office,  exhibit  a  fidl  inventory  of  the  whole  movable 
fistate  of  the  deceased.  An  executor  is  only  liable  to 
the  extent  of  the  inventory.  He  is  not  bound  to 
pay  int*  rest  on  the  funds  in  his  hands  unless  they 


bore  interest  before  confirmation,  or  unless  he  is 
guilty  of  undue  delay  in  adniinistering  the  estate. 
He  is  not  bomid  to  ])ay  the  debts  for  six  niontliu  atter 
the  death  of  the  deceased.  But,  as  in  England,  the 
exi)ense3  of  thefmieral  and  confinnation  are  entitled 
to  immediate  i)ayment.  Servants'  waLres  and  a 
year's  house-rent  have  alao  a  preferable  claim.  An 
executor  is  entitled  to  claim  one-third  of  the  />»«-7's 
Part  (q.  v.),  after  deducting  debts.  But  should  ho 
receive  a  legacy,  he  is  bound  to  inq)ute  that  towar  la 
payment  of  his  claim. 

EXE'CUTORS,  in  Scotland,  the  heirs  i>f 
rnohilibus  of  a  person  deceased.  They  are  the  wlu.le 
next  of  kin  in  the  nearest  degree  in  hlood  ;  hut 
where  the  heir  to  the  heritage  is  one  of  the  nearest 
of  kin  (e.  g.,  the  oldest  son),  he  is  not  entitled  to 
share  in  the  movables  without  collation  (q.  v.). 
The  order  of  succession  among  executors  is  first 
descendants ;  then  collaterals,  or  brothers  and  sisters, 
and  their  children ;  and  lastly,  ascendants,  i.  e., 
the  father  and  those  claiming  through  him.  But 
the  mother  and  her  family,  till  recently,  were  not 
allowed  to  succeed  to  her  own  child  ah  iiite,slato. 
This  harsh  rule  was  so  strictly  carried  out,  that 
where  there  were  no  relations  by  the  father,  the 
crown  succeeded  as  ultimus  lueres,  to  the  exclusion 
of  the  mother. 

By  18  Vict.  c.  23,  the  law  of  succession  to 
movables  has  been  in  some  degree  altered.  On 
the  death  of  an  intestate  leaving  no  issue,  his  father, 
if  he  survive,  is  entitled  to  take  one-half  of  the 
movable  estate,  in  preference  to  ])rotliers  and  sistere. 
If  the  father  be  dead,  the  mother  takes  a  third. 
No  further  provision,  however,  is  made  for  the 
mother  in  case  she  is  the  only  sundving  relative. 
It  is  to  be  presumed,  therefore,  that  the  other  two- 
thirds  would  sti.H  go  to  the  crown.  See  SuccE.ssioy, 
Movable. 

EXE'CUTOHY  DEVISE,  in  English  Law,  is 
such  a  limitation  of  a  future  estate  or  interest  in 
lands  or  chattels  (though,  in  the  case  of  chattels,  it 
is  more  properly  a  bequest)  as  the  laAV  admits  in  the 
case  of  a  will  thoiigh  contrary  to  the  rules  of  limi- 
tation in  conveyances  at  common  law  (Blackstone, 
Comm.  ii.  334).  By  common  law,  a  freehold  cannot 
be  limited  on  a  freehold,  as  an  estate  to  A  and  his 
heirs ;  but  if  he  die  before  he  attain  the  age  of  21, 
then  to  B  and  his  heirs.  Nor  can  an  estate  be  given 
to  commence  at  a  time  uncertain,  as  to  A  when  he 
returns  from  Borne.  But  though  these  limitations 
would  be  void  in  a  deed,  common  law  will  sustain 
them  as  executory  devises.  This  form  of  limitation 
is  restrained  by  the  law  against  Perpetuities  (q.  v.), 
which  requires  that  the  estate  must  take  effect 
within  a  life  or  lives  in  being  and  twenty-one 
years  after.  The  law  will  not  interpret  a  limita- 
tion as  an  executor}'-  debase,  if  it  can  be  otherwise 
sustained.  Whenever,  therefore,  a  future  interest 
in  land  is  so  devised  as  to  fall  within  the  rides  laid 
down  for  the  limitation  of  contingent  remainders, 
such  devise  will  be  construed  as  a  contingent 
remainder,  and  not  as  an  executory  devise  (Cndse, 
Digest,  vi.  369).  An  executory  devise,  unlike  a 
remainder,  cannot  be  defeated  by  any  act  of  the 
first  taker  or  devisee ;  when,  thei'efore,  an  absolute 
power  of  disposition  is  in  the  first  taker,  the  limita- 
tion over  is  not  an  executory  devise.  Within 
the  period  allowed  for  these  estates,  an  executory 
devise  constitutes  a  species  of  estate  tad ;  and 
for  this  purpose,  it  is  frequently  used  in  America. 

EXEGE'SIS  (from  Gr.  eks,  out  of,  and  egeomai^ 
I  lead)  properly  signifies  the  exposition  or  inter- 
pretation of  any  writing,  but  is  almost  exclusively 
employed  in  connection  with  the  interpretation  of 
Sacred  Scripture,  to  which,  therefore,  the  subjoined 


EXEGESIS— EXELMANS. 


remarks  specially  apply.  The  expositor  or  inter- 
preter is  called  an  exegete.  To  interpret  a  writing, 
means  to  ascertain  thoroughly  and  fundamentally 
what  are  the  conceptions  and  thoughts  which  the 
author  designs  to  express  by  the  words  he  has  used. 
For  this  purpose  it  is  necessary,  in  regard  to  books 
written  in  a  foreign  language,  that  the  exegete  shoald 
know  well,  first,  the  precise  signification  of  the 
words  and  idioms  employed  by  the  writer.  This 
is  termed  (jrammatico-plLilolofjical  exegesis.  In  the 
next  place,  he  must  be  acquainted  with  the  things 
denoted  by  these  words,  and  also  with  the  history, 
antiquities,  and  modes  of  thought  of  the  nation. 
This  termed  historko-anthpmrian  exegesis.  Both 
togetner  constitute  grammxitlco-liislorical  exegesis. 
When  only  an  exposition  of  the  sj'stem  of  thought 
contained  in  a  AVTiting  is  sought  after,  this  is  termed 
dodiinal  or  dogmatic  exegesis  ;  while  the  investiga- 
tion of  a  secret  sense,  other  than  that  literally  con- 
veyed by  the  words  of  a  writing,  is  termed  allegorical 
exegesis.  But  if  a  writing  is  regarded  from  a  prac- 
tical point  of  view,  and  in  reference  to  its  bearin;^ 
upon  life  and  manners,  the  exposition  is  termed 
moral  exegesis.  The  complete  and  coherent  exegesis 
of  a  writing  forais  what  is  called  a  commentary,  biit,  if 
restricted  to  certain  difficult  words  or  knotty  points, 
the  elucidations  ai-e  termed  scholia.  The  scientific 
exhibition  of  tlie  rules  and  means  of  exegesis  is  called 
Hermeneutlcs  (q.  v.).  In  the  earhest  ages  of  the 
Christian  Church,  the  allegorical  method  of  exegesis 
prevailed.  By  the  Alexandrian  school  in  particular, 
it  was  greatly  abusetL  Origen,  however,  the  gi'catest 
of  this  school,  deserves  high  crc(bt  for  endeavouring 
to  secure  a  basis  for  grammatical  exegesis,  by  a  sharp 
separation  of  the  literal,  the  moral,  and  the  mystical 
sense  of  Scripture.  Besides  the  Alexandrian  school, 
the  Syrian  historico-exegetic  school  had  many  adher- 
ents in  the  East.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned 
Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  Ephraim  Syrus,  John  Chry- 
sostom,  and  Theodorus  of  Mopsuestia.  First,  towards 
the  end  of  the  4th,  and  during  the  5th  centuries,  a 
narrowing  of  the  principle  of  the  free  interpretation 
of  Scripture  begins  to  be  observable,"  through  the 
rapid  develojiment  of  monkery  and  the  hierarchical 
system ;  in  consequence  of  which,  the  importance 
of  the  classic  writers  was  undervalued,  and  the 
study  of  them  idtimately  abandoned  in  the  Western 
Church,  while  a  feeling  of  superstitious  reverence, 
wholly  unintelligent  and  unscriptural,  grew  up 
for  the  letter  of  the  *Word,'  and  exegesis,  if 
employed  at  aU,  was  employed  simply  to  bolster 
up  preconceived  views.  By  and  by,  independent 
exegesis  was  supplanted  by  the  well-known  Catence, 
consisting  of  expositions  of  books  of  Scriptirre 
Btrung  together  from  the  writings  of  the  older 
church  Fathers.  In  the  East,  the  first  of  these 
was  got  up  by  Procopius,  520  a.d.;  in  the  West, 
by  Primasius,  550  a.d.  Although  much  was  done 
for  the  exegesis  of  the  Old  Testament  by  eminent 
Jewish  scholars,  such  as  Solomon  Jarchi,  Aben- 
Esra,  and  David  Kimchi,  Christian  theologians 
for  the  most  part,  knowing  only  the  text  of  the 
Vulgate,  stuck,  during  the  dark  ages,  to  the  inter- 
pr  stations  of  the  Fathers.  First  in  the  12th,  13th, 
and  14th  centuries,  eflForts  were  made  by  indivi- 
dual scholastics,  especially  by  Abelard,  St  Bernard 
of  Clairvaux,  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  Nicholas  of 
Ljrra,  to  re-introduce  something  like  a  grammatico- 
historical  exegesis  of  Scripture.  But  it  was  mainly 
to  the  great  revival  of  letters  in  the  15th  c, 
and  the  humanistic  scholars  whom  it  produced, 
such  as  Laurentius  Valla,  Erasmus,  &c.,  that  an 
advance  in  exegesis  was  owing.  The  Complutensian 
Polyglott  also  exercised  a  great  and  beneficial 
influence.  Shortly  after,  the  Keformation  gave  an 
unpulse  to  exegesia,  so  powerful,  that  it  is  felt 
192 


at  the  present  day ;  and,  indeed,  its  effect  ia  far 
more  visible  in  the  recent  biblical  criticism  of 
Germany  than  it  was  in  the  days  of  Luther  himself. 
Tlie  desire  for  the  unfettered  exegesis  of  Scripture 
strongly  animated  the  reformers,  but,  in  fact,  the  long 
black  night  of  ignorance — known  as  the  dark  and 
middle  ages — has  influenced  them  too,  and  disquali- 
fied them  for  framing  at  once  a  comprehensive 
exegetical  science.  It  required  a  couple  of  centuries  to 
recover  from  the  effects  of  medieval  ignorance.  The 
more  important  Lutheran  exegetes  are :  Luther, 
Melancthon,  Brenz,  Joach.  Camerarius,  Strigei, 
Chemnitz,  «&c. ;  of  the  Reformed  or  Cahinistic 
school  may  be  mentioned  Calvin,  Zwingli,  (Ecolom- 
padius,  Bucer,  Beza,  Bullinger,  Grotius,  Clericus, 
&c.;  and  of  the  Roman  Catholics,  especially  Paul 
Sar|)i.  During  the  17th  c,  the  exegesis  of  Scripture 
was  for  the  most  part  at  a  stand  stdl,  but  about  the 
middle  of  the  18th  c.  it  suddenly  revived.  This 
revival  is  due  principally  to  Joli.  Aug.  Emesti  (q.  v.), ' 
and  J.  Sal.  Sender  (q.  v.),  who  established  new 
princi2)le3  of  criticism  and  hermeneutics,  through 
which  grammatico-historical  exegesis  once  more 
began  to  make  its  appearance.  The  laboiu-s  Q\ 
Wetstein  and  Kennicott  in  regard  to  biblical  MSS 
were  of  immense  service.  Since  tlieir  day,  on  to  thu 
present,  criticism  has  been  constantly  at  work  on 
the  %VTitings  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament.  Cognate 
languages  have  been  more  and  more  profoundly 
studied ;  the  antiquities  of  the  East,  of  Egypt, 
Assyria,  Arabia,  and  other  countries,  have  been 
investigated,  and  brought  to  bear  on  the  subject ; 
the  manners  and  customs  which  prevail  in  these 
lands,  and  which,  in  some  of  them,  have  prevailed 
from  time  immemorial ;  the  laws  that  determine  the 
growth  of  civilisation  in  nations,  and  enable  us  to 
enter  into  and  comprehend  the  condition  of  mind 
pecidiar  to  races  in  a  primitive  stage  of  development, 
and  to  appreciate  their  modes  of  thought,  and  to 
weigh  the  value  of  their  literary  and  religious 
records — all  these  have  received,  and  are  still  receiving 
careful  attention  at  the  hands  of  numerous  scholars, 
so  that  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  we  are  at  the 
present  day  better  fitted — so  far  as  outward  helps 
go — to  understand  the  real  meaning  of  Scripture, 
than  those  who  have  lived  at  any  other  period 
subsequent  to  ibs  composition.  Among  the  eminent 
names  in  the  recent  development  of  biblical  exegesia 
are  F.  A.  Wolf,  J.  Dav.  Michaelis,  Eichhom,  Gcsenius, 
Wahl,  Bretschneider,  Winer,  Rosenmliller,  Hitzig, 
Hirzel,  Ewald,  Umbreit,  De  Wette,  Knobei,  Lucke, 
Paidus,  Meyer,  Olshausen,  Hengsteuberg,  &c.  The 
influence  of  the  grammatico-critical,  and  critico- 
historical  exegesis  of  modern  Germany,  is  oiAf 
beginning  to  make  itself  felt  in  this  country.  The 
most  important  contribiitions  to  the  science  recently 
made  by  British  scholars,  are  those  by  Conybearo 
and  Howson,  Alford,  A.  P.  Stanley,  Jowett,  &c. 

EXELMANS,  REivrY  Joseph  Isidore,  Comte,  a 
distinguished  French  general,  was  bom  at  Bar-le-duc, 
13th  November  1775.  He  entered  the  army  in  1791, 
was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  captain  in  1799,  served 
with  distinction  in  the  campaign  of  Naples  under 
Macdouald  and  Championnet,  and  in  1801  was 
attached  as  aide-de-camp  to  the  staff  of  Murat.  In 
1808,  while  with  Murat  in  Spain,  he  was  arrested, 
and  sent  to  England,  where  he  remained  a  prisoner 
for  three  years.  He  was  with  Napoleon  in  the 
Russian  campaign  in  1812,  for  his  brilliant  conduct 
in  which,  the  Emperor  created  him  general  of  divi- 
sion, September  8th  of  the  same  year.  E.  seems  to 
have  been  equally  esteemed  imder  every  successive 
government.  On  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  he  was  iot 
some  time  banished  from  France,  but  was  permitted 
to  return  in  1819.  In  1831  Louis  Philippe  restored 
his  titles  and  rank.    Louis  Nauoleon  named  him 


EXERCISE— EXHIBITION. 


Grand  Chancellor  of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  and  on 
March  11, 1851,  raised  him  to  the  dignity  of  Marech  al 
de  France.  On  the  21st  July  1852/E.  had  a  Lad  fall 
from  his  horse,  from  the  effects  of  which  he  expired 
on  the  following  night. 

E'XERCISE,  a  very  important  element  of  medical 
Regimen  (q.  v.),  both  in  the  preservation  of  health 
and  in  the  cure  of  disease.  To  ])reserve  all  the 
functions  of  the  body  in  health,  it  is  necessary  to 
securft  their  dne  and  regular  action  "or  exercise  ;  to 
allow  of  complete  inaction  of  any  part  or  function,  is 
to  initiate  disease,  and  probably  even  structural 
change,  or  atrophy.  Hence  the  development  of  the 
miiscalar  system,  of  the  secretions,  and  even  of  the 
mind  and  its  organ,  the  brain,  require  the  more  or 
less  regulo,r  use  of  exercise,  either  in  the  form  of 
productive  and  useful  work,  or  by  means  of  arti- 
ficially devised  methods  calculated  to  serve  a  like 
purpose  in  regard  to  the  economy.  Thus,  scholastic 
education  is  exercise  for  the  mind ;  Gymnastics  (q.  v.), 
for  the  body.  Both  these  means  enter  largely  into 
enlightened  medical  practice,  though  they  are  often 
too  much  neglected.  Exercise,  to  be  beneficial,  must 
be  attended  \nth  rest,  to  allow  the  tissues  which 
are  worn  away  during  vital  action  to  be  restored ; 
but  rest  of  one  part  or  organ  is  often  best  secured  by 
bringing  others  into  activity  ;  so  that,  except  during 
sleep,  there  is  rarely  a  necessity  for  a  comj^lete  and 
simultaneous  disuse  of  all  the  faculties,  or  even  of 
those  most  immediately  under  our  control.  The 
best  regulated  life  is  that  which  secures  due  and 
proportionate  exercise  at  intervals  for  all  the 
functions,  mental  as  well  as  bodily. 

E'XETER  (the  Ccer-Isc  of  the  Britons,  the  Jsca 
Damnoniorum  of  the  Romans,  Exanceder  of  the 
Saxons),  a  city,  episcopal  see,  separate  county,  parlia- 
mentary and  municipal  borough,  and  river-port,  in 
the  south-east  of  Devonshire,  and  the  capital  of 
that  county.  It  lies  on  an  acclivity  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Exe,  10  miles  north-west  of  its  mouth, 
170  miles  west-south- west  of  London,  and  73  miles 
south-west  of  Bristol.  It  is  on  the  whole  well  built 
and  clean,  and  has  two  main  lines  of  street  meeting 
near  the  centre.  There  are  some  fine  squares  and 
terraces.  The  Guildhall  has  a  singular  portico, 
added  in  1593,  and  projecting  into  the  street.  Exeter 
cathedral,  a  cruciform  structure,  magnificent  in  its 
ornamentation,  was  erected  1 112 — 1478.  It  measures 
408  by  140  feet,  and  has  a  nave  175  feet  long,  with 
two  aisles,  a  transept  ending  in  two  Norman  towers 
145  feet  high,  a  choir,  13  chapels,  and  a  consistory 
couii;.  The  west  front  has  a  profusion  of  niches 
and  carved  figures,  and  the  west  window  has  beau- 
tiful tracery.  In  the  choir  is  a  dark  array  of  oaken 
stalls  and  canopies,  besides  the  bishop's  throne — an 
exquisite  airy  fabric  towering  52  feet  to  the  roof  of 
the  choir.  In  one  of  the  towers  is  the  great  Tom  of 
Exeter  or  Peter's  Bell,  12,500  lbs.  weight,  and  a  large 
curious  antique  clock.  E.  has  a  large  floating  ship- 
V<asin,  917  feet  long,  90  to  110  feet  broad,  and  18 
fdet  deep  :  and  a  ship-canal,  15  feet  deep  and  30  feet 
bleed.  This  canal  extends  5  miles,  and  terminates 
At  Tuvf,  about  2  miles  from  the  head  of  the 
estuary  of  the  Exe.  Exeter  has  magnificent  nurse- 
vies,  and  exports  dairy,  farm,  and  orchard  produce 
from  a  neighbourliood  rich  in  such  products.  Pop. 
(1871)  of  the  parliamentary  borough,  44,226.  The 
town  sends  two  nieml)ers  to  parliament.  In  1872, 
524  vessels,  of  61,000  tons,  entered  and  222  vessels, 
of  17,620  tons,  cleared  the  port.  Exeter  was  anciently 
the  chief  residence  of  the  West  Saxon  kings.  Exeter 
bishopric,  fixed  here  in  1050  by  P^dward  the  Con- 
fessor, includes  Devon  and  Cornwall,  23  deaneries 
and  588  benefices.  The  city  was  formerly  sur- 
rounded with  walls  aad  strongly  fortified.    On  a 


height  to  the  north  of  E.  are  the  rcj'nfj  of  Rougtj. 
mont  Castle,  built  by  William  I.,  ok*  the  uiu  of  ona 
said  to  be  as  old  as  Ctesar's  time.  M44,i»y  Romafi 
and  Greek  coins  have  been  found  in  E.,  besides 
tesselated  pavements,  fragments  of  columns,  and 
small  bronze  statues. 

EXETER  COLLEGE,  Oxford.  This  college 
was  founded  in  1315,  by  Walter  de  Staple<]oii, 
Bishop  of  Exeter,  who  removed  froKi  Hart  llall  t-j 
the  present  site  of  Exeter  College,  a  rector  and 
twelve  fellows.  In  1404,  Edmimd  .'j'^.afFord,  Biyhop 
of  Salisbury,  added  two  fellowships,  and  gave  the 
college  its  present  name.  Sir  William  Petre,  in 
15G5,  founded  eight  more;  and  in  1636,  Charlea 
I.  annexed  one  more  for  the  islands  of  Jersey 
and  Guernsey.  In  1770,  Mrs  Sheers  left  certain 
rents  for  the  establishment  of  two  fellowships.  All 
these  fellowships  were  originally  appropriated  to 
various  archdeaconries  or  counties,  esi)ecially  in  the 
west  of  England.  A  peculiarity  in  this  college  was, 
that  the  above  foundations,  though  generally  called 
fellowships,  were,  strictly  speaking,  only  scholar- 
ships. Important  changes  were  introduced  by  the 
rector  and  fellows,  under  the  authority  of  17  and  18 
Vict.  c.  81,  and  apjiroved  of  by  the  commissioners 
appointed  to  carry  out  that  act.  The  number  of 
fellowships  was  reduced  to  15 — all  open  without  any 
restriction  as  to  place  of  birth.  The  revenues  of 
two  fellowships  were  divided  among  the  rectorship 
and  the  15  fellowshii)s.  Tlie  remaining  8  fellowships 
were  devoted  to  the  foundation  of  22  scholarships; 
ten  open  mthout  restriction  ;  ten  limited  to  persona 
born,  or  for  three  years  educated  in  the  diocese  of 
Exeter  ;  and  two  limited  to  persons  bom  in  any  of 
the  Channel  Islands.  Several  exhibitions  also  are 
attached  to  the  college ;  and  there  are  about  16 
benefices  in  the  gift  of  the  Society.  The  number  of 
names  on  the  books  in  1873  was  about  720. 

EXETER  or  EXON  DOMESDAY.  See 
Domesday  Book. 

EXETER  HALL,  a  large  proprietory  building, 
on  the  north  side  of  the  Strand,  London,  is  131 
feet  long,  76  feet  wide,  and  45  feet  high.  It  was 
com2:)leted  in  1831,  and  contains  uj) wards  of  3000 
persons.  It  is  let  chiefly  for  religious  assemblies, 
and  is  in  great  request  during  the  'May  Meetings* 
of  the  several  religious  societies.  It  is  also  let  as  a 
concert-room,  and  has  been  the  scene  of  many  great 
musical  fetes. 

EXHAU'STIONS,  Method  of,  is  a  mode 
of  proving  mathematical  propositions  regarding 
quantities  by  continually  taking  away  parts  of 
them.  The  method  was  frequently  employed  by 
the  ancient  geometers ;  its  fundamental  maxim",  as 
stated  by  Euclid,  being  that  those  quantities  are 
equal  whose  difference  is  less  than  any  assignable 
quantity.  Euclid  employs  the  method  in  Book  x. 
Prop.  1 ;  and  it  was  used  by  Archimedes  to  prove 
that  the  area  of  a  circle  is  equal  to  that  of  a 
right-angled  triangle  whose  one  leg  adjoining  the 
right  angle  is  the  radius,  and  the  other  the  circum- 
ference. In  this  ancient  method  we  may  see  the 
rudimentary  form  of  the  modern  transcendental 
analysis. 

EXHIBITION,  Art.    See  Art  Exhibitions. 

EXHIBI'TION,  Industrial  (Fr.,  Exposition  de 
V Industrie).  Exhibitions  of  this  kind  originated  in 
France,  where  the  first  took  place  in  1798,  at  the 
suggestion  of  the  ISIarquis  d'Av^ze.  It  was  held 
in  the  Maison  d'Orsay  and  its  grounds ;  but  it 
appears  to  have  been  rather  a  collection  of  such 
objects  of  French  art-manufacture  as  could  be 
borrowed  from  their  owmers,  than  an  assembling 
together  of  competing  artists  and  manufacturera 

193 


EXHIBITION. 


^*th  their  respective  works.  It  is,  nevertheless, 
interesting  as  a  historical  fact,  having  been  the 
first  of  these  displays  of  which  we  have  any  cleaf 
and  authentic  record  ;  ar.d  its  more  important  efifect 
was  to  familiarise  the  French  mind  with  national 
exliihitions. 

In  the  same  year,  another  exhibition  was  held  in 
Paris,  on  a  grander  scale,  and  with  considerable 
success.  It  embraced  all  kinds  of  manufactures ; 
wh(ireas  that  at  the  Maison  d'Orsay  was  chiefly 
devoted  to  those  of  artistic  merit ;  hence  the  credit 
has  been  claimed  for  the  latter  one  of  being  the 
commencement  of  industrial  exhibitions,  certainly, 
however,  without  justice  or  truth. 

In  consequence  of  tiie  obvious  utility  of  the  exhi- 
bitions of  1798,  another  was  held  in  1802,  under 
the  consulate  of  Napoleon,  with  equal  success,  and 
thus  led  to  the  establishment  of  triennial  exliihi- 
tions, which  were,  with  occasional  interruptions  from 
-political  causes,  held  \intil  the  novel  idea  was 
originated  in  this  country,  in  1850,  by  His  Royal 
Highness  the  Prince  Consort,  of  holding  a  universal 
exhibition  open  to  all  comers. 

That  was  not,  however,  the  first  industrial 
exhibition  held  in  the  United  Kingdom.  The 
Uoyal  Dublin  Society,  possibly  from  the  French 
sympathies  of  Ireland  daring  the  Pevolution,  as 
early  as  1829  adopted  the  plan  of  triennial  exhi- 
bitions, whicli  was  several  years  before  any  other  ; 
part  of  the  United  Kingdom  ;  they  took  place  in 
the  Society's  rooms  in  Dublin.  Like  the  French, 
however,  they  at  first  comprised  only  specunens  of 
native  industry. 

In  England,  the  first  well-organised  exhibitions 
were  those  of  the  Cornish  Polyteclmic  Society,  in  | 
which  were  illustrated  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  j 
county,  and  its  mechanical  appliances  for  mining  ' 
piu'poses,  &c.  These  were  continued  annually  without 
intermission  until  1850.    Manchester,  Birmingham, 
and  Liveri:)ool  also  held  local  exhibitions ;  that  of 
the  second  town  was  by  far  the  most  important, 
and  is  fairly  entitled  to  be  considered  the  proto-  i 
type  of  the  1851  exhibition  ;  indeed,  it  is  by  no 
means  certain  that  both  did  not  arise  from  the  same  ' 
cause — the  agitation  in  favour  of  a  great  national 
exhibition,  commenced  by  His  Royal  Highness  the  j 
Prince  Consort  and  the  Society  of  Arts  as  early  as 
1848.  The  Birmingham  exhibition  was  held  in  1849.  ! 

The  Manchester  exliibitions  were  the  earliest  ' 
held  in  the  great  English  industrial  towns,  but  I 
they,  likfi  those  which  were  held  in  the  Mechanics'  I 
Institutes  of  Liverpool  and  Leeds,  and  subse-  | 
quently  in  the  CoUegiate  Institution  of  Liverpool, 
liad  a  mixed  character,  the  illustrations  of  art 
and  maniifactures  being  pretty  well  mingled  with 
objects  of  natural  history  and  various  other  curi- 
osities, for  the  amusement  of  the  visitors.  That 
of  Birmingham,  however,  was  much  more  com- 
pletely devoted  to  the  true  objects  of  industrial 
exliilntions  ;  it  was  held  in  the  spacious  apartments 
of  Bingley  Hall,  and  was  a  great  success,  especi- 
ally when  it  is  borne  in  mind  that  it  was  carried 
out  solely  by  private  enterprise.  The  multitud- 
inous mauufactiu-es  of  that  wonderful  place  were 
am])ly  illustrated,  and  a  most  careful  attention 
was  paid  to  the  exhibition  of  those  objects  of  art 
which  were  best  calcidated  to  foster  the  taste  of 
designers,  and  others,  whose  duty  it  was  to  give 
refmement  to  the  masses,  by  gi'ad\ially  improving 
those  objects  of  necessity  and  ornament  in  everyday 
use.  The  success  of  the  Bingley  Hall  Exhibition 
lio  doubt  acted  most  beneficially  upon  that  of  1851 
which  was  approaching,  for  it  gave  an  unmistakable 
impetus  to  the  industrial  piirsuits  of  the  people  of 
Birmingham,  and  through  them  acted  widely  upon 
others. 
194 


The  first  metropolitan  movement  in  favour  of 
holding  a  national  exhibition  in  this  country  was 
immediately  after  the  French  Exposition  of  184-1,  the 
results  of  which  were  so  beneficial,  that  several 
applications  were  made  to  the  government  request- 
ing that  the  matter  should  be  officially  taken  up. 
The  government,  however,  as  usiial,  proved  itself  to 
be  sim])ly  executive,  and  did  nothing. 

In  the  meantime,  the  Society  jf  Arts  tried  the 
experiment  of  holding  exhibitions  annually  in  their 
own  building  in  the  Adelphi ;  but  these,  though 
eminently  successful,  were  not  suflficient  to  satisfy 
those  with  whom  a  national  exhibition  had  become 
a  fixed  idea.  In  1849,  His  Royal  Highness  devoted 
himself  thoroughly  to  this  object,  and  made  the 
happy  suggestion  of  throwing  open  the  exhibition 
to  all  nations.  Tho  plans,  too,  were  suggested  foi 
raising  tlte  necessary  funds  and  other  essential  points, 
and  the  scheme  soon  took  a  tangible  form';  and  it 
was  finally  deterr.iined  by  the  government  to  issue  a 
royal  commission,  which  was  gazetted  January  3, 
1850.  From  this  moment  the  Great  Exhibition  was 
fairly  launched.  In  order  to  enable  the  commis- 
sioners to  enter  into  contracts,  and  otherwise  incur 
obligations,  it  was  necessary  to  procure  subscrip- 
tions to  a  guarantee  fund.  The  subscription-list 
was  opened  l)y  the  Queen  for  £1000.  The  exhibi- 
tion took  place  in  a  vast  stracture  of  iron  and  glass, 
called  the  Crystal  Palace,  in  Hyde  Park,  London. 
The  edifice,  planned  by  Joseph  Paxton  (q.  v.),  was 
opened  by  Her  Majesty,  May  1,  1851.  It  was  1851 
feet  long  by  45G  feet  broad,  and  66  feet  high ;  the 
entire  area  covered  being  1.3  acres.  On  the  ground 
floor  and  galleries  there  were  8  miles  of  tables.  The 
glass  em])loyed  in  the  structure  weighed  upwards 
of  400  tons.  The  number  of  exhibitors  exceeded 
17,000.  The  exhibition  was  open  144  days,  being 
closed  October  11.  The  entire  number  of  visitors 
was  6,170,000,  averaging  43,536  per  day.  The 
largest  number  at  one  time  in  the  building  was 
109,700,  on  October  8.  The  entire  money  drawn 
for  tickets  of  admission  amounted  to  £505,107 ; 
and  after  all  expenses  were  defrayed,  a  balance  of 
£150,000  was  left  over ;  so  that  there  was  no 
call  on  those  who  subscribed  the  guarantee  fund. 
Popularly,  this  great  exhibition  was  properly  enough 
called  the  World's  Fair,  for  it  attracted  visitors  from 
all  parts  of  the  world.  When  the  exhibition  was 
over,  the  building  was  cleared  away. 

The  importance  of  this  celebrated  exhibition  was 
so  obvious,  that  other  countiies  became  anxious  to 
have  something  of  the  same  kind.  An  exhibition 
was  held  in  Cork  in  1852 ;  although  not  of  an 
international  character,  it  was  the  first  for  which 
any  special  structure  was  erected  in  Ireland,  and 
deservedly  gave  great  satisfaction.  The  home  manu- 
factures of  Ireland  were  admirably  displayed  in 
conjunction  with  those  of  other  parts  of  the  kingdom. 
Dublin  got  up  an  international  exhibition  in  ISSSg 
and  by  the  princely  munificence  of  Mr  Dargan, 
was  enabled  to  make  an  admirable  display,  in  ft 
building  of  great  beauty.  The  Dubhn  Society 
added  a  new  feature — high  art  was  associated  with 
industrial  art,  and  a  gallery  of  pictures,  the  finest 
ever  brought  together  in  this  kingdom  before,  waa 
there  exhibited  with  great  success.  In  the  same 
year  a  similar  exhibition  took  place  in  a  crystal 
palace  in  New  York.  France,  in  185.5,  repeated 
the  same  experiment  ■with  immense  success ;  both 
the  industrial  and  the  ar^  collections  were  such  as 
the  world  had  never  seen  before.  Though  wanting 
the  imposing  magnitude  of  the  Hyde  Park  build- 
ing, the  contents  of  the  Palais  de  I'lndustrie,  Avith 
its  detached  Picture-gallery  and  its  Annexe,  were  of 
the  choicest  description,  and  reflected  the  highest 
credit  on   French  taste  and   skill.    Several  other 


EXMOOR  FOREST— EXODUS. 


continenta  nations  followed  with  various  success.  In 
£uroj)e,  it  has  now  taken  root,  and  every  country- 
looks  upon  an  exhibition  of  its  industrial  resources 
and  productions,  from  time  to  time,  as  a  grand 
necessity  Tahich  musb  l)e  met.  In  18GI,  there  was 
an  ex'  ibition  at  Haarlem,  in  which  a  vast  assem- 
blas;e  >f  admirably  arranged  specimens  illustrated 
ever/  industry  followed  by  the  most  industrious 
and  /  ijilosopliical  people  of  Europe.  In  Belgium, 
also,  h  small  industrial  exhibition  was  held  in  18GI 
at  Bruiacls,  consisting  chiefly,  however,  of  articles 
of  use,  in  which  tastefid  tiesign  was  the  chief 
consideration. 

Such  is  a  very  brief  outline  of  the  history  of  these 
exhibitions,  which  now  form  a  prominent  feature  in 
this  era  of  the  history  of  civilisation.  The  fulness  of 
their  effects  is  still  to  be  seen,  but,  judging  of  the 
beuefici.'il  effects  they  have  already  produced,  it  is 
not  too  much  to  say,  that  they  aj)pear  destined  to 
help  most  largely  in  diffusing  a  love  of  industry, 
and  a  peaceful  emulation  over  the  whole  globe. 
Commerce  may  have  its  weak  points,  even  its 
meannesses,  but  it  cannot  be  denied  that  few  of  the 
occupations  of  man  are  more  humanising,  or  tend 
more  to  teach  the  value  of  peace  and  good- will  ; 
and  if  this  be  conceded,  certainly  nothing  can  more 
assist  it  than  these  great  gatherings,  in  which  each 
nation  shews  its  own  specialities,  and  gives  to 
others  the  ideas  which  it  has  accumulated  through 
its  centuries  of  progress  in  industrial  art.  Like 
the  social  interchange  of  tliouglit,  this  interchange 
of  inventive  genius  brings  out  new  talents;  and 
succeeding  generations  will  reap  a  rich  harvest  of 
results  from  our  industrial  exhibitions.  For  an  ex- 
tended notice  of  the  English  exhibition  held  in  London 
in  1862,  and  the  great  French  exhibition  (L'Exposition 
Universelle)  held  in  Paris  in  1867,  the  reader  is  re- 
ferred to  the  Supplement,  Vol.  X,  of  this  Encyclope- 
dia. At  this  display,  the  American  exhibitors  took  3 
grand  prizes,  17  gold,  66  silver,  and  94  bronze  medals, 
for  numerous  products  unexcelled  by  other  nations. 
See  Official,  Descriptive,  and  Illustrated  Catalogue  of 
tlie  Great  ExJiibition  q/lSol  (3  vols.);  also  Reports  by 
the  Juries  (2  vols.);  and  likewise  the  magnificent 
set  of  works  printed  for  the  commissioners  (13  vols, 
foho). 

E'XMOOR  FOREST,  a  moory,  mostly  unculti- 
vated waste,  consisting  of  dark  ranges  of  hills  and 
lonely  valleys,  14  square  miles  in  area,  in  the  west  of 
Somersetshire  and  north-east  of  Devonshire.  It  is 
bordered  by  deep  wooded  glens.  The  hills  rise  in 
Dunkcry  Beacon  to  1668  feet,  in  Chapman  Barrow  to 
1540,  and  in  Span  Head  to  1510.  Devonian  slates, 
with  some  new  red  sandstone  in  the  north,  form  the 
substratum.  It  is  covered  with  heath,  interspersed 
with  juniper,  cranberry,  and  whortleberry,  with 
much  meadow-land.  Throughout  this  tract  there 
is  a  native  breed  of  ponies,  known  as  Exmoor 
ponies,  reputed  to  be  stout  and  hardy.  Since  1851, 
E.  has  become  an  iron-mining  district.  The  river 
Exe,  and  its  tributary  the  Barle,  rise  in  Exmoor. 
Lt  is  subject  to  winds  and  mists. 

E'XMOUTH,  a  town  in  the  east  of  Devonshire, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  mouth  of  the  Exe,  10 
miles  south-east  of  Exeter.  It  stands  at  the  base 
and  on  the  slope  and  top  of  a  hill  rising  from 
the  sandy  estuary  of  the  Exe.  It  is  noted  for  its 
mild  climate.  From  about  1700,  it  was  the  chief 
watering-place  on  the  Devon  coast,  till  the  rise 
of  T'orquay.  There  is  a  fine  promenade  on  a  sea- 
wall 18  feet  high.  The  Haldon  ridge  of  hills  on 
the  east,  800  feet  high,  protects  it  from  the  east 
winds.  Here  Sueno  the  Dane  landed  in  1003.  It 
was  taken  by  the  royalists  in  1646.  Pop.  (1871) 
7538. 


EXMOUTH,  Edward  Pellew,  Viscount,  a 
famous  naval  commander,  ./as  l^orn  at  Dover,  April 
19,  1757.  He  entered  the  navy  when  13  yeara 
of  age,  and  first  attracted  notice  by  his  gallant 
conduct  in  the  battle  on  Lake  Champlain,  Octol>er  11, 
1776.  In  1782,  he  attained  the  rank  of  post-captain. 
In  1793,  having  been  appointed  to  the  command 
of  the  Nymplie,  a  frigate  of  36  guns,  he  encoun- 
tered, and,  after  a  hard-fought  battle,  captured  La 
Cleopatre,  a  French  frigate,  wliich  carried  the  siame 
nmnber  of  guns.  For  this  victory,  he  was  knighted. 
In  1799,  he  received  the  command  of  the  Irnpetueux^ 
78  guns,  and  was  sent  to  the  French  coast,  where 
many  of  his  most  brilliant  actions  took  place.  In 
1804,  Sir  E.  Pellew  was  advanced  to  the  rank  if 
Rear-admiral  of  the  Red;  in  1808,  to  that  of  Vice- 
admiral  of  the  Blue;  and  in  1814,  he  was  raised  to 
the  peerage,  with  the  title  of  Baron  Exmoutli  of 
Canonteign,  Devonshire,  with  a  pension  of  £2000 
a  year.  In  1816,  he  was  sent  to  Algiers,  to  enforce 
the  terms  of  a  treaty  regarding  the  abolition  of 
Christian  slavery,  which  the  Dey  of  Algiers  had 
violated.  With  a  combined  fleet  of  25  English  and 
Dutch  vessels,  he  bombarded  the  city  for  seven 
hours,  and  inflicted  such  immense  damage,  destroy- 
ing all  the  Algerine  fleet  and  many  of  the  public 
buildings,  that  the  Dey  consented  to  every  demand. 
E.,  who  had  been  woimded  in  the  leg  and  cheek  in 
this  action,  received  on  his  return  to  England  the 
thanks  of  both  Houses  of  Parliament,  and  was  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  viscount,  10th  December  1816. 
In  1821,  he  retired  from  public  service,  loaded  with 
honours.    He  died  23d  January  1833. 

EXOCETUS.    See  Flying-Fish. 

E'XODUS  ('the  departure'),  the  name  given  to 
the  second  book  of  the  Pentateuch.  It  may  be 
regarded  as  composed  of  two  parts — the  first 
historical,  and  the  second  legislative.  The  historical 
extends  to  the  end  of  the  18th  chapter.  It  embraces 
a  narrative  of  the  various  preparations,  natural  and 
supernatural,  made  under  the  providence  of  God 
for  the  deliverance  of  the  Israelites  from  their 
bondage  in  Egypt,  and  also  describes  the  accom- 
plishment of  their  deliverance,  and  the  journeyiugs 
of  the  people  in  the  wilderness  as  far  as  Mount 
Sinai.  The  legislative  is  devoted  to  a  minute  and 
elaborate  account  of  the  institution  of  the  theocracy. 
The  book  presents  us  with  three  aspects  of  Hebrew 
history.  We  have,  first,  a  picture  of  a  people 
enslaved ;  second,  of  a  people  redeemed  from  bond- 
age ;  and  third,  of  a  people  sanctified  and  set  apart 
to  the  service  of  God.  The  period  embraced  by  the 
history  of  the  book  is  usually  reckoned  at  142  or 
145  years,  which  number  is  obtained  as  follows; 
From  the  death  of  Joseph  to  the  birth  of  IMosea, 
60  or  63  years;  from  the  birth  of  Moses  to  the 
departure  from  Egy|)t,  80  years;  and  from  the 
departure  out  of  Egypt  to  the  erection  of  the 
tabernacle,  1  year.  It  cannot  be  denied,  however, 
without  wildly  violating  all  the  ordmary  laws  of 
the  increase  of  population,  that  this  is  much  too 
short  a  period  to  account  for  the  existence  of  such 
a  number  of  Hebrews  as  left  Egypt — ^az.,  600,000, 
exclusive  of  women  and  children— i.  e.,  in  all,  -at 
least  2,500,000.  Those  who  went  down  into  Egj^t 
with  Jacob  were  '  threescore  and  ten  souls,'  and  is 
215  years,  these,  though  prohibited  from  intermarry- 
ing with  the  Egyptians,  had  amounted  to  between 
two  and  three  millions.  The  -wTiter  of  Exodus, 
indeed,  says  (chapter  xii.,  verse  40)  that  '  the  sojourn- 
ing of  the  children  of  Israel,  who  dwelt  in  Egypt, 
was  430  years,'  adding  that  they  left  the  land 
'  even  the  selfsame  day '  on  which  they  had  entered 
it.  This  statement,  however,  does  not  seem  to 
harmonise  with   the   author's  previous  narrative^ 

196 


EXODUS— EXOGENOtJS  PLANTS. 


md  is  certainly  inconsistent  with  the  language  of 
the  Apostle  Paul,  who  says  (Gal.  iii.  17)  that  the 
law  was  given  430  years  after  the  covenant  with 
Abraham,  which  took  place  about  215  years  before 
Jacob  and  his  sons  Avent  down  into  Egypt,  so 
that,  according  to  this  view,  the  Israelites  could 
only  have  been  in  Egypt  215  years.  This  is  the 
number  commonly  accepted;  but  it  is  not  won- 
derful that  some  writers  should  affirm  that  'it 
would  be  more  satisfactory  if  we  could  allow  430 
years  for  the  increase  of  the  nation  in  Egypt  rather 
than  any  shorter  period.'  A  still  longer  period 
would  undoubtedly  afford  additional  satisfaction ; 
and  Bunsen,  in  his  JUgypten's  Stelle  in  der  Welt- 
yeschichte,  endcavoui's  to  shew  that  the  Israelites 
were  in  Egypt  for  fourteen  centuries  instead  of  two, 
and  that  the  mxniber  215  only  indicates  the  period 
of  oppression,  the  time  when  they  were  '  evilly 
entreated.'  This  conclusion  is,  of  course,  arrived  at 
by  the  application  of  principles  of  criticism  not  gene- 
rally recognised  in  the  schools  of  British  theology  ; 
but  there  seems  no  avoiding  the  conclusion,  that  the 
usual  chronology  is  hopelessly  wrong. 

May  it  not  be  that  the  interval  which  elapsed 
between  the  death  of  'Joseph  and  all  his  brethren, 
and  all  that  generation'  (Exodus  i.  6),  and  the  period 
when  there  arose  up  a  new  king  over  Egypt  which 
knew  not  Joseph  (Exodus  i.  8),  was  nuich  longer 
than  we  suppose?  The  passage  itself  in  Exodus 
seems  to  favo\ir  this  idea ;  for  the  intervenmg 
verse  (Exodus  7)  speaks  of  the  children  of  Israel 
'  increasing  and  multipl^ang,  and  waxing  exceeding 
mighty,  and  filling  the  land,'  without  any  reference 
at  all  to  the  time  occupied  in  this  ])rocess  ;  and  such 
words  are  certainly  more  applicable  to  a  series  of 
centuries  than  of  years,  while  centuries,  besides, 
would  harmonise  better  than  years  with  the  state- 
ment that  the  Egyi)tiau  king  knew  not  (i.  e.,  had 
forgotten  all  about)  Joseph.  The  only  grave  objec- 
tion to  this  otherwise  extremely  j^robable  hypo- 
thesis, is  its  incompatibility  with  the  statement 
of  St  Paul;  an  objection,  however,  which  Luther 
woidd  not  have  found  insiu-mountable,  for  in  an 
exactly  similar  case  he  said  of  the  inspired  Stephen 
that  'he  was  no  historian,  and  did  not  trouble 
himseK  about  particulars.' — Zu  Apostelyesch,  vii. 
Bd.  1,  1160. 

In  explanation  of  the  chronological  difficulty, 
the  confusion  resulting  from  the  use  of  letters  as 
numerals  in  Hebrew  MSS.  has  been  urged;  and 
this  is  notoriously  a  fertile  source  of  error  and 
contradiction,  which  rationalistic  critics  have  not 
sufficiently  kept  in  mind.  To  adduce  such  a  reason, 
however,  would  be  unavailing  in  the  present  case ; 
for  if  it  could  be  proved  that  the  period  stated 
in  Exodus  may  have  been  abbreviated  through  the 
negligence  of  some  careless  transcriber,  or  otherwise, 
and  thus  an  approximation  be  made  to  the  four- 
teen centuries  of  Bunsen,  this  would  only  place  the 
writer  of  the  Pentateuch  in  more  visible  antagonism 
with  St  Paul  himself.  The  date  of  the  exodus  is  fixed 
by  Usher  at  1491  B.C.  ;  by  the  Septuagint,  at  1614 
8.C.  ;  by  Hales,  at  1648  B.C. ;  by  Wilkinson,  about 
1495  B.  c.,  in  the  reign  of  Thothmes  HI. ;  and  by 
Bunsen,  as  late  as  1320  or  1314  B.C.,  in  the  reign  of 
Menephthah,  in  the  latter  of  which  years  Manetho 
gives  what  appears  to  be  the  Egyptian  version  of 
the  event.  The  genuineness  and  authenticity  of 
the  book  of  E.  have  been  shari:)ly  criticised  in 
modern  times ;  but  in  fact,  as  early  as  the  time  of 
Josephus  {Ant.  ii.  16),  there  were  Jews  M'ho  looked 
upon  the  miracle  of  the  crossing  of  the  Red  Sea, 
&c.,  as  fabulous.  Among  the  theologians  who  have 
questioned  the  integrity  of  E.,  are  Von  Lengerke, 
Stahelin,  De  Wette,  and  Knobel,  all  of  whom 
find  traaa«  of  an  older  and  a  later  author,  the 


former  of  whom  they  call  Elohistic,  and  the  latter 
Jehovistic.  Their  objections  have  been  readied  to 
by  Plengstenberg,  Hilvernick,  &c.,  who  endeavour 
to  shew  that  the  distinction  is  artificial,  and  the 
attempt  to  follow  it  out  in  detail  a  failure.  See 
Pentateuch. 

EXO'GENOUS  PLANTS,  or  EXOGENS  (Gr. 
exo,  outwards ;  gennao,  to  produce),  are  those  in 
which  the  woody  substance  of  stem  increases  by 
bundles  of  vascular  tissue  added  externally.  The 
exogenous  stem  contains  a  central  Pith  (q.  v  ),  from 
which  medullary  rays  proceed  to  the  Bark  (q.  v.), 
and  the  bark  is  very  distinct  from  the  fibro- vascular 
or  woody  part  whicii  it  surrounds.  The  exogenous 
is  thus  very  different  in  structure  and  manner  of 
growth  from  the  endogenous  or  the  acrogenoua 
stem.  Amidst  the  cellidar  substance  of  the  young 
stem,  when  it  has  developed  itself  from  the  seed, 
woody  cords  are  seen  connecting  the  cotyledons, 
and  afterwards  \'^  \  leaves,  when  these  appear,  with 
the  root,  in  the  central  axis  of  which  they  join.  A 
section  of  the  stem  exhibits  the  cellular  substance 
traversed  by  vascular  bimdles  (woody  fibre),  which 
in  the  section  are  more  or  less  wedge-shaped,  radi- 
ating from  the  centre,  but  yet  not  prolonged  into 
the  centre  itself,  which,  even  to  the  greatest  age  of 
the  stem,  remains  occupied  by  the  cellular  pith. 
Additional  bundles  are  interposed,  as  groAvth 
proceeds,  diminishing  the  proportion  of  cellular 
substance  in  the  stem,  yet  without  these  bundles  ever 
becoming  so  compacted  together  as  to  cut  off  the 
communication  between  the  cellular  centre  of  the 
stem  and  its  bark,  which  is  maintained  by  means  of 
the  medullary  rays,  often,  indeed,  imperceptible  to 
the  naked  eye,  but  always  present  even  in  the 
hardest  and  most  close-grained  wood.  The  woody 
layers  which  are  formed  in  successive  years,  as 
new  leaves  and  branches  are  developed,  are  formed 
amidst  the  Cambium  (q.  v.),  into  which  the  woody 
fibres  of  the  new  leaves  descend,  between  the  bark 
and  the  former  wood.  Thus  the  concentric  circles  are 
formed,  usually  one  for  each  year's  growth,  distin- 
guishable even  in  the  most  matured  timber,  and  by 
which  the  age  of  trees  is  very  commonly  computed. 
The  beginning  of  each  new  layer  is  generally  marked 
by  a  greater  abundance  of  porous  vessels,  the  open- 
ings of  which  are  conspicuous  in  the  transversa 
section.  In  pines,  the  line  of  separation  between  the 
layers  is  marked  by  greater  density  of  texture,  and 
often  by  deeper  colour.  The  age  of  trees  cannot, 
however,  be  calculated  with  perfect  certainty  from 
the  concentnc  circles  of  the  stem,  as  any  circum- 
stance which  temporarily  arrests  the  growth  in  any 
summer,  may  produce  an  effect  similar  to  that  ordi- 
narily produced  by  the  change  of  seasons  ;  whilst  in 
the.- trees  of  tropical  coimtries,  at  least  where  the 
wet  and  dry  seasons  are  not  very  marked,  concentric 
circles  are  often  not  to  be  discovered. 

The  structure  of  the  branch  of  an  exogenous  tyre 
perfectly  corresponds  with  that  of  the  stem.  The 
vascular  bundles  of  the  stem  or  branch  form  a  loop 
where  a  leaf  begins,  and  those  of  the  leaf  and  its 
axillary  bud  spring  from  the  loop.  The  roots  of 
exogenous  plants  have  not  a  central  pith  like  the 
stem,  but  in  a  few  trees,  as  the  horse-chestnut,  the 
pith  is  prolonged  to  some  extent  into  the  root. 

Anomalies  are  not  imfrequently  to  be  met  with 
in  the  structure  of  exogenous  stems,  and  particu- 
larly among  the  twining  woody  plants  of  tropical 
countries.  There  are  also  very  many  herbaceous 
plants,  in  which,  although  the  structure  agrees  with 
that  of  an  exogenous  tree  in  its  first  year,  no  furthei 
development  is  ever  attained  ;  whilst  in  many,  even 
this  is  very  imperfectly  reached ;  but  yet  these  are  on 
other  accounts  unhesitatingly  classed  with  exogenous 
plants.     The  exogenous  stem  and  dicotyledonoi;» 


EXORCISM— EXPENSES  OF  A.  LAWSUIT. 


8i:ed  are  so  constantly  found  together,  that  the 
desigi.atiou  exogenous  plants  is  often  applied  to 
that  great  division  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  which 
is  also  called  dicotyledonous.  See  Botany.  Exog- 
enous plants  are  also  characterised  by  a  particular 
mode  of  germination,  with  reference  to  which  they 
are  caUed  exorhizal  (Gr.  exo,  outwards;  rhiza,  a  root), 
the  radicle  simply  lengthening,  and  not  having  to 
br.-eak  through  tlie  coat  of  the  embryo.  The  Itiaves 
of  exogenous  plants  generally  exhibit  a  net-work  of 
veins,  instead  of  the  parallel  veins  characteristic  of 
endogens,  and  a  greater  proportional  breadth  of  leaf 
usually  accomjiauies  this  reticulated  yenation. 

Exogenous  plants  are  far  more  numerous  than 
endogens.  All  the  trees  and  shrubs  of  Britain,  and 
those  of  temperate  and  cold  climates  generally,  are 
exogenous,  as  well  as  very  many  herbaceous  plants 
of  these  parts  of  the  world,  and  many  trees,  shrubs, 
and  herbaceous  plants  of  the  tropics.  Almost  all 
trees,  except  palms  and  a  few  L'diacea;,  Pandanacece, 
and  tree-ferns,  are  exogenous. 

E'XORCISM  (from  exorJcizo,  to  conjure),  i.  e., 
conjiiration  in  the  name  of  the  gods,  the  term 
used  by  the  Fathers  of  the  church  to  denote  the 
act  of  conjuring  evil  spirits,  in  the  name  of  God  or 
Christ,  to  depart  out  of  the  person  possessed.  The 
first  Cliristians  adjured  evil  spirits  in  the  name  of 
Jesus  Ohiist,  who  had  conquered  the  devil ;  but  as 
the  opinion  was  at  the  same  time  entertained,  that 
all  idolaters  belonged  to  the  kingdom  of  Satan — who 
Buffered  himself  to  be  worshipped  under  the  form  of 
idols — it  was  customary  to  exorcise  heathens  pre- 
vious to  their  receiving  Christian  baptism.  After 
Aiigustine/s  theory  of  original  sin  had  found  accept- 
ance in  the  5th  c,  and  all  infants  were  regarded  as 
belonging  to  Satan's  kingdom,  exorcism  became 

feneral  at  the  baptism  even  of  Christian  children, 
'olio wing  the  practice  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  Luther  retained  exorcism,  but  it  was  laid 
aside  by  the  Reformed  Church.  Although  aban- 
doned by  illustrious  and  orthodox  Protestant  theolo- 
gians, such  as  Chemnitz  and  Gerhard,  or  deemed 
unessential,  and  in  modern  times  done  away  with 
by  the  '  Protestant '  Church,  the  practice  has  been 
recently  revived  by  the  Old  Lutheran  or  High- 
Church  party. 

In  the  Catholic  Church,  the  function  of  exorcism 
belongs  peculiarly  to  one  of  the  so-called  'minor 
orders.'  See  Orders.  Our  Lord  having  not  only 
himself  in  person  (Matt.  ix.  32,  Mark  i.  25,  Luke  iv. 
35,  viii.  29)  cast  out  devils,  but  having  also  given 
the  same  power  to  his  disciples,  it  is  believed  to  be 
|K'-rmanent  in  the  church.  Of  its  exercise  in  the 
early  church,  both  in  relation  to  '  energumens,'  or 
persons  possessed,  and  in  the  administration  of 
baptism,  there  are  numerous  examples.  Tertullian 
and  Origen  speak  of  it  as  of  ordinary  occurrence, 
and  the  council  of  Carthage,  in  255,  alludes  to  its 
use  in  baptism.  The  rite  of  exorcism  is  used  by  the 
modern  church  in  three  different  cases  :  in  the  case 
of  actual  or  supposed  demoniacal  possession,  in  the 
administration  of  baptism,  and  in  the  blessing  of 
the  chrism  or  holy  oil,  and  of  holy  water.  Its  use 
in  cases  of  possession  is  now  extremely  I'are,  and  in 
many  diseases  is  prohibited,  unless  with  the  special 
permission  of  the  bishop.  In  baptism  it  precedes 
the  ceremony  of  applying  the  water  and  the  bap- 
tismal form.  It  is  used  equally  in  infant  and  in 
adult  baptism,  and  Catholic  writers  appeal  to  the 
earliest  examples  of  the  administration  of  the 
sacrament  as  evidence  of  the  use  of  exorcism  in 
both  alike  The  rite  of  baptismal  exorcism  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  follows  closely  the  Scrip- 
tural model  in  Mark  viii.  33.  The  exorcisms  in  the 
blessing  of  the  oil  and  water  resemble  very  closely 
the  baptismal  form,  but  are  more  diffuse. 


EXOSMOSE.    See  Endosmose. 

EXOSTEMMA,  a  genus  of  American  trees  and 
shrubs  of  the  natural  order  Clnckonac-a'.,  nearly 
allied  to  Cinchona.  Several  species  yiehl  feltri- 
fugal  barks,  which,  however,  do  not  contain  tha 
cinchona  alkaloids.  The  most  valued  of  these 
barks  are  Caribbee  Bark  (q.  v.)  and  Saint  Lucia 
Bark,  the  latter  of  which  is  the  jjroduce  of  E. 
Jloribunda,  a  native  of  the  more  mountaiuoua 
parts  of  the  West  Indies. 

EXOTE'RIC.    See  Esoteric. 

EXO'TIC  PLANTS,  o\  EXOTICS  (Gr.  cominr 
from  abroad),  cidtivated  plants  originally  derived 
from  foreign  countries.  The  term  is  most  frequently 
applied  to  those  of  which  the  native  country  differs 
so  much  in  soil  or  climate  from  that  into  which 
they  have  been  conveyed,  that  their  cultivation  is 
attended  with  difficulty,  requiring  artificial  heat  or 
other  means  different  from  those  requisite  in  the  case 
of  indigenous  plants.  The  cultivation  of  many  such 
exotics  is  carried  on  with  great  success  in  our  green- 
houses and  hothouses  ;  but  there  are  a  few  which, 
notwithstanding  all  the  care  of  the  gardener,  can 
almost  never  be  made  to  fiower,  and  others  which, 
although  they  flower,  seldom  produce  ripe  fruits  and 
seeds.  Nor  are  difficulties  of  this  kind  experienced 
only  in  the  cultivation  of  those  which  belong  to 
warmer  climates  than  our  own,  but  sometimes  even 
with  the  natives  of  colder  regions;  thus,  the  deli- 
cious fruit  of  the  Ruhns  arcticus,  alnrndant  in  the 
most  northern  parts  of  Europe,  is  scarcely  ever  to 
be  seen  in  the  gardens  of  Britain,  although  the 
plant  grows  with  sufficient  luxuriance. 

EXPANSION.    See  Heat. 

EXPECTA'TION  (Lat.  expedatio,  a  waiting,  or 
looking  out),  i.  e.,  the  treatment  of  disease  without 
active  remedies,  by  simply  observing  its  progress 
and  averting  its  consequences  through  physiological 
means  ;  as,  for  instance,  when  a  Fracture  (q.  v.)  is 
treated  by  kee[>ing  the  ends  of  the  broken  bone  in 
their  proper  place,  until  the  natural  processes  of 
repair  are  completed.  Expectation  is  in  this  and 
other  cases  obviously  a  quite  different  thing  from 
inaction,  or  the  systematic  doing  of  nothing,  with 
which  it  has  been  sometimes  confounded. 

EXPECTATION  OF  LIFE.   See  Probability. 

EXPECTATION  WEEK  is  the  name  given  to 
the  period  elapsing  between  Ascension  Day  and 
Whitsunday,  because  during  this  time  the  apostles 
continued  praying  in  earnest  expectation  of  the 
Comforter. 

EXPE'CTORANTS  (Lat.  ex,  out  of,  and  pediis, 
the  breast),  medicines  given  to  carry  off  the  secre- 
tions of  the  ak-tubes.  See  Bronchi,  Bronchitis. 
The  principal  expectorants  are  antimony,  squill, 
ipecacuanha,  senega,  balsam  of  tolu,  lobelia,  grxa 
ammoniac,  asafojtida,  galbanum,  &c. 

EXPECTORA'TION  (see  Expectoraxts.),  the 
mucus  or  other  secretion  discharged  from  the  air- 
passages.  The  examination  of  expectoration  is  ol 
the  utmost  value  in  the  diagnosis  of  diseases  of  th-r. 
chest,  as  will  be  seen  in  their  separate  descriptioa., 
See  Chest,  Diseases  of;  Bronchitis;  Pneumonia; 
Consumption,  &c. 

EXPENSES  or  COSTS  OF  A  LAWSUIT. 
The  arrangements  adopted  in  England  with  refer- 
ence to  charges  exigible  from  the  parties  to  lawsuits 
are  stated  under  Costs.  In  Scotland,  these  charges 
are  commonly  spoken  of  as  expenses,  and  in  the 
present  article  we  shall,  consequently,  confine 
ourselves  to  the  Scottish  practice.  In  additica 
to  demanding  payment  of  the  sum  claimed,  or 
performance  of  the  alleged  obligation  where  it  haj  no 
reference  to  a  pecuniary  transaction,  the  piursuer  ci 


EXPERIMENT-EXTENSION. 


m  action,  at  law  in  Scotland  almost  always  asks 
tlie  court  to  pronounce  decree  in  his  favour  for 
the  expense  of  the  proceedings  which  lie  has  found 
it,  or  may  find  it,  necessary  to  institute.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  defender  usually  demands  the 
expense  attending  his  defence ;  and  the  general  rule 
is,  that  the  party  found  ultimately  to  be  in  the 
wrong  has  decree  pronounced  against  him  for  the 
expense  which  he  has  occasioned  to  his  opponent, 
as  well  as  for  the  subject-matter  of  the  suit.  A^it 
IS  quite  usual  for  a  party  to  succeed  in  one  branch 
of  his  action,  and  to  fail  in  another ;  or  to  occasion 
Oa^iecessary  expense  by  the  vmskilful  or  careless 
mode  in  which  he  conducts  some  portion  of  it,  even 
though  on  the  whole  he  be  in  the  right ;  the 
adjustment  of  the  amounts  incurred  by  the  parties 
respectively  often  involves  not  only  much  nicety 
of  calculation,  but  questions  of  very  considerable 
legal  difficulty.  In  so  far  as  the  adjustment  of 
expenses  is  a  matter  of  calculation,  it  is  effected 
by  the  auditor  of  the  Court  of  Session,  or  of  the 
inferior  courts.  See  Auditor,  Sheriff  Courts.  In 
BO  far  as  it  involves  questions  of  law,  these,  if  not 
previously  decided  by  the  judge,  must  be  carried 
back  to  him  from  the  auditor.  If  either  j^arty 
means  to  object  to  the  amount  awarded  to  him  by 
the  auditor  iu  his  report,  he  must  lodge  with  the 
clerk  of  the  process  a  short  note  of  his  objections 
without  argument.  A  copy  of  this  note  must  be 
furnished  to  the  agent  for  the  ojiposite  party,  and 
the  court,  or  the  Lord  Ordinary,  before  whom  the 
action  depended,  may  direct  the  objections  to  be 
answered  either  vivd  voce  or  in  writing.  Should  the 
objector  fail  to  make  good  his  objection,  the  expense 
of  discussing  it  will  be  laid  on  bim.  If  the  objection 
has  been  stated  to  the  auditor,  and  he  has  reported 
it  to  the  court,  it  does  not  follow  that  the  expense  of 
discussing  it  will  be  laid  wholly  on  the  objector, 
even  if  unsuccessful.  AVhere  an  appeal  to  the  House 
of  Lords  has  been  actually  presented,  and  ser^dce 
of  an  order  thereon  has  taken  place,  a  motion  for 
expenses  is  incompetent,  but  a  mere  intimation  of  an 
appeal  is  not  enough  to  prevent  decree  for  expenses 
being  pronounced.  If  the  agent  who  has  conducted 
the  cause  wish  it,  the  decree  for  expenses  will  be 
pronounced  in  his  favour  ;  and  the  party  found 
liable  will  not  be  allowed  to  plead  a  counter-claim 
against  the  client,  as  by  that  means  he  might 
prevent  the  agent  from  recovering  what  he  very 
probably  has  disbursed.  The  taxation  of  expenses  is 
said  to  be  between  party  and  party,  and  not  between 
agent  and  client;  that  is  to  say,  the  losing  party 
has  to  pay  only  the  expenses  which  have  been  neces- 
sarily incurred  in  discussing  the  question  between 
the  parties  judicially,  not  the  unnecessary  expenses 
which  the  overanxiety  of  the  successful  party  may 
have  led  him  to  incur  to  his  own  agent.  Practically, 
there  are  very  few  cases  in  which  the  expenses 
recovered  do  cover  all  the  bond-Jide  claims  of  the 
agent  against  his  client,  which  is  the  chief  reason 
why  litigation  is  always  attended  with  expense, 
©ven  to  the  winning  party. 

EXPE'RIMENT  and  observation  are  the  means 
fey  which  we  extend  and  confirm  our  knowledge  of 
©atm-e.  An  experiment  is  properly  a  proceeding 
by  which  the  inquirer  interferes  with  the  usual 
course  of  a  phenomenon,  and  makes  the  powers  of 
nature  act  under  conditions  that,  without  his  inter- 
ference, would  never,  perhaps,  have  ])resented  them- 
selves ail  together.  The  introduction  of  experiment 
distinguishes  the  modern  method  of  investigating 
natui'e  from  that  of  ancient  times  and  of  the  middle 
ages.  It  is  by  this  means  that  physics  and  chemistry 
have  made  such  rapid  strides  within  the  last  two 
centuries.  Through  experiment,  the  investigator 
becomes  master  of  the  phenomena  he  is  considering  ; 
19a 


for  he  can  contrive  to  set  aside  the  unessential 
circumstances  that  so  often  conceal  the  real  rela- 
tions and  conditions  of  things,  and  make  these  come 
out  into  the  light.  Experiments  exhibited  during  a 
lecture  on  any  branch  of  science  are  made,  not  Tfith 
a  view  to  the  discovery  of  truth,  but  to  aid  in  the 
exposition  of  truths  already  discovered ;  they  are 
sometimes  called  demonstrative  experiments. 

EXPE'RT  (Lat.  expertus,  from  ex  and  peritus, 
specially  skilled),  a  man  of  special  practical  expe- 
rience or  education  in  regard  to  a  particular  subject 
—a  word  commonly  applied  (after  the  French)  to 
medical  or  scientific  witnesses  in  a  court  of  justice, 
when  selected  on  account  of  special  qualifications, 
as  in  the  case  of  an  analysis  of  the  contents  of  the 
stomach  in  suspected  poisoning.  The  term  is 
similarly  applied  to  a  person  professionally  skilled 
in  handwriting,  for  detection  of  forgery  of  dueds 
and  signatures. 

EXPO  NENT  AND  EXPONENTIAL.  When 
it  was  wanted  to  express  the  multiplication  of  unity 
for  any  number  of  successive  times  by  the  same 
number  or  qiiantity,  e.  g.,  1x5x5,  or  1  x  a  x  &  x  a, 
it  was  found  a  convenient  abbreviation  to  write 
1x5^^  and  Ixa',  or  simply,  5^^  and  a';  and  the 
numbers,  2  and  3,  indicating  how  often  the  opeiation 
of  multiplication  is  repeated,  were  called  exponents. 
But  the  theory  of  exponents  gradually  received 
extensions  not  originally  contemplated,  and  has  now 
an  extensive  notation  of  its  own.    Thus,  a''  =  1, 

a*  =  a,  a"'  =  — j,  a*  =  ti/a,  ai  =  %/%     =        or  the 

cube  root  of  the  square  of  a.  Also  a*  is  the  a:th 
power  of  a,  x  being  any  number  integral  or  fractional ; 
and,  a  continuing  the  same,  x  may  be  so  chosen 
that  a'  shall  be  equal  to  any  given  number.  In  this 
case,  X  is  called  the  logarithm  of  the  niunber  repre- 
sented by  a*.  Considered  by  itself,  a'  is  an  expo 
nential.  Generally,  any  quantity  representing  a  power 
whose  exponent  is  variable,  is  an  exponential,  aa 
a*,  X',  If,  &c.  Exponential  equations  are  those  which 
involve  exponentials,  such  as  a*  =  b,  x'  =  c. 

EXPOSURE  OF  INFANTS.  See  Infanticide. 

EXPRESSIO'NE,  Con,  or  ESPEESSIVO, 
Italian  terms  in  music,  meaning  with  expression ; 
impassioned,  with  pathos.  Where  the  word  appears 
at  the  beginning  of  a  composition,  the  piece  must 
be  executed  throughout  with  feeling.  *  Expressione' 
frequently  appears  above  certain  passages  which 
alone  are  to  be  performed  so,  while  the  harmony 
in  the  accompaniment  goes  on  quietly. 

EXTE'NSION,  in  Logic,  is  a  word  put  into 
contrast  with  another  term.  Comprehension,  and 
the  two  mutually  explain  each  other.  A  general 
notion  is  said  to  be  extensive  according  to  the 
extent  of  its  application,  or  the  number  of  objects 
included  under  it.  Thus,  Figure  is  a  term  of  very 
great  extension,  because  it  contains  in  its  compass 
many  varieties,  such  as  round,  square,  oblong, 
polygonal,  &c.  In  like  manner,  Eiuopean  is  more 
extensive  than  German,  man  than  Eviropean,  animal 
than  man,  organised  being  than  animj.1.  The  highest 
genera  are  formed  by  taking  in  a  wider  range  of 
objects.  Matter  and  Mind  are  the  most  extensive 
classes  that  we  can  form.  For,  although  a  higher 
genus  is  sometimes  spoken  of,  viz.,  Existence ;  to 
call  this  a  class  is  to  generalise  beyond  real  know- 
ledge, which  does  not  begin  till  we  have  at  least  tvro 
actual  tilings  to  contrast  with  each  other.  What 
can  be  contrasted  only  with  non-existence,  non 
entity,  or  nothingness,  is  not  genuine  knowledge; 
no  property  can  be  affirmed  of  it  upart  from  the 
thing  itself.  Matter,  in  its  contrast  to  mind,  is  a 
real  cognition ;  and  vice  versa,  mind  in  its  contrast 
to  matter.    These,  then,  are   the  most  eytensivp 


EXTENT— EXTRACT  OF  MEAT. 


terms  that  have  any  real  knowledge  attached  to 
them.  But  this  property  of  extension  is  gained  by 
dropping  more  and  more  of  the  })eculiarities  of  tlie 
included  individuals ;  *  organised  being,'  in  order 
to  include  both  plants  and  animals,  must  drop  from 
its  signification  what  is  peculiar  to  each,  and  mean 
only  what  i^  common  to  both.  In  short,  these  very 
extensive  notions  have  a  very  narrow  signification  ; 
it  is  the  less  extensive  that  have  most  meaning. 
The  meaning  of  '  Man,'  or  the  number  of  attributes 
implied  in  this  generic  expi-ession,  is  large.  Every- 
thing that  goes  to  a  human  being — the  human  form 
ind  organisation,  the  mental  attributes  of  reason, 
speech,  etc. — is  expressed  by  this  term,  which  is  on 
that  account  said  to  be  more  Comprehensive  than 
animal  or  organized  being.  Thus  it  may  be  seen 
that  the  greater  the  extension,  the  less  is  the  com- 
prehension :  and  the  greater  the  comprehension,  the 
less  is  the  extension.  An  individual  is  the  term 
of  greatest  comprehension,  and  of  least  extension. 
*  Socrates '  comprehends  all  that  is  common  to  men 
and  to  philosophers,  together  with  all  that  is  peculiar 
to  himself.  On  the  logical  uses  of  this  distinction. 
Bee  Sir  W.  Hamilton's  Lectures  on  Logic,  i.  140. 

EXTE'NT,  in  English  Law,  a  writ  issuing  out  of 
the  Court  of  Exchequer  to  compel  payment  of  debts 
to  the  crown.  In  oixler  to  warrant  the  issue  of  this 
writ,  tlie  debt  must  be  a  debt  of  Ilecord  (q.  v.). 
Extents  are  in  chief  or  in  aid.  The  former  are  issued 
against  the  crown  debtor,  and  under  it  the  body, 
land,  and  goods  may  aU  be  taken  at  once.  An  extent 
in  aid  is  issued  at  the  suit  of  a  crowTi  debtor  against 
a  person  indebted  to  the  crown  debtor.  On  this  writ, 
the  chattels  only  of  the  person  against  whom  it  is 
issued  can  be  attached.  Writs  of  extent  in  aid 
were  at  one  time  made  the  means  of  great  abuse ; 
persons  who  were  not  crown  debtors  were  in  the 
practice  of  assigning  debts  to  the  crow^n,  and  there- 
upon obtaining  a  writ  in  aid.  This  practice  was 
stopped  by  7  James  I.  c.  15,  forbidding  assignments 
to  the  crown.  Persons  then  resorted  to  other 
means,  such  as  taking  the  debt  in  name  of  the 
crown,  or  getting  themselves  appointed  bailiffs  for 
the  crown,  and  in  that  character  procuring  the 
issue  of  the  w^it.  At  last,  the  practice  was  finally 
stopped  by  57  Oeo.  III.  c.  117,  by  which  it  is 
enacted  that  the  amount  of  the  crown  debt  shall 
be  endorsed  on  every  extent  in  aid,  and  that 
any  overplus  beyond  the  crown  debt  shall  be  paid 
into  court  to  be  disposed  of  as  the  court  shall 
direct.  By  the  treaty  of  Union,  extents  were 
introduced  into  Scotland  on  revenue  matters  ;  but 
the  sheriff  is  only  entitled  to  take  the  debtor's 
movables. 

EXTENT  (in  Scotland).  There  were  no  taxes  in 
feudal  times.  The  king  was  supported  by  the  rents 
of  his  property  lands,  and  by  the  occasional  profits 
of  superiority — ward,  non-entry,  marriage,  escheat, 
and  the  like — which  were  known  by  the  general 
nams  of  Casualties  (q.  v.).  Beyond  these,  and  the 
expenses  which  the  discharge  of  his  ordmary  duties 
to  his  superior  imposed  on  him.  the  vassal  was  not 
fub]"?  to  be  taxed.  But  to  this  rule  there  were 
some  exceptions.  When  it  became  necessary  to 
redeem  the  king  from  captivity,  to  provide  a 
portion  for  his  eldest  daughter,  or  to  defray  the 
expense  of  making  his  eldest  son  a  knight,  a  general 
contribution  was  levied.  One  of  these  occasions 
occurred  when  Alexander  III.  betrothed  his  daughter 
Margaret  to  Eric,  the  young  king  of  Norway,  and 
engaged  to  give  her  a  tocher  of  14,000  merks. 
This  sum  was  far  beyond  the  personal  resources 
of  the  king,  and  consequently  fell  to  be  levied  by 
a  land  tax — land  and  its  fruits  being  then  the  only 
appreciable  species  of  property.    But  if  the  tax 


was  to  be  levied  fairly  and  equally,  this  could  be 
done  only  by  ascertaining  the  value  of  the  wholo 
lands  in  tlie  kingdom,  as  had  been  done  in  England 
in  the  time  of  Edward  I.  (4  Edw.  1.  i.  anno  1276). 
Whether  this  was  the  first  occasion  on  which  a 
general  valuation  of  all  the  lands  of  Scotland  liad 
been  made,  as  Lord  Karnes  thought  {Law  Tractty 
tract  xiv.),  or  whether  there  had  Ijeen  earlier  valua- 
tions of  the  same  kind,  as  others  have  sup])03cd 
(Cranston  v.  Gibson,  May  IG,  1818,  Fac.  Coll.),  is 
still  a  subject  of  dispute  amongst  anticpuiries.  It 
is  certain,  however,  that  the  valuation  here  spokeu 
of  was  long  known  as  tlie  old  extent.  As  such,  it  is 
spoken  of  in  the  act  or  indenture  of  15th  July  1326, 
by  which  the  parliament  of  Scotland  agreed  to  give 
to  King  Ilobert  Bruce  the  tenth  penny  of  all  the 
rents  of  the  laity  during  his  life.  In  this  latter  act 
it  was  provided  tliat  such  lauds  as  had  been  wasted 
by  the  war  should  be  revalued  by  an  incpiest  before 
the  slierifi",  and  the  retour,  or  formal  verdict,  was  so 
framed  as  to  contain  a  statement  Ijotli  of  the  present 
value  of  the  lands,  and  of  what  they  were  worth  '  in 
the  time  of  peace.'  In  almost  all  cases,  the  new  was 
considerably  mider  the  old  valuation,  a  fact  which 
shews  how  widespread  must  have  been  the  devas- 
tation of  that  terrible  war.  The  same  deplorable 
fact  is  brought  out  by  the  Extent  taken  with  a 
view  to  raise  the  sum  necessary  for  the  ransom  of 
David  11.  On  this  occasion,  the  new  extent  of 
the  temporal  lands  scarcely  amounted  to  £25,000, 
whereas  the  old  extent  exceeded  £50,000  (Cranston 
V.  Gibson,  ut  sup.).  But  this  state  of  matters  was 
reversed  when  James  I.  succeeded  in  restoring  peace 
and  prosj)erity.  Indeed,  even  before  the  iuiluence 
of  his  personal  qualities  could  have  been  felt,  the 
condition  of  the  country  must  have  improved, 
because  the  extent  which  was  taken  in  1424,  for  the 
purj^KJse  of  redeeming  him  from  captixaty,  shews  in 
general  an  advance  upon  that  even  of  the  time  of 
Alexander  III.  In  several  later  cases  (1481,  14S8, 
1535),  in  which  grants  were  made  to  the  crown,  the 
assessments  were  levied  from  temporal  lands  by  a 
series  of  new  extents,  according  to  present  vahie. 
During  the  minority  of  Mary,  the  assessments,  ' 
which  were  heavy  and  nvunerous,  were  levied 
according  to  an  old  extent,  but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  it  was  the  extent  of  Alexander  III.,  or  of 
David  II.,  or  a  later  one  than  either.  The  extents 
of  which  we  have  s2»oken  did  not  apply  to  church 
lands.  The  share  of  the  subsidies  applicable  to 
them  was  levied  according  to  the  value  of  the  bene- 
fices as  settled  by  '  Bagimont's  Koll,'  which  was 
made  up  in  the  time  of  Alexander  III.  by  Bene- 
mundus  de  Vicci,  vvilgarly  called  Bagimont.  Crom- 
well introduced  a  more  equitable  rule  of  assessment, 
and  fixed  precisely  the  ratio  to  be  laid  upon  each 
county  ;  and  his  system  was  adhered  to,  with  little 
variation,  after  the  Restoration  (Act  of  Conven- 
tion, 23d  January  1667).  The  rent  fixed  by  these 
valuations,  commonly  called  the  valued  rent,  was 
that  according  to  which  the  laud-tax  and  most  of 
the  other  public  and  parochial  assessments  wer«j 
imposed  till  the  passing  of  the  recent  Valua.t'Dn 
Acts,  17  and  18  Vict.  c.  91,  1854,  and  20  and  21 
Vict.  c.  58,  1857.    See  Valuations  of  Land. 

E'XTRACT  OF  MEAT  is  obtained  by  acting 
upon  chopped  meat  by  cold  water,  and  gradually 
heating,  when  about  one-eighth  of  the  weight  of 
the  meat  dissolves  out,  leaving  an  almost  tasteless 
insoluble  fibrine.  The  extract  of  meat  contains  the 
savoury  constituents  of  the  meat,  and  is  a  light 
nutritious  article  of  food.  See  Beef-tea  and  Broth. 
It  may  be  concentrated  into  small  bulk,  and  when 
desired,  may  be  afterwards  treated  with  water,  anM 
being  heated,  forms  an  agreeable,  light,  and  nutritivf 
soup.  • 


EXTRACTION  OF  KOOTS— EXTRAVASATION. 


EXTRA' CTION  OF  ROOTS.  See  Evolution. 
Tlie  roots  which  have  in  practice  to  be  most  fre- 
quently extracted  arc  the  square  and  cube  roots.  It 
is  proposed  to  exphiin  the  rule  for  their  extraction 
as  it  is  given  in  books  of  arithmetic.  And  iirst  of 
the  square  root.  The  square  of  a  +  &  is  a''  -j- 
2a6  +  U^,  and  we  may  obtain  the  rule  by  observing 
how  a  ->r  b  may  bo  deduced  from  it.  Arrangiu;  the 
expression  according  to  jiowers  of  some  letter  a,  we 
obferve  that  the  sqnai'e  root  of  the  first  term  is  a. 
+  2rt6  +  U^i^a  +  h 

a" 


2a  +  h)  2ah  +V 

Subtract  its  square  from  the  expression,  and  the 
remainder  is  2ab  +  b^.  Divide  2a/>  by  2a,  and  the 
result  is  b,  the  other  term  in  the  root.  M\dtij)ly 
2a  -h  b  by  b,  and  subtract  the  i)roduct  from  the 
remainder.  If  the  operation  does  not  terminate,  it 
shews  that  there  is  another  term  in  the  root.  In 
this  case,  we  may  consider  the  two  terms  a  +  b 
already  found  as  one,  and  as  corresponding  to  the 
term  a  in  the  preceding  operation  ;  and  the  square 
of  this  quantity  having  been  by  the  preceding  process 
subtracted  from  the  given  expression,  we  may 
divide  the  remainder  by  2(a  +  b)  for  the  next  term 
in  the  root,  and  for  a  new  subtrahend  multii)ly 
2(a  +  b)  +  the  new  tenn,  by  the  new  term ;  and 
the  process  may  be  re])cated  tiU  there  is  no  remain- 
der. The  rule  for  extracting  the  scjuare  root  of  a 
number  is  an  adaptation  of  this  algebraical  rule.  In 
fact,  if  the  number  be  expressed  in  terms  of  the  radix 
of  its  scale,  it  is  seen  to  be  a  concealed  algebraical 
expression  of  the  order  we  have  been  considering. 
Thus,  N  =  a?-"  +  Z>7-""'  +  .  .  .  +  q.  The  number 
676  in  the  denary  scale  may  be  written  5  x  lO''^  + 
7  X  10  +  C ;  and  treating  it  as  an  algebraical  ex2ires- 
eion,  we  should  find  its  root  to  be  2  x  10  -f  4,  or  24. 
The  only  part  of  the  arithmetical  rule  now  requiring 
explanation  is  the  rule  of  pointing.  As  every 
number  of  one  ligure  is  less  than  10,  its  square  must 
be  less  than  10" ;  generally,  every  number  of  n  ligures 
is  less  than  10"  (which  is  1  followed  by  n  cijjhers)  ; 
but  also  every  number  of  7i  figures  is  not  less  than 
10""^  and  therefore  its  square  is  not  less  than 
10-""2 — which  is  the  smallest  number  of  2n  —  1 
ligures.  Also,  lO""  is  the  smallest  number  of  '2n  -f  1 
ligures.  It  follows  that  the  square  of  a  number  of  n 
figures  has  either  2)i  or  2n  —  1  figures.  If,  tben, 
we  i)ut  a  point  over  the  units  place  of  a  number  of 
which  the  root  is  to  be  extracted,  and  point  every 
Becond  figure  from  right  to  left,  the  number  of 
points  will  always  equal  that  of  the  figures  in  the 
root.  If  the  number  of  figures  be  even,  the  number 
will  be  divided  into  groups  of  two  each  ;  if  odd,  the 
last  group  will  contain  only  a  single  figure. 

The  rule  for  the  extraction  of  the  cube  root  of  a 
number  is  deduced  from  that  for  the  extraction  of 
the  cube  root  of  an  algebraical  expression  in  the 
game  way  as  in  the  case  of  the  square  root.  The 
cube  of  {a  +  b)  is 

+  M  +        +  h\a  +  b 

Sa'^)  +  ^ab"^  +  6» 

Za'b  +  3a?>«  +  6' 

Hence  the  rule  in  algebra.  Arrange  the  expression 
according  to  descending  powers  of  a,  the  cube  root 
of  the  first  term  a*  is  a,  the  first  term  of  the  root. 
Subtract  its  cube  from  the  expression,  and  bring 
down  the  remainder.  Divide  the  first  term  by  .3a-', 
and  the  quotient  is  b,  the  second  term  of  the  root. 
Bv»btract  the  quantity  '6d^b  +  'Sah-  +  b^.  If  there 
is  10  remaiixler,  the  iDot  is  extracted.    If  there 

»0() 


is,  proceed  as  before,  regarding  a  +  &  as  one  term, 
corresponding  to  a  in  the  first  operation.  Let,  for 
example,  a  +  b  =  a^,  then  Sa^  ^  is  the  new  tnal 
divisor.  If  c  be  the  new  term  or  third  figure  of 
the  root,  then  the  quantity  to  be  subtracted  to  get 
the  next  remainder  is  3a^  H  +  Sa^c^  +  c^,  and  so 
on  till  there  is  no  remainder.  The  rule  of  pointing 
in  the  extraction  of  the  cube  root  may  be  proved, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  square  root,  by  shewing  that 
the  cube  of  a  number  of  n  figures  contains 
3«  —  1,  or  3/i  —  2  figures  ;  and,  therefore,  if  we  jtuli 
a  point  over  the  units  place,  and  on  each  third 
figm-e,  we  shall  have  as  many  perioda  as  there  ara 
figures  in  the  root. 

It  may  be  observed  that  a  rule  for  the  extraction 
of  any  root  of  a  number  may  be  got  from  considering 
how,  from  the  exi^ansion  of  a  +  6  to  the  «th  power, 
or  a"  +  na""'6  +,  &c.,  the  root  a  +  6  is  to  be 
obtained.    See  Evolution  and  Involution. 

EXTRA'CTIVE  MATTER  is  the  term  ai)plicd 
to  certain  organic  matters  resembling  humine,  found 
in  soils  during  the  decay  of  vegetable  matter,  and 
which  are  jjrecipitated  during  the  concentration  of 
water  solutions. 

E'XTRACTS,  in  a  technical  sense,  are  medicinal 
preparations  of  vegetable  principles,  got  either  by 
])utting  the  i)lants  in  a  solvent  or  menstruum,  and 
then  evaporating  the  liquid  down  to  about  the 
consistency  of  honey,  or  by  expressing  the  juice  of 
the  plants  and  evaporating  ;  this  last  is  properly 
inspiasated  juke.  Extracts,  therefore,  contain  only 
those  vegetable  principles  that  are  either  held  in 
solution  in  the  juices  of  the  plants  themselves,  or 
are  soluble  in  the  liquid  employed  in  extractii.^ 
them,  and  at  the  same  time  are  not  so  volatile  as 
to  be  lost  during  evaporation.  Now,  as  many 
extractive  matters  are  more  or  less  volatile,  it 
makes  a  great  difference  whether  the  oi^eration  is 
conducted  at  a  low  or  at  a  high  temperature. 
Extracts  are  called  vxitery  or  alcoholic  according 
as  the  menstruum  employed  is  water  or  spirits. 
Ether  is  also  used  in  extracting.  Different  plants  of 
course  afford  different  extracts,  some  being  of  the 
nature  of  bitters,  others  being  used  as  pigmentrS, 
tannin,  &c.  Extracts  are  liable  to  great  uncertainty 
in  point  of  strength  and  composition,  and  require  to 
be  prepared  with  great  care.  Evaporation  in  vacuo 
is  found  to  be  a  great  improvement. 

EXTRADI'TION,  the  giving  up,  by  authority 
of  law,  a  person  accused  of  a  crime,  to  the  foreign 
jurisdiction  within  which  it  was  committed,  in  order 
that  lie  may  be  tried  there.  Extradition  is  usually 
the  subject  of  international  treaty.  A  treaty  or 
convention  for  this  purpose  was  entered  into 
between  this  country  and  France  in  1843,  and 
between  this  country  and  the  United  States  of 
America  the  same  year.  Cases  have  frequently 
occurred  where  warrants  have  been  granted,  and 
their  execution  by  the  criminal  officer  aided  by 
the  authorities  of  countries  with  which  we  have  no 
such  convention.  The  authorities  at  Hamburg  and 
Antweq),  and  in  Russia,  have  given  English  offend  en 
over  to  the  custody  of  the  officer,  or  placed  them  oo 
board  a  British  vessel.  On  other  occasions,  they 
have  convicted  them,  and  punished  them  there, 
receiving  a  certified  copy  of  the  depositions  aa 
evidence  of  the  crime  committed  in  this  countiy 
(Oke's  Magisterial  Synopsis,  p.  724 ;  and  Oke's  Magts- 
terial  Formalist,  where  the  forms  of  warrants  wiD 
be  found  for  the  guidance  of  justices). 

EXTRA VASA'TION  is  the  escape  of  any  of  the 
fluids  of  the  liviug  body  from  their  proper  vessels 
{vas)  through  a  rupture  or  injury  in  their  walls, 
Excrementitious  matter  thus  sometimes  escapes  into 
the  abdomen  through  a  wound  or  ulceration  of  th« 


EXTREME  UNCTIO^^— LYCK. 


bowels.  But  the  terra  is  oftenest  used  in  speaking 
of  the  escape  of  })l()Otl  from  injured  blood-vessels. 
Extravasation  is  distinguished  from  exudation  by 
this,  that  in  the  last  the  vessels  remain  entire,  and 
the  efTusion  tj^kes  place  by  liltration  through  their 
walls  ;  nor  docs  more  than  a  part  of  the  blood  so 
escape,  the  blood  globules  being  retained,  while  in 
extravasation  perfect  blood  is  etFused.  Many  kinds 
of  extravasation  are  immediately  fatal,  such  as  that 
of  urine  or  of  gall  into  the  abdomen,  or  of  blood  from 
the  vessels  of  the  brain  in  many  cases  of  apoplexy. 
The  dark  colour  resulting  from  a  bruise  is  owing  to 
extrav^asated  blood  from  ruptured  capillary  vessels. 

EXTREME  UNCTIOIS',  a  sacrament  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  which,  as  the  other  sacra- 
ments supi)ly  spiritual  aid  in  the  various  circum- 
stances of  life,  is  believed  to  impart  to  the  Christian 
in  death  grace  and  strength  to  encounter  the 
struggle,  as  weU  spiritual  as  bodily,  of  the  dying 
horn-.  The  rite  of  unction  in  different  forms  is 
common  to  several  of  the  sacraments  ;  the  name 

*  extreme'  is  given  to  that  of  the  present  sacra- 
ment, because  it  is  reserved  for  the  last  act  of  the 
Christian  career.  The  council  of  Trent  declares 
this  sacrament,  although  'promulgated'  in  the  well- 
known  passage  of  St  James  v.  14>  15  (which  Protes- 
tants regard  as  having  more  to  do  with  the  general 
belief  in  the  sanative  properties  of  oil),  to  have 
been  '  instituted '  by  Christ.  The  Fathers  frequently 
allude  to  the  rite  of  unction,  and  although  many  of 
these  allusions  certainly  refer  to  the  unctions  of 
baptism  and  confirmation,  yet  Catholics  rely  on 
several  passages  of  Origen,  Chrysostom,  Coesarius 
of  Arhis,  and  Pope  Innocent  I.,  as  decisive  regard- 
ing the  unction  of  the  dying,  as  also  upon  the  fact 
that  in  the  various  separated  churches  of  Oriental 
Christians — Greek,  Coptic,  Armenian,  and  Nestorian 
—the  rite  is  found,  although  with  many  ceremonial 
variations.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the 
sacrament  is  administered  by  the  priest,  who, 

*  dipping  his  thumb  m  the  holy  oil,  anoints  the  sick 
person,  in  the  form  of  the  cross,  upon  the  eyes,  ears, 
nose,  mouth,  hands,  and  feet ;  at  each  anointing 
making  use  of  this  form  of  prayer :  "  Through  this 
holy  unction,  and  his  most  tender  mercy,  may  the 
Lord  pardon  thee  whatever  sins  thou  hast  com- 
mitted by  thy  sight.  Amen."  And  so  of  the  hear- 
ing and  the  rest,  adapting  the  form  to  the  several 
senses.' — Challoner's  Catholic  Christian  Instructed. 
Extreme  unction  is  reputed  by  Catholics  one  of  the 
sacraments  'of  the  living;'  that  is,  it  ordinarily 
reqnires  that  the  recipient  shoidd  have  previously 
obtained  remission  of  his  sins  by  absolution  or  by 
perfect  contrition ;  but  it  is  held  to  remit,  indi- 
recthj,  actual  sins  not  previously  remitted,  and 
also  (although  not  infallibly,  but  according  to  the 
mercifid  designs  of  Providence)  to  alleviate,  and 
even  to  dispel,  the  pains  of  bodily  disease.  The  holy 
oil  which  forms  the  '  matter'  of  this  sacrament 
must  be  blessed  by  the  bishop — a  ceremony  which 
is  performed  with  great  solemnity  once  each  year 
by  the  bishop,  attended  by  a  number  of  priests,  on 
Maundy-Thiu'sday.  The  oil  so  blessed  is  reserved 
for  use  diu-ing  the  year.  In  the  Greek  Church,  the 
■acrament  is  administered  by  several  priests  con- 
jointly. In  its  most  solemn  form,  seven  priests 
unite  in  its  administration  ;  in  ordinary  circxmi- 
Btances,  it  is  conferred  by  two.  The  Greek  form  of 
words  also  differs,  although  not  substantially,  from 
that  of  the  Latin  Church.  The  Greeks  call  this 
sacrajnent  'The  Holy  Oil,'  and  sometimes  'The  Od 
of  Prayer.' 

EXTREMITY.    See  Skeleton. 
EX^JMAS,  comprisinf    Great    Exuma,  Little 
iflxuiD^,  aul  the  Exmna  Keys,  form  part  of  the 


group  of  the  Bahama  Islands.  They  contain  about 
2000  inhabitants,  who  are  em])loyed  })artly  in  agri- 
culture, including  at  one  time  the  growing  of  cotton, 
]>ut  chiefly  in  .salt-making.  In  the  hist-named 
business,  the  E.  rank  second  among  all  the  sul)- 
divisions  of  the  group,  having  exi)ortcd,  in  1851, 
115,350  bushels  of  salt.  Next  to  iS'assau  in  New 
I'rovidencc,  Little  I^xuma  is  the  most  considerable 
port  of  entry  in  the  Bahamas. 

EXU'VI-^,  a  term  applied  to  organic  rem/iine, 
now  seldom  employed,  but  frequently  used  by  Ih* 
older  geologists. 

EYALET  is,  next  to  a  province,  the  largest  and 
most  important  of  the  divisions  of  the  Turkish 
emjure,  which  contains  in  all  36  eyalets.  These  are 
again  divided  into  livas  or  sanjaks,  the  livas  into 
cazas  or  districts,  and  the  cazas  into  nahUjcs  or 
communes,  containing  villages  or  hamlets.  Each 
eyalet  or  general  government,  as  it  may  be  called,  ia 
administered  by  a  jDasha,  who  is  governor,  and  the 
general  name  for  whom  is  vali  or  viceroy.  The 
governors  of  the  eyalets  belong  to  the  Dignities  of 
the  Sword,  and  are  ])ashas  of  two  tails ;  and  when 
they  are  raised  to  the  rank  of  vizier,  as  is  frequently 
the  case,  they  become  pashas  of  three  tails. 

EYCK,  Hubert  and  Jan  van,  two  iUustrioua 
painters  of  the  old  Flemish  school.  Much  dis- 
cussion has  arisen  as  to  the  time  of  the  birth  and 
death  of  these  brothers,  and  the  various  dates 
assigned  range  from  1350  to  1400.  Some  maintain 
that  Hubert  was  born  in  1366,  and  Jan  in  1370 ; 
while  Kugler — in  general  a  good  authority  on 
ancient  art — states  the  dates*  to  be  1366  and  1400, 
making  Hubert  34  years  older  than  Jan.  Their 
birthplace  was  Maas-Eyck,  and  they  chiefly  resided 
at  Bruges  and  Ghent,  and  became  the  founders  of 
the  Flemish  school  of  painting.  The  honour  of 
being  the  inventors  of  oil-painting  is  claimed  for 
them,  though  sufficient  evidence  has  V-een  adduced 
to  shew  that  it  was  practised  previously.  Before 
their  time,  the  cusi  u,  hd\vever,  particularly  in 
Italy,  was  to  paint  wi  :h  gums  or  other  substances 
of  an  adhesive  nature  dissolved  in  v.^ater ;  and  if  not 
the  inventors,  they  were  at  least  the  first  who 
brought  into  notice  and  perfected  the  mode  of 
mixing  colours  with  oil  or  some  medium  of  which 
oil  was  the  chief  ingredient ;  while,  for  transparent 
and  brilliant  coloiu-ing  and  minute  finish,  their 
works  have  never  been  surpassed.  Till  the  death 
of  Jan,  the  brothers  generally  painted  in  con- 
junction :  one  of  their  most  important  works  was 
an  altar-piece  vrith  folding-doors,  representing  the 
Elders  adoring  the  Lamb — a  subject  taken  from  the 
Apocalypse — painted  iarJodocus  Vyts,  who  presented 
it  to  the  cathedral  of  St  Bavon,  in  Ghent.  The 
two  centi'al  di\asions  of  this  picture  are  all  that 
now  remain  in  the  church  at  Ghent.  Some  of  the 
wings  are  in  the  Gallery  at  Berlin.  The  master- 
pieces of  the  brothers  are  for  the  most  part  in  the 
cities  of  Ghent,  Bruges,  Antwerp,  Berlin,  Mimich, 
and  Paris.  In  the  National  Gallery,  Loudon,  there 
are  three  pictures  of  Jan  van  E.,  which,  though 
small,  well  exemphfy  the  high  qualities  of  his  workc 
These  are  portraits  of  a  Flemish  merchant  and  hia 
\\dfe,  standing  ia  the  middle  of  an  apartment,  with 
their  hands  joined— signed  and  dated  1434 :  of  the 
portrait  of  a  man  in  a  cloak  and  fm--coUar,  with  a 
red  handkerchief  twisted  roimd  the  head  as  a 
turban — painted,  according  to  an  inscription  on  the 
lower  part  of  the  frame,  October  21,  1433 :  and 
portrait  of  a  man  with  a  dark-red  dress,  with  a 
green  head-covering— signed  and  dated  10th  Octo- 
ber 1432.  Hubert  died  in  1426,  and  Jan  in  1441 
Compare  Waagen,  Uber  Hub.  und  Jan  van  Eyck 
(Bieslaw, 

201 


EYE. 


EYE,  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  the.  In 
this  article  we  shall  consider:  1.  The  structure  of 
the  human  eyeball,  and  of  certain  accessory  parts 
or  appendages  which  serve  to  protect  that  organ,  and 
arc  essential  to  the  due  performance  of  its  functions. 
2.  The  most  striking  modifications  which  this  organ 
presents  in  some  of  the  lower  animals.  3.  The  spe- 
cial uses  of  the  various  parts  of  the  eye  considered 
as  an  optical  instrument ;  and  4.  The  action  of  the 
retina. 

1.  The  globe  of  the  eye  is  placed  in  the  anterior 
part  of  the  cavity  of  the  Orbit  (q.  v.),  in  which  it  is 
nslJ  if-  position  by  its  connection  with  the  oi)tic  nerve 
postiri jrly,  and  with  the  muscles  which  surround 
it,  and  by  the  eyelids  in  front.  It  is  further  sup- 
ported behind  and  on  the  sides  by  a  quantity  of 
loose  fat,  which  fills  up  all  the  interstices  of  the 
orbit,  and  facilitates  the  various  movements  of  which 
the  eye  is  capable. 

The  form  of  the  eyeball  is  nearly  spherical ;  but 
on  viewing  the  organ  in  profile,  we  see  that  it  is 
composed  of  segments  of  two  spheres  of  different 
diameters.  Of  these,  the  anterior,  formed  by  the 
transparent  cornea,  has  the  smaller  diameter,  and 
is  therefore  the  most  prominent ;  and  hence  the 
antero- posterior  slightly  exceeds  (by  about  a  line) 
the  transverse  diameter.  The  radius  of  the  posterior 
or  sclerotic  segment  is  about  -j^ths,  and  that  of  the 
anterior  segment  about  ^ths  of  an  inch. 

When  the  eyes  are  in  a  state  of  repose,  their 
antero-posterior  axes  are  parallel ;  the  optic  nerves, 
on  the  other  hand,  diverge  considerably  from  their 
conmiissure  within  the  cavity  of  the  skull  to  the 
point  where  they  enter  the  globe  ;  consequently, 
their  direction  does  not  couicide  with  that  of  the 
eye.  Each  nerve  enters  the  back  of  the  globe  at  a 
distance  of  about  |th  of  an  inch  on  the  inner  side  of 
the  antero-posterior  axis  of  the  eye. 

The  eyeball  is  composed  of  several  investing 
membranes,  and  of  certain  transparent  structures, 
which  are  enclosed  within  them,  and  which,  together 
with  the  cornea  (one*of  the  membranes),  act  as 


« 


Fig.  1. 

A  longitudinal  section  of  the  coats  of  the  eye. 
/>,  the  nc.eiolic,  thicker  behind  than  in  front;  2,  the  cornea; 
8,  the  choroid;  6,  the  iiis;  7,  the  pupil;  8,  the  retina; 
IC,,  the  anterior  chamber  of  the  eye;  11,  the  posterior 
ei.dinber ;  12,  the  crystalline  lens,  enclosed  in  its  capsule; 
18,  the  vitreous  humour,  enclosed  in  the  hyaloid  membrane, 
and  in  cells  formed  in  its  interior  by  that  membrane;  15, 
the  sheath ;  and  16,  the  inferior  of  the  optic  nerve,  in  the 
centre  of  which  is  a  small  artery.  (The  other  numbers  in 
the  figure  refer  tc  parts  not  noticed  in  this  article.) 

refractive  media  of  various  densities  upon  the  rays 
of  light  which  enter  the  eye. 

The  outermost  coat  of  the  eye  is  the  sclerotic 
(from  skleros,  hard).  It  is  a  strong,  dense,  white, 
fibrous  structure,  covering  about  four-fifths  of  the 
eyeball,  and  leaving  a  circular  deficiency  anteriorly, 
which  is  occupied  by  the  cornea,  Posteriorly,  it  is 
202 


perforated  by  the  optic  nerve,  and  it  is  there  contlriu- 
ous  with  the  sheath  which  that  nerve  derives  from 
the  dura  mater,  the  fibrous  investment  of  the  brain 
and  spinal  cord.  Near  the  entrance  of  the  ner\  e,  its 
thickness  is  about  ^jfth.  of  an  inch  >^  from  this  it 
diminishes  to  about  -i^th. ;  but  in  front  it  again 
becomes  thicker,  from  the  tendinous  insertions  of  the 
straight  muscles  which  blend  with  it.  Thib  coat, 
by  its  great  strength  and  comparatively  unyielding 
structure,  maintains  the  enclosed  parts  in  their  proper 
form,  and  serves  to  protect  them  from  external 
injuries 

The  c  wnea  (so  called  from  its  homy  appearance)  ia 
a  transparent  structure,  filling  up  the  apei'turc^  left  in 
the  anterior  part  of  the  sclerotic.  Its  circumference 
is  overlaid  by  the  free  edge  of  the  sclerotic:,  which 
in  some  parts  presents  a  groove,  so  as  to  retain  it 
more  firmly ;  and  the  connection  by  continuity  of 
texture  between  the  two  structures  its  so  close,  that 
they  cannot  be  separated  in  the  dead  body  v/ithout 
considerable  maceration. 

The  cornea,  in  consequence  of  its  greater  con- 
vexity, projects  beyond  the  line  of  the  solerotic  ;  the 
degree  of  convexity,  however,  varies  in  different 
persons,  and  at  different  periods  of  life.  It  is  thicker 
than  any  part  of  the  sclerotic,  and  so  strong  as  to 
be  able  to  resist  a  force  capable  of  r  apturing  that 
tunic. 

Although  beautifully  transparent,  and  appearing 
to  be  homogeneous,  it  is  in  reality  coiiposed  of  five 
layers,  clearly  distinguishable  from  one  another — 
viz.  (proceeding  from  the  front  backwards,  1.  The 
conjunctival  layer  of  epithelium.  It  is  in  this 
epithehum  that  particles  of  iron,  stone,  &c.,  forcibly 
driven  against  the  eye,  usually  lodge,  and  it  is  a 
highly  sensitive  membrane.  2.  The  anterior  elastic 
lamina  forming  the  anterior  boundary  of  the  cornea 
proper ;  it  is  not  more  than  -^TrW^li  of  an  inch 
in  thickness ;  and  its  function  seems  to  be  that 
of  maintaining  the  exact  curvature  of  the  front 
of  the  cornea.  3.  The  cornea  proper,  on  which 
the  thickness  and  strength  of  the  cornea  mainly 
depend.  4.  The  posterior  elastic  lamina,  which  ia 
an  extremely  thin  membrane,  in  which  no  stinjcture 
can  be  detected.  It  probably  contributes,  like  the 
anterior  lamina,  to  the  exact  maintenance  of  the 
curvature  of  the  cornea,  so  necessary  for  correct 
vision.  5.  The  posterior  epithelium  of  the 
aqueous  humour,  which  is  probably  concerned  in 
the  secretion  of  that  fiuid. 

For  further  details  regarding  these  different 
layers,  we  must  refer  to  Todd  and  Bowman's 
Physiological  Anatovnj,  vol.  ii.  pp.  17 — 21. 

The  choroid  coat  is  a  dark-coloured  vascidar 
membrane,  which  is  brought  into  view  on  the 
removal  of  the  sclerotic.  Its  outer  surface,  which 
is  nearly  black,  is  loosely  connected  with  the 
sclerotic  by  connective  tissue,  in  which  are  con- 
tained certain  nerves  and  vessels — termed  the  ciliary 
nerves  and  vessels — which  go  to  the  iris.  Its  inner 
sur'ace  is  soft,  villous,  and  dark-coloured.  In 
front,  it  is  attached  to  the  membrane  of  the  vitreous 
humour  (see  fig.  3)  by  means  of  the  ciliary  processes, 
which  consist  of  about  sixty  or  seventy  radiating 
folds.  These  are  alternately  long  and  short,  and 
each  of  them  is  terminated  by  a  small  free  interior 
extremity ;  and  they  are  lodged  in  corresponduig 
folds  in  the  membrane  of  the  vitreous  humour.  In 
other  parts,  it  is  loosely  comiected  with  the  retin.'u 
The  choroid  is  composed  of  minute  ramifications 
of  vessels — especially  of  veins,  which,  from  their 
whirl-like  arrangement,  are  termed  vasa  vorticosa 
— of  connective  tissue,  and  of  pigment  cells,  which 
usually  approximate  to  the  hexagonal  form,  and  are 
about  -nrjnr^li  of  mch.  in  diameter.  In  albinos, 
this  pigment  is  absent,  and  hence  their  eyes  have  a 


EYE. 


pink  appearance,  wliich  is  due  to  the  unconcealed 
blood  in  the  capillaries  of  the  choroid  and  iris. 


Fig.  2. 

Choroid  and  iris,  exposed  b}'  turning  aside  the  sclerotic. 
e,c,  ciliary  nerves  going  to  be  distributed  in  iris;  d,  d,  smaller 
ciliary  nerves ;  e,e,  veins  known  as  rasa  vorticosa;  /),  ciliary 
ligament  and  muscle ;  k,  I,  converging  fibres  of  iris ;  o,  optic 
nerve. 

The  iris  may  be  regarded  as  a  process  of  the 
choroid,  with  which  it  is  continuous,  although  there 
are  differences  of  structure  in  the  two  membranes. 


Fig.  3. 

The  iris  and  adjacent  structures  seen  from  behind. 
1,  the  divided  edge  of  the  three  coats,  the  choroid  being  the 
dark  intermediate  one;  2,  the  pupil ;  3,  the  posterior  surface 
of  the  iris  ;  4,  the  ciliary  processes ;  5,  the  scalloped  anterior 
border  of  the  retina. 

It  is  a  thin  flat  membranous  curtain,  hanging  ver- 
tically in  the  aqueous  humour  in  front  of  the  lens, 
and  perforated  by  the  pupil  for  the  transmission  of 
liglit.  It  divides  the  space  between  the  cornea  and 
th3  lens  into  an  anterior  (the  larger)  and  a  posterior 
{the  smaller)  chamber,  these  two  chambers  freely 
oonmmnicating  through  the  pupil  (see  fig.  1).  The 
outer  and  larger  border  is  attached  all  round  to  the 
line  of  junction  of  the  sclerotic  and  cornea,  while 
the  inner  edge  forms  the  boundary  of  the  pupil, 
which  is  nearly  circular,  lies  a  little  to  the  inner 
side  of  the  centre  of  the  iris,  and  varies  in  size 
according  to  the  action  of  the  muscular  fibres  of 
the  iris,  so  as  to  admit  more  or  less  light  into 
the  interior  of  the  eyeball ;  its  diameter  varying, 
nnder  these  circumstances,  from  about  -^d  to  -irijth 
of  an  inch.  It  is  muscular  in  its  structure,  one 
fct  of  fibrt\j  being  arranged  circularly  round  the 


I)upil,  and,  when  necessary,  effecting  its  cent  action, 
while  another  set  lie  in  a  radiating  direction  from 
within  outwards,  and  by  their  action  dilate  the  pupiL 
These  fibres  are  of  the  unstripcd  or  in/oluntary  vari-' 
ety.  The  nerves  which  are  concerned  in  these  movfr 
nicnts  will  he  presently  noticed. 

The  varieties  of  colour  m  the  eyes  of  different 
individuals,  and  of  different  kinds  of  animals, 
mainly  depend  upon  the  colour  of  the  ;)igment 
which  is  deposited  in  cells  in  the  subs'<;anr'e  of 
the  iris. 

Within  the  choroid  is  the  retina,  which,  vJthough 
continuous  with  the  optic  nerve— of  whi  ;h  it  ia 
usually  regarded  as  a  cuplike  expansioi  — (bffers 
very  materially  from  it  in  structure.  Before 
noticing  the  elaborate  comi)osition  of  Ihiii  part  of 
the  eye,  which  has  only  l)eeu  revealed  bj)  recent 
microscopical  investigation,  we  shall  briefly  mention 
those  points  regarding  it  which  can  be  established 
by  ordinary  examination.  It  is  a  d';licate  semi- 
transparent  sheet  of  nervous  matter,  lying  imme- 
diately behind  the  vitreous  humour,  and  extending 
from  the  optic  nerve  nearly  as  far  as  the  lens.  On 
examining  the  concave  inner  surface  of  the  retina  at 
the  back  of  the  eye,  we  observe,  directly  in  a  line 
with  the  axis  of  the  globe,  a  circidar  yellow  spot 
[limhus  luteus),  of  about  -j^tli  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
called,  after  its  discoverer,  the  yellow  spot  of  Som- 
merhig.  As  there  has  been  much  discussion  regarding 
the  structiu-e  and  function  of  this  spot,  we  ma^r 
observe  that  Dr  Todd 
and  Mr  Bowman,  two  of 
our  most  eminent  English 
microscopists,  after  seve- 
ral examinations,  regard 
it  as  a  small  mound  or 
projection  of  the  retina 
towards  the  ^dtreous 
humour,  with  a  minute 
aperture  in  the  summit. 
The  only  mammals  in 
which  it  exists  are  man 
and  the  monkey.  Its  use 
is  imknown,  but  vision 
is  remarkably  perfect  at 
this  spot — a  circumstance 
v/hich,  however,  may  pos- 
sibly be  accoimted  for  by 
the  fact,  that  it  is  singu- 
larly free  from  blood- 
vessels, which  curve 
round  it,  and  apparently 
avoid  it. 

The  structure  of  the 
retina,  as  revealed  by 
the  microscope,  is  in  the 
highest  degree  remark- 
able. Although  its  great- 
est thickness  (at  the 
entrance  of  the  optic 
nerve)  is  only  about  y^^jth 
of  an  inch,  and  as  it 

extends  anteriorly,  it  soon  ^  vertical  section  of  the  humca 

retina. 

the  layer  of  rods  and  conet 
(Jacob's  membrane) ;  3,  the 
external  granular  layer ;  3, 
the  intervening  layer  between 
2  and  4,  the  internal  granular 
layer ;  5,  finer  granular  layer; 
6,  layer  of  nerve-cells;  7, 
fibres'  of  the  optic  nerve;  8, 
limitary  membrane. 


inch,  the  following  layers 
from  without  inwards 
may  be  distinguished  in 
all  parts  of  it.  (1.)  The 
layer  of  rods  and  conjs, 
freqiiently  termed,  from 
its  discoverer,  the  m'm 
brane  of  Jacob ;  (2.)  Ta- 
granular  layer,  including  the  parts  indicated  by 
2,  3,  4,  5,  in  the  figure  ;  (3.)  The  layer  of  gray  nerve 
substance;  (4.)  The  expansion  of  the  optic  nerve; 
and  (5.)  The  limitary  membrane.     These  varioni 

203 


EYE. 


Btructurefi  are  shown  in  fig.  4,  which  is  copied  from 
Kolliker  and  Midler's  memoir  on  the  structure  of 
the  retina.  Details  regarding  the  nature  of  these 
•various  layers  are  given  in  Kulliker's  Manual  of 
Human  Histoloyi^  i^ntl  in  Todd  and  Bowman, 
op.  cit. 

It  now  remains  for  us  to  describe  the  transparent 
media  which  occupy  the  interior  of  the  globe,  and 
through  which  the  rays  of  light  must  pass  before 
they  can  reach  the  retina,  and  form  on  it  the  images 
of  external  objects.  We  shall  consider  them  in  the 
order  in  which  the  rays  of  light  strike  them. 

Immediately  behind  the  transparent  cornea  is  the 
aqueous  humour  which  lills  up  the  anterior  and 
posterior  chambers  which  lie  between  the  cornea 
and  the  lens.  As  its  name  implies,  it  is  very  nearly 
pure  water,  with  a  mere  ti-ace  of  albumen  and 
chloride  of  sodium.  As  no  epithelium  exists  in 
fi'ont  of  the  iris,  or  on  the  anterior  surface  of  the 
lens,  it  is  most  probably  secreted  by  the  cells  on 
the  posterior  surface  of  the  cornea. 

The  crystalline  lens  lies  opposite  to  and  behind 
the  pupil,  almost  close  to  the  iris,  and  its  posterior 
Burface  is  received  into  a  corresponding  depres- 
Bion  on  the  forepart  of  the  Aatreous  humour  (see 
fig.  1).  In  form,  it  is  a  double-convex  lens,  with 
surfaces  of  unequal  curvature,  the  posterior  being 
the  most  convex.  It  is  enclosed  in  a  transparent 
capsule,  of  which  the  part  covering  the  anterior 
Bm-face  is  nearly  four  times  thicker  than  that  at 
the  posterior  aspect,  in  consequence,  doubtless,  of 
greater  strength  being  required  in  front,  where 
there  is  no  support,  than  behind,  where  the  lens  is 
adherent  to  the  vitreous  meml)rane.  The  micros- 
copic examination  of  the  substance  or  body  of  the 
lens  reveals  a  structiure  of  wonderfid  beauty.  Its 
whole  mass  is  composed  of  extremely  minute  elon- 
gated ribbon-like  structures,  commonly  called  the 
fibres  of  the  lens,  which  are  regarded  by  Kolliker  as 
thin-ioalled  tubes,  with  clear,  albuminous  contents. 
These  fibres  are  arranged  side  by  side  in  lamelljB,  of 
which  many  hundred  exist  in  every  lens,  and  which 
we  so  placed  as  to  give  to  the  anterior  and  posterior 
Burfaces  the  appearance  of  a  central  star,  with 
meridian  lines. 

The  lens  gradually  increases  in  density,  and,  at 
the  same  time,  in  refracting  power,  towards  the 
centre ;  by  this  means,  the  convergence  of  the 
central  rays  is  increased,  and  they  are  brought  to  the 
6ame  focus  as  the  rays  passing  through  the  more 
circumferential  portions  of  the  lens.  (According 
to  Brewster,  the  refracting  power  at  the  surface  is 
1-37Q7,  and  at  the  centre  1-3990.) 

According  to  Berzelius,  the  lens  contains  58  per 
cent,  of  water,  36  of  albumen,  with  minute  quan- 
tities of  salts,  membrane,  &c.  In  consequence  of  the 
albumen,  it  becomes  hard  and  opaque  on  boiling,  as 
We  familiarly  see  in  the  case  of  the  eyes  of  boiled 
fish.  In  the  adult,  its  long  diameter  ranges  from 
^d  to  |ths,  and  its  antero- posterior  diameter  from 
|th  to  ^th  of  an  inch ;  and  it  weighs  three  or  four 
grains. 

The  vitreous  humour  lies  in  the  concavity  of  the 
letina,  and  occupies  about  four-fifths  of  the  eye  pos- 
teriorly. Its  form  is  shewn  in  lig.  1.  It  is  enclosed 
in  the  hyaloid  membrane,  which  sends  nimierous 
processes  inwards,  so  as  to  divide  the  cavity  into 
a  series  of  com])artments,  and  thus  to  equalise  the 
pressure  exerted  by  the  enclosed  soft  gelatinous 
mass.  Between  the  anterior  border  of  the  retina 
and  the  border  of  the  lens,  we  have  a  series  of  radi- 
ating folds  or  plaitings  termed  the  ciliary  processes 
of  the  vitreous  body,  into  which  the  ciliary  processes  of 
the  choroid  dove-tail.  The  vitreous  humour  contains, 
according  to  Berzelius,  98  4  per  cent,  of  water,  with 
A  trace  of  albumen  iiud  salts,  and  hence,  as  might 

204 


be  expected,  its  refractive  index  is  almost  identical 
with  that  of  water. 

The  appendages  of  the  eye  now  claim  our  notice. 
The  most  important  of  these  appendages  are  the 
muscles  within  the  orbit,  the  eyelids,  the  lachrymal 
apparatus,  and  the  conjunctiva,  to  which  (although 
less  important)  we  may  b,dd  the  eyebrows. 

The  muscles  by  which  the  eye  is  moved  are  four 
straight  (or  recti)  muscles,  and  two  oblique  (the 
superior  and  inferior).  The  former  arise  from  the 
margin  of  the  optic  foramen  at  the  apex  of  the  orbit 
and  are  inserted  into  the  sclerotic  near  the  cornea^ 
above,  below,  and  on  either  side.  The  superioir 
oblique  arises  with  the  straight  muscles ;  but  after 
running  to  the  uj)per  edge  of  the  orbit,  has  its 


Fig.  5. 

The  muscles  of  the  eyeball,  the  view  being  taken  from  the 
outer  side  of  the  rl{?ht  orbit. 

1,  a  small  frag:nient  of  the  sphenoid  bone  at  the  back  of  the 
orb-!.,  containin,?  the  foramen,  throuph  wliich,  2,  the  optio 
nerve  passes ;  3,  the  plobe  of  the  eye  ;  4,  the  levator  palpebree 
muscle;  5,  the  superior  oblique  nriuscle ;  6,  its  cartilaginous 
puUej'.  attached  to  the  upper  edge  of  the  orbit;  7,  its  reflected 
tendon;  8,  t1ie  inferior  oblique  muscle,  the  little  knob  near 
the  figure  8  being  a  detached  fragment  of  the  superior  max- 
illary bone,  from  -wliich  it  arises;  9,  the  superior  rectus; 

10,  the  internal  rectu'^,  partly  concealed  by  the  optic  nerve ; 

11,  12,  the  two  ends  of  the  external  rectus,  the  intermediate 
portion  having  heen  removed;  13,  the  inferior  rectus;  14, 
the  tunica  albuginea,  formed  by  the  expansion  of  the  tendons 
of  the  four  recti  muscles. 

direction  changed  by  a  pulley,  and  proceeds  back- 
wards, outwards,  and  downwards  (see  fig.  5).  The 
inferior  oblique  arises  from  the  lower  part  of  the 
orbit,  and  passes  backwards,  outwards,  and  upwards. 
The  action  of  the  straight  muscles  is  sufficiently 
obvious  from  their  direction  :  when  acting  collec- 
tively, they  fix  and  retract  the  eye ;  and  when 
acting  singly,  they  turn  it  towards  their  respective 
sides.  The  oblique  muscles  antagonise  the  recti, 
and  draw  the  eye  forwards  ;  the  superior,  acting 
above,  directs  the  front  of  the  eye  downwards  ana 
outwards,  and  the  inferior  upwards  and  inwards. 
By  the  duly  associated  action  of  these  muscles, 
the  eye  is  enabled  to  move  (within  definite  limits)  ia 
every  direction. 

The  eyelids  are  two  thin  movable  folds  placed  in 
front  of  the  eye,  to  shield  it  from  too  strong  light, 
and  to  protect  its  anterior  surface.  They  are  com- 
posed of  (1)  skin ;  (2)  of  a  thin  plate  of  fibro-cartilage, 
termed  the  tarsal  cartilage,  the  inner  surface  o£ 
which  is  grooved  by  thirty  or  forty  parallel  vertical 
lines,  in  which  the  Meibomian  glands  are  imbedded ; 
and  (3)  of  a  layer  of  mucous  membrane,  continuous, 
as  we  shall  presentl}''  see,  with  that  which  lines  the 
nostrils,  and  which  joins  the  skin  at  the  margin  of 
the  lids,  in  which  the  eyelashes  (cilia)  are  arranged 
in  two  or  more  rows.  The  upper  lid  is  much  the 
larger ;  and  to  the  posterior  border  of  its  cartilage, 
a  special  muscle  is  attached,  termed  the  levator 
palpebrce  superioris,  whose  object  is  to  elevate 
the  lid,  arrd  thus  open  the  eye ;  while  there  is 
another  muscle,  the  orbicidaris  palpebrarum,  which 
surrounds  the  orbit  and  eyelids,  and  by  its  con- 
traction closes  the  eye.  The  Meibomian  glands 
secrete  a  sebaceous  matter  which  facilitates  the  free 


EYE. 


motion  of  the  lids,  and  prevents  their  adhesion. 
The  eyelashes  intercept  the  entrance  of  foreign 


The  appendages  of  the  eye. 
1,  the  cartllag'e  of  the  upper  eyelid  ;  2,  its  lower  border,  shewing 
the  openings  of  the  Meibomian  glands  ;  3,  the  cartilage  of  the 
lower  eyelid,  also  shewing  on  its  border  the  openings  of  the 
Meibomian  glands;  4,  5,  the  lachrymal  gland ;  6,  its  ducts; 
7,  the  plica  semilunaris;  8,  the  caiuncula  lachrymalis ;  9, 
the  puncta  lachrymalia,  openiny;  into  the  lachrymal  canals ; 
10,  11,  the  superior  and  inferior  lachrymal  canals;  li,  the 
lachrymal  sac ;  13,  the  nasal  duct,  terminating  at  14  in  the 
lower  meatus  of  the  nose. 

particles  directed  against  the  eye,  and  assist  in 
shading  that  organ  from  an  excess  of  light. 

The  lachrymal  apparatns  consists  of  the  lach- 
rynaal  gland,  by  which  tlie  tears  are  secreted  ;  two 
canals,  into  which  the  tears  are  received  near  the 
inner  angle  of  the  eye  ;  the  sac,  into  which  these 
canals  open  ;  and  the  duct,  through  which  the  tears 
pass  from  the  sac  into  the  nose.  The  gland  is  an 
oblong  body,  about  the  size  of  a  small  almond, 
lying  in  a  depression  in  the  upper  and  outer  part  of 
the  orbit.  The  fluid  secreted  by  it  reaches  the 
surface  of  the  eye  by  seven  or  eight  ducts,  which 
open  on  the  conjunctiva  at  its  upper  and  outer  part. 
The  constant  motion  of  the  upper  eyelid  induces  a 
continuous  gentle  current  of  tears  over  the  surface, 
which  cany  away  any  foreign  particle  that  may 
have  been  deposited  on  it.  The  fluid  then  passes 
through  two  small  openings,  termed  the  puncta 
lacrymalia  (see  9  in  fig.  6),  into  the  canals ;  whence 
its  further  course  into  the  lower  portion  of  the  nose 
is  sufhciently  obvious  from  the  figure.  The  conjunc- 
tiva (or  mucous  coat)  which  covers  the  front  of 
the  ej'eball,  and  lines  the  inner  surface  of  the  lids, 
passes  down  and  lines  the  canals,  sac,  and  duct ; 
and  is  thus  seen  to  be  continuous  "with  the  nasal 
mucous  membrane,  of  which  it  may  be  regarded  as 
an  offshoot  or  digital  prolongation.  See  Mucous 
Membrane. 

'         We  shall  conclude  this  sketch  of  the  anatomy  of 
i     the  human  eye  by  a  brief  notice  of  the  nerves  going 
[     to  this  organ  and  its  appendages. 
I        Into  each  orbit  there  enters  a  nerve  of  special 
tense — viz.,  the  optic  nerve,  a  nerve  of  ordinary 
aensation — viz.,  the  ophthalmic  branch  of  the  fifth 
I     nerve,  and  certain  nerves  of  motion  going  to  the 
[     muscular  tissues,  and  regulating  the  movements  of 
i     the  vaiious  parts — viz.,  the  third,  fourth,  and  sixth 
nerves. 

As  the  optic  tracts  from  which  the  optic  nerves 
originate  are  noticed  in  the  article  Brain,  we 
shall  merely  trace  these  nerves  from  their  chiasma 
I  or  commissure  forwards.  This  commissure  results 
I  <rom  the  junction  of  the  optic  tracts  of  the  two 
sides ;  and  it  is  especially  remarkable  for  the  fact, 
that  it  presents  a  partial  decussation  of  the  nervous 
fibres ;  the  central  fibres  of  each  tract  passing  into 
the  nerve  of  the  opposite  side,  and  crossing  the 
corresponding  fibres  of  the  other  tract,  while  the 
outermost  fibres,  which  are  much  fewer  in  number 


than  the  central  ones,  pass  to  the  optic  nerve  of  the 
same  side.  In  front  of  the  commissure,  the  nerved 
enter  the  optic  foramen  at  the  apex  of  the  orbit, 
receive  a  sheath  or  investment  from  the  dura  mater^ 
acqtiire  increased  firmness,  and  finally  terminate 
in  the  retina. 

The  x)eculiar  mode  of  termination  of  the  optic 
nerves  in  the  cu])like  expansion  of  the  retina,  the 
impairment  or  loss  of  vision  which  follows  any 
morbid  affection  of  them,  and  the  constant  relation 
in  size  which  is  observed  in  comparative  anatomy 
between  them  and  the  organs  of  vision,  afford  suffi- 
cient evidence  that  they  are  the  proper  conductora 
of  visual  impressions  to  the  sensorium. 

The  first  or  ophthalmic  division  of  the  fifth  or 
trifacial  nerve  sends  branches  to  the  skin  of  the 
eyelids  and  to  the  conjimctiva.  That  it  is  the 
nerve  of  ordinary  sensation  of  the  eye,  is  sufficiently 
obvious  from  the  following  facts:  (1)  That  in 
disease  of  this  nerve  in  the  human  sui)ject,  it  ia 
not  uncommon  to  find  the  eyeball  totally  insensible 
to  every  kind  of  stimidus  (particles  of  dust,  pungent 
vapours,  &c.) ;  and  (2)  that  if  the  nerve  be  divided 
in  the  cranium  (in  one  of  the  lower  animals),  similar 
insensibility  results. 

The  most  important  of  the  nerves  of  motion  of  the 
eye  is  the  third  nerve,  or  motor  ocuU.  It  sui)phea 
with  motor  power  the  elevator  of  the  upper  eye- 
lid, and  all  the  muscles  of  the  globe,  except  the 
superior  oblique  and  the  external  straight  muscle, 
and,  in  addition  to  this,  it  sends  filaments  to  the 
iris  and  other  muscular  fibres  within  the  eye.  The 
application  of  an  irritant  (in  vivisection  experi- 
ments) to  its  trunk  induces  convadsive  contraction 
of  the  principal  muscles  of  the  ball  and  of  the  iris ; 
while  division  of  the  trunk  occasions  an  external 
squint,  with  palsy  of  the  upper  eyelid  and  fixed 
dilatation  of  the  pupil.  The  squint  is  caused  by 
the  action  of  the  external  straight  and  the  superioi 
oblique  muscles,  while  the  other  muscles  are  para- 
lysed by  the  operation.  The  normal  motor  action 
of  the  nerve  upon  the  iris,  in  causing  contraction  of 
the  pupil,  is  excited  through  the  optic  nerve,  and 
affords  a  good  illustration  of  Eejlex  Action  (q.  v.) ; 
the  stimulus  of  light  falling  upon  the  retina,  and, 
through  it,  exciting  that  portion  of  the  brain  from 
which  the  third  nerve  takes  its  origin.  This  nerve 
clearly  exerts  a  double  influence  in  relation  to  vision : 
(1)  it  mainly  controls  the  movements  of  the  eyeball 
and  the  upper  eyelid ;  and  (2)  from  its  connection 
with  the  muscular  stmctirres  in  the  interior,  it 
regulates  the  amount  of  light  that  can  enter  the 
pupil,  and  probably  takes  part  in  the  adjusting 
power  of  the  eye  to  various  distances. 

The  fourth  nerve  supplies  the  superior  oblique 
muscle  with  motor  power,  while  the  sixth  nerve 
similarly  regulates  the  movements  of  the  external 
straight  muscle — the  only  two  muscles  in  the  orbit 
which  are  not  supplied  by  the  third  pair. 

Although  not  entitled  to  be  termed  a  nerve  of  the 
orbit,  the  facial  nerve  deserves  mention  as  sending  a 
motor  branch  to  the  orbicularis  muscle,  by  which  9i« 
eye  is  closed. 

2.  Comparative  Anatomy  of  the  Eye. — In  mammcdSy 
the  structure  of  the  eye  is  usually  almost  identical 
with  that  of  man.  Tne  organ  is,  however,  occa- 
sionally modified,  so  as  to  meet  the  peculiar  wanta 
of  the  animaL  Thus,  in  the  Cetacea,  and  in  the 
ar  iphibious  Camivora  that  catch  their  prey  in  the 
water,  the  shape  of  the  lens  is  nearly  spherical,  as  in 
fishes,  and  there  is  a  similar  thickening  of  tho  pos- 
terior part  of  the  sclerotic,  so  as  to  thrust  the  retina 
suflBiciently  forward  to  receive  the  image  formed  by 
such  a  lens.  (See  the  subsequent  remarks  on  the  eyes 
of  fishes.)  Again,  instead  of  the  dark-brown  or  black 
pigment  which  lines  the  human  choroid,  a  pigment 


EYE. 


ct  a  brilliant  metallic  lustre  is  secreted  in  many  of 
tho  carnivora,  forming  the  so-called  tapetum  lucidum 
at  the  hottom  of  the  eyeball,  which  seems  (according 
to  Bowmat))  to  act  as  a  concave  reflector,  causing  the 
rays  of  light  to  traverse  the  retina  a  second  time, 
and  thus  probably  increasing  the  visual  power, 
particularly  where  only  a  feeble  light  is  admitted  to 
the  eye.  The  pupil,  moreover,  varies  in  form,  being 
transversely  oblong  in  the  lluminants  and  many 
other  Herbivora,  and  vertically  oblong  in  the  smaller 
genera  of  Cats.  These  shapes  are  apparently  con- 
nected with  the  positions  in  which  the  different 
animals  look  for  their  food.  Lastly,  in  some  mam- 
mals (for  example,  the  horse),  there  is  a  rudimentary 
third  eyelid,  corresponding  to  the  mevihrana  nictitatis 
of  birds. 

In  birds,  the  eye,  though  presenting  the  same 
general  composition  as  in  man,  differs  from  the  mam- 
malian eye  in  several  important  i)oints.  From  om- 
knowledge  of  the  habits  of  birds  (especially  birds  of 
prey),  we  should  naturally  expect  that  from  their 
rapid  movements  they  should  be  able  readily  to  alter 
the  focus  between  tlae  extremes  of  long  and  short 
sighted  vision,  and  the  modifications  we  shall  now 
proceed  to  notice  clearly  have  this  object  in  view. 

Tn  reference  to  the  figure,  which  represents  a 


Fig,  7.— Eye  of  Bird. 


Rection  of  the  eye  cf  the  owl,  we  see  (1)  that  the  shape 
of  the  organ  is  not  gpherical,  as  in  mammals,  nor 
flattened  anteriorly,  as  jn  fishes  and  aquatic  reptiles, 
but  that  the  cornea  is  very  prominent,  and  the 
antero-posterior  diameter  lengthened ;  the  conse- 
quence of  this  arrangement  being  to  allow  room  for 
a  large  quantity  of  aqueous  humour,  and  to  increase 
the  distance  between  the  lens  and  the  posterior  part 
of  the  retina,  and  thus  to  produce  a  greater  conver- 
gence of  the  rays  of  light,  by  whic)i  the  animal  is 
enabled  to  discern  near  objects,  and  to  ^ee  with  a 
faint  light.  In  order  to  retain  this  elongated  form, 
we  find  a  series  of  bony  plates,  forming  a  broad  zone, 
extending  backwards  from  the  margin  of  the  cornea, 
and  lying  embedded  in  the  sclerotic.  The  edges  of 
the  pieces  forming  this  bony  zone  overlap  each  other, 
and  are  slightly  movable,  and  hence,  when  they  are 
compressed  by  the  action  of  the  muscles  of  the  ball, 
there  is  protrusion  of  the  aqueous  humour  and  of 
the  cornea,  adapting  the  eye  for  near  vision ;  while 
relaxation  of  the  muscles  induces  a  corresponding 
recession  of  the  humour  and  flattening  of  the  cornea, 
and  fits  the  eye  for  distant  vision.  The  focal  distance 
is  further  regulated  by  a  highly  vascular  organ  called 
the  marsupium,  or  pecten,  which  is  lodged  in  the 
posterior  part  of  the  vitreous  humour  (fig.  7,  a).  It 
is  attached  to  the  optic  nerve  at  the  point  where  it 
expands  into  the  retina,  and  seems  to  be  endowed  with 
a  power  of  dilatation  and  contraction ;  as  it  enlarges, 
from  distension  of  its  blood-vessels,  it  causes  the 
vitreous  humour  to  push  the  lens  forwards,  while,  as 
it  collapses,  the  lens  faUs  backwards  again  towards 
the  retina. 
206 


In  addition  to  an  upper  and  lower  eyelid,  birda 
I  have  an  elastic  fold  of  conjunctiva,  which,  in  a  state 
of  repose,  lies  in  the  inner  angle  of  the  eye,  but  ia 
movable  by  two  distinct  muscles,  which  draw  it  over 
the  cornea.  It  is  termed  the  membrana  nictitans;  i% 
is  to  a  certain  degree  transparent,  for  (according  to 
Cuvier)  birds  sometimes  look  through  it,  as,  for 
example,  the  eagle  when  looking  at  the  sun.  The 
lachrymal  gland  is  situated  as  in  mammals,  but  there 
is  here  a  second  gland,  the  glandnla  Ilarderi,  which 
yields  a  lubricating  secretion. 

There  are  no  very  special  peculiarities  in  the  eyes 
of  reptiles,  and  we  therefore  proceed  to  notice  the 
most  remarkable  points  presented  by  the  eye  in 
Jishes.    From  the  comparatively  great  density  of 


Fig.  8.— Eye  of  Fish. 


the  medium  (water)  through  which  the  rays  of  lignt 
pass  before  they  impinge  upon  the  transparent  struc- 
ture of  the  eye  of  the  fish,  it  is  obvious  that  this 
organ  must  act  as  a  very  powerful  refractive  appa- 
ratus. The  main  peculiarity  in  the  eyq  of  the  fish  ia 
the  size,  extreme  density,  and  spherical  shape  of  the 
lens,  which  give  it  such  an  extraordinary  magnifying 
2)ower  that  it  has  been  employed  as  a  simple  micro- 
scope. See  Brewster's  Treatise  on  the  Microscope, 
p.  31.  But  its  focus  being  shortened  in  proportion 
as  its  power  is  increased,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
retina  shotdd  be  brought  near  its  posterior  surface. 
For  this  purpose,  the  eyeball  is  flattened  by  diminish- 
ing the  quantity  of  vitreous  humour,  which,  being  of 
nearly  the  same  density  as  the  external  water,  exerta 
no  percei^tible  power  in  bringing  the  rays  cf  light 
towards  a  focus ;  and  thi«  flattened  form  is  main- 
tained by  the  existence  of  two  cartilaginous  plates 
in  the  tissue  of  the  sclerotic,  which  in  some  of  the 
larger  fishes  is  actually  converted  into  a  bony  cup. 
The  aqueous  humour  having  here  no  refractive  power, 
is  barely  sufficient  to  allow  the  free  suspension  of  the 
iris.  The  pupil  is  very  large,  so  as  to  take  in  as 
much  light  as  possible,  but  is  generally  motionless. 
Their  eyes  being  constantly  washed  by  the  water  in 
which  they  live,  no  lachrymal  apparatus  is  necessary, 
nor  does  any  exist ;  and  the  same  remark  applies  to 
the  ceiacea  amongst  the  mammals.  We  thus  see  that 
throughout  the  sub-kingdom  of  the  vertebrata  the 
eye  is  constructed  according  to  one  general  scheme, 
with  modifications  to  suit  the  mode  of  life  of  indi- 
vidual classes. 

In  all  the  above  cases,  the  structure  of  the  eye  ia 
essentially  the  same ;  that  is  to  say,  we  have  certain 
dioptic  media  for  collecting  the  divergent  rays  to 
their  proper  focus  on  the  retina,  and  we  have  the 
means  of  adjusting  the  eye  for  different  distances. 
But  if  we  examine  the  eyes  of  insects,  we  find  that 
they  are  constructed  on  different  principles. 

In  these  animals  we  have  simple  and  compound  eyes 
usually  associated  in  the  same  individual.  The  simjjle 
eyes  resemble,  in  many  respects,  the  corresponding; 


EYE. 


organs  in  higher  animals,  but  the  compound  eyes 
are  extremely  elaborate  and  complex  in  their 
structure.  They  are  two  in  number,  appearing  as 
hemispheiical  masses  on  the  sides  of  the  head.  When 
examined  with  the  microscope,  their  surface  is  seen 
to  be  divided  into  an  enormous  number  of  hexagonal 
fa-cets,  which  are  in  fact  corneoe.  In  the  ant,  there 
are  only  50  of  these  facets  in  each  eye  ;  in  the  common 
house-fly,  4000  ;  in  butterflies,  upwards  of  17,000 ; 
and  in  some  of  the  beetles  more  than  25,000.  Each 
cornea  is  foimd  to  belong  to  a  distinct  eye,  provided 
with  a  nervous  apparatus,  and  exhibiting  a  lens,  iris, 
and  pupil.  Strauss  Diu-ckheim,  who  has  carefully 
studied  these  structures  in  the  cockchafer,  suggests 
that,  the  eyes  of  insects  being  hxed,  nature  has  made 
up  for  their  want  of  mobility  by  their  number,  and 
by  turning  them  in  all  directions  ;  so  that  it  might 
be  said  that  these  little  animals  have  a  distinct  eye 
for  every  object. 

Compound  eyes  of  similar  structure  occur  in  many 
of  the  crustaceans. 

3.  Having  now  described  the  anatomical  structure 
of  the  eye  in  man  and  certain  of  the  lower  animals, 
we  are  able  to  proceed  to  the  consideration  of  the 
uses  of  the  various  parts  of  this  organ.  Assuming  a 
genei  al  .knowledge  of  the  ordinary  laws  of  geometrical 
optics  (see  Dioptrics,  Lens,  &c.),  we  will  trace  the 
course  of  the  rays  of  light  proceeding  from  any 
luminous  body  through  the  different  media  on  which 
they  impinge.  If  a  luminous  object,  as,  for  example, 
a  lighted  candle,  be  placed  at  about  the  ordinary 
distance  of  distinct  vision  (about  ten  inches)  from 
the  front  of  the  eye,  some  rays  fall  on  the  sclerotic, 
and  being  reflected,  take  no  part  in  vision ;  the 
more  central  ones  fall  upon  the  cornea,  and  of  these 
Bome  also  are  reflected,  giving  to  the  surface  of  the 
eye  its  beautifid  glistening  appearance  ;  while  others 
pass  through  it,  are  converged  by  it,  and  enter  the 
aqueous  humour,  which  probably  exerts  no  percep- 
tible effect  on  their  direction.  Those  which  fall  on 
and  pass  through  the  outer  or  circumferential  part 
of  the  cornea  are  stoi)ped  by  the  iris,  and  are  either 
reflected  or  absorbed  by  it ;  while  those  which  fall 
npon  its  more  central  part  pass  through  the  pupil, 
and  are  concerned  in  vision.  In  consequence  of  its 
?efractive  power,  the  rays  passing  through  a  com- 
paratively large  surface  of  the  cornea  are  converged 
60  as  to  pass  through  the  relatively  small  pupil  and 
impinge  upon  the  lens,  which,  by  the  convexity  of 
its  surface,  and  by  its  greater  density  towards  the 
centre,  very  much  increases  the  convergence  of  the 
rays  passing  through  it.  They  then  traverse  the 
vitreous  humour,  whose  principal  use  a])pears  to  be 
to  aflbrd  support  to  the  expanded  retina,  and  are 
brought  to  a  focus  upon  that  tunic,  forming  there  an 
exact  but  inverted  image  of  the  object. 

This  inversion  of  the  image  may  be  easily  exhi- 
bited in  the  eye  of  a  white  rabbit  or  other  albino 
animal,  after  removing  the  muscles,  &c.,  from  the 
back  part  of  the  globe.  The  flame  of  a  candle  held 
before  the  cornea  may  be  seen  inverted  at  the 
back  of  the  eye,  increasing  in  size  as  the  candle  is 
brought  near,  diminishing  as  it  retires,  and  always 
moving  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  of  the  flame. 

The  adaptation  of  the  eye  to  distinct  vision  at 
every  distance  beyond  that  of  a  few  inches,  is 
fcxtremely  remarkable,  and  numerous  attempts  have 
been  made  to  explain  the  mechanism  by  which  its 
focal  length  admits  of  alteration  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  will.  One  view  that  has  met  with 
much  support  is,  that  the  focal  length  is  modified 
by  a  slight  movement  of  the  lens.  In  the  eye 
of  the  bird  there  is  a  structiire  termed  the  ciliary 
muscle,  which  obviously  approximates  the  lens  to  the 
cornea  when  a  short  field  of  view  is  required,  and 
althou;:h  the  corresponding  structure  is  only  shghtly 


developed  in  man  and  mammals,  it  is  probably 

sufficiently  strong  to  produce  the  slight  action, 
required ;  while  for  the  vision  of  distant  objects 
the  lens  is  carried  back  towards  the  retina  by  the 
elasticity  of  the  connecting  tissues.  It  would  appear, 
however,  from  the  recent  researches  of  Cramer, 
Helmholtz,  Allen  Thomson,  and  others,  that  the 
accommodation  is  efl'ected  rather  by  a  change  in  the 
form  than  in  the  jwsition  of  the  lens.  It  has  been 
experimentally  proved,  that  when  the  eye  is  turned 
from  a  distant  to  a  near  object,  the  antero-posterior 
diameter  of  the  lens  becomes  elongated,  and  the 
anterior  surface  becomes  more  convex,  whiia  the 
opposite  changes  take  place  in  turning  the  eye  from 
a  near  to  a  distant  object.  According  to  H«^mholtz, 
the  radius  of  curvature  of  the  auteiior  suxh-a  of  the 
lens  diminishes  on  turning  the  eye  to  a  near  object 
from  ten  to  six  millimetres  (from  about  0'4  to  0*24  of 
an  inch),  while  the  most  projecting  point  of  the  same 
surface  is  brought  forward  about  0'2  of  an  inch. 

Whichever  view  be  adopted,  the  ciliary  muscle 
takes  an  active  part  in  the  process.  According  to 
the  observations  of  Hueck,  the  focal  distance  may 
be  changed  about  three  times  in  a  second.  The 
accommodation  from  a  near  to  a  distant  object  is 
effected  much  more  rapidly  than  the  converse 
process. 

There  are  two  well-known  forms  of  defective 
vision  in  which  this  power  of  adaptation  is  very 
much  limited — viz.,  short-sightedness  or  myopia^ 
and  long-sightedness  or  presbyopia.  The  limitation, 
however,  is  not  due  to  a  defect  in  the  muscular 
apparatus  to  which  we  have  referred,  but  to  an 
abnormality  either  in  the  curves  or  in  the  density 
of  the  refracting  media.  In  shoi^t-s'ightedness  from 
too  great  a  refractive  power  from  either  cause,  the 
rays  from  objects  at  the  ordinary  range  of  distinct 
vision  are  brought  too  soon  to  a  focus,  so  as  to  cross 
one  another,  and  begin  to  diverge  before  they  faU 
on  the  retina ;  the  eye  in  this  case  being  able  to 
bring  to  the  proper  focus  on  the  retina  only  those 
rays  which  were  previously  diverging  at  a  large 
angle  from  a  very  near  object.  The  correction  for 
this  deficiency  is  accomplished  by  interposing 
between  the  eye  and  indistinctly-seen  objects  a 
concave  lens,  with  a  curvature  just  sufficient  to 
throw  the  images  of  external  objects  at  the  ordinary 
distance  of  distinct  vision  backwards  upon  the 
retina.  In  long-sightedness,  on  the  other  hand,  there 
is  an  abnormal  diminution  of  the  refractive  power 
from  too  flat  a  cornea,  a  deficient  aqueous  humour, 
or  a  flattening  of  the  lens,  so  that  the  focus  ia 
behind  the  retina.  This  defect  is  corrected  by 
convex  lenses,  which  mcrease  the  convergence  of  the 
rays  of  light.  Long-sightedness,  as  its  name  pres- 
byopia  indicates,  usually  comes  on  at  a  comparatively 
advanced  period  of  life,  while  short-sightedness  is 
most  commonly  met  with  in  young  persons ;  but 
both  these  rules  present  occasional  exceptions ;  and 
the  common  belief  that  the  latter  afiection  natur- 
ally disappears  after  the  middle  period  of  life,  ia 
altogether  erroneous. 

We  have  ah-eady  noticed  the  most  essential  use  of 
the  iris — viz.,  its  power,  under  the  influence  of 
light  upon  the  retina,  of  modifying  the  size  of  the 
pupil,  so  as  to  regulate  the  amount  of  light  enteiing 
the  eye.  But  this  is  not  its  only  use ;  one  of  its 
offices  being  to  prevent  the  passage  of  rays  through 
the  circunaferential  part  of  the  lens,  and  thus  to 
obviate  the  indistinctness  of  vision  which  would 
arise  from  spherical  aberration  (the  unequal  refrac- 
tion of  the  Ta,ya  passing  tlirough  the  centre  and 
near  the  margin  of  the  lens),  m  the  same  manner  aa 
the  diaphragms  employed  by  the  optician.  But 
there  are  additionally  two  other  means  by  which 
this  spherical  aberration  is  prevented,  which  so  well 


lUiistmte  the  wondrous  mechanism  of  the  eye,  that 
we  cannot  omit  to  notice  them.  They  are  described 
by  Professor  Wharton  Jones  as  follows  : 

(1.)  *  The  surfaces  of  the  dioptric  parts  of  the  eye  are 
not  spherical,  but  those  of  the  cornea  and  posterior 
sm-face  of  the  lens  are  hyi)erbolical,  and  that  of  the 
anterior  surface  of  the  lens  elliptical — confii^nra- 
tions  found  by  theory  fitted  to  prevent  spherical 
aberration.  This  discovery  was  made  at  a  time 
when  it  was  not  known  but  that  the  dioptric  parts 
oi  the  eye  had  spherical  surfaces. 

(2.)  '  The  density  of  the  lens  diminishing  [as  we 
have  already  shewu]  from  the  centre  to  its  i)eriphery, 
the  circumferential  rays  are  less  refracted  than 
they  would  Lave  been  by  a  homof^eneous  lens  with 
similar  surfaces.  This  elegantly  simple  contrivance 
has  been  hitherto  inimitable  by  human  art.' — The 
Actonian  Prize  Treatise^  1851,  p.  50. 

Chromatic  aberration,  which  is  caused  by  the 
unequal  refrangibility  of  the  primitive  rays  of  which 
white  light  is  composed,  wlien  transmitted  through 
an  ordinary  lens,  whereby  coloured  fringes  are 
produced,  is  practkalln  corrected  in  the  eye,  although 
it  is  doubtful  whether  it  is  entirely  ixh^Qwt.  The  pro- 
vision, however,  on  which  the  achromatism  depends 
has  not  been  determined  with  certainty,  probably 
because  we  do  not  yet  know  the  relative  refi'autive 
and  dispersive  powers  of  the  cornea  and  humours 
of  the  eye.  Sir  David  Brewster  denies  that  the 
chromatic  aberration  receives  any  correction  in  the 
eye,  and  maintains  that  it  is  imperceptible  oidy  in 
consequence  of  its  being  extremely  slight. 

4.  We  have  hitherto  been  considering  the  eye  as 
an  optical  instrument  which  projects  pictures  of 
external  objects  on  the  retina ;  we  now  come  to 
the  action  of  the  nervous  timic,  the  retina,  and  its 
adaptation  to  the  physical  construction  of  the  eye. 

When  the  retina  or  the  optic  nerve  is  stimulated, 
we  have  the  sensation  of  light,  whatever  may  be  the 
nature  of  the  stimidus  employed — as,  for  example,  if 
it  be  a  blow  on  the  eye  in  the  dark,  or  irritation  of 
the  optic  nerve  from  some  morbid  condition.  The 
8f»nsation  of  light,  then,  consists  in  a  recognition  by 
the  mind  of  a  certain  condition  of  these  nervous 
structures,  and  this  condition  may  be  induced  by  the 
application  of  any  stimulus  ;  the  ordinary  stimulus 
obviously  being  the  rays  of  light  which  fall  upon  the 
retina.  There  must,  however,  be  a  certain  amount 
of  light  for  the  purpose  of  vision.  Every  one  knows 
that  it  is  difficult  and  painful  to  discern  objects  in  a 
very  faint  light ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  that  on 
suddenly  entering  a  brilliantly  lighted  room  from 
the  dark,  everything  appears  confused  for  one  or  two 
seconds.  There  is,  however,  a  gradual  adaptation 
of  the  retina  to  different  amounts  of  light.  Persons 
long  immured  in  dark  dungeons  acquhre  the  power 
of  fistinctly  seeing  surrounding  objects ;  while  those 
•rho  suddenly  encounter  a  strong  light,  are  unable 
to  see  distinctly  until  the  shock  which  the  retina 
has  experienced  has  subsided,  ard  the  iris  has  duly 
contracted.  In  protecting  the  retina  from  the  sudden 
effects  of  too  strong  a  light,  the  iris  is  assisted  by 
the  eyelid,«5,  the  orbicular  muscle,  and,  to  a  certain 
extent,  by  the  eyebrows.  Moreover,  the  dark 
pigment  of  the  choroid  coat  acts  as  a  permanent 
guard  to  the  retina,  and  where  it  is  deficient,  as  in 
albinos,  an  ordinary  light  becomes  painful,  and  the 
protective  appendages,  especially  the  eyelids,  are  in 
constant  use. 

The  persistence,  during  a  certain  time,  of  impres- 
sions made  on  the  retina,  facilitates  the  exercise  of 
sight.  A  momentary  impression  of  moderate  inten- 
sity continues  for  a  fraction  of  a  second ;  but  if  the 
impression  be  made  for  a  considerable  time,  it  endures 
for  a  longer  period  after  the  removal  of  the  object. 
Thus,  a  burning  stick,  moved  rapidly  in  a  circle 


before  the  eyes,  gives  the  appearance  of  a  continuous 
ribbon  of  light,  because  the  impression  made  by  it 
at  any  one  point  of  its  course  remains  on  the  retina 
until  it  again  reaches  that  point.  It  is  owing  to 
tliis  property  that  the  rapid  and  involuntary  act  of 
winking  does  not  interfere  with  the  continuous 
vision  of  surrounding  objects  ;  and,  to  give  another 
illustration  of  its  use,  if  we  did  not  possess  it,  the 
act  of  reading  would  be  a  far  more  difficult  perform- 
ance than  it  now  is,  for  we  should  require  to  keep 
the  eye  fixed  on  each  word  for  a  longer  i)eriod, 
otherwise  the  mind  woidd  fail  fully  to  perceive  it. 
Again,  in  consequence  of  the  retention  of  sensations 
by  the  retina,  the  image  of  an  object  may  continue 
to  be  seen,  especially  in  cei-tain  morbid  states  of  the 
system,  and  in  twilight,  for  some  seconds  after  th« 
eyes  have  been  tm-ned  away  from  it,  and  this  jihysi- 
ological  phenomenon  has  probably  given  origin  to 
many  stories  of  ghosts  and  visions.  Thus,  if  a  person 
has  unconsciously  fixed  his  eyes,  especially  in  the 
dusk,  on  a  dark  i)ost  or  stump  of  a  tree,  he  may,  on 
looking  towards  the  gray  sky,  see  projected  there  a 
gigantic  white  image  of  the  object,  which  may 
readily  be  mistaken  for  a  supernatural  appearance. 
These  ocular  spectra  are  always  of  the  comi)le- 
mentary  colour  to  that  of  the  object.  Thus,  the 
spectrum  left  by  a  red  spot  is  green ;  by  a  violet 
spot,  yellow ;  and  by  a  blue  spot,  orange.  Howeve?' 
great  may  be  the  velocity  of  a  luminous  body,  it  can 
always  be  seen ;  but  if  an  opaque  body  move  with 
such  rapidity  as  to  pass  through  a  space  equal  to 
its  own  diameter  in  a  less  time  than  that  of  tha 
duration  of  the  retinal  impression,  it  is  altogether 
invisible ;  and  hence  it  is,  for  example,  that  we  cannot 
see  bullets,  &c.,  in  the  rapid  part  of  their  flight. 

A  small  portion  of  the  retina,  corresponduig  to 
the  entrance  of  the  optic  nerve,  is  incapabj^  oi 
exciting  the  sensation  of  vision  when  it  receives 
the  image  of  an  object.  According  to  Volkmann, 
this  small  in\asible  spot  exactly  con*esponds  in  siz€ 
with  the  artery  lying  in  the  centre  of  the  optic 
nerve.  If  the  '  blind  spot '  had  been  situated  in  the 
axis  of  the  eye,  a  blank  space  wovdd  always  hav€ 
existed  in  the  centre  of  the  field  of  vision,  since  th< 
axes  of  the  eyes  in  vision  correspond.  >>ut  as  it  is, 
the  blind  spots  do  not  correspond  when  the  eyes  are 
directed  to  the  same  object ;  and  hence  the  blank 
which  one  eye  would  present  is  filled  up  by  tlie 
other  eye.  Mariotte,  early  in  the  last  century,  first 
described  the  existence  of  these  blind  spots.  Any 
one  may  satisfy  himself  of  their  existence  by  tha 
following  simple  experiment.  Let  two  small  black 
circles  be  made  \\\)oii  a  piece  of  paper,  about  four  or 
five  inches  apart,  then  let  the  left  eye  be  closed,  and 
the  right  eye  be  strongly  fixed  upon  the  left-hand 
circle.  If  the  paper  be  then  moved  backwards  and 
foi'wards,  a  point  will  be  found  at  which  the  right- 
hand  circle  is  no  longer  visible,  although  it  reappears 
when  the  paper  is  either  brought  nearer  or  removed 
further.  Although  no  other  part  of  the  retina 
possesses  the  complete  insensibility  presented  by  the 
blind  sjiot,  it  is  probable  that  its  anterior  portionj 
have  very  little  to  do  with  vision.  Wlien  using  only 
one  ej^e,  we  direct  it  towards  the  object  we  wish  tf* 
inspect,  in  such  a  way  as  to  throw  the  image  to  thi» 
back  of  the  globe  ;  and  when  the  eye  is  thus  fixed, 
objects  near  the  boundary  of  the  field  of  vision  are 
less  distinctly  seen  than  those  at  its  centre. 

The  extent  of  the  field  of  vision  for  a  single  eye, 
the  head  being  fixed,  has  been  calcidated  by  Di 
Young.  He  found  that  the  eyeball  was  Capable  of 
a  movement  of  55  degi-ees  in  every  direction,  so  that 
a  single  eye  may  have  perfect  vision  of  any  point 
within  a  range  of  110  degrees. 

We  have  not  yet  referred  to  the  longitudinal 
range,  or  greatest  distance  of  human  vision ;  indeed. 


EYE— EYEBRIGHT. 


this  range  varies  so  extremely  that  it  is  difficult  to 
ajssigu  an  arbitrary  limit  to  it.  Many  uncivilised 
races,  as  the  North  American  Indians,  and  the 
L'lhabitants  of  the  vast  Asiatic  steppes,  possess 
powers  of  sight  vi^hich  would  appear  almost  incredible 
if  they  had  not  been  thoroughly  and  frequently 
corroborated.  Our  information  is  more  definite 
regarding  the  limits  of  human  vision  in  regard  to 
the  minuteness  of  the  objects  of  which  it  can  take 
cognizance.  Ehrenberg  has  carefully  studied  this 
su.Sject,  ai.d  has  arrived  at  the  following  results. 
Ti  e  side  of  the  smallest  square  magnitude  usually 
i^isible  to  the  naked  eye — either  of  white  particles 
on  a  black  ground  or  conversely — is  about  xir^^  of 
an  inch ;  and  with  the  greatest  condensation  of  light 
and  effort  on  the  part  of  the  observer,  squares  with 
a  side  as  small  as  -^^th  of  an  inch  may  be  recog- 
xiised,  but  without  sharpness  or  certainty.  Bodies 
smaller  than  these,  when  observed  singly,  cannot  be 
iiscerned  by  the  naked  eye,  but  may  be  seen  when 
placed  in  a  row.  Much  smaller  particles  may,  how- 
ever, be  distinctly  seen,  if  they  powerfidly  reflect 
light ;  thus,  gold-dust,  which  in  none  of  its  diameters 
exceeded  y^Wth  of  an  inch,  is  easily  discernible  in 
common  daylight.  The  delicacy  of  vision  is  far 
greater  for  lines  than  for  minute  areas,  since  opaque 
threads  of  -^^th.  of  an  inch  may  be  discerned  when 
held  towards  thii  light. 

Various  topics  which  the  reader  might  perhaps 
have  expected  to  find  noticed,  such,  for  instance,  as 
*  single  vision  with  two  eyes,'  'the  appreciation  of 
solid  forms  by  the  sense  of  vision,'  '  correct  vision 
with  an  inverted  image  on  the  retina,'  &c.,  which 
belong  fully  as  much  to  metaphysics  as  to  physiology, 
will  be  discussed  in  a  future  article  on  Vision.  In 
the  meantime,  we  may  refer  those  who  desire 
inform|,tion  on  these  points  to  Professor  Bain's 
treatise  on  The  Senses  and  the  Intellect, 

EYE,  Diseases  of  the.  The  diseases  of  the  eye 
enumerated  by  the  surgeon  are  very  numerous, 
partly  from  the  variety  of  the  tissues  and  parts  of 
which  it  is  formed,  partly  because  the  exposed 
situation  and  transparency  of  the  eye  enable 
the  diseases  to  be  seen.  Nearly  all  its  parts  are 
liable  to  inflammation  and  its  consequences.  See 
Ophthalmia.  The  eyelids  are  liable  to  various 
diseases,  as  growths  of  several  kinds,  most  of  which 
the  surgeon  may  remove ;  inflammation,  as  blear- 
eye  (ophthalmia  tarsi) ;  to  be  misdirected  inwards 
or  outwards,  Eiitrop'mm  and  Ectropion  (q.  v.) ;  and 
the  up])er  eyelid  may  fall  down  (ptosis)  from  palsy 
of  the  common  motor  oculi  nerve.  The  eyelashes 
may  grow  in  upon  the  eye  (trichiasis),  and  produce 
gerious  results.  When  plucked  out,  they  grow 
again;  and  if  they  still  grow  in  upon  the  eye  after 
this  palliative  treatment  has  been  tried  several 
times,  the  surgeon  has  to  cut  down  on  their  roots, 
ai  d  d  jstroy  them.  The  duct  which  conveys  away 
the  tears  to  the  nose  is  liable  to  inflammation  and 
obstrnction,  causing  watery  eye.  See  the  article 
J.ACHiiYMAL  Organs.  The  cornea  is  liable  to 
opacity  in  various  degrees.  The  mere  nebula,  or 
cloudy  condition,  either  limited  or  general,  may  pass 
off,  and  leave  the  cornea  again  clear ;  but  the  white 
mark,  which  is  the  cicatrix  or  scar  of  an  \dcer,  is 
()ormanent,  although  it  may  become  smaller  by  the 
disappearance  of  the  surrounding  liaze.  The  pupil 
may  be  closed  as  the  result  of  iritis,  or  of  operations 
for  cataract,  and  an  artificial  pupil  may  be  made  by 
either  of  the  three  methods — incision,  excision,  or 
separation — but  the  operation  is  seldom  attended 
with  success.  For  opacities  of  the  crystalline  lens, 
see  Cataract.  For  an  account  of  diseases  of  the 
nervous  parts  of  the  eye,  see  Amaurosis.  Various 
a^ections  of  vision  may  arise  from  peculiar  or  altered 
conditions  of  the  refracting  humours  of  the  eye—  as 
170 


near-sightedness  (myopia),  far-sightedness  (presby- 
opia), the  appearance  of  Ijodies  (muscie)  floating  in 
or  before  the  eye ;  and  there  may  be  doul>]e  vision 
(diplopin),  with  both  eyes  or  Avith  one.  For  furtlicr 
on  this  point  see  Vision.  Tlie  paits  between  the 
eye  imd  its  hony  orbit  may  be  the  seat  of  inflnnima- 
tion,  abscess,  or  tumour,  making  the  eye  protrude. 
'J'he  niovcmcnts  of  the  eyebjills  may  he  {iffected 
from  palsy  of  tlie  motor  nerves,  or  from  contraction 
of  the  lateral  recti  muscles,  causing  inward  (»r  out- 
wai-d  squinting.  See  Squinting.  'J'lie  eye  may 
lose  all  feeling,  from  palsy  of  the  fifth  pair  of  nerves. 
The  whole  of  the  same  side  of  the  face,  nostrd,  and 
mouth,  will  be  in  the  same  condition,  and  the  eye 
becomes  inflamed  and  disorganised.  Substances 
thrown  against  the  eye  may  injure  it.  Quicklime 
is  rapidly  destructive  to  the  eye,  slaked  lime  and 
mortar  less  so.  When  one  of  these,  or  any  other 
caustic,  has  got  into  the  eye,  sweet  oil  is  the  best 
thing  to  introduce,  until  the  surgeon  arrives  to 
remove  them.  If  it  is  oil  of  vitriol  (sulphuric  acid) 
that  has  been  the  cause  of  the  injury,  a  weak  solu- 
tion of  soda  may  be  used  in  the  first  place  to  neutralise 
the  acid.  In  gunpowder  explosions  near  the  eye, 
besides  the  bu.rn,  the  particles  are  driven  into  the 
surface  of  it,  and  will  cause  permanent  black 
stains  over  the  white  of  the  eye,  imless  they  are 
carefully  removed  at  the  time.  When  chips  of  glass, 
stone,  &c.,  are  driven  into  the  interior  of  the  eye, 
there  is  little  hope  of  it  being  saved  from  destruc- 
tive inflammation.  When  only  partially  simk  into 
the  cornea,  as  is  often  the  case  with  sparks  of  hot 
iron,  or  '  fires,'  as  they  are  called,  the  rubbing  of 
the  projecting  part  on  the  eyelid  causes  great  pain, 
and  the  surgeon  has  not  much  difficulty  in  removing 
them.  Most  commonly  these,  or  other  '  foreign 
bodies,'  as  particles  of  dust,  sand,  seeds,  flies,  &c., 
merely  get  into  the  space  between  the  eyebaU  and 
the  lids,  almost  always  concealed  under  the  upper, 
as  it  is  the  larger,  and  sweeps  the  eye.  They  cause 
great  pain,  from  the  firmness  and  sensitiveness  oi 
the  papillary  surface  of  the  lid,  soon  excite  inflam- 
mation, aud  their  presence,  as  the  cause,  is  apt  to 
be  overlooked.  The  lid  must  be  turned  round  to 
find  them.  To  do  this,  pidl  the  front  or  edge  of  the 
lid  forwards  by  the  eyelashes,  held  with  the  finger 
and  thumb,  and  at  the  same  time  press  doAvn  the 
back  part  of  the  lid  vnth.  a  small  pencil  or  key. 
The  lid  will  readily  turn  round,  when  the  body  may 
be  seen  about  its  middle,  and  may  be  removed  with 
the  corner  of  a  handkerchief.  Another  plan,  which 
the  person  himself  may  try,  is  to  pull  forward  the 
upper  lid  by  the  eyelashes,  and  push  the  lashes  of 
the  lower  lid  up  behind  it,  when  the  foreign  body 
may  be  brushed  out.  After  the  bodies  are  removed, 
a  feeling  as  if  they  were  stiU  there  may  remain  for 
some  time. 

EYE,  a  parliamentary  and  mimicipal  borough 
in  the  north  of  Suffolk,  near  the  source  of  the 
Waveney,  20  miles  north  of  Ipswich.  Its  streets 
are  rather  narrow  and  irregvdar.  Pop.  (1871)  2396. 
It  sends  one  member  to  parliament,  the  parliamen- 
tary borough  including  eleven  parishes.  Eye,  in 
Anglo-Saxon,  means  island ;  the  river  surroimding 
the  town.  There  was  formerly  a  castle  and  priory 
here. 

EYEBRIGHT  {Euphrasia),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Scrophulariacece,  having  a  tubular 
calyx,  the  upper  lip  of  the  corolla  divided,  the 
lower  of  three  nearly  equal  lobes,  the  cells  of  the 
anthers  spurred  at  the  base,  a  two-celled  capsule 
and  striated  seeds.  Some  of  the  species  are  root- 
parasites.  The  only  British  species  is  the  Common 
E.  {E.  officinalis),  a  little  plant  of  at  most  six  or 
ei^ht  inches  in  height,  with  ovate  serrated  leave^ 


EYE-PIECE— EZRA. 


and  white  or  reddish  flowers  streaked  with  purple, 
ftp})earing  singly  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.    It  is 
very  abundant  in  many  pastures,  and  even  on  high 
mountains,    where — as  in 
J^n<j,  very  northern  regions — it 

-.isfi^llwL  often  to  be  seen  of  only 

f^^^m^  ^^^^     height,  gemming 

^ex^!^^^  the    ground  abundantly 

-J^^i^  ^^^^  bright  little 

*f^O^  flowers.     It    is    a  very 

^aJ^jt  widely  distributed  plant, 

fcvvl^'^  ^Sfej^jpt  a  native  of  most  parts  of 

^fflAft  Europe,  the  north  of  Asia, 

^^^^JfeJlfl^^  the  Himalaya,  &c.  It  was 
^J«>>  If     once  in  gx'eat  repute  as  a 

^^(-M  ^[f^ar    n     cure  for  ophthalmia,  and 
^^I^'^i^l/j^    II     is  still  much  used  in  rustic 
il    ^^F^^    ij      practice  for  diseases  of  the, 
^^w^#^>\     m.     ^y^'      H^ot  on  the  corolla, 
something   like    a  pupil, 
"^^whl^^^MYcfX   gave  it  much  of  its  reputa- 
^^^P^^^^   /iv  whilst  the  fanciful 

^S. /7  doctrine  of  signatures  pre- 

Y/  I)  f  V  vailed  in  medicine  ;  but  it 
11  >        has  been  found  really  effica- 

Coramon  Eyebright      cious  in  catarrhal  inflam- 
{Eaphrasia  officinalis),    mations  of  the  eye,  and  in 
other  catarrhal  affections, 
ft  is  a  weak  astringent.     It  is  the  Euphrasy  of 
Milton,  with  which  he  represents  the  archangel 
Michael  as  purging  the  visual  nerve  of  Adam. 

EYE-PIECE,  the  name  given  to  the  microscope 
by  means  of  which  the  image  of  the  object  formed 
in  the  focus  of  a  telescope  is  observed.  See 
Telescope. 

EYLAU,  usually  called  Prussian  Eylau,  a  town 
in  the  government  of  Konigsberg,  and  22  miles 
south  of  the  town  of  that  name,  contains  about  3000 
inhabitants,  and  is  celebrated  for  the  battle  fought 
there  between  Napoleon  and  the  allies — Russians 
and  Prussians — under  Bennigsen,  February  8,  1807. 
The  French  force  amounted  to  about  80,000,  and 
the  allies  numbered  58,000,  but  were  superior  in 
artillery.  The  battle  was  opened  soon  after  day- 
Ught  by  a  furious  attack  made  by  the  French  left 
on  the  Russian  right  and  centre,  which,  however, 
proved  utterly  unsuccessful,  the  attacking  corps 
being  all  but  completely  destroyed.  The  murderous 
struggle  was  repeatedly  renewed,  and  the  promise 
of  victory  alternated  now  to  the  one  side  and  noAV 
to  the  other.  Night  closed  upon  the  whole  allied 
line  pressing  onward  and  driving  the  French  before 
them.  Nevertheless,  the  victory  is  generally  claimed 
by  the  latter,  chiefly  because  the  allied  forces, 
unable  to  recruit  their  strength,  were  ordered  to 
retreat  from  the  field  on  the  night  of  the  battle,  and 
to  retire  upon  Konigsberg.  The  loss  of  the  allies  is 
estimated  at  about  20,000,  while  that  of  the  French 
must  have  been  considerably  greater. 

EZE'KIEL  (meaning  '  God  will  strengthen,'  or 
*  strength  of  God '),  one  of  the  Hebrew  prophets, 
was  the  son  of  the  priest  Buzi,  and  along  with 
Jehoiachin,  king  of  Judah,  was  carried  captive, 
when  still  a  young  man,  to  Mesopotamia,  by  order 
of  Nebuchadnezzar,  about  598  b.  c.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Jewish  community  which  settled  on 
the  banks  of  the  river  Chebar,  and  first  appeared 
as  a  prophet  about  the  year  594  b.  c.  His  pro- 
phetic career  extended  over  a  period  of  22  years. 
The  (late  of  his  death  is  not  recorded. — The  book 
of  Eiekiel  consists  of  three  great  parts:  the  first 
(chapters  1—24),  composed  before  the  final  conquest 


of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  announces  tho 
complete  overthrow  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  on 
account  of  its  increasing  unfaithfulness  to  God; 
the  second  (chapters  25 — 32)  threatens  the  surround- 
ing nations,  which  were  exulting  maliciously  over 
the  ruin  of  Judah,  with  divine  punishment ;  and 
the  third  (chapters  33 — 48)  prophesies  the  future 
deliverance  of  the  Hebrew  nation,  and  the  rebuild- 
ing of  Jerusalem.  This  last  portion  is  generally 
believed  to  contain  several  Messianic  predictions, 
three  of  which  are  considered  specially  remarkable 
(chaps.  36—37,  38-39,  and  40—48);  and  it  is 
beyond  all  question  that  only  under  a  world-vidde 
dispensation  like  the  Christian,  can  the  glorioui 
visions  of  the  prophet  receive  a  historical  realisation. 
The  book  is  full  of  magnificent  but  artificial  sjrm* 
holism,  and  of  allegories  difficult  to  imderstand; 
whence  Jerome  calls  it '  a  labyrinth  of  the  mysteries 
of  God ; '  but  here  and  there,  as  in  chapters  Ist 
and  2d,  it  contains  visions  that  indicate  the  posses- 
sion on  the  part  of  E.  of  a  most  vivid  and  sublime 
imagination.  E.'s  authorship  of  the  book  has  been 
questioned.  The  Talmud  says,  it  was  written  by 
the  Great  Synagogue,  of  which  E.  was  not  a 
member ;  and  I']wald,  believing  that  traces  of  later 
elaljoration  are  quite  obvious,  suggests  that  the 
collection  and  combination  of  the  various  prophecies 
into  a  book  may  not  have  been  the  prophet's 
own  doing.  The  opinion  of  most  critics,  however, 
is,  that  a  prophet  who  was  so  much  of  a  literary 
artist  as  E.,  was  more  likely  to  have  completed  the 
book  himself  than  to  have  left  such  a  work  to 
others.  The  text  is  far  from  being  in  a  perfect 
condition.  It  is  partly  corrupted  by  glosses,  has 
partly  been  retouched  by  later  hands,  and  may 
often  be  amended  by  the  Septiiagint  version.  The 
best  commentaries  on  the  book  of  Ezekiel  are 
those  of  Hiivernick  (Erlangen,  1843)  and  "Hitzig 
(Leip.  1847). 

E'ZRA,  a  Jewish  lawgiver  of  the  5th  c.  before 
Christ.  He  was  descended  from  a  distinguished 
priestly  family,  and  was  resident  in  Babylon  in 
the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus.  With  this 
monarcli  he  seems  to  have  been  in  considerable 
favour,  and  in  the  year  478  b.  c.  obtained  permission 
to  return  to  Jerusalem  with  a  band  of  his  country- 
men amoimting  to  1754.  His  services  to  the  new 
colony  in  regard  to  their  civil  and  religious  con- 
dition were  very  important.  He  endeavoured  to 
re-impose  more  strictly  thi  law  of  Moses,  forbidding 
marriages  v/ith  heathen  women,  and  disannulling 
such  ties  where  they  had  been  formed.  He  also 
introduced  into  Jewish  literature  the  square  Chaldee 
character,  instead  of  the  old  Hebrew  or  Samaritan 
one,  which  had  been  customary  till  then ;  but  the 
tradition  that  he  re- wrote  from  memory  the  sacred 
books  burned  at  the  destruction  of  the  temple, 
deserves  no  regard;  and  it  is  likewise  a  mere 
tradition  that  as  president  of  the  so-called  Great 
Synagogue  (an  assemblage  of  Jewish  scholars)  he 
arranged  and  completed  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. See  Bible. — The  book  called  by  his  name, 
along  with  the  book  of  Nehemiah,  formed,  among 
the  Jews,  the  first  and  second  books  of  Ezra.  It 
records  events  which  extended  over  a  period  of 
nearly  80  years,  and  divides  itself  naturally  into 
two  parts.  The  first  six  chapters  embrace  a  period 
of  21  years,  and  relate  the  history  of  the  first 
return  from  the  Babylonish  captivity ;  the  rest  of 
the  book  chronicles  the  second  return  under  Ezra  the 
priest,  in  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus.  The 
book  is  partly  written  in  Chaldee,  and  is  probably  the 
work  of  various  authors. 


THE  sixth  letter  in  the  Latin  and 
Engli^  alphabets,  corresponding  to 
the  Vau  of  the  Hebrew,  and  the 
Digamma  (q.  v.)  of  the  old  Greek 
alphabet.  See  Alphabet.  F  and  v 
are  called  lahio-dentals,  from  the 
organs  employed  in  producing  them ; 
they  belong  to  the  class  of  conson- 
called  Aspirates  (q.  v.),  and  bear  the 
•ame  relation  to  each  other  that  exists  between  the 
nnaspirated  labials  p  and  h.  In  Latin, /had  a  pecu- 
liar sound,  different  from  that  of  Greek  (p,  as  we 
learn  from  Cicero  and  other  Latin  writers.  What 
the  soimd  was,  we  do  not  exactly  knoAV,  but  it 
approached  to  the  nature  of  a  strongly  breathed  h, 
as  is  indicated  by  the  fact,  that  in  the  Sabme  dialect 
it  sometimes  takes  the  place  of  h,  as  Sab./mts  = 
Lat.  hirciis  (a  he- goat) ;  and  the  Latins  made  use 
both  of  faba  and  haba  for  *  a  bean.'  This  affinity 
is  also  shewn  in  modern  Spanish,  where  h  takes  the 
place  of  the  Latin  /;  as  Lat  femina,  Sp.  hembra;  fl 
becomes,  in  Spanish,  11,  as  Lat.  Jlamma  =  Sp.  llama. 
F,  in  English  and  other  Teutonic  tongues,  corres- 
ponds to  ^  in  Greek  and  Latin;  as  Lat.  and  Gr. 
pater  =  Eng.  father;  Gr.  pod-,  Lat.  ped-  =  Eng. 
foot;  Lat.  pise-  =  Eng.  fish;  Gr.  pur  =  Eng.  fire; 
Lat.  vidp-  =  Eng.  ivolf.  In  some  words,  v  takes  the 
place  in  German  of  /  in  English ;  as  Ger.  vater  = 
Eng.  father;  Ger.  vier  =  Eng.  four.  In  the  Aber- 
deenshire dialect,  /  takes  the  place  of  wh,  as  fat 
for  loliat ;  fup  for  whip.  This  seems  to  be  a  relic  of 
the  Teutonic  pronunciation  oi  w  {—  v),  still  to  be 
observed  in  the  Cockney  pronunciation  of  vill  for 
will,  ven  for  when;  but  why  the  sharpening  of  the 
labial  into /  should  be  confined  to  one  circumscribed 
district  of  Scotland,  and  to  the  case  of  w  followed 
by  h,  it  is  hard  to  say. 

F  in  Lat.  and  Greek  becomes  &  in  Eng. ;  as  Gr. 
and  Lat.  fer-  =  Eng.  hear ;  Lat.  fraier  =  Eng. 
brother.    See  Letter  B. 

More  remarkable  are  the  interchanges  between  / 
and  the  series  d,  th,  t.  Lat.  forts  =  Gr.  thura,  Eng. 
door ;  Lat.  fera  =  Gr.  tJier,  Eng.  deer ;  Eng.  red. 
Sans,  ruthira,  Gr.  eruthros,  Lat.  rutilus,  rufus,  ruber. 
In  Eussian,  Feodor,  Afanasja  =  Theodor,  Athanada. 
In  words  originally  common  to  both  Greek  and 
I^atin,  the  Greek  (p  is  represented  in  Lat.  by  /;  as 
Gr.  (pY,y,7)  =  Lat.  fama.  But  in  spelling  Greek  words 
with  Ijatin  letters,  the  Romans,  after  the  time  of 
Cicero,  were  careful  to  represent  ip,  not  by  /,  which 
had  a  somewhat  different  power,  but  bj  ph.  This 
mode  of  spelhag  words  derived  from  Greek  is  still 
adhered  to  in  E.nglish,  German,  and  French,  although 
the  distinction  in  sonnd  has  long  been  lost  sight 
of.  The  distinction  began  to  disappear  in  the  Latin 
itself  in  tiie  time  of  the  later  Roman  emperors, 
when  inscriptions  shew  such  spelling  as  Afrodite 
for  Aphrodite ;  and  this  simplihcation  is  followed 
in  modem  Itahan,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese.  Ph 
is  sometimes  erroneously  used  in  words  having 
no  connection  with  Greek  ;  as  Adolphus,  for  the 
reutouic  Adolf  or  Adalolf — i.  e.,  *  noble  woK.' 


F,  in  Music,  is  the  fourtli  fiot«  of  the  natard 

diatonic  scale  of  C,  and  stands  in  proi)ortion  to  C 
as  4  to  3,  and  is  a  perfect  fourth  above  C  as  fund»« 
mental  note.  F  major,  as  a  key,  has  one  flat  at  its 
signature — viz.,  B  flat.  F  minor  has  four  flats  the 
same  as  A  flat  major,  of  which  it  is  the  relative 
minor. 

FA  AM,  or  FAHAM  {Angrcecum  fragram),  an 
orchid,  native  of  India  and  the  Mascarene  Isles, 
much  prized  in  the  East  for  the  delightful  fragrance 
of  its  leaves,  which  is  owing  to  the  presence  of 
Coumarin  (q.  v.),  and  resembles  that  of  the  Tonka 
Bean  and  of  Vernal  Grass.  In  the  Isle  of  Bourbon, 
an  infusion  of  F.  leaves  is  in  great  repute  as  a  cure 
for  pulmonary  consumption  and  as  a  stomachic. 
In  France,  it  has  been  successfully  employed,  under 
the  name  of  Isle  of  Bourbon  Tea,  as  an  expectorant, 
anti- spasmodic  and  stomachic. 

FABACE^.    See  LEGTOnNOS^. 

FA'BER  is  the  name  of  two  artists,  father  and 
son.  John  F.,  the  elder,  was  born  in  Holland, 
where  he  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  art  of 
mezzotinto-engraving.  Subsequently,  he  came  to 
England,  and  died  at  Bristol,  May  1721.  His  works 
do  not  exhibit  much  talent. — The  younger  F.,  also 
called  John,  obtained,  however,  a  high  reputation 
as  an  engraver  in  mezzotinto.  His  principal  works 
are  the  portraits  of  the  Kit- Cat  Club,  and  the 
Beauties  of  Hampton  Court,  several  of  which  are 
executed  with  great  freedom,  vigoior,  and  beauty. 
F.  lived  in  London,  where  he  is  believed  to  have 
died  in  1756. 

FABER,  Rev.  George  Stanley,  a  learned  and 
volmninous  divine  of  the  Anglican  Church,  was  the 
eldest  son  of  the  Rev.  Thomas  Faber,  and  was  bom 
25th  October  1773.  He  entered  University  College, 
Oxford,  in  1789,  where  he  achieved  a  brilhant 
academical  reputation.  Before  his  21st  year,  he 
was  elected  FeUow  and  Tutor  of  Lincoln  College. 
In  1796,  he  took  his  degree  of  M.A. ;  was  Bampton 
Lecturer  for  1801,  in  which  capacity  he  delivered 
the  lectures  subsequently  published  under  the  titlft 
of  Horce  Mosaicce ;  and  in  1805  became  vicar 
of  Stockton-on-Tees,  in  the  coimty  of  Durham. 
After  several  changes,  he  received  from  Bishop 
Van  Mildert,  in  1832,  the  mastership  of  Sherbum 
Hospital,  near  the  city  of  Durham,  where  he  died 
27th  January  1854  F.  wrote  upwards  of  forty 
works,  several  of  which,  especially  those  upon 
prophecy,  have  enjoyed  a  very  extensive  popularity. 
AU  his  writings  are  marked  by  '  strong  mascuhne 
sense,  extensive  classical  eradition,  and  a  hearty 
love  of  hypothesis.'  The  principal  are — The  Geniiu 
and  Object  of  the  Patiiarchal,  the  LevUical,  and  tht 
Christian  Dispensations  (1823,  2  vols.);  The  Diffi 
cidties  of  Infidelity  (1824);  The  Sacred  Calendar  of 
Prophecy  (1828,  3  vols.)  ;  The  Primitive  Doctrim  of 
Election  (1836),  reckoned  by  some  critics  the  most 
valuable  of  all  F.'s  writings;  TJie  Primitive  Doc- 
trine of  JiLstification  (1837);  and  Eight  Dissertations 


FABIUS— FABLIAU. 


upon  the  Prophetical  Promises  of  a  Mighty  Deliverer 
(1845,  2  vols.). 

FA'BIUS,  the  name  of  one  of  the  oldest  and 
most  illustrious  patrician  families  of  Rome.  Three 
brothers  of  thiw  name  alternately  held  the  office  of 
consul  for  seven  years  (485—479  b.  c).  In  470,  the 
Fabii,  under  K.  Fabius  Vibulanus,  migrated  to  tlie 
banks  of  the  Cremera,  a  small  stream  that  flows 
into  the  Tiber  a  few  miles  above  Kome.  Here, 
two  years  after,  they  were  decoyed  into  an  ambus- 
cade by  the  Veientes,  with  whom  they  had  been 
at  AA'ur,  and,  with  the  exception  of  one  member, 
who  had  remained  at  Rome,  and  through  whom 
the  race  was  perpetuated,  the  entire  gens,  consisting 
of  306  men,  M'ere  put  to  the  sword.  The  most 
eminent  of  the  Fabii  were  Quintus  Fabius  Rullianus 
— supposed  to  have  been  the  first  who  obtained  for 
himself  and  his  family  the  siirname  of  Maximus 
— and  his  descendant,  Quintus  Fabius  Maximus 
Verrucosus,  named  Cunctator,  the  Delayer.  The 
former  was  the  most  eminent  of  the  Roman 
generals  in  the  second  Samnite  war,  and  was  twice 
dictator,  and  six  times  consul.  The  latter,  who,  in 
the  course  of  his  career,  was  five  times  consul,  and 
twice  censor,  was  elected  dictator  immediately  after 
the  defeat  of  the  Romans  at  Trasimenus.  The 
peculiar  line  of  tactics  which  he  observed  in  the 
second  Punic  war  obtained  for  him  the  surname  by 
which  he  is  best  known  in  history.  Hanging  on 
the  heights  like  a  thimdercloud,  to  which  Hannibal 
himself  compared  him,  and  avoiding  a  direct 
engagement,  he  tantalised  the  enemy  mth  his 
caution,  harassed  them  by  marches  and  counter- 
marches, and  cut  off  their  stragglers  and  foragers, 
while  at  the  same  time  his  delay  allowed  Rome  to 
assemble  her  forces  in  greater  strength.  This  policy 
— which  has  become  proverbial  as  'Fabian  policy' 
— although  the  wisest  in  the  circumstances,  was 
neither  appreciated  in  the  camp  nor  at  home ;  and 
shortly  after,  Marcus  Minucius  Rufus,  Master  of  the 
Horse,  was  raised  to  an  equal  share  in  the  dictator- 
ship, a  position,  however,  which  he  occupied  but  for 
a  short  time.  During  his  fifth  consulship,  Fabius 
recovered  Tarentum,  which  had  long  been  one  of 
Haimibal's  important  positions.  He  died  in  203 
B.C.  C.  Fabius,  surnamed  Pictor,  executed  upon 
the  walls  of  the  temple  of  Salus — dedicated  by  the 
dictator  C.  Junius  Bnitus  Bubulus  in  302 — the 
earliest  Roman  paintings  of  which  we  have  any 
record  ;  and  his  grandson,  Q.  Fabius  Pictor,  was 
the  first  writer  of  a  Roman  history  in  prose. 

FA'BLE  (Lat.  fabula)  is  a  word  "of  twofold 
signification.  First,  it  is .  employed  by  some  writers 
in  a  general  sense  to  denote  any  fictitious  narra- 
tive, as,  for  example,  the  incidents  in  an  epic  or 
dramatic  poem.  At  one  time  also,  when  the 
myths  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  were  thought  to 
be  satisfactorily  accounted  for  by  regarding  them 
S3  conscious  inventions  of  the  ancient  poets  and 
E-riests,  it  was  customary  to  speak  of  them  as  fables, 
but  this  application  of  the  term  is  now  abandoned 
by  scholars.  See  Myth.  According  to  the  second 
and  more  frequent  signification  of  the  Avord,  it 
denotes  a  special  kind  of  literary  composition,  either 
prose  or  verse,  in  which  a  story  of  some  kind  is 
made  the  vehicle  for  conveying  a  universal  truth. 
It  differs  from  a  parable  in  this  respect,  that  while 
the  latter  never  transcends  in  conception  the  boimds 
of  the  probable  or  the  possible,  the  former  always 
and  of  necessity  does.  The  story  of  the  '  Good 
Samaritan '  imagined  by  the  Saviour,  is  a  parable ; 
if  it  was  not  true,  it  might  have  been,  for  it  con- 
tains nothing  either  improbable  or  impossible ;  but 
when  Jotham  went  up  to  the  top  of  Mount  Gerizim, 
and  spoke  to  the  men  of  Shechem  about  the  trees 
8X2 


going  forth  to  anoint  a  king  over  them,  lie  made  use 
of  a  fable  proper.  The  peculiarity,  therefore,  of 
the  structwe  of  the  fable  consists  in  the  transference 
to  inanimate  objects,  or,  more  frequently,  to  tlie 
lower  animals,  of  the  qualities  of  rational  beings. 
By  the  very  novelty  and  utter  impossibility  of 
the  representation,  the  interest  of  the  hearer  or 
reader  is  excited,  and  thus  its  symbolic  meaning 
and  moral  become  transparent  to  him,  at  least  u 
the  fable  is  well  contrived.  The  ancient  fabulists 
were  simple,  clear,  and  earnest  in  their  representa- 
tions. They  seem  to  have  sprung  up  in  the  East. 
Among  the  more  celebrated  are  Bidpai  (q.  v.),  or 
Pilpai,  and  the  Arabian  Lokman,  who  is  said  to 
have  lived  in  the  time  of  King  David.  Among 
the  Greeks,  the  greatest  imme  is  that  of  ^sop 
(q.  v.),  whose  fables,  at  a  much  later  period — the 
precise  time  is  not  exactly  known — were  versified 
by  a  certain  Babrius  (q.  v.).  Among  the  Romans, 
Phffidrus  cleverly  imitated  ^sop,  but  with  consi- 
derable modifications,  thus  giving  a  certain  amount 
of  independent  value  to  his  work.  It  is  perhaps 
worth  mentioning  here,  that  the  well-kno%vn  fable 
of  the  Town  Mouse  and  Country  Mouse,  told  by 
Horace,  is  of  purely  Roman  origin,  and  is  probably 
the  only  one  in  existence  of  which  that  can  be 
affirmed.  Leaving  the  classical  period,  and  before 
entering  on  the  dark  ages,  we  encounter  the  name 
of  Aphthonius,  who  flourished  in  the  early  part  of 
the  4th  century,  and  who  wrote  indifferent  fables  in 
Greek  prose;  and  still  later,  the  name  of  Flavins 
Avianus,  who  composed  forty-two,  no  better,  in 
Latin  elegiacs.  During  the  dark  ages,  the  fable  in 
various  forms  appears  to  have  been  cultivated  in 
the  monasteries,  although  nothing  meritorious  has 
survived ;  but  in  the  middle  ages,  it  acqiiired  fresh 
life  and  vigour.  An  edition  of  the  fables  current  in 
Germany  in  the  time  of  the  Minnesingers  has  been 
published  by  Bodmer.  The  oldest  known  German 
fabulist  is  Strieker,  who  lived  about  the  middle  of 
the  13th  c. ;  but  the  famous  medieval  fable  oJ 
Rtimke  Fuclis  (q.  v.),  or  the  History  of  Reynard  the 
Fox,  stretches  in  some  of  its  numerous  primitive 
forms  much  further  back.  In  later  times,  most 
nations  have  cultivated  the  fable  ^dth  more  or  lesa 
success.  We  may  mention  among  the  English,  Gay; 
among  the  Germans,  Hagedorn  and  Gellert,  and 
Lessing;  among  the  Italians,  Pignotti;  and  above 
all,  among  the  French,  La  Fontaine,  whose  fablea 
are  remarkable  for  their  arch  and  lively  humour, 
their  delicate  sarcasm,  their  sagacity,  and  felicity 
of  expression.  Now,  however,  the  fable  has  gone 
entirely  out  of  fashion,  and  there  seems  little  chance 
of  its  reappearance. 

FABLIAU,  plur.  FABLIAUX  (from  the  Latin 
fabulari,  fahellare,  to  speak  or  to  tell),  was  the 
name  given  in  the  old  French  literature  to  a  class 
of  short  metrical  narratives,  intended  merely  for 
recitation,  and  which  had  for  their  subject-matter 
the  talk  and  news  of  the  day  in  the  middle  ages. 
The  narrator  of  such  news  was  called  a  faUeor 
(plur.  fabliere),  in  opposition  to  the  chanteor,  or 
singer  proper,  who  composed  poems  not  only  for 
recitation,  but  also  for  singing.  Besides  the 
fabliaux,  the  department  of  the  fableor  embraced 
the  Romam  d'aventui'e  (in  short  imstrophied 
couplets),  usually  called  conies,  whence  their 
author  or  reciter  also  bore  the  name  of  conteur ; 
and  the  dits,  or  sayings,  the  special  cultivator  ol 
which  was  termed  a  diseur.  As  the  fabliaux  were 
fundamentally  distinguished  from  the  more  genuine 
forms  of  poetry  by  the  everyday  character  of  their 
subject-matter,  so  the  mode  of  treatment  which 
their  authors  adopted  was  also  more  anecdotical, 
epigrammatic  and  witty — the  wit  being  richly 
spiced  with  scandal.   They  appear  to  have  maintained 


FABRETTI— FABRICIUS. 


a  sort  of  ironical  and  parodistic  antagonism  to 
the  idealism  of  the  epica  of  chivalry.  In  these 
fabliaux,  the  essential  character  of  the  French 
people  manifested  itself,  and  that  opposition  of 
the  real  to  the  ideal,  of  the  understanding  to  the 
imagination,  which,  after  the  time  of  Francis  I., 
began  to  characterise  French  literature  generally. 
Thus  they  lashed  not  only  the  priesthood  and  the 
nobility  in  their  actual  degeneracy,  but  from  the 
very  character  of  their  satire,  they  engendered  a 
conteinpt  for  the  religious-chivalric  spirit  itself, 
and  for  all  ecclesiastical  and  knightly  notions  and 
ceremonies^  The  oldest  fabliaux  are  not  of  French 
origin  ;  they  are  a  fruit  of  the  Crusades,  and  were 
brought  to  France  from  the  East,  but  they  received 
a  national  colouring,  and  soon  took  root  in  the 
West.  From  them  sprung  the  drama  of  France. 
One  of  the  most  fecund  fabli^re  was  Rutebeuf,  who 
flourished  in  the  reigns  of  Louis  IX.  and  Philippe 
III.,  whose  works  were  published  by  Jubinal  (2 
vols.,  Paris,  18.37).  He  was  a  true  Parisian,  and  the 
prototype  of  Villon,  La  Fontaine,  and  Voltaire.  The 
best  collections  of  fabliaux  and  contes  are  those  of 
Barbazan  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1756),  of  Meon  (2  vols., 
Paris,  1823),  and  of  Jubinal  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1839— 
1843). 

FABRE'TTI,  Rapfaele,  a  distinguished  anti- 
quary and  archjeologist,  was  born  at  Urbino  1618, 
and  was  attracted  at  an  early  period  to  anti- 
quarian studies  by  the  great  classical  remains  of 
Rome.  Under  Pope  Alexander  VII.,  he  became  papal 
treasurer,  and  subsequently  was  appointed  chan- 
cellor to  the  papal  embassy  at  Madrid.  A  residence 
of  13  years  in  Spain  enabled  him  to  explore  all  the 
antiquities  of  the  kingdom,  and  to  carry  his  studies 
to  a  point  which  rendered  indispensable  his  return 
to  Rome,  the  great  parent  fount  of  ancient  learning. 
He  was  there  made  judge  ;  and  under  Innocent  XII., 
became  keeper  of  the  papal  archives  of  the  castle  of 
St  Angelo,  a  post  which  afforded  the  widest  scope 
to  his  favourite  pursuits.  About  this  time,  he  wrote 
his  two  important  works  :  De  Aquis  et  Aquaductibtis 
Veteris  Bomce  (4  vols.,  1680,  reprinted  with  notes 
and  additions  in  1788),  and  Syntagma  de  Columnd 
Trajani  (Rome,  1683).  His  treatise  entitled  Inscrip' 
tionum  Antiquarum  Explicatio  (1699)  throws  invalu- 
able light  on  the  discoveries  made  by  himself  in  the 
catacombs  ;  and  his  erudite  investigations  concerning 
the  reliefs  known  as  the  Iliac  Tables,  and  the  grand 
subterranean  canals  of  the  Emperor  Claudius,  are 
equally  full  of  interest  to  science.  His  rare  collec- 
tion of  inscriptions,  &c.,  is  deposited  in  the  ducal 
palace  of  Urbino.    F.  died  in  1700. 

FABRIA'NO,  a  city  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of 
Macerata  (formerly  part  of  the  Papal  States),  is 
situated  at  the  eastern  base  of  the  Apennine  range, 
28  miles  west  o^  Macerata.  It  has  a  cathedral,  and 
several  convents,  but  is  chiefly  worthy  of  mention 
on  account  of  its  great  paper  manufactures,  which 
were  established  in  1564.  F.  has  also  numerous 
tanneries  and  powder-mills,  and  manufactiires  of 
hats  and  cloth.    Pop.  7030. 

FABRIANO,  Gentile  da,  an  Italian  painter, 
who  flourished  in  the  early  part  of  the  15th  century. 
He  was  born — it  is  not  exactly  known  when — at 
Fabriano,  and  received  his  first  instructions  from  his 
father,  who  appears  to  have  been  a  man  of  superior 
culture,  as  he  taught  his  son  the  elements  of  physics 
and  mathematics.  F.'s  first  teacher  in  art  was,  it 
18  supposed,  Allegrette  de  Nuzio.  Subsequently, 
be  went  to  Florence,  and  studied  imder  Fiesole. 
Among  his  earliest  works  of  note  is  a  fresco  of  the 
Madonna  in  the  cathedral  of  Orvieto.  In  1423,  he 
painted  an '  Adoration  of  the  Kings '  for  the  church  of 
the  Holy  Trinity  in  Florence.    This  picture  is  one 


of  the  most  admirable  belonging  to  the  school  of 
Giotto.  To  the  same  period  belongs  a  Madonna  with 
Saints  (now  in  the  Berlin  Museum).  F.  afterwards 
went  to  Venice,  where  he  greatly  increased  his 
reputation  by  a  picture  of  the  bloody  engagement 
between  the  fleet  of  the  Republic  and  that  of  the 
Emperor  Barbarossa  off  the  heights  of  Pii  ano.  Tha 
Venetian  senate  was  so  delighted  with  the  piece, 
that  it  conferred  on  the  fortunate  artist  the  dignity 
of  a  patrician,  and  a  X)ension  of  a  ducat  per  diem 
for  life.  Unhappily,  this  work  has  perished.  Fcpg 
Martin  V.  now  called  F.  to  Rome,  and  emj)loye<1i 
him,  along  with  Vittore  Pisanello,  in  adornijQ|» 
the  church  of  San  Giovanni  Laterano.  As  hia 
share  of  the  work,  he  painted  various  incidents  in 
the  life  of  John  the  Baptist,  five  prophets,  and 
portraits  of  Pope  Martin  himself  and  ten  cardinals. 
He  died,  while  engaged  on  this  building,  some  time 
after  1450.  F.'s  pictures  indicate  a  cheerful  and 
joyous  nature.  He  had  quite  a  childlike  love  of 
splendour  and  rich  ornamentation,  but  is  never 
extravagant  or  excessive  in  his  colouring. 

FABRI  CIUS,  or  FABRFZIO,  Girolamo,  com- 
monly  named  from  his  birthplace  F.  ab  Acqua- 
PENDENTE,  a  Celebrated  anatomist  and  surgeon,  was 
born  in  1537,  and  died  in  1619.  He  was  the  son  of 
humble  parents,  who,  notwithstanding  their  poverty, 
sent  him  to  the  university  of  Padua,  where,  in 
addition  to  the  usual  instruction  in  the  classics,  he 
studied  anatomy  and  surgery  under  the  celebrated 
Fallopius  with  suuh  success,  that  on  the  deaOi  of  the 
latter  in  1562,  F.  was  appointed  to  fill  the  vacrnt 
professorship.  He  continued  to  hold  this  office  for 
nearly  half  a  century,  dui-ing  which  period  his  high 
character  for  eloquence,  general  erudition,  and 
professional  knowledge,  attracted  students  from 
all  parts  of  the  civilised  world  to  the  university  of 
Padua.  Amongst  these  students  was  our  couu^.ry- 
man  Harvey  (q.  v.),  who  attended  his  prelections  in 
1598,  and  who,  as  A\dll  be  seen  in  our  notice  of  his 
life,  derived  from  F.'s  observations  on  the  valves  of 
the  veins  the  first  clue  to  his  gi-eat  discovery.  He 
was  a  most  laborious  investigator  of  nature ;  and 
we  find  him  comparing  and  contrasting  the  same 
organ  in  man,  and  in  several  of  the  lower  animals,  on 
a  more  methodical  plan  than  had  been  attempted  by 
any  of  his  predecessors.  In  this  way  he  treated  of 
the  eye,  the  larynx,  the  ear,  the  intestinal  canal,  the 
development  of  the  fa?tus,  and  many  other  subjects. 
The  improvements  which  his  knowledge  of  anatomy 
enabled  him  to  introduce  into  the  practice  of  surgery 
were  very  great ;  and  his  Opera  Chirurgica,  which 
embraced  every  complaint  curable  by  manual  opera- 
tion, was  so  higlily  valued^  that  it  pafised  through 
seventeen  editions.  He  was  greatly  esteemed  by 
his  fellow-citizens,  for  we  find  that  the  Venetian 
republic  not  only  erected  for  hira  a  spacious 
anatomical  amphitheatre,  in  which  his  name  wa* 
inscribed,  but  at  the  same  time  conferred  npoE 
him  an  annual  stipend  of  a  thousand  crowns,  and 
created  him  a  knight  of  the  order  of  St  Mark, 
A  few  years  before  his  death,  he  retired,  with  an 
ample  fortune,  from  all  professional  duties,  and  died 
(some  believe  he  was  poisoned  by  his  relatives)  at 
the  age  of  82,  in  his  villa  on  the  banks  of  the  Brenta, 
wliich  still  bears  the  name  of  the  Montagu  c  ola 
d'Acquapendente.  We  have  not  space  for  a  list 
of  his  numerous  anatomical  and  surgical  works. 
Upwards  of  a  century  after  his  death  (in  1723),  the 
celebrated  anatomist  Albinus  collected  and  pub- 
lished a  complete  edition  of  all  his  anatomical  and 
physiological  works. 

FABRICIUS,  JoH.  Christian,  a  Danish  ento- 
mologist,  born  at  Tondern,  January  7,  1745,  and 
died  at  Kiel  in  1807.    He  studied  at  Copenhagen, 

213 


FABRONI— FACTOR. 


Ediuburgli,  Leyden,  and  Freybur<^,  and  finally  went 
to  l^^psala  to  attend  the  classes  of  Linnoius.  A 
v,'arni  friendship  was  cemented  between  master  and 
pupil,  and  throughout  his  life  F.  was  zealously 
employed  in  developing  and  applying  the  ideas 
and  method  of  the  great  Swede.  In  1775  F.  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  Natural  History  at  the 
University  o£  Kiel,  and  from  that  time  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  prosecution  of  his  entomological 
studies,  and  to  the  fuller  development  of  a  system 
of  classification  of  insects,  based  upon  the  struc- 
ture of  the  mouth.  Although  his  system  has  been 
found  inapplicable  to  many  families  of  insects,  the 
observations  on  which  it  was  based  have  tended 
materially  to  the  extension  of  this  branch  of  science. 
The  Systema  Entomologke  (Copenh.  1775),  in  which 
F.  expounded  his  views,  constituted  a  new  era  in 
the  history  of  entomolofiy,  while  his  Genera  Insect- 
orum  (Kiel,  1776),  Mantissa  Insectorum  (Copenh. 
1787),  and  Entomologia  Systematica  (Copenh.  1702), 
opened  hitherto  unexplored  fields  of  inquiry  to  the 
entomologist.  F.  was  the  author  of  several  able 
treatises  on  the  policy,  statistics,  and  economy  of 
Denmark,  which  wei-e  prepared  by  him  in  his  capa- 
city of  councillor  of  state  and  Professor  of  Rural 
and  Political  Economy  at  Kiel.  F.'s  death  was  said 
to  have  been  hastened  by  the  grief  which  he  expe- 
rienced in  consequence  of  the  political  misfortunes 
of  his  country. 

FABRO'NI,  Angelo,  an  excellent  biographical 
writer,  was  born  at  Marradi,  in  Tviscany,  7th 
February  1732,  educated  at  Faenza  and  Rome,  and 
in  1773,  was  appointed  tutor  to  the  sons  of  Leopold, 
Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany.  He  died  22d  September 
1803.  His  Vitce  Italoi-um  Doctrina  Excellentium  qui 
Scecido  XVI 1.  et  XVIII.  Jloruemnt  (20  vols.,  Pisa, 
1778 — 1805),  is  one  of  the  best  Italian  works  of  its 
kind,  and  contains  quite  a  treasure  of  information ; 
while  his  Laurentii  Medicei  Vita  (2  vols.,  Pisa,  1784), 
and  Vita  Magyii  Cosmi  Medicei  (2  vols.,  Pisa,  1788 — 
1789),  are  reckoned  model  biographies. 

FACADE  (Fr,),  the  exterior  front  or  face  of  a 
building.  This  term,  although  frequently  restricted 
to  classic  architecture,  may  be  applied  to  the  front 
elevation  of  a  building  in  any  style.  It  is,  how^ever, 
generally  used  with  reference  to  buildings  of  some 
magnitude  and  pretensions  ;  thus,  we  speak  of  the 
front  of  a  house,  and  the  fagade  of  a  palace.  The 
back  elevation  of  an  important  building  is  called  the 
rear  facade,  in  the  same  Nvay  as  in  England  the 
back  of  a  house  is  called  the  '  hack  front.'' 

An  edifice  may  have  any  niimber  of  facades  when 
it  shews  a  face  or  front  in  each  direction.  An  eleva- 
tion of  the  side  of  a  building  is  called  the  lateral 
fayade.  The  sides  of  a  court  or  coi-tile  are  also 
called  fa9ades,  and  are  distinguished  as  north,  south, 
&c.  fa9ade3. 

FACCIOLA'TI,  Jacopo,  an  Italian  philologist 
and  critic,  was  born  at  Torreglia,  not  far  from 
Padua,  in  1682.  He  was  educated  in  the  religious 
jieuunary  at  Padua,  where  he  became  successively 
Professor  of  Theology,  Professor  of  Philosophy,  and 
SujTerintendent-general  of  the  classes,  or  rector  of  the 
institution.  F.  directed  his  attention  chiefly  to  the 
J  evival  of  the  study  of  ancient  literature,  and  with 
this  object,  brought  out  a  new  edition  of  the  Lexicon 
Septem  Linguarum,  called,  from  its  original  author, 
the  monk  Arabrosius  of  Calepio,  the  Calepine  Lexicon. 
He  was  assisted  in  this  work  by  his  pupil,  Forcellini, 
to  whom  is  mainly  owing  the  conception  of  a  totally 
new  Latin  dictionary ;  an  arduous  undertaking, 
which  F.  continued  till  his  death  in  1769,  and  which 
was  afterwards  completed  by  ForcelHni  in  1771.  F. 
and  Forcellini,  assisted  by  several  others,  likewise 
published  a  new  edition  of  Nizoli's  Thesaurus 


Ciceronianus.  F.'s  Latin  epistles  and  orations  are 
remarkable  for  the  Ciceronian  elegance  of  their 
style,  and  his  notices  on  several  philosophical 
writings  of  Cicero  for  their  solidity,  clearness,  and 
taste. 

FA'CET,  a  term  employed  to  denote  the  plane 
surfaces  of  crystals,  or  those  artificially  cut  upon 
precious  stones. 

FACIAL  ANGLE.    See  Angle. 

FACI'LITY,  in  the  legal  terminology  of  Scotland, 
is  a  condition  of  mental  weakness  short  of  that 
which  will  justify  Cognition  (q.  v.),  but  which  calls 
for  the  protection  of  the  law,  which  is  exercised  by 
means  of  a  process  called  Interdiction  (q.  v.).  Tho 
object  of  interdiction  is  to  prevent  the  facile  person 
from  granting  deeds  to  his  own  prejudice,  and  after 
it  has  taken  place,  he  cannot  contract  without 
the  consent  of  his  interdictors.  Even  without 
interdiction,  the  deeds  of  a  facile  person,  if  to  his 
prejudice,  may  be  set  aside,  if  there  be  proof  of 
his  having  been  circumvented  or  imposed  on ;  and 
Erskine  says  that  '  where  lesion  in  the  deed,  and 
facdit}''  in  the  granter  concur,  the  most  slender 
circumstances  of  fraud  or  circumvention  are  suffi- 
cient to  set  a  deed  aside.'— B.  iv.  tit.  1,  s.  27.  See 
Fraud,  Lesion,  Insanity.  There  is  no  corre- 
sponding term  in  English  law,  and  the  remedy 
of  interdiction  is  unknown,  but  weakness  of  mind 
approaching  to  idiocy  will  of  course  form  an 
important  element  in  proving  fraud. 

FA'CTOR,  in  Mathematics.  The  numbers  6  and 
4,  multiplied  together,  make  24 ;  hence  6  and  4 
are  called  factors  of  the  product  24.  Most  ninnburs 
are  products  of  two  or  more  factors ;  thus  10=2  x  5 ; 
12  =  3  X  4,  or  2  X  6,  or  2  X  2  X  3.  Every  product 
can  be  divided  by  any  of  its  factors  without 
remainder ;  a  factor,  therefore,  is  often  called  a 
divisor,  or  measure.  2,  3,  4,  6,  8,  12,  are  all  factor? 
or  divisors  of  24.  Numbers  that  have  no  factor  or 
divisor  above  vmity,  such  as  2,  3,  5,  7, 11, . .  .  23,  &c., 
are  called  Prime  Numbers  (q.  v.). 

FACTOR,  in  its  most  general  sense,  is  the  term 
applied  to  any  one  who  is  employed  to  do  business 
for  another.  Factory  difi"ers  from  the  mandate  of 
the  Roman  law  in  not  being  gratuitous.  In  mer- 
cantile transactions,  the  sale  of  goods  is  generally 
effected  either  by  factors  or  brokers,  both  of  whom 
are  agents,  remunerated  generally  by  a  commission. 
But  the  powers  of  factors  are  higher  than  those  of 
brokers,  inasmuch  as  the  former  are  intrusted  with 
the  possession  of  the  goods,  and  authorised  to  sell 
them  as  if  they  were  their  own  ;  whereas  the  latter 
have  no  possession  or  apparent  ownership,  but  act 
not  only  really  but  ostensibly  as  agents.  Factors 
frequently  act  on  the  principle  of  the  del  credere 
commission  (q.  v.),  receiving,  that  is  to  say,  a  higher 
remuneration  in  consideration  of  undertaking  to 
guarantee  the  solvency  of  the  purchasers.  At  com- 
mon law,  a  sale  or  other  transaction  by  a  factor  was 
bad,  if  it  was  not  fully  warranted  by  the  nature  of 
the  authority  which  he  derived  from  his  principal ; 
but  this  doctrire  has  been  modified  by  several 
statutes  which  have  been  passed  for  the  protection 
of  strangers  dealing  with  persons  intrusted  with  the 
possession  of  goods,  the  extent  of  whose  authority 
they  had  no  means  of  ascertaining.  By  6  Geo.  IV, 
c.  94,  called  the  Factors'  Act,  it  was  provided  that 
any  person  in  possession  of  a  bill  of  lading  is  to  bfc 
deemed  the  true  owner  of  the  goods  therein  described, 
so  far  as  to  give  validity  to  any  contract  or  agree- 
ment made  with  him  regarding  them.  7  and  8 
Geo.  IV.  enacts  that  if  any  factor  shall,  for  his  own 
benefit,  and  in  violation  of  good  faith,  dei)Osit  oi 
pledge  any  goods,  or  order  for  their  delivery,  he 
shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanour.    In  1842  th« 


FACTOR-FACTORIEa 


powers  of  6  Geo.  IV.  c.  94  were  defined  a^'d 
extended  by  5  and  6  Vict,  c.  39,  w^hich  enacted  that 
bond  fide  advances  to  persons  intrusted  with  the 
possession  of  goods  or  documents  of  title,  though 
known  to  be  agents,  should  be  protected  ;  bond  fide 
deposits  "n  exchange  were  also  protected,  but  it  was 
provided  that  there  should  be  no  lien  beyond  the 
val'ie  of  the  goods  given  up.  The  agent's  respon- 
sibdity  to  his  principal  is  not  diminished,  but  it  is 
provided  that  if  he  shall  make  consignments  contrary 
to  the  instructions  of  his  principal,  he  shall  be  guilty 
of  a  misdemeanour. 

In  Scotli  ad,  the  term  factor  is  applied  to  an  agent 
managing  heritable  estates  for  another,  letting  farms, 
draudng  rents,  and  the  like,  in  which  sense  it  is 
nearly  synonymous  with  the  English  steward,  a  term 
which,  in  Scotland,  again,  is  employed  to  denote  an 
agent  whose  powers  are  of  a  far  more  limited  kind 
than  those  of  a  factor,  and  who  generally  acts  under 
him.  If  a  factor  pay  money  into  a  bank  on  his  own 
account,  he  takes  the  risk  of  the  bank's  fadure. 
A  factor  cannot  delegate  his  powers,  but  he  may 
employ  a  third  party  to  aid  him  in  their  discharge. 
He  binds  his  principal  to  any  engagement  which 
he  contracts  within  his  powers.  Factory  may  be 
recalled,  and  falls  by  the  death  of  the  principal ;  but 
actions  already  begun  may  go  on,  and  those  done  in 
ignorance  of  the  revocation  or  death  are  binding. 
Revocation  is  implied  in  the  appointment  of  a  new 
agent  to  do  the  same  act.  The  mandate  of  factory 
subsists  notwithstanding  the  supervening  insanity 
of  the  mandant.  Factors  may  be  empowered  to 
gi-ant  leases  and  pursue  removings,  but  for  these 
acts  special  powers  are  required.  Writers  to  the 
Signet  in  Edinburgh,  and  writers  in  country  towns, 
frequently  act  as  factors  for  the  neighbouring 
landed  proprietors.  But  all  the  great  landowners 
had  formerly,  and  many  of  tliem  still  have,  factors 
resident  on  their  estates.    See  Agent. 

FA'CTORIES  are  establishments  where  large 
numbers  of  persons  co-operate  in  the  production  of 
some  article  of  consumption,  the  principle  of  the 
division  of  labour  being  in  all  cases  applied,  and 
generally  machinery  to  a  greater  or  less  extent. 
The  factory-system  is  opposed  to  the  practice  of 
indi%ddual  labour  at  the  homes  of  the  artisans. 
Every  production  of  art  requires  a  longer  or  shorter 
series  of  operations,  often  varying  considerably  in 
their  nature.  The  hand-worker  performs  most  of 
these  himself ;  one  and  the  same  person  makes  the 
complete  article.  In  a  factory,  every  article  goes 
through  as  many  hands  or  machines  as  there  are 
separate  processes  required ;  each  workman  performs 
only  one,  and  that  always  the  same,  process.  The 
chief  advantages  of  this  way  of  proceeding  are  the 
following :  Loss  of  time  is  avoi  ded  in  passing  from 
one  operation  to  another,  a  loss  which  is  the  greater, 
the  greater  the  difference  in  the  nature  of  the  oper- 
ation. The  workman,  confined  to  one  thing,  m 
itself  usually  simple,  not  only  learns  it  sooner,  but 
attains  a  quickness  and  skill  that  one  distracted 
with  a  variety  of  operations  can  never  attain ; 
3>esides,  the  constant  occupation  with  one  kind  of 
work  leads  the  workman  to  light  upon  improve- 
mente  in  tools  and  machines  so  as  to  increase  their 
rapidity  of  execution  and  their  precision.  As  only 
few  of  the  processes  are  very  difficult,  it  is  possible 
to  turn  to  some  account  less  skilful  workmen,  and 
even  children,  and  to  assign  to  each  person  that 
kind  of  work  at  which  he  is  most  effective.  All 
parts  of  the  work,  too,  that  are  quite  uniform  in  the 
case  of  each  article,  can  generally  be  done  by 
inachinery.  Lastly,  in  factories,  there  is  more 
opportunity  of  turning  to  advantacre  ail  kinds  of 
refuse. 

A  necessary  consequence  of  these  advantages  is, 


that  the  coat  of  i)ro(  I  action  is  less  on  the  facto.7- 
systcm  than  in  the  other  wixy ;  and  more  than 
that,  the  articles  theuisclvcs,  when  of  a  nature 
adapted  to  this  mode  of  jiroductiou,  are  better,  and 
of  a  unifonuity  otherwise  unattainal>ic.  Wherever 
a  comparatively  homogeneous  material  has  to  be 
made  into  a  large  number  of  uniform  articles,  there 
the  factory-system  is  in  its  proper  place.  The  best 
examples  are  spinning,  weaving,  cloth-printing,  pin 
and  needle  making,  &c.  But  even  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  complex  articles  composed  of  different  kinds 
of  material,  the  factory- system  may  be  pursued  with 
advantage  whenever  the  number  of  the  articles 
required  is  great,  and  the  separate  parts  of  such  a 
kind  that  a  great  number  can  Ije  made  exactly 
alike.  This  is  the  case  with  watches,  weapons, 
locks,  &c.  Such  a  manufacture  divides  itself  into 
as  many  separate  employments  as  there  are  i>ai-ts  in 
each  article,  and  the  putting  together  and  adjust- 
ing forms  another.  The  degree  of  complexity  is 
carried  still  further  in  such  cases  as  the  manufacture 
of  carriages,  where  operations  of  the  most  hetero- 
geneous kind  have  to  concur.  In  some  cases, 
factories  do  not  concern  themselves  with  the  put- 
ting together  of  the  parts,  but  merely  produce  them 
for  hand-workers  and  special  professionists,  as  is  the 
cas(.  in  watch-making.  In  making  clothes  and 
sho^s  and  the  like,  where  each  individual  article 
requires  special  adaptation,  factory  work  is  not  so 
suitable.  How  far  it  is  advisable  in  any  case  to 
employ  machinery,  depends  on  the  nature  of  the 
work,  the  cost  of  the  machinery,  the  scale  on  which 
operations  are  to  be  carried  on,  &c.  Nowhere 
have  the  factory-system  and  the  employment  of 
machinery  been  carried  further  than  in  America. 
In  Cincinnati,  for  instance,  one  establishment  in 
1854  produced  200  dozen  chairs  a  week,  another 
1000  loedsteads,  most  of  the  work  being  done  by 
machinery ;  and  one  boot  and  shoe  factory  used 
600  bushels  of  shoe-pegs.  Even  the  killing  of  pigs 
is  done  on  this  grand  scale,  one  establishment  killing 
and  pickling  12,000  hogs  and  3000  oxen  in  a  season. 
— Factories  cannot  succeed  in  great  numbers  except 
in  localities  where  the  population  is  sufficiently 
dense  to  afi"ord  a  sufficient  choice  of  hands,  and 
also  to  cause  a  comparatively  low  rate  of  wages. 
Other  conditions  of  a  good  locality  for  factory 
production  are  abundance  of  water-power  or  the 
presence  of  coal  for  steam  power,  nearness  to  the 
raw  material,  and  good  communications. 

While  the  rise  and  extension  of  the  factory  -system, 
when  looked  at  from  the  point  of  view  of  r  laterial 
economics,  must  be  pronounced  a  decided  improve- 
ment, it  cannot  be  denied  that,  socially  and  politic- 
ally considered,  it  has  its  dark  side.  The  greater 
the  capital  and  the  training  necessary  for  carrying 
on  an  extensive  estabhshment,  the  less  pros^ject  the 
workman  has  of  ever  raising  himself  to  irtdepen- 
dence.  The  chasm  that  separates  the  mill-owner 
from  his  dependants  is  infinitely  greater  than  thai 
which  exists  between  a  master  artisva  and  hia 
journeymen.  The  hope  of  gradual  advancement 
afforded  in  the  last  case  supplies  a  po  Aerfui  moral 
support  and  means  of  discipline ;  t'lO  im  passable 
gidf  in  the  other  acts  as  a  stumViag-biock  and 
temptation.  Factory-workers  are  c^jpecially  dis- 
posed to  enter  heedlessly  into  mar  iage,  as  they 
require  to  make  no  provision  fc  r  a  v.  orkshop,  tools, 
and  other  outlay  once  necessai/  for  enteiing  life ; 
while  they  have  the  prospect  of  the  wife,  and  soon 
of  the  children,  as  contributors  to  the  support  of  the 
family.  It  may,  at  all  events,  be  affirmed,  that  the 
increase  and  accunndation  in  masses  of  the  class 
called  proletaires,  who  have  no  provision  for  a  week 
but  the  labour  of  that  week,  is  favom-ed  by  tho 
factory-system.    Moreover,  the  employment  of  wii» 


FACTOEY  ACTS— FACULTIES. 


and  child  ns  fellow-labourers  endangers  the  old  and 
sacred  bonds  of  the  family ;  the  father  can  no 
longer  remain,  to  the  extent  that  he  ouglit  to  be, 
master  of  the  house  of  which  he  is  no  longer  the 
sole  support ;  and  how  much  the  family  affection 
is  thus  weakened,  is  painfully  exhibited  in  the  ill- 
treatment  of  the  younger  children,  who  are  prema- 
turely pui;  to  labour,  and  literally  robbed  of  their 
childhood.  At  the  same  time,  it  cannot  be  allowed 
that  th(\a©  evils  are  incapable  of  remedy  ;  legislation 
and  publi  j  opinion  can  here  do  much  ;  nor  must  it 
be  forgottf  a  that  the  evil  is  not  peculiar  to  factory 
labour,  bu^^  is  a  feature  of  the  whole  of  our  more 
recent  industrial  economics.  The  greatest  abuses 
of  the  kind  in  England  are  found  in  the  mining  dis- 
tricts, and  among  the  small  domestic  manufacturers. 
The  M  avy  circumstances  that  give  rise  to  the  evils 
aflford  the  means  of  obviating  them,  if  they  were 
only  t«,ken  advantage  of ;  for,  the  larger  the  estab- 
lishmtnt,  the  more  good  can  an  owner  do  for 
his  pboplo,  and  the  less  it  is  possible  to  conceal 
abuses.  It  cannot  with  justice  be  charged  against 
factory  labour  that  in  itself  it  has  a  demoralising 
tendency.  Whatever  In'ings  togetl.er  numbers  of 
human  beings  increases,  no  doubt,  o])portunities  and 
temptations  to  aberrations,  especially  in  the  inter- 
course of  the  sexes  ;  but  not  more  so  in  the  case  of 
a  factoiy  than  in  that  of  all  large  towns,  and  even 
less  so  than  in  some  other  cases  of  assemblage,  as 
armies  and  garrisons. 

FACTORY  ACTS.  From  motives  of  humanity, 
several  statutes  have  been  passed  in  recent  years  for 
regulating  the  hours  of  work,  preserving  the  health, 
and  promoting  the  education  of  young  persons 
employed  in  mills  and  factories.  The  leading  act  is 
7  and  8  Vict.  e.  15 ;  though  much  had  already 
been  done  by  the  old  statute  42  Geo.  III.  c.  I'A, 
and  by  3  and  4  Will.  IV.  c.  103,  commonly  called 
the  Factory  Act,  amended  by  4  Will.  IV.  c.  1.  By 
these  last- mentioned  acts,  night- work — that  is, 
between  half-past  eight  in  the  evening  and  half-past 
five  in  the  morning — w^as,  with  some  exceptions,  for- 
bidden in  the  case  of  persons  under  eighteen  years 
of  age  ;  whilst  their  hours  of  labour  were  limited  to 
twelve  in  the  day,  including  one  and  a  half  hours 
for  meals.  The  employment  of  children  under  nine 
was  prohibited,  except  in  silk-mills ;  and  under 
thii-teen  the  hours  were  restricted  to  eight  a  day, 
or  ten  in  silk-mills.  Holidays  were  allow^ed,  and 
certificates  of  health  required  from  a  surgeon  or 
physician  previous  to  the  admission  of  a  child,  into  a 
factory,  under  certain  penalties.  By  3  and  4  Will.  IV. 
c.  103,  also,  inspectors  of  factories  were  a})pointed, 
and  their  powers  and  duties  for  its  enforcement 
defined.  Amongst  the  duties  of  the  inspector  was 
included  that  of  seeing  that  every  child  wathin  the 
restricted  age  was  placed  at  school ;  and  in  case  of 
the  parents  or  guardians  of  the  child  omitting  to  pro- 
vide for  his  education,  to  order  the  employer  to  pay 
to  hiiM  (the  inspector)  one  penny  in  every  shilling  of 
the  Tpeekly  wages  of  the  child,  to  be  applied  to  that 
purpose.  By  7  and  8  Vict.  c.  15,  the  powers  and 
duties  of  inspectors  were  more  accurately  set  forth. 
Kegulations  are  laid  down  for  the  protection  of 
children  working  in  web-spinning  flax-mills,  and 
it  is  enacted  that  the  mill-gearing  shall  not  be 
cleaned  while  in  motion,  and  that  the  machinery 
ehall  be  guarded.    A  child  is  defined  to  mean  a 

Cerson  under  thirteen ;  and  a  young  person,  one 
etween  the  ages  of  thirteen  and  eighteen.  An 
abstract  of  the  act  and  relative  notices  must  be 
hung  up  in  every  factory.  As  to  the  time  of  chil- 
dren's work,  it  is  provided  that  they  shall  not  be 
employed  more  than  six  hours  and  thirty  minutes 
in  any  one  day,  or  seven  in  silk  factories ;  but  they 
uiyy  be  employed  ten  hours  in  one  day  on  three 
216 


alternate  days  of  the  Aveek,  provided  that  they  be 
not  employed  in  any  manner  in  the  same,  or  any 
other  factory,  on  two  successive  days,  or  after  half- 
past  four  on  a  Saturday.  On  the  vacant  days,  the 
children  are  to  be  sent  to  school  for  five  hours, 
provided  the  day  be  not  a  Saturday,  when  no  school 
attendance  of  any  child  shall  be  required.  Women 
above  the  age  of  eighteen  are  to  be  employed  aa 
young  persons  ;  and  work  for  all  children  and  young 
persons  is  to  cease  on  Saturday  at  hali-i)ast  four. 
In  addition  to  the  regulations  of  the  former  act,  il 
is  provided  regarding  meal  times,  that  the  hours 
allowed  shall  be  betvveen  half-past  seven  in  tin 
morning  and  half-past  seven  in  the  evening,  and 
that  one  hour  shall  be  befoi*e  three  o'clock.  No 
child  or  young  person  shall  be  employed  more 
than  five  hours  before  one  o'clock  withoat  an 
interval  for  meal-time  of  at  least  thirty  minutes. 
All  young  persons  are  to  have  their  meal-times  at 
the  same  hour,  and  are  not  to  be  allowed  to  remain 
in  any  of  the  rooms  used  for  manufacturing  pro- 
cesses. Eight  half-holidays  are  to  be  given  in  every 
factory,  in  addition  to  Good-Friday  and  Christmas- 
day,  and  the  sacramental  fast- day  in  Scotch  parishes. 
By  the  subsequent  act,  IG  and  17  Vict.  c.  102,  it  ia 
required  that  no  person  under  thirteen  shall  be 
employed  in  a  factory  before  six  o'clock  in  the 
morning  or  after  six  in  the  evening ;  or  on  Saturday 
after  two  o'clock ;  but  between  September  30  and 
April  1,  children  may  for  one  mouth  be  employed 
on  any  day  but  Saturday  from  seven  in  the  morning 
till  seven  in  the  evening.  By  8  and  9  Vict.  c.  29, 
the  powers  of  inspectors  and  the  regulations  in 
respect  to  the  employment  of  women  and  children, 
are  extended  to  calico-works  ;  and  rope-Avorks  aro 
expressly  exempted  from  them  by  9  and  10  Vict, 
c.  40.  By  10  Vict.  c.  29,  the  hours  of  labour  for 
young  persons,  and  women  above  the  age  of  eighteen, 
are  reduced  from  tweh^e,  which  the  factory  act  had 
fixed,  to  ten  after  1st  May  1848 ;  and  by  13  and  14 
Vict.  c.  37,  it  is  enacted  that  the  same  persons  shall 
not  be  employed  before  six  in  the  morning  or  after 
six  in  the  evening,  or  after  two  o'clock  on  a  Saturday. 
Meal-times  must  be  between  half-past  seven  in  the 
morning  and  six  in  the  evening.  There  are  partial 
exceptions  to  the  hours  specified  in  the  acts,  for  the 
recovery  of  lost  time;  and  by  13  and  14  Vict.  c.  37, 
children  above  eleven  are  to  be  viewed  as  young 
persons  when  employed  in  winding  and  throwing 
silk.  19  and  20  Vict.  c.  38,  limits  the  pro\dsions  of 
7  and  8  Vict.  c.  15,  as  to  mill-gearing,  to  those  parts 
with,  which  children  and  young  persons  and  women 
are  liable  to  come  in  contact,  either  in  passing  or  in 
their  ordinary  work  in  the  factory. 

FA'CULjE  (Lat.  facula,  a  torch),  iu  Astronomy, 
are  spots,  brighter  than  the  rbst  of  the  surface,  which 
are  sometimes  seen  on  the  sun's  disc.    See  Sun. 

FA'CULTIES,  Court  of,  a  court  established  by 
25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  21,  s.  4,  whereby  authority  is  given 
to  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  his  successors 
to  grant  dispensations,  faculties,  &c.,  by  himself,  or 
his  sufficient  and  substantial  commissary  or  deputy, 
for  any  such  matters  not  being  repugnant  to  the  Holy 
Scriptures  and  the  laws  of  God,  whereof  before  such 
dispensations,  &c.,  had  been  accustomed  to  be  had  at 
the  see  of  Rome.  Up  to  the  time  of  passing  this 
act,  the  pope,  notwithstanding  the  statutes  which 
had  been  passed  restraining  his  authority,  continued 
to  exercise  his  power,  and  to  draw  a  considerable 
revenue  for  indulgences,  &c.  The  chief  officer  of  the 
court  ia  called  magister  ad  facultates.  The  sittings 
of  the  court  have  always  been  held  at  Doctors 
Commons  (q.  v.).  On  its  first  institution,  there 
were  various  matters  in  which  the  dispensing  power 
was  called  into  exercise — such  as  the  power  tu  bold 


FACULTY— FAGGING. 


tw.'or  more  livings  (see  I'luralism),  and  the  per- 
mission to  eat  flesh  in  lient,  &c.  But  of  late  years 
the  matter  whicli  has  chiefly  occupied  the  court 
has  been  the  granting  licence  to  marry  without 
publication  of  banns.  See  Licence,  Maeriage, 
Dispensation. 

FACULTY.    See  University. 

FACULTY,  a  name  applied  to  certain  apti- 
tudes or  powers  of  the  mind,  especially  those  of  the 
intellect.  Eeid  considered  that  the  characteristic  of 
a  faculty  was  its  primitive  character,  as  opposed  to 
the  acquired  powers,  or  habits.  Sir  W.  Hamilton 
remarks  on  this  distinction  as  follows  :  '  Powers  are 
actir>e  and  passive,  tiatural  and  acquired.  -  Powers 
natural  and  active  are  called  faculties.  Powers 
natural  and  passive,  capacities  or  receptivities. 
Powers  acquired  are  habits,  and  habit  is  used 
both  in  an  active  and  passive  sense.' — Reid,  p. 
221.  Hence,  in  discussing  the  intellect,  whatever 
are  considered  its  primary  or  fundamental  functions, 
are  its  facvdties.  Perception,  Memory,  Reasoning, 
Imagmation,  are  the  leading  intellectual  faculties, 
according  to  the  older  metaphysicians,  who  followed 
the  popular  classiflcation.  These  would  not  now  be 
considered  as  giving  the  ultimate  analysis  of  the 
intellect.  Conscience,  or  the  moral  sense,  has  some- 
times been  called  the  moi^al  faculty.  See  Intellect. 

FACL^LTY,  Grant  of,  by  the  Ordinary,  an 
order  by  the  bishop  of  a  diocese  to  award  some  privi- 
lege not  permitted  by  common  law.  A  facidty  is 
necessary  in  order  to  effect  any  important  alteration 
in  a  church,  such  as  the  erection  of  a  gallery  or  of 
an  organ.  Without  a  facidty,  a  person  is  not  entitled 
to  erect  a  monument  within  the  walls  of  a  church. 
But  a  monument  having  been  put  up,  though 
without  a  faculty,  cannot  be  removed  till  a  faculty 
or  order  to  that  eff'ect  has  been  obtained.  By  the 
common  law  of  England,  every  parishioner  is  entitled 
to  a  seat  in  church,  but  no  one  has  a  claim  to  any 
particular  seat,  unless  the  right  has  been  given  by  a 
faculty.    See  Pews. 

FACULTY  OF  ADVOCATES.  See  Advocates. 

F^'CES,  or  SOLID  EXCREMENTS,  are  the 
matters  which  an  animal  ejects  from  the  lower  end 
of  the  intestinal  canal,  and  in  greater  part,  consist 
of  those  portions  of  food  which,  on  passing  through 
the  alimentary  canal,  have  been  rejected  as  com- 
paratively worthless  in  the  ofiice  of  nutrition.  In 
the  higher  animals,  the  faeces  generally  contain 
about  three-fourths  of  their  weight  of  water,  the 
remaining  one-fourth  consisting,  in  greater  part,  of 
organic  remains ;  in  the  case  of  the  ox,  sheep,  and 
other  herbivorous  animals,  of  undigested  woody 
fibre.  In  the  human  subject,  the  quantity  of  fasces 
yielded  daily  by  an  average  healthy  man  is  5  to  6 
ounces ;  the  pecidiar  brown  colour  is  due  to  the 
presence  of  decomposing  biliary  matter,  and  the 
odour  to  jxartially  changed  nitrogenous  substances 
resembling  casein.  The  following  table  gives  the 
composition  of  human  and  ox  faeces : 


matter,  and  its  high  agricultural  value.  See  Gctano. 
The  following  taljle  gives  the  comix)sition  of  th« 
faeces  of  the  boa  constrictor  : 


Human. 

Water  73-3 

Organic  remains,  .  7  0 
Biliary  and  nitrogenous 

matter,  .  .  .  149 
Albumen,  ...  09 
Extract,  .  .  .2-7 
Baits,  ,       .  1-2 


Oz. 

Water, 
Woody  fibre. 
Wax,  . 
Supar, 

Albumen,  . 
Kesin  and  Salts, 


.  70  00 

.  0-76 
300 

.  2  00 
1-74 


For  use  as  man  tire,  these  faeces  are  of  little  value 
as  compared  with  guano,  dissolved  bones,  or  super- 
phosphates, and,  indeed,  the  principal  effete  matters 
of  importance  to  the  agriculturist  are  resident  in 
the  urine  or  liquid  excrement  of  the  higher  ani- 
mals. In  the  case,  however,  of  birds  and  reptiles, 
the  urine  and  faeces  are  voided  together  more  or  less 
moist,  and  iiencc  the  richness  of  such  excremeutitious 


Uiiciicid.     .       .       .  . 
Anmionia,        .       .  * 
Potash,  .... 
Sul|iliate  of  potash,  . 
PhoBphato  (if  lime,  &c.. 
Mucus  and  colouring  matter, 


.  9f)  16 
170 

.  345 
0-96 

.  0-80 
294 

100  00 


FAED,  John,  a  popidar  Scottish  painter,  wvm 
born  in  1820  at  Burley  Mill,  in  the  stewartry  ci 
Kirkcudbright,  where  his  father  was  an  engineer 
and  millwright.  His  love  of  art  was  manifested  at 
an  early  period,  and  when  hardly  entered  on  his 
teens,  he  was  in  the  habit  of  making  tours  through 
the  villages  of  Galloway,  painting  miniatures. 
In  1841,  he  came  to  Edinburgh,  where  his  talents 
ultimately  won  him  a  high  reputation.  The  first 
picture  of  F.'s  that  obtained  great  popularity  was 
'  The  Cruel  Sisters,'  the  subject  of  which  was  taken 
from  an  old  Scottish  ballad.  It  was  exhibited  in  1851. 
Since  then,  F.  has  executed,  among  other  works, 
'  Shakspeare  and  his  Contemporaries,' '  Keason  and 
Faith,'  'The  Cotter's  Saturday  Night'  (probably  the 
most  widely  admired  of  all  his  efforts),.  '  Tarn  o* 
Sbanter,'  and  '  The  Soldier's  Return.' 

FAED,  Thomas,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Burley  Mdl  in  1826,  and  has  also  followed 
the  career  of  an  artist.  One  of  his  earliest  efforts 
was  a  drawing  (in  water-colours)  from  the  Old  Eng- 
lish Baron.  In  1849,  he  became  an  Associate  of  the 
Royal  Scottish  Academy,  and  shortly  after  executed 
a  very  attractive  work,  entitled  'Scott  and  his 
Friends  at  Abbotsford.'  In  1852,  he  removed  to 
London,  where  his  '  Mitherless  Bairn,'  exhibited  in 
1855,  was  declared  by  the  critics  to  be  '  the  pictui-e 
of  the  season.'  Of  his  subsequent  works,  we  need 
only  mention,  '  Home  and  the  Homeless,'  and  '  The 
First  Break  in  the  Family,'  the  latter  of  which  is 
remarkable  for  its  simple  and  homely  pathos. 

FAE'NZA,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of 
Ravenna,  and  20  miles  south-west  of  the  to-\vn  of 
that  name,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Lamone,  in  a  beautiful  and  highly  cultivated  plain. 
It  is  surrounded  with  walls,  is  well  built,  and  is  in 
the  form  of  a  square,  divided  by  four  great  streets, 
which  meet  in  the  centre.  The  streets  of  F.,  though 
in  general  narrow,  contain  good  buildings,  among 
which  the  chief  are  an  imposing  cathedi-al,  a  fine 
market-place,  surrounded  with  arcades  and  adorned 
with  a  fountain,  and  numerous  palaces  and  eccle- 
siastical edifices.  It  is  the  seat  of  considerable 
manufactures  of  glazed  and  coloured  earthenware 
vessels,  which  in  Italy  are  called  'Majolica,'  and  in 
France  '  Faience '  (q.  v.).  Linen  has  a  high  place  in 
the  products  of  the  town.    Pop.  35,592. 

F.,  the  ancient  Faventia,  was  at  one  period  a  towa 
of  the  Boii,  was  afterwards  a  municipium  under 
the  Romans,  and  was  annexed  to  the  States  of  tits 
Church  in  the  15th  c.  by  Pope  Alexander  VI.,  in 
which  condition  it  remained  tdl  1860,  when,  -witb 
the  Emilian  provinces,  it  was  annexed  to  ihi 
kingdom  of  Italy  tmder  Victor  EmmanueL 

FA'GGING  is  the  name  given  to  a  usage  pecu^ai 
to  the  gi-eat  public  scliools  of  England,  the  nature  of 
which  wiU  be  presently  described.  The  origin  of 
the  practice  cannot  be  traced.  No  school  statute* 
refer  to  it,  no  school  traditions  speak  of  a  time  when 
it  was  not.  The  statutes  of  Eton  College  rather 
indicate  precautions  against  it,  for  they  ordain  that 
there  be  thirteen  poor  youths  in  the  establishment 
to  work  for  the  college ;  but  in  Edward  IV.'a 
time  the  college  was  much  impoverished  by  roy;d 
depredations — the  fellowships  were  cut  down  froai 

ai7 


PAGGIXG. 


ten  to  seven,  and  these  pauperes  junior es  ubolished. 
However,  be  the  origin  what  it  may,  the  institution, 
as  we  have  said,  exists,  and  in  very  nearly  the  same 
form,  in  all  the  public  schools — that  is  to  say,  Eton, 
Harrow,  Westminster,  Winchester,  and  ]lugby.  Its 
main  features  are,  in  every  case,  much  as  follows: 
In  each  school  there  are  two  limits,  the  upper  limit, 
extending  to  the  bottom  of  the  first  one  or  two 
forms  (the  public  school  designation  of  classes), 
below  which  a  boy  may  not  fag ;  and  the  lower  limit, 
Comprisin^^  the  last  four  or  five  of  the  lowest  forms, 
above  which  a  boy  may  not  be  fagged.  The  boys 
between  these  limits,  as  also  those  who,  although 
comprised  within  the  lower  limit,  have  been  more 
than  a  certain  time  in  the  school,  are  devoid  alike 
of  rights  and  duties  in  connection  with  this  practice. 
The  serAaces  of  a  fag  are  of  two  kinds — the  one  com- 

E rising  his  duties  to  a  special  master,  to  whom  he  has 
een  assigned  ;  the  other  consisting  of  those  due  to 
the  whole  of  the  upper  boys.  The  former  comprise 
Buch  tasks  as  preparing  his  master's  breakfast, 
stoking  his  master's  fire,  carrying  his  master's 
messages,  and  smuggling  into  the  house  little  forbidden 
delicacies  for  his  master's  consumi)tion,  and  in  this 
instance,  if  detected,  bearing  his  master's  punish- 
ment. Those  services  which  a  lower  boy  owes  to 
the  whole  of  the  upper  boys,  consist  of  attendance 
at  the  games.  In  the  cricket  season,  the  fags  perform 
the  functions  of  a  net,  and  stand  behind  the  wickets 
to  stop  the  balls  while  their  seniors  arc  practising ; 
and  at  all  seasons  they  are  liable  to  the  drearier 
task  of  waiting  attendance  on  the  racket-players, 
and  retrieving  the  balls  which  have  been  '  skyed '  out 
of  the  court.  All  cases  of  difficulty  arising  out  of 
fagging  are  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  head-boy 
in  the  house,  or  the  head  of  the  school,  and  are 
settied  by  reference  to  him.  Such  are  the  main 
features  of  fagging  at  the  present  day — the  idea 

Eervading  the  institution  being,  that  no  boy  should 
e  liable  to  the  performance  of  any  duties  really 
menial,  but  only  such  as,  in  the  absence  of  the 
practice,  would  naturally  be  performed  by  each  boy 
for  himself.  Many  of  the  abuses  of  this  practice, 
which  have  from  time  to  time  been  discovered  and 
suppressed,  afibrd  whimsical  illustrations  of  the 
peccant  ingenuity  of  boy- nature.  lu  one  school,  a 
senior  boy  once  had  a  study,  but  was  not  studious  ; 
he  might  have  let  it  out  to  a  younger  boy  in  want 
of  a  crib  to  read  in  at  a  rent  of  some  five  or  ten 
shillings  a  term,  but  his  mind  soared  beyond  such 
paltry  dealings  ;  he  conceived  vaster  and  grander 
ideas  of  the  management  of  his  property :  he  set  up 
a  tap.  He  smuggled  into  his  room  a  nine-gallon 
cask,  called  a  '  governor.'  There  was  a  rapid  suc- 
cession of  governors,  and  a  brisk  demand  for  beer ; 
BO  he  appointed  his  fag,  a  fine  stout  lad,  as  deputy- 
tapster  to  receive  the  coppers.  The  deputy  grew 
attached  to  both  his  governors,  and  flourished  long 
and  happily  in  the  faithful  discharge  of  his  duties. 
Another  instance  consisted  of  an  equally  whimsical 
and  widely  dixterent  exercise  of  power.  A  sixth- 
form  boy,  of  High  Church  principles,  made  his  fags, 
two  very  nice  well-conditioned  yomig  scholars,  get 
up  early  and  come  to  his  room  every  morning  before 
school  [or  prayers. 

So  prominent  a  feature  in  the  constitution  of 
English  public  schools  as  the  institution  of  fagging, 
has,  of  coiurse,  received  much  criticism  from  educa- 
tional reformers.  The  well-known  author  of  the 
letters  from  Paterfamilias  to  the  Cornlull  Magazine, 
himself  an  Etonian,  and  one  of  those  rare  instances 
of  a  public-school  man  dissatisfied  with  the  recollec- 
tions of  his  school-life,  speaks  of  the  practice  with 
the  greatest  bitterness.  'Fagging,'  says  he,  'now 
happily  almost  obsolete,  was  also  based  upon  the 
breeches-pocket  question.    I  used  often  to  doubt, 


when  called  off  from  my  studies,  whilst  a  lower  boy 
at  Harchester,  to  mend  my  master'o  fire,  to  prepare 
his  meals,  or  to  brush  his  clothes,  whether  a  system 
which  permitted  and  upheld  such  practices  could 
really  be  beneficial  to  him  or  to  me ;  but  I  never 
had  any  doubt  that  it  was  very  beneficial  to  our 
tutor,  inasmuch  as  it  spared  him  the  wages  of  some 
two  or  three  servants,  whose  menial  work  was  per- 
formed by  the  lower  boys.    Of  course,  the  ingenuity 
of  our  masters  discovered  plenty  of  excellent  argu- 
ments in  support  of  practices  so  convenient  to  them- 
selves ;  our  parents  used  to  be  told  that  carrying 
coals  for  the  upper  boys,  and  toasting  their  muffins, 
made  us  helpful  and  docile,  and  took  the  nonsense 
out  of  bumptious  lads ;  but  such  arguments  would 
have  applied  just  as  aptly  towards  establishing  the 
propriety  of  setting  yoimg  noblemen  and  gentlemen 
to  assist  the  scullion,  or  to  sort  out  the  dirty  linen 
for  the  wash.'    These  are  certainly  sharp  words,  but 
doubtless  many  persons  may  be  found  to  sympathise 
Avith  a  gi-eat  deal  of  the  censure  contained  in  them. 
They  will  tell  us  that  much  vigilance  is  necessary  to 
prevent  the  abuse  of  the  power  of  exacting  casual 
service  on  the  part  of  the  senior  boys,  and  that  the 
rules  of  fagging,  such  as  they  are,  give  no  adequate 
security  against  serious  vexation  and  waste  of  a 
small  boy's  time.     They  say  that  the  favourite 
apology,  on  the  ground  of  its  taking  the  conceit  out 
of  those  who  have  been  spoiled  at  home,  is  falla- 
cious; that  football  and  parsing  are  sufficient  cura- 
tives of  this  evil  tone  of  mind ;  and  that  if  the 
necessity  to  render  service  to  a  senior  takes  the 
conceit  out,  the  subsequent  priAalege  of  the  early 
exercise  of  power  only  too  rapidly  pours  it  in  again. 
They  deny,  also,  the  validity  of  one  very  favoiuite 
assertion  of  the  upholders  of  the  system,  that  the 
relation  between  master  and  fag  often,  and  indeed 
generally,  gives  rise  to  very  pleasant  intimacies 
between  the  upper  and  lower  boys,  and  intimacies 
very  beneficial  to  the  latter.    On  the  contrary,  they 
maintain  that  no  case  of  attachment  between  master 
and  fag  can  be  pointed  to  which  would  not  have 
existed  under  any  circumstances,  and  that  this 
relation  may  often  be  found  to  have  marred  what 
would  otherwise  have  been  a  very  friendly  recollec- 
tion.   The  advocates  of  the  system  tell  us,  on  the 
other  hand,  that  the  attendant  evils  are  greatly 
exaggerated,  and  in  some  cases  purely  fictitious, 
while  it  is  in  many  respects  of  very  great,  if  not 
essential,  service  to  the  existence  of  a  public  school. 
They  deny  that  it  has  been  originated  and  upheld 
by  the  tutors  from  purely  commercial  considerations, 
as  asserted  by  Paterfamilias ;  for,  as  has  been  already 
said,  no  really  menial  services  are  exacted  of  any 
boy,  but  only  such  as  each  boy  might  reasonably  be 
expected  to  perform  for  himself,  inasmuch  as,  in 
point  of  fact,  many  men  at  the  universitj'-— not 
choosing  or  not  being  able  to  afiord  a  gyp — do  really 
prepare  their  own  breakfast,  stoke  their  own  fires, 
and  go  on  their  own  errands.    That  while  abuses  do 
occasionally  occur,  everything  is  against  the  prob- 
ability of  their  frequency  or  extent,  as  the  utmost 
facility  exists  on  the  part  of  the  juniors  for  bringing 
their  grievances  before  the  proper  authorities,  ana 
obtaining  speedy  redress.    They  say  that,  as  a  fact, 
the  services  of  a  fag  are  so  light  that  he  does  not 
care  or  think  about  them,  and  they  appeal  in  support 
of  this  statement  to  the  tone  in  which  the  boys 
themselves  are  in  the  habit  of  referring  to  the 
subject.    See  the  Etonian,  a  periodical  published  by 
some  Eton  boys  30  or  40  years  ago ;  and  the  Trium,' 
virate,  a  similar  and  more  modern  periodical  from 
Harrow  School.    But  the  principal  argument  in 
the  defence  of  the  system  must  always  rest,  its 
sui)porters  tell  us,  upon  the  security  afforded  by  it 
against  bullying.    In  public  schools,  where  the  ages 


FAHRENHEIT 


'-FAIR  ISLE. 


of  tlie  noys  vary  from  ten  to  twenty,  a  much  greater 
liberty  is  given  to  the  hoys,  and  mucli  greater 
confidence  is  reposed  in  them,  tlian  in  private  schools 
— the  idea  being,  that  their  characters  can  only  be 
truly  formed  by  as  unrestricted  intercourse  as 
possible  among  themselves,  not  hampered  by  the 
constant  presence  of  a  superior.  Tliis  constant 
presence  of  a  master  is,  therefore,  replaced  l)y  the 
traditions  and  constitution  of  the  school,  in  which 
each  boy  has  his  assigned  position,  and  his  definite 
fights  and  duties;  a  constitution,  therefore,  which 
each  boy  feels  a  personal  interest  in  u})holding. 
Such  a  society  necessarily  requires  a  provision  for 
the  relation  between  older  and  younger  boys, 
between  the  weaker  and  the  stronger ;  for,  in  the 
absence  of  this,  the  ordinary  aspects  of  barbarism 
would  be  presented,  and  brute  force  be  alone  pre- 
dominant. Such  a  provision,  acceptable  and  intel- 
ligible to  the  boys,  and  reasonable  in  itself,  is  believed 
to  be  found  in  the  fagging  system.  By  this  system, 
it  is  affirmed,  provision  is  made  alike  for  the  claims 
of  age  and  intellect,  inasmuch  as  it  is  scarcely  possible 
that  any  very  stupid  boy  should  fag,  while  no  very 
old  boy  ever  can  be  fagged. 

These  are  the  chief  features  of  the  fagging  system 
at  puljlic  schools,  ^nd  the  principal  argiunents  by 
which  it  is  supported  and  condemned. 

FA'HRENHEIT,  Gabriel  Daniel,  the  improver 
of  the  thermometer,  was  born  at  Danzig  about  the 
end  of  the  17th  c,  and  was  originally  designed  for 
the  commercial  profession.  His  inclination  for 
natural  philosophy  induced  him  to  quit  that  busi- 
ness, and  having  travelled  through  Germany  and 
England  for  the  purpose  of  enlarging  his  know- 
ledge, he  settled  in  Holland.  In  17*20,  he  first 
conceived  the  idea  of  using  quicksilver  instead  of 
spirits  of  w"ine  in  the  construction  of  thermometers, 
by  means  of  which  the  accuracy  of  the  instrument 
was  very  much  improved.  See  Tjiermometer.  In 
1724,  F.  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  London ;  and  the  Philosophical  Transactions  of 
that  year  contain  several  papers  by  him  on  points 
in  natural  philosophy.    He  died  in  1740. 

FAIENCE,  or  FAYENCE,  a  general  term  for 
all  sorts  of  glazed  earthenware  and  porcelain.  The 
origin  of  the  name  is  disputed.  Some  derive  it  from 
Fayence,  a  small  town  of  Provence,  others  from 
Faenza,  a  c?<-.y  of  Italy  ;  while  certain  writers  con- 
sider that  the  isle  of  Majorca  is  at  least  the  place 
where  it  was  originally  manufactured,  in  proof  of 
which  they  appeal  to  the  fact,  that  the  Italians  still 
call  Faience  Majolica  or  Mayolina. 

FAI-FO,  a  seaport  of  Anam  (q.  v.),  is  one  of  the 
more  considerable  marts  of  the  empire.  It  stands 
on  a  rivQr  near  its  mouth,  communicating  with 
Tiiron,  1 5  miles  to  the  north,  by  means  of  a  canal. 
It  exj)Oits  sugar  and  cinnamon,  its  principal  trade 
being  with  China.  It  contains  15,000  inhabitants, 
who  are  mostly  Buddhists. 

FAINEANTS  ROIS  (the  ' Do-nothing  Kings'), 
the  sarcastic  designation  of  the  later  Merovingian 
wvereigus  of  France,  under  whose  name  the  famous 
Maj'ors  of  the  Palace  really  governed  the  country. 
The  first  of  the  Do-nothing  Kings  was  Thierry  III., 
nominally  monarch  of  Burgundy,  Neustria,  and 
Austrasia  ;  the  others  were  Clovis  HI.,  Childebert 
III.,  Dagobert  IIL,  Chilperic  IL,  Thierry  IV.,  and 
Childcric  III.  The  last  of  these  was  dethroned  in 
730  A.  D.,  and  he  being  shut  up  in  a  monastery,  Pepin 
c<  Bref,  Maj'or  of  the  Palace,  caused  himself  to  be 
formally  proclaimed  king.  This  was  the  end  of  the 
Merovingian  dynasty ;  it  is  curious  that  Louis  V., 
the  last  of  the  Carlovingians,  and  a  descendant 
of  Pepin  le  Bref,  also  received  the  contemptuoua 


e})ithet  of  Faineant,  as  zhose  monarchs  had  who 
were  dethroned  by  his  atcestors. 

FAI'NTING,  or  SY^nCOPE  (Gr.  f^jn,  and  ko'ptn,  1 
fall  down),  is  a  condition  in  which,  from  a  sudden 
mental  or  bodily  impression,  the  circulation  of 
})loo(l  is  temporarily  arrested  or  very  much  dimi- 
nished in  force  and  volume,  the  respiration  and  the 
functions  of  the  nervous  system  being  likewise  sus- 
pended. The  indications  of  fainting  to  a  bystander 
are  chiefly  a  sudden  pallor,  accompanied  by  loss  of 
power  over  the  limits,  with  disappearance  of  the  pulse 
and  movements  of  respiration;  the  eyes  are  com- 
monly half  open  or  closed,  the  countenance  blood- 
less, but  quite  at  rest,  and  not  indicative  of  suffering 
or  disturbance  :  the  flaccid,  motionless  condition  of  aU 
the  limbs  also  tends  to  distinguish  simple  fainting 
from  epile])sy,  and  the  other  diseases  attended  with 
spasm  ;  whilst  the  vanishing  of  the  colour,  and  the 
suppression  of  the  pulse,  make  a  marked  distinction 
between  fainting  and  Catalepsy  (q.  v.),  and  other 
forms  of  Hysteria  (q.  v.) ;  with  which  disorders, 
however,  fainting  may  in  some  cases  be  associated. 
The  mode  of  origin  of  fainting,  and  the  study  of  its 
phenomena,  alike  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  it  ia 
primarily  an  impression  upon  the  nervous  system, 
very  much  of  the  same  nature  as  the  Collapse, 
or  shock  of  a  severe  bodily  injury ;  this  reacts,  in 
the  first  instance,  on  the  heart,  and  through  the 
circulation  on  all  the  other  functions  of  the  body. 
Fainting  may  end  in  death,  if  too  prolonged,  or  if 
associated  with  disease  of  the  internal  organs,  and 
especially  of  the  heart ;  hence  a  particular  variety 
of  fainting  has  been  separately  studied,  and  named 
Syncope  anginosa,  or  otherwise  Angina  pectoris. 
See  Heart,  Disease  of.  Ordinarily,  a  person  who 
faints  from  mental  emotion,  a  hot  and  close  atmos- 
phere, or  other  transient  cause,  is  readily  restored 
by  being  laid  on  the  back  with  the  head  low,  and 
surrounded  by  abundance  of  cool  fresh  air.  Any 
tight  articles  of  dress  shoidd  be  loosened,  and  a 
stream  of  cold  air,  or  a  little  cold  water,  should  be 
directed  to  the  face  and  neck,  so  as  to  rouse  the 
respiratory  movements.  It  is  common,  also,  to 
apply  ammonia  or  aromatic  vinegar  to  the  nostrils  ; 
but  a  more  effective  way  of  exciting  the  respiration 
is  to  compress  the  ribs,  and  allow  them  to  expand 
again  alternately,  so  as  to  imitate  the  natural 
movement.  Care  should  be  taken  to  ascertain  that 
there  is  no  obstruction  in  the  throat  or  air-passages, 
as  suffocation  from  mechanical  causes  has  been 
mistaken  for  fainting,  and  the  real  origin  of  the 
mischief  overlooked,  with  fatal  consequences.  Should 
all  other  means  fail.  Galvanism  (q.  v.)  will  sometimes 
succeed  in  restoring  the  respiration  and  heart's 
action. 

FAIOUM.    See  Faytoi. 

FAIR.    See  Fairs. 

FAIR  or  BENMORE  HEAD,  a  promontory 
of  the  north  coast  of  Antrim,  Ireland,  opposite 
Rathlin  Isle,  which  is  four  miles  to  the  north-west. 
It  rises  636  feet  above  the  sea.  The  lower  300 
feet  consists  of  carboniferous  strata,  overlaid  by 
greenstone  columns,  20  to  30  feet  thick,  and  rising 
280  to  300  feet  high.  It  is  perpendicidar  to  the  sea, 
but  slopes  to  the  land.  The  table-laud  on  the  top 
is  covered  with  rich  pasture,  and  presents  fine  views 
of  the  neighbouring  coast,  Rathlin  Isle,  and  the 
Argyleshire  Highlands,  16  miles  distant.  On  the 
promontory  are  two  smaU  lochs,  500  feet  above  the 
sea. 

FAIR  ISLE,  a  soUtary  isle  in  the  Atlantic,  25 
miles  south-south-west  of  Fitful  Head,  in  the  south 
of  Shetland.  It  is  4  by  24  miles  in  extent,  and 
rises  708  feet  abov  t  the  sea,  with  high  rocky  cliflfe 
and  promontories,  one  of  which,  the  Sheep  Craig, 


PAIRBAIRN— FAIRIES. 


1 


rises  480  feet.  The  isle  is  accessible  for  ships  only 
ttt  one  point  on  the  sonth-east.  It  affords  copper 
ores,  and  hand-shaped  sponges  called  'trowie  gloves.' 
I*op.  about  300,  cliiefly  fishers.  At  Stromceiler  Creek, 
was  wrecked,  in  1588,  the  Duke  of  Medina  Sidonia, 
admiral  of  the  Spanish  Armada.  He  escaped,  after 
most  of  his  crew  were  murdered. 

FAIRBAIRN,  Sir  William,  was  born  at 
Kelso,  in  Roxburghshire,  in  1789.  Having  learned  a 
little  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic  at  the  parish 
school  of  Mullochy,  in  Ross-shire,  and  afterwards  got 
some  six  months'  instruction  from  an  uncle,  he 
was  apprenticed  to  an  engine-wright  at  Percymain 
Colliery,  North  Shields.  When  his  apprenticeship 
terminated,  F.  wrought  for  two  years  in  London, 
and  then  visited  many  places  in  England,  Wales, 
and  Ireland,  working  a  short  time  at  each,  in  order 
to  observe  the  various  practices  of  different  localities. 
Eventually,  he  commenced  business  on  his  own 
account  in  Manchester  in  1817.  It  was  a  struggle 
in  which,  without  money  or  connections,  only  great 
abilities  and  perseverance  would  have  succeeded. 
The  first  great  improvement  introduced  by  F.  was 
the  substitution  of  iron  for  wood  in  the  shafting 
of  cotton-mills,  and  the  substitution  of  li^^lit  for 
heavy  shafting  where  metal  was  already  in  use. 
This  exchange  economised  the  cost  of  machinery,  and 
enabled  the  motion  to  be  speeded  from  40  to  160 
revolutions  per  minute.  F.  was  amongst  the  earliest 
of  the  iron  ship-builders,  and  has  originated  various 
improvements  in  their  construction.  The  firm  has 
built  more  than  a  hundred  vessels,  varying  from  the 
smallast  size  up  to  the  war-frigate  of  2600  tons. 

In  18.34 — 1835,  F.  and  Mr  E.  Hodgkinson  were 
imdted  by  the  British  Association  for  Advancement 
of  Science  to  seek  out  the  cause  of  certain  supposed 
defects  in  the  iron  produced  by  hot-blast  furnaces, 
and  a  very  interesting  report  thereon  appears  in 
the  Transactions  of  the  Association.  Neai'ly  at  the 
same  time,  F.  tested  the  strength  of  the  various 
kinds  of  iron  of  Great  Britain,  the  report  of  which 
appears  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Philosophical 
Society  of  Manchester,  and  contains  much  useful 
information  for  engineers.  Another  report,  pub- 
lished in  the  Ti'ansactions  of  the  Royal  Society, 
gives  the  tenacity  of  boiler-plates  of  various  thick- 
nesses, and  determines  the  best  mode  of  riveting. 
He  also  made  a  long  series  of  experiments  on  the 
resistance  of  hollow  tubes  or  cylinders  to  collapse 
from  outward  pressure,  leading  to  valuable  practical 
results. 

The  first  idea  of  a  tubular  bridge  across  the 
Menai  Strait  is  due  to  Robert  Stephenson,  but  its 
realisation  is  due  to  F.  more  than  to  all  other 
men.  Stephenson's  idea  was  a  circular  tube,  sup- 
ported by  chains;  but  the  Britannia  and  Conway 
bridges  are  rectangular  structures,  strengthened  by 
a  series  of  cells  at  the  top  and  bottom,  and  without 
chains  or  any  other  support  from  pier  to  pier.  The 
present  form  results  from  a  long  series  of  experi- 
ments upon  model  tubes — circular,  egg-shaped,  and 
rectangular,  which  were  conducted  entirely  for  a 
long  time  by  F.,  and  latterly,  with  the  aid  of  Mr 
E.  Hodgkinson,  as  a  mathematician,  to  deduce  a  law 
from  the  tabulated  results  of  experiments.  F.  has 
erected  more  than  a  hundred  bridges  upon  this 
principle.  See  Tubular  Bridge.  F.  is  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society ;  Corresponding  Member  of  the 
Institute  of  France;  LL.D.  of  Edinburgh;  and  was 
President  of  the  British  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science,  1861—1862.  His  son  Thomas 
was  chairman  of  the  Art  Treasures  Exhibition  at 
Manchester,  1857,  and  is  a  Commissioner  for  the  Exhi- 
bition 1862.  He  declined  knighthood,  but  was  made 
a  baronet  in  Oct.,  1869.  F.  has  published  the  follow- 
j]g  works:  On  Canal /Steam  Navigation  ;  The  Strength 
220 


and  other  Properties  of  Hot  and  Cold  Blant  Iron;  The- 
Strength  of  Iron  at  Different  Temperatures;  The 
Strength  of  Locomotive  Boilers;  The  Effect  of  Itepeated 
Meltings  on  the  Strength  of  Oast  Iron  ;  Tlie  Irons  of 
Great  Britain ;  The  Cohesive  Strength  of  Different 
Qualities  of  Iron  and  Stone;  The  Strength  of  Iron 
Plates  and  Riveted  Joints;  The  Conway  and  Britannia 
Tubular  Bridges;  Tlie  Application  of  Iron  to  Buila- 
ing  Purposes;  Tice  Strength  of  Hollow  Globes  ami 
Cylinders,  when  Exposed  to  Pressure  from  Without ; 
Useful  Information  for  Engineers,  1st  and  2c  series  ; 
A  Treatise  on  Mills  and  Millwork;  and  severi.1  otheif 
papers.  See  Smiles'  Lives  of  Engineers,  1861,  aud 
Industrial  Biography,  1864.    Died  August,  1874. 

FxVIRFAX,  Edward,  the  translator  of  Tasso'a 
Jerusalem  Delivered,  was  a  natural  son  of  Sir 
Thomas  Fairfax,  of  Denton,  in  Yorkshire.  The  year 
of  his  birth  is  not  known.  He  spent  his  life  at 
Fuystone,  in  the  forest  of  Knaresborough,  in  the 
enjoyment  of  many  blessings  which  rarely  befall 
poets — competence,  ease,  rural  scenes,  and  an  ample 
command  of  the  means  of  study.  F.  was  alive 
in  1631,  Init  he  is  supposed  to  have  died  shortly 
after.  His  celebrated  translation  of  Tasso  was  made 
in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  to  whom  it  is 
dedicated.  The  first  edition  bears  the  date  of  1600. 
For  poetical  beauty  and  freedom,  it  has  been  the 
theme  of  universal  praise.  Dryden  ranked  F.  with 
Spenser  as  a  master  of  English,  and  Waller  said 
that  he  derived  from  him  the  harmony  of  his 
numbers.  F.  also  wrote  a  treatise  on  Demonology,  in 
which  he  was  a  believer — a  credulity  which  was 
probably  of  no  little  use  to  him  in  the  translation 
of  a  work  full  of  the  machinery  of  enchantment. 
Hence  Collins  says  regarding  him — 

Prevailing  poet,  whose  undoubting  mind 
Believed  the  magic  wonders  which  he  sung. 

This  treatise  is  still  in  manuscript. 

FAIRFAX,  Thomas,  Lord,  general  of  the  parlia- 
mentary troops  in  England  during  the  civil  wars 
under  Charles  I.,  was  the  son  of  Ferdinand,  Lord 
Fairfax,  and  was  born  in  1611,  at  Denton,  in  York- 
shire. He  studied  at  St  John's  CoUege,  Cambridge, 
and  afterwards  served  as  a  volunteer  in  Holland, 
under  Lord  Vei'e,  whose  fourth  daughter,  Anne,  he 
married  shortly  after  his  return  to  England.  On 
the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  in  1642,  F.  warmly 
espoused  the  cause  of  the  parhament,  and  was 
appointed  cavalry-general  under  his  father,  who 
commanded  the  parliamentary  forces  in  the  north. 
He  distinguished  himself  so  much  by  his  valour, 
prudence,  and  energy,  that  in  1645,  when  the  Earl  of 
Essex  resigned  his  office  of  general  of  the  parliamen- 
tary forces,  F.  was  appointed  in  his  room.  In  a  short 
time,  Cromwell,  who  had  been  appointed  lieutenant- 
general,  obtained  unbounded  influence  over  him; 
and  from  this  time,  although  nominally  head  of  the 
parliamentary  forces,  he  really  played  a  secondai^ 
part.  At  last,  in  June  1650,  he  refused  to  march 
against  the  Scots,  who  had  proclaimed  Charles  IL 
king,  and  Cromwell  was  appointed  commander-in- 
chief  in  his  stead.  F.  now  withdrew  into  private 
life,  and  did  not  come  forward  again  until  after  the 
death  of  Cromwell,  when  he  showed  a  zeal  for  the 
restoration  of  the  king,  gathered  troops  for  that  pur- 
pose, to  assist  General  Monk  against  Lambert,  and 
was  appointed  one  of  the  delegates  despatched  to  the 
Hague  in  1660  to  promote  the  return  of  Charles  U. 
He  died  at  Bilburgh,  near  York,  12th  Februaiy,  1671. 
F.  had  a  slight  turn  for  literary  pursuits,  and  wrote 
several  works,  prose  and  poetic,  among  others,  one 
entitled  Short  Memorials^  which  was  published  in 
1699. 

FAI'RIES'  ELVES  (Ger.  elbe  or  elfe;  Sw.  elfi 
Dan.  ellefolk  ;  Old  Norse,  alfr  ;  all  allied  apparently 


FAIRIES. 


to  Lat.  alb{ns),  wliite,  and  signifying  a  bright,  Ijenign 
spirit  ;  Fr.  f/ie ;  Ital.  /at(i),  supernatural  beings, 
generally  of  diminutive  size,  a  belief  in  whom  has 
been  among  the  superstitions  of  the  greater  i)ortion 
of  the  Euro])ean  nations.  The  etymology  of  the 
word  /(dry  is  doul)tful ;  some  derive  it  and  the 
Fr.  fee  from  a  Celtic  word  [/aer,  to  charm  or 
bewitch  ;  others  associate  the  Fr.  fee  and  the  Ital. 
fhta  (a  friendly  goddess  or  spirit)  with  Lat.  fatum, 
fate ;  others,  again,  trace  fairj/  to  the  peri  of  the 
Persians  (pronounced  /eri  by  the  Arabians),  holding 
it  to  have  been  brought  to  Europe  by  the  Crusaders. 
Be  this  as  it  may,  the  Celtic  fees  or  fairies  are 
undoubtedly  relics  of  those  matres  and  matrome, 
which  appear  on  Gallo-Roman  inscriptions  as 
objects  of  popular  belief.  After  the  transfusion  of 
the  Teutonic  and  southern  nations,  the  northern 
elves  (which  were  originally  of  two  kinds — the 
light  elvvis,  or  elves  proper,  and  the  dark  elves, 
or  dwarfs)  became  mixed  u]>  with  their  Celtic 
kindred  the  fairies  in  inextricable  confusion. 

It  is  generally  difficult  to  give  any  scientific 
definition  of  the  natm-e  of  a  superstition,  because 
its  phenomena  are  continually  varying  according 
to  time,  place,  and  other  conditions.  The  fairy 
superstition  especially  defies  definition,  because  it 
was  the  peculiarity  of  the  creatures  to  whom  it 
referred  that  they  followed  no  regular  law,  human 
or  divine,  but  obeyed  the  impulse  of  their  own 
caprice  ;  hence  every  fairy  taie  differs  from  another. 
Still,  there  are  distinctions  and  specialities  that 
can  be  made  out  from  the  examination  of  a  large 
number  of  these  narratives.  In  the  first  place,  the 
superstition  peculiarly  belongs  to  modern  Europe. 
We  find  nothing  like  it  among  the  idolatries  of 
the  heathen  referred  to  in  Scripture,  nor  does  the 
word  occur  in  the  English  Bible,  or  its  equivalent 
in  the  original  texts.  In  classical  mythology, 
there  is  nothing  nearer  to  it  than  the  nymph  of 
the  fountain  or  grove  among  the  Greeks.  In  the 
next  place,  it  may  be  determined  that  the  varieties 
in  the  superstition  corresiK)nd,  in  some  measure, 
with  those  of  the  phj'sical  geography  of  the  dis- 
tricts in  which  it  prevails.  In  those  parts  of  the 
world  where  there  are  mountains,  mists,  dangerous 
morasses,  cataracts,  and  stormy  oceans,  all  supersti- 
tions, being  a  belief  in  supernatural  agencies,  are 
naturally  exaggerated,  and,  from  the  dangers  to 
which  the  people  are  liable  from  the  agencies  they 
deem  siipernatural,  the  belief  takes  deep  root  in 
their  minds.  Accordingly,  in  flat  and  well  cultivated 
countries  like  England,  the  fairy  superstition  is 
simple  and  homely,  connecting  itself  with  matters 
of  domestic  routine,  such  as  the  sweeping  of  the 
dwelling-house,  the  skimming  of  the  milk,  the 
preservation  of  the  butter,  and  the  like ;  while  in 
Scandina%'ia  and  the  Highlands  the  fairy  people 
ftre  connected  with  storms  and  convulsions,  betray 
people  to  their  death,  fly  away  with  them  into  the 
mfinite  cloud-land,  or  lead  them  through  endless 
carerns  within  the  earth.  It  has  been  observed, 
as  a  further  distinction,  that  the  fairies  of  the 
German  or  Teutonic  tribes  are  more  harsh,  fierce, 
uncomely  or  deformed  than  those  of  the  Celtic 
nations,  which  have  a  tendency  rather  to  the  aerial 
and  the  graceful.  Still,  there  is  so  great  an  amount 
of  common  characteristic  in  the  superstition  through- 
out Europe,  and  its  peculiarities  have  been  found  so 
much  more  emphatieaUy  displayed  in  Scandinavia 
than  elsewhere,  as  to  have  suggested  to  some  the 
view,  that  the  superstition  is  a  remnant  of  the  old 
mythology  of  the  northern  nations,  communicated  by 
them  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  all  the  countries 
over  which  their  vikings  carried  their  ravages. 

T^iere  is  a  further  distinction — at  least  in  this 
tovntiy — between  the  fairies  of  poetic  and  heroic 


literature  and  those  of  popiilar  belief-  -the  fornicT 
being  princes  and  j)rinces8e8  of  chivalry,  rnly  dis- 
tinguished frorn  human  beings  by  their  suj,erhuman 
sui)eriority  in  all  the  qualities  which  elicited  resiject 
in  the  age  of  chivalry  ;  while  those  of  pojiular  belief 
are  small  in  stature,  sometimes  decrej»it,  and  endowed 
with  di3j)Ositions  generally  more  allied  to  malignity 
;  than  magnanimity.    It  is  common  to  all  classes  of 
them  to  be  deemed  under  the  condemnation  of  th« 
I  religion  of  the  gospel,  and  to  be  either  conditionally 
or  unconditionally  excluded  from  the  alxjdes  of  the 
righteous  in  the  next  world.    In  Ireland  and  tlie 
Highlands,  they  have  been  spoken  of  as  a  wandering 
I  remnant  of  the  fallen  ani^els.     It  is  sometimes  a 
symptom  of  geniality  and  kindliness  in  a  people 
j  when  their  fairies  are  sui)posed  to  be  cajialde  of 
I  earning  their  own  redemption.    Sometimes  they  are 
I  supposed  to  be  human  b  sings,  metamorphosed  or 
i  disembodied,  and  this  form  of  the  superstition  has 
i  made  fairyland  a  place  of  purgation  for  those  Avhose 
sins  have  condemned  them  to  it.    The  analogy  is 
I  carried  out  in  the  belief  that  the  services  of  the 
living  can  extricate  the  souls  so  situated ;  but  it 
:  is  rather  through  dexterity  and  courage  than  piire 
I  piety  that  the  feat  is  achieved,  and  the  rescues 
from  fairyland  form  some  of  the  most  wild  and 
i  exciting  of  the  elfin  narratives — as,  for  instance,  the 
strange,  wild  ballad  of  Tamlane, 

There  is  still  another  broad  distinction  into  those 
that  dwell  in  the  upper  air  and  those  that  dwell 
within  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  while  a  third  class 
frequent  the  waters.    The  surface  of  the  earth  on 
j  which  mankind  reside  is  not  deemed  the  proper 
I  place  of  any  class  except   on  special  occasions. 
I  The  Scandinavians  called  the  fairy  inhabitants  of 
i  the  air  white  elves ;   those  of  the  earth,  black, 
j  Whatever  was  genial,  light,  playful,  and  benevo- 
{  lent   in   the    superstition,    clustered    round  the 
I  former ;  the  latter  did   aU  the  work  that  was 
j  dark,  cruel,  and  rapacious.    Naturally  enough,  the 
black    or   subterranean   kind   frequented  mining 
districts,  where  they  might  be  seen  extracting  the 
I  ore  for  themselves,  and  thus  unwittingly  leading 
j  the  miner  to  rich  veins  of  metal.    They  might  be 
i  seen  in  an  occasional  peep  through  an  apertiu'e  of  a 
j  hill  in  their  underground  retreats,  in  chambers 
1  supported  on  jasper  columns,  where  they  were 
j  stowing  away  their  hampers  of  gold  and  silver — for 
they  were  generally  held  to  be  very  affluent.  Some 
i  of  the  most  exciting  tales  about  the  German  gnome, 
I  and  the  Irish  leprechaun,  who  was  a  creature  of 
[  the  same  kind,  are  founded  on  the  efi^orts  of  adven- 
turous mortals  to  get  possession  of  their  riches. 
There  exists  a  legend,  occurring  in  nearly  identical 
terms  in  several  countries,  which  connects  some 
piece  of  valuable  plate  belonging  to  a  church  with 
the  underground  faii'ies.    The  story  of  the  horn 
of  Oldenburg  is  a  type  of  these  narratives.  The 
pictures  of  it  represent  it  as  a  beautifid  drinking 
vessel,  in  the  shape  of  a  horn,  exquisitely  decorated 
with  the  finest  fancifid  silver-work,  in  the  style 
contemporary  with  the  richest  Gothic  architecture. 
The  legend  is,  that  one  day,  Otho  of  Oldenburg, 
being  exhausted  -with  hunting,  and  very  thirsty, 
exclaimed  :  '  0  God,  would  that  1  had  a  cool  drink ! ' 
Thereupon  there  appeared  before  him,  as  if  coming 
out  of  the  rock,  a  lovely  maiden,  who  offered  him  a 
drink  in  the  fairy  horn.    He  made  off  with  it,  and 
j  saved  himself  from  evil  consequences  by  bestowing 
it  on  the  church.    Hence  these  relics  are  generally 
in  churches ;  but  one  of  them  is,  or  lately  was,  in 
the  possession  of  an  English  family,  and  as  their 
prosperity  was  traditionally  believed  to  depend  on 
retaining  it,  it  was  called  '  The  Luck  of  Eden  HalL' 
Puck  and  the  pixies  belong  to  the  same  class 
of  beings.     Of  the  ell- folks  of  Scandina\'ia,  tb* 

321 


FAIRIES— FAniS. 


male  is  old  and  ill-favoured,  but  tlie  evil  element 
in  the  ell-woman  or  ell-maid  consists  in  her  beauty, 
which  enables  her  to  be  very  dangerous  to  foolish 
young  gentlemen,  whom  she  waylays  either  by  her 
own  proper  charms,  or  by  personating  the  objects 
of  their  affections. 

In  Ireland,  and  also  in  the  border  country  of 
Scotland,  the  fairy  superstition  has  been  the  theme 
of  innumerable  poetic  legends  and  mystic  traditions. 
T.  Crofton  Croker,  in  his  Fairy  Legends  and  Tradi- 
tions of  the  South  of  Ireland,  3  vols.  1828,  presents  a 
full  and  amusing  account  of  the  Irish  fairies  or 
elves,  which  he  describes  as  '  a  few  inches  high, 
airy,  and  almost  transjiarent  i  body  ;  so  delicate  in 
their  form  that  a  dew-drop,  vvhen  they  chance  to 
dance  on  it,  trembles  indeed,  but  never  breaks. 
Both  sexes  are  of  extraordinary  beauty,  and  mortal 
b(!ings  cannot  be  compared  with  tliem.'  They  do 
not  live  alone,  or  in  pairs,  but  always  in  large 
societies,  and  are  governed  by  a  queen.  The  same 
author  adds :  '  They  are  invisible  to  man,  parti- 
cularly in  the  day-time,  and  as  they  can  be  present 
and  hear  what  is  said,  the  peasantry  never  sjieak  of 
them  but  with  caution  and  respect,  terming  them 
the  good  people,  or  friends.  They  have  their  dwell- 
ings in  clefts  of  rocks,  caves,  and  ancient  tumidi. 
Every  part  within  is  decorated  in  the  most  splendid 
and  magnificent  manner ;  and  the  pleasing  music 
which  sometimes  issues  from  thence  in  the  night, 
has  delighted  those  who  have  been  so  fortunate  as 
hear  it.'  There  are  Irish  fairies,  however,  of  more 
special  character.  Among  these  are  the  Banshee, 
or  female  spirit  who  watches  a  particidar  family ; 
the  Cluricaune,  an  elf  of  evil  disposition,  who 
usually  appears  as  a  wrinkled  old  man,  and  has  a 
knowledge  of  hidden  treasure  ;  and  the  Phooka, 
a  spirit  of  diabolical  disposition,  who  sometimes 
appearing  as  an  eagle  or  a  black  horse,  hurries  the 
person  he  gets  possession  of  to  desti'uction.  Of 
similar  varieties  are  the  Scottish  elves :  the  Brownie, 
or  domestic  spirit  nearly  corresponding  to  the  Ban- 
shee ;  the  Kelpy,  a  kind  of  water-horse,  being  little 
different  from  the  Phooka  ;  and  the  Cluricaune  being 
as  regards  figure  somewhat  analogous  to  the  being 
sung  by  Leyden  in  his  charming  ballad,  '  The  Court 
of  Keeldar'  {Minstrelsy  of  the  Scottish  Border)  : 

*  Brown  dwarf,  that  o'er  the  muirland  strays, 

Thy  name  to  Keeldar  tell ! ' 

*  The  Brown  Man  of  the  muirs,  who  stays 

Beneath  the  heather-bell.' 
According  to  Irish  as  well  as  Scottish  fairy  super- 
etition,  the  elves,  though  in  the  main  harrnless,  or 
at  most  tricky,  have  the  bad  reputation  of  stealing 
away  young  children  from  the  cradle,  and  substitut- 
ing for  them  a  changeling  who  bears  a  resemblance 
to  the  stolen  infant,  but  is  an  ugly  little  creature, 
and  never  thrives.  On  this  theft  of  a  female 
infant,  who  is  carried  to  Fairyland,  but  in  the 
course  of  years  returns  to  her  parents,  James  Hogg 
foimded  his  fine  ballad  of  '  Kdmeny '  {Queen's  Wake). 
It  need  hardly  be  added,  that  in  the  progress  of 
general  intelligence,  the  fairy  superstition  has  dis- 
appeared in  Scotland  as  well  as  in  the  greater  part 
of  Ireland,  and  now  is  as  little  a  matter  of  credence 
as  is  the  belief  in  England  of  that  useful  drudging 
fiend,  Eobin  Goodfellow.  Besides  being  embalmed 
La  imaginative  Hterature,  the  fairy  has  a  perpetual 
memorial  in  the  small  exquisitely  shaped  arrow- 
heads found  so  abundantly  in  northern  countries, 
^here  they  were  long  known  as  elf- arrows,  or  bolts 
with  which  the  more  malignant  fairies  sometimes 
slew  or  injured  cattle  and  hiunan  beings ;  thus, 
when  a  poor  man's  cow  or  heifer  was  suddenly 
affected  with  some  deadly  and  incomprehensible 
illness,  it  was  said  to  be  '  elf-shot.'  See  Elf- arrow- 
he  a  t>m. 

222 


For  the  most  comprehensive  account  in  the 
English  language  of  the  various  shapes  as^sumed  by 
this  superstition,  the  reader  is  referred  to  The  Fairy 
Mythology,  by  Thomas  Keightley. 

FAIRS  (Fr.  folre,  from  Lat.  forum,  &  market 
place,  or  ferioi,  holidays),  great  periodical  marketi, 
some  of  which  are  chiefly  devoted  to  one  kind  al 
merchandise,  while  others,  of  a  wider  scope,  afford 
opportunity  for  most  of  the  sales  and  purchases  of 
a  district.  Fairs  have  long  been  regularly  held  in 
most  parts  of  Europe,  and  in  many  parts  of  Asia; 
but  as  they  belong  rather  to  a  state  of  things  which 
is  passing  away,  than  to  modern  civilisation,  thfy 
have  not  been  established  or  have  not  acquirtcl 
the  same  importance  in  America.  In  Eujojte,  they 
appear  to  have  ori^rinated  in  the  church  festivals, 
which  were  found  to  afford  convenient  0})por» 
tunities  for  commercial  transactions,  the  concourse 
of  people  being  such  as  took  place  upon  no  other 
occasion.  This  origin  of  fairs  is  commemorated  in 
their  German  name  Messen,  which  is  derived  from 
the  word  employed  to  denote  the  most  solemn  part 
of  the  church  service.  See  Mass.  Some  festivals, 
from  circumstances  of  place  and  season,  speedily 
acquired  a  much  greater  commercial  importance 
than  others,  and  began,  therefore,  to  be  frequented 
by  buyers  and  sellers  even  from  remote  parts  o<"  the 
world.  When  the  ordinary  means  of  communication 
between  countries  and  of  the  exchange  of  commo- 
dities were  very  limited,  fairs  were  of  great  use. 
Princes  and  the  magistrates  of  free  cities  found  it 
to  their  advantage  to  encourage  them,  and  many 
privileges  were  granted  to  them,  which  in  some 
places  still  subsist.  Courts  of  summary  jurisdiction 
— commonly  called  pie  poudre,  from  the  dusty  feet 
of  the  suitors — were  established  distinct  from  the 
ordinary  courts  of  the  county  or  city,  for  the  deter- 
mination of  questions  which  might  arise  during  the 
fair.  In  connection  with  all  this,  the  practice  was 
necessarily  adopted  of  publicly  proclaiming  the  com- 
mencement and  duration  of  the  fair,  and  this  stiU 
subsists  where  scarcely  any  other  vestige  remains 
of  the  old  privileges  of  fairs,  and  where  they  have 
ceased  to  be  of  any  real  use  to  the  commimity,  and 
might,  perhaps,  with  advantage  to  all  the  interests 
of  society,  be  now  abolished,  as  in  the  case  of  some 
of  the  annual  fairs  still  held  in  the  great  cities  of 
Britain. 

In  Western  Europe,  the  goods  exposed  for  sale  at 
fairs  are  chiefly  those  in  respect  of  which  there  is 
a  frequent  change  of  fashion.  Provisions  are  seldom 
an  article  of  merchandise  in  them ;  and  while  in 
some  parts  of  the  continent  persons  of  all  ranks 
still  wait  for  the  great  yearly  fairs  to  make  their 
principal  piirchases  of  clothing  and  of  manufactured 
articles  of  every  description — such  things  as  corn, 
wine,  spirits,  tea,  coffee,  sugar,  tobacco,  oil,  &c.,  are 
seldom  seen  in  themu  It  is  otherwise,  however,  in 
places  on  the  outskirts  of  civilisation;  and  almost 
all  the  produce  of  great  provinces  is  sold,  and  all 
that  their  inhabitants  require  is  bought  at  such 
fairs  as  those  of  Kiachta  and  Nishnij -Novgorod. 
The  British  fairs  really  of  much  use  at  the  present 
day  are  chiefly  those  at  which  cattle  are  exposed  for 
sale :  of  these  some  held  on  the  borders  of  the 
Scottish  Highlands,  and  elsewhere  in  Scotland,  are 
frequented  by  buyers  and  sellers  from  all  parts  o£ 
the  kingdom,  and  bring  together  the  breeders  of 
cattle  and  the  graziers,  by  whom  the  animals  are  to 
be  fed  for  the  butcher.  Such  are  the  fairs  or  trysts, 
as  they  are  called,  at  Falkirk,  Doune,  Edinburgh, 
&c.  At  other  great  yearly  fairs  in  the  south  of 
Scotland,  lambs  and  wool  are  sold ;  and  fairs  chiefly 
for  the  sale  of  the  annual  produce  of  pastoral  dis- 
tricts are  common  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  world. 

The  greatest  fairs  in  the  world  are  the  Easter  ard 


FAIRY  RINGS— FAITH. 


Michaelmas  fairs  at  Leipsic.  These  are  not  to  be 
confounded  with  the  Leipsic  Book-fair,  which  is 
chiedy  an  occasion  for  the  settlement  of  accounts 
among  booksellers  and  publishers.  Next  to  the 
Leipsic  fairs,  those  of  Frankfurt-on-the-Maine  are 
the  most  important  in  Germany.  The  fairs  of 
Frankfurt-on-the-Oder,  and  of  Brunswick  in  Ger- 
many, of  Zurzach  in  Switzerland,  Pesth  in  Hungary, 
Sinigaglia  in  Italy,  Bergamo  in  Lombardy,  Beaucaire 
and  Lyon  in  France,  and  Nislinij -Novgorod  in  Russia, 
are  among  the  most  important  in  Europe.  After 
the  great  fairs  of  Leipsic,  that  called  the  Fair  of 
St  Peter  and  St  Paul  at  Nishnij -Novgorod  is  the 
greatest  in  the  world,  and  is  frequented  by  buyers 
and  sellers  from  different  parts  of  Europe,  and  of 
Northern  and  Central  Asia.  The  fairs  of  Tanta  in 
Upper  Egyjit,  of  Kiachta  in  the  south  of  Siberia,  of 
Irbit,  also  in  Siberia,  of  Mecca  in  Arabia,  and  of 
Hvirdv;ar  in  Western  India,  are  also  of  very  great 
importance,  and  are  the  most  considerable  fairs  out 
of  Europe.  That  of  Kiachta  is  a  sort  of  barter- 
market,  where  almost  all  the  commercial  trans- 
actions between  the  Russian  and  Chinese  empires 
take  place.  The  fairs  in  Britain  have  latterly  simk 
for  the  most  part  to  insignificance,  and  in  many 
instances  have  entirely  disappeared.  They  were 
gatherings  adapted  to  a  comparatively  backward 
state  of  society,  when  the  provincial  stores  of  goods 
were  few,  and  the  means  of  communication  defec- 
tive. The  prevalence  of  good  roads,  populous  towns 
with  dealers  in  miscellaneous  wares,  and  other 
toketis  of  advancement,  have  superseded  the  neces- 
sity for  the  orcUnary  class  of  fairs,  and  in  coiise- 
quence  they  have  in  some  cases  degenerated  into 
scenes  of  merriment,  such  was  Bartholomew  Fair, 
London,  now  extinct ;  also  Greenwich  Fair,  Glasgow 
Fair,  and  Donnybrook  Fair,  near  Dublin ;  this  last 
being  likewise  either  extinct,  or  nearly  so.  The 
boisterous  merriments  at  these  fairs  were  of  old  the 
devices  employed  as  likely  to  attract  a  great  con- 
course of  people ;  hence  each  fair  had  its  sport  or 
drollery — football,  wrestling,  yawning,  cudgel-play- 
ing, throwing  at  cocks,  sack-races,  flying  dragons, 
grinning  through  horse-collars,  mock-giants,  mon- 
strous iishes,  soaped  pigs,  smoking-matches,  eating 
hot  hasty-pudding,  whistling,  wheelbarrow  races. 
M.  Bottin,  the  author  of  a  statistical  View  of  the 
Fairs  of  France,  says  that  on  examining  his  work  it 
will  appear  that  they  were  placed  for  the  most  part 
on  the  frontiers  of  the  kingdom,  or  on  the  marches 
of  ancient  provinces  ;  or  at  the  foot  of  high  moun- 
tains, at  the  beginning  or  end  of  the  snow- season, 
which  for  months  shuts  up  the  inhabitants  in  their 
valleys  ;  or  in  the  neighbom-hood  of  famous  cathe- 
drals or  churches  frequented  by  flocks  of  pilgrims  ; 
or  in  the  middle  of  rich  pastures.  A  fau'  in  the 
north  of  Scotland,  held  in  June,  when  the  nights  are 
very  short,  began  at  sunset,  and  ended  an  hour 
after  sunrise  :  it  was  called  '  Sleepy  jSIarket.' 

FAIRY  RINGS  are  spots  or  circles  in  pastxires, 
which  are  either  more  bare  than  the  rest  of  the 
field,  or  more  green  and  luxuriant.  Frequently  a 
bare  ring  appears,  like  a  footpath,  with  green  grass 
in  the  centre,  and  the  circle  which  the  ring  forms, 
or  of  which  it  might  form  a  part,  is  often  some  yards 
in  diameter.  These  rings  began  to  attract  the 
attention  of  men  of  science  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
last  century,  and  various  hypotheses  were  suggested 
to  account  for  them.  Some  imagined  that  they 
might  be  the  effect  of  lightning.  Dr  Withering 
appears  to  have  been  the  first  to  ascribe  them  to  the 
growth  of  mushrooms.  Dr  WoUaston  further  inves- 
tigated the  subject,  which  has  more  recently  been 
very  fully  investigated  by  Professor  Way ;  and  it  is 
now  perfectly  ascertained  and  universally  admitted, 
that  fairy  rings  residt  from  the  centrifugal  develop- 


ment of  certain  kinds  of  fungi,  especially  of 
Agaricus  oreades,  A.  f/ambosus,  A.  coccineus,  and 
A.  personaluH.  The  Common  Mushroom  {A.  cam- 
pestris)  shews  a  tendency  to  grow  in  the  same 
manner.  Probably  the  spot  where  the  agaric  has 
already  grown  is  unfitted  for  its  continued  nourish- 
ment, and  the  mycelium  (spawn)  extends  outwards 
to  new  soil,  the  fungus  unfitting  the  soil  to  which 
it  extends  for  the  immediate  nourishment  of  grass, 
but  enriching  it  afterwards  by  its  own  decay.  Tha 
mycelium  of  many  fungi  has  certainly  a  tendency  to 
extend  outwards  from  a  centre ;  and  decayed  fungi, 
containing  not  a  little  of  the  phosphate  of  pctasL^ 
are  a  highly  stimulant  manure  for  grasses.  Fairy 
rings  of  large  size  sometimes  occupy  the  same  situ- 
ation for  many  years.  The  circle  is  almost  always 
imperfect,  some  accidental  circumstance  ha\'iiig 
arrested  the  growth  of  the  mycelium  on  one  side. 

FAITH  is  used  by  theologians  in  various  senses. 
It  is  sometimes  taken  to  denote  the  mere  assent  of 
the  understanding  to  a  set  of  facts  or  of  propositions 
set  before  it ;  it  is  more  peculiarly  used  to  express 
the  living  reception  by  the  heart  of  the  'truth  as 
it  is  in  Christ.'  Some  diAanes  have  enumerated 
no  fewer  than  four  kinds  of  faith :  1.  The  faith 
of  miracles,  or  that  immediate  persuasion  of  the 
Almighty  presence  and  power  of  their  Master, 
which  enabled  the  early  Christians  to  work  miracles 
— a  persuasion,  apparently,  which  might  exist  and 
issue  in  astonishing  residts  without  being  associated 
with  moral  excellence.  'Though  I  have  all  faith,' 
says  St  Paul,  '  so  that  I  could  remove  mountains, 
and  have  not  charity,  I  am  nothing.'  2.  Historical 
faith,  or  the  assent  of  the  understanding  to  truth 
the  evidence  of  which  is  irresistible,  such  as  we 
have  described  above.  3.  Partial  or  temporary 
faith,  such  as  owv  Lord  implies  in  his  exposition  of 
the  parable  of  the  Sower,  and  as  appeared  to  ani- 
mate those  who,  after  having  followed  after  Christ, 
turned  back  and  walked  no  more  with  him ;  and 
4.  Saving  faith,  or  the  persuasion  of  Christian  truth 
wrought  in  the  heart  by  the  Holy  Spirit. 

These  distinctions  are  rather  theological  refine- 
ments than  anything  else ;  the  proper  and  char- 
acteristic meaning  of  the  term  faith  in  Scripture  has 
little  to  do  wdth  any  of  them  except  the  last. 
'  Faith,'  says  the  writer  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
*  is  the  substance  of  things  hoped  for,  the  evidence 
of  things  not  seen.'  It  is  a  A^sion,  quality,  or 
capacity  of  soul  whereby  spmtual  truth  is  appre- 
hended, and  spiritual  life  engendered.  The  distant 
is  brought  near  by  it,  and  substantially  appropri- 
ated ;  the  imseen  is  felt  to  be  a  reality.  Faith  is 
the  organ  by  which  the  soul  passes  beyond  the 
present  and  the  visible  to  the  eternal  and  the  invisible. 
Still  more  characteristically,  perhaps,  faith  is  the 
living  affection  which  binds  the  Ckristian  to  Christ 
as  a  Saviour.  'Faith  is  a  sa\dng  grace  whereby 
we  receive  and  rest  upon  Christ  alone  for  salvation, 
as  he  is  freely  offered  to  ns  in  the  gospel'  This  ia 
its  highest  and  most  comprehensive  meaning,  out 
of  which  aU  the  others  come.  '  ^\^lat  shall  I  do  to 
be  saved  ? '  asked  the  Philippian  jailer  of  Paii 
'  Believe  on  the  Lord  Jesus  Chiist,'  he  replied,  '  and 
thou  shalt  be  saved.'  And  it  is  remarkable  how 
frequently  it  is  Cln-ist  or  God — a  li^nng  person — 
rather  ^  than  any  mere  truth  or  series  of  truths 
which  is  represented  as  the  proper  object  of  Ckris- 
tian faith.  '  Ye  believe  in  God  ;  believe  also  in  me.' 
'We  beheve  in  him  that  raised  up  Jesus  our  Lord 
from  the  dead.'  'Abraham  beheved  God,  and  it 
was  accounted  to  him  for  righteoixsness.'  'Come 
imto  me  all  ye  that  labour  and'are  heavy  laden,  and 
I  will  give  you  rest.' 

Faith,  therefore,  in  this  its  highest  view,  is 
nothing  but  trust  in  God  and  in  Christ.    This  is 

223 


FAITHORNE-FAKIR. 


the  faith  which  '  worketh  by  love,'  and  '  overcometh 
the  world' — the  faith  of  which  St  Paul  and  St 
John  alike  speak.  The  faith  mentioned  by  St 
James  in  apparent  conflict  with  works  is  different ; 
it  seems  to  have  been  a  mere  reli^ons  distinction. 
•  Thou  hast  faith,  and  I  have  works.  One  jjarty  put 
forth  faith  as  their  religious  badge — another  works. 
The  spiritual  or  true  meaning  of  either  the  one 
or  the  other  was  little  regarded. 

Faith,  in  the  distinctively  Christian  sense,  can 
only  exist  by  the  operation  of  God's  Holy  Spirit. 
'For  by  grace  are  ye  saved,  through  faith;  and  that 
not  of  yourselves  ;  it  is  the  gift  of  God.'  Ortho- 
dox divines  greatly  insist  on  the  necessity  of  this 
operation  of  the  Spirit  of  God,  yet  not  so  as  to 
exclude  the  active  co-operation  of  man.  The  Pelagian 
and  Antinomian  extremes  respectively  throw  out 
-  —the  former  the  divine,  the  latter  the  human  ele- 
ment. Orthodoxy  combines  the  two,  attributing  to 
God  the  effective  agency,  but  to  man  a  real  and 
voluntary  concurrence.  Some  of  tlie  principal 
theological  controversies  connected  with  faith,  and 
not  here  already  mentioned,  will  be  noticed  under 
Justification. 

FAITHORNE,  William,  a  very  eminent  English 
engraver,  was  born  in  London  in  the  early  part  of 
the  17th  c,  but  the  exact  date  is  not  known.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Mr  (afterwards  Sir  Pobcrt)  Peake, 
printer  and  printseller.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
civil  war,  he  followed  his  master,  who  had  taken 
up  arms  for  King  Charles.  Both  were  taken 
prisoners  at  Basing- House.  F.  was  sent  to  London, 
and  impi-isoned  in  Aldcrsgate,  but  after  some  time 
was  released,  and  obtained  permission  to  leave  the 
country.  He  went  to  France,  where  he  increased 
his  proficiency  in  the  art  of  engraving,  and  i-eturning 
to  England  about  1650,  commenced  business  as  a 
printseller  near  Tem])le  Bar.  He  also  engraved 
steadily  for  the  booksellers  at  the  same  time. 
About  1680,  he  gave  up  his  shop,  but  still  pros- 
ecuted his  art,  besides  executing  portraits  in 
crayon,  and  painting  in  miniature.  He  died  in 
May,  1691.  F.'s  engravings  are  for  the  most  part 
portraits.  Walpole  has  given  a  pretty  full  list  of 
them,  a  few  of  which  we  may  mention,  such  as  the 
portraits  of  'Thomas  Hobbes,'  a:tat  76;  'Henrietta 
Maria;'  '  Cromwell ;'  '  Prince  Bupert ;'  '  Sir  Thomas 
Fairfax;'  and  'John  Milton,'  ajtat  62.  At  first 
F.  imitated  the  Dutch  and  Flemish  manner  of 
engraving;  but  his  residence  in  France  appears  to 
have  considerably  modified  his  earlier  style.  F.  is 
also  an  author,  having  published  in  1662  a  treatise  on 
engraving,  dedicated  to  his  old  master,  and  entitled 
The  Art  of  Oraveitig  and  Etcliing^  wherein  is  expressed 
the  true  Way  of  Oraveing  in  Copper.  Also  the  Man- 
ner and  Method  of  that  famous  Callot  and  M,  Borse 
in  their  several  Ways  of  Etching. 

FAKI'R,  a  word  derived  from  the  Arabic  fahhar 
(poor),  and  designating  a  member  of  an  order  of 
mendicants  or  penitents,  chiefly  in  India  and  the 
neighbouring  countries.  In  Persia  and  Turkey,  the 
word  is  also  used  for  Moslem  priests  and  dervishes 
(see  Dervish).  The  origin  of  Fakirism,  an  institution 
which  reaches  back  to  the  most  remote  antiquity, 
is  lost  m  mythical  darkness.  The  common  account 
of  the  son  of  a  mighty  rajah,  who,  expelled  from 
his  home  and  country  by  the  cruelty  of  his  father, 
made  a  vow,  half  in  revenge,  and  half  in  contrition, 
henceforth  to  roam  a  beggar  through  the  world,  and 
to  win  proselytes  to  a  life  of  poverty  and  self- 
mortification,  as  the  one  most  befitting  in  man,  and 
most  pleasing  to  the  Deity,  can  hardly  be  called 
historical.  The  same  yearning  for  rest,  for  peace, 
and  pious  contemplation,  for  escape  from  the  noise 
and  turbulence  of  the  world,  which  has  everywhere 
224 


and  always  led  still  and  pensive  minds  into  seclu- 
sion and  solitude,  nuist  naturally  have  been  more 
pow^erful  here,  in  a  land  which  yielded  almost  of 
itself,  and  in  abundance,  all  that  was  necessary  for 
the  sustenance  of  man — in  a  climate  of  flower  and 
sunshine,  where  a  hermit's  calm  retreat  might  well 
rise  before  the  wearied  eye  in  all  the  soft  sunset 
hues  wdiich  surround  the  abode  of  the  recluse  in 
the  Ramayana,  or  in  the  Sakoontala.  But  constant 
seclusion  and  ceaseless  meditation  here,  as  else- 
where, produced  in  all  but  exceptional  minds  their 
sad  results.  Piety  is  no  longer  enough;  sanctity 
is  the  goal.  Thus,  abstinence  becomes  mortiric^i- 
tion  and  self-torture  ;  mental  rajjose,  mystic  self- 
absorption,  or  frenzied  exaltation.  This  leaning 
the  Hindus  to  a  life  of  asceticism  was  fostered  by 
their  primeval  religion,  which  enjoins  varioui 
exercises  of  penance  and  mortification  upon  thd 
three  higher  castes  in  general,  but  upon  tho 
Brahmins  in  particular.  These,  having  passed 
through  different  stages  of  regeneration,  end  by 
becoming  Sanyassis  ('  who  have  left  everything '), 
and  are  dead  to  the  law.  The  world  and  its  usages 
have  no  more  any  claim  iipon  them;  even  religious 
ceremonies  are  no  longer  necessary  to  the  '  United 
with  God.'  They  go  naked,  or  in  filthy  rags,  receive 
the  meanest  food  only,  and  that  without  either 
demand  or  thanks.  Their  ethical  code  consists  in 
the  observance  of  truth,  chastity,  internal  i)urity, 
constant  repentance,  and  contemplation  of  Deity. 
After  these  models  Fakirism  seems  chiefly  to  liave 
been  framed,  and  its  adherents  were  not  only  pious 
men,  but  occasionally  saints,  workers  of  miracles,  and 
healers  of  all  ills,  especially  epilepsy  and  sterility. 
The  halo  which  from  the  first  surrounded  Fakirism, 
and  the  ready  worship  offered  by  the  people, 
attracted  to  its  ranks,  at  a  very  early  date,  many 
whose  motives  were  anything  but  pure,  and  who, 
under  a  garb  of  humility  and  mendicity,  collected 
fabidous  treasures.  Strabo  already  distingaiishcs 
these  vagabonds  from  the  more  honest  members  of 
their  class,  and  if  we  may  trust  the  travellers  of 
our  ow^n  day,  the  more  respectable  element  has  now 
altogether  disappeared.  Their  number  is  variously 
stated.  In  the  time  of  Tavernier's  visit,  there  were 
more  than  1,200,000  Hindu,  and  800,000  Moham- 
medan  fakii's  in  the  East  Indies,  and  their  present 
number  is  said  to  exceed  3,000,000.  Papi  describes 
the  Mohammedans  as  guilty  of  the  greater  follies. 
At  times,  especially  in  their  return  from  distant 
pilgrimages,  they  are  even  dangerous,  as  the  killing 
of  an  unbeliever  is  supposed  to  be  an  infallible 
introduction  to  the  glories  of  paradise.  They  live 
either  separately  as  hermits  or  solitary  mendicants, 
or  unite  in  large  gangs,  carrying  arms  and  a  banner, 
beating  drums,  and  sounding  horns  as  they  approach 
a  town  or  village.  Their  appearance  is  disgusting 
in  the  extreme ;  they  go  naked,  besmeared  with  the 
dung  of  the  holy  animal,  the  cow.  Some  bedeck 
themselves  with  the  skins  of  serpents,  some  with 
human  bones ;  others  array  themselves  in  the  garb 
of  women.  Their  fearfxd  shrieks,  and  the  hideous 
rollings  of  their  eyes,  add  to  the  disgust  of  their 
appearance.  Imitating  madmen,  they  generally  end 
by  becoming  madmen.  The  height  to  which  self- 
torture  is  frequently  carried  by  these  wretched 
fanatics,  and  of  which  we  meet  with  signs  even  so 
far  back  as  the  Ramayana,  where  a  penitent  is 
described  as  perpetually  sitting  with  upraised  arms 
between  four  fires,  the  sun  forming  the  fifth,  is  so 
appalling  that  himian  nature  shrinks  from  the  mere 
description.  Some  pass  their  whole  lives  in  iron 
cages,  laden  with  heavy  chains ;  some  clench  their 
fists  till  their  nails  grow  through  the  hand ;  others 
hold  aloft  both  their  arms  till  they  become  likn 
withered  branches:  while  others,  agaiu,  tie  theix 


FALAISE— FALCOJ^^  ID^ 


hands  and  feet  together,  and  roll  head  over  heels 
for  thousands  of  miles.  Not  the  least  sad  feature 
m  all  this  is,  that  these  religious  antics  are  not 
contined  to  men,  but  that  youths,  and  even  childi^en 
wf  tender  age,  are  occasionally  initiated  therein. 

FALAISE,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  Calvados,  is  situated  on  a  lofty  i)latform  border- 
ing on  a  i)recipice,  or  falaise,  whence  its  name.  It 
is ''situated  on  the  Ante,  a  feeder  of  the  Dive,  22 
miles  south- south- east  of  Caen.  It  has  three 
Bubarbs,  one  of  them,  Guibray,  a  mile  to  the  east, 
rivals  the  town  itself  in  size  and  population.  The 
buildings  of  interest  are  the  ecclesiastical  edifices, 
the  hospital,  the  i»ublic  library,  and,  more  than  all, 
the  old  and  ruined  castle,  once  the  seat  of  the  dukes 
of  Normandy,  and  the  birthplace  of  William  the 
Conqueror.  In  the  castle,  the  chamber  in  which 
the  Conqueror  was  born  is  still  shewn,  as  well  as 
a  tower  called  '  Talbot's '  Tower,  which  is  supposed 
to  have  been  built  by  Talbot  when  Lord  Warden  of 
the  district,  after  the  capture  of  F.  by  Henry  V.  of 
England.  F.  has  manufactures  of  cottons,  hosiery, 
and  bobbin-net.  At  Guibray,  an  important  annual 
fair  is  held,  at  which  great  numbers  of  horses  and 
cattle  are  sold.  It  takes  place  between  the  10th 
and  25th  of  August.    Pop.  (1872)  7634. 

FALCHION.    See  Swokd. 

FALCON  {Falco),  in  the  Linnrean  zoology,  a 
genus  of  birds,  including  all  the  diurnal  birds  of 
prey,  now  known  as  the  family  of  Falconidce;  but 
in  its  present  use  as  a  generic  name,  limited  to 
nearer  accordance  with  its  popular  use,  as  a  desig- 
nation of  those  species  which,  in  the  language  of 
falconry,  were  styled  noble  birds  of  prey.  The  true 
falcons  are  characterised  by  a  bill  curved  from  the 
base,  the  upper  mandible  hooked  at  the  point,  and 
the  cutting  edge  of  the  upper  mandible  furnished 
with  a  strong  projecting  notch,  or  tooth.  The 
claws  are  also  sharp,  curved,  and  strong ;  and  in 
accordance  with  all  this  powerful  armature,  tlie 
whole  frame  is  very  robust  and  nmscular.  The 
legs  are  rather  short,  and  have  great  power  in 
striking  or  seizing  prey.  The  keel  of  the  sternum 
(breastbone)  is  very  large,  and  adapted  for  the 
attachment  of  powerful  muscles ;  the  furcula  and 
coracoid  bones  (see  Birds)  are  also  very  strong,  so 
as  to  afford  a  sufficient  resisting  base  for  very 
powerful  action  of  the  wings.  The  wings  are  long 
and  pointed,  the  first  and  third  quill-feathers  of 
equal  length,  the  second  rather  the  longest,  the 
first  and  second  quill-feathers  emarginated  near  the 
tip.  The  true  falcons  are  bolder  in  proportion  to 
their  size  than  any  other  Falconidae — even  eagles. 
Their  acuteness  of  vision  is  wonderful ;  and  they 
have  very  great  powers  of  flight.  A  F.  is  known 
to  have  traversed  the  distance  between  Fontain- 
bleau  and  Malta,  not  less  than  lo50  miles,  in  24 
hours ;  and  as  these  birds  do  not  usually  fly  during 
the  night,  its  flight  was  probably  at  the  rate  of  70 
or  80  miles  an  hour.  They  soar  to  a  prodigious 
height  in  the  air,  always  endeavouring  to  outsoar 
any  bird  of  which  they  may  be  in  ])ursuit,  and  to 
swoop  down  upon  it  from  above ;  although  it  is  far 
more  difficult  for  them  to  rise  vertically  in  a  calm 
atmosphere  than  for  birds  of  short  and  rounded 
wing,  and  they  either  rise  obliquely — often  also 
making  their  onward  flight  in  a  series  of  arcs — or 
avail  themselves  of  the  wind,  and  by  flying  against 
it,  are  borne  aloft  as  a  boy's  kite  is.  The  species 
are  pretty  numeroiis  ;  some  of  them  are  of  very 
wide  geograi)hic   distribution,   whilst  others  are 

gjculiar  to  certain  countries  or  climates.  The 
ritish  species  are  the  Gyrfalcox  (q.  v.),  or 
Jerfalcon  {F.  Gijrfnlco),  also  known  —  althoiigh, 
tjerhaj>s,  with  diff"erence  of  variety — as  the  Iceland  F. 

171 


and  Greenland  F.  ;  the  Peregrine  F.  (q.  v.) 
[F.  peregrinus),  of  which  the  female  is  7>ar  excellencd 
the  F.  of  falconers  (see  Falconry),  and  the  male  is 
the  Tercel,  Tiercel,  or  Tercelet ;  the  Hobby  (q.  v.), 
(F.  subbuteo) ;  the  Red-footed  F.,  or  licd-legged  F. 
(F.  rujipes),  a  small  species,  much  reaemblijig  the 
Hobby ;  the  Merlin  (q.  v.),  (F.  cesalon) ;  and  the 
Kestrel  (q.  v.),  or  Windhover  (F.  tinnunculus). 
For  the  species  chiefly  used  in  falconry  sea 
Falconry. 

Very  closely  allied  to  the  true  falcons  are  the 
species  constituting  the  genus  Hitrax,  very  small, 
but  remarkable  for  strength  and  courage,  natives  oj 
the  East  Indies.  The  upper  mandible  lias  two 
notches.  In  the  Harpagons  {Harpagus  or  Bidem) 
of  South  Amei'ica,  both  mandibles  have  two  notches. 
Non3  of  these,  however,  are  equal  to  the  true  falcona 
in  length  of  wing. 

For  particulars  regarding  the  Falconidse,  aa 
subservient  to  field-sports,  see  Falconry. 

FALCO'NE,  Ancillo,  an  eminent  Italian  battle- 
painter,  born  at  Naples  in  1600.  A  fellow- student 
of  Salvator  Hosa's  at  Spagnoletto's  studio,  he  himself 
subsequently  became  the  founder  of  an  academy  of 
much  resort.  In  accordance  with  his  turbulent 
impulsive  nature,  he  flung  himself  into  the  political 
struggles  of  the  times,  and  dui-ing  Masaniello'a 
outbreak,  organised  his  numerous  scholars  and 
dependants  into  a  secret  band,  which  inflicted 
deadly  retaliation  on  the  Spaniards.  On  the 
suppression  of  the  insurrection,  F.  fled  to  France, 
but  subsequently  returned  to  Naples,  where  he  died 
in  1663.  The  works  of  this  painter,  representing 
chiefly  military  scene:v  aie  few  in  number,  and 
costl}^  in  price ;  they  arc  prized  for  their  extreme 
fidelity  to  nature,  as  much  as  for  their  harmony 
and  brilliancy  of  coloiu-,  and  their  variety  of 
expression. 

FA'LCONER,  William,  was  born  in  Edinb^irgh 
about  1730,  and  was  one  of  a  family  of  whom  all, 
excepting  himself,  were  deaf  and  dumb.  He  went 
early  to  sea,  serving  his  apprenticeship  on  board  a 
merchantman  ;  and  before  he  was  18  years  of  age 
he  was  second  mate,  in  a  vessel  in  the  Levant  trade, 
which  was  shipwrecked  off  Cape  Colonna,  himself 
and  two  others  being  the  only  portion  of  the  crew 
saved.  He  published  The  SJiipwreck  in  1762,  and 
during  the  next  year  he  entered  the  navy  as  mid* 
shipman  in  the  Royal  George.  When  peace  came, 
he  resided  in  London,  where  he  wote  a  satire  on 
Wilkes,  and  compiled  a  Xautical  Dictionary.  He 
proceeded  to  sea  in  September  1769,  as  purser  in 
the  Aurora  frigate;  reached  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
in  December ;  and  perished  with  his  companions— 
the  Aurora  having  gone  dovrn — in  the  Mozambique 
Channel. 

F.  wrote  several  poems,  but  TJie  Shipicreck  is  the 
one  on  which  his  fame  rests.  It  abounds  in  nautical 
language,  and  has  the  rare  merit  of  being  interesting. 
It  is  not  a  great  poem,  but  it  has  always  had  its 
readers  and  admirers.  In  the  second  edition,  the 
author  added  the  characters  of  Albert,  Pvodmond, 
Palemon,  and  Anna — characters  bearing  the  same 
relation  to  actual  sailors  that  Alexis  and  Chloe  bear 
to  actual  shepherds  and  shepherdesses — and  to  soma 
extent  destroyed  that  singleness  of  impression 
which  was  the  chief  merit  of  his  work. 

FA'LCONET,  a  name  used  in  the  loth  and  16th 
centuries  for  the  smallest  class  of  cannon.  The 
ball  weighed  from  1  lb.  to  3  lbs.,  and  the  gun  from 
5  c\vt.  to  15  c^^'t. 

FALCONI'D^,  a  family  of  diurnal  birds  of  prey 
(see  AcciPiTREs),  corresponding  with  the  Liuuajan 
gen\is  Falco,  and  exhibiting  those  characters  of  mus« 
cuJar  vigour,  armature  of  beak  and  talons,  and  power 

226 


FALCONID^— FALCONRY. 


of  flight,  wliicli  are  to  be  found  in  their  highest 
j)erfection  in  the  true  Falcons  (q.  v.),  and  in  a  scarcely 
mfei'ior  degree  in  the  Eagles  (q.  v.).  The  species 
are  nuni'-irous ;  the  British  Museum  alone  contains 
specimens  of  almost  200  unquestionably  distinct 
species  ;  but  very  many  supposed  species  have  been 
named  and  described  by  ornithologists,  which,  in  the 
progi'ess  of  science,  have  been  ascertained  to  owe 
their  distinctive  characters  merely  to  age  and  sex. 
The  female  is  generally  larger  than  the  male ;  and 


Head  and  Foot  of  Braidlian  Eagle. 

the  plumage  of  the  young  different  from  that  of  the 
adult.  There  are,  in  the  diiferent  groups,  consider- 
able diversities  in  the  ciu'vature  and  strength  of  the 
bill,  which  also  has  the  cutting  edges  of  the  man- 
dibles either  notched,  festooned,  or  plain ;  the  legs 
and  toes  also  exhibit  diversities  as  to  length,  strength, 
*;iathering,  &c. ;  and  in  some  groiips,  the  w^ngs  are 
much  longer,  and  at  the  same  time  more  pointed,  than 
in  others.  This  is  particularly  the  case  with  the  true 
falcons,  as  contrasted  with  eagles,  hawks,  buzzards, 
kites,  harriers,  &c.,  and,  in  the  language  of  falconry, 
the  former — having  the  second  quill-feather  longest, 
and  the  tirst  nearly  equal  to  it— are  called  noble 
birds  of  prey  (see  Falconry),  being  those  usually 
domesticated  and  trained  for  the  service  of  man ; 
the  latter — having  the  fourth  quill-feather  longest, 
and  the  first  very  short — are  called  ignoble  birds 
of  prey,  even  Eagles  receiving  this  designation. 
The  F.  are  distribiited  over  all  parts  of  the  world ; 
and  almost  all  kinds  of  vertebrate  animals,  except 
the  largest  quadrupeds,  are  the  prey  of  some^  of 
them.  Some  also  devour  insects.  Ldie  the  FelidcB 
among  ravenous  quadrupeds,  the  F.  do  not  willingly 
feed  on  carrion,  but  generally  seize  and  kiD  their 
own  prey.  As  in  the  Felidce,  also,  there  is  a  pro- 
vision for  the  preser^^ation  of  the  claws  from  being 
biunted  by  unnecessary  contact  with  the  ground,  or 
with  any  hard  substance,  the  F.  contracting  the 
toea  so  as  to  elevate  their  claws.  The  F.  generally 
live  in  pairs. 

The  Lammer-geyer  (q.  v.)  connects  this  family 
with  tlie  Vultures ;  the  Secretary  (q.  v.),  whilst  in 
many  respects  agreeing  with  the  F.,  is  peculiar  in 
3ome  of  its  characters. 

FAXCONRY,  the  term  applied  to  the  art  of 
training  certain  of  the  falcon  tribes  to  the  pursuit 
and  capture,  on  the  wing,  of  birds  such  as  the 
heron,  pai.-tridge,  lark,  rook,  magpie,  wild-duck, 
pigeon,  &c.  In  ancient  times,  this  sport  was  called 
Hawking,  a  term  still  preserved  in  many  places, 
md  which,  perhaps,  is  the  more  strictly  correct 
the  two.  Now  a  days,  Falconry  is  the  term 
^26 


applied  to  the  sport  and  all  that  pertains  to  it; 
Haioking  to  its  actual  practice  in  the  held.  F. 
is  of  very  ancient  origin,  and  has  been  traced 
back,  as  an  Eastern  sport,  to  a  period  anterioT 
to  the  Christian  era.  In  Britain,  it  seems  to  have 
been  followed  before  the  time  of  the  Heptarchy; 
and  in  the  celebrated  Bayeux  tapestry,  Harold  is 
figured  with  a  hawk  upon  his  hand.  It  seems,  how* 
ever,  to  have  been  practised  in  Eastern  countries, 
and  in  Central  Europe,  long  before  it  became 
established  in  Great  Britain ;  and  to  such  a  height 
did  the  sport  reach  in  Germany,  that  nobles,  and 
even  kings,  seem  to  have  devoted  to  it  the  grea 
part  of  their  time.  As  an  instance  of  this,  tba 
Emperor  Frederic  II.  of  Germany  was  a  passiona.te 
admirer  of  the  sport,  and  is  said  to  have  writt'2u 
a  treatise  on  F,,  published  by  J.  G.  Schneider  ia 
1788  (2  vols.  Leip.).  In  England,  after  the  Norman 
Conquest,  F.  seems  to  have  taken  rapid  strides, 
being  much  indulged  in  hy  kings,  nobles,  and  ladies ; 
and  in  those  days  the  rank  of  the  individual  was 
indicated  by  the  particular  species  of  hawk  carried 
on  his  wrist.  Thus,  an  earl  carried  a  Peregrine 
Falcon.  In  the  17th  c,  the  sport  declined;  in  the 
18th  c.  it  partially  revived,  but  again  fell  off  about 
the  year  1725,  when  the  art  of  shooting  birds  on 
the  wing  came  into  fashion.  In  the  present  day,  an 
attempt  is  l)eing  made  in  several  quarters  in  England 
to  restore  this  noble  sport,  and  already  its  restoration 
is  being  attended  with  growing  success.  In  India, 
Persia,  and  other  Eastci-n  countries,  F.  is  stiJl 
eagerly  practised,  the  methods  there  followed  being 
for  tlie  most  part  nearly  similar  to  those  of  Great 
Britain. 

In  F.,  two  distinct  kinds  of  hawks  are  used  — 
the  long-winged  or  true  falcons,  and  short-winged. 
The  first  (noble  birds  of  prey)  are  represented 
chiefly  by  the  Gyrfalcon  and  Peregrine ;  the  second 
by  the  Goshawk  and  Sjiarrow-hawk  ;  and  though 
for  certain  purposes  the  male  is  superior,  as  a  rule 
the  females  of  each  si)ecies  are  much  more  highly 
esteemed  for  sporting  purj)oses,  from  their  being 
larger  and  more  powerful.  '  Long-winged '  hawks 
may  also,  as  a  rule,  be  distinguished  from  the 
'  short-winged,'  by  their  having  a  '  tooth '  or  notch 
on  the  upper  mandible ;  from  the  second  feather 
of  the  wing  being  either  longer,  or  as  long,  as 
the  third ;  and  from  their  impetuous  '  stoop  *  at 
their  prey. 

The  Gyrfalcon  (q.  v.)  is  the  largest  species,  but 
from  its  extreme  rarity  in  the  British  Islands,  is 
seldom  used.  The  Peregrine  Falcon  is  the  bird  in 
greatest  favour  with  falconers,  and  if  taken  from  the 
nest,  as  is  usually  the  case,  and  carefully  trained, 
affords  better  sport  than  any  other  British  species. 
We  shall  therefore  confine  our  remarks,  for  the 
most  part,  to  the  sport  as  it  is  practised  mth  this 
bird. 

No  hawk  is  fit  for  sporting  purposes  untQ  it  has 
undergone  a  careful  process  of  training.  The  young 
hawk  is  more  easily  trained  than  that  whioh  has 
been  caught  in  a  wild  state,  but  in  either  case, 
a  number  of  operations  require  to  be  gone  fchrougb 
before  the  sportsman  ventures  to  take  his  falcoa 
into  the  field.  Taken  from  her  nest  on  some  high 
and  dangerous  cliff  when  nearly  fledged,  the  eyess^ 
or  yoimg  falcon  (with  her  companion-fledglings, 
usually  two  in  number),  is  carefully  conveyed  to  the 
falconer's  home  :  there  she  is  kept  in  an  open  shed 
in  a  nest  of  straw,  and  fed  several  times  a  day  upon 
fresh  beef,  with  an  occasional  change  of  birds  or 
rabbits.  At  this  somewhat  critical  period,  she 
should  never  be  handled  except  to  put  on  the  jcsam 
and  bells  (see  fig.  1),  which  afterwards  become  per- 
manent fixtures.  Her  powers  of  flight,  too,  being 
as  yet  very  limited,  she  depends  upon  her  master  lor 


FALCONRY. 


regular  8ui)pliea  of  food,  and  soon  learns  to  come 
for  her  meals  at  kifl  calL    Her  meat  is  usually  fixed 


Fig.  2.— The  Lure. 


Big.  1. — Leg  and  Foot  of  Hawk,  shewing  the  method  of 

Attaching  the  Bells  and  Jesses  : 
a,  tbc  end  ot  leahh  ;  i,  h,  \he  jesses;  c,  the  bell ;  d,  the  bewit; 

e,  the  varvels  v,f  silver,  with  owner's  name  and  address 

en  [graved. 

to  an  apparatus  xermed  the  lure  (see  fig.  2),  and 
thus  the  hawk  is  early  accustomed  to  that  import- 
ant instrument,  the  further  uses  of  which  are 
explained  below.  By 
degrees  her  powers  of 
flight  are  sti-ength- 
ened,  and  she  is  per- 
mitted to  fly  at  large 
(returning  to  the  lure 
at  her  master's  will 
to  be  fed,  or  in  hawk- 
ing language,  to  remain 
at  hack)  for  several 
weeks,  during  which 
time  her  meals  are 
gradually  reduced  to 
one  a  day.  While  at 
hack,  she  sometimes 
becomes  wild,  wanders 
far  from  home,  and 
kills  game  for  her- 
self; and  when  this  is 
♦^he  case,  she  is  usually  caught  by  enticing  her  to 
a  bow-net,  close  to  which  a  pigeon  or  some  meat 
is  fastened  to  the  ground.  After  being  '  taken  up ' 
from  hack,  she  is  kept  at  the  blocJc  (see  fig.  3) — the 
etand  upon  which  she  sits — for  a  few  days  before 
her  regular  training  begins.  At  this  time,  also, 
hawks  require  a  bath  twice  or  thrice  a  week. 

The  first  of  the  principal  operations  in  training 
is  Jwoding,  an  operation  which,  if  successfully  per- 
formed by  the  trainer  during  his  earlier  efforts,  paves 
the  way  for  overcoming  many  subsequent  difficulties. 
It  demands  the  greatest  patience  and  the  tenderest 
manipidation.  The  hood  is  a  cap  of  leather  (see 
fig.  3),  made  to  fit  the  head  of  the  falcon  in  such  a 
manner  as  totally  to  obscure  the  light,  a  single 
aperture  only  being  left,  through  which  the  beak 
protrudes,  and  a  slit  behind,  through  which  are 
passed  the  braces  or  ties  that  secure  the  hood  to 
the  head.  By  shutting  out  the  Hght,  the  hood  is 
serviceable  in  tending  to  make,  the  hawk  quiet  and 
tractable,  but  to  accustom  the  falcon  to  submit  to 
its  use  requires  much  time  and  great  management. 
When,  after  great  perseverance,  this  is  achieved, 
the  hawk  is  said  to  be  ^made  to  the  hood,'  during 
wnich  process  she  also  learns  to  sit  balanced  upon 
the  fist.  Besides  tending  to  induce  docility  by 
hiding  the  light,  the  hood  is  of  further  service  in 
suutting  out  from  view  any  object  which  might 
cause  the  hawk  to  flutter  or  bait  off"  the  fist  or 
cadr/e  on  its  way  to  and  from  the  field,  &c.  Hence 
the  hawk  is  carried  always  hooded — the  short- 
wing<'d  only  being  exempt.  To  the  falcon's  legs 
lire  attached  two  small  hollow  globes  of  thin  metS, 


called  hells;  these,  again,  are  fixed  to  their  plaua 
by  leather  straps  called  bewita;  and  both,  together 
with  the  jesses,  become  permanent  fixtures  even 
during  the  bird's  flights.  Jesses  are  two  leathern 
straps,  five  or  six  inches  in  length,  attached  to 
each  leg  immediately  below  the  bf^Us ;  the  jessed 


Fig.  3. — Hooded  Peregrine  Falcon  on  its  block : 

One  end  of  the  leash  is  attached  to  the  jesses,  the  other  to  • 
ring  driven  into  the  side  of  the  block  ;  and  thus  the  hawk  is 
prevented  from  escaping. 

again,  are  themselves  attached  to  another  leathern 
strap,  called  the  leasJi,  about  four  times  the  thick- 
ness of  a  boot-lace  (see  fig.  1),  by  two  rings  or 
varvels;  and  the  bird  being  thus  caparisoned,  the 
falconer  winds  the  leash  through  his  fingers,  and 
so  prevents  the  falcon's  escape  while  on  his  wrist. 
Instead  of  varvels,  some  falconers  follow  the  Dutch 
plan  of  using  a  swivel;  the 
former  method,  however,  is 
now  considered  the  best.  A 
long  cord,  called  the  creance, 
is  further  attached  to  the 
leash,  and  is  used  for  the 
purpose  of  giving  the  bird 
greater  freedom  during  her 
training  than  that  afforded 
by  the  leash  alone. 

The  lure  is  a  bunch  of 
feathers  attached  to  a  cord 
and  tassel,  and  in  the  centre 
of  the  feathers  is  usually  a 
piece  of  spliced  wood,  to 
which  a  piece  of  meat  may  be 
attached.  By  accustoming 
the  hawk  to  feed  off  the  lure, 
or  to  come  to  it  at  a  certain 
call  or  whistle  to  be  fed  when  Fig.  4.— Tabur  Styoto 
on  the  ynng,  the  lure  becomes 

an  important  adjunct  to  the  falconer's  apparatus; 
as  by  it  he  is  enabled  to  entice  his  bird  back  aftei 

227 


FALCONRY. 


an  unsuccessful  chase.  On  such  occasions,  the 
falconer  reclaims  his  bird  by  swinging  the  baited 
lure  round  and  round  his  head,  accompanying  the 
action  by  some  well-known  call.  Four  Arings  tied 
together  make  a  good  lure.  The  tabur  stydce  and 
drawer  were  formerly  used  for  the  same  purpose 
fl.3  the  lure,  but  were  made  in  the  form  of  a  stick. 

In  Europe,  hawks  are  carried  on  the  left  M'rist 
( whi  le  in  the  East  they  sit  upon  the  right) ;  and  to 
protect  the  falconer's  hand  from  being  injured  by 
the  bird's  claws,  a  glove  of  stout  buckskin  leather 
is  used.  And  here  it  may  be  remarked,  that  the 
claws  and  beak  of  wild  caught  or  haggard  falcons, 
are  usually  pared  or  coped.  If  the  bird  to  be 
trained,  instead  of  being  a  nestling,  happens  to  be 
a  wild  one,  the  difficulties  of  training  are  immeasur- 
ably increased,  and  can  only  be  overcome  by  days 
and  nights  of  "  unwearying  exertion.  If  it  proves 
unusually  restless  and  difficult  to  tame,  it  is  kept 
on  low  diet,  is  prevented  from  sleeping  for  several 
days  and  nights,  and  has  cold  water  poured  upon 
it  by  means  of  a  sponge,  &c.  By  these  and  other 
means,  the  falcon  gradually  loses  much  of  its 
restiveness,  and  submits  with  tolerable  readiness 
to  the  processes  of  training. 

For  training  tne  ejjess,  or  young  falcon,  to  the 
lure,  as  preparatory  to  entering  at  game,  Sir  John 
Sebright  says :  '  Take  the  hawk  out  while  very 
hungry,  and  let  an  assistant  swing  the  lure  round 
his  head  steadily,  and  at  full  length  of  the  cord  ; 
upon  this  the  falconer  casts  off  his  hawk  with 
the  usual  whistlo  or  halloo,  still  holding  the  creance, 
and  the  assistant  suflers  the  lure  to  fall  to  the 
ground,  for  fear  of  injury  to  the  hawk,  by  strik- 
ing it  in  the  air  with  the  two  strings  attached. 
\Vlien  this  lesson  is  perfect,  the  assistant,  instead 
of  suffering  the  Im'e  to  fall,  withdraws  it,  and  dis- 
appoints the  hawk,  which  flies  by  him,  and  then 
returns,  when  he  may  be  suffered  to  strike  the 
lure  and  feed  upon  it.  In  process  of  time,  the 
creance  may  be  removed,  and  the  hawk  enticed  to 
the  lure  from  a  considerable  distance,  and  may  then 
strike  it  in  the  air  (if  the  lure  is  a  liglit  one),  while 
swinging  round  the  head  of  the  assistant.  After  a 
still  greater  time,  the  hawk  becomes  so  perfect  that 
she  w^ill  circle  round  the  head  of  the  falconer, 
waiting  for  the  hire  to  be  thrown,  and  is  then 
said  to  "  wait  on "  perfectly.  When  the  hawk  is 
i^eeding  on  the  lure,  the  falconer  should  encourage 
her,  and  suffer  her  to  finish  without  alarm,  by 
which  she  will  be  shewn  that  she  may  do  so 
without  fear,  and  will  readily  suffer  herself  to  be 
taken  after  flying.  She  should  also  be  accustomed 
to  horses,  men,  and  dogs.' 

Having  '  made  the  ha-wk'  to  tJie  fist,  the  hood, 
and  tlte  lure,  slje  is  next  'entered'  at  her  game  (the 
quarry).  This  is  done  by  tying  a  long  cord  or  creance 
to  the  varvels  of  the  jesses,  and  flying  the  haAvk 
from  the  hand  at  a  bird  thrown  out  to  it,  also 
restrained  by  a  cord.  The  hawk  is  next  flown 
several  times  without  a  creance  at  birds  shortened 
in  their  flight,  after  which  it  is  ready  to  be  entered 
at  wild  quarry.  In  case  of  failure,  however,  a  live 
biid,  similar  to  that  at  which  she  is  floAvn,  should 
be  carried  to  the  field,  and  thrown  out  to  her  in  a 
creance  by  way  of  encouragement. 

The  heron  is,  and  always  has  been,  a  favourite 
object  of  pursuit  in  British  F.,  the  period  of  the  year 
best  adapted  for  the  sport  being  the  breeding  season. 
Having  previously  ascertained  the  feeding-place  of 
that  bird,  the  hawking  party  makes  for  the  spot, 
usually  towards  evening,  if  possible  in  a  direction 
down-wind  from  the  heronry,  so  as  to  intercej)t 
the  bird  in  its  up-wind  flight  homewards.  When  a 
heron  is  seen  to  pass,  a  couple  (a  cast)  of  hawks  are 
nnhooded  and  'cast  off,'  and  the  chase  commences. 


The  heron,  seeing  the  falcons  approach,  disgorges  itJ 
food,  to  lighten  itself,  and  immediately  ascends  in 
the  air ;  the  hawks,  eager  in  pursuit,  and  quicker  of 
wing,  speedily  make  upon  it,  and  strive  to  g:ain  a 
greater  elevation  by  a  series  of  beautiful  gyrations. 
When  one  of  the  hawks  succeeds  in  rising  above 
the  heron,  it  stoops,  that  is,  descends  swiftly,  and  in 
a  direct  line,  upon  the  game,  aiming  a  stroke  with 
its  outstretched  legs  and  talons  at  its  body ;  this 
the  heron  almost  always  succeeds  at  first  in  eluding, 
by  a  ra])id  and  sudden  movement  aside.  The 
second  hawk,  which  by  this  time  has  also  soared, 
then  stoops,  while  the  first  is  regaining  its  former 
altitude;  and  so  on  for  many  successive  times,  till 
one  hawk  at  length  clutches  the  heron  or  hinds^ 
iipon  which  her  companion  joins  her,  and  the  three, 
buoyant  by  the  motion  of  their  wings,  descend 
gently  to  the  earth.  The  falconer's  imperative  duty 
is  now  to  be  up  or  near  the  spot  where  the  three 
l)ii  ds  are  descending,  to  divert  the  attention  of  the 
hawks  before  they  reach  the  ground,  and  entice 
them  from  the  quarry  to  him,  by  means  of  live 
pigeons  as  lures.  This  is  very  necessary,  as  the 
heron  is  extremely  dangerous,  and  has  been  fre- 
quently known  to  injure  the  hawks  with  its  sharp 
beak  when  on  the  ground,  though  it  is  all  but  per- 
fectly harmless  while  in  the  air.  When  the  heron'a 
wounds  have  been  dressed — for  this  bird  is  rarely 
killed  in  such  encounters — a  ring  with  the  captor'a 
name  is  usually  affixed  to  its  leg,  after  which  it  ia 
set  at  liberty,  and  so  becomes  available  for  future 
sport.  The  falconer's  usual  cry  of  encouragement 
to  his  hawks  upon  the  springing  of  the  quarry,  ia 
'  Hooha-ha-ha-ha  ! '  His  cry  when  the  quarry  ia 
killed,  is  '  Whoop ! '  A  falcon  takes  its  prey  either 
by  tearing  or  raking  it  with  the  hind  claw  of  each 
foot  at  the  instant  of  passing,  or  by  clutching  the 
victim  with  its  talons,  and  when  she  thus  succeeds 
in  binding  to  her  quarry,  she  slowly  descends  with 
it  to  the  ground.  The  supposition  that  the  hawk 
strikes  its  quarry  with  the  beak  or  breastbone  in 
its  swoop,  is  a  mistaken  one. 

Besides  the  Peregrine  Falcon,  the  Merlin  is  trained 
for  F.,  and  is  extremely  bold.  This  bird,  however, 
is  flown  at  small  game,  chiefly  larks.  The  Gos- 
hawk, though  it  does  not  soar  and  stoop,  fiiea 
direct  at  its  game :  it  is  used  chiefly  for  pheasan^.s, 
rabbits,  hares,  &c.,  in  an  enclosed  comitry.  The 
Sparrow-hawk,  from  its  extreme  boldness,  is  a  great 
favom'ite,  but  is  flown  at  smaller  kinds  of  birda 
only,  such  as  blackbirds  and  thrushes,  &c.  The 
Hobby  is  seldom  or  never  used. 

The  following  are  the  principal  terms  used  in 
falconry.  A  falcon's  legs,  from  the  thigh  to  the  foot, 
are  termed  arms;  toes,  2>^tty  singles;  claws,  pounces; 
wings,  sails;  tail,  train;  cro]),  gorge;  lower  stomach, 
pannel;  feathers,  hair,  &c.,  ejected  at  the  mouth, 
the  castings.  A  young  hawk  from  the  nest  is  an 
eyess  or  eyas ;  one  that  can  hop,  but  not  fly  well,  a 
brancher ;  a  nestling  hawk  reared  at  liberty,  is  a 
hack-haivk ;  a  young  hawk  able  to  take  game,  a 
soar-haivk;  a  mature  wild  hawk  is  a  haggard  or  hlu4 
hawk  ;  young  hawks  taken  in  their  migrations,  are 
passage-hawks,  or  red  hatoks — the  term  red  being 
applied  merely  as  a  title  of  distinction  between 
the  young  hawk  and  the  eyess  or  nestling,  the 
colours  of  the  two  being  in  reality  the  same.  The 
training  of  the  passage-hawk  and  haggard  is  termed 
reclaiming;  fluttering,  is  baiting;  fighting  with 
each  other,  crabbing;  sleeping,  jouking.  The  prey 
is  termed  the  quarry.  When  the  hawk  strikes 
her  quarry  in  the  air  and  clings  to  it,  she  binds; 
when  she  flies  off  with  it,  she  cari-ies ;  when 
she  plucks  it,  she  deplumes.  Dead  game  is  thi 
pelt.  Stooping  or  swooping  is  the  act  of  descending 
with  closed  wings  from  a  height  at  prey.  Direct 


FALEME— FALKIRK. 


flight,  Avithoat  soaring,  is  rdldng  off;  changing  from 
one  bird  to  c^nother,  checking.  Wlien  game  tiies  into 
a  hedge,  it  puts  in.  When  the  hawk  is  moulting 
her  featliers,  she  is  mewing ;  after  her  first  moult, 
she  is  mtermewed ;  with  complete  plumage,  summed  ; 
when  in  good  condition,  she  is  enseamed ;  when 
out  of  condition,  seamed.  Mending  the  feathers 
artificially  (an  operation  frequently  performed 
when  one  has  been  accideutally  broken)  is  termed 
imping;  blunting  bill  and  talons,  coping.  When 
the  falcon  is  obediently  Ilying  round  in  the  air, 
ohe  waits  on  her  master ;  flying  long- winged  hawks 
from  the  wrist,  is  termed  flying  out  of  the  hood ;  a 
couple  of  hawks  is  a  cast.  The  cadge  is  a  frame  of 
wood  -with  four  legs.  It  is  carried  by  means  of 
straps,  which  pass  over  the  bearers'  (the  cadgers') 
shoulders,  and  is  used,  when  there  are  several  casts 
of  hawks,  to  be  taken  to  the  field  The  block  (see 
fig.  3)  is  a  round  piece  of  wood,  such  as  would  be 
made  by  sawing  a  foot  of  wood  out  of  a  felled  larch- 
tree  of  some  twenty  years'  growth;  and  upon  this 
the  hawk  sits  when  out  of  doors.  Through  the 
bottom  of  the  block  runs  an  iron  spike,  which  being 
driven  into  the  ground,  secures  the  block  to  its 
place,  and  so  prevents  the  hawk  from  dragging  it 
away.  Falcons  are  very  pugnacious,  and  if  not 
carefully  kept  separate,  would  soon  kill  each  other. 
The  screen  or  perch  is  a  perch  guarded  by  a  falling 
piece  of  canvas,  to  support  the  hawks  in  case  of 
their  leaping  down ;  upon  this,  the  hawks  are  placed 
at  night  in  an  apartment  called  the  7news. 

The  best  works  on  the  subject  are  those  of  Tur- 
berville  and  Latham,  respectively,  as  old  treatises ; 
and  that  of  Sir  John  Sebiight,  as  comparatively 
modern.  Of  the  more  recent  treatises.  Falconry 
in  the  British  Isles,  by  Salvin  and  Brodrick  (Lond. 
1855),  and  Falconry,  its  Claims  and  Practice,  by 
Freeman  and  Salvin  (Lontl  1859),  are  the  best 
authorities. 

The  village  of  Falconswaerd,  near  Bois-le-Duc,  in 
Holland,  has  for  many  years  furnished  falconers  to 
almost  all  Europe.  Sir  John  Sebright  says :  '  I 
have  known  many  falconers  in  England,  and  in 
the  service  of  different  princes  on  the  continent, 
but  I  never  met  with  one  of  them  who  was  not  a 
Dative  of  Falconswaerd.' 

FALE  ME,  one  of  the  most  important  tributaries 
of  the  Senegal  (q.  v.),  into  which  it  falls,  in  lat. 
about  14°  40'  N.,  and  long.  11°  48'  W.  Its  course 
has  not  yet  been  fully  explored. 

FALE'RII,  a  city  of  ancient  Etruria,  was  situated 
west  of  the  Tiber,  and  north  of  Moimt  Soracte.  Its 
earliest  historical  appearance  is  in  437  B.C.,  when, 
according  to  Livy,  the  inhabitants  (who  were  called 
Falisci)  joined  wnth  those  of  Veii  in  assisting  the 
Fidenates  against  the  Romans.  The  Falisci  were 
among  the  most  dangerous  enemies  of  Rome,  and 
were  the  last  of  the  Etrurians  who  submitted  to  its 
power.  Their  city  was  at  last  destroyed  by  the 
Komans  (241  B.C.),  and  they  themselves  were  com- 
pelled to  choose  a  new  site  a  few  miles  off.  Here  a 
Koman  colony  was  settled  in  the  time  of  the  trium- 
▼irs,  whence  the  place  took  the  name  of  Colonia 
Junorda  Faliscorum.  But  this  Roman  F.  does  not 
appear  to  have  ever  acqiiired  any  importance,  for 
the  temple  which  anciently  attracted  so  many 
pilgrims,  stood  on  the  site  of  th*»  older  town. 
During  the  middle  ages,  however,  a  new  city 
sprung  up  on  the  ruins  of  the  Etruscan  F.,  which 
finally  obtained  the  name  of  Civita  Casiellana  (q.  v.). 
Ruins  of  the  Roman  or  later  F.,  consisting  of  a 
part  of  the  ancient  wa,Il8,  are  still  visible. 

FALE'RNIAN  WINE,  so  called  from  Falernus 
Agcr,  the  district  in  whicli  it  was  grown — and 
which  lay  in  the  northern  poj-tion  of  Campania, 


between  the  Massican  Hills  and  the  nortnern  bank 
of  the  Vulturnus — was  one  of  the  favourite  wines  of 
the  Romans.  It  is  described  by  Horace  as,  in  his 
time,  surpassing  all  other  wines  then  in  repute,  and 
seems  to  have  been  in  great  favour  with  the  poet 
himself.  In  the  time  of  Pliny,  however,  as  he  him- 
self informs  us,  Falemian  wine  had  already,  owing 
to  a  want  of  care  in  its  cultivation,  begun  to  decline 
in  quality ;  and  the  wine  then  esteemed  the  beaii 
was  a  variety  grown  in  the  Falernian  neighbourhood- 
and  called  Faustianum. 

FALIE'RI,  Marino,  a  celebrated  Venetian,  wm 
born  about  the  year  1284.  He  was  elected  in  1354, 
at  the  age  of  70,  Doge  of  Venice,  and  was  the  third 
of  his  name  called  to  this  supreme  dignity,  but  was 
decapitated  in  the  following  year  for  ms  daring  con- 
spiracy against  the  rights  of  the  commonwealth, 
which,  previous  to  his  election,  he  had  zealously 
served  in  the  capacities  of  commander  of  the  forces, 
commander  of  the  fleet,  and  ambassador.  At  the 
siege  of  Zara,  in  1346,  he  defeated  an  army  of 
80,000  Hmigarians,  vigorously  pursuing  at  the  same 
time  extensive  siege-operations,  and  in  the  course  of 
the  war,  having  assumed  the  command  of  the  fleet, 
captured  Capo  d'Istria.  Subsequently,  he  became 
ambassador  of  the  republic  to  Rome  and  Genoa. 
Of  an  ungovernable  and  implacable  temper,  his 
bitter  resentment  seems  to  have  been  roused  by 
a  grossly  offensive  libel  on  his  fair  and  youthful 
wife,  the  author  of  which,  a  yoimg  patrician  named 
Michele  Steno,  owed  some  grudge  to  the  doge.  The 
punishment  awarded  to  the  young  noble  by  a  patri- 
cian tribunal  seemed  to  F.  wholly  inadequate  to 
the  offence  by  which  his  ducal  dimity  had  been 
outraged,  and  in  order  to  avenge  this  double  slight, 
he  organised  an  audacious  plot,  with  the  object 
of  overthrowing  the  republic,  and  massacring  the 
heads  of  the  aristocracy,  to  be  followed  by  his 
owTi  assumption  of  sovereign  rights.  The  conspiracy 
was,  however,  revealed  on  the  eve  of  its  execution, 
and  F.  was  arrested.  He  suffered  death  by  deca- 
pitation on  the  17th  of  April  1355,  on  the  very 
spot  where,  a  year  previously,  he  had  been  ten- 
dered universal  homage  as  supreme  magistrate  of 
the  state.  In  the  hall  of  the  great  council,  which 
contains  the  portraits  of  all  the  doges,  the  space 
allotted  to  that  of  F.  is  draped  with  a  veil  of 
sable,  and  bears  the  following  inscription  :  '  Hie  est 
locus  Marini  Faletro,  decapitati  pro  criminibus.' 
A  faithful  representation  of  the  plot,  and  of  its 
chief  confederates,  is  given  in  Byron's  drama  of 
3Iarino  Falieri. 

FA'LKIRK,  a  Scottish  parliamentary  burgh,  situ- 
ated on  a  rising  ground  in  the  midst  of  a  po^^Tlous 
mineral  and  manufacturing  district  in  Stirlingshire, 
near  the  old  Roman  wall  of  Antoninus,  with  no 
pretension  either  to  beauty  of  situation  or  to  archi- 
tectural or  otlier  elegance.  Fop.  in  1871,  10.338, 
In  1600,  it  was  made  a  bnrgh  of  barony  by  King 
James  VI.,  in  favour  of  Alexander  Lord  Li\^g- 
stoue,  afterwards  Earl  of  Callander,  in  whose 
favour  also  it  was  in  1646  created  a  burgh  of 
regality  by  King  Charles  I.  In  1715,  it  passed  to 
the  crown  by  the  forfeiture  of  the  Earl  of  Linlith- 
gow and  Callander;  and  it  was  not  tiU  the  nass- 
ing  of  the  Reform  Bill  in  1832  that  it  was  na^le 
a  parliamentary  burgh,  and  received  a  mumcipal 
constitution,  with  a  council  of  twelve,  including  a 
provost,  three  bailies,  and  a  treasurer.  It  unites 
with  Airdrie,  Hamilton,  Lanark,  and  Linlithgow,  in 
sending  a  member  to  parliament.  It  has  nine  yearly 
fairs,  an  extensive  inland  trade,  various  local  manu- 
factures, and  charitable  institutions.  Its  parish 
church— the  Eglais  Bhrec,  Varia  Capella,  or  Speckled 
Kii'k  of  our  chartularies  and  of  local  tradition — haa 

229 


FALKIRK— l  ALKLAND  ISLANDS. 


one  or  two  monuments  of  some  antiquity,  but  was 
itself  rebuilt  in  the  year  1810.  The  church,  church 
lands,  and  barony  belonged  of  old  to  the  Abbey  of 
Holyrood.  Near  F.,  in  1298,  Sir  William  Wallace 
made  his  masterly  retreat  from  the  disastrous  battle 
(see  Falkirk,  Battle  of)  in  which  he  lost  his 
brave  companions  in  arms.  Sir  John  Graham  and  Sir 
John  Stewart,  both  said  to  be  interred  in  the  parish 
churchyard.  The  inscribed  stone  alleged  to  cover  the 
grave  of  Sir  John  Graham  is  ai)j)arently  more  modern 
than  his  time.  In  1746,  the  neighbourhood  of  F.  was 
the  scene  of  another  battle,  in  which  the  royal  troops 
were  defeated  by  those  of  Prince  Charles  Edward.  It 
is  now  chiefly  noted  for  its  well-known  cattle  trysts, 
at  which  stock  is  yearly  sold  to  the  amount  of  about 
£1,000,000.  In  the  immediate  vicinity  are  the  well- 
known  Carron  Iron  Works,  the  Forth  and  Clyde 
Canal,  and  the  Etlinburgh  and  Glasgow  and  Scottish 
Central  Railways. 

FALKIRK,  Battle  of.  Wallace  had  followed  np 
his  victory  over  the  English  near  Stirling  in  1297, 
by  taking  possession  of  some  of  the  more  important 
fortresses  of  Scotland.  In  the  following  year.  King 
Edward,  having  returned  from  Flanders,  summoned 
ft  great  army  to  meet  him  at  York,  and  marched 
northward  to  Roxburgh,  and  thence  along  the  east 
coast  of  Scotland  and  the  shore  of  the  Firth  of 
Forth.  It  was  not  till  the  day  of  the  battle,  the 
22d  July  1298,  that  Edward  first  saw  the  enemy. 
The  Scottish  infantry,  much  inferior  in  numbers  to 
the  English,  were  arranged  in  four  circular  bodies 
on  a  small  eminence  near  Falliirk,  and  were  armed 
with  lances,  and  with  bows  and  arrows.  The  cavalry, 
numbering  only  1000  men,  were  placed  in  the  rear. 
This  array  was  charged  by  the  English  cavalry. 
The  Scottish  footmen  bravely  withstood  the  onset  of 
the  well-appointed  English  horse ;  but  the  cavalry, 
dismayed  by  the  preponderating  numbers  of  the 
enemy,  rode  from  the  field  without  striking  a  blow. 
Thus  left  without  support,  the  spearmen  aud  archers 
were  compelled  to  yield,  and  the  retreat  became 
general.  The  loss  on  the  Scottish  side  is  said  to 
nave  amounted  to  15,000  men.  The  results  of  this 
defeat  were,  that  the  military  power  of  Scotland, 
such  as  it  was,  was  broken  ;  and  Edward  returned 
to  England  master  of  all  the  important  strongholds 
of  the  south. 

FA'LKLAND,  a  royal  burgh  of  Scotland,  in  the 
county  of  Fife,  is  situated  at  the  north-eastern  base 
vf  the  Lomond  Hills,  22  miles  north  of  Edinburgh, 
and  10  miles  south-west  of  Cupar.  The  east 
Lomond  Hill  rises  so  abruptly  behind  the  town  as 
to  intercept  the  rays  of  the  sun  from  it  for  several 
weeks  during  wanter.  F.  was  in  early  times  a  manor 
of  the  Earls  of  Fife.  It  passed  from  them  to  the 
crown  in  1425,  and  was  made  a  royal  burgh  by 
James  II.  in  1458.  Within  the  town  are  the  remains 
of  Falkland  Palace — a  large  tower  (in  the  same  style 
as  the  north-western  tower  of  Holyrood)  above  a 
vaulted  doorway  leading  into  the  courtyard,  built 
about  1500,  and  two  sides  of  a  quadrangle,  built 
hetvi  sen  1530  and  1550,  fine  and  interesting  examples 
0*  Scottish  architecture.  The  palace  was  a  favourite 
residence  of  King  James  IV.,  and  after  his  death,  in 
151.3,  his  widow,  the  impetuous  sister  of  King  Henry 
VIII.  of  England,  was  here  kept  in  restraint  for  a 
soason.  Here  her  son,  King  James  V.,  died  in  1542. 
The  last  king  who  occupied  the  palace  was  Charles 
[1.,  who  passed  a  few  days  in  it  in  1650.  Of  the 
more  ancient  castle  in  which  David,  Duke  of 
Rothesay,  was  imprisoned  and  starved  to  death 
by  the  Duke  of  Albany,  in  1402,  no  traces  now 
remain.  F.  is  frequently  alluded  to  in  the  verses  of 
Sir  David  Lindsay.  Pop.  (1871)  1283,  who  support 
themgelvea  mainly  bj  handloom  weaving. 

«90 


FALKLAND,  Lucius  Gary,  Viscount,  waa 
born,  it  is  believed,  at  Burford,  in  Oxfordshire,  in 
1610,  and  educated  first  at  Trmity  College,  Dublin 
— his  father,  Henry  Cary,  Viscount  Falkland,  being 
at  that  time  lord-deputy  of  Ireland — and  afterwards 
at  St  John's  College,  Cambridge.  Even  dunng  hia 
father's  lifetime,  he  enjoyed  an  ample  fortune,  left 
him  by  his  grandfather.  His  earlier  years  were 
wholly  devoted  to  study,  and  to  the  conversation 
of  learned  men,  among  whom  he  himself,  by  all 
accounts,  must  have  occupied  a  first  place.  Hia 
residence  (Burford)  was  only  ten  miles  from  Oxford, 
and  her3,  according  to  Clarendon,  'he  contracted 
familiarity  and  friendship  with  the  most  polite  and 
accurate  men  of  that  university.  The  praise  which 
that  historian  bestows  on  him  is  extraordinary ;  but 
F.  is  one  of  those  historical  personages  whose 
character  and  abilities  we  must  take  on  the  word 
of  friends  and  panegyrists,  if  at  all,  for  his  deeds 
and  writings  are  not  equal  to  his  fame.  In  1C33, 
he  was  made  one  of  the  gentlemen  of  the  privy- 
chamber  to  Charles  I.,  and  took  part  in  the  expedi. 
ti<m  against  the  Scots  in  1639.  In  1640,  he  entered 
parliament  as  member  for  Newport  in  the  Isle 
of  Wight,  and  was  at  first  distinguished  by  hia 
patriotic  zeal  for  the  laws  and  constitution  of  his 
country.  Against  such  men  as  Strafford  and  Finch 
he  exhibited  great  severity  of  speech,  though  even 
in  their  case  his  almost  finical  love  of  the  forma 
of  legal  j)rocedure  was  manifested.  Shortly  after, 
he  conceived  it  to  be  his  duty  to  assume  quite  a 
different  political  stand-point,  and  to  oppose  what 
seemed  to  him  the  excesses  and  illegalities  of  the 
poj^ular  party.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war, 
he  consequently  took  part  with  the  king,  though 
mourning  deeply  the  miseries  which  his  country  waa 
about  to  suffer.  He  died  a  soldier's  death  at  the 
battle  of  Newbury,  September  20, 1643.  I'\  was  quite 
unfitted  to  play  a  practical  part  in  the  sanguinary 
politics  of  his  time  ;  but  his  genuine  love  of  England 
and  of  the  rights  of  the  nation,  which  burned  in 
him  as  strongly  when  a  royalist  as  when  attack- 
ing Strafford  and  the  bishops,  enables  us  to  under- 
stand, better  than  we  might  otherwise  have  done, 
the  deep  indignation  that  possessed  the  English 
gentlemen  who  represented  the  Commons,  at  tht, 
arrogant  and  unprincipled  policy  of  Charles's 
advisers.  F.  wrote  various  treatises,  &c.,  the  prin- 
cipal of  which  is  A  Discourse  on  the  Infallibility  oj 
the  Churcit  of  Borne. 

FALKLAND  ISLANDS,  the  only  considerable 
cluster  in  the  South  Atlantic,  he  about  300  miles  to 
the  east-north-east  of  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  stretch- 
ing in  S.  lat.  from  51°  to  52°  30',  and  in  W.  long, 
from  57°  40'  to  61°  20'.  After  having  successively 
belonged  to  France  and  Spain,  they  have,  since  1771, 
formed  part  of  the  British  empire;  and  in  1833  they 
began  to  be  settled,  being,  as  a  whole,  the  most 
southerly  of  the  organised  colonies  of  England. 
These  islands  number  about  200,  presenting  a  total 
area  of  about  6500  square  miles.  The  two  largest 
membei-s  of  the  group  are  East  Falkland  and  West 
Falkland,  which  comprise  between  them  more  than 
half  the  surface ;  and  of  the  remainder,  the  chiel 
ones  are  Great  Swan,  Saunders,  Keppel,  Pebble, 
Eagle,  and  Jason.  'This  possession  is  valuable 
mainly  from  its  position  with  respect  to  the  Southern 
and  Pacific  Oceans,  being  in  this  connection  all  the 
more  valuable  on  account  of  its  many  excellent 
harbours.  Both  the  soil  and  the  climate  are  much 
better  adax)ted  to  pasturage  than  to  cultivation. 
While  the  natural  grass  is  extremely  luxiunant, 
scarcely  anything  but  a  few  vegetables  is  growa 
in  the  settlement.  The  coasts  teem  with  fish 
more  especially  with  cod ;  and  in  certain  seasons  of 
the  year,  penguins  and  seals  are  killed  in  great 


FALKLAND  ISLANDS— FALL. 


numbers  fcr  the  sake  of  their  oil.  The  temperature 
is  very  dillercut  from  that  of  the  corresponding  ! 
parallels  iu  the  south  of  England,  bei..g  both  lower 
m  summer  and  higher  in  winter.  The  mean  of 
the  former  season  is  about  53°  F.,  and  of  the  latter, 
about  40°.  These  averages  considerably  exceed  the 
vague  estimates  of  early  navigators,  who,  coming 
Buddeidy  down  from  the  troi)ical  heats,  appear  to 
have  here  felt,  by  comparison,  something  of  hyper- 
borenu  cold.  Though  there  is  no  timber  worthy 
of  the  name,  yet  i)eat  abounds  to  the  depth  of  ten 
feet.  "J'lie  inhabitants  wcve  stated,  in  1871,  to  number 
803,  of  whom  519  were  males,  and  only  284  were 
females.  In  the  year  1860  the  entire  pojjuhition  was 
returned  as  being  566;  consequently  it  had  been  in- 
creased by  227,  or  about  42  per  cent.,  during  the 
eleven  years  which  followed.  A  good  many  acres 
have  been  reclaimed  for  horticulture  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Stanley,  the  seat  of  i;overnnient ;  and  the 
sheep,  chiefly  Cbeviots  and  Soutlidowns,  amounted  to 
about  10,000;  the  wool  commanding  a  good  price  in 
London,  and  the  mutton  finding  a  ready  market  on 
the  spot.  The  peace  of  tbc  colony,  previously  guarded 
by  a  single  constable  and  casual  aid,  has  been  secured 
by  the  arrival  of  a  small  garrison  of  embodied  pen- 
sioners. 

FALL.  The  doctrine  of  the  Fall  is  the  doctrine  of 
the  historical  introduction  of  e\al  into  the  world,  as 
described  in  the  third  cha])ter  of  the  book  of  Genesis. 
The  statement  of  tliis  chai)ter  in  its  natural  and 
obvious  meaning  is  to  this  effect,  that  the  serpent, 
which  '  was  more  subtil  than  any  beast  of  the  field 
which  the  Lord  God  had  made,'  tempted  the  woman 
to  eat  of  the  tree  of  the  knowledge  of  good  and  e  v^il, 
regarding  which  the  Lord  God  had  said,  'Thou 
shalt  not  eat  of  it :  for  in  the  day  that  thou  eatest 
thereof  thou  shalt  surely  die.'  In  contempt  of  this 
command  and  warning,  '  the  serpent  said  unto  the 
woman :  "  Ye  shall  not  surely  die  :  for  God  doth 
know  that  in  the  day  ye  eat  thereof,  then  your 
eyes  shall  be  opened,  and  ye  shall  be  as  gods, 
knowing  good  and  evil."  And  when  the  woman 
saw  that  the  tree  was  good  for  food,  and  that  it 
was  pleasant  to  the  eyes,  and  a  tree  to  be  desired 
to  make  one  wise,  she  took  of  the  fruit  thereof, 
and  did  eat,  and  gave  also  imto  her  husband  wath 
her ;  and  he  did  eat.'  The  result  of  this  was, 
that  their  eyes  were  opened,  and  they  knew  that 
they  were  naked;  and  when  they  heard  the  voice 
of  the  Lord  iu  the  garden,  they  hid  themselves ; 
and  on  being  summoned,  they  acknowledged  their 
transgression,  and  were  di-iven  forth  from  Eden. 
Separate  punishments,  also,  as  the  consequence 
of  the  transgression,  were  denounced  against  the 
serpent,  the  woman,  and  the  man.  The  first 
was  cursed  above  all  cattle,  and  condemned  to  go 
upon  its  belly,  and  to  eat  dust  all  the  days  of  its 
life.  Enmity  was  to  be  put  between  it  and  the 
woman,  and  between  its  seed  and  her  seed ;  *  it 
Bhall  bruise  thy  head,  and  thou  shalt  bruise  his  heel' 
The  woman  was  to  bring  forth  children  in  sorrow, 
W.d  to  be  subject  to  her  husband,  to  whom  her 
desire  was  to  cleave.  The  ground  was  cursed  for 
the  man's  sake,  and  he  was  to  eat  of  it  in  sorrow  all 
the  days  of  his  Life  ;  in  the  sweat  of  his  face  he  was 
to  ett  bread  till  he  returned  to  the  ground. 

Such  is  the  namitive  of  Genesis,  upon  which  the 
doctrine  of  the  Fall  is  based.  The  doctrine  assumes 
Various  forms,  according  to  the  interpretation  which 
the  narrative  receives.  Some  theologians  interi^ret 
the  narrative  more  literally — although  none  can  be 
said  to  do  so  quite  literally — and  others  interpret 
it  more  figuratively ;  while  others  reject  it  altogether 
as  a  narrative,  and  look  upon  it  merely  as  a  mythical 
Story  of  the  early  time — mirroring  the  lapse  from 
a  primitive  golden  ago,  or  age  of  innocence. 


1.  Even  the  most  orthodox  theologians  so  far 
!  spiritualize  the  narrative,  or  regard  it  ligurativcly 

The  serpent,  for  example,  is  with  them  the  devil, 
although  tlie  text  in  Genesis  itself  gives  no  hint  ot 
such  an  interpretation.  Tbe  cnnuty  ijctwcen  the 
serpent  and  the  woman  is  tbe  enmity  between  the 
devil  and  mankind  ;  and  the  bruising  of  the  head  and 
the  heel  is  supposed  to  represent  the  victorious  con- 
quest— although  not  without  wounds  and  bruiucs — 
of  Jesus  Christ,  as  the  Messiah,  over  the  devil.  ITie 
doctrine  of  the  Fall,  according  to  the  most  common 
mode  of  interpretation,  may  be  stated  in  the  follow- 
ing terms  :  'Our  first  parents  being  seduced  by  the 
subtlety  and  temptation  of  Satan,  sinned  in  eating 
the  forbidden  fruit.  By  this  sin,  they  fell  from  their 
original  righteousness,  and  communion  with  God, 
and  so  became  dead  in  sin,  and  wholly  defiled  in  all 
the  facidties  and  parts  of  soid  and  body.  They 
being  the  root  of  all  mankind,  the  guilt  of  this  sin 
was  imputed,  and  the  same  death  in  sin  and 
corrupted  nature  conveyed  to  all  their  posterity, 
descending  from  them  by  ordinary  generation.' — 
Westminster  Confession  of  Faitlt,,  c.  vi.  The  Fall,  in 
this  view,  is  the  temptation  of  our  first  parents  to 
eat  by  the  devil,  and  the  inheritance  of  this  act  by 
their  natural  descendants.  This  may  be  said  to  be 
the  orthodox  doctrine  of  the  Christian  church. 

2.  Other  theologians  consider  the  tliu'd  chapter  of 
Genesis  to  be  iu  the  main  allegorical — representing 
a  picture  of  the  violence  of  appetite  in  our  first 
parents.  In  this  view,  the  serpent  is  a  mere 
imaginary  accessory — the  emblem  of  temptation  ; 
the  supposed  interview  between  God  and  our  first 
parents  is  of  the  same  character — the  emblem  of  the 
voice  of  conscience  following  imlawful  indvdgence  ; 
the  tree  of  the  knowledge  of  good  and  evil  repre- 
sents some  form  of  sensual  indulgence.  The  only 
realities  in  the  picture  are  the  moral  realities,  con- 
science and  temptation  in  some  carnal  form — realities 
which  were  no  more  powerful  in  the  case  of  our  first 
parents  than  they  are  in  the  case  of  all  their  descend- 
ants who  yield  to  unlawful  indulgence,  as  they  did. 
The  doctrine  of  the  Fall,  according  to  this  interpre- 
tation, is  simply  the  doctrine  of  the  abuse  of  free 
will  in  our  first  parents;  and  the  question  of  the 
relation  of  this  primary  sin  to  all  subsequent  sin,  is 
variously  regarded  by  this  class  of  theologians.  All 
of  them  would  repudiate  any  formal  imputation  of 
it ;  yet  all  or  most  allow  some  actual  transmission  or 
inheritance  of  corrupted  will,  as  the  consequence  of 
the  original  abuse  of  it. 

The  Pelagian  theory  maintained,  indeed,  that  the 
race  was  not  the  worse  of  Adam's  fall ;  but  that,  as 
our  first  parents  '  were  to  blame  for  yielding  to  a 
temptation  which  they  might  have  resisted,  so  all 
of  us,  by  a  proper  attention  in  cultivating  our 
natural  powers,  may  maintain  our  innocence 
amidst  the  temptations  with  which  we  are  sur- 
rounded ;  and,  therefore,  that  we  fall  short  of  that 
which  it  is  in  our  power  to  do,  if  we  do  not  yield  a 
more  perfect  obedience  to  the  law  of  God  than 
Adam  yielded.'  The  Armiuian  theory,  again, 
contended  that  the  chief  loss  of  the  race,  as  the 
consequence  of  the  transgression  of  our  first  parents, 
was  the  subjection  to  death  thereby  incurred,  and 
the  moral  disadvantages  arising  out  of  the  fear  of 
death.  Others,  more  orthodox  than  either,  contend 
that  the  spiritual  imity  of  the  race  necessarily 
implies  that  the  depraved  wiU  of  our  first  parents 
has  descended  to  their  posterity  as  their  unhappy 
portion. 

3.  The  opinion  of  those  who  look  upon  the  chapter 
in  Genesis  as  a  mere  mylh.  or  fable,  representing 
a  dream  of  the  religious  imagination,  without  any 
spticial  moral  meaning,  caimot  be  said  to  come 
witliin  the  pale  of  Christian  theology.  The  doc.*irin« 

m 


FALL  OF  THE  LEAF— FALLACY. 


of  tlae  Fall  is  with  them  only  a  devout  idea,  incon- 
sistent with  their  principles  of  philosophy  and 
history,  and  v  hich,  accordingly,  they  dismiss  from 
their  speculation  or  concern  altogether. 

FALL  OF  THE  LEAF.  See  Deciduous  Trees 
and  Leaves. 

FALL  RIVER,  a  remarkable  stream  of  Massa- 
chuseits,  in  the  United  States,  is  only  about  two 
miles  long.  Throughout  nearly  the  whole  of  its 
course,  it  tumbles  between  lofty  banks  over  a  rocky 
bottom,  descending  in  its  last  half  mile  fully  130 
feet.  This  lower  section  of  the  torrent  is  literally 
crowded  with  mills,  which  scarcely  leave  room  for 
air  and  light  between  each  other.  The  mouth  is  on 
the  eastern  arm  of  Narragaiiset  Bay.  Tlie  city  of 
Fall  Kiver,  situated  upon  this  stream,  contained  in 
1870,  26,766  inhabitants,  chiefly  employed  in  con- 
nection with  the  Avater-power  already  mentioned. 
The  principal  manufactures  are  woollens,  cottons, 
and  ironware.  The  place,  moreover,  has  an  excellent 
harbour  —  sate  and  capacious,  with  deep  water,  and 
of  easy  access. 

FA'LLACY.  The  incorrect  performance  of  the 
process  of  reasoning,  so  as  to  lead  to  error,  is  said 
to  be  a  fallacy.  The  science  of  Logic  reduces  sound 
reasoning  to  certain  rules,  and  when  any  of  these 
riiles  is  violated,  a  logical  fallacy  is  the  result. 
There  is  always  included  in  logical  treatises  a 
chapter  on  fallacies,  in  which  the  several  kinds  are 
classified  and  illustrated.  In  the  old  writers,  there 
was  always  a  division  into  tAvo  classes,  according  as 
the  error  lay  in  the  form  of  the  reasoning,  or  in 
the  matter;  the  formal  were  entitled  in  dictione, 
or  those  appearing  in  the  expression  ;  the  material 
were  entitled  extra  dictionem,  implying  that  the 
fault  could  not  be  detected  from  the  language,  but 
must  be  sought  in  a  consideration  of  the  meaning  or 
Bubject-matter.  As  some  of  the  designations 
employed  in  detailing  these  various  kinds  of  erro- 
neous reasoning  have  passed  into  common  use,  we 
fehaU  first  give  a  short  notice  of  the  ancient  classifi- 
cation. 

The  formal,  or  those  in  dictio7ie,  Avere  direct 
breaches  of  the  laws  of  syllogism,  or  of  argumen- 
tation from  premises. 

The  fallacy  of  undistrihufed  middle  is  one  of  the 
cases  where  what  is  called  the  middle  term  of  a 
syllogism  is  used  in  two  senses.  '  A  term  is  said  to 
be  "  distributed  "  when  it  is  taken  universally,  so  as 
to  stand  for  everything  it  is  capable  of  being  applied 
to;  and,  consecpiently,  is  "undistributed"  when  it 
stands  for  a  portion  only  of  the  things  desig- 
nated by  it.  Thus,  "  all  food,"  or  every  kind  of  food, 
are  expressions  which  imply  the  distribution  of  the 
term  "  food  ; "  "  some  food,"  would  imply  its  non- 
distribution.'  In  such  a  proposition  as  '  all  food  is 
obtained  from  the  vegetable  or  animal  kingdoms,' 
the  term  is  distributed,  because  it  is  meant  to  be 
afiirmed  of  every  article  used  as  food,  that  such 
article  is  derived  from  one  or  other  of  these  two 
sources.  But  when  we  say  'food  is  necessary  for 
life,'  we  mean  only  a  limited  number  of  articles. 
Uence  such  a  syllogism  as  the  following  :  *  Food  is 
necessary  to  life ;  corn  is  food ;  therefore,  corn  is 
necessary  to  life,'  is  faulty  from  undistributed 
middle  ;  the  major  proposition,  '  food  is  necessary,' 
fee,  has  the  form  of  a  xmiversal  proposition,  with 
the  reality  of  a  particular  one. 

Tiie  (Bquivocatio,  or  ambiguous  middle,  is  tne  case 
where  a  word  is  used  in  two  senses  so  diflferent  as 
to  give  properly  no  middle  term,  and,  therefore,  no 
xionnecting  linl{  between  the  premises  and  the  con- 
clusion. A  favourite  example  of  this  is  the  follow- 
ing :  '  Every  dog  iims  on  four  legs ;  Sirius  (the 
dog-star)  is  a  dog;  therefore  Sirius  runs  on  four 


legs.'  This  is  merely  playing  with  the  ambiguity  of 
a  word.  Dr  Whately  has  shewn  that  this  fallacy 
may  often  arise  with  words  derived  from  the  same 
root,  but  acquiring  from  usage  diffei'cnt  siguitica- 
ti(ms  ;  thus,  '  projectors  are  unlit  to  be  trustecl ;  this 
man  has  formed  a  project,  tharefore  he  is  im(it  to  be 
trusted ; '  where  the  argument  supposes  that  the 
meaning  of  'projector'  and  'one  who  has  formed  a 
project'  is  the  same,  which  it  is  not. 

The  fallacy  of  composition  aiid  division  arises  by 
using  a  word  distributivcly  that  is  meant  collec- 
tively ;  thus,  '  live  is  equal  to  two  and  three ;  two 
and  three  are  even  and  odd ;  therefore  five  if  even 
and  odd.' 

'  The  fallacy  of  acceiit  was  an  ambiguity  arising  from 
pronunciation.  Thus,  by  a  false  accent  in  reading  the 
commandment,  "  thou  shalt  not  bear  false  w  tness 
against  thy  neighbour,"  it  might  be  suggested  that 
subornation  is  not  forbidden,  or  that  anything  false 
excci^t  evidence  is  j)erniittc(l,  or  that  false  evidence 
may  be  given  for  him,  or  that  it  is  only  against 
neighl)ours  that  false  witness  is  not  to  be  borne.' 

The  fallacia.  accidentis  is  still  a  form  of  the 
ambiguous  middle.  It  is  when  we  conclude  of  a 
thing  something  that  is  only  true  of  it  accidentally, 
as,  '  wine  is  pernicious,  therefore  it  ought  to  be  for- 
bidden.' The  premise  is  true  only  of  the  immoderate 
use,  the  conclusion  refers  to  its  use  in  every  form. 
Another  fallacy,  the  converse  of  this,  is  arguing  d 
dido  secundum  quid  ad  dictum  simpliciter  (])assin<^ 
from  what  is  true  in  some  respect  to  what  is  true 
absolutely).  Of  this  the  stock  example  is :  *  What 
you  bought  yesterday  you  eat  to-day  ;  you  bought 
raw  meat  yesterday,  therefore  you  eat  raw  meat 
to-day.' 

The  most  usually  quoted  of  the  second  class  of 
fallacies — extra  dictionem — are  the  following  : 

Ignoratio  elmchi,  or  'ignorance  of  the  refutation.' 
This  means  mistaking  the  point  in  dispute  ;  or  prov- 
ing something  that  an  opponent  does  not  deny.  This 
is  common  enoiigh  in  controversy.  See  an  example 
in  point  in  Ethics. 

The  petitio  principii,  or  '  begging  of  the  qixestion.' 
This  is  when,  instead  of  proving  a  position  by  some 
different  position,  something  is  assumed  that  is  iden- 
tical with  what  is  to  be  ])roved.  The  most  common 
form  of  this  fallacy  is  what  is  termed  reasoning  in  a 
circle,  where  we  make  two  propositions  mutually 
prove  each  other.  The  following  would  be  an  example 
of  this  mode  of  reasoning.  Suppose  we  asked  why 
smoke  ascends,  and  any  one  were  to  answer,  '  because 
it  is  light ; '  we  then  inquire  how  it  is  known  to  be 
light,  and  the  reply  is,  '  because  it  ascends.' 

The  non  causa  pro  causa.  This  is  a  fallacy  of 
insufficient  induction,  or  the  inferring  a  connection 
of  cause  and  effect  where  there  is  only  a  mere  sequence 
or  accompaniment ;  as  when  we  allege  that  the  jjros- 
perity  of  England  is  due  to  its  having  an  aristocracy, 
or  an  Established  Church,  or  any  other  circumstance 
that  has  attached  to  the  country,  without  ascertain- 
ing that  there  is  any  real  causation  between  the  two 
facts.  Empiricism  in  medicine  is  of  this  nature; 
such  a  one  took  a  certain  medicine,  and  recovered  fronii 
an  illness,  therefore  the  medicine  was  the  cause  of 
the  recovery.  The  post  hoc,  ergo  propter  hoc,  is 
another  expression  for  the  same  fallacy,  which  is  one 
ol  wide  range,  and  whose  rectification  far  transcends 
the  limits  of  scholastic  or  formal  logic. 

The  argum,entum  ad  hominem  is  a  reference  to  the 
circumstances  of  the  party  addressed,  and  means  that 
although  a  certain  reasoning  may  be  good  in  itself, 
such  party  is  not  entitled  to  urge  it,  having  perhaps 
already  repudiated  the  same  reasoning  in  other  cases, 
or  acted  in  a  manner  inconsistent  with  the  employ- 
ment of  it.  (For  a  full  exemplification  of  fallacies, 
according  to  the  foregoing  enumeration,  see  De 


FALLACY— FALLING  BODIES. 


Morgan's  Formal  Logic,  Wbately's  Logic,  Sir  Wil- 
liam Hamilton's  Lectures  on  Logic,  &c.) 

The  subject  of  fallacies  has  received  a  much  more 
comprehensive  treatment  in  the  work  on  Logic  by  Mr 
J.  S.  Mill,  who  has  enlarged  the  basis  of  the  science 
itself,  by  placing  Induction  at  the  foundation  of 
Reasoning,  and  by  recognising  the  necessity  of  laying 
dowu  rales  for  the  correct  performance  of  that  pro- 
cess. See  Induction.  This  enables  him  to  give  a  proper 
place  to  some  of  the  preceding  fallacies,  such  as  the 
Itost  hoc,  ergo  propter  hoc,  which,  although  occurring 
in  treatises  of  syllogistic  logic,  does  not  violate  any 
rule  either  of  syllogism  or  of  any  process  included 
in  such  treatises.  In  fact,  if  we  take  a  complete 
view  of  all  the  cardinal  operations  that  enter  into 
the  estabhshment  of  truth  by  evidence,  we  ought  to 
enumerate  four  such  operations — Observation,  includ- 
ing experiment ;  Definition,  or  the  right  use  of 
general  terms  ;  Induction  ;  and  Deduction  or  syllo- 
gism. Now,  any  one  of  these  oi)erations  badly 
performed  woidd  necessarily  lead  to  a  wrong  result, 
in  other  words,  a  fallacy.  But  in  addition  to  the 
mistakes  arising  from  the  admission  of  insufficient 
evidence  at  any  point,  there  is  a  class  of  errors 
(as  well  as  truths)  that  arise  from  our  receiving 
propositions  without  any  evidence  at  all,  on  the 
ground  that  they  are  self-evident.  In  every  case 
of  reasoning,  we  must  come  at  last  to  something 
that  does  not  need  a  reason,  as,  for  example,  the 
evidence  of  our  senses,  or  our  actual  observation ; 
but  we  may  sometimes  admit  as  self-evident  what 
is  really  not  so,  owing,  perhaps,  to  our  having  a 
strong  sentiment  in  the  matter  on  hand.  It  is 
usual  to  consider  the  existence  of  an  external 
material  world,  altogether  independent  of  our  minds, 
as  certain  in  itself  without  requiring  any  proof 
or  reason  for  the  belief.  It  is  found  that  we  often 
commit  mistakes  in  this  way,  and  the  mistakes 
thence  arising  Mr  Mill  illustrates  under  the  title 
of  Fallacies  of  Simple  Inspection,  or  Fallacies 
d  pyriori,  which  includes  the  whole  of  what  may  be 
termed  Natural  Prejudices.  The  other  members  of 
his  classification  follow  his  division  of  the  processes 
concerned  in  the  investigation  of  truth  :  they  are 
Fallacies  of  Observation,  Fallacies  of  Generalisation, 
including  Induction,  and  Fallacies  of  Ratiocination 
or  syllogism.  He  remarks,  moreover,  that  error 
does  not  often  take  the  form  of  a  deliberate  infringe- 
ment of  the  rules  of  good  observation,  induction,  or 
deduction,  but  rather  consists  in  a  confused  percep- 
tion of  the  premises  involved.  In  other  words,  it  is 
the  *  not  conceiving  our  premises  with  due  clearness, 
that  is,  with  due  fixity ;  forming  one  conception  of 
our  evidence  when  we  collect  or  receive  it,  and 
another  when  we  make  use  of  it  ;  or  unadvisedly,  and 
in  general  unconsciously,  substituting,  as  we  pro- 
ceed, different  j)remises  in  the  place  of  those  with 
which  we  set  out,  or  a  different  conclusion  for  that 
which  we  undertook  to  prove.  This  gives  existence 
to  a  class  of  fallacies  which  may  be  justly  called 
Fallacies  of  Confusion ;  comprehending,  among  others, 
ftll  those  which  have  their  source  in  language, 
whether  arising  from  the  vagueness  or  ambiguity  of 
our  terms,  or  from  casual  associations  with  them.' 
It  is  in  this  group  that  Mr  Mdl  places  the  petith 
Vrincipyii,  the  ignoratio  elenchi,  and  ambiguous 
language  generally  [Logic,  Book  v.). 

The  scholastic  fallacies  were  considered  mostly 
in  tlie  light  of  weaknesses  or  involuntary  errors  of 
the  intellect,  to  be  corrected  by  sound  rules  or  a 
good  method  of  procedure.  The  syllogistic  logician 
iar.de  little  count  of  the  natural  prejudices,  or  strong 
emotions  and  passions  of  mind,  which  forcibly 
pervert  tlie  intellectual  views,  and  render  men  averse 
to  sound  reasoning.  This  grand  oiaission  was  first 
effectively  supplied  n  the  immortal  first  book  of  the 


Novum  Organon  of  Bacon,  who,  in  a  vigorous  airl 
telling  exposition,  set  forth  some  of  the  most  power- 
ful prejudices  of  the  natural  mind,  and  their  influ- 
ence in  comii)ting  science  and  philosojihy,  as  well 
the  everyday  judgments  of  mankind.  Under  the 
name  of  '  idola '  he  classed  four  different  s])eciea  of 
these  moral  sources  of  error,  against  which  the  mind 
had  to  be  fortified,  not  by  syllogistic  rules,  but  by 
a  self-denying  discii»line,  and  a  highly  cultivated 
perception  of  the  true  end  of  science,  which  was  to 
mcrease  human  power  in  all  the  arts  of  life.  His 
first  class  of  idola  were  idola  trihus,  or  delusions 
common  to  the  human  mind  generally,  sv  cli  as 
errors  of  the  senses,  the  over- susceptibility  c£  the 
mind  to  impressions  of  sense,  the  limits  of  the  human 
faculties,  and  the  interference  of  prejudices  and 
passions ;  a  very  comprehensive  class,  which  even 
he  has  failed  to  do  full  justice  to.  The  next  class 
are  idola  specits,  idols  of  the  den  or  cavern,  by 
which  he  understands  the  peculiarities  and  idiosyn- 
crasies of  individuals.  The  third  class,  idola  fori, 
idols  of  the  market,  are  intended  to  include  the 
abuses  of  language,  or  the  various  ways  that  our 
concei)tion3  of  things  are  distorted  by  names.  The 
last  class  are  the  idola  theatri,  theatrical  illusions, 
under  which  he  rebidces  the  great  system-builders 
of  antiquity,  such  as  Aristotle,  for  introducing 
fanciful  and  irrelevant  considerations  into  philo- 
sophy ;  and  dwells  especially  on  the  corrupting 
influences  of  superstition  and  theology,  and  also  the 
poetical  tendencies  of  the  mind,  which  are  not 
satisfied  with  truth  unless  it  can  take  on  in  addition 
a  certain  warmth  or  brilliancy  of  colouring. 

FALLING  BODIES.  Owing  to  Gra^^ty  (q.v.), 
all  terrestrial  bodies,  if  unsupported, /aW,  or  move 
towards  the  earth's  centre.  When  a  falling  body  is 
absolutely  without  support,  it  is  said  to  fall  freely, 
as  distinguished  from  one  descending  an  inclined 
plane  or  curved  surface.  We  shall  here  consider 
the  two  cases  of  free  descent  and  of  descent  on 
inclined  planes. 

1.  Bodies  falling  freely. — The  first  fact  of  observa- 
tion regarding  falling  bodies  is  that  they  fall  with 
a  variable  velocity ;  from  this  we  infer  that  they 
are  acted  upon  by  some  force.  Again,  on  observing 
how  the  velocity  varies,  we  find  that  its  increments 
in  equal  times  are  equal;  from  this  we  conclude 
that  gravity  is  a  uniform  force,  which  it  is,  at  least 
sensibly,  for  small  distances  above  the  earth's 
surface.  We  have  next  to  find  a  measure  for  this  force. 
By  experiment,  it  is  found  that  a  body  in  1"  falls 
through  16"1  feet,  and  that  at  the  end  of  1"  it  moves 
with  such  a  velocity,  that  if  it  continued  to  move 
imiformly  after  the  1"  expired,  it  wotild  pass  over 
32 '2  feet  in  the  next  second.  Hence  32  "2  feet  is  the 
measure  of  the  velocity  which  has  been  generated 
in  1",  and  is  therefore  the  measure  of  the  acceler- 
ating force  of  gravity;  for  the  measure  of  acceler- 
ating force  is  the  velocity  which  it  will  produce 
in  a  body  in  a  second  of  time.  The  quantity  32-2 
feet  is  usually  denoted  by  the  letter  g ;  and  it  is 
proper  to  mention  here  that  this  quantity  measures 
the  accelerating  force  of  the  earth's  attraction  on 
all  bodies.  Experiment  shews  that  under  the 
exhausted  receiver  of  an  air-pumj)  all  bodies  fall 
with  equal  rapidity,  and  that  the  difference  of 
velocities  of  falling  bodies  in  air  is  due  entirely 
to  the  action  of  air  upon  them. 

As  the  accelerating  force  is  uniform,  it  follows 
that  the  velocity  generated  in  any  time,  t,  will  be 
given  by  the  formula  v  =  gt.  Since  the  force  is 
uniform,  it  must  generate  an  equal  velocity  every 
second.  In  f,  therefore,  it  must  generate  a  velocity 
gt,  since  it  produces  g  in  1".  In  2",  a  falling  body 
Moll  be  moving  with  a  velocity  of  64*4  feet — Le., 
were  the  velocity  to  become  constant  for  the  third 


FALLING  SICKNESS— FALLMERAYER. 


second,  it  would  in  that  second  move  through  64.4 
feet. 

We  are  now  in  a  position  to  inquire  more  partic- 
ularly how  bodies  fall,  and  to  answer  such  ques- 
tions as  first :  What  time  will  a  body,  falling  freely, 
take  to  fall  through  a  given  s])ace  ?  Second  :  What 
velocity  will  it  gain  in  falling  through  a  given 
space  ?  Third  :  How  high  will  a  body  ascend  when 
projected  straight  up  witli  a  given  velocity?  etc. 

Let  A  be  the  point  from  which 
A  a  body  falls,  and  B  its  position 

at  the  end  of  the  time  t ;  and  let 
AB  =  S.  Then  we  know  that 
at  B  the  body  has  the  velocity 
gt.  Suppose,  now,  the  body  to 
be  projected  upwards  from  B 
towards  A  with  this  velocity  gt 

  — ^graAdty  acting  against  it,  and 

tending  to  retard  its  motion. 
We  know  that  at  the  end  of  a  time  t  it  will  be 
again  at  A,  having  exactly  retraced  its  course,  and 
lost  all  the  velocity  with  which  it  started  from  B, 
because  gravity  will  just  take  the  same  time  to 
destroy  the  velocity  gt  which  it  took  to  produce  it. 
From  this  consideration  we  may  obtain  an  expres- 
sion for  the  space  AB  or  S  in  terms  of  the  time  t. 
In  the  time  t,  the  body  rising  from  B  with  a  velocity 
-=  gt  would  ascend,  if  not  retarded,  a  height  {gt)  .  t, 
or  gf^.  But  in  the  time  gra\dty,  we  know,  earned 
it  through  S  ;  it  wall  therefore,  in  the  same  time,  by 
retarding  it,  prevent  it  going  to  the  height  gt"^  by  a 
space  =  S.  The  space  through  which  it  actually 
ascends  is  then  represented  by  the  difference  gt"^  —  S  ; 
but  this  sjiace  we  know  to  be  AB  or  S.  Therefore 
S  =  <7«-  -  S  ;  or  2S  =  or  S  =  \gt'K  We  may 
give  this  equation  another  form.    For  v  being  the 

V 


velocity  acquired  in  the  time 


Then  ^=.\g Hence   v»  =  2(/S.  From 

these  forsiulae,  we  see  that  when  a  body  falls  from 
rest  imder  the  action  of  graWty,  its  velocity  at  any 
time  varies  as  the  time,  and  the  square  of  its 
velocity  as  the  space  described. 

If  the  body,  instead  of  starting  from  rest,  has  an 
initial  velocity  V ;  and  if  as  before,  be  the  velo- 
city at  the  time  then  evidently  is  =  the  original 
velocity  -f-  that  which  is  generated  by  gravity,  or 
V  =  V  +  <7< ;  and  the  space  will  be  that  which 
would  have  been  described  by  the  body  moving 
uniformly  with  a  velocity  V"  +  that  which  it  would 

describe  under  gravity  alone,  or  S  =      +  '-^  .  With 

regard  to  the  last  two  formulae,  it  is  easy  to  see  that 
they  may  be  made  to  suit  the  case  of  a  body  pro- 
jected upwards  with  a  velocity  V,  by  a  change  of 


rigns ;  thus,  v  =  Y  —  ft,  and  S  =  V< 


gravity 


^ere  acting  to  destroy  velocity,  and  diminish  the 
height  attained.  From  the  general  formulae  in  the 
case  of  an  initial  velocity,  whether  the  body  be  pro- 
jected upwards  or  downwards,  we  may  express  v 
in  terms  of  S,  as  we  did  in  the  case  of  motion  from 

TCHt.  For  =  (V  ±  gt)*  =  V  ±  2g{Yt  +  ^)  = 
^  ±  2gS.  2 

These  are  all  the  foiTnulas  applicable  to  the  case 
of  falling  bodies,  and  by  their  means  all  problems  in 
this  branch  of  dynamics  may  be  solved.  It  also 
appears  that  the  formulae  above  investigated  apply 
to  aU  cases  of  rectilinear  motion  of  bodies  con- 
sidered as  particles  under  the  action  of  any  uniform 
force.  In  al  such  cases,  if  /measure  the  accelerat- 
vig  force  S  =  ^/t\  =  2/S,  for  the  case  of  motion 
'2ii 


from  rest;  and  S  =  Yt±  \fe,  and  =  T *  ±  2/S, 
for  the  case  of  an  initial  velocity. 

The  reader  can  easily  frame  examples  illustra- 
tive of  the  formulae  for  himself.  We  subjoin 
one :  A  stone  falls  down  a  well,  and  in  2"  the 
sound  of  its  striking  the  bottom  is  heard.  How 
deep  is  the  well  ?  Neglecting  the  time  occupied  in 
the  transmission  of  sound,  the  formula  S  =  \g^ 
applies,  or  S  =  depth  =  ^g .  2^^,  t  being  2" ;  .'.  depth 
=  2g,  or  64-4  feet. 

2.  Bodies  descending  inclined  planes. —  In  this 
case  the  formulas  already  investigated  apply  with  a 
slight  change.    In  the  figure,  if  F  be  a  body  on  tht 
inclined  plane  AB,  de- 
scending under  gravity, 
we  observe  that  only 
that   resolved  part  of 
gravity  parallel  to  AB 
is  effective  to  make  it 
descend,  the  other  part 
at  right  angles  to  AB 
merely  producing  pres- 
sure on  the  plane.    The  A. 
angle  of  inclination  of 

the  plane  being  a,  we  know  (see  CoMPOSiTroN  and 
Eesolution  of  Forces)  that  the  resolved  part  of 
gravity  parallel  to  the  plane  is  g  sin.  a.  The  body, 
then,  may  be  conceived  to  be  descending  under  a 
uniform  accelerating  force  g  sin.  a.  We  olDtain  the 
formulae,  accordingly,  for  descent  on  inclined  planes 
by  substituting  g  sin.  a  for  /  in  the  general  formulae 
given  above.  We  notice,  however,  that  in  descent 
on  inchned  planes  the  velocity  acquired  is,  as  in 
the  case  of  bodies  falling  freely,  due  solely  to  tho 
vertical  height  through  which  the  body  falls.  By 
our  formula,  =  2g  sin.  a  .  S,  where  S  =  AB,  if  the 
body  falls  from  B.  This  may  be  written  v-  —  2g . 
S .  sin.  a,  or  =  2g .  AB .  sin.  a,  or  =  2g  .  BC,  since 
AB .  sin.  a  —  BC.  But  this  is  the  same  as  the 
velocity  acquired  by  a  body  in  falling  freely 
through  BC.  In  fact,  it  holds  generally  true,  that 
the  velocity  acquired  by  a  body  falling  down  the 
surface  of  any  smooth  curve  is  that  due  to  tho 
vertical  height  through  which  it  has  fallen ;  which 
might  be  proved  in  various  ways,  but  is  sufficiently 
clear  from  this,  that  any  curve  may  be  considered 
as  a  succession  of  inclined  planes,  indefinitely  shoi-t 
in  length,  and  gi-eat  in  number ;  for  the  proi)Osition 
being  true,  as  above  jiroved,  for  each  of  them,  w^lU 
be  true  for  all,  and  therefore  for  the  curve. 

For  an  account  of  the  variations  of  the  value  of 
due  to  the  earth  not  being  a  perfect  sphere,  and 
other  causes,  see  Earth.  The  reader  is  also  referred 
to  the  article  Atwood's  Machine.  The  theory 
of  the  descent  of  bodies  under  gravity  was  first 
discovered  and  taught  by  Galileo. 

FALLING  SICKNESS.    See  Epilepsy. 

FALLMERAY  ER,  Jacob  Philipp,  a  German 
traveller  and  historian,  was  born  10th  December 
1791,  at  Tschotsch,  near  Brixen  in  the  Tyrol ;  studied 
at  Brixen,  and  in  1809  went  to  Salzburg,  where  he 
gave  instructions  to  pupils  in  history  and  Latin 
At  the  university  of  Landshut,  he  studied  law, 
history,  and  philology.  When  Germany  rose  against 
Napoleon  in  1813,  he  entered  the  Bavarian  army, 
and  took  part  in  several  engagements.  After  peace 
was  concluded,  F.  returned  to  his  studies.  In  1826, 
he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  history  and 
philology  at  Landshut.  In  1831,  he  accompanied 
the  Russian  general,  Count  Ostermann-Tolstoy,  in  a 
journey  to  the  East,  visiting  Egyj)!,  Palestine,  Syria, 
Cyjirus,  Rhodes,  Greece,  Turkey,  and  Italy.  Dur- 
ing 1830 — 1840,  he  resided  w4th  Count  Ostermann- 
Tolstoy  at  Geneva,  and  in  the  course  of  the  next 
eight  years  twic  revisited  the  East.    The  events  of 


FALLOPIAN  TUBES— FALLOW. 


1848  recalled  him  to  Bavaria,  and  for  a  short  time 
he  sat  as  a  deputy  to  the  Frankfurt  parliament,  but 
tjince  1850  has  lived  privately  in  Munich,  F.  is  a 
distinguished  polyglott,  and  speaks  a  great  num- 
ber both  of  European  and  Oriental  tongues.  His 
principal  works  are,  GescJuchte  des  KaisertJmms 
Trapezunt  (Miinch.  1831),  Geschichte  der  HalUnsel 
Morea  im  Mittelalter  (2  vols.,  Stuttg.  1830—1830), 
and  Fragmente  aus  dem  Orient  (2  vols.,  Stuttg.  1845). 
His  views  on  the  origin  of  the  modern  Greek  lan- 
guage have  excited  the  liveliest  controversy  both  in 
Greece  and  elsewhere.  A  complete  edition  of  F.'s 
works  appeared  at  Leipsic  some  years  since,  enti- 
tled Gesammelte  Werke  von  Jakob  Philipp  Fallme- 
rayer.    He  died  April,  1862. 

FALLO'PIAN  TUBES,  The  (so  called  after 
Fallopius,  who  is  usually,  but  incorrectly,  regarded 
as  their  discoverer),  or  oviducts,  are  canals  about 
four  or  five  inches  in  length  in  the  human  subject, 
opening  at  their  inner  extremity  into  the  upper 
angle  of  the  uterus  or  womb,  and  at  the  other  end, 
by  a  fringed  funnel-shaped  termination,  into  the 
cavity  of  the  peritoneum.  This  fringed  or  fimbriated 
extremity  at  certain  periods  grasps  the  ovary,  and 
receives  the  ovimi,  which  is  discharged  by  the  rup- 
ture of  the  Graafian  vesicle.  See  OVAEIES.  The 
ovum  usually  passes  along  the  Fallopian  tubes  into 
the  uterus,  where  it  is  either  impregnated  by  con- 
tact with  one  or  more  spermatozoa,  or  is  absorbed. 
Sometimes,  however,  the  ovum  becomes  not  only 
impregnated  but  retained,  «ind  further  developed  in 
the  Fallopian  tubes,  thus  giving  rise  to  one  of  the 
forms  of  extra-uterine  pregnancy. 

FALLO'PIUS,  Gabriel,  a  celebrated  anatomist, 
born  at  or  near  Modena,  about  the  year  1523  (this 
date,  hovv-ever,  is  very  imcertain),  and  died  in  1562. 
If  the  date  we  have  assigned  is  correct,  he  was  only 
twenty-five  when  he  was  promoted  from  the  univer- 
sity of  Ferrara  to  a  professorship  at  Pisa,  whence, 
after  a  few  years,  he  was  called  to  Padua,  to  succeed 
Vesalius,  who  had  been  compelled  by  the  Inquisition 
to  resign  his  office.  See  Vesalius.  Cuvier  charac- 
terises him  as  one  of  the  three  savants  who  restored 
rather  than  created  the  science  of  anatomy  in  the 
17th  c,  the  two  others  being  Vesalius  and  Eusta- 
chius.  After  a  short  but  brilliant  career,  he  died 
at  the  age  of  40,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  favourite 
pupd,  Fabricius  al>  Acquapendente. 

He  published  numerous  works  in  various  depart- 
ments of  medicine,  of  which  the  most  important  is 
his  Ohservationes  Anatomiccs,  in  lihros  quinque  dlgestce, 
1561,  in  which  he  corrects  many  errors  into  which 
his  predecessor,  Vesalius,  had  fallen.  He  was  the 
first  to  describe  with  accuracy  the  ethmoid  and 
sphenoid  bones,  and  the  minute  structure  of  the  ear 
(the  canal  along  which  the  facial  nerve  passes,  after 
leaving  the  auditory,  is  still  known  as  the  aqiieduct 
of  Fallopius) ;  the  muscles  of  the  soft  palate,  and  the 
vUli  and  valvulae  conniventes  of  the  small  intestine. 
In  some  of  his  supposed  discoveries,  he  had  been 
long  anticipated ;  for  example,  the  tubes  passing  from 
the  ovary  on  either  side  to  the  uterus,  and  which 
bear  his  name,  were  known  to,  and  accurately 
described  by,  Herophilus  and  Ptufus  of  Ephesus, 
300  years  before  our  era.  In  addition  to  his  ana- 
toirdcal  fame,  he  had  a  considerable  reputation  as 
a  botanist.  He  was  the  superintendent  of  the 
botanical  garden  at  Padua  ;  and  a  genus  of  plants, 
Fallopia.  has  been  named  after  him.  A  complete 
edition  of  his  works,  in  four  folio  volumes,  was 
published  in  1600. 

FALLOUX,  Frederic  Alfred  Pierre,  Vicomte 
DE,  a  French  author  and  statesman,  was  bom  at 
Angers  11th  May  1811.  His  family  was  distin- 
guiahed  for  its  legitimist  zeal,  and  at  the  Restora- 


tion was  rewarded  by  receiving  letters  of  nobllitj. 
Young  F.  first  drew  attention  to  himself  by  twa 
works  penetrated  by  an  ardent  love  of  the  old 
Bourbon  order  of  things — UHMoire  de  Louis  XVI. 
(Paris,  1840),  and  UHisloire  de  Saint  Pie  V.,  Pape^ 
de  VOrdre  des  Freres  precheurs  (Paris,  1844).  These 
indicate  the  level  of  his  political  and  religious  faitlu 
In  the  elections  of  1846,  he  was  chosen  deputy  for 
the  department  Maine-et-Loire.  In  religion,  ho 
advocated  the  ideas  of  Montalembert ;  in  politics, 
those  of  Berryer,  but  united  with  his  legitimist 
sentiments  a  love  of  liberty  and  education  strangely 
incongruous  with  the  historic  character  of  hia 
party.  After  the  revolution  of  February  1848, 
he  exhibited  much  energy  as  a  member  of  tho 
Constituent  Assembly,  was  one  of  those  who  organ- 
ised the  resistance  to  the  insurrection  of  the  15th 
May,  and,  as  reporter  on  the  national  workshops, 
pronounced  for  their  immediate  dissolution.  He 
was  also  one  of  the  most  ardent  promoters  of  the 
expedition  to  Pome,  which  has  since  entailed  so 
much  trouble  and  even  danger  on  the  govern- 
ment of  France.  After  the  election  of  liOuia 
Napoleon  to  the  presidency,  F.  was  appointed 
Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  an  office  which  he 
held  only  for  ten  months.  Since  the  events  of  the 
2d  December  1851,  he  has  retired  from  public  life 
altogether,  to  a  country-seat  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Angers,  where  he  occupies  himself  wdth  agricid- 
tural  pursuits.  In  1857,  he  was  admitted  a  member 
of  the  French  Academy,  and  in  the  same  year 
piiblished  at  Tours  his  Souvenirs  de  Charite. — F. 
has  a  brother,  a  canon  at  the  court  of  Pome,  who 
flatters  himself  that  he  possesses  the  veritable 
handkerchief  of  St  Veronica,  bearing  the  imprint  of 
the  Saviour's  countenance. 

FA  LLOW  (from  the  same  root  as  Ger.  fahl  or  falbt 
Lat.  fulvus,  expressing  a  pale  dun,  tawny  colour). 
This  word  sometimes  signifies  waste,  untilled  land  ; 
but  usually  it  is  applied  to  land  that  is  ploughed 
and  otherwise  stirred  for  a  season  without  beiug 
cropped.  The  most  of  the  wheat  raised  by  *,he 
Romans  was  sown  after  the  land  was  fallowed ; 
indeed,  the  usual  rotation  was  fallow  and  wheat 
alternately.  It  was  only  fertile  soils  that  could 
long  supjDort  such  an  exhausting  syb^-.em ;  hence 
resulted  the  decreasing  produce  which  the  later 
Roman  agricultural  authors  so  often  speak  uf  and 
lament. 

The  fallowing  of  land  was  introduced  into  all 
the  countries  which  fell  under  the  dominion 
of  the  Romans.  During  their  sway  in  Britain,  it 
soon  exported  large  quantities  of  wheat  ;  and 
for  centuries  after  the  Romans  left  it,  no  other 
mode  of  cultivating  the  land  was  followed.  It 
may  here  be  observed,  that  wherever  the  system  of 
fallowing,  without  giving  manure  to  the  crops,  is 
practised,  it  necessarily  supposes  that  the  soil  is 
at  least  moderately  fertile.  This  system  is  most 
successful  on  argillaceous  sods,  which  are  retentive 
of  organic  manure.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  chief  use  of  fallow  is  to  liberate  the  plant-food 
which  is  already  stored  up  in  the  sod  as  organio 
matter.  The  ploughing  and  stirring,  by  admitting 
air,  promotes  decomposition,  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  turning  over  of  a  dunghill  does ;  it  also 
destroys  the  roots  of  the  weeds  that  impoverish  and 
choke  the  crops. 

It  was  long  before  fallowing  was  introduced  to 
any  extent  in  Scotland;  but  about  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century,  it  was  largely  practised. 
Owing,  however,  to  the  draining  of  the  sod,  and  the 
extension  of  the  green-cropping  system,  it  is  now 
confined  to  the  most  retentive  clay-soils,  where  it 
afibrds  the  only  means  of  thoroughly  cleaning  the 
land.    In  a  rotation  of  beans,  clover,  oats,  fallow 

236 


FALLOW  CHAT— FALMOUTH. 


«rheat,  aad  barley,  each  field  is  subjected  to  a  pro- 
cess of  fallowing  once  in  every  six,  seven,  or  eight 
years,  according  to  circumstances. 

Fallow-fields  usually  receive  a  deep  furrow  in 
atitumu.  Lying  exposed  through  the  winter,  the 
frost  pulverises  the  surface.  In  spring,  when  the 
weather  becomes  dry,  the  cultivator  or  the  plough 
opens  up  tlie  soil,  and  the  process  of  extirpating  the 
weeds  goes  on.  Sometimes  as  many  as  three  or  four 
furrows  are  given  in  summer  before  the  seed  is 
sown  ii\  autumn.  In  ohl  cultivated  countries,  land 
is  commonly  so  much  reduced  in  its  organic  matter, 
that  fallows  receive  dressings  of  farm-yard  mauiu'e, 
rape-dust,  or  guano,  to  obtain  fertility. 

Since  tlie  general  introduction  of  green  crops, 
the  term  fallow  has  departed  in  some  measure  from 
its  original  meaning.  These  crops  are  sown  on 
what  was  formerly  the  fallow-break,  and  are  now 
often  styled  fallow-crops.  The  land,  no  doubt, 
receives  in  some  measure  a  fallowing,  as  the  green 
croj)S  are  cultivated  by  the  plough  during  their 
groAvth.  Bastard-faUowing  is  a  term  which  is  used 
m  Scotland  when  hay-stubble  is  ploughed  up  in 
the  end  of  summer,  freed  from  weeds,  and  sown 
with  wheat  in  autumn. 

Where  no  express  stipulation  on  the  subject  has 
been  introduced  into  the  lease,  it  has  been  held 
in  Scotland,  that,  as  the  outgoing  tenant  might 
have  taken  a  crop  from  the  land,  which,  in 
accordance  with  the  most  approved  principles  of 
agriculture,  he  ought  to  leave  fallow,  and  as  the 
iiicoiniug  tenant  reaps  the  advantage  in  case  of 
his  abstaining  from  doing  so,  he  is  entitled  to 
claim  its  value  (Purves,  December  3,  1S22.  See 
Bell's  Principles,  s.  1263).  '  This  decision,'  says  Mr 
Hunter  {Landlord  and  Tenant,  iL  p.  458),  'has  been 
deemed  to  have  fixed  the  law.'  In  conformity 
with  the  same  principle,  it  has  been  rided,  that 
if  the  outgoing  tenant  received  prepared  fallow, 
the  like  should  be  left  by  him.  A  tenant  who, 
on  entering  to  his  farm,  had  received  a  certain 
extent  of  fallow,  prepai-ed  with  manure,  free  of 
expense,  was  held  bound  to  leave  the  same  amount 
of  fallow  and  manui-e  as  he  had  received,  and  to 
be  entitled  to  claim  payment  only  for  the  surplus 
(Brown  v.  College  of  St  Andrews,  11th  July  1851). 
But  where  a  portion  of  land  has  been  expressly 
reserved  in  the  lease  for  fallow  and  green  crop,  for 
which  the  tenant  was  to  receive  merely  a  certain 
Bum  per  acre  for  ploughing,  the  rights  of  the  parties 
are  settled  by  the  contract,  and  the  tenant  can  claim 
no  additional  sum  for  fallow  (Sherifi"  v.  Lord  Lovat, 
I3th  December  1854). 

FALLOW  CHAT.    See  Wheatear. 

FALLOW  DEER  {Dama  vulgaria  or  Cervus 
Dama),  a  species  of  deer  well  known  in  Britain, 
being  very  commonly  kept  in  parks,  as  it  is  also  in 
most  parts  of  Eiu'ope.  It  is  probably  a  native  of 
the  countz-ies  around  the  Mediterranean,  and  has 
been  introduced  by  man  into  the  more  northern 
farts  of  Europe,  where  it  is,  however,  now  in  some 
places  to  be  found  wild  in  forests.  It  is  doubted 
vhether  it  has  not  been  introduced  by  man,  at  a 
remote  period,  from  the  North  of  Africa  even  into 
the  south  of  Europe,  in  all  parts  of  wl^ch  it  is 
now  at  least  completely  naturalised.  How  far  its 
geographic  range  extends  eastward,  is  not  very 
certainly  known.  It  is  represented  in  the  sculp- 
tures of  Nineveh.  Its  introduction  into  Britain  is 
ascribed  to  James  VI.  of  Scotland,  who  is  said 
to  have  brought  it  from  Norway  when  he  brought 
home  his  queen,  Anne  of  Denmark,  and  after  his 
accession  to  the  Eng.ish  throne,  to  have  transported 
it  to  Enfield  and  Epping.  Thousands  of  F.  D. 
now  ei'iat  ix  some  oi  the  English  parks.  They 
236 


generally  receive  some  attention  and  suj^plies  ol 
fodder  in  winter. 

In  size,  the  F.  D.  is  smaller  than  the  stag  or 
red  deer,  from  which  it  also  differs  m  its  broad 
palmated  antlers,  its  longer  tail,  and  its  smoothoi 


Fallow  Deer  {Cervus  Dama). 


and  finer  hair.  In  colour,  it  is  generally  yellowish- 
browm  in  summer ;  darker,  or  even  blackish-brown 
in  winter  ;  more  or  less  spotted  with  pale  spots, 
particidarly  in  summer  and  when  young ;  but  in 
one  variety  the  spots  are  very  marked  ;  in  another 
dark-coloured  variety  they  are  not  to  be  observed 
even  in  the  young.  The  buttocks  are  always 
white,  and  a  dark  line  passes  along  the  back.  The 
under  parts  are  wdiite.  White  F.  D.  are  some- 
times to  be  seen.  The  female  has  no  horns.  The 
male  is  called  a  Buck  (Fr.  daim),  the  female  a 
Doe  (Fr.  daime),  the  young  a  Fawn  (Fr.  faon).  The 
name  F.  D.  is  derived  from  its  colour.  See  the 
article  Fallow,  in  Agriculture. 

When  the  F.  D.  and  red  deer  are  kept  in 
the  same  park,  the  herds  seldom  mingle,  nor  do 
hybrids  occur.  The  F.  D.  loves  the  shelter  of 
woods. 

The  flesh  of  the  F.  D.  is  one  of  the  most 
esteemed  kinds  of  venison. 

The  remains  of  fossil  species  nearly  allied  to  the 
F.  D.  occur  in  some  parts  of  Europe.  Not  remotely 
allied  to  it  is  the  great  fossil  Irish  FAk  (q.  v.). 

FA'LMOUTH,  a  parliamentarj'^  and  municipal 
borough  and  seaport  in  the  south-west  of  Cornwall, 
on  a  west  branch  of  the  estuary  of  the  Fal,  14  miles 
north-north- east  of  Lizard  Point,  and  269  miles 
west- south-west  of  London.  It  chiefly  consists  of  a 
narrow  street,  a  mile  long,  on  the  south-west  of  the 
harbour,  and  of  beautiful  suburban  terraces  and 
villas  on  the  heights  behind.  The  harbour,  one  oi 
the  best  in  England,  is  formed  by  the  estuary  of  the 
Fal,  which  is  5  by  1  to  2  miles  in  extent.  It  is  12  to 
18  fathoms  deep,  and  affords  shelter  to  500  vessels 
at  a  time.  The  mouth  is  defended  on  the  west 
by  Pendennis  Castle,  situated  on  a  rock  198  feet 
high,  and  which  resisted  a  siege  by  Cromw^ell  for 
six  months ;  on  the  east,  by  Mawes  Castle,  hoth 
built  by  Henry  VIII.  Pop.  (1871)  5294.  With 
Penrhjm,  it  returns  two  members  to  parliament. 
In  the  year  1873,  3913  vessels,  of  1,285,000  tons, 
entered  the  port.  There  is  a  great  pilchard- fishery 
oflF  the  neighboxiring  coasts.  The  chief  exports  are 
tin,  copper,  pilchards,  and  fuel.  Here  orange  and 
lemon  trees  jdeld  plenty  of  fruit  on  open  garden- 
walls.  F.  arose  in  the  middle  of  the  17th  c,  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh  having  at  an  earlier  period  drawn 
public  notice  to  its  capabilities,  and  it  has  been, 
since  that  time,  a  chief  rendezvous  for  fleets  and 
mail-packets  proceeding  to  foreign  countries. 


FALSE,  KaLii]  OF— FALSE  PRETENCES. 


FALSE,  Rule  of,  or  FALSE  POSITION,  is  a 
mode  of  reckoning  in  cases  where  a  direct  solution 
of  the  question  is  impracticable.  Any  number  is 
chosen  at  hazard,  as  that  which  is  soiight ;  this  false 
position  of  course  gives  a  false  result,  and  from  the 
amount  of  the  error,  it  is  ascertained  by  proportion 
That  the  assumption  ought  to  have  been.  Kv. 
What  number  is  that  whose  half  exceeds  its  third 
by  12  ?  Assume  96  at  random  ;  48  —  32  gives  IG, 
which  is  too  great ;  .-.  16  :  12  : :  96  :  72,  the  number 
required.  This  method  is  now  mostly  superseded 
by  the  use  of  equations. 

FALSE  AND  PRETENDED  PROPHECIES, 
with  intent  >^  disturb  the  public  peace,  are  punish- 
able by  several  old  statutes.  By  33  Henry  VIII. 
c.  14,  this  crime  is  made  a  felony ;  but  by  3  and  4 
Ed.  VI.  c.  15,  continued  by  7  Ed.  VI.  c.  1 1,  and  by 
6  Eliz.  c.  15,  the  punishment  is  restricted  to  one 
year's  imprisonment,  and  forfeiture  of  £10  for  the 
first  offence;  and  for  the  second  off'ence,  imprison- 
ment for  life,  and  forfeiture  of  all  chattels.  These 
statutes  a]>ply  to  a  particular  class  of  prophecies — 
viz.,  prophecies  '  upon  or  by  the  occasion  of  any 
arms,  fields,  beasts,  badges,  or  such  other  like  things 
accustomed  in  arms,  cognizances,  or  signets ;  or  upon 
or  by  reason  of  any  time,  year,  or  day,  bloodshed,  or 
war,  to  the  intent  to  make  rebellion,  &c.'  This 
description  refers  to  predictions  founded  upon  the 
heraldic  bearings  of  particular  families,  which,  in 
the  state  of  public  feeling  at  the  time  when  the 
statutes  were  passed,  might  have  been  productive 
of  discontent  and  sedition.  The  statutes  are  unre- 
pealed, but  are  not  likely  in  the  present  day  again 
to  be  put  in  force. 

FALSE  BAY,  an  inlet  which  may  be  referred 
either  to  the  Atlantic,  the  Southern,  or  the  Indian 
Ocean.  It  washes  the  east  side  of  the  mountainous 
district  of  South  Africa,  which  terminates  in  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  extends  eastward  along 
the  coast  as  far  as  False  Cape,  measuring  about 
22  miles  in  length,  and  about  the  same  in  breadth. 
F.  B.  is,  of  course,  sheltered  from  the  north-west 
monsoon,  to  which  Table  Bay — the  harbour  of 
Cape  Town — is  exposed,  an  advantage  which  is 
more  especially  possessed  by  Simon's  Bay,  at  its 
north-west  extremity.  Hence,  besides  periodically 
receiving  trading- vessels  from  Cape  Town  for  tem- 
porary protection,  it  is  permanently  the  station  of 
the  naval  force  of  the  colony. 

FALSE  IMPRISONMENT.  Every  confine- 
ment of  the  person  is  an  imprisonment,  whetx/er  it 
be  in  a  common  prison  or  a  private  house,  or  in  the 
stocks,  or  even  by  forcibly  detaining  one  in  the 
public  streets  (Coke,  Inst.  ii.  482).  A  man  is  liable 
tor  detaining  the  person  of  another,  not  only  without 
cause,  but  without  legal  cause.  Thus,  where  a  man 
givos  another  in  charge  for  committing  an  offence, 
the  former  is  liable  to  an  action  for  false  imprison- 
ment, if  he  fails  to  substantiate  his  case.  Police- 
ofiBcers,  also,  are  liable  for  apprehending  a  man 
without  a  competent  warrant,  or  without  reasonable 
ffuspicion.  But  where  a  felony  has  been  committed, 
an  officer  is  entitled  to  arrest  on  suspicion.  Not 
only  constables  but  private  persons  may  arrest  a 
man  who  commits  a  felony  in  their  presence.  A 
person  who  has  falsely  imprisoned  another  is  liable 
to  a  criminal  prosecution,  and  also  to  a  civil  action. 
In  tfie  former  case,  he  may  be  punished  by  fine  and 
imprisonment ;  in  the  latter,  he  must  pay  such 
damages  as  are  awarded.  Any  one  detained  with- 
out sufficient  cause  is  entitled  to  apply  for  a  writ  of 
Habeajt  Corpus  (q.  v.)  to  procure  his  liberation.  In 
Scotland,  this  species  of  offence  is  called  Wrongous 
Imprisonment  (q.  v.). 

FALSE  NEWS   or  RUMOURS.  Spreading 


false  news  to  make  a  discord  between  the  sovereign 
and  nobility,  is  a  misdemeanour,  and  punishable  hy 
the  common  law  of  England  with  fine  and  imprison- 
ment. By  statute  of  Westminster  the  first,  c.  34, 
this  penalty  is  confirmed.  1'his  statute  is  said  by 
Lord  Coke  to  have  been  passed  in  conse(juence  of 
the  rebellion  of  Simon  de  Montfort  (Coke,  Ir.st.  iL 
226).  The  law  before  the  Conquest  had  been  more 
severe,  and  required  that  the  author  and  spreader  of 
false  rumours  should  have  his  tongue  cut  out,  if  he 
redeemed  it  not  by  estimation  of  his  head  (or  capi- 
tation tax).  One  of  the  articles  against  Cardinal 
Wolsey  was  founded  on  this  i^rinci})le  of  common 
law.  '  Also  the  said  cardinal  has  busied  and  endea- 
voured himself  by  crafty  and  untrue  tales  against 
your  nobles  of  your  realm.' — Coke,  Jmt.  iv.  d% 
The  feeling  of  the  present  day  is  more  in  accordance 
with  the  axiom  of  Tacitus,  Convicia,  si  irasceris,  tua 
divulgas,  spreta  excolescunt  (If  you  seek  to  revenge 
slanders,  you  publish  them  as  your  own ;  if  you 
despise  them,  they  vanish). 

FALSE  PRETENCES,  Obtaining  Money  by. 
By  the  common  law  of  England,  a  man  is  not  punish- 
able as  a  criminal  who  has  induced  another,  by 
fraudulent  representations,  to  part  with  the  property 
'  of  money  or  goods,  unless  the  loss  occasioned  by  the 
I  deception  be  of  a  public  nature.    Larceny  or  theft 
i  was  the  only  species  of  wrongful  abstraction  of 
j  articles  of  value  which  was  recognised,  and  where 
the  consent  of  the  owner  to  the  transaction  was 
obtained,  no  matter  how  fraudulently,  the  loser  was 
left  to  a  civil  action  for  his  relief.    To  remedy  this 
defect  in  the  law,  the  33  Henry  VIII.  c.  1  was 
passed,  whereby  it  was  enacted,  that  if  any  person 
should  falsely  and  deceitfully  obtain  any  money, 
;  goods,  &c.,  by  means  of  any  false  token  or  counter- 
feit letter  made  in  any  other  man's   name,  the 
:  offender  should  suffer  any  punishment  short  of 
death,  at  the  discretion  of  the  judge.    This  statute, 
however,  only  reached  the  case  of  deception  by  use 
,  of  a  false  writing  or  token  ;  the  30  Geo.  IL  c.  24 
i  w^as  therefore  passed  for  the  purpose  of  including 
all  false  pretences  whatsoever.    Further  alterationa 
I  were  made  by  subsequent  statutes,  until,  by  7  and 
8  Geo.  IV.  c.  29,  the  previous  legislation  on  the 
:  subject  was  consolidated.    This  is  now  the  ruling 
j  statute  in  regard  to  false  pretences.    The  genera] 
;  principle  is  that,  ■wherever  a  person  fraudulently 
represents  as  an  existing  fact  that  which  is  not  an 
existing  fact,  and  so  gets  money,  &c.,  that  is  an 
offence  within  the  act  (Reg.  v.  Woolley,  i.  Den.  C. 
C.  559).     The  false  pretence  must  relate  to  some 
present  fact,  and  therefore  a  promise  merely  to  do 
some  act  is  not  such  a  false  representation  as  will 
sustain  a  conviction.    It  is  not  necessary  that  the 
i  deception  should  be  by  words  or  WTiting,  but  any 
j  act  tending  to  deceive,  will  bring  a  person  within  the 
i  statute.    Thus,  a  man  at  Oxford  wearing  a  cap  and 
goAvn,  in  order  to  induce  a  tradesman,  of  whom  he 
ordered  goods,  to  believe  that  he  was  a  menber  of 
the  university,  is  sufficient  to  warrant  a  con\nction. 
The  deception  practised,  however,  must  not  be 
simply  as  to  the  quality  of  an  article,  for  this  is 
regarded  as  merely  a  dishonest  trick  of  trade,  and 
not  criminally  punishable  ;  it  is  also  necessary  that 
the  owner  should  be  deceived  by  the  pretence  ;  and 
where  a  tradesman  is  induced  to  part  with  goods  to 
a  regular  customer,  making  a  false  statement,  not 
on  account  of  the  statement,  but  from  his  belief  in 
the  credit  of  the  party,  the  transaction  is  not  pmiish- 
able  under  the  act.  By  24,  25  Vict.  c.  96,  ss.  88-  90,  it 
is  enacted  that  it  shall  be  no  bar  to  a  conviction 
that  the  crime,  on  being  proved,  amounts  to  larceny 
and  that  it  shall  not  be  necessary  to  prove  an  mtent 
to  defraud  any  particular  person  ;  that  the  delivery 
of  money,  &c.,  to  another  person,  for  the  benefit  ol 

237 


FALSE  RETURN— FALUN. 


Iiie  party  using  the  deception,  and  also  the  obtaining 
(Signature  to,  or  destruction  ot,  a  vahiable  security, 
fee.,  by  a  false  representation,  shall  subject  the 
offender  to  punishment.  The  same  statute,  ss.  46 
and  47,  contains  a  salutary  provision,  that  any  person 
8/ttempting  to  extort  money  by  threatening  to  accuse 
another  of  certain  felonies,  or  of  an  infamous  crime, 
may  be  transported  for  life. 

In  Scotland,  this  offence  is  known  as  Falsehood, 
Fraud,  and  Wilful  Imposition.  Each  species  of  the 
offence  which  in  England  is  punishable  under  the 
statute,  in  Scotland  is  indictable  at  common  law. 
Thus,  false  personation,  as  where  a  man,  in  the 
assumed  character  of  an  exciseman,  received  money 
as  a  composition  for  smuggled  goods,  has  been  held 
to  warrant  a  conviction  of  falsehood.  So,  also,  where 
the  decei)tion  consists  in  fictitious  appearances ;  as 
where  a  man,  by  fitting  his  shop  with  false  bales, 
induced  another  to  trust  him  with  goods.  Obtaining 
money  by  begging-letters,  and  the  common  practice 
of  chain-dropping,  fall  under  this  denomination  of 
crime. 

FALSE  RETURN,  Acnoi^  for.  Wliere  a 
sheriff  makes  a  false  return  to  a  WTit,  the  party 
injured  may  maintain  an  action  against  him  for 
damages.  Thus,  a  return  of  non  est  inventus  to  a 
writ  of  capias,  when  the  defendant  might  have  been 
apprehended,  or  a  return  of  nulla  bona  to  a  fieri 
facias,  when  there  were  goods  which  might  have 
been  seized,  renders  the  sheriff  liable  in  damages  to 
the  amount  of  loss  occasioned  by  his  negligence. 

FALSE  SIGNALS.  By  7  Will.  IV.  and  I  Vict, 
c.  89,  s.  5,  the  exhibiting  any  false  light  or  signal, 
with  intent  to  bring  any  ship  or  vessel  into  danger, 
is  made  felony,  and  punishal)le  Avith  death.  The 
felonious  intent  may  be  proved  by  declarations 
made  by  the  accused,  or  by  circumstances  which 
fairly  lead  to  the  conclusion  of  a  guilty  purpose. 
The  punishment  of  death  is  recorded,  but  is  not  in 
fact  carried  out. 

FALSE  SWEARING.  By  19  and  20  Vict.  c.  79, 
«.  178  (Bankruptcy,  Scotland),  any  person  giiilty 
of  falsehood  in  any  oath  made  in  the  pursuance  of 
the  act,  shall  be  liable  to  a  prosecution  at  the 
instance  of  the  Lord  Advocate,  or  of  the  trustee  in 
the  sequestration,  with  consent  of  the  Lord  Advo- 
cate. But  in  the  latter  case,  the  prosecution  must  be 
authorised  by  a  majority  of  the  creditors  present  at 
a  meeting  called  for  the  purpose.  The  person,  on 
conviction,  is  liable,  in  addition  to  the  punishment 
awarded,  to  forfeit,  for  behoof  of  the  creditors,  his 
whole  claim  under  the  sequestration.  In  England 
a  bankrupt  is  not  put  upon  oath ;  but  on  making 
a  false  declaration,  he  is  deemed  guilty  of  a  mis- 
demeanoTir,  and  punishable  with  the  penalty  of 
perjury. 

FALSE  VERDICT.  The  remedy  in  cases  where 
it  was  alleged  that  a  false  verdict  had  been  returned, 
was  formerly  by  means  of  a  writ  of  attaint.  This 
writ  originally  lay  only  in  cases  where  the  jury  had 
returned  a  verdict  on  their  own  knowledge  of  the 
facts,  and  proceeded  on  the  assumption  that,  in 
returning  a  false  verdict,  they  were  necessarily  per- 
jured. The  case  was  heard  before  twenty-four  men, 
jfcnd  in  case  the  original  verdict  was  found  bad,  the 
jxuors  incurred  the  penalty  of  infamy  and  forfeitm-e 
of  their  goods.  By  statute  of  Westminster  the 
first,  c.  34,  a  writ  of  attaint  was  allowed  upon  an 
inquest ;  i.  e.,  where  cases  had  been  decided  upon 
evidence  adduced.  In  this  case,  the  evidence  pro- 
duced on  the  second  inquiry  could  only  be  such  as 
had  been  laid  before  the  first  jury,  as  it  woiUd  have 
been  manifestly  unjust  to  pimish  jurors  on  fresh 
evidence  which  they  had  not  heard.  Writ  of  attaint 
was  abolished  by  6  Geo.  iV.  a  50,  s.  60. 

2S8 


FALSE  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES.  Th« 

use  of  false  weights  and  scales  is  an  offence  at  common 
law  in  England,  and  punishable  by  imprisonment. 
In  Scotland,  by  1607  c.  2,  the  users  of  false  weights 
are  punishable  by  confiscation  of  movables. 

FALSEHOOD.    See  Fraud. 

FA'LSET,  or  FALSE  TTO,  a  term  in  singing  for 
the  highest  register  of  a  man's  voice,  which  joins  the 
natural  or  chest  voice,  and  which,  by  practice,  may 
be  so  blended  with,  the  chest-voice  as  to  make  co 
perceivable  break. 

FALSIFYING  RECORDS.  The  injuring  or 
falsifying  any  of  the  documents  of  a  court  of  justice 
is,  by  several  modern  statutes,  made  a  serioua 
offence.  Any  person  obliterating,  injuring,  or  destroy- 
ing any  record,  WTit,  &c.,  or  any  original  document 
be]  onging  to  any  coiu-t  of  record  or  of  equity,  is  guilty 
of  a  misdemeanour,  and  may  be  transported  for 
seven  years  (now  penal  servitude),  or  be  pimished 
by  fine  or  imprisonment,  with  or  without  hard 
labour,  7  and  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  29.  By  13  and  14  Vict 
c.  99,  any  person  em])loyed  to  furnish  certified 
copies  wilfully  certifying  any  document  as  a  true 
copy,  kno^ving  the  same  is  not  so,  is  guilty  of  a 
misdemeanour,  and  may  be  imprisoned  for  eighteen 
months.  This  act  does  not  extend  to  Scotland. 
By  1  and  2  Vict.  c.  94,  any  person  employed  in  a 
public  record  office  certifying  any  writing  to  be  a 
true  copy,  knowing  the  same  to  be  false  in  any 
material  part,  is  giulty  of  felony,  and  may  bo 
transported  for  life. 

FA'LSTER,  a  Danish  island  in  the  Baltic,  south 
of  Seeland,  lies  between  lat.  54°  30'  and  54°  58'  N., 
and  between  long.  IT  45'  and  12°  11'  E.  It  is 
sejiarated  by  the  strait  called  the  Gronsund  from 
the  island  of  Moen,  and  by  that  called  the  Gidd- 
borgsimd  from  the  island  of  Laaland,  together  with 
which  F.  forms  the  stift  or  i)rovince  of  ^Laaland,  a 
province  which  contains  in  all  63.5  square  miles,  and 
which  has  about  200,000  inhabitants.  F.  is  abont 
26  miles  long,  and  16  wide  at  its  widest  part,  and 
has  an  area  of  about  178  square  miles.  It  is  flat, 
remarkably  fruitful,  and  well  cultivated,  so  that  it 
resembles  an  attractive  garden,  and  maintains  in 
all  about  23,000  inhabitants,  who  employ  themselves 
chiefly  in  agriculture  and  cattle-breeding.  The  chief 
town  is  Nykjobing,  on  the  Guldborgsund.  It  is 
very  old,  has  a  castle  and  a  cathedral,  has  some 
commerce  and  shipbuilding,  and  a  population  (1870) 
of  .3645.  The  only  other  place  of  any  note  is  S^ubbek- 
jobing. 

FA'LUN,  or  FAHLUN  (called  also  Gamla 
Kopparberget,  i.e.,  the  '  old  copper-mine'),  is  a  town 
of  Sweden,  capital  of  the  Tan,  or  jirovince,  of  the 
same  name,  formerly  the  province  nf  Dalecarlia.  It 
stands  on  the  north-western  shore  of  Lake  Runn, 
120  miles  north-M^est  of  Stockholm,  and  has  long 
been,  and  stUl  is,  famous  for  its  copper-mine«,  though 
the  quantity  of  ore  now  obtained  from  them  is  much 
smaller  than  formerly.  The  greatest  yield  was  about 
1650,  when  no  less  than  3000  tons  were  annually 
got ;  this,  however,  declined,  in  1690,  to  1900  tons; 
while  at  present  it  is  only  about  400  tons.  Gustavua 
Adolphus  used  to  call  the  mines  the  *  treasury  of 
Sweden.'  The  excavations  are  immense,  extending 
for  mdes  underground,  and  containing  vast  chambers, 
where  Bernadotte,  the  late  king  of  Sweden,  gave 
splendid  banquets,  on  which  occasions  the  mines 
Avere  brilliantly  lighted  up.  F.  is  an  old  town, 
regularly  built,  but  has  on  the  whole  a  gloomy 
effect,  as  its  houses,  which  are  of  wood,  have  become 
blackened  by  the  fumes  which  arise  from  the 
numerous  smelting  furnaces  of  the  tOAvn.  These 
fumes,  though  destructive  to  all  vegetable  life  m  the 
neighbourhood,  do  not  seem  to  aft"ect  the  health  of 


FALUNS— FAMILIAR  SPIIUTS. 


the  inhabitants  ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  resorted  to  for 
safety  during  the  prevalence  of  contagious  diseases. 
F.  has  a  High  School  founded  by  Queen  Christina, 
a  n  useum,  an  institution  for  instruction  in  the 
8(16  ice  of  mining,  several  cotton  and  flax- spinning 
mills,  and  some  manufactures  of  blankets  and 
carpets — which  are  made  from  cow-hair — tobacco- 
pipes,  leather,  &c.    Pop.  4618. 

FALUNS,  a  term  given  by  the  agriculturists  of 
Touraine  to  shelly  sand  and  marl,  which  they  spread 
over  their  lands  as  a  fertilising  manure,  and  employed 
by  geologists  as  the  name  of  the  deposits  from  which 
those  materials  are  obtained.  They  are  loosely 
aggregated  beds  of  sand  and  marl,  in  which  are  shells 
and  corals,  some  entire,  some  rolled,  and  others  in 
minute  fragments ;  occasionally,  they  are  so  com- 
pacted by  calcareous  cement  as  to  form  a  soft  build- 
mg- stone.  They  occur  in  scattered  patches  of  slight 
thickness  in  the  lower  part  of  the  valley  of  the 
Loire,  The  animal  remains  contained  in  them  are 
chiefly  marine,  and  have  the  stamj)  pf  a  more  tropical 
faur^a  than  the  Mediterranean.  A  few  land  and 
fiuviatile  moUusca  are  found  mixed  with  the  oceanic 
forms,  and  with  these  are  associated  the  remains  of 
terrestrial  quadrupeds,  as  Dinotherium  (q.  v.).  Mas- 
todon (q.  v.).  Rhinoceros  (q.  v.),  &c.  It  is  probable 
that  the  falun-beds  were  deposited  near  the  shore  in 
shallow  water,  and  at  a  time  when  the  temperature 
was  warmer  than  it  is  now.  About  25  per  cent,  of 
the  organic  remains  are  said  to  belong  to  recent 
Bpecies.  The  strata  form  the  typical  beds  of  Lyell's 
Miocene  Period  (q.  v.),  the  middle  division  of  the 
Tertiary  rocks. 

FA 'MA  (Gr.  Pheme),  the  goddess  of  rumour, 
appears  in  the  works  of  the  earliest  poets.  Sophocles 
makes  her  the  child  of  Hope ;  Virgil,  the  youngest 
daughter  of  Terra,  the  sister  of  Enceladus  and  Coeus. 
Terra  produced  her  to  avenge  herseK  upon  the  gods 
for  the  defeat  of  her  sens  the  giants,  as  F.  would 
everywhere  proclaim  their  evil  deeds.  Ovid  describes 
her  dwelling  as  a  palace  of  sounding  brass  with  a 
thousand  entrances. 

FA'MA  CLAMO'SA,  in  the  ecclesiastical  law  of 
Scotland,  is  a  wide-spread  report,  imputing  immoral 
conduct  to  a  clergyman,  probationer,  or  elder  of  the 
church.  A  fama  clamosa,  if  very  clamant,  may  form 
the  ground  of  process  by  a  presbytery,  without  any 
specific  complaint  being  brought  before  them,  or  there 
being  any  particular  accuser.  In  these  circumstances, 
the  presbytery  act  for  the  vindication  of  their  own 
order,  and  in  behalf  of  the  morals  of  the  community. 
Should  the  inquiries  of  the  presbytery  lead  them 
to  the  conviction  that  the  rumour  is  not  without 
foundation,  they  will  serve  the  accused  party  with 
a  libel,  and  thus  bring  him  for  trial  before  them. 
(Hill's  Church  Frac.  49 ;  Cook's  Styles ;  and  Wood 
On  Libels.) 

FAMI'LIAR  SPIRITS,  a  term  employed  to 
denote  certain  supernatural  beings,  in  attendance 
upon  magicians,  wizards,  witches,  conjurors,  and 
other  skilful  professors  of  the  black  art.  The 
word  'familiar'  is  in  all  likelihood  derived  from 
the  Latin  famulus  (a  'domestic,'  a  'slave').  The 
belief  in  such  spirits  goes  far  back  into  the  history 
of  the  race.  We  read  of  them  in  the  time  of  Moses, 
who  admonishes  his  countrymen  to  '  regard  not 
them  that  have  familiar  spirits'  (Lev.  xix.  31),  which 
would  imply  the  prevalence  of  the  superstition 
among  the  Egyptians.  The  word  in  the  original 
rendered  '  familiar  spirits '  is  oboth  ;  it  is  of  frequent 
occurrence  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  and  literally 
iignifiea  '  leathern  bottles  ; '  thereby  indicating  the 
antiquity  of  the  idea,  that  magicians  were  wont  to 
imprison  in  bottles  the  spirits  whom  their  spells 
bad  subdued  (whence  om  'bottle-imps'  and  'bottle- 


conjurors  ') ;  the  origin,  again,  of  which  grotesque 
belief  is  perhaps  to  be  sought  for  in  the  circum- 
stance that  mystical  liquids  kept  ^'n  viala  have 
been  immensely  in  vogue  among  the  conjurors 
of  all  ages  and  countries.  It  is  not  clear,  as 
some  think,  that  we  can  include  Socrates  among 
those  who  shared  this  vulgar  superstition,  for 
although  he  spoke  of  his  attendant  'dajmou'  in  very 
ambiguous  terms,  the  opinion  of  all  enlightened 
critics  is,  that  he  meant  by  the  word  nothing  more 
and  nothing  less  than  what  Christians  mean  by  the 
presence  of  a  divine  light  and  guide  in  the  heart 
and  conscience.  But  according  to  Delrio — a  greafc 
authority  on  this  subject — the  belief  in  familiar 
spirits  in  the  grosser  and  more  magical  form  did 
exist  among  the  ancient  Greeks,  who,  he  affirms, 
designated  such  beings  Paredrii,  '  companionSj  ae 
being  ever  assiduously  at  hand.  The  story  of  the 
ring  of  Gyges,  king  of  Lydia,  as  narrated  by 
Herodotus,  is  held  by  Heywood  (see  Hierarchk  oj 
the  Blessed  Angels,  &c.)  to  prove  the  existence  of 
the  belief  in  that  country  also ;  and  it  is  quite 
certain  that  during  the  middle  ages  the  belief  in 
'  enchanted  rings '  containing  familiar  spirits  was 
widely  diffused  throughout  Europe,  the  magicians 
of  Salamanca,  Toledo,  and  those  of  Italy,  being 
especially  famous  for  their  skill  in  thus  subjuga,t- 
ing  and  imprisoning  demons.  Asia,  in  fact,  would 
seem  to  have  been  the  original  home  of  the  belief 
in  familiar  spirits,  which  has  long  been  established 
as  a  cardinal  superstition  of  the  Persians  and 
Hindus,  and  which  appears  in  perfection  in  the 
Arabian  Nights.  The  '  slave  of  the  lamp'  who  waits 
upon  Aladdin  is  an  example  in  point.  Whether  the 
belief  in  familiar  spirits  sprung  up  independently 
among  the  nations  of  Western  Eurape,  or  was  trans- 
planted thither  by  intercourse  vatli  the  East,  does 
not  clearly  appear.  A  favourite  form  assiuned  by 
the  familiar  spirit  was  that  of  a  black  dog.  Jovius 
and  others  i-elate,  that  the  famous  Cornelius  Agrippa 
(q.  v.),  half  philosopher,  half  quack,  was  always 
accompanied  by  '  a  devil  in  the  shape  of  a  black 
dog ; '  and  add,  that  when  he  perceived  the  approach 
of  death,  he  took  a  collar  ornamented  with  nails, 
disposed  in  magical  inscriptions,  from  the  neck  of 
this  animal,  and  dismissed  him  with  these  memor- 
able words  :  Abi,  perdita  Bestia,  quce  me  totum  per- 
didisti — ('Away,  accursed  beast,  who  hast  ruined 
me  whoUy  for  ever').  Butler,  in  his  Iludibras^ 
speaks  highly  of  this  animal : 

Agrippa  kept  a  Stygian  pug 
I'  the  garb  and  habit  of  a  dog 
That  was  his  tutor,  and  the  cur 
Read  to  the  occult  philosopher. 
And  taught  hini  subtly  to  maintain 
All  other  sciences  are  vain. 

The  readers  of  Goethe,  too,  will  remember  that 
Mephistopheles  first  appears  to  Faust  and  Wagner 
during  their  evening  walk  in  this  shape ;  but,  in 
truth,  the  earliest  instances  of  such  transmigration 
are  much  older  at  least,  if  medieval  tradition  can 
be  credited,  for  it  assures  us  that  Simon  Magna  and 
other  ancient  magicians  had  familiar  spirits  who 
attended  them  in  the  form  of  dogs.  Curiously 
enough,  in  spite  of  the  servitude  to  which  the 
attendant  imps  were  reduced  by  the  potent  spells 
of  the  magicians,  they  were  popularly  supposed, 
during  the  middle  ages,  to  have  their  revenge  at  last, 
by  carrying  with  them  into  eternal  torment  the 
souls  of  their  deceased  masters.  This  idea  of  divine 
retribution  overtaking  the  practisers  of  magic  is. 
however,  not  foimd  out  of  Christendom.  The  Jews 
think  not  the  less  but  the  more  of  Solomon  because 
he  was,  as  they  say,  one  of  the  greatest  of  magicians 
and  a  similar  feeling  in  regard  to  '  wonder-workers 


FAMILIARS— FAN. 


pervades  eastern  nations  generally,  though  it  is  to 
be  noticed  that  the  latter  are  often  represented  as 
vsing  their  power  malignantly.    See  Magic. 

FAMILIARS.    See  Inquisition. 

FA'MILY  (Lat  familia).  Thought  we  are  in  the 
habit  of  regarding  the  life  of  antiquitjs  and  more 
particularly  that  of  Greece,  as  less  domestic  than 
that  of  Christian  Europe  (and  probably  M'ith  reason), 
the  idea  of  the  family  or  house  (Or.  wJcos),  as  the 
nucleus  of  society,  as  tbe  political  imit,  was  there 
very  early  developed.  Aristotle  speaks  of  it  as 
the  foundation  of  the  state,  and  quotes  Hesiod  to 
the  effect  that  the  original  family  consisted  of  the 
wife  and  the  labouring  ox,  which  held,  as  he  says, 
to  the  poor  the  position  of  the  slave  {PoUt.  i.  1). 
The  complete  Greek  family  then  consisted  of  the 
man  and  his  wife  and  his  slave;  the  two  latter, 
Aristotle  says,  never  having  been  confounded  in 
the  same  class  by  the  Greeks,  as  by  the  barbarians 
(lb.).  In  this  form  the  family  was  recognixed  as 
the  model  of  the  monarchy,  the  earliest  as  well  as 
the  simplest  form  of  government.  When,  l)y  the 
birth  and  growth  of  chilth-en,  and  the  death  of 
the  father,  the  original  family  is  broken  up  into 
several,  the  heads  of  which  stand  to  each  other  in  a 
co-ordinate  rather  than  a  strictly  subordinate  posi- 
tion, we  have  in  these  the  prototypes  of  the  more 
advanced  forms  of  government.  Each  brother,  by 
becoming  the  liead  of  a  separate  family,  becomes  a 
member °of  an  aristocracy,  or  the  embodiment  of  a 
portion  of  the  sovereign  power,  as  it  exists  in  the 
separate  elements  of  which  a  constitutional  or  a 
democratic  government  is  composed. 

But  at  Rome  the  idea  of  the  family  was  still  more 
closely  entwined  with  that  of  life  in  the  state,  and 
the  natural  power  of  the  father  was  taken  as  the 
basis  not  only  of  the  whole  political,  but  of  the  whole 
social  organisation  of  the  people.  In  its  more 
special  aspects,  the  Roman  idea  of  the  family  will  be 
explained  under  Patria  Potestas.  Here  it  will  be 
sufficient  to  state  that  with  the  Romans,  as  with  the 
Greeks,  it  included  the  slave  as  well  as  the  wife, 
and  ultimately  the  children ;  a  fact  which  indeed 
is  indicated  by  the  etymology  of  the  word,  which 
belongs  to  the  same  root  as  famulus,  a  slave.  In  its 
widest  sense,  the  familia  included  even  the  inanimate 
possessions  of  the  citizen,  who,  as  the  head  of  a 
liouse,  was  his  own  master  {sui  juris) ;  and  Gaius 
(ii.  102)  uses  it  as  synonymous  with  patrimonium. 
In  general,  however,  it  was  confined  to  persons — 
the  wife,  children,  grandchildren,  and  great-grand- 
children, if  such  there  were,  and  slaves  of  a  fuU- 
blo^vn  Roman  citizen.  Sometimes,  too,  it  signified 
all  those  who  had  sprung  from  a  common  stock,  and 
would  have  been  members  of  the  family,  and  under 
the  potestas  of  a  common  ancestor,  had  he  been 
alive.  See  Agnate.  In  this  sense,  of  course,  the 
slaves  belonging  to  the  different  members  of  the 
family  were  not.  included  in  it.  It  was  a  family,  in 
short,  in  the  sense  in  which  we  speak  of  '  the  royal 
family,'  &c.,  with  this  difference,  that  it  was  possil)le 
for  an  individual  to  quit  it,  nnd  to  pass  into  another 
by  adoption.  See  ADOPTION.  Sometimes,  again,  the 
word  was  used  with  reference  to  slaves  exclusively, 
and,  analogically,  to  a  sect  of  philosophers,  or  a  body 
of  gladiators.  See  Smitli's  Dictionary  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Antiquities. 

The  whole  social  fabric  is  based  on  the  grouping 
of  human  beings  in  families  ;  an  arrangement  which 
is  in  harmony  with  all  the  conditions  and  wants  of 
human  life,  and  which  tends  to  foster  those  habits 
and  affections  that  are  essential  to  the  welfare  of 
mankind.  A  prosperous  community  must  be  an 
aggregate  of  happy  families  ;  there  being  little  true 
happiness  in  tlie  world  that  is  not  intimately  con- 


nected with  domestic  life.  The  fornial  bond  of  thf 
family  is  Marriage  (q.  v. ;  see  also  Polygamy)  ;  and 
an  essential  condition  of  its  right  development  sbtjnia 
to  be  a  distinct  abode,  which  shall  be  not  a  ir.ere 
shelter,  but  a  house  or  Iiome,  affording  a  certain 
measure  of  comfort  and  decency,  according  to  the 
standard  prevalent  in  the  community.  See  Oenitu 
and  Design  of  the  Dovie.stic  ComtUution,  by  Rev. 
Christopher  Anderson  (Edin.  1826). 

FAMILY  OF  LOVE.    See  Agapemone. 

FA'MINE,  Port,  an  abortive  settlement  of  Spain, 
on  the  northern  side  of  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  ia 
situated  in  lat.  53°  .38'  S.,  and  long.  70  58'  W.  It 
owes  its  name  to  the  death,  by  starvation,  of  th-a 
Spanish  garrison ;  and  it  is  said  to  be  now  a  penai 
colony  of  the  republic  of  Chili.  Some  voyagers, 
however,  liave  spoken  of  the  neighbourhood  as 
•  covered  with  flowers,'  and  '  decorated  with  luxu- 
riance,' and  capable  of  being  made,  so  far  as  soil  ia 
concerned,  '  one  of  the  finest  regions  in  the  world.' 

FAN,  an  instrument  or  mechanical  contrivance 
for  moving  the  air  for  the  sake  of  coolness,  or  for 
winnowing  chaff  from  grain.  In  the  East,  the  use  of 
fans  is  of  remote  antiquity.  The  Hebrews,  Egyp- 
tians, Chinese,  and  the  miscellaneous  population  ol 
India,  all  used  fans  as  far  back  as  history  reaches. 
At  the  present  day,  it  is  customary,  in  the  better 
classes  of  houses  in  India,  to  suspend  a  large  species 
of  fan  from  the  ceiling,  and  keep  it  in  agitation 
with  strings,  pulled  by  servants,  in  order  to  give  a 
degree  of  coolness  to  the  air.  See  Punkah.  Among 
the  oldest  notices  of  winnowing  fans  are  those  in 
the  Scriptures.  There  the  fan  is  always  spoken  ol 
as  an  instrument  for  driving  away  chaff,  or  for 
cleansing  in  a  metaphorical  sense  ;  and  such  notices 
remind  us  of  the  simi)le  processes  of  husbandry 
employed  by  a  people  little  advanced  in  the  arts. 
It  was  a  long  stride  from  the  use  of  a  simple 
hand-instrument  for  winnowing  to  that  of  the 
modern  mechanism  employed  for  a  similar  purpose. 
See  Fanners. 

As  is  observable  from  the  collection  of  Egyptian 
antiquities  in  the  British  Museum,  the  fan  as  an 
article  of  female  taste  and  luxury  is  of  quite  aa 
old  date  as  the  instrument  is  for  commoner  pur« 
poses.  Terence,  a  writer  of  Latin  comedies,  who 
lived  in  the  2d  c.  B.  c.  makes  one  of  his  characters 
speak  of  the  fan  as  used  by  ladies  in  ancient  Rome : 
Cape  hoc  fabelhim,  et  ventulum  huic  facito — 'Take 
this  fan,  and  give  her  thus  a  little  air.'  From 
this  Roman  origin,  the  fashion  of  carrying  fans 
could  scarcely  fail  to  be  handed  down  to  the 
ladies  of  Italy,  Spain,  and  France,  whence  it  was 
in  advanced  times  imported  by  the  fair  of  Great 
Britain.  Queen  Elizabeth,  when  in  full  dress,  cur- 
ried a  fan.  Shakspeare  speaks  of  fans  as  connected 
with  a  lady's  '  bravery '  or  finery  : 

"With  scarfs  and  fans,  and  double  charge  of  bravery. 

It  is  proper  to  say,  however,  that  the  fan  was  in 
these  and  also  in  later  times  not  a  mere  article  of 
finery.  There  were  walking  as  well  as  dress  fans. 
The  walking  or  outdoor  fan  which  a  lady  carried 
with  her  to  church,  or  to  public  promenades,  was  of 
large  dimensions,  sufficient  to  screen  the  face  from 
the  sun,  and  answered  the  purpose  of  the  modem 
Parasol  (q.  v.).  In  old  prints,  ladies  are  seen  carry- 
ing these  fans  in  different  attitudes  according  to 
fancy.  The  dress  fan,  which  formed  part  of  a  lad^s 
equipment  at  court  ceremonies,  drums,  routs,  and 
theatrical  entertainments,  was  of  a  size  con.iderably 
less  than  the  walking  fan,  and  altogether  more 
elegant.  Of  these  dress  fans  there  exist  numerous 
specimens  bequeathed  as  heirlooms  from  one  gener- 
ation to  another;  indeed,  there  are  few  ladies  who 


FAN  PALM-FANARIOTS. 


cannot  shew  several  of  different  eras  throughout 
the  ISth  c.  ;  some  being  in  good  preservation, 
while  in  others  the  gilded  stars  and  cupids  which 
delighted  the  eyes  of  great-grandmothers  have  a 
mournfully  tarnished  appearance.  In  the  finer  kinds 
of  these  old  fans,  the  open  part  of  paper  is  painted 
with  pretty  rural  scenes  and  groups  of  figures  in 
the  style  of  Watteau  (q.  v.).  All  were  probably 
of  French  manufacture.  The  more  costly  fan 
imported  from  China  was  and  still  is  altogether  of 
ivory,  highly  carved  and  pierced ;  but  it  wants 
the  lightness  and  flexibility  which  were  essential 
!n  the  ordinary  management  of  this  article  of 
the  toilet.  Strictly  speaking,  the  fan  was  used 
less  for  the  piu-pose  of  cooling  than  for  giving  the 
hands  something  to  do,  and  arlso  for  symbolically 
expressing  certain  passing  feelings.  In  the  hand 
of  an  adept,  the  fan,  by  peculiar  movements,  could 
be  made  to  express  love,  disdain,  modesty,  hope, 
anger,  and  other  emotions.  Gay,  speaking  of 
Flavia's  accomplishments,  says : 

In  other  hands,  the  fan  would  prove 
An  engine  of  small  force  in  love. 

Considering  the  coarseness  of  language,  even  in 
tke  higher  circles,  in  the  early  part  of  the  18th  c., 
we  cannot  wonder  that  the  fan  should  have  been 
indispensable  to  a  lady  going  into  company.  It  was 
held  up  to  shield  the  countenance  when  anything 
too  shocking  for  female  ears  was  uttered.  Pope  has 
an  allusion  to  this  use  of  the  fan : 

The  modest  fan  was  lifted  up  no  more. 

And  virgins  smiled  at  what  they  blushed  before. 

Steele,  in  a  paper  in  the  Tatler,  No.  52,  August  9, 
1709,  gives  an  amusing  account  of  Delamira,  a  fine 
lady,  resigning  her  fan  when  she  was  about  to  be 
married.  One  of  her  female  acquaintances,  having 
envied  the  manner  in  which  this  charming  and 
fortunate  coquette  had  played  her  fan,  asks  her  for  it. 
Delamira  acknowledges  the  wonderful  virtues  of  the 
fan,  and  tells  her  that  '  all  she  had  above  the  rest 
of  her  sex  and  contemporary  beauties  was  wholly 
owing  to  a  fan  (that  was  left  her  by  her  mother, 
and  had  been  long  in  the  family),  which,  whoever 
had  in  possession,  and  used  with  skill,  should  com- 
mand the  hearts  of  all  her  beholders  ;  "  and  since," 
said  she  smiling,  "  I  have  no  more  to  do  with  extend- 
ing my  conquests  or  triumphs,  I  will  make  you  a 
present  of  this  inestimable  rarity." '  Two  years 
later,  Addison,  in  a  j)aper  in  the  Spectator  (No.  102), 
gives  a  humorous  account  of  the  tactics  of  coquettes 
in  the  use  of  fans  :  '  "Women  are  armed  with  fans 
as  men  with  swords,  and  sometimes  do  more  execu- 
tion with  them  ; '  then  he  goes  on  to  describe  how 
ladies  are  instructed  to  handle,  discharge,  ground, 
and  flutter  their  fans — the  whole  being  a  pleasant 
BJ.tire  on  the  fan-manoeuvring  in  the  reign  of  Queen 
Anne. 

Later  in  the  18th  c.,  fans  served  another  import- 
ant purpose.  At  dancing  assemblies  in  London, 
Bath,  and  elsewhere,  it  was  usual  for  the  gentlemen 
to  select  their  partners  by  drawing  a  fan.  All  the 
ladies'  fans  being  placed  promiscuously  in  a  hat,  each 
gentleman  drew  one,  and  the  lady  to  whom  it 
belonged  was  his  allotted  partner.  Mrs  Montagu, 
in  one  of  her  letters,  refers  to  this  custom  :  '  In  the 
afternoon,  I  went  to  Lord  Oxford's  ball  at  Mary-le- 
bone.  It  was  very  agreeable.  The  partners  were 
chosen  by  their  fans,  but  with  a  little  supercherie.'' 
Of  the  trick  or  fraud  which  this  authoress  deli- 
cately veils  under  a  French  term,  the  beaux  of  that 
period  were  far  from  guiltless.  A  lady's  fan  was 
almost  as  well  known  as  her  face,  and  it  was  not 
ditficult,  with  a  little  connivance,  to  know  which 
to  draw.    At  Edinburgh,  where  it  appears  to  have 

172 


been  the  practice  to  select  a  jiartucr  for  a  wliole  sea- 
son, the  fans  of  the  ladies  were  carefully  studied. 
Sir  Alexander  Boswell  alludes  to  this  species  of  stnit- 
ugem  in  one  of  his  poems : 

Each  lady's  fan  a  chosen  Damon  bore, 

With  care  selected  many  a  day  before  ; 

For  unprovided  with  a  favourite  beau, 

Tlie  nymph,  chagrined,  the  ball  must  needs  forego. 

In  Italy,  Spain,  the  West  Indies,  and  also  some 
parts  of  the  United  States,  fans  are  largely  in  use 
for  giving  the  sensation  of  coolness  during  hot 
weather,  and  for  this  purpose  they  may  sometonea 
be  seen  in  the  hands  of  gentlemen  as  we'll  as  ladies. 
In  Spain,  the  old  fashion  of  fan-flirting  api)eaz-s  to 
be  still  in  vogue.  A  late  traveller  in  that  country 
says  :  '  I  was  vastly  interested  in  the  movements  of 
the  ladies'  fans  at  church.  All  the  world  knows 
that  Spanish  fans  are  in  perpetual  motion,  and 
betray  each  feeling,  real  or  assumed,  that  ]>assea 
through  the  mind  of  the  bearer.  I  felt  convinced  I 
could  guess  the  nature  of  the  service  at  every  par- 
ticular moment  by  the  way  in  which  the  fans  were 
waving.  The  difference  between  a  litany  and  a 
thanksgiving  was  unmistakable  ;  and  I  believed  that 
minuter  shades  of  devotion  were  also  discoverable.' 
—  Vacation  Tourists  (1861). 

With  other  changes  in  manners,  fans  are  no 
longer  used  in  English  fashionable  circles  for  the 
frivolous  purposes  noticed  in  their  past  history; 
they  still  continue,  however,  to  form  an  article 
of  ceremonial  dress  at  dinner  and  other  evening 
parties.  In  embellishing  them,  foreign  as  well  as 
native  art  is  exerted  on  a  scale  commensurate  with 
their  price.  From  the  superior  kinds,  composed  of 
ivory  and  silk,  costing  twenty  guineas,  down  to 
those  of  wood  and  paper,  which  are  sold  at  Is., 
tliere  are  varieties  to  suit  every  toilet  and  pocket. 
Lately,  fans  made  tastefully  of  feathers,  also  fana 
constructed  of  straw  and  variously  coloured  ribbons, 
have  been  among  the  novelties  of  fashion.  In  the 
case  of  a  general  court  mourning,  ladies  are  enjoined 
to  use  '  black  paper  fans.'  The  manufacture  of  fana 
of  various  kinds  is  carried  on  in  England,  France, 
Belgium,  Spain,  and  other  European  countries,  like* 
wise  in  the  United  "States  ;  and  now,  as  formerly, 
the  fan  is  an  article  of  exj)ort  from  China  to  many 
parts  of  the  world.  w.  c. 

FAN  PALM,  a  name  common  to  all  those  palma 
which  have  fan-shaped  leaves,  as  the  species  of 
Mauritla,  Lodoicea  (Double  Cocoa  Nut),  Hyphcem 
(Doum  Palm),  Corypha,  Livistona,  Chavicerops,  &c 
The  only  truly  European  palm,  Chanicerops  humilU 
(q.v.),  is  a  F.  P.,  as  is  also  the  North  American 
Palmetto.  The  Talipot  Palm  {Ooti/jyJia  umhraculi' 
fera)  is  sometimes  called  the  Great  Fan  Palm.  The 
Palm_yTa  I*alm  is  another  fan  palm.  The  fan-shaped 
leaf  is  produced  by  an  abbreviation  of  the  midrib 
of  a  pinnated  leaf. 

FANA'RIOTS,  the  general  name  given  to  the 
Greeks  inhabiting  the  Fanar  or  Fanal  in  Conatan* 
tinople,  a  quarter  of  the  city  which  takes  its  name 
from  the  beacon  (Gr.  phanarion)  situated  in  it. 
They  first  appear  in  history  after  the  taking  of 
Constantinople  by  the  Turks,  and  appear  to  have 
been  originally  descendants  of  such  noble  Byzantine 
families  as  escaped  the  fury  of  the  barbarians. 
Afterwards,  however,  the  class  was  recruited  by 
emigrants  from  diS"erent  parts  of  the  old  Byzantine 
empire.  Subtle,  insinuating,  intriguing,  they  soon 
took  advantage  of  the  ignorance  of  the  Turkish 
governors,  and  made  themselves  politically  indis- 
pensable to  their  rulers.  They  filled  the  offices  of 
dragomans,  secretaries,  bankers,  &c.  One  of  them, 
named  Panayotaki,  at  a  later  period,  was  appointed 
Dragoman  to  the  Divan,  and  hig  successors  obtained 

241 


FANCY— FA]S"G. 


Btill  jxrcatcr  honours.  Through  their  influence,  the 
ucr.'Uive  office  of  Dragoman  of  the  Fleet  -was  called 
ill  to  existence,  which  gave  them  almost  unlimited 
•)o\ver  ill  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago.  Besides, 
jvor.i  them  were  chosen  until  the  outl)reak  of  the 
revolution  in  1822,  the  Hospodars  of  Wallachia  and 
Moldavia,  while,  in  addition,  the  disposal  of  most 
of  the  civil  and  military  posts  under  the  Turkish 
government  was  in  their  hands.  In  spite  of  their 
power,  however,  the  F.  never  exhibited  much 
patriotism  they  were  animated  by  the  petty 
motives  of  a  caste,  and  when  the  war  of  liberation 
broke  out  r.mor.g  their  countrymen,  they  took  no 
part  in  it,  Ir.  the  present  altered  state  of  affairs 
m  Turkey,  they  have  no  political  influence.  See 
"Marco  Zalloni's  Essai  sar  les  Fannriots  (Marseille, 
1824;  2d  ed.  1830).  Consult  also  Finlay's  Jlisforv 
of  the  Greek  Revolution  (Edin.,  Blackwood  and  Sons, 
1861). 

FANCY.    See  iMAGiNAxroN. 

Fy>.NDA'NGO,  like  the  Bolero,  is  an  old  Spanish 
national  dance,  in  ^  time.  It  is  danced  most  grace- 
(nllv  )u  the  country,  usually  to  the  accompanmient 


of  a  guitar,  while  the  dancers  beat  time  with 
castanets,  a  custom  borrowed  from  the  l^Toors.  It 

{)i-oceeds  gradually  from  a  slow  and  uniform  to  the 
iveliest  motion ;  and  notmthstanding  the  simplicity 
of  the  pas^  vividly  expresses  all  the  graduations  of 
the  passion  of  love,  in  a  manner  sometimes  bordering 
on  licentiousness.  The  people  are  so  passionately 
fond  of  it,  that  the  efforts  of  the  clergy  have  never 
been  able  to  suppress  it. 

FANEUIL  HALL,  a  spacious  public  haU  ia 
Boston,  Massachusetts,  erected  in  1742  by  Petor 
Faneuil,  and  presented  by  him  to  the  town,  la 
its  original  condition  as  so  gifted,  the  building  con- 
tained a  hall  for  public  meetings,  with  lesser  apart- 
ments above,  and  a  basement  used  as  a  market. 
In  1761,  it  was  destroyed  by  fire,  and  rebuilt.  Durina 
the  revolutionary  struggle  with  England,  the  hafl 
was  so  often  used  for  important  political  meetings, 
that  it  became  known  as  'the  cradle  of  American 
liberty.'  In  1805,  the  building  was  increased  in 
height  by  an  additional  story,  and  also  increased  iu 
width.  It  is  now  an  edifice  about  80  feet  square ; 
the  hall  contains  some  fine  paintings ;  and  the 
basement  is  no  longer  used  as  a  market.    The  cut 


^vve.  gi'ven,  which  is  taken  from  an  original  drawing, 
represents  this  interesting  historical  edifice  as  it 
existed  in  1768. 

FANFARE  is  the  French  name  of  a  short  and 
lively  military  air  or  call,  executed  on  brass  instru- 
ments. It  was  brought  by  the  Arabs  into  Spain, 
whence  it  passed  into  Mexico  and  the  New  World. 
Fanfaron,  derived  from  fanfare,  is  the  name  given 
to  a  swaggering  bully  or  cowardly  boaster,  probably 
because  of  the  empty  noise  he  makes  when  '  blow- 
ing his  own  trump»et,'  or  threatening  timid  people, 
iiud  the  tei-m  a}»plied  to  his  idle  braggadocia  and 
vaj)ouring  vaunts  ia  Fanfaronnade. 

FANG  (Ang.-Sax.  and  Ger.,  anything  caught  or 
taken,  from  the  verb  fangen,  to  catch).     In  the 


terminology  of  the  law  of  Scotland,  a  thief  ta^'jn 

with  the  famj  is  one  apprehended  while  carrying 
the  stolen  goods  on  his  person.  It  is  not  very  long 
since  this  word  foi-med  par^.  of  the  common  speeck 
of  Scotland : 

Snap  went  the  shears,  then  in  a  wink, 
The/aw^/  was  stowed  behind  a  bink.' 

MorisorCs  Poems,  p.  110. 

In  England,  also,  the  verb  fang  was  stiU  in  use  in 
Shaksj^eare's  time:  'Destruction  fang  mankind!' 
[Timon  of  Athens,  iv.  3);  and  'Master  Fang,'  in 
Jfenry  IV.,  is  named  after  his  office.  Wc  still  use 
the  phrase  'in  the  fangs'  for  in  the  clutches;  and 
the  fangs  of  a  dog  or  of  a  sei-|>ent  are  its  teeth  with 
\vhi(;h  it  catches  or  holds. 


FANl'f  EES— FAN-TRACERY  VAULTINa. 


FANNERS,  a  macLine  employed  to  winnow 
grain.  In  passins;  through  the  machine,  the  grain 
18  rapidly  agitated  in  a  sieve,  and  falling  through  a 
strong  current  of  wind,  created  by  a  rotatory  fan, 
the  chaff  is  blown  out  at  one  end,  and  the  cleansed 
particle!!  fall  out  at  an  orifice  beneath.  The  appa- 
ratus is  composed  chiefly  of  wood,  and  though 
ordinarily  moved  by  the  hand,  it  is  sometimes 
connected  with  the  driving  power  of  a  thrashing- 
mill.  The  fanners  superseded  the  old  and  slow 
pi'ocess  of  ^^dnnowing,  which  consisted  in  throwing 
ap  the  grain  by  means  of  sieves  or  shovels,  while 
a  current  of  wind,  blowing  across  the  thrashing- 
floor,  carried  away  the  chaff.  '  A  machine  for  the 
winnowing  of  corn  v/as,  as  far  as  can  be  ascertained, 
for  the  first  time  made  in  this  island  by  Andrew 
Rodger,  a  farmer  on  the  estate  of  Cavers  in  Rox- 
bxirghshire,  in  the  year  1737.  It  was  after  retiring 
from  his  farm  to  indulge  a  bent  for  mechanics,  that 
he  entered  on  this  remarkable  invention,  and  began 
circulating  what  were  called  Fanners  throughout 
the  country,  which  his  descendants  continued  to 
do  for  many  years.' — Domestic  Annals  of  Scotland, 
by  R-.  Chambers,  vol.  iii.  Strangely  enough,  there 
was  a  strong  opposition  to  the  use  of  this  useful 
mstrument  ;  the  objectors  being  certain  rigid 
sectaries  in  Scotland,  who  saw  in  it  an  impious 
evasion  of  the  Di\Tne  -wall.  To  create  an  artificial 
wind,  was  a  distinct  flying  in  the  face  of  the  text, 
*  He  that  formeth  the  mountains,  and  createth  the 
wind.' — Amos  iv.  13.  Apart  from  the  folly  of  the 
objectors,  who  carried  their  fancies  to  the  extent 
of  persecution,  we  are  amazed  at  their 

apparent  neglect  of  the  fact,  that  the  winnov/ing  of 
corn  by  artificial  means,  in  which  fans  performed 
a  conspicuous  part,  is  mentioned  repeatedly  in 
the  Old  Testament.  See  Fan^.  The  advantages  in 
using  the  fanners  soon  overcame  all  prejudices  on 
the  subject,  and  the  objections  to  the  use  of  the 
machine  are  now  remembered  only  by  tradition, 
and  by  a  passage  in  one  of  the  imperishable  fictions 
of  Scott.  In  the  tale  of  Old  Mortality,  Mause 
Headrigg  is  made  anachronously  to  speak  to  her 
mistress  about  '  a  newfangled  machine  for  dlghting 
the  corn  frae  the  chaff,  thus  impiously  thwarting 
the  will  o'  Di\ane  Providence,  by  raising  A\dnd 
for  your  leddyship's  u&e  by  human  art,  instead 
of  soliciting  it  by  prayer,  or  patiently  waiting  for 
whatever  dispensation  of  wind  Providence  was 
pleased  to  send  upon  the  shieling-hill.' 

FA'NO  (Lat.  Fanum  Fortunes,  so  called  from  the 
temple  of  Fortvuie  which  the  Romans  erected  here 
in  commemoration  of  the  defeat  of  Asdrubal  on  the 
Metaurus)  is  the  name  of  a  town  and  seaport  of 
Italy,  in  the  province  of  Urbino  e  Pesaro,  finely 
situated  in  a  beautiful  and  fertile  district  on  the 
shore  of  the  Adriatic,  30  miles  north-west  of 
Ancona,  and  near  the  mouth  of  the  Metaurus.  It 
is  well  built,  is  surrounded  with  walls  and  ditches, 
has  a  cathedral  dedicated  to  St  Fortunato,  and 
niunerous  churches  containing  many  valuable  paint- 
ings, among  which  are  several  of  the  best  works 
of  D  ;menichino,  and  an  excellent  '  Annunciation ' 
by  Guido.  The  remains  of  a  triumphal  arch  of 
w'lite  marble,  raised  in  honour  of  Augustus,  form 
perhaps  the  chief  object  of  classical  interest  at 
Fano.  Pop.  8960,  who  carry  on  considerable  trade 
in  corn  and  oil,  and  in  silk  goods.  Here,  in  1514, 
Pope  Julius  II.  established  the  first  printing-press 
with  Arabic  letters  known  in  Europe.  The  port  of 
F.  was  once  well  known  to  the  traders  of  the 
Adinatic  ;  its  commerce,  however,  has  declined,  and 
the  harbour  become,  to  some  extent,  choked  up  with, 
sand. 

FANS,  The,  a  race  of  aborigines  in  Equatorial 


Africa,  residing  on  the  tributaries  of  the  Gaboon 
river,  and  said  to  be  cannibals  ;  the  accounts  of  thia 
savage  race  are,  ho vv  ever,  still  im})erfect,  and  what 
is  mentioned  respecting  them  wants  confirmation. 

FAN SH AWE,  Sm  Richard,  was  born  in  1608 
at  Ware  Park,  in  the  county  of  Hertford  ;  studied  at 
Jesus  College,  Cambridge ;  and  in  1626,  became  a 
member  of  the  Inner  Temple.  On  the  outbreak  of 
the  civil  war,  he  took  part  with  the  king ;  and  in 
1648,  became  treasurer  to  the  navy  under  Princ*) 
Rupeit.  He  was  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  ol 
Worcester ;  and  on  his  release,  withdrew  to  Breda 
in  Holland,  where  Charles  II.  was  holding  his  court 
in  exile.  After  the  Restoration,  he  was  appointed 
ambassador  at  the  court  of  Madrid,  where  he  died 
in  1666.  F.  was  an  author  of  considerable  reputa- 
tion. His  most  celebrated  work,  now  very  rare,  is 
a  translation  of  Guarini's  Pastor  Fido,  the  lyrical 
passages  of  which  are  rendered  with  remarkable 
skill  and  elegance.  The  volume  in  which  it 
appeared  was  published  in  1664,  and  contains  other 
pieces  in  prose  and  verse. 

FANTA'SIA,  in  Music,  the  name  of  a  composition 
of  a  similar  character  to  the  capriccio  ;  also  given  to 
extempore  effusions  performed  by  a  musician  who 
possesses  the  rare  gift  of  producing,  as  it  were,  off- 
hand music  like  a  well-studied,  regular  composition. 
Hummel  was  more  celebrated  for  his  extempore 
fantasias  on  the  pianoforte  than  even  for  his  pub- 
lished compositions.  Frederick  Schneider  was  equally 
great  for  his  free  fantasias  on  the  organ. 

FANTOCCI'NI.    See  Puppet. 

FAN-TRACERY  VAULTING,  a  kind  of  Late 
Gothic  vaulting  (15th  c),  so  called  from  its  resem- 
blance to  a  fan.  The  ribs  or  veins  spring  fi-om  one 
point,  the  cap  of  the  shaft,  and  radiate  ^vith  the 
same  curvature,  and  at  equal  intervals,  round  the 
surface  of  a  curved  cone  or  polygon,  till  they  reach 
the  semicircular  or  polygonal  ribs  which  divide  the 
roof  horizontally  at  the  ridge  level.  The  spaces 
between  the  ribs  are  filled  with  foils  and  cusps, 
resembling  the  tracery  of  a  Gothic  window ;  hence 
the  immefan-traceri/.  The  spaces  between  the  out- 
lines of  the  fans  at  the  ridge  level,  are  called  by 
Professor  Whewell  [German  Churches)  ridge  lozenges, 
lu  Henry  VII.' s  Chapel,  Westminster,  one  of  the 


From  King's  College  Chapel,  Cambridge. 

best  examples  of  this  kind  of  vaulting,  these  lozenge* 
are  occupied  by  pendants,  which  produce  a  most 
astonishing  effect,  looking  like  arches  resting  on 

2U 


FAN-TRACERY  VAULTING— FARADAY. 


nothinj^.  They  are,  however,  sujjportetl  with  great 
ingenuity  by  internal  ai'ches,  rising  high  above  the 
visible  vaulting.  This  is  one  of  tlie  toum-dc-force 
which  astonish  the  vulgar,  but  are  only  adopted 
when  art  has  reached  a  low  level,  and  has  in  a  great 
measure  given  place  to  artidce.  l^m-tracery  is  a  very 
beautiful  kind  of  vaulting,  and  is  peculiar  to  England, 
where  it  oi'iginated,  and  where  alone  it  was  practiced. 
Among  the  finest  examples  are  Henry  Vll.'s  Clinpel 
at  V)'ostminster ;  St.  George's,  Windsor  ;  and  King's 
Collc'ge  Chapel,  Cambridge.  Fan-tracery  is  also  fre- 
quently usc(l  in  the  vaulting  of  cloisters,  as  at  Can- 
tei-lnuy,  Cliester,  etc. 

FA'RADAY,  Michael,  D.C.L.,  1S32,  one  of  the 
most   distinguished   modern   chemists   and  natural 
philosophers;     a    splendid    instance    of  success 
obtained  by  patience,   perseverance,  and  genius, 
over  obstacles  of  birth,  education,  and  foj-tune. 
He  was  bora  in  1704,  near  London,  his  father  being 
a  blacksmith.    He  was  early  apprenticed  to  a  book- 
binder; yet  even  then  he  devoted  his  leisure  time 
to  science,  and  amongst  other  things,  made  experi- 
ments with  an  electrical  machine  of  his  own  con- 
struction.   Chance  having  procured  him  admission, 
in  1812,  to  the  chemical  lectures  of  Sir  H.  Davy 
(q.  v.),  then  in  the  zenith  of  his  fame,  he  ventured  j 
to  send  to  Da\'y  the  notes  he  had  taken,  with  a  [ 
modest  expression  of  his  desire  to  be  employed  in 
some  intellectual  pursuit.    Davy  seems  to  have  at  , 
first  endeavoured  to  discourage  him,  but  finding  ! 
him  thoroughly  in  earnest,  soon  engaged  him  as  ' 
his  assistant  at  the  Royal  Listitution.   He  travelled 
with.   Davy  to  the  continent,  as   assistant  and  j 
amanuensis.     On  their  return  to  London,  Da\y  j 
confided  to  him  the  performance  of  certain  experi-  [ 
ments,  which  led  in  his  hands  to  the  condensation  | 
of  gases  into  liquids  by  pressure.     Here  he  first ; 
shewed  some  of  that  extraordinary  power  and  j 
fertility  which  have  rendered  his  name  familiar  to 
every  one  even  slightly  acquainted  with  physics, 
and  Avhich  led  to  his  appointment,  in  1827,  to  Sir  j 
H.  Davy's  post  of  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the 
Royal  Institution.    We  shall  give  a  brief  summary 
of  his  more  important  discoveries  and  published 
works,  arranging  the  different  subjects  according  to 
their  position  in  various  branches  of  science,  rather  | 
than  in  their  chronological  order. 

In  chemistry,  we  have  his  treatise  on  Chemical 
Manipulation,  1827 ;   2d  ed.  1842,   even  now  a 
very  valuable  book  of  reference.  His  Lectures  on  the 
Non-metallic  Elements,  and  Lectures  on  tlie  Chemical  j 
History  of  a  Candle,  delivered  at  the  Royal  Insti- 
tution, were  published  within  the  last  few  years. 
As  discoveries  or  investigations  of  a  high  order  in  [ 
this  branch  of  science,  we   may  mention — New  | 
Compounds  of  Chlorine  and  Carbon,  1821 ;  Alloys 
of  Steel,   1822 ;    Compounds  of    Hydrogen    and  j 
Carbon,  1825;  Action  of  Sulphuric  Acid  on  Naph- 
thaline, 1826 ;  Decomposition  of  Hydrocarbons  by  j 
Expansion,  1827 ;  and  the  very  valuable  series  of  j 
experiments  made  in  1829 — 18.30,  on  the  Manufac- 
ture of  Glass  for  Optical  Pur])oses,  which  resulted 
in  one  of  his  greatest  discoveries,  to  be  afterwards  ! 
{flientif  ned.  I 

As  piactical  applications  of  science,  his  Prepara-  ! 
tlon  of  the  Lungs  for  DiWn^,  and  VentUation  of 
Light-house  Lamps,  are  conspicuous,  as  are  also  his 
celebrated  letter  on  Table-turning,  and  his  lecture 
on  Mental  Education. 

To  enumerate  only  the  most  prominent  of  his 
publications  on  physical  science,  we  may  commence 
with  the  Condensation  of  the  Gases  (already  referred 
to) ;  then  we  have  Limits  of  Vaporisation,  Optical 
Deceptions,  Acoustical  Figures,  Regelation,  Relation 
of  Gold  and  other  Metals  to  Light,  and  Conservation 
of  Force.  Of  these,  the  condensation  of  gases  into 
244 


liquids  and  solids,  though  previously  effected  by 
others  (and  F.  has  ever  been  the  foicmost  ti> 
acknowledge  another's  jmority),  he  has  really  mitde 
his  own,  not  only  by  the  extent  and  accui-acy  of 
his  exj)eriments,  but  by  the  exquisite  experimental 
methods  by  which  he  effected  the  results.  His 
ideas  on  regelation,  and  its  connection  with  the 
motion  of  glaciers,  have  not  met  with  universal 
acceptance,  though  (see  Heat,  Ice,  Glacier)  there 
is  no  dispute  as  to  his  being  correct  in  his  fax:ts.  In 
regard  to  Conservation  of  Force,  there  can  be  uc 
doubt  that  he  has  been  led  into  a  fiJlacy,  by 
mistaking  the  technical  use  of  the  word  force  (iiee 
Force),  for  in  his  article  on  the  subject  he  describes 
experiments  made  with  the  view  of  proving  tha 
conservation  of  statical,  not  dynamical  force, 
whereas  the  doctrine  of  conservation  asserts  merely 
the  conservation  of  '  energy,'  which  is  not  statical 
force.  He  may  be  right  also,  but  if  so,  it  will  be 
by  a  new  discovery,  having  no  connection  whatever 
with  '  conservation  of  energy.' 

His  Christmas  lectures  at  the  Royal  Institution, 
though  professedly  addressed  to  the  young,  con- 
tain in  reality  much  that  may  well  be  pondered 
by  the  old.  His  manner,  his  unvarying  success  in 
illustration,  and  his  felicitous  choice  of  cxi)ression, 
though  the  Rubjects  are  often  of  the  most  abstruse 
nature,  are  such  as  to  charm  and  attract  all  classes 
of  hearers.  Besides  two  sets  (already  mentioned) 
on  chemical  subjects,  we  have  his  Lectures  on  the. 
Physical  Forces,  a  simple  work,  but  in  reality  most 
profound,  even  in  its  slightest  remarks. 

But  the  great  work  of  his  life  is  the  series  of 
Experimental  Researclie^  on  Electricity,  published 
in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  during  the  last 
thirty  years  and  more.  Fully  to  understand  all  the 
discoveries  contained  in  that  extraordinary  set  of 
papers,  would  require  a  knowledge  of  all  th^t  has 
been  discovered  during  that  time  as  to  Electricity, 
Magnetism,  Electro-magnetism,  and  Diamagnetism. 
We  may  merely  mention  the  following,  almost  all 
of  which  are  discoveries  of  the  first  order.  They 
are  given  in  the  order  of  publication,  which  is 
nearly  that  of  discovery :  1.  Induced  Electricity, 
1831,  comprehending  and  explaining  a  vast  variety 
of  phenomena,  some  of  which  have  already  been 
applied  in  practice  (especially  as  Magneto-electri- 
city) to  light-houses,  electro-plating,  firing  of  mines, 
telegraphy,  and  medical  purposes.  Electric  currents 
derived  from  the  earth's  magnetism.  2.  The  Electro- 
tonic  State  of  Matter,  1831;  3.  Identity  of  Elec- 
tricity  from  Different  Sources,  1833;  4.  Equivalents 
in  Electro-chemical  Decomposition,  1 8.34 ;  5.  Electro- 
static Induction — Specific  Inductive  Capacity,  1838; 

6.  Relation  of  Electric  and  Magnetic  Forces,  1S38 ; 

7.  The  Electricity  of  the  Gymnotus,  1839;  8. 
Hydro-electricity,  1843 ;  9.  Magnetic  Rotatory 
Polarisation,  1846,  effected  by  means  of  the  optical 
glass  already  mentioned;  10.  Diamagnetism  and 
the  Magnetic  Condition  of  all  Matter,  1846;  11. 
Polarity  of  Diamagnetics,  and  the  Relation  of 
Diamagnetism  to  Crystalline  Forces,  1849;  12. 
Relation  of  Gravity  to  Electricity,  1851.  This,  ai 
before  remarked,  is  F.'s  attempt  to  prove  a  con- 
servation of  statical  force.  The  results  are  all 
negative,  but  are  none  the  less  worthy  of  careful 
study;  the  mode  of  experimenting  detailed  in  the 
paper,  and  the  precautions  taken  and  required, 
render  it  a  model  for  every  physicist.  13.  Atmo- 
spheric Magnetism,  1851.  An  attempt  to  exjilain 
the  diurnal  changes  of  the  earth's  magnetic  force 
by  the  solar  effect  on  the  oxygen  of  the  air ;  a  very 
interesting  paper. 

We  have  omitted  many  things  well  worthy  of 
notice  even  in  so  slight  a  sketch  as  this,  but  F.*a 
name  will  be  found  in  these  pages  in  connectior 


FARCE— FAREL. 


with  something  new  in  nearly  every  branch  of  pliysics. 
lie  died  in  August,  1867. 

FARCE,  a  dramatic  piece  of  a  low  comic  char- 
acter. The  dilTerence  between  it  and  comedy  proper 
is  one  of  degree,  and  not  of  kind.  The  aim  of  both 
is  to  excite  mirth ;  but  while  the  former  does  so  by 
a  comparatively  faithful  adherence  to  nature  and 
truth,  the  latter  assumes  to  itself  a  much  greater 
licence,  and  does  not  scruple  to  make  use  of  any 
extravagance  or  improbability  that  may  serve  its 
purpose.  It  does  not,  therefore,  exhibit,  in  general, 
a  refined  wit  or  humour,  but  contents  itself  with 
grotesque  rencontres,  and  dialogues  provocative  of 
no  and  jollity.  The  name  is  differently  explained. 
In  any  case,  it  comes  originally  from  the  Latin 
farcire,  to  stuff;  but  while  Adelung  says  that,  in 
the  middle  ages,  farce  signified  in  Germany  certain 
Bongs,  which  were  sung  between  the  prayers  dming 
divine  service,  others  derive  it  from  the  Italian 
farstty  this  from  the  Latin  farsum  (stuffed) ;  while 
Paolo  Bernardi  states  that  it  comes  from  a  Pro- 
vencal word  farsum,  meaning  a  ragout,  or  mess  of 
different  ingredients,  an  opinion  which  has  this  to 
Bay  for  itself,  that  the  dramatis  fersoncB,  Jack- 
pudding,  &c.,  were  generally  named  after  special 
dishes  or  mixtures.  The  first  farces  are  said  to 
have  been  composed  by  the  society  of  the  Clercs  de 
Bazoche  in  Paris,  about  the  year  1400,  as  a  contrast 
to  the  ecclesiastical  plays  performed  by  the  reli- 
gious orders.  The  most  widely  celebrated  and  the 
oldest  is  the  Farce,  de  Maitre  Pierre  Pathelin,  which 
some  consider  to  be  a  composition  of  the  13th  c, 
but  which  was  more  probably  executed  by  one 
Peter  Blanchet,  about  1480.  Svibsequently,  Molifere 
elevated  and  refined  the  farce  into  pure  comedy,  in 
his  Medecln  Malgre  lui,  Malade  Imaginaire,  Les 
Fourberies  de  Scapin,  and  other  inimitable  produc- 
tions. In  England,  the  origin  of  the  modern  farce 
dates  from  about  the  commencement  of  the  18th 
century.  It  then  began  to  be  regarded  as  some- 
thing distinct  from  comedy  proper,  and  to  consti- 
tute a  special  theatrical  entertainment.  Of  all  the 
numerous  farces  which  have  been  performed  before 
English  audiences,  only  those  of  Samuel  Foote  haA'^e 
kept  a  place  in  literature. 

FARCY  in  horses  depends  upon  the  same  causes 
as  Glanders  (q.  v.),  which  it  usually  precedes  and 
accompanies.  The  absorbent  glands  and  vessels, 
usually  of  one  or  both  hind  limbs,  are  inflamed, 
tender,  swollen,  hard,  and  knotted.  The  vitiated 
lyinph  thus  poured  out  softens,  and  idcers,  or  farcy 
buds  appear.  Unlike  the  ulcers  of  glanders,  they 
are  curable,  but  require  time  and  care.  They  must 
be  scarified  with  the  hot  iron,  which,  to  prevent 
their  spreading,  may  also  be  gently  run  over  the 
adjacent  sound  skin.  Good  feeding  and  comfortable 
lodgings  are  essential,  and  if  they  do  not  interfere 
v/ith  the  appetite,  give  tonics,  such  as  a  drachm 
each  of  sidphate  of  copper  and  iodine,  repeated 
twice  a  day. 

FARDEL -BOUND,  a  disease  of  cattle  and 
«h?,ep,  consists  of  impaction  of  the  fardel  bag,  or 
third  stomach,  with  food,  which  is  taken  in  between 
the  leaves  of  this  globular  stomach,  there  to  be 
fully  softened  and  reduced.  When  the  food  is 
unusually  tough,  dry,  or  indigestible,  consisting, 
for  example,  of  overripe  clover,  vetches,  or  rye- 
grass, the  stomach  cannot  moisten  and  reduce  it 
with  sufficient  rapidity ;  fresh  quantities  continue 
to  be  taken  up,  until  the  overgorged  organ  becomes 
paralyzed,  its  secretions  dried  up,  and  its  leaves 
affected  with  chronic  inflammation.  The  slighter 
cases  so  common  amongst  stall-fed  cattle  are  'loss 
of  cud,'  indigestion,  and  torpidity  of  the  bowels, 
la   ocverer   form,  there   is   also   fe\er,  grunting. 


swelling  up  of  the  first  stomach,  and  sonictimea 
stupor  or  epilepsy.  The  overgorged  stomach  can, 
moreover,  be  felt  by  pressing  the  closed  fist  upwards 
and  backwards  underneath  the  false  riljs  on  the 
right  side.  'J'he  sytni)toms  often  extend  over  ten 
days  or  a  fortnight.  J^irgatives  and  stimulants  are 
to  be  given.  For  a  full-grown  beast  give,  in  three 
or  four  bottles  of  water  or  thin  gruel,  i  lb.  each  of 
common  and  Epsom  salt,  15  ground  croton  Ijeans, 
a  drachm  of  calomel,  and  two  ounces  of  ginger.  If 
no  effect  is  produced,  i-e})eat  this  in  12  or  15  hours. 
Inject  soap  and  water  clysters  every  hour,  withhold 
aU  solid  food,  and  allow  only  sloppy  mashes,  treacle 
and  water,  or  thin  linseed  tea.  An  occasional  bottle 
of  ale,  with  an  ounce  or  two  of  ginger,  often  expe- 
dites the  action  of  the  physic,  and  wards  off"  nausea 
and  stujjor. 

FAREHAM,  a  town  and  sea-bathing  place  in 
the  south  of  Hampshire,  on  a  creek  at  the  north- 
west end  of  Portsmouth  liarljoui-,  12  miles  east- 
south-east  of  Southampton,  and  9  miles  north- 
north- west  of  Portsmouth.  It  has  manufactures  of 
earthenware.    Pop.  about  6500. 

FAREL,  GuiLLAUME,  one  of  the  most  active 
promoters  of  the  Reformation  in  Switzerland,  was 
born  in  the  year  1489  in  Dauphin^.  He  studied 
at  Paris,  and  was  at  first  distinguished  by  his 
extravagant  zeal  for  the  practices  of  the  Catholic 
Church.  '  Truly,'  says  he  in  one  of  his  letters,  '  the 
papacy  itself  was  not  so  papistical  as  my  heart.' 
Intercourse  with  the  Waldenses,  and  with  his 
friend  Lefevre  d'Etaples,  induced  him  to  study  the 
Scriptures  ;  the  result  was  his  conversion  to  Pro- 
testantism, and  F.,  who  was  by  nature  vehement 
even  to  indiscretion,  immediately  commenced  to 
proselytise.  The  chief  scene  of  his  laboiu's  was 
France  and  Switzerland.  At  Basel,  15th  February 
1524,  he  opened  his  career  of  controversy  and 
evangelisation  by  publicly  sustaining  30  theses  on 
the  points  in  dispute  between  Roman  Catholicism 
and  Protestantism.  In  less  than  two  months,  he 
was  compelled  to  leave,  mainly  on  account  of  a 
quarrel  between  himself  and  Erasmus,  whom,  on 
account  of  his  moderate  or  trimming  policy,  F.  had 
compared  to  Balaam.  F.  next  went  to  Strasbourg, 
and  afterwards  to  Montbeliard,  where  his  icono- 
clastic way  of  preaching  the  gospel  excited  the 
alarm  of  his  friends,  several  of  whom,  CEcolam- 
padius  among  others,  censui-ed  him  sharply  for  his 
violence.  His  zeal  was  next  manifested  in  the 
canton  of  Bern.  It  was  also  chiefly  through  his 
exertions  that  the  towns  of  Aigle,  Bex,  Olon, 
Morat;,  and  Neuchiitel  followed  the  example  of 
Bern  in  embracing  the  Reformation.  In  1532,  he 
went  to  Geneva,  where  his  success  was  at  first 
so  great,  that  on  account  of  the  agitation  excited, 
he  had  to  leave  the  city.  He  returned  in  1533, 
was  again  compelled  to  withdraw,  but  once  more 
entered  it  in  1534.  This  was  his  year  of  triumph ; 
the  Reformers  filled  the  churches,  and  the  Catholic 
clergy,  who  had  made  themselves  odious  to  the 
citizens  by  abetting  the  despotic  schemes  of  tho 
Duke  of  Savoy,  retired  to  Lausanne  and  Fribourg. 
In  August  1535,  the  town  coimcil  of  Geneva  for- 
mally proclaimed  the  Reformation.  F.,  however, 
was  a  missionary,  not  a  le^slator,  and  the  organi- 
sation of  the  Genevan  dhurch  passed  into  the 
hands  of  Calvin  (q.  v.).  The  severity  of  the  new 
ecclesiastical  discipline  produced  a  reaction,  and  in 
April  1538,  the  two  reformers  were  expelled  from 
the  city.  F.  took  up  his  residence  at  Neuch^tel, 
whci-e  the  reformed  church  was  in  a  state  of  deplor- 
able disorder.  He  composed  its  differences,  and 
di'ew  up  a  constitution,  which  it  acoepted,  after 
long  and  stormy  debates,  in  1542.    In  Septembei' 


FAREWELI^FARINX 


of  the  same  year,  we  find  him  fighting  the  battle 
of  the  Ileformation  at  Metz.  After  his  return 
to  Neuchntel,  he  frequently  visited  Calvin,  whose 
authority  in  Geneva  had  been  completely  restored. 
It  was  on  one  of  these  occasions  that  he  was 
present  at  the  burning  of  Servetus,  and  though 
not,  comparatively  speaking,  a  bigoted  Calvinist, 
he  allowed  his  orthodoxy  on  that  occasion  to  choke 
his  humanity,  exclaiming,  as  the  unliappy  heretic 
uttered  his  last  })rayer  to  God  from  the  flames: 
*See  what  power  the  devil  has  over  one  who  has 
t'allen  into  his  hands.'  In  1557,  along  with  Beza, 
he  was  sent  to  the  Protestant  princes  of  Germany 
to  implore  their  aid  for  the  Waldenscs,  and  on 
his  return — inexhaustible  in  his  activity — he  sought 
a  nsw  sphere  of  evangelistic  labour  in  the  regions 
of  the  Jura  Mountains.  When  trembling  upon 
threescore-and-ten,  he  married  a  young  wife,  very 
much  to  Calvin's  disgust,  who  sarcastically  speaks 
of  him  under  the  circumstances  as  'our  poor 
brother.'  But  neither  his  newly  formed  domestic 
ties,  noi  the  infirmities  of  age,  could  quench  his 
missionary  zeal.  In  15G0 — 15G1,  he  i)roceeded  to 
his  native  Dauphin6,  and  passed  several  months 
at  Gap,  preaching  against  Catholicism  with  all 
the  ardour  of  his  youth.  In  November  15G1,  he 
was  thrown  into  prison,  but  was  shortly  after 
rescued  by  his  friends.  In  1564,  he  paid  a  visit 
to  the  dying  Cahan  ;  his  strength,  however,  was 
now  nearly  exhausted,  and  on  the  13th  September 
1565  he  expired  at  Neuchiltel,  leaving  a  son  named 
Jean,  who  survived  him  only  three  years.  F.  was 
a  man  of  extensive  scholarship,  and  wrote  largely, 
but  his  works  very  inadequately  represent  the 
genius  of  the  man.  Compare  Kirchhofer's  Das 
Leben  Wilhelm  Farels  (2  vols.,  Zurich,  1831—1833), 
and  C.  Schmidt's  Etudes  sur  Farel  (Strasbourg, 
1834). 

FAREWELL,  Cape,  the  southern  extremity  of 
Greenland,  lies  in  lat.  59°  49'  N.,  and  long.  43°  54' 
W.  It  is  generally  beset  with  ice,  which,  according 
to  recent  authorities,  appears  to  come  from  the 
north-east,  and  to  sweep  round  into  Davis'  Strait. 
Hence  it  is  but  little  known  ;  and,  in  fact,  the 
Danish  traders,  in  passing  to  and  from  the  settle- 
ments on  West  Greenland,  seem  uniformly  to  maintain 
an  offing  of  more  than  100  miles. 

FARI'A  Y  SOUSA,  Mangel,  a  Portuguese 
historian  and  poet,  was  born  of  an  ancient  family  at 
Caravella,  in  the  province  of  Entre  Minho  e  Douro, 
18th  March  1590,  and  studied  at  the  university  of 
Braga.  For  some  time  he  was  in  the  service  of  the 
Bishop  of  Oporto,  but  shortly  after  1613  he  went  to 
Madrid,  where,  however,  he  did  not  long  remain,  as 
he  foimd  no  opportunity  there  of  improving  his 
circumstances.  In  1631,  he  obtained  the  office  of 
secretary  to  the  Spanish  embassy  at  Rome,  where 
his  extensive  acquirements  procured  him  the  notice 
of  Pope  Urban  VIII.  and  of  all  the  learned  men  of 
the  city.  After  some  time,  he  returned  to  Spain, 
riuvd  died  at  Madrid  3d  June  1649.  F.'s  writings 
are  partly  in  Spanish,  and  partly  in  Portuguese. 
Of  the  foT'mer,  we  may  mention,  Dlscursos  morales 
^  politicos  (2  vols.,  Madr.  1623—1626),  Epitome  de 
las  llistorias  Portuguesas  (Madr.  1628),  Comentarios 
soh'^e  la  Lusiada  (2  vols.,  Madr.  1639),  Asia  Portu- 
guesa  (3  vols.,  Lisbon,  1666 — 1675),  Europa  Portu- 
guesa  (3  vols.,  Lisbon,  1678 — 1680),  Africa  Portuguesa 
(Lisbon,  1681),  and  the  greater  portion  of  his  poems, 
"which  he  collected  under  the  title  of  Fuente  de 
Aganippe  o  Rimas  Varias  (Madr.  1644 — 1646). 
These  poems  consist  of  sonnets,  eclogues,  canzones, 
and  madrigals.  F.,  however,  composed  about  200 
Bonnets  and  12  eclogues  in  the  Portuguese  language; 
aud  it  is  m-'inly  by  these,  and  also  by  three  theo- 
2ii 


retical  treatises  on  Poetry,  that  lie  has  influenced 
the  development  of  the  poetic  literatiu-e  of  Portugal, 
in  which  lie  was  long  regarded  as  an  oracle.  Kis 
poetry  exhibits  talent  and  spirit,  but  is  on  the  whole 
tasteless  and  bombastic.  F.  is  not  to  be  confounded 
with  another  Portuguese  autlior  of  the  same  name, 
who  was  born  at  Lisbon  in  1581,  and  died  at  Evora 
in  1655,  and  who  was  one  of  the  most  learned 
numismatists  of  his  age. 

FARI'NA  is  the  term  used  by  many  writers  on 
bees,  instead  of  pollen,  to  denote  the  pollen  oi 
flowers  collected  by  bees  for  feeding  their  larva. 
See  Bee. 

FARI'NA,  a  Latin  term  for  meal  or  flour,  which 
has  been  adopted  into  the  Enghsh  and  other  lan- 
guages, and  is  very  frequently  employed  both  in 
scientific  and  popular  works.  The  terra  farina  ia 
also  frequently  extended  to  many  substances,  which 
agree  with  the  meal  of  the  corn-plants  or  Cerealia 
(q.  v.),  in  containing  much  starch,  and  food  made 
of  such  substances  is  often  called  farinaceous,  its 
qiialities  more  or  less  resembling  those  of  the  food 
derived  from  the  cerealia.  Of  the  different  kinds  of 
farina,  those  produced  by  mere  trituration  of  the 
seeds  of  grasses  (corn),  hold  the  first  place  for 
imi^ortance  and  usefulness.  Most  similar  to  them 
are  those  obtained  in  the  same  manner  from  certain 
other  seeds.  See  Cerealia.  The  farina  of  the 
diff"erent  kinds  of  Pulse  (q.  v.),  or  seeds  of  leguminous 
plants,  has  considerably  different  ])roperties.  For 
the  qualities,  chemistry,  commercial  importance,  &c., 
of  the  different  kinds  of  meal,  see  Meal. — Other 
farinaceous  substances,  consisting  chiefly  of  starch, 
are  obtained  from  roots — often  from  tubers — of 
plants  of  very  different  natural  orders  ;  some  kinds 
also,  as  sago,  from  stems.  Cassava  meal,  which 
contains,  along  with  starch,  much  vegetable  fibre 
and  protein  or  albuminous  substances,  is  commonly 
called  farina  [Farinha)  in  many  parts  of  South 
America,  where  it  is  a  princii)al  article  of  food. 

Fossil  farina,  mountain  milk,  or  Agaric  mineral^ 
is  a  deposit  of  silicified  animalcules,  obtained  from 
China,  &c.  In  100  parts,  it  consists  of  silica  50^, 
alumina  26|,  magnesia  9,  water  and  organic  mattei 
13,  with  traces  of  lime  and  oxide  of  iron. 

FARI'NI,  Carlo  Lihgi,  an  Italian  author  and 
statesman,  was  born  in  1822  at  Russi,  in  Ravenna, 
in  the  north  of  Italy.  Having,  with  great  success, 
studied  medicine  at  Bologna,  F.  first  became  known 
by  several  publications  belonging  to  the  science  of 
medicine,  and  soon  afterwards  by  contributions  to 
various  scientific  periodicals.  In  1841  and  1842, 
having  mixed  himself  up  with  politics,  he  was 
obliged  to  leave  the  Roman  States,  and  change 
his  residence  repeatedly  until  he  finally  settled  at 
Turin.  The  amnesty  following  shortly  upon  the 
accession  of  Pio  Nono,  opened  to  F.  not  only  his 
native  country,  but  also  a  new  career,  through  the 
liberal  system  inaugurated  by  the  supreme  pontiffl 
In  1847,  he  was  called  into  the  reformed  ministry, 
as  a  substitute  to  the  home  secretary  ;  in  1848,  he 
was  present  in  the  suite  of  Carlo  Alberto  at  VoIl,a, 
and  after  the  flight  of  the  king,  protested  against 
the  proclaiming  of  a  republic.  During  the  short 
ministry  of  the  unfortunate  Rossi  (q.  v:),  F.  was 
director-general  of  the  sam'tary  and  prison  depart- 
ment at  Rome,  from  which  post,  however,  he  retired 
as  soon  as  the  reaction  under  Antonelli  began  to 
be  established.  Upon  the  occupation  of  Rome  by 
the  French,  F.  became  once  more  an  exile,  but  for 
a  short  time  only,  for  in  Piedmont  he  found  a 
home  as  well  as  public  honours.  In  1850,  he 
held  the  seat  of  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  in 
the  cabinet  of  Victor  Emanuel  II.,  nnd  on  retiring 
from  olSce,  was  named  a  member  of  the  supreme 


FARIS  ECCHIDIAK--FARM. 


council ;  and  hns  ever  since  sat  as  a  member  of 
parliament.  When,  after  the  overthrow  of  the 
Bourbon  princes,  as  also  of  the  papal  government 
in  the  Le<^ations  (1859),  Central  Italy  resolved  to 
annex  itself  to  the  kingdom  of  Victor  Emanuel, 
by  means  of  universal  suffrage,  it  was  F.  who 
directed  the  popular  mind  with  such  admirable 
success  that,  on  the  day  of  ballot,  not  one  vote 
was  delivered  asking  for  a  separate  kingdom.  As 
governor  of  Central  Italy,  he  showed  an  undaunted 
courage  against  the  threats  of  Austria,  and  exhib- 
ited a  thoroughly  consistent  moderation  against 
tlie  imrul}'  promptings  of  the  Mazzinians.  Tlie 
Rame  qualities  accompanied  his  measures  when 
the  newly  acquired  kingdom  of  Naples  was  to 
be  reorganised.  It  has  been  said  that  '  Fariui  was 
the  mind  of  Italy,  as  Garibaldi  was  its  sword.' 
Among  his  literary  productions  may  be  mentioned, 
II  Stato  Romano  (The  Roman  State),  translated 
into  English  under  the  superintendence  of  the  Right 
Honourable  W.  E.  Gladstone  (London,  4  vols.,  1859) ; 
Storia  cVItaUa  (History  of  Italy),  a  continuation 
of  Botta's  celebrated  work.  F.  was  also  a  constant 
contributor  to  Count  Cavour's  Risorgimento. 

FARIS  ECCHIDIAK,  an  Arab  poet  and  litte- 
rateur, was  born  about  the  year  1796.  In  religion, 
he  is  a  Syrian  Christian.  He  studied  at  Cairo 
under  the  ulamas  of  the  mosque  of  El-Azhar,  and 
in  1836  procured  for  M.  Fresnel  some  very  valu- 
able commentaries  upon  the  poem  of  Slicmfara. 
He  was  afterwards  invited  to  Malta  by  an  English 
missionary  society,  who  wanted  his  services  in 
their  Oriental  printing  establishment.  The  dedi- 
cation of  a  poem  to  the  Bey  of  Tunis  aboiit  1847, 
induced  that  monarch  to  send  a  war- vessel  to  Malta, 
for  the  purpose  of  bringing  F.  to  Tunis,  where  the 
poet  obtained  a  distinguished  reception,  and  many 
rich  presents.  Subsequently,  he  ^vent  to  England, 
where  he  was  em|)loyed  in  revising  the  text  of  a 
translation  of  the  Bible  into  Arabic,  by  the  Society 
for  the  Propagation  of  the  Scriptures.  In  1851,  he 
published  in  London  the  New  Testament  in  Arabic. 
He  subsequently  resided  in  France  for  a  consider- 
able time,  and  published  there,  along  with  M.  G. 
Dugat,  in  1854,  a  French  grammar  m  his  native 
tongue  for  the  use  of  the  Kabyles  of  Algeria.  His 
principal  work  is  entitled  La  Vie  et  les  Aventures 
die  Fariah  (Paris,  1855)  ;  it  contains  a  narrative  of 
his  own  travels,  with  critical  observations  on  the 
Arabs  and  other  peoples  whom  he  visited.  Some 
of  his  own  poems  are  also  interspersed.  F.  returned 
to  London  the  year  before  the  publication  of  this 
work.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Crimean  War,  the 
sultan  appointed  him  one  of  his  dragomans  or 
interj>reters,  but  he  has  never  discharged  the  duties 
of  his  office.  F.  is  said  to  possess  in  manuscriiDt  a 
collection  of  poems,  called  The  Divan,  which  are 
highly  spoken  of  by  those  who  have  seen  them. 

FARM  (of  uncertain  derivation),  the  term  usually 
employed  in  Britain  to  signify  a  piece  of  land, 
either  in  pasture  or  in  cultivation,  held  in  lease 
by  a  tenant  from  the  proprietor.  In  the  United 
States,  the  term  farmer  is  often  applied  to  a  person 
who  owns  as  well  as  cultivates  land.  The  tenure 
on  which  land  is  held  by  farmers  diflfers  in  different 
countries.  In  some  parts  of  continental  Europe,  the 
farmer  hires  the  land  on  the  principle  of  a  kind  of 
partnership  with  the  proprietor.  See  Metayer.  In 
England,  land  is  usually  let  for  a  certain  annual 
rent,  and  either  by  a  yearly  term,  or  at  the  good--wiU 
of  the  landlord.  In  Scotland,  the  process  of  land- 
letting  is  on  a  footing  remarkably  advantageous  for 
tenant  and  proprietor,  as  well  as  serving  the  best 
interests  of  agriculture,  and  on  this  account  it  is 
i;:-adually  beiag  Introduced  into  England.  Under 


the  head  Lease  will  l>e  presented  the  details  of 
Scottish  tenantcy  ;  a  few  leading  features  need  here 
only  1)0  adverted  to.  'J'he  Scottish  fanner  is  pre- 
sumedly u  capitalist,  able  to  work  the  land  in  the 
best  manner.  He  is  given  a  lease  of  19  years,  during 
which  period  he  has  entire  possession  of  the  land, 
and  from  the  length  of  tenure  is  encouraged  to  sink 
money  that  will  be  ami)ly  repaid  to  him  i>y  increased 
crops.  He  cannot  sublet,  but  his  lease  is  heritalde 
by  one  of  his  family.  The  landlord  at  the  outset 
erects  fann-buildings,  constructs  fences  and  roads, 
and  otherwise  puts  the  farm  into  a  proper  condition 
— the  whole  of  which  operations  may  cost  him  from 
£2000  to  £4000.  Receiving  his  farm  in  this  state, 
tlie  tenant  is  bound  to  keep  it  so,  and  to  deliver  it 
up  in  a  properly  tenantable  condition  at  the  con- 
clusion of  his  lease.  By  these  explicit  arrangements, 
the  outgoing  tenant  can  make  no  claim  for  improve- 
ments either  from  the  landlord  or  from  his  successor 
the  incoming  tenant,  who  is  merely  called  on  to 
pay  for  such  crops  as  happen  to  be  on  the  gi'ound ; 
and  this  is  settled  by  arbiters  mutually  chosen. 
See  Fallow.  Contests  about  tenant-right,  such  aa 
occur  in  Ireland,  from  the  practice  of  assigning  to 
farmers  the  duty  of  erecting  buildings  and  making 
permanent  improvements,  are  thus  totally  unknown 
in  the  Scottish  system.  The  method  of  paying  rent 
for  farms  in  Scotland  is  not  uniform.  In  some 
districts  the  annual  rent  is  a  fixed  sum,  but  in  other 
places  it  is  a  common  practice  to  pay  partly  a  fixed 
sum,  and  to  leave  another  portion  to  be  paid  in 
grain,  or  rather  the  money  value  of  so  much  grain 
according  to  the  average  market  prices  each  year, 
as  determined  by  a  jury  in  every  county.  See 
FiAES.  This  last  plan  is  the  fairest  for  all  parties, 
but  some  farmex's  prefer  to  pay  a  fixed  sum-total, 
and  so  speculate  on  a  rise  in  markets.  In  whatever 
mannei  the  rent  is  adjusted,  it  is  stipulated  to  be 
paid,  as  jj early  as  jDOSsible,  in  two  equal  portions, 
;it  Whitsunday  (May  15)  and  Martinmas  (November 
11),  but  in  practice  the  landlord  gives  three  mouth.s' 
credit  on  each  occasion — the  Whitsunday  rent  being 
exigible  at  Lammas  (August  4),  and  the  Martinmas 
rent  at  Candlemas  (Febi-uary  2).  At  all  times, 
however,  the  landlord  has  a  right  of  Hypothec 
(q.v.)  over  the  crops,  and  can  take  measures  to  avoid 
being  defrauded  of  his  proper  claims.  Usually,  the 
very  best  feeling  subsists  between  landlord  and 
tenant,  and  extreme  measures  are  of  rare  occm-rence. 

Pursuing  this  abstract  of  the  Scottish  system, 
the  landlord  usually  binds  his  tenant  to  farm  or 
cidtivate  the  land  according  to  the  most  approved 
systems  in  use  in  the  district.  Such  a  coiu'se  is  no 
doubt  necessary,  to  prevent  the  abuses  that  might 
arise  from  negligence  or  ignorance ;  but  the  restric- 
tions have  often  been  carried  too  far,  and  have 
formed  barriers  in  the  way  of  imi^rovements.  It  is 
not,  perhaps,  very  easy  to  define  what  is  liberal  and 
what  stringent,  as  practices  vary  according  to 
circumstances  of  soil  or  locality.  So  far  as  regards 
mere  cropping,  it  wovdd  not  be  much  amiss,  how- 
ever, on  most  arable  farms,  to  forbid  more  than 
one-half  of  the  land  being  in  white  crops  during  the 
last  four  years  of  the  lease.  Green  crops,  it  may  be 
stated,  do  not  prevent  exhaustion  so  much  as  they 
prevent  the  land  being  oveniin  with  weeds.  It  is 
perhaps  not  superfluous  to  observe  here  that  leases 
should  be  written  in  clear  and  concise  language,  and 
as  far  removed  from  ambiguitj^  as  possible. 

The  size  of  farms  is  regulated  by  many  circum- 
stances. On  land  adapted  for  green  cropping,  and 
remote  fi'om  towTis,  large  farms  form  good  subjects 
for  capitalists,  and  consequently  prevail.  Stiff  clay 
soils  are  rather  against  extensive  culture.  Where 
crops  are  grown  that  require  much  hand-labour- 
fai'ms  become  small  in  size.    Flax,  rape,  vines,  and 


FARM— FARM  BUILDINGS. 


rn;irkct-L;ar(lcn  i)ro(luce  all  tend  to  lessen  the  size 
of  I'arnis.  In  new  countries,  too,  where  there  is  no 
tiiave  labour,  farms  are  mostly  small ;  for  labour 
beinc:  high,  it  is  too  precious  to  be  profitably  em- 
ployed on  a  large  scale  where  the  prices  of  produce 
are  small.  Grazing  farms,  whether  in  the  High- 
lands or  Australia,  form  good  outlets  for  large 
capitalists. 

Under  the  modem  system  of  farming  in  Britain, 
not  less  than  £10  of  capital  per  acre  is  required  to 
farm  green-crop  land.  Where  cattle  are  pastured  on 
arable  lands  instead  of  sheep,  it  requires  still  more 
capital.  Highland  grazings  require  from  1  to  3  acres 
to  maintain  a  sheep  throughout  the  season.  The 
rent  varies  from  2s.  to  lO.s.  a  head  for  each  sheep 
kept ;  the  value  of  each  sheep  being  from  £1  to  £2 
a  head,  according  to  the  kind  and  age  of  the  stock. 

The  profits  of  farming  fluctuate  quite  as  much 
as  those  of  any  other  trade.  Strict  personal  super- 
intendence is  one  of  the  first  requisites  of  success. 
Without  this,  the  details  will  be  neglected,  and  loss 
will  ensue.  10  per  cent,  on  the  capital  invested  is  a 
good  return.  Formerly,  it  was  thought  that  arable 
land  should  yield  a  gross  produce  equal  to  three 
times  the  rental.  One  part  went  for  rent,  one  for 
expenses,  and  the  other  for  profit.  But  no  such 
absolute  nde  can  be  laid  down  ;  for  while,  as  in 
other  trades,  some  are  making  large  profits,  others 
are  losing  money.  Skill  and  attention  are  the 
qualities  which  command  sxiccess  in  farming  as  in 
other  things. 

A  farmer  necessarily  possesses  large  numbers  of 
animals — horses,  cattle,  sheep,  pigs,  and  poultry. 
These  have  all  to  be  reared  and  tended,  and 
demand  no  little  care  and  experience.  Proper  seeds 
must  be  selected ;  and  the  proper  cultivation  of 
the  land  for  the  different  crops  necessitates  a  suc- 
cession of  processes  which  require  to  be  r.ctended 
to.  These,  however,  will  be  taken  up  uuder  their 
respective  heads. 

FARM  BUILDINGS.  Eacli  farm  must  possess 
II  residence  for  the  farmer,  cottages  for  the  servants. 
•»ud  buildings  for  the  stock  and  crop.    The  /arm- 


house  should  be  commodious  and  plain,  with  an 
extent  of  accommodation  about  equal  to  that  which 
those  have  who  are  engaged  in  commercial  pursuits 
in  town  employing  the  same  amount  of  capital 
The  cottages  for  the  servants  should  also  be  plain 
and  roomy,  and  internal  convenience  should  be  more 
studied  than  outward  ornament. 

Proper  offices  are  essential  to  the  economical 
disposing  of  the  produce  of  the  farm.  The  corn 
crops  are  usually  thrashed  there,  and  a  large  pcrtiou 
of  the  green  crojjs  is  consumed  by  stock,  whicU 
must  be  well  provided  with  shelter  from  the  colJ, 
When  few  turnips  were  raised,  and  few  cattle  fedj 
large  open  courts  were  best  suited  for  converting 
the  straw  into  manure.  Now,  however,  in  many 
cases,  the  excrements  of  the  stock  are  sufficient  for 
wetting  all  the  straw,  and  hence  has  arisen  the 
practice  of  feeding  in  covered  courts  and  in  boxes. 
In  this  case,  the  solid  and  liquid  excrements  are 
carted  out  along  with  the  straw,  which  acts  the 
part  of  a  sponge.  This  is  no  doubt  an  excellent 
w^ay  of  manufacturing  home-made  manure ;  it  takes 
a  considerable  quantity  of  straw,  however ;  and  as 
more  green  crops  are  raised  and  consumed  on  tha 
farm,  sufficient  straw  cannot  be  got  to  absorb  all 
the  liquid ;  hence,  a  saving  of  the  straw  is  efiected 
by  stall-feeding,  when  the  excess  of  liquid  must  be 
collected  into  tanks,  and  otherwise  disposed  of. 
When  it  is  remembered  that  ammonia  cannot  be 
purchased  in  the  market  at  the  present  time  under 
£60  per  ton,  the  utility  of  husbanding  this  material 
when  it  is  freed  as  the  excrements  of  the  stock 
decompose,  must  be  self-evident.  If  the  sohd 
excrements  are  kept  in  a  compressed  state,  no 
fermentation  takes  place ;  and  if  the  manure  is  of 
good  quality,  it  should  be  applied  to  the  fields 
at  once.  Liquid  manures  should  be  carted  out, 
or  distributed  by  pipes,  when  the  plants  are  in 
a  growing  state,  otherwise  part  will  be  washed 
out  of  the  soil.  Covered  farmyards  are  rapidly 
extending  over  the  country.  It  is  the  cheapest  and 
best  way  of  erecting  farm-offices.  Our  cut  repre- 
sents a  bird's-eye  view  of  a  *  farm- steading,'  for  a 


Isometrical  View  of  Covered  Homestead. 


(arm  of  500  acres,  and  a  model  of  which  was  com- 
mended by  the  judges  of  the  Berwick  cattle-show 
in  1854. 

The  steading  is  on  the  covered  principle,  all  the 
vai-ious  departments  being  under  one  roof.    It  will 
be  seen  by  the  ground  plan  that  the  food- preparing 
2-w 


houses  are  ranged  as  convenient  as  possible  to  tnose 
in  which  the  food  is  to  be  consumed,  and  that  the 
relative  positions  of  every  other  department  have  been 
carefully  studied.  This  is  the  great  point  to  be  at- 
tended to  in  the  formation  of  all  homesteads,  whethe* 
open  or  covered. 


FARM-SERVANTS— FARMING'S  ISLAND. 


Vtntilalion. — Without  good  ventilation,  a  covered 
homestecid  must  be  a  nuisance.  All  the  apartments 
ftre  so  arranged  that,  unless  fresh  air  circulate 
through  them,  and  they  are  kept  perfectly  clean, 
there  must  constantly  be  unwholesome  cliluvia  in 
the  interior— the  foilness  of  one  apartment  being 
communicated  to  another.  The  system  of  venti- 
lating this  farmstead  is  certain  to  give  most  satis- 
factory results,  if  only  ordinary  care  be  taken  to 
keep  the  different  houses  as  clean  as  they  ought  to 
be.    The  arrangements  are  briefly  as  follows  : 

Under  each  feeding-passage  is  built  a  circular 
air-shaft,  30  inches  in  diameter ;  in  connection 
Mith  these  there  are  feeding- mouths  with  gratings 
on  the  outside  of  the  building ;  inside,  there  are 
numerous  finely  perforated  gratings ;  by  sliding- 
valves,  wrought  by  a  cord  and  pulley,  the  supply  of 
air  is  regvilated.  Besides  these,  there  are  gratings 
every  10  or  12  feet  along  the  exterior  walls,  per- 
forated so  as  to  admit  near  the  floor  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  air.  The  roof,  too,  is  provided 
with  ventilators  with  vertical  S})ars,  and  openings 
are  left  here  and  there  in  the  sarking,  to  act 
as  induction  and  eduction  tubes.  The  numerous 
perforated  apertures  throughout  the  building  wall 
admit  twice  the  quantity  of  air  required  for  the 
respiration  of  the  animals,  and  are  so  under  com- 
mand that  they  will  neither  admit  flies  in  summer, 
nor  too  large  a  supply  of  cold  air  in  winter.  A 
covered  steading,  somewhat  similar  in  construction 
to  the  above,  has  been  erected  at  Glen,  in  Peebles- 
Bhire,  where  the  ventilation  of  the  enclosed  cattle- 
courts,  &c.,  is  admirable. 

We  would  only  remark,  that  to  carry  out  this 
principle  of  ventilation  is  somewhat  expensive.  A 
cheap  and  yet  efficient  system  of  ventilation  for 
cattle  is  to  cover  the  yards  with  pan-tiles  without 
plaster  or  lath.  Those  who  wish  to  see  farm-offices 
economically  erected,  at  the  same  time  combined 
with  the  most  perfect  ventilation,  we  woidd  recom- 
mend to  visit  some  that  have  been  lately  built  on 
the  property  of  Lord  Kinnaird,  Rossie  Priory, 
Perthshire.  As  a  general  rule,  farm-steadings  are 
erected  at  too  great  an  expense.  For  further  infor- 
inati(m,  see  Tlie  Book  of  Farm  Buildingft,  by  Henry 
Stephens,  F.R.S.E.,  and  R.  Scott  Bm-n  '(Edin.  Black- 
wood and  Sons,  1861). 

FARM-SERVANTS.    The  introduction  of  large 
farms  caused  a  wide  difference  to  arise  between 
the  condition  of  master  and  servant.    The  latter 
has  no  doubt  had  his  condition  meliorated,  though 
much  remains  yet  to  be  done.    Large  farms  effect 
economy  in  the  amount  of  labour,   and  where 
these  superseded  the  small  holdings  or  pendicles, 
a  certain  number  of  the  population  had  to  betake 
themselves  to  the  towns  or  the  colonies.  This 
latter  process  had  the  effect  of  diminishing  the 
population  in  the  country  districts.     The  general 
advance,  however,  which  has  taken  place  in  the 
wages  of  the  laboui'ing-classes  has  been  happily 
ehared  in  by  farm-servants.    They  have  now  the 
j    D  leans  of  increasing  their  physical  comforts,  and 
in  general,  wherever  better  cottages  have  been 
built,  farm-servants  have  proved  more  trustworthy. 
Wages  vary  much,  according  to  the  locality.  In 
the  strictly  agricultural  county  of  Dorsetshire,  they 
;   range  from  8s.  to  10.9.  a  week.    In  the  manufac- 
I  turing  districts,  such  as  in  Yorkshire,  on  the  other 
'  hand,  they  run  up  to  15«.  to  I65.  a  week.    In  Scot- 
land, ploughmen  are  generally  paid  partly  in  pro- 
duce, but  taking  everything  into  account,  wages 
will  amount  to  nearly  ISs.  a  week  all  the  year 
i  through  for  good  hands ;  each  family  being  pro- 
'   »'idcd  with  a  house  at  a  short  distance  from  the 
'  f&rm-offi-;es.    See  Botiiy.     Female  farm-servants 
receive  froio  £8  to  ^  10  a  year,  with  food. 


FARMI':R,  Richard,  D.D.,  a  well-known  scholai 
of  the  last  century,  was  Ijorn  at  Leicester,  August- 
us, 17.35,  and  was  entered  a  pensioner  of  J<]nirnanuel 
College,  Caml^ridge,  in  175.'{.  In  17(50,  he  took  hia 
degree  of  M.A.,  ami  was  appointed  classical  tutor  of 
his  own  college.  It  is  not  known  when  he  took 
orders,  but,  while  he  held  the  oflice  of  tutor,  he  acted 
as  curate  at  Swavesey,  a  village  eight  miles  from 
Cambridge.  In  1706,  he  i)uljlished  his  once  famous 
Essay  on  the  Learnim/  of  SJialMpcare  (reprinted  in 
1789  and  in  1821),  the  purpose  of  which  was  to  shevi 
the  sources  whence  the  great  dramatist  derived  hir 
knowledge  of  the  ancients.  F.  ])roved  that  it  Ma* 
from  translations,  and  that  Shaksjjeare  has  often 
cited  the  phraseology,  and  even  the  eiTora,  of  tht 
translators.  In  1775,  he  was  elected  to  the  master- 
ship of  Emmanuel  College,  and  in  1778,  chief -librarian 
of  the  university.  In  1780,  he  obtained  a  i)rebendal 
stall  at  Lichfield,  but  in  1788,  resigned  it  for  the 
office  of  canon  residentiary  of  St  Paul's.  He  died 
September  8,  1797. 

FARMERS- GENERAL  (Fr.  fermiers-geM- 
raux)  was  the  name  given  before  the  Revolution  of 
1789  to  the  members  of  a  privileged  association  in 
France,  who  farmed  or  leased  the  public  revenues  of 
the  nation.  This  peculiar  system  of  tax-gathering 
dates  from  an  ancient  period.  For  each  class  of 
imposts  there  was  a  special  administrative  board, 
presided  over  by  one  of  the  farmers-general,  or  by 
one  of  his  assistants.  At  first,  the  leasing  of  the 
public  revenues  was  based  on  the  competitive  system, 
and  determined  by  the  estimates  handed  in ;  but 
latterly,  every  formality,  every  preliminary  guarantee 
of  this  natxire  disappeared,  and  the  leasing  wholly 
depended  on  the  favour  or  jobbery  of  the  govern- 
ment officials.  The  minister  of  finance  selected  the 
fanners-general  at  his  pleasure,  but  his  choice  was 
always  regidated  by  the  present,  or  rather  bribe  {pot' 
de-vin)  offered  to  him ;  and  which,  we  may  presume, 
was  never  inconsiderable,  inasmuch  as  its  value  was 
fixed  by  the  minister  himself.  Generally,  shares  in  the 
concern  were  assigned  by  the  king  to  his  favourites, 
male  and  female.  The  number  of  farmers-general 
was  ordinarily  40,  but  shortly  before  the  Revolution 
it  had  risen  to  60.  The  lease  was  signed  by  a 
salaried  deputy,  who  was  responsible  to  the  king 
alone.  The  king  occupied  the  position  of  a  creditor 
towards  the  farmers-general,  and  could  coerce  them 
into  payment  of  the  stipulated  sum  as  a  just  debt ; 
the  farmers-general,  on  the  other  hand,  occupied  a 
similar  position  towards  their  subordinates.  The 
entire  sum  which  it  was  necessary  to  place  in  the 
national  treasury — or,  in  other  words,  the  annual 
national  revenues — amounted  to  180  miUions  of 
livres.  The  rest  was  enormous  profit,  for  we  are 
certainly  within  the  mark  in  estimating  it  at  seven 
million  of  livres.  The  powers,  rights,  and  duties  of 
the  farmers-general  were  defined  by  special  decrees  ; 
but  however  severe  may  have  been  the  fiscal  lawa 
against  fraud  and  contraband,  it  is  notorious  that, 
shortly  before  the  Revolution,  abusts  of  the  most 
flagrant  description  -had  demoralised  the  system  and 
the  men.  The  consequence  was  inevitable.  During 
the  Revolution,  most  of  these  odious  tax-gatherer^ 
perished  on  the  scaffold,  the  innocent  among  them 
being  occasionally  confounded  with  the  guilty — the 
real  capitalist  with  the  selfish  and  greedy  adventui*er. 
Even  the  virtues  and  the  learning  of  the  illustrious 
Lavoisier  could  not  save  him. 

Farmers  of  the  revenue  are  an  instituti(m  of 
ancient  origin.  The  Roman  publicani  (q.  v.)  were 
officers  of  this  kind ;  and  duties  of  various  kinds 
were  at  one  time  farmed  in  Great  Britain.  See 
Excise. 

FARMING'S  ISLAND,  an  island  reported  to  l>« 

249 


,1 


FARNE— FARO. 


In  the  North  Pacific  Ocean,  north  of  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  in  lat.  30"  49'  N.,  and  long.  159"  20'  W.,  was 
formally  taken  possession  of,  for  the  Queen  of  Eng- 
land, on  the  8th  February,  1861,  by  Iler  Majesty's 
steamer  Albert.  The  harbour  was  called  English 
Harbour,  and  a  point  on  which  there  is  a  settlement 
was  termed  English  Point. 

FARNE,  FEARNE,  or  FERN  ISLES,  or  the 
Staples,  form  a  group  of  17  islets  and  rocks,  some 
being  visible  only  at  low  tide,  two  to  five  miles  off 
the  nortli-east  coast  of  Northumberland,  opposite 
Bamborough.  On  one  of  tlie  isles  is  tlie  tower  of  a 
priory,  built  to  the  memory  of  St,  Cutlibert,  who 
epent  the  last  two  years  of  his  life  here.  There  is  a 
hole  called  the  churn,  through  which  the  sea  rises. 
The  passage  between  tlie  isles  is  very  dangerous 
in  rough  weather.  Two  of  the  islets  have  each 
a  light-house.  Here  the  Forfarshire  was  wrecked  in 
1838  (see  Darling,  Grace),  and  here,  in  1843,  the 
Pegasus  met  the  same  fate,  and  60  persons  were 
drowned. 

FARNE'SE,  the  name  of  an  illustrious  family  in 
Italy,  whose  origin  can  be  traced  to  the  middle  of 
the  13th  c,  when  it  possessed  the  castle  of  Famcto, 
near  Orvieto.  Many  of  its  members  have  filled  the 
highest  offices  in  the  church.  In  1534,  Cardinal 
Alessandro  Farnese  was  raised  to  the  papal  see 
under  the  title  of  Pope  Ptiul  III.  (q.  v.),  and  as  his 
gi-eat  aim  was  the  aggrandisement  of  his  family,  he 
erected  Parma  and  Piacenza  into  a  duchy,  which 
he  bestowed  on  his  natural  son,  Pietro  Luigi. 
Pietro  was  one  of  the  most  dissolute  men  of  his 
period,  and  after  many  tyrannical  attempts  to  limit 
the  privileges  of  the  nobles,  he  was  assassinated 
10th  September  1547.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  OiTAYio  (born  1520,  died  15S5),  who  married  a 
natural  daughter  of  Charles  V.,  and  whose  reign 
was  marked  by  an  unbroken  peace,  and  by  various 
efforts  made  for  the  good  of  his  subjects. 

Alessandro  Farnese,  son  of  Ottavio,  w\as  born  in 
1546.,  He  served  his  first  campaign  under  his  uncle, 
Don  John  of  Austria,  and  distinguished  himself  at 
the  battle  of  Lepanto,  in  the  year  1571.  He  after- 
Wards  followed  his  mother  into  the  Low  Countries, 
then  in  a  state  of  insurrection,  and  aided  in  obtain- 
ing the  victory  at  Geinbloux,  31st  January  1578. 
He  was  made  governor  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands 
by  Philip  II.,  and  carried  on  the  war  against  the 
Prince  of  Orange.  The  ill  success  of  the  expedition 
against  England,  to  the  command  of  which  he  had 
been  appomted  by  Philip  II.,  grieved  him  the  more 
from  the  contrast  it  presented  to  his  former  suc- 
cesses. On  his  return  to  the  Netherlands,  he  was 
api^ointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  des- 
patched to  the  assistance  of  the  Catholics  in  France, 
and  compelled  Henry  IV.  to  raise  the  siege  of  Paris. 
Being,  however,  ill  supplied  with  provisions  and 
money  by  Philip,  and  insufficiently  supported  by 
the  League,  he  was  forced  to  yield  to  the  superior 
prwer  of  Henry  IV.,  and  died  soon  after  at  Arras, 
IB  1592.  F.  was  really  an  able  warrior,  and  though 
lexere  in  his  discipline,  was  aluiost  worshipped  by 
his  soldiery.  Ranuocio,  his  son  and  successor,  did 
n&  possess  the  brilliant  qualities  of  his  father :  he 
was  sombre,  austere,  greedy,  and  proud.  A  con- 
spiracy was  hatched  against  him,  and  Ranuccio 
was  seized,  and  thrown  into  prison.  He  died  in 
1622. — Odoardo,  a  natural  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  a  prince  remarkable  for  the  elegance  of  his 
manners,  and  also,  according  to  Muratori,  for  his 
magnificence,  magnanimity,  and  liberality.  He  died 
in  1646,  at  the  age  of  34. — The  family  became 
extinct  in  the  person  of  Antonio  F.,  who  died  in 
1731. 

The  name  of  the  Farnese  family  has  been  bestowed 
350 


upon  several  celebrated  works  of  art.  Thejje  ire — 1. 
The  Farnese  Palace  at  Rome,  an  eJifice  raised  by 
Pope  Paul  III,,  before  his  acccssior)  to  the  holy  see, 
after  the  design  of  Antonio  da  San  O'^llo.  It  is  in  the 
form  of  a  quadrangle,  and  was  co7^;^>1.3ted  by  Michael 
Angelo.  The  palace  is  one  of  the  fit?  jf.fc  in  Rome.  Th6 
antique  sculptures  for  which  it  war.  f  jrmerly  renowned 
are  now  in  the  Museum  at  Naples  ;  a  few  classic 
works,  however,  are  still  to  be  seen  in  the  great 
hall.  The  gallery  contains  the  frescoes  of  Annibal 
Caracci,  which  are  very  valuable,  as  exhibiting  in 
the  most  comi>lete  manner  the  new  line  of  art  wlii3h 
he  struck  out.  In  a  room  adjoining  the  gallerj',  are 
some  mythological  fresco-paintings  by  Domenichino. 
2.  The  Farnesina  is  a  very  elegant  palace  in  Traste- 
vere.  It  owes  its  celebrity  chief!;,  to  the  frescoes  of 
Raphael ;  b\it  it  also  contains  fr  }sooe<f  by  Penizzf, 
Sebastian  del  Piombo,  and  a  cole  -sal  head  in  chiarO' 
scuro,  attributed  to  Michael  A/igelo.  Among  the 
antiques,  formerly  belonging  to  the  Farnese  family, 
now  in  the  museum  at  Najjles,  are  two  -vvhich  still 
bear  the  name  of  their  original  owners-  3.  The 
Fame.se  Bull  is  the  name  given  to  a  coloysal  group 
attributed  to  ApoUonius  and  Taiuiscus  of  7'ralles,  in 
Asia  Minor,  who  probably  belonged  to  the  Rhodian 
school,  and  lived  about  300  B.  c.  The  grou])  repre- 
sents Dirce  bound  to  the  horns  of  a  bull  bv  Zetlius' 
and  Amphion,  for  ill  usage  of  her  mother — a  subject 
which,  notwithstanding  the  vigorous  mode  of  treat- 
ment, is  on  the  whole  unsatisfactory.  Pliny  men-  : 
tions  the  transference  of  the  group  to  Rome,  where, 
it  first  adorned  the  library  of  Asinius  PoUio,  and' 
afterwards  the  Baths  of  Caracalla.  It  was  dis- 
covered anew  in  the  year  1546,  restored  by  Bianchi, 
and  placed  in  the  Farnese  Palace.  4.  The  Farnese  , 
Hercules,  copied  by  Glykon  from  ?in  original  by'  j 
Lysippus.  It  exhibits  the  hero,  exhausted  by  , 
toil,  leaning  upon  his  club ;  the  muscles  and  veins  ' 
are  still  swollen,  the  head  inclined,  the  exprt?^sioii 
melancholy ;  one  hand  rests  upon  his  back,  and 
grasps  one  of  the  apples  of  the  Hesj)erides.  , 

FA'RNHAM,  a  town  in  the  west  of  Surrey,  on  ; 
the  left  bank  of  the  Wey,  10  miles  west-south-west  - 
of  Guildford.  It  consists  claiefly  of  one  street  running ' 
east  and  west.    The  principal  feature  is  the  stately  / 
old  castle  of  the  bishops  of  Winchester,  first  built  by 
Bishop  de  Blois,  brother  of  King  Stephen.  The  castite  , 
was  razed  by  Henry  III.,  rebuilt  and  garrisoned  by 
Charles  L,  and  restored  in  1684  to  its  present  state 
by  Bishop  Morley.    It  is  an  embattled  quadrangle 
of  brick,  covered  with  stucco.    F.  has  belonged  to 
the  bishops  of  Winchester  since  860,  when  Ethelbald 
of  Wessex  bestowed  it  on  them.    Some  parts  of  the 
parish  church  were  built  in  the  12th,  15th,  and  16th 
centuries.    The  chief  trade  is  in  hops,  a  very  fine  I 
variety  of  \\hich  is  grown  in  the  vicinity.     The  | 
population  in  1871  of  the  town  was  4461.  Wil- 
liam Cobbett  was  born  and  is  buried  here.  The 
vicinity  of  Aldershott  camp,  which  is  only  about  6 
miles  to  the  north  of  F.,  has  increased  the  activity 
of  the  town  during  the  last  few  years. 

FA'RO,  a  pleasant  and  wealthy  episcopal  cit^ 
of  Portugal,  capital  of  the  province  of  Algarve,  ii 
situated  in  a  plain  at  the  mouth  of  the  Fennoao, 
in  lat.  37°  N.,  and  long.  T  52'  W.  It  has,  on  the 
whole,  a  modern  aspect,  but  its  houses  are  not 
handsome,  and  its  streets  are  in  general  narrow. 
It  is  surrounded  with  walls,  which  are  said  t« 
have  been  built  by  the  Moors.  The  harbour  of 
F.  is  somewhat  confined,  but  the  road  formed  by 
three  islands  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  affords  good 
anchorage.  F.  has  considerable  exports  of  oranges, 
figs,  anchovies,  and  cork.  It  has  also  a  prosperous 
fishery.  Pop.  7900.  The  number  of  blind  people 
here  met  with  is  surprising,  groups  of  five  auJ 


FARO—FARRIER 


six  together  being  frequently  observed.  This  is 
accounted  for  by  the  ligHt  sandy  soil  which  prevails. 

FARO,  or  PHARO,  a  game  at  cards  of  the 
nature  of  hazard,  played  chiefly  at  gambling  estab- 
lishments.   See  Hoyle's  Games. 

FAROE  ISLES  (Dan.  Faar-Oen,  sheep-islands), 
a  group  of  islands,  22  in  number,  of  which  17  only 
are  inhabited,  belonging  to  Denmark,  and  lying 
nearly  midway  between  the  Shetlands  and  Ice- 
land, between  61°  25'- 62°  25'  N.  lat.,  and  6' -8° 
W.  long.  The  principal  island,  Stromoe  (capital, 
Thorshavn),  is  27  miles  long,  and  8  miles  broad; 
those  next  in  importance  are  Osteroe,  Vaagoe, 
Bordoe,  and  Sudaroe.  Their  entire  area  is  nearly 
600  square  miles ;  population  about  8500.  The 
F.  1.  consist  of  basaltic  elevations,  none  of  which 
attain  a  height  of  3000  feet,  and  trap  formations, 
covered  with  a  thin  vegetable  soil,  which  yields 
pasturage  to  the  cattle  and  numerous  sheep  which 
are  reared  in  the  islands.  There  are  no  con- 
siderable valleys  or  streams,  but  small  fresh-water 
lakes  are  numerous.  The  coasts,  which  are  steep 
and  lofty,  are  broken  by  deep  inlets,  whirlpools, 
and  rapids,  which  render  navigation  perilous.  The 
furious  hurricanes  which  prevail,  prevent  the  growth 
of  trees,  or  even  of  most  of  the  ordinary  vegetables 
and  cereals ;  but  the  climate  is  so  greatly  modified 
by  oceanic  influences,  that,  notwithstanding  the 
high  latitude,  snow  rarely  lies  long  on  the  groimd, 
and  the  cattle  can  pass  the  greater  part  of  the  year 
in  the  open  air.  Peat  and  coal  are  used  for  fuel; 
traces  of  iron  and  copper,  and  opal,  chalcedony,  &c., 
are  found.  The  chief  sources  of  wealth  are  flocks 
of  sheep,  and  the  multitudes  of  sea-fowl  which 
frequent  the  rocks.  The  islanders  shew  consider- 
able skill  in  climbing  the  dangerous  cliffs  in  search 
of  birds,  and  they  are  also  expert  in  fishing  for 
seals  and  whales.  Their  manufactures  are  of  the 
homeliest  kind,  but  in  return  for  the  numerous 
articles  supplied  to  them  by  the  mother-country, 
they  yield  tallow,  train-oil,  feathers,  skins,  and 
butter,  to  the  Danish  markets.  The  people  are  of 
Norwegian  origin,  a  vigorous,  laborious,  loyal,  and 
religious  race,  and  belong  to  the  Lutheran  Church. 
They  are  governed  by  a  Danish  amtmand,  or  bailiff, 
and  a  landvogt,  or  director  of  the  police  and  munici- 
pal departments,  and  are  represented  in  the  Danish 
legislature  by  a  deputy  appointed  by  the  king.  The 
islands,  which  were  discovered  in  the  9th  c.  by 
Norwegians,  have  belonged  to  Denmark  since  the 
incorporation  of  Norway  with  that  kingdom  by  the 
Union  of  Calmar,  and  the  language  of  the  people  is 
only  a  slightly  modified  form  of  the  Old  Norse. 
England  held  the  islands  from  1807  to  the  treaty 
of  Vienna,  in  1814.  For  further  particulars,  see 
Tracings  of  Iceland  and  the  Faroe  Isles,  by  Robei-t 
Chambers  (W.  &  R.  Chambers  :  London  and 
Edinburgh). 

FA'RQUHAR,  George,  was  born  at  Londonderry 
La  1678,  and  received  his  education  at  the  Dublin 
University,  Avhere,  although  he  did  not  take  any 
clegree,  he  secured  among  his  comrades  the  reputa- 
^ou  of  a  wit  who  was  a  spendthrift  of  his  witticisms. 
"WTien  he  left  the  university,  he  was  engaged  as  an 
actor  by  one  of  the  Dublin  theatres,  but,  like  most 
dramatists  who  have  figured  on  the  stage,  he  proved 
but  an  indifferent  performer.  Playing  a  part  in 
Dry  den's  Indian  Umperor,  and  forgetting  that  he 
wore  a  sword  instead  of  a  foil,  he  accidentally 
wounded  a  brother  performer,  and  was  so  shocked 
by  the  occurrence  that  he  at  once  quitted  the 
boards.  Accompanied  by  the  actor  Wilks,  he 
proceeded  to  London,  and  shortly  after  received  a 
commission  in  the  regiment  commanded  by  the 
Earl  of  Orrery,  which  was  then  stationed  in  Ireland. 


Urged  by  Wilks,  and  perhaps  stimulated  by  the  gaiety 
and  leisure  of  a  military  life,  he,  in  1098,  jiroduced 
his  first  comedy,  entitled  Love  and  a  IJollle,  which 
proved  a  success.  Two  years  afterwards  his  Con- 
utant  Couple  appeared,  wliich  met  witli  a  brilliant 
reception,  and  to  which  he  wrote  a  sequel  called 
Sir  Harry  Wildair.  In  1703  he  produced  Tlte  In- 
comtant,  founded  on  the  Wild  Goose  (Jhaae  of  Beau- 
mont and  Fletcher,  a  version  in  which  all  the  coarse- 
ness, and  none  of  the  poetry,  of  the  elder  dramatists 
is  retained.  He  married  in  the  same  year,  and  falling 
into  serious  pecuniary  difficulties,  he  sold  his  conunis- 
sion,  and  struggling  with  adverse  fortune,  succumbed. 
He  died  of  decline  in  1707,  leaving  'two  liclijlesa 
girls'  to  the  care  of  his  friend  Wilks.  During  his 
last  illness  he  wrote  the  best  of  his  plays,  The  Beauz 
Stratagem — in  six  weeks,  it  is  said — and  died  while 
its  wit  and  invention  were  making  the  town  roar 
with  delight. 

F.  is  one  of  the  finest  of  our  comic  dramatists, 
although  Pope  called  him  a  'farce  writer.'  lie  is  less 
icily  brilliant  than  Congreve,  and  possesses,  on  the 
whole,  more  variety  and  character  than  any  of  his 
compeers.  He  had  wit  in  abundance,  but  he  had 
humanity  too.  He  was  a  tender-hearted  and  some- 
what melancholy  man,  and — Avhat  was  rare  in  his 
school  and  his  time — tears  are  found  glittering  among 
the  brilliants  of  his  fancy. 

FARR,  William,  M.D,,  F.R.S.,  an  eminent 
statistician,  was  born  at  Kenley,  in  Shropshire, 
November  30,  1807,  became  an  assistant  sui-geon 
at  the  Salop  Infirmary  in  1826,  and  after  attending 
privately  the  medical  and  scientific  classes  of  the 
day,  went  to  Paris  University  in  1829,  where  he 
attended  the  lectures  of  the  most  eminent  medical 
professors.  In  1831,  he  returned  to  England,  and 
became  a  member  of  the  University  of  London, 
where  he  completed  his  professional  curriculum. 
F.  has  devoted  himself  mainly  to  a  consideration  of 
the  important  questions  resulting  from  medical 
statistics.  At  first  he  found  it  very  difficult  to 
draw  the  attention,  either  of  the  public  or  of  medical 
societies,  to  the  subject;  but  in  the  year  1837,  his 
article,  '  Vital  Statistics,'  in  McCulloch's  Statistics  of 
the  British  Empire,  obtained  the  notice  and  approval 
of  certain  influential  persons.  In  the  same  year,  the 
registration  of  all  the  deaths,  and  of  the  causes  of 
death,  was  commenced  in  England,  and  in  1838,  F. 
received  an  appointment  in  the  General  Registrar's 
Office.  Since  then,  he  has  been  made  superintendent 
of  a  statistical  department,  the  members  of  Avhich 
have  drawn  up  the  new  London  Table  of  Mor- 
tality, the  Quarterly  Review  of  Births,  Deaths,  and 
Marriages,  and  the  Annual  Abstracts.  In  1851,  he 
was  one  of  the  gentlemen  employed  in  taking  the 
census  of  Great  Britain,  in  connection  with  which 
he  drew  up  several  extremely  interesting  reports. 
F.  is  the  author  of  a  new  Statistical  Nosology,  and 
of  various  valuable  papers  on  the  Finance  of  Life 
Assurance,  the  Income  Tax,  the  Public  Health,  the 
Cholera,  etc. 

FA'RRIER  (from  ferrum,  iron),  a  person  who 
shoes  horses  and  treats  their  diseases.  The  better 
class  of  farriers  often  were,  and  indeed  still  are, 
men  of  great  shrewdness  and  observation,  some- 
times possessing  considerable  experience,  and  with 
skilful,  useful  hands.  Their  management  of  sick 
horses  is  occasionally  sensible,  but  generally  alto- 
gether empiricrsl.  They  have  usually  but  crude 
ideas  of  the  siructure,  functions,  or  diseases  of 
animals,  and  pin  their  faith  mainly  on  a  few  cai'e- 
fuUy  cherished  recipes.  To  then-  calling  as  horse 
doctors  and  shoeing  smiths  (see  Shoeing),  they 
usually  unite  those  of  cow-leech,  and  cutter  of  colta 
and  pigs,  and  although  still  met  with  in  many 


FARRIERS— FASCINES. 


of  the  l  urnl  districts  of  England  and  Ireland,  their 
practice  is  gradually  passing  into  the  hands  of  regu- 
larly  educated  Veterinarians  (q.  v.). 

FARRIERS,  Army  Farriers-major  and  farriers 
are  uon-comraissioneif  officers  in  the  cavalry, 
artillery,  engineers,  and  military  train,  whose  duty 
it  is  to  slioe  the  horses  of  their  corps,  and,  generally, 
to  assist  the  veterinary  surgeon  in  exercising  a 
proper  care  over  the  regimental  animals.  They 
receive  the  same  pay  as  other  sergeants  (with  whom 
they  rank)  ;  and,  in  addition,  certain  allowances 
proportionate  to  the  numljer  of  animals  in  charge. 
The  sum  necessary  to  defray  this  allowance  for  a 
year  is  about  £10,000. 

^  FARS,  or  FARSISTA'N  (anciently  Persis),  a  pro- 
vince of  Persia,  on  the  east  shore  of  the  Persian 
Gulf,  lying  between  lat.  27°  30'  and  31'  30'  N., 
and  between  long.  49°  30'  and  55°  E.  Area,  55,000 
square  miles ;  pop.  about  1,700,000,  composed  of 
Turkomans,  Banjans,  Persians,  and  Jews.  The 
coast  region  is  flat,  with  a  hot  climate ;  inland,  the 
ground  rises  to  an  elevation  of  from  2000  to  3000 
feet,  the  climate  is  cooler,  and  valleys,  alike 
remarkable  for  their  beauty  and  fertility,  ranging 
from  15  to  100  miles  in  length,  are  numerous.  East 
of  this  hilly  district  the  province  again  becomes 
flat  and  sandy  ;  and  here  occurs  the  large  salt- lake 
Bakhtegan.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Bundemeer 
(anciently  Araxes),  which  flows  into  Balditegan,  the 
Nabon,  and  the  'Tab  (anciently  Arosis),  which  fall 
into  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  province  produces 
tobacco,  wine,  rice,  dates,  opium,  linen,  cotton,  silk, 
cochineal,  and  roses  for  the  manufacture  of  attar, 
tt .  has  iron  and  lead  mines,  marble  and  alabaster 
quarries,  and  yields  also  borax  and  naphtha.  It 
trades  mainly  with  India.  The  principal  towns  are 
• — Shiraz,  Jehroom,  Darab  or  Darabgerd,  Behbehan 
or  Babahan,  and  Bushire.  North  of  Shiraz,  at  a  dis- 
tance of  about  SO  miles,  lie  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
and  s])lendid  city  of  Persepolis.  F.  also  contains 
the  remains  of  Shahpur,  a  city  older  than  the  age  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  and  the  celebrated  sculptured 
rocks,  called  by  the  Persians  Naksh-i-RiLstam. 

FARSA'N  ARCHIPE'LAGO,  a  group  of  islands 
In  the  south-east  of  the  Red  Sea,  the  chief  of  which 
are  Farsan  Kebeer,  31  miles  long,  and  Farsan 
Seggeer,  18  miles,  in  lat.  16'  30'— 17°  N,  and  long. 
41°  45'— 42°  10'  E.  They  would  be  valuable  as 
barbours,  were  it  not  for  the  reefs  in  the  vicinity. 

FARTHING  {Bax.feorthung,  ivomfeorth,  fourth), 
the  fourth  part  of  a  Penny  (q.  v.). 

FA'RTHINGALE,  old  form  of  the  word  (as 
foimd  in  Bishop  Latimer)  verdingale,  is  probably  a 
corruption  of  the  French  vertugade,  which  is  itself 
a  corruption  of  vertu-garde,  signifying  guard  of 
modesty.  For  a  description  of  the  farthingale,  see 
Crinoline. 

FA'RYNDON  INN,  the  name  formerly  borne 
by  Serjeants'  Inn,  Chancery  Lane.  This  building 
belonged  to  the  bishops  of  Ely,  by  whom,  in  1411,  it 
was  let  to  the  serjeants-at-law.  In  1484,  the  name 
was  changed  to  Serjeants'  Inn  (q.  v.). 

FASA'NO,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  Terra  de  Bari, 
and  33  miles  south-east  of  the  town  of  Bari,  is  situ- 
ated on  the  high  road  from  that  town  to  Brindisi. 
It  is  small,  but  wealthy.  The  whole  of  the  district 
of  F.  abounds  in  olive  plantations,  and  there  are 
numerous  oil-presses  in  the  town  and  neighbourhood. 
Pop.  11,450. 

FA'SCES  were  bundles  of  rods  usually  made  of 
birch,  but  sometimes  of  elm,  with  an  axe  projecting 
from  the  middle  of  them,  which  were  carried  before 
fcue  chief  magistrate*  of  ancient  Rome,  as  symbols  of 
352 


Fascia. 


their  power  over  life  and  limb.  They  were  bom« 
by  the  lictors,  at  first  before  the  kings  ;  in  the  time 
of  the  republic,  before  consids  and  prsetors  ;  and 
afterwards  before  the  emperors.  Their  number 
varied,  a  consul  having  twelve,  and  a  prajtor,  six  ; 
but  within  the  city  only  two.  Valerius  Publicola 
introduced  a  law  that  within  the  city  the  axe 
was  withdrawn,  except  in  the 
case  of  a  dictator,  who  was 
preceded  by  twenty -four 
lictors,  bearing  as  many  fasces. 
Publicola  also  made  the  fasces 
be  lowered  at  the  assemblies 
of  the  people,  as  an  acknow- 
ledgment of  their  supreme 
power. 

FA'SCIA,  in  Architecture, 
a  flat  space  or  band,  like  a 
broad  ribbon,  usually  between 
moiddings,  as  at  a,  a,  a  of  the 
architrave  (see  fig.).  Archi- 
traves are  called  single, 
double,  or  triple  fasciae  architraves,  according  to  the 
number  of  fascitB  into  which  they  are  divided. 

FASCINA'TION  BY  SERPENTS.  A  power 
has  long  been  popularly  ascribed  to  serpents,  or  at 
least  to  some  kinds  of  them,  of  fascinating  by  their 
eye  the  small  animals  on  which  they  prey,  so  as  to 
prevent  the  escape  of  the  intended  victim,  when  its 
escape  would  otherwise  be  easy,  and  to  cause  it 
rather  to  run  or  flutter  into  the  mouth  which  ia 
open  to  devour  it.  This  popular  notion  has  been 
ridicided,  but  is  supported  by  a  large  amount  of 
evidence,  and  has  been  fully  adopted  by  some  of  the 
most  scientific  observers.  In  the  earlier  part  of  last 
century,  Kalm  described  the  rattlesnake  as  frequently 
lying  at  the  bottom  of  a  tree,  on  which  a  squirrel  is 
seated,  and  fixing  its  eyes  on  the  little  animal,  which 
from  that"  moment  cannot  escape,  but  begins  a  dole, 
ful  outcry,  comes  towards  the  snake,  runs  a  little 
bit  awoy,  comes  nearer,  and  finally  is  swallowed. 
Le  Vaillant  describes  a  similar  scene,  as  witnessed 
by  him  in  Africa,  a  shrike  incajjable  of  moving 
away  from  a  serpent  which  was  gazing  fixedly  at  it, 
and  dying  of  fear,  although  the  serpent  was  killed. 
Dr  Andrew  Smith  states  that  the  presence  of  a 
non- venomous  South  African  tree-snake,  Bucephalm 
viridis,  in  a  tree,  causes  the  birds  of  the  neighbour- 
hood to  coUect  around  it  and  fly  to  and  fro,  uttering 
piercing  cries,  'until  some  one,  more  terror-struck 
than  the  rest,  actually  scans  its  lips,  and  almost 
without  resistance,  becomes  a  meal  for  its  enemy.' 
He  adds,  'whatever  may  be  said  in  ridicule  of 
fascination,  it  is  nevertheless  true  that  birds,  and 
even  quadrupeds,  are,  under  certain  circumstances, 
unable  to  retire  from  the  presence  of  certain  of  theif 
enemies  ;  and  what  is  even  more  extraordinary, 
unable  to  resist  the  propensity  to  advance  from  a 
situation  of  actual  safety,  into  one  of  most  imminent 
danger.  This  I  have  often  seen  exemplified  in  the 
case  of  birds  and  snakes ;  and  I  have  heard  of 
instances  equally  curious,  in  which  antelopes  aad 
other  quadrupeds  have  been  so  bewildered  by  the 
sudden  appearance  of  crocodiles,  and  by  the  grimaces 
and  contortions  they  practised,  as  to  be  unable  to 
fly,  or  even  move  from  the  spot  towards  which  they 
were  approaching  to  seize  them.'  Ellis,  in  his 
Three  Visits  to  Madagascar,  records  anealotes  of 
the  same  kind,  and  one  in  particular,  of  a  frog 
apparently  unable  to  move,  until  an  object  was 
pushed  between  it  and  the  eye  of  the  snake,  when 
the  frog  immediately  darted  away,  as  if  relieved 
from  some  mesmeric  influence  exerted  over  it. 

FASCI'NES  (from  Latin /asm,  a  bundle)  are 
fagots  for  military  purposes  made  of  young  branches 


FASCIOLA— FASIIIOK 


of  trees  or  brushwood,  and  also  of  osiers,  bound 
together  with  yarn  or  withes.  They  are  about  a 
foot  in  diameter,  and  of  various  lengths,  averaging 
12  feet,  according  to  the  object  for  which  they  are 
intended.  Fascines  are  used  in  the  construction  of 
temporary  works  ;  for  filling  a  ditch,  and  some- 
times, in  a  pile,  for  setting  fire  to  an  obstruction. 
Before  a  siege,  the  soldiers  are  employed  in  making 
fascines  in  great  number ;  and  when  needed,  each 
Boldier  bears  one  to  the  place,  casts  it  on  the  heap, 
and  the  quantity  requu-ed  is  thus  accumulated  in  a 
remarkably  shoi-t  time. 

FASCI'OLA,  a  generic  name  formerly  employed 
to  designate  all  the  Trematode  Entozoa,  as  Flukes, 
&c.,  which  are  now,  however,  divided  into  many 
genera. 

FA'SHIOjM",  or,  as  the  French  teim  it,  La  Mode, 
admits  as  little  of  exact  definition  as  of  being 
referred  to  any  intelligible  principle.  In  every  age 
and  country,  there  has  been  a  recognisable  costume 
or  general  style  of  male  and  female  attire,  along  Avith 
certain  niceties  in  the  shape,  colour,  and  texture  of 
dress,  which,  fluctuating  according  to  taste  or  whim, 
are  known  as  the  fashion — a  word  which  etymologi- 
cal! y  signifies  making  in  a  particular  form.  The 
teiTus  fashion  and  fashionable  are,  however,  so  com- 
prehensive as  to  include  much  beyond  the  sphere 
of  the  toilet ;  as,  for  examj^le,  a  style  of  sj^eaking, 
living,  and  forming  opinions  ;  there  being,  to  use  a 
common  phrase,  '  a  fashion  in  everything.'  It  is 
only  in  China  and  some  other  eastern  countries  that, 
in  consequence  of  dress  being  regulated  by  sumptuary 
laws  or  some  equally  strict  traditions,  the  fashions 
of  attire  remain  from  generation  to  generation  with 
little  or  no  change. 

The  nature  of  clothing,  and  the  necessity  for 
its  use,  being  treated  in  the  articles  Health  and 
Textile  Fabrics,  what  seems  desirable  here  is  to 
glance  at  the  leading  forms  of  dress  and  more 
conspicuous  fashions  that  have  prevailed  in  Western 
Europe,  and  more  particularly  in  England,  since  the 
dawn  of  civilisation.  Our  modern  costume  has 
seemingly  had  a  double  origin — that  of  the  Komans 
and  of  the  Teutonic  people,  who  in  difFerent  branches 
invaded  France  and  Britain.  The  usual  Koman 
dress,  in  the  latter  period  of  the  Empire,  consisted  of 
a  timic,  or  loose  upper  garment,  with  a  dress  for  the 
lower  limbs,  called  braccce;  hence  the  modem  term 
breeches.  Over  aU  was  occasionally  worn  by  the 
higher  classes  the  toga,  or  mantle.  It  is  believed 
that  these  Koman  costumes  were  generally  copied 
by  the  greater  number  of  British,  at  least  among  the 
more  opulent  classes.  In  the  dress  of  tlie  women, 
however,  there  was  but  little  change.  They  appear 
in  two  tunics,  the  one  reaching  to  the  ankles,  the 
other  having  short  sleeves,  and  reaching  about  half- 
way down  the  thigh  :  in  other  words,  they  resemble 
%  round  gown,  or  bedgown  and  petticoat,  though 
4he  latter,  distinct  from  a  body  and  sleeves,  is  not 
pon8i^"'ered  to  be  ancient.  This  tunic  was  called 
in  British  gwn;  hence  ovu-  word  gown,  of  which  we 
still  See  specimens  of  short  dimensions  worn  by 
women  of  the  himabler  classes  in  England,  Scotland, 
and  Wa!es. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  and  Danish  periods  of  English 
history  are  marked  by  new  pecuharities  in  costume. 
Soon  after  the  departure  of  the  Romans,  and  the 
arrival  of  the  Saxons  in  the  5th  c,  fashions  of  apparel 
were  introduced  from  Northern  Germany,  which  con- 
tinued with  no  material  change  for  several  centuries. 
The  most  important  improvement  in  the  ordinary 
dress  of  the  people  was  the  introduction  of  the  shirt, 
a  linen  garment  worn  next  the  skin,  for  which  we 
are  indebted  to  the  Saxon  invaders.  The  common 
dress  of  the  8th  c.  consisted,  as  we  find,  of  linen 


shirts  ;  tunics,  or  a  kind  of  surcoat ;  clouk.s  fit,-,tene-.l 
on  the  breast  or  shoulders  with  brooches ;  short 
drawers  met  by  hose,  over  which  were  wom  ])anda 
of  cloth,  linen,  or  leather,  in  diagonal  crossings. 
Leathern  sandals  were  worn  l)y  the  early  Anglo- 
Saxons,  but  afterwards  the  shoe  hecfune  common. 
It  was  very  simple  and  well  contrived  for  comfort, 
being  opened  down  the  instep,  and  there,  by  a  thong 
passed  through  holes  on  each  side  of  the  slit,  drawn 
tight  round  the  feet  like  a  purse.  A  felt  or  woollen 
cap,  called  ha;t  (hence  our  modern  word  hat),  was 
worn  by  the  higher  class  of  Anglo-Saxons  ;  but  it  is 
generally  believed  that  the  serfs,  or  lower  orders, 
were  without  any  other  covering  for  the  head  than 
what  nature  had  given  them.  The  Anglo-Saxon 
tunic  still  exists  in  the  smock-frock,  a  species  of 
overall  generally  worn  by  the  peasantry  and  some 
farmers  in  England.  The  blouse,  worn  by  Avorkmen 
in  France  and  Switzerland,  has  un  equally  early 
origin. 

The  Norman  Conquest  introduced  greater  taste 
and  splendour  into  British  costume.  Now  wero 
introduced  Gloves  (q.  v.), 
along  wdth  the  fashions  of 
chivalry.  The  annexed  en- 
graving represents  a  gentle- 
man of  the  reign  of  Henry 
v.:  he  is  dressed  in  a  short 
tunic,  buttoned  in  front, 
with  girdle,  large  loose 
sleeves,  tight  hose  forming 
pantaloons,  and  stockings  in 
a  single  piece,  peaked  shoes, 
and  head-cloth  or  cap.  About 
this  period,  silks  and  velvets 
of  divers  colours  came  into 
use  among  the  higher  classes, 
by  whom  gold  chains  were 
generally  worn.  The  dress 
of  ladies  was  of  the  richest 
kind.  Gowns  were  em- 
broidered and  bordered  with  Gentleman  of  Fifteenth 
lurs  or  velvet ;  and  the  Century, 
bodice,  laced  in  front  over  a 

stomacher,  now  first  appeared.  But  the  great'^st 
eccentricity  was  the  lofty  steeple  head-dress,  she-^ 
in  the  annexed  portrait ;  this  consisted  of  a  roll  ^ 
linen,  covered  with  fine 
lawn,  which  himg  to  the 
ground,  or  was  mostly 
tucked  under  the  arm. 

In  the  16th  c,  the  upper 
part  of  the  long  hose 
or  nether  garments  began 
to  be  worn  loose,  or  slashed 
with  pieces  of  different 
colours  let  in,  and  the  arms 
and  shoulders  of  the  doublet 
or  jacket  were  fashioned  in 
a  similar  style.  Boots  were 
also  worn  loose  on  the  leg, 
with  the  upper  part  falling 
down  ;  hence  the  origin  of 
the  buskin,  RufFs  or  ruffles, 
collars,  and  velvet  bonnets 
with  feathers,  came  like- 
wise into  use,  as  may  be 
seen  from  the  paintings  of 
Henry  VIII.  HaU,  the 
chronicler,  describes  several 


Lady  of  Fifteenth 
Century. 


of  Henry's  superb 
dresses,  and  among  them  a  frocke,  or  coat  of  velvet, 
embroidered  all  over  with  gold  of  damask,  the 
sleeves  and  breast  cut  and  Lined  with  cloth  of  gold, 
and  tied  together  '  with  great  buttons  of  diamonds, 
rubies,  and  orient  pearls.'  The  cloaks  and  mantlea 
were  of  corresponding  magnificence.   The  shirts  were 

263 


FASHION. 


pinclK^d  or  plaited,  and  embroidered  with  gold,  silver, 
or  silk.  Tiie  term  hose  continued  to  be  applied  to 
the  entire  vestment,  from  the  waist  to  the  feet, 
throughout  this  century  :  the  material  is  more  dis- 
tinctly stated,  for  Henry  wore  knit  silk  as  well  as 
cloth  hose:  the  precise  period  of  the  separation  of 
the  hose  into  breeches  and  stockings,  is  not  so 
clear  as  the  derivation  of  the  latter  term  from  the 
•  stocb/ing  of  hose : '  '  that  is,  adding  the  lower 
part  tliat  covered  the  legs  and  feet  to  that  which 
was  fastened  by  points  to  the  doublet,'  and  was 
called  the  stocks.  The  shoes  and  buskins  were  of 
the  German  fashion,  very  broad  at  the  toes,  and 
of  velvet  and  satin,  slashed  and  puffed.  The  hats, 
caps,  and  bonnets  were  of  almost  endless  forms 
and  colours. 

The  dress  of  the  middle  ranks  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.  may  be  seen  in  prints  of  the  time  ; 

plain  russet  coats,  and  a 
loose  kind  of  kersey  l)reeclies, 
with  stockings  of  the  same 
piece,  were  the  ordinary  suit ; 
and  the  London  apprentices 
wore  blue  cloaks  in  summer, 
aiul  gowais  of  the  same  colour 
in  winter,  as  badges  of  serW- 
tude ;  for  this  appeal's  to 
have  been  the  age  of  domes- 
tic distinctions — the  relics  of 
the  feudalism  of  the  middle 
ages.  The  women  wore  rus- 
set, or  long  woollen  gowns, 
worstccll  kirtles  (hereafter 
called  petticoats),  and  white 
caps  and  aprons ;  and  white 
underlinen  came  into  general 
wear.  The  engra\'ing  shews 
man  and  woman  in  the 
ordinary  dress  of  this  period. 
The  principal  novelty  of  the  reigns  of  Edward  VI. 
and  Mary  was  the  flat  round  bonnet  or  cap,  of  plain 
velvet  or  cloth,  worn  on  one  side  of  the  head,  and 
decorated  with  a  jewel  and  single  ostrich  feather. 
The  bonnet  itself  is  preserved  in  the  caps  worn  at 
the  present  day  by  the  boys  of  Christ's  Hospital; 
nnd  their  blue  coat  and  yellow  stockings  are  such  as 
«'ere  worn  by  the  London  apprentices  at  the  date  of 
the  foundation  of  the  hospital  by  the  youthful  Ed- 
ward.   See  Stockings. 

The  male  costume  in  Elizabeth's  reign  was  the 
large  trunk  hose,  long-v/aisted  doublet,  short  cloak, 
hat,  band,  and  feather,  shoes  with  roses,  and  the 
large  ruff" ;  but  the  great  breeches,  '  stuffed  with 
hair- like  woolsacks,'  after  the  separation  of  the  hose 
into  this  garment  and  stockings,  appear  to  have  been 
worn  throughout  the  reign  :  they  were  made  of  silk, 
velvet,  satin,  and  damask.  The  doublets  were  still 
more  costly,  and  quilted  and  stuffed,  '  slashed,  jagged, 
pinched,  and  laced ; '  and  over  these  were  worn  coats 
and  jerkins  in  as  many  varieties  as  there  are  days 
in  the  year.  The  cloaks  were  of  the  Spanish,  French, 
and  Dutch  cuts,  of  cloth,  silk,  velvet,  and  taffeta  of 
all  colours,  trimmed  with  gold,  silver,  and  silk-lace 
and  glass  bugles,  inside  and  outside  ecpially  superb. 
The  stockings,  shoes,  sHppers,  and  ruffs  resembled 
those  of  the  ladies. 

Bats  now  began  to  supersede  the  bonnets  of  a 
former  era.  Those  of  beaver  were  exceedingly 
expensive,  and  they  were  for  the  most  part  made 
of  felted  wool,  dyed.  The  most  remarkable  thing 
about  these  hats  was  their  numerous  shapes  :  some 
were  steeple-crowned;  others  were  flat  and  broad, 
like  the  battlements  of  a  house;  and  others  with 
round  crowns,  and  bands  of  all  colours,  and  orna- 
mented with  huge  feathers  and  brooches,  clasps,  and 
jewels  of  great  value.    See  Hats. 

264 


Man  and  "Woman  of  the 
Sixteenth  Century. 


As  regards  female  attire,  the  more  conspicuous 
features  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  were  the  farthin- 
gale (q.  V.)  and  ruff'.  The  farthingale,  or  fardingale, 
consisted  in  an  extravagant  expansion  of  the  lower 
garments,  by  means  of  cane  or  whalebone,  by  which 
the  lady  seemed  to  walk  in  a  kind  of  tub.  The 
farthingale,  which  is  referred  to  by  Sliakspeare, 
Butler,  and  other  writers,  mostly  iu  a  satinc  v(  in, 
was  the  predecessor  of  the  hoop,  which  in  its  turn, 
after  an  interval,  has  been  succeeded  by  the  Crino- 
line (q.  V.)  and  hoop-wwk  of  steel.  The  widely 
extended  ruff  of  fine  linen,  like  a  huge  frill,  is  seen 
in  the  pictures  of  Elizabeth  and  her  envied  rival, 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  both  stars  of  fashion  iu  theif 
day. 

Under  James  I.,  the  male  costume  was  somewhat 
more  Spanish,  as  respects  the  slashing  and  orna- 
menting of  the  doublet  and  breeches.  Late  in  the 
reign,  however,  the  jackets  or  doublets  were  short- 
ened, and  the  breeches  reduced  iu  size,  and  fastened 
in  large  bows  at  the  knees  ;  the  well-stockinged  leg 
was  admired,  and  the  hat  worn  low  in  the  crown, 
and  with  broad  brim,  as  seen  in  portraits  of  the 
date  1619.  Beards  and  whiskers  had  become  almost 
universal  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth ;  but  in  that  of 
James,  the  former  was  sometimes  worn  trimmed  to 
a  point,  hanging  down  at  the  division  of  the  ruff. 

In  the  female  costume,  there  was  little  change. 
The  farthingale  continued  to  be  worn  by  ladies  of 
quality  ;  a  strong  passion  for  foreign  lace  was  intro- 
duced ;  pearls  were  the  favourite  jewels  ;  and  the 
ruff  maintained  its  sway,  so  as  to  be  anathematised 
from  the  pulpit ;  and  the  fancies  of  female  costume 
were  glanced  at  in  a  sermon  preached  before  the 
king  at  Whitehall  in  1607—1608,  as  '  her  French, 
her  Sj)anish,  and  her  foolish  fashions.' 

The  fashion  of  dress  in  the  reign  of  Charles  L 
became  still  more  decidedly  Spanish  and  picturesque. 
There  were  now  worn  collars  of  rich  point-lace, 
large  and  hanging  down  on  the  shoulders,  held  by  a 
cord  and  tassel  at  the  neck,  and  now  called  Vandyhc, 
from  its  being  the  most  stiiking  pai-t  of  the  dress  in 
which  Vandyke  at  that  time  painted  portraits. 

The  principal  habits  were  vests  and  cloaks  of 
velvet,  or  silk  damask,  short-trousered  breeches  ter- 
minating in  stuffed  rolls,  and  fringes  and  points,  and 
very  rich  boots,  with  large  projecting  lace  tops.  A 
dress  of  Charles  is  thus  described  :  A  falling  band, 
green  doublet  (from  the  armpits  to  the  shoulders 
vidde  and  loose),  zigzag  turned-up  ruffles,  long  green 
breeches  (like  a  Dutchman's),  tied  below  the  knee 
with  yellow  ribbons,  red  stockings,  green  shoe-roses, 
and  a  short  red  cloak 
lined  with  blue,  with  a 
star  on  the  shoulder ;  the 
king  sometimes  wore  a 
large  cravat,  and  at  other 
times  a  long  falling  band 
with  tassels.  The  dress 
of  the  gay  courtiers  or 
cavaliers  consisted  of  a 
doublet  of  velvet,  silk, 
or  satin,  \Aith  large  loose 
sleeves,  slashed,  and 
embroidered ;  Vandyke 
collar  and  band,  and 
short  embroidered  cloak, 
worn  on  one  shoidder ; 
the  long  breeches,  fringed 
and  pointed,  met  the 
ruffled  tops  of  the  boots ; 
the  embroidered  sword- 
belt  was  worn  over  the 
right  shoidder,  and  in  it  was  hung  a  Spanish  rapier, 
and  in  the  flapping  beaver-hat  was  worn  a  pi  iime  oi 
feathers  confined  by  a  jewel.    A  buff  coat  or  jerkin 


Citizen  in  the  time  of 
Charles  I. 


FASHION. 


was  often  worn  as  a  better  defence  than  the  doublet, 
which  is  sometimes  covered.  The  cii<iruvin{^  repre- 
sents a  citizen  of  this  period  more  phiiiily  attired. 

The  female  costume  of  this  period  was  rather 
elegant  than  splendid.  Gowns  with  close  bodies 
and  tight  sleeves  were  worn,  though  the  farthingale 
was  retained,  with  a  gorget  ruff  standing  up  a})out 
the  neck  like  a  fan.  French  hoods  were  still  worn, 
though  with  little  distinction  as  to  rank.  The  hair 
was  worn  in  small  curls,  and  the  hoods,  of  all 
colours,  fastened  under  the  chin  with  curious  effect. 
Earrings,  necklaces,  and  bracelets  were  much  worn ; 
but  the  Puritans  forbade  the  females  to  wear  lace, 
jewels,  or  even  braided  hair  ;  and  they  retained  the 
close  hood  and  high- crowned  hat. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  the 
cumbrous  farthingale  disappeared,  with  the  yellow 
starched  ruff  and  band.  These  tasteless  fashions 
being  dismissed,  the  female  dress  became  very 
elegant,  vnth.  its  rich  full  skirt  and  sleeves,  and 
falling  collar  edged  with  rich  lace,  and  the  hair 
worn  in  graceful  ringlets ;  but  these  vanities  were 
condemned  by  the  Puritan  party. 

Wi*b  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.  came  certain 
tastelfcds  innovations  upon  the  elegant  Vandyke 
costume  of  the  time  of  Charles  I.,  which  were  the 
first  resemblance  tp  the  coats  and  waistcoats  of  the 
present  day.  Thus  our  most  picturesque  attire 
lasted  little  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century.  Its 
decline  was  gradual ;  its  chivalric  character  soon 
degenerated  into  grotesqueness,  which  in  its  turn 
changed  to  stark  meanness.  Early  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  IL,  the  doublet  was  much  shortened,  and 
v/orn  open  in  front,  where,  and  at  the  waistband, 
the  rich  shii-t  was  shewn  ;  and  the  loose  sleeves  and 
breeches  were  decked  with  ribbons  and  points,  and 
from  the  knee-bands  hung  long  lace  rufH.es.  At  the 
wrists,  too,  ruffles  were  worn ;  but  the  lace-collar 
was  shorn  of  its  points.  The  cloak  Avas  retained 
upon  the  left  shoulder,  and  the  high-crowned  and 
plumed  hat  remained  for  a  short  time ;  but  the 
crown  of  the  hat  was  soon  lowered.  ' 

The  petticoat  l)reeches  were  another  absurdity ; 
although  ornamented  ^vit'h.  ribbons  at  the  sides,  the 
lining  strangely  appeared  below  the  breeches,  and 
was  tied  at  the  knees  ;  to  match  which,  the  sleeves 
of  the  doublet  only  reached  to  the  elbows,  and  from 
under  them  bulged  the  rufHed  sleeves  of  the  shirt, 
both  being  ornamented  with  ribbons.  Meanwhile  the 
skirt  of  the  doublet  had  been  lengthened  from  above 
the  waist  nearly  to  the  knees,  and  had  buttons  and 
button-holes  in  its  entire  length,  thus  becoming  a 
coat,  and  so  named  in  an  inventory  of  1679 ;  wherein 
also  are  the  items  of  waistcoat,  breeches,  pantaloons, 
drawers,  and  trousers,  being  the  earliest  mention  of 
these  articles.  Stockings  of  various  kinds  were 
common ;  and  '  the  lower  ends  of  stockings '  are 
noderstood  as  socks.  Instead  of  the  lace-collar 
was  worn  the  long  square-ended  cravat,  of  the  same 
material,  from  Brussels  and  Flanders. 

Passing  to  the  reigns  of  James  II.  and  "William 
III.,  we  find  the  male  attire  gradually  fashioned 
according  to  the  artificial  costume  of  the  court 
of  Louis  XIV.  Every  article  of  dress  was  now 
more  j)rim  and  exact.  The  petticoat  breeches  were 
exchanged  for  the  close-fitting  garments  tied  below 
the  knee,  and  therefore  called  knee-breeches;  the 
broad-brimmed  hats  were  turned  up  on  two  sides, 
and  edged  with  feathers  or  ribbons  ;  we  began  to 
see  the  rich  long  lace  cravat  and  embroidered  waist- 
coat ;  and  the  band  was  now  narrowed,  so  as  to 
reisemble  that  worn  at  the  present  time  by  clergy- 
men. Wi^s,  which  had  been  some  time  in  use,  were 
worn  still  longer  than  hitherto,  hanging  down  in 
front,  or  flowing  upon  the  shoulders,  though  the 
colour  was  altered  from  black  to  suit  the  complexion. 


Gentleman  of  1750. 


From  the  17th  to  the  end  of  the  18th  c.  was  the  era 
of  Hair-powder  (q.  \.),  Wigs  (q.  v.),  and  cocked-hats; 
in  these  as  in  other  matters  there  being  an  excessive 
artificiality  in  the  tastes  of  the  higher  classes.  In 
the  annexed  cut,  we  offer  a 
representation  of  a  gentleman 
of  1750,  with  his  flowing  coat 
and  ample  cuffs,  frills  at  the 
wrist,  deep  waistcoat  hanging 
over  the  legs,  long  white  hose 
drawn  over  the  knees,  his 
cocked-hat  folded  uiider  his 
arm,  and  in  his  hand  the  open 
Snuff-box  (q.  v.).  Such  w\as 
the  appearance  of  v/hat  is  tra- 
ditionally known  as  the  '  old 
English  gentleman.'  The  coats 
of  the  18th  c.  were  of  velvet, 
silk,  or  satin,  as  well  as  broad- 
cloth, and  their  colours  very 
fanciful.  Hogarth's  favourite 
colour  was  sky-blue  ;  Key- 
nolds's,  deep  crimson  and  vio- 
let ;  and  Goldsmith  rejoiced 
in  plum-colour.  About  1790, 
cloth  became  the  general  wear ;  the  waistcoat  being 
of  the  costlier  materials,  and  embroidered,  and 
sometimes  the  breeches.  Buckles  were  worn  at  the 
knees  and  in  the  shoes  till  the  close  of  the  cen- 
tury ;  and  the_^  large  square  plaited  buckle  was  the 
ton  until  1791',  when  shoe-strings  became  general. 
Among  the  artificialities  of  dress  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  18th  c,  none  was  more  odious  than  that 
of  Hoops  (q.  v.),  worn  by  ladies,  who,  by  these  means 
of  expansion,  were  made  to  appear  as  if  standing  in 
an  inverted  tub.  In  the  reigns  of  George  I.  and  IL,  a 
loose  kind  of  drapery  at  the  back  of  the  di-ess,  called 
a  sacque,  and  hooded  silk-cloaks,  were  worn,  also  a 
very  small  muff,  such  as  have  been  lately  re\dved. 
In  the  18th  c,  after  the  disuse  of  towering  head- 
dresses. Veils  (q.  v.)  of  an  elegant  fabric  were  intro- 
duced,  and  the  Fan  (q.  v.)  was  an  important  article 
for  ornament  and  flirtation. 

The  formalities  of  the  18th  c.  received  a  severe 
blow  at  the  French  Revolution  ;  and  in  the  ten 
years  from  1790  to  1800  a  more  complete  change  was 
effected  in  dress,  by  the  spontaneous  action  of  the 
people,  than  had  taken  place  at  any  pre\T.ous  period 
in*  a  century.  The  change  began  in  France,  partly  to 
mark  a  contempt  for  old  court  usages,  and  partly 
in  imitation  of  certain  classes  of  persons  in  England, 
whose  costume  the  French  mistook  for  that  of  the 
nation  generally.  This  new  French  dress  was  intro- 
duced by  the  party  who  were  styled  the  Sans 
Culottes.  It  consisted  of  a  round  hat,  a  short  coat, 
a  light  waistcoat,  and  pantaloons  ;  a  haudkerehiei 
was  tied  loosely  round  the  neck,  with  the  ends  long 
and  hanging  dowoi,  and  sheAA-ing  the  shirt-coUar 
above;  the  hair  Avas  cut  short,  AAdthout  poAvder,  ^  la 
Tttus,  and  the  shoes  Avere  tied  A\ith  strings. 

The  comparatiA^ely  simple  form  ef  dress  of  tlie 
Sans  Culottes  found  many  admirers  \i\  England,  and 
soon  became  common  among  young  men ;  the  change 
from  autiqiie  fashions  was  also  greatly  helped  ty 
the  imposition  of  a  tax  on  the  use  of  hair-poAvder, 
which  AA'as  henceforth  generally  abandoned.  Panta- 
loons, AA'hich  fitted  closely  to  the  leg,  remained  in 
very  common  use  by  those  persons  Avho  had  adopted 
them  till  about  the  year  1814,  when  the  Avearing  of 
trousers,  already  introduced  into  the  army,  became 
fashionable.  It  is  proper,  hoAA'eA^er,  to  mention  that 
trousers  had,  for  the  previous  fifteen  or  tAventy 
years,  been  used  by  boys,  and  were  perhaps  from 
them  adopted  by  the  army.  PreA^ous  to  the  French 
ReA'olution,  the  di-ess  of  boys  Avas  almost  the  same 
as  that  of  men.    Although  trousers — called  by  the 

255 


FASHION— FAST. 


Americans  pants — were  generally  worn  after  1815, 
many  elderly  persons  still  held  out  in  knee-breeches 
against  all  innovations  ;  and  to  the  present  day  an 
aged  gentleman  may  occasionally  be  seen  clinging 
to  this  18th  c.  piece  of  dress.  The  general  use 
of  white  neckcloths  continued,  notwithstanding  the 
introduction  of  the  standing  collar,  till  the  reign  of 
George  IV.,  when  this  monarch's  taste  for  wearing  a 
black  silk  kerchief  or  stock,  and  also  the  use  of 
black  stocks  in  the  army,  caused  a  remarkably  quick 
abandonment  of  white  neckcloths,  and  the  adoption 
of  black  instead.  The  year  1825,  or  thcrealwuts, 
was  the  era  of  this  signal  improvement  in  costume. 

While  these  leading  changes  were  effecting,  other 
alterations  of  a  less  conspicuous  nature  were  from 
time  to  time  taking  place.  The  disbanding  of  the 
army  after  the  peace  of  1815  led  to  various  transfor- 
mations besides  those  we  have  mentioned..  While 
pantaloons  were  the  fashionable  dress,  it  became 
customary  to  wear  Hessian  boots  ;  these,  which  had 
originated  among,  the  Hessian  troops,  were  without 
tops,  and  were  worn  with  small  silk  tassels  dangling 
from  a  cut  in  front ;  being  drawn  over  the  lower 
part  of  the  pantaloons,  they  had  a  neat  appearance ; 
but  the  keeping  of  them  clean  formed  a  torment 
that  prevented  their  universal  use.  See  Boots. 
When  trousers  were  introduced  from  the  practice 
of  the  army,  the  use  of  Wellington  boots  to  go 
beneath  them  also  became  common,  lleferring  to 
the  era  of  1815  to  1825  as  that  in  which  trousers, 
Wellington  boots,  and  black  neckcloths  or  stocks 
came  into  vogue,  we  may  place  the  introduction  of 
the  surcout  in  the  same  period  of  history.  From 
the  time  when  the  collarless  and  broad- skirted  coat 
had  disa})peared  about  the  commencement  of  the 
century,  the  fashion  of  coats  had  changed  in  various 
ways  till  the  above-named  era,  when  the  loose  frock- 
coat  or  surtout  was  added  to  the  list  of  garments. 

Such  is  a  general  account  of  the  progress  of 
fashions  in  England  imtil  nearly  the  present  day. 
In  these  fashions,  the  Welsh,  Irish,  and  Scotch  have 
participated,  and  there  is  now  little  to  distinguish 
the  inhabitants  of  one  part  of  the  United  Kingdom 
from  another.  What  differences  exist  in  particular 
localities — as,  for  instance,  the  round  hats  of  the 
women  in  Wales,  the  checked  gray  plaid  of  the 
Lowland  Scottish  peasantry,  and  the  kilt  of  the 
Highlanders — will  receive  some  notice  under  theii- 
appropriate  heads. 

The  general  simplif^dng  of  dress  subsequent  to 
1815,  was  not  unaccompanied  by  an  expiring  effort 
to  sustain  a  high  style  of  fashion.  The  macaroni, 
or  highly  dressed  beau  of  the  ISth  c,  was  now  suc- 
ceeded by  the  dandy,  who,  with  mincing,  affected 
manners,  prided  himself  on  his  starched  collars,  his 
trouser- straps,  and  the  flashy  bunch  of  seals  which 
dangled  from  his  watch-chain.  The  Regency  was 
the  era  of  this  kind  of  supreme  dandyism,  but  it 
continued  till  later  times,  and  characterised  a  num- 
ber of  leading  public  personages,  of  whom  notices 
occur  in  Raikes's  Beminiscences,  from  1831  to  1851. 
In  the  present  day,  may  be  noted  a  kind  of  break- 
down of  everything  like  formality  in  gentlemen's 
walking  costume.  Plain  cloths,  of  divers  hues, 
called  Tweeds  (q.  v.),  have  almost  superseded  mate- 
rials of  a  superior  quality  ;  cloth  caps,  or  soft  felted 
hats,  called  wide-aioakes  (see  Hats),  cover  the 
head ;  and  the  feet  are  provided  with  short  ankle- 
boots  instead  of  Wellingtons.  In  evening  or  dinner 
costume,  however,  the  old  etiquette  of  dress-coats 
and  white  neckcloths  is  still  maintained.  Among 
the  changes  that  are  taking  place  in  the  morning  or 
walking  dress,  none  is  so  remarkable  as  the  grow- 
ing fashion  of  wearing  knickerbockers.  These  are  wide 
loose  trousers  to  below  the  knee,  leaving  the  lower 
part  of  the  leg  only  stockinged  or  covered  with 
256 


leggings.  This  fashion,  which  has  been  copied  more 
iimnediately  from  the  French  Zouaves  (see  Zouave), 
and  partly  perhaps  from  the  common  -practice  of 
stuffing  the  lower  parts  of  the  trousers  roughly 
into  boots  in  the  western  regions  of  the  United 
States,  is  very  much  a  resumj)tion  of  the  costumes 
seen  in  old  Dutch  prints.  Should  it  become  general, 
leg-gaiters  or  boots  will  come  again  into  use.  and 
the  present  generation  may  live  to  see  the  fashion 
of  male  attire  work  once  more  round  to  the  knee- 
breeches  of  the  18th  century.  In  female  as  vi^ell 
as  in  male  costume,  fashion  seems  to  have  a  ten- 
dency to  work  in  a  circle ;  of  this,  the  resump- 
tion of  the  farthingale,  or  hoop,  under  the  nam© 
of  crinoline,  alreadv  referred  to,  offers  a  sufficient 
example,  besides  affording  a  ludicrous  instance  of 
the  unreasoning  manner  in  which  extravagances  m 
dress  are  usually  followed.  It  is  to  be  observed, 
however,  that  Englishwomen,  chargeable  as  they  are 
with  this  absurdity,  set  a  most  creditable  example 
to  their  sex  all  over  the  world,  in  allowing  no  fan- 
tastic change  of  fashion  to  prevent  them  from 
taking  outdoor  exercise  in  all  weathers,  to  which 
the  recent  introduction  of  india-rubber  Goloshea 
(q.  V.)  has  materially  aided. 

As  to  the  moral  view  that  may  be  taken  of  the 
whimsicalities  of  female  fashions,  we  might  refer  to 
the  numerous  papers  of  Steele  in  the  Tatlcr  and 
Spectator,  and  also  the  writings  of  other  18th  c 
essayists  ;  passing  these  over,  it  is  enough  to  quote 
the  words  of  Hazlitt,  a  more  recent  essayist. 
'  Fashion,'  he  says,  '  constantly  begins  and  ends 
in  two  things  it  abhors  most — singularity  and 
vulgarity.  It  is  the  perpetual  setting  up  and  then 
disowning  a  certain  standard  of  taste,  elegance, 
and  refinement,  which  has  no  other  formation  or 
authority  than  that  it  is  the  prevailing  distraction 
of  the  moment ;  which  was  yesterday  ridiculous  from 
its  being  new,  and  to-morrow  wall  be  odious  from 
its  being  common.  It  is  one  of  the  most  slight  and 
insignificant  of  all  things.  It  cannot  be  lasting,  for 
it  depends  on  the  constant  change  and  shifting  of 
its  ovra  harlequin  disguises ;  it  cannot  be  sterling, 
for,  if  it  were,  it  could  not  depend  on  the  breath  of 
caprice  ;  it  must  be  superficial,  to  produce  its  imme- 
diate effect  on  the  gaping  crowd  ;  and  frivolous,  to 
admit  of  its  being  assumed  at  pleasure  by  the  num- 
ber of  those  who  affect  to  be  in  the  fashion,  to  be 
distinguished  from  the  rest  of  the  world.  It  is  not 
anything  in  itself,  nor  the  sign  of  anything,  but  the 
folly  and  vanity  of  those  who  rely  upon  it  as  their 
greatest  pride  and  ornament.  It  takes  the  firmest 
hold  of  weak,  flimsy,  and  narrow  minds,  of  those 
whose  emptiness  conceives  of  nothing  excellent  but 
what  is  thought  so  by  others.  That  which  is  good 
for  anything  is  the  better  for  being  widely  diffused. 
But  fashion  is  the  abortive  issue  of  vain  ostenta- 
tion and  exclusive  egotism  :  it  is  haughty,  trifling, 
affected,  servile,  despotic,  mean  and  ambitious, 
precise  and  fantastical,  all  in  a  breath — tied  to  no 
rule,  and  bound  to  conform  to  every  rule  of  the 
minute.'  For  a  large  variety  of  amusing  particulars 
concerning  fashions,  'stars  of  fashion,'  &c.,  dming 
the  past  two  centuries,  we  refer  to  Mrs  Stone's 
Chronicles  of  Fashion  (Lond.  2  vols.  1845).        W.  c. 

FAST  (a  word  common  to  the  Teutonic  tongues, 
which  Grimm  derives  from  a  root  signifying  primarily 
to  hold,  keep,  observe,  and  hence  to  restrain  one's 
self;  Lat.  jejunium,  Gr.  nesteta,  Hebr.  tsom)  is 
the  word  used  to  express  a  certain  self-imposed 
restraint  with  respect  to  the  nourishment  of  the 
body.  The  abstinence  enforced  may  be  either 
partial,  when  the  restriction  is  confined  to  certain 
articles  of  food ;  or  total,  when  all  sustenance  it 
dispensed  with  for  a  specified  time.  The  origin  of 
the  custom  seems  to  be  coeval  with  man's  lirat 


FAST. 


experience  of  the  salutary  influence  -which  absti- 
nence exercises  on  the  health,  and  with  his  more  or 
less  instinctive  consciousness  of  the  necessity  of 
retaining  the  body  in  due  suhjection  to  the  soul. 
By  degrees,  the  sclf-inortirication  whicli  it  implied 
raised  it  into  a  sacrifice  offered  to  the  Deity ;  it 
became  a  religioiis  observance,  was  surrounded 
with  rites  and  ceremonies,  and  finally  bore  the 
stamp  of  a  divine  law.  Climate,  the  habits  of  a 
pe  >ph,  and  their  creed,  gave  it  at  different  periods 
different  characteristics  ;  but  it  may  be  pronounced 
to  have  been  a  recognised  institution  with  all  the 
more  civilised  nations,  especially  those  of  Asia, 
throughout  s.11  historic  times.  We  find  it  in  high 
estimation  among  the  ancient  Parsees  of  Irania.  It 
formed  a  prominent  feature  in  the  ceremonies  of  the 
Mysteries  of  Mithras ;  and  found  its  way,  together 
with  these,  over  Armenia,  Cappadocia,  Pontus,  and 
Asia  Minor,  to  Palestine,  and  northward  to  the 
wilds  of  Scythia.  The  ancient  Chinese  and  Hindus, 
and  princii)ally  the  latter,  in  accordance  with  their 
primeval  view— which  they  held  in  common  vnth 
the  Parsees-  - of  heaven  and  hell,  salvation  and 
damnation,  oi  the  transmigration  of  the  soul,  and  of 
the  body  as  the  temporary  prison  of  a  fallen  spirit, 
carried  fasting  to  an  unnatural  excess.  Although 
the  Vedas  attach  little  importance  to  the  excrucia- 
tion of  the  body,  yet  the  Pavaka,  by  the  due  observ- 
ance of  ■which  the  Hindu  believer  is  purified  from 
all  his  sins,  requires  among  other  things  an  unin- 
terrupted fast  for  the  space  of  twelve  days.  Egy|)t 
seems  to  have  had  few  or  no  compulsory  general 
fasts  ;  but  it  is  established  beyond  doubt,  that  for 
the  initiation  into  the  mystei-ies  of  Isis  and  Osiris, 
temporary  abstinence  was  rigorously  enforced.  In 
Siam,  all  solemn  acts  are  preceded  by  a  period  of 
fasting,  the  seasons  of  the  new  and  full  moon  being 
especially  consecrated  to  this  rite.  In  Java,  where 
abstinence  from  the  flesh  of  oxen  is  part  of  the 
religion  of  all,  Buddhists  and  worshippers  of  Brahma 
alike,  the  manner  and  times  of  the  observance  vary 
according  to  the  religion  of  the  individual.  Again, 
in  Tibet,  the  Dalai-lamaites  and  Bogdo-lamaites  hold 
this  law  in  common.  That  Greece  observed  and 
gave  a  high  place  to  occasional  fast-days — such  as 
the  third  day  of  the  festival  of  the  Eleusinian 
mysteries,  and  that,  for  instance,  those  who  came 
to  consult  the  oracle  of  Trophonius,  had  to  abstain 
from  food  for  twenty-four  hours — is  well  known. 
It  need  hardly  be  added,  that  the  Romans  did  not 
omit  so  important  an  element  of  the  festivals  and 
ceremonies  which  they  adopted  from  their  neigh- 
bours, though  with  them  the  periods  of  fasting  were 
of  less  frequent  recurrence.    See  Thesmophoria. 

As  to  the  Semitic  races,  although  we  find  the 
people  of  Nineveh  xmdergoing  occasional  fasts, 
to  which  even  animals  were  made  to  conform,  yet 
the  Mosaic  law  set  apart  one  day  only  in  the 
whole  year  for  the  purpose  of  fasting.  The  10th 
day  of  the  seventh  month  (Tishri),  called  'the  Day 
of  Atonement'  (Yom  Kippur),  or,  as  the  holiest 
of  the  whole  year,  '  the  Sabbath  of  Sabbaths,' 
was  ordained  for  'the  chastening  of  the  JSfephesh,^ 
which  the  traditional  law  ex])lains  as  meaning 
the  strictest  and  most  rigorous  abstinence  from 
all  food  or  drink,  as  also  from  w^ashing,  anoint- 
ing, the  putting  on  of  sandals,  &c.,  from  the  sun- 
set of  the  ninth  to  the  rising  of  three  stars  on 
the  'Evening  of  the  tenth  day.  In  process  of 
time,  five  days  of  compulsory  fasting  were  added, 
in  connnemoration  of  certain  davs  of  humiliation 
and  national  misfortune,  viz.:  the  17th  of  the 
fourth  month  (Tainus),  as  the  anniversary  of  the 
taking  of  Jerusalem  both  by  Nebuchadnezzar  and 
Titus ;  the  3d  of  the  seventh  month  (Tishri),  Mhen 
Ishmael  had  killed  Gedaliah,  the  Jewish  governor 
173 


appointed  by  the  Babylonians  f.Jer.  xli.  2)  ;  tb« 
lOth  of  the  tenth  month  (Tebetli),  in  reinem- 
brance  of  the  siege  of  Nebuchadnezzar;  th(;  )3Lh 
of  the  twelfth  month  (Adai-),  the  fast  of  Esther, 
and  the  day  most  rigorously  kept,  next  to  tho 
great  Day  of  Atonement  : — the  l)th  of  tbe  fifth 
month  (Ab),  the  anniversary  of  the  destruction  of 
the  first  temple  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  of  tho 
second  by  Titus.  That  the  people  had  at  all  tim(;s 
been  prone  to  attach  great  importance  to  the  use  of 
this  penance  as  a  visible  sign  of  outward  contrition, 
is  clear  from  that  ordinance  of  the  Mosaic  law  which 
puts  into  the  hands  of  the  head  of  a  family  the 
power  of  confining  self-imposed  vows  of  abstinence 
within  due  limits.  The  community  loved  to  ex]iress 
their  penitence  for  sin,  or  their  grief  on  the  death,  of 
great  men,  by  occasional  fastings.  They  were  also 
considered  an  efficient  means  of  averting  the  di\Tne 
wrath,  of  insuring  victory  over  an  enemy,  or  of 
bringing  down  rain  from  heaven.  Besides,  fasting 
was  not  unfrequently  resorted  to  by  those  who 
wished  to  free  their  minds  from  all  hindrances  to 
meditation,  as  in  the  forty  days  of  Moses  (Exod. 
xxxiv.  28),  or  the  fast  of  Daniel  (Daniel,  x.  2  and 
3).  This  fast  of  Contemplation,  as  it  might  be  called, 
seems  also  to  have  been  the  mc»del  imitated  by 
the  Cal)balists,  some  of  whom  are  known  to  have 
fasted  from  Sabbath  to  Sabbath.  In  later  times, 
when,  after  the  destruction  of  the  temple,  sacriricea 
had  ceased,  fasting,  as  causing  a  decrease  in  the 
flesh  and  fat  of  the  individual,  was  considered 
to  be  in  some  degree  a  substitute  for  the  animal 
which  had  formerly  been  offered  up  by  the  priest. 
From  a  means  to  repentance  and  iiiward  purifica- 
tion, which  purj)ose  alone  it  had  been  originally 
intended  to  serve,  it  became  an  end  and  a  vii-tue  in 
itself  ;  an  abuse,  indeed,  neither  imknown  nor  unde- 
nounced even  in  the  days  of  the  pro])hets.  If  we 
add  to  this  the  endless  chain  of  dire  calamities  and 
ever-renewed  persecutions  of  w'hich  the  Jews  have 
been  the  victims  for  many  a  long  century,  the  ever- 
increasing  number  of  their  fasts  commemorative  of 
deaths  and  tribulations  will  be  far  from  suri^rising.' 
Most  of  these,  however,  which  were  suj^eradded 
from  time  to  time,  soon  fell  into  oblivion.  Over 
and  above  the  six  already  mentioned,  but  few  entire 
days  are  now  observed  by  the  orthodox,  and  these 
merely  of  a  local  character.  Fasting,  with  the 
Jews,  always  implies  entire  abstinence,  aiid  last-s, 
except  on  the  Day  of  Atonement  and  the  9th  of  Ab 
— when  the  sunset  of  the  previous  evening  is  the 
sign  for  its  commencement — from  the  break  of  the 
day  to  the  appearance  of  the  first  three  stars. 
Sackcloth  and  ashes,  the  garb  of  the  penitent  in 
ancient  times,  are  no  longer  worn ;  but  as  the 
special  holiness  of  the  Day  of  Atonement  is  cele- 
brated by  various  solemnities  (see  Festivals),  so 
the  deepest  mourning  over  the  loss  of  temple  and 
country  is  ^'isibly  expressed  by  many  ceremonies 
in  the  Jewish  synagogues  and  homes  on  the  0th  or 
Ab,  On  that  day  also,  to  add  the  individual  to  the 
national  sorrow,  the  cemeteries  are  generally  ^asited 
(see  Jewish  Rites).  Of  several  half-days  of  fasting 
that  have  survived,  we  will  mention  the  first  two 
Mondays  and  the  first  Thursday  in  the  second 
month  (lyar)  and  in  the  eighth  month  (Ciieshwan), 
(sheni  vachamishi  vesheni),  in  celebration  of  the  two 
meeting-points  of  summer  and  winter ;  as  also,  several 
days  before  the  New-year  or  Day  of  Judgment,  and 
before  the  Day  of  Atonement.  The  indi-.-idual 
is  bound  to  celebrate  by  fasting  the  anniversar}-  of 
the  death  of  his  parents,  his  ov\ii  wedding-day  imtii 
the  performance  of  the  marriage-ceremony,  and 
the  birth  of  his  first-bom  male  child  (up  to  iti» 
thirteenth  year — w^hen  the  duty  falls  upon  the  latter 
himself),  on  the  day  preceding  the  Pesach  (PaahaJ 


FAST 


.  in  commemoration  of  the  sparing  of  the  Israelite 
first-born  in  Egypt.  For  the  several  hours'  fasts 
on  the  two  New  Years'  Days,  and  on  the  first  six 
days  of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  we  refer  likewise 
to  Festivals,  and  we  will  only  add  in  conclusion, 
that  the  Sabbath  causes  the  postponement  of  any 
fast — that  of  the  Day  of  Atonement  only  excepted 
— which  may  happen  to  be  coincident  with  it ;  and 
that  ciiildren — girls  up  to  their  twelfth,  boya  to 
their  thii-teenth  year — pregnant  women,  and  the 
aick,  are  exempted  from  the  observance. 

In  the  time  of  Christ,  fasting,  as  we  have  seen, 
was  held  in  high  estimation.  The  Mondays  and 
Thursdays — the  market-days,  on  which  the  judges 
oat,  and  the  law  was  read  in  the  synagogues —were 
especially  set  aside  for  this  purpose  by  the  Pharisees. 
The  Essenes  fasted  even  more  frequently.  The 
Sadducees  alone  took  exception  to  this  rite,  and 
were  therefore  considered  ungodly.  Christ  himself 
neither  approved  nor  disapproved  of  the  c\istom, 
but,  as  in  all  matters  of  ceremony,  allowed  his 
disci[)les,  Jews  and  Gentiles,  to  act  according  or 
contrary  to  their  old  habits.  He  is  distinctly  against 
such  a  commandment,  and  even  excuses  those  who 
did  not  fast.  His  own  abstinence  from  food  for 
forty  days  was  like  that  of  Moses,  entirely  an 
individual  act;  and  against  a  volimtary  and  limited 
imitation  of  such  abstinence,  to  which  the  spirit 
raiglit  move  a  man,  no  objection  whatever  was  to  be 
taken.*  During  the  first  centuries  of  Christianity, 
these  voluntary  fasts  were  frequent  enough  ;  the  new 
converts  adhering  in  most  cases  to  their  old  rite, 
and  only  taking  care  to  change  the  days,  which  had 
been  days  of  abstinence  in  their  former  religions, 
for  others.  Besides,  they  were  considered  a  befitting 
preparation  for  holy  acts  and  feasts,  for  ordin- 
ation and  baptism.  The  time  mostly  celebrated 
annually  in  common  by  all  were  the  forty  hours 
fiom  Friday  afternoon  to  Sunday  morning,  during 
which  time  Christ  lay  in  the  sepulchi'e.  But  not 
before  the  end  of  the  second  century  was  anything 
like  an  ordinance  promulgated  with  respect  to  fast- 
ing in  the  nev;  religion.  It  was  first  Montanus  who, 
as  the  Paraclete,  introduced,  among  other  laws  of 
excessive  severity  and  rigour,  fasting,  as  an  inhi- 
bition upon  the  faithful.  The  Wednesdays  and 
Fridays,  as  the  days  when  Christ  was  taken  prisoner 
and  crucified,  were  made  days  of  strictest  abstin- 
jnce  from  all  food ;  while  on  the  other  days  of  the 
week,  dried,  uncooked  victuals  only  were  allowed. 
Asceticism  and  monachism  had  their  share  in 
the  gradual  development  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
necessity  of  mortifying  the  flesh,  and  as  a  natural 
ijonsequence,  in  the  growth  and  diffusion  of  the 
custom  of  fasting.  Yet,  in  the  first  six  centuries, 
the  difference  in  the  various  Christian  communities 

*  Roman  Catholics,  however,  maintain  that  aU  the 
words  of  our  Lord,  which  to  Protestants  appear  to 
discountenance  the  obligation  of  fasting,  are  directed 
sxclusively  against  th"  ostentatious  and  self-reliant  fasts 
of  the  Pharisees.  They  evt  i  understand  the  language 
which  he  used  in  condemning  the  practice  of  the  Pharisee 
fasters,  as  containing  a  direct  exhortation  to  his  own 
discipies — not  that  they  should  absta,in  from  fasting — 
<ihat  they  should  fast  with  suitable  dispositions.  They 
hold,  moreover,  that  in  exempting  his  disciples  from 
fasting,  he  had  regard  only  to  the  actual  time  of  his 
own  presence  among  them.  It  was  incongruous,  he 
said,  that  the  children  of  the  marriage  should  fast  as 
long  as  the  bridegroom  was  with  them ;  but,  he  added, 
'the  days  will  come  when  the  bridegroom  shall  be 
taken  away  from  them ;  and  then  they  shall  fast  in 
those  days  (Mark  iii.  20;  Matt.  ix.  15).  Hence  they 
infer,  that  from  the  time  of  our  Lord's  ascension  the 
practice  of  fasting  became  obUgatory  on  his  disciples, 
the  temporary  cause  of  the  exemption  hitherto  existing 
having  ceased. 
2o8 


was  not  greater  in  any  other  doctrine  or  ceremony 
than  in  this.  Bishops  and  councils,  however,  gradu- 
ally fixed  the  times  and  seasons  for  the  whole  of 
Christendom,  The  40  hours  had  gradually  become 
40  days,  called  the  Quadragesima  ;  and  the  Council 
of  Orleans,  in  541,  made  it  binding  upon  every 
Christian  not  to  eat  any  meat  during  this  time, 
save  only  on  the  Sundays.*  The  eighth  council  at 
Toledo,  in  the  7th  c,  declared  those  who  ate  meat 
during  Lent,  sinners  unworthy  to  partake  in  the 
resurrection.  From  the  8tli  c.  to  the  11th,  when  a 
gradual  reaction  set  in,  the  laws  of  fasting  and  th« 
punishments  awarded  to  the  transgressors  became 
stricter  and  stricter ;  interdict  and  excommiini« 
cation  were  among  the  penalties.  By  degrees  they 
had  become  so  numerous  and  different  in  Kind,  that 
they  were  divided  inta— 1.  Jejunium  generale  (a 
fast  binding  for  all)  ;  2.  Consuetudinarium  (local 
fast,  &c.)  ;  3.  Penitentiale  (atonement  for  all  trans- 
gressions) ;  4.  Votivum  (consequent  upon  a  vow) ; 
5.  Volunt.are  (for  the  better  carrying  out  of  an 
undertaking).  These,  again,  were  kept  either  aa 
\.  Jejunium  naturale  (an  entire  abstinence  from 
food  or  drink,  especially  in  preparation  for  the 
reception  of  the  Eucharist) ;  2.  Abstinentia  (certain 
food  only  being  allowed,  but  several  times  a  day); 

3.  Jejunium  cum  abstinentia  (the  same  food,  but 
which    must  be  taken  once  a  day  only)  ;  and 

4.  Jejunium  sine  abstinentia  (all  kinds  of  food,  but 
only  once  a  day).  The  food  prohibited  on  i)artial 
fast-days  included,  during  certain  periods,  not  only 
the  flesh  of  quadrui^eds,  fowl,  and  fish,  but  also 
the  '  lacticinia ' — i.  e.,  all  that  comes  from  quad- 
ruped and  bird,  as  butter,  eggs,  milk,  &c.  We 
cannot  here  enter  into  detail ;  the  discrepancies  and 
differences  of  opinion  with  respect  to  the  times  and 
modes  of  fasting,  or  to  the  food  prohibited,  being, 
even  among  successive  popes  and  contemporary 
bislioi)S  and  elders  of  the  church,  so  numerous, 
and  involved  in  such  obscurities,  that  the  church 
historians  themselves  shrink  from  enumerating 
them.  Suffice  it  to  say,  that  they  gradually 
developed  in  the  Roman  Church  into — L  Weekly 
fasts,  of  which  Friday,  as  the  day  of  the  crucifixion, 
seems  to  have  ]>een  early  and  generally  observed. 
To  this  was  added  the  Wednesday,  as  the  day  on 
wbich  the  death  of  Christ  was  resolved  upon. 
These  two  days  received  the  name  of  Stations;  a 
term  borrowed  from  the  stationes  of  the  Eoman 
soldiers,  in  accordance  with  the  views  held  by  the 
ascetics  and  monks,  that  they  were  the  warri^i'S  of 
Christ.  At  a  synod  in  Spain  in  the  beginning  of 
the  4th  c,  the  Saturday  was  superadded,  but  this 
innovation  met  with  great  oi)position,  especially 
in  the  East,  where  Jewish  notions  regarding  the 
Sabbath  had  obtained  a  more  permanent  recogni- 
tion. 2.  Vigils,  originally  night-services  observed 
by  the  first  Christians  on  the  eve  of  Sundays  and 
festivals,  partly  in  imitation  of  the  Jewish  custom 
of  celebrating  the  entrance  of  the  sabbatii  and  of 
festivals  on  the  evening  of  the  previous  day,  and 

*  It  is  only  just  to  add,  however,  that  here  agail 
Catholics  dissent  strongly  from  the  Protestant  view  ol 
this  history.  They  admit  that  the  followers  of  Monta- 
nus did  introduce  greater  rigour  and  frequency  into 
their  fasts ;  but  they  deny  that  before  the  time  of 
Montanus  the  practice  of  fasting  was  not  fully  recog- 
nised in  the  Christian  Church,  and  regarded  as  strictly 
obligatory.  The  very  earliest  allusions  to  the  forty 
days'  fast  of  Lent  (tessaracoste)  regard  it  as  an  estab- 
lished and  recognised  institution.  The  veiy  first 
fathers  who  allude  to  it,  speak  of  it  as  '  handed  down 
and  observed  by  the  church ; '  and  so  far  is  its  origin 
from  being  ascribable  to  the  influence  of  Montauism, 
that,  on  the  contrary,  the  earliest  relaxations  which  tho 
church  admitted  were  a  reaction  against  the  cxcessivf 
and  intolerable  rigour  of  that  fanatical  sect. 


FAST. 


paHly  m  fear  of  the  danger  to  which  a  service  in 
tlie  daytime  woidd  have  exposed  the  early  converts. 
Although  these  night-services  became  unnecessary 
in  the  c<jurse  of  time,  they  were  still  continued  up 
to  the  4th  c,  when,  owing  to  the  abuses  to  which 
they  led,  they  were  abohshed,  or  rather  transformed 
mto  fast-days,  kept  on  the  eve  of  great  festivals 
in  honour  of  Christ,  Mary,  Saints  and  Apostles. 

3.  The  great  or  40  days'  fast  (Quadragesimal  fast), 
the  most  important  and  most  rigorously  enforced  of 
all.  The  40  hours  of  fast,  in  commemoration  of  the 
40  hours  during  which  Christ's  body  lay  in  the 
tomb,  gradually  exjianded  to  36,  or  rather  40  days, 
as  mentioned  before,  in  pious  allusion  to  the  40  days 
of  Moses,  Elijah,  Christ,  the  40  years'  sojourn  in 
the  desert,  or  the  40  camps — all  considered  typical, 
tmd  the  fasting  became  severer  the  nearer  Passion- 
week  itself  approached,  in  which  many  other  signs 
of  mourning  and  contrition  were  generally  exhibited. 

4.  The  Quatember  fasts  on  the  Wednesdays,  Fridays, 
and  Saturdays  in  one  week  of  each  season,  in 
imitation  of  the  four  Jewish  fasts  in  the  4th,  5th, 
7th,  and  10th  month. — There  were  still  many  other 
fasts,  such  as  those  of  ordination,  &c.,  but  as  they 
had  only  a  temporary  existence,  we  cannot  treat  of 
them  here.  Nor  can  we  enter  into  the  various 
dispensations  granted  by  the  church,  or  the  special 
pastoral  letters  generally  issued  before  Quadra- 
gesima, nor  into  the  variations  in  the  observance 
of  fasts  and  fasting  in  our  own  days  ;  we  can  only 
add,  that  they  have  in  a  great  measure  lost  their 
former  severity,  and  that  only  partial  abstinence 
is  the  rule  in  all  cases.  The  opniion  held  by  the 
church  in  former  days,  that  fasting  is  meritorious, 
and  conducive  to  the  salvation  of  the  soid,  has 
undergone  no  change. 

With  respect  to  the  Greek  Church,  we  have  to 
observe  that  fasting  was  and  is  kept  with  much 
greater  severity,  the  non-observance  of  it  being  the 
feast  venial  of  sins.  The  days  here  extend  over 
almost  tlu-ee-quarters  of  the  year.  The  principal 
ones  are  the  Wednesday  and  Friday — with  a  few 
exceptions — throughout  the  whole  year  ;  the  great 
Easter  fast,  lasting  48  davs ;  that  of  Christmas, 
39  days ;  that  in  honour  of  the  Virgin,  14  days ;  and 
that  of  the  Apostles,  beginning  on  Monday  after 
Trinity,  and  extending  to  the  29th  of  June.  Besides 
those  smaller  fasts  of  preparation,  which  corre- 
spond to  the  vigils  of  the  Roman  Church,  they  have 
many  more  occasional  fasts,  which  we,  however, 
must  omit  here. 

The  Church  of  England  considers  fasting  a 
praiseworthy,  but  by  no  means  obligatory  custom. 
According  to  Hook's  Church  Dictionary,  the  dis- 
tinction between  the  Protestant  and  the  Roman 
Catholic  view  of  fasting  consists  in  this,  that  the 
Roman  Catholic  regards  the  use  of  fasting  as  an 
imperative  means  of  grace,  the  Protestant  only  as  a 
useful  exercise  preparatory  for  the  means  of  grace. 
In  proof  how  much  the  Church  of  England  has  left 
the  question  of  fasting  to  the  conscience  and  discre- 
tion of  her  members,  it  may  be  observed  that  she 
has  neither  delined  the  mode  or  degree  of  fasting, 
nor  anywhere  given  a  j)ositive  command  to  fast. 
It  has  been  remarked  that  no  bishop  of  the  Church 
of  England  has  in  an  episcopal  charge  laid  down 
fasting  as  a  positive  requirement.  The  days  named 
by  the  English  Church  as  seasons  of  fasting  or 
abstinence,  are  the  forty  days  of  Lent  (q.  v.),  includ- 
ing Ash  Wednesday  and  Good  Friday ;  the  Ember 
(q.  v,)  days ;  the  three  Rogation  (q.  v.)  days,  and  all 
the  Frida3's  in  tlie  year  (except  Christmas  Day),  and 
the  eves  or  vigils  of  certain  festivals. 

The  Scottish  almanacs  contain  lists  of  ihe,  fa>it-days 
oi  all  the  principal  places  in  Scotland.  These  are 
generally  one  in  each  year,  appointed  by  the  kirk- 


session  of  the  Esta])lished  Church  of  the  parish,  orbv 
concurrence  of  kirk-sessions  in  towns,  but  g(!neraliy 
by  use  and  wont  fixed  as  to  their  date.  The  fast- 
day  is  always  some  day  of  the  week  preceding 
the  Communion  Sunday,  or  Svuiday  set  a]>art  in 
the  Presbyterian  churches  for  the  disi)ensation  of 
the  Lord's  Supper,  It  is  usually  appointed  as  a  day 
for  '  fasting,  humiliation,  and  prayer.'  Rusiness  i.s 
generally  suspend(jd,  shops  shut  as  on  a  Sunday, 
and  churches  opened  for  public  worship.  By  an 
act  of  parliament  passed  not  many  years  since, 
factories  are  j)rohibited  from  carrying  on  work  on 
the  parish  fast-day,  but  in  consequence  of  the  seek 
siastical  divisions  in  Scotlarul,  it  has  become  more- 
common  than  it  once  was  for  agricultural  and  other 
kinds  of  work  to  be  carried  on.  The  fast-day  of  ft, 
large  town  is  always  a  busy  day  on  the  railways, 
many  taking  advantage  of  it  for  excursions,  and 
making  it  a  day  of  amusement ;  too  many,  also,  a 
day  of  dissipation  and  revelry.  That  it  is  right  to 
keep  up  the  annual  fast-day  in  these  circumstances 
is  doubted  by  many  who  themselves  conform  to  its 
religious  observance,  although  of  that  observance 
fasting  does  not  now  generally  form  a  part.  Many, 
however,  doubt  if  it  ever  was  a  good  institution  ; 
alleging  that  it  is  inconsistent  with  the  frequent 
celebration  of  the  Lord's  Sui)per,  which  the}'  deem 
right  and  desirable,  and  to  which  there  is  a  growing 
tendency.  The  Scottish  P^eformers,  as  ap])ears  from 
the  First  Book  of  Discipline,  contemplated  the 
ordinary  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  at  least 
once  a  month ;  and  the  fast-daj'-,  as  it  now  exists  m 
Scotland,  derives  its  origin  from  a  later  period. 

A  few  words  remain  to  be  said  of  the  Moham- 
medan fasts.  Islam,  as  an  offspring  of  Judaism 
and  Christianity,  adopted  this  custom  with  many 
others  from  both  churches.  During  the  whole 
month  of  Ramadan,  in  which  the  Prophet  brought 
the  Koran  from  heaven,  eating,  drinking,  smoking, 
smelling  perfumes,  &c,,  are  strictly  forbidden  from 
daybreak  till  sunset ;  for  the  intervening  nights, 
however,  all  these  restrictions  are  removed.  There 
are,  besides,  many  voluntary  fasts,  expiatory  like 
the  10th  of  Moharram,  corresponding  to  the  Jewish 
Day  of  Atonement,  or  for  the  averting  of  the 
Di\ane  wrath  in  sudden  calamities,  or  as  an  indem- 
nification for  the  omission  of  certain  pious  acts,  as 
the  pilgrimage,  &c.  See  Jews,  Mohammedanism, 
Monks. 

Besides  the  Bible,  Schulchan  Aruch,  Koran,  and 
the  Fathers  generally,  we  refer  to  the  following 
authorities  on  this  subject :  Bingham,  Orig.  vol.  ix. 
1,  21  ;  Fabricius,  Bihllogr.  Antiquaria,  c.  11  ;  J.  A. 
Muratori,  De  Quatuor  2'emporum  Jejimiis,  &c. ; 
J.  Dalloeua,  De  Jejuniis  et  Quadragesima,  1654 ; 
Schbne's  Oeschichtsforschungen.,  Th.  1  ;  Briefe  iibeT 
d.  Gottesd.  d.  viorgenl.  Kirche,  \  on  Dr  K  v.  Muralt 
(Leip.  1838);  Siegel,  Altchristl.  Alierthilmer ;  Dassel, 
De  Jure  Tempor.  Quadrages.,  1G17 ;  Walch,  D« 
Jejunio  Quadragesimcdi  (Jenae,  1727);  Homborg, 
De  Quadragesima  Veterum  Christianorum  et  ritibus 
in  ea  quondam  usitatis  diss,  qua  etiam  de  recentio:* 
Papist.,  Grcec,  Buss.,  Syrian.,  Georgian.,  Maronit. 
Jacohit.,  <SiC.  disseritur  (Helmst.  1677). 

Fasting,  or  deprivation  of  food,  is,  in  a  physifv- 
logical  sense,  a  state  inconsistent  with  the  continu- 
ance of  life  in  most  warm-blooded  animals  more 
than  a  few  weeks.  If  water  is  not  supplied,  th*' 
period  is  much  shorter,  being  in  man  commonly  not 
more  than  a  very  few  days,  or  at  most  a  week. 
Persons  have  been  found  in  coal-])its  and  mines,  and 
in  other  situations  where  access  to  food  has  been 
impossible,  but  where  water  could  be  had,  as  long 
as  six  weeks  after  their  seclusion,  stUl  alive,  thougli 
of  course  in  a  very  feeble  condition;  and  a  very 
small  daily  allowance  of  food  has  supported  life 


FAST  AND  LOOSK 


longer  than  this,  as  in  some  cases  of  shipwreck,  and 
other  accidents  at  sea.  Cases  of  alleged  fasting, 
longer  than  this,  as  in  tlic  notorious  woman  of 
Tutbury,  are  certainly  in  most  instances  due  to 
imposture.  The  insane  would  appear,  in  some 
instances,  to  bear  fasting  better  than  the  healthy. 
Hybornating  animals  (see  Hybernation)  are  cap- 
able »/f  sustaining  the  want  of  food  for  an  apparently 
indellnite  period  of  weeks  during  the  winter  sleep  ; 
but  no  warm-blooded  animal  can  cndnre  fasting  in 
atiy  thing  like  the  same  degree  as  the  reptiles,  in 
Kaany  of  which,  indeed,  the  natural  state  of  exist- 
fjEce  is  one  of  long  intervals  between  the  times  of 
takir.g  food,  and  in  which  the  vital  change  of 
texture  is  remarkably  slow.  Thus,  the  remark- 
able amphibious  animal,  the  Proteus  anfjuitm.%  has 
been  known  to  live  for  years  -uathout  food,  and  the 
game  is  true  of  salamanders,  tortoises,  and  even 
goldtishes.  In  fasting,  the  body  gi-adually  emaci- 
ates, most  of  the  secretions  are  arrested,  or  greatly 
diminished,  and  at  last  the  animal  heat  falls  rapidly 
in  all  parts  of  the  body.  In  attempting  the  recovery 
of  persons  reduced  by  fasting,  food  must  be  given 
in  very  small  quantities  at  a  time,  and  of  the  most 
nourisliing  and  digestible  qxiality ;  stimiilants  should 
be  either  withheld,  or  very  cautioiisly  administered. 
The  most  important  point,  next  to  the  regulation 
of  the  food,  and  sometimes  even  before  food  is  given 
at  all,  is  the  removal  of  the  torpor  and  chill  of  the 
body  by  gradually  ai)plied  heat,  with  friction  cl 
the  limbs.  See  Tiedemann's  Physiologfj ;  Burdach's 
riiysiokxjy  ;  Chossat,  Ilecherclies  siir  V Inanition. 

FAST  AND  LOOSE  is  the  name  of  a  cheating 
game,  also  called  Pricking  at  the  Belt,  which  ajipears 
to  have  been  much  ])ractised  by  the  gijisies  in  the 
time  of  Shakspeare.  The  following  is  a  description  : 
'A  leathern  belt  is  made  up  into  a  number  of  intricate 
folds,  and  placed  edgewise  upon  a  table.  One  of 
tlie  folds  is  made  to  resemble  the  middle  of  a 
girdle,  so  that  whoever  shall  thrust  a  skewer  into 
it  would  thhik  he  held  it  fast  to  the  table;  whereas, 
when  he  has  so  done,  the  person  "with  whom  he 
plays  may  take  hold  of  both  ends,  and  draw  it 
away.'  The  game  is  still  practised  at  fairs,  races, 
and  similar  meetings  under  the  name  of  Prick 
tlie  Garter ;  the  original  phrase,  '  Fast  and  Loose,' 
however,  is  now  used  to  designate  the  conduct  of 
those  numerous  slippery  characters  whose  code  of 
ethics  does  not  forbid  them  to  say  one  thing  and  do 
another. 

FASTEN'S  EVE.    See  Shrovetide. 

FA'STI.  Fas,  in  Latin,  signifies  divine  law,  and 
fastus,  anj.'thing  in  accordance  with  divine  law. 
Hence  the  dies  fasti,  or  lawful  days,  among  the 
Romans,  were  the  days  on  which  it  was  lawful  to 
transact  business  before  the  praetor.  But  the  sacred 
books,  in  which  the  lawfid  days  of  the  year  were 
marked,  were  themselves  denominated  fasti,  and 
the  term  was  employed,  in  an  extended  sense,  to 
aignif}  various  kinds  of  registers,  which  have  been 
often  confo  mded  with  each  other.  These  registers 
Call  into  two  principal  divisions — the  Fasti  Sacri  or 
E  alendares,  and  the  Fasti  Annales  or  Historici. 

1.  Fasti  Kalen  dares,  or  calendars  of  the  year, 
were  ke[)t  exclusively  by  the  priests  for  about  four 
ttenturies  and  a  half  after  the  building  of  the  city. 
The  a])])earance  of  the  new  moon  was  proclaimed  by 
a  pontifex,  who  at  the  same  time  annoimced  to  the 
people  the  time  which  would  intervene  between  the 
Kalends  (q.  v.)  and  Nones  (q.  v.).  See  also  Calendar. 
On  the  Nones,  the  country-people  assembled  for  the 
])ur])ose  of  learning  from  the  Kex  Sacromm  the  various 
festivals  of  the  month,  and  the  days  on  which  they 
would  fall.  In  the  same  way,  those  who  intended 
to  go  to  law,  learned  on  what  days  it  would  be 

2G0 


-FATE,  FATALISM. 


right  {fas)  to  do  so.  The  mystery  with  which  thia 
lore  was  surrounded,  for  purjioses  of  i)ower  and  jtrofit, 
by  the  favoured  class,  was  dispelled  by  Cn.  li'Liviua, 
the  scribe  of  A])})ius  Caicus,  who  surreptitiously 
cojued  from  the  pontifical  book  the  requisite  infor- 
niation,  and  j)ublished  it  to  the  people  in  the  forum. 
From  this,  time-tables  (fasti)  became  common,  very 
much  resembling  modern  almanacs.  They  contained 
the  days  and  mcmths  of  the  year,  the  Nones,  Ides, 
lawful  and  unlawful  days,  &c.  ;  astronomical  obser- 
vati(ms  on  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  fixed  stars, 
the  commencement  of  the  seasons,  brief  noticea 
concerning  the  introduction  and  signification  of 
certain  rites,  the  dedication  of  temples,  the  dalig  of 
victories,  disasters,  and  the  like.  In  later  dimes, 
the  exploits  and  honours  of  tlie  imperial  family 
were  duly  entered  in  the  calendar.  The  celebrated 
Fast'  of  Ovid  is  a  sort  of  poetical  companion  to 
the  calendar,  as  published  by  Julius  CaBsar,  who 
remodelled  the  Roman  year. 

Several  very  curious  specimens  of  fasti  on  stono 
and  marble  have  been  discovered,  of  which  one  of 
the  most  remai  kable  is  the  Kalendarium  Pnenesti- 
num,  which  stood  in  the  lower  part  of  the  forum  of 
Prajncste,  described  by  Suetonius.  Of  these  ancient 
fasti,  eleven  are  enumerated  by  Foggini,  a  learned 
Italian  antiquary.  One  of  the  most  interesting  is  a 
rm\al  almanac,  known  as  the  Kalendarium  Rusticum 
Farnesianum.  It  is  cut  on  four  sides  of  a  cube,  each 
side  of  which  is  di\nded  into  three  columns,  each 
column  embracing  a  month.  The  various  agricul- 
tural operations  to  be  performed  in  each  month  are 
given  on  this  curious  relic,  in  addition  to  the  ordi- 
nary information  contained  in  these  calendars.  In 
the  month  of  May,  for  examj)le,  the  rustic  is  told 
that  his  corn  must  be  weeded,  his  sheep  shorn,  hia 
wool  washed,  &c. 

2.  Fasti  Annales  or  Historici,  were  chronicles, 
containing  the  names  of  the  consuls  and  other 
magistrates  of  the  year,  and  an  enumeration  of  the 
most  remarkable  events  in  the  history  of  Rome, 
noted  down  opposite  the  days  on  which  they 
occurred.  From  its  application  to  these  chronicles, 
the  word  fasti  came  to  be  used  by  the  poets  aa 
synonymous  with  historical  records.  A  very  inter- 
esting specimen  of  fasti  of  this  class  was  discovered 
in  the  forum  at  Rome  in  1547.  The  fragments  into 
which  it  had  been  broken  were  collected  and  arranged 
by  the  Cardinal  Alexander  Farnese,  and  placed  in 
the  Capitol,  where  they  may  stdl  be  seen,  together 
wdth  some  additional  portions  which  were  discovered 
in  1S17  and  1S18.  See  Smith's  Dictionary  of  Greek 
and  Roman  Antiquities,  voce  'Fasti,'  and  also  the 
article  on  'Calendar'  (Roman)  in  the  same  work. 

FAT  LUTE  is  the  term  applied  to  a  composi- 
tion of  Linseed  oil  and  pipeclay.    See  Lute. 

FA'TA  MOEGA'NA  is  a  striking  kind  of  mirage 
observed  in  the  Strait  of  Messina.  A  spectator  on 
the  shore  sees  images  of  men,  houses,  ships,  Ac, 
sometimes  in  the  water,  sometimes  in  the  air,  the 
same  object  having  frequently  two  images,  one 
inverted.    See  Mirage. 

FATE,  FATALISM,  express  a  conception  which 
has  more  or  less  prevailed  in  all  religions.  The 
words  are  derived  from  the  Latin  Fa  turn,  which 
has  primarily  a  passive  signification,  denoting  some- 
thing uttered — a  decree  or  ordinance.  The  Greeks 
expressed  the  same  thought  by  Eimarmme.  Motra^ 
again,  was  the  active  personification  of  the  idea — 
the  goddess  Fate  or  Destiny.  It  represented  in  the 
Greek  mythology  the  final  monotheistic  element 
— the  vague  unity  binding  together  and  dominating 
over  the  crowd  of  Olynq^ian  deities.  In  Honier^ 
Ifolra  has  a  double  meaning,  appearing  somecune? 
as  superior  to  the  will  of  Zeus,  and  sometunes  a* 


FATES— FATHERS 


OF  THE  CHURCH. 


/iiferior  to  tliia  wD.  With  the  course  of  Greciau 
thought,  the  c«uicei)tion  of  Fate  ))<3came  more  spirit- 
uahsecl.  In  ^schylus  it  is  aii  inexorable  Destiny; 
in  Soj)hocles  and  Phito,  it  is  more  of  a  free  and 
orderiniT  Will.  In  the  later  forms  of  Greco-Roman 
speculation,  again,  it  undergoes  various  moditica- 
tions.  With  the  Epicureans,  it  seems  identical  with 
Chance  ( Tuche) ;  with  the  Stoics,  it  is  the  very 
o]<posite  of  this.    In  the  one  case,  the  Absolute  is 

0  mere  blind  fatality;  in  the  otlier  case,  it  is  an 

1  ►minent  necessity  of  reason,  governing  with  iron 
ft*vay  the  apparently  accidental  phenomena  of  life. 

In  the  two  great  religions  of  modern  times,  Chris- 
tiani^;y  and  Mohammedanism,  the  same  conception  is 
four.d  in  various  forms.  In  the  latter,  the  Highest 
is  cfiiceived  as  an  arbitrary  and  inexorable  law, 
swdr.owing  up  every  lower  law  of  activity,  and 

Eer  emitting  no  scope  to  freedom  of  development  in 
uman  nature.  In  Christianity  aiid  the  modern 
speculation  which  it  has  coloured,  it  shews  itself 
less  broadly  in  the  well-known  doctrines  of  Predes- 
tination and  of  Philosophical  Necessity.  In  the 
Predestination  theory  of  Augustine,  Cahan,  and 
many  others,  the  old  fatalistic  doctrine  is  repudi- 
ated ;  the  recognition  of  a  free  determining  element 
in  the  divine  vVill,  separates  their  idea  of  it  alto- 
^•ether  from  that  of  a  mere  blind  Destiny  ;  but  the 
influence  of  the  mode  of  thought  out  of  which  the 
old  idea  sprung,  appears  in  the  manner  in  which  the 
divine  decrees  are  sometimes  spokcv  of  as  inexor- 
ably overbearing  human  freedom.  In  the  doctrine 
of  philosophical  necessity  promulgated  by  Leibnitz, 
Edwards,  and  in  a  somewhat  difi'erent  form  by 
Modern  Positivism,  the  same  idea  emerges  under 
the  name  of  inevitable  sequence — of  an  invariable 
connection  linking  together  all  phenomena  material 
and  mental.  An  immutable  law  is  declared  to 
pervade  and  harmonise  all  existence.  This  is  a 
much  higher  conception,  but  it  is  not  difficidt  to 
Bee  how  easily  it  may  pass  into  the  old  pagan 
doctrine  of  Fate. 

The  doctrines  of  Predestination  and  of  Philo- 
sophical Necessity  have  been  supposed  mutually 
to  supjiort  each  other ;  in  reality,  however,  they  are 
very  different  doctrines.  The  one  starts  from  the 
dominating  conception  of  the  divine  Will  as  over- 
ruling all  things,  and  approaches  fatalism  by  ascribing 
in  certain  cases  such  an  absorbing  energy  to  this 
Will  as  to  leave  no  power  of  free  action  to  any  other 
will.  It  conceives  of  everything  as  swallowed  up 
in  the  single  omnipotence  of  the  Divine.  It  is 
Pantheistic.  The  other  starts  from  the  dominating 
conception  of  law  in  nature,  and  approaches  fatalism 
by  investing  this  law  with  an  immutable  and  self- 
Bubsistent  character.  It  looks  at  all  existence  as 
a  mere  un  deviating  routine  of  development,  and 
tends  in  exact  opposition  to  the  other  doctrine,  to 
shut  out  the  Divine  behind  the  screen  of  the  Natural. 
It  is  Atheistic.  It  is,  of  course,  merely  the  ten- 
dency of  the  respective  speculations  that  is  thus 
characterised. 

The  conception  of  Fate  springs  irresistibly  from 
man's  consciousness  of  the  transcending  greatness  of 
•rbat  is  outside  and  above  his  own  feeble  existence 
•—of  the  objective  Power  that  encloses  and  moulds 
his  own  subjective  activity.  As  such,  it  will  never 
wholly  disappear  from  human  speculation,  however 
endlessly  modified  it  may  be. 

FATES.    See  Parc^. 

FATHER.  See  Parent  ai^d  Child,  Family, 
j  Patria  Potestab. 

j  FATHER^LASHER  {Cottxts  huhalis),  a  very 
common  fish  on  the  British  coasts,  the  most  spiny 
of  the  British  species  of  Cottns  (q.  v.),  and  partic- 
ularly armed  with  strong  spines  on  the  back  of  the 


head — which  is  large — and  on  the  gill-covers.  When 
touched,  it  distends  its  gill-covers,  sets  out  its 
spines,  and  assumes  a  very  threatening  a])pearance. 


Father-Lasher  {Coitus  huhalis). 


Its  general  aspect  is  indeed  forbidding,  and  even 
the  little  boys  who  angle  from  the  rocks  and  pier- 
heads are  usually  averse  to  touch  it,  although  it 
is  said  to  be  wholesome  and  agreeable  food.  It  is 
of  a  brown  colour  above,  whitish  beneath,  curiously 
marbled  and  spotted,  the  fins  marbled  black  and 
white.  In  Scotland,  it  bears  the  name  of  Lucky 
Proacli. 

FATHERS  OF  THE  CHURCH  [Faires 
Ecclesiastici),  certain  early  writers  of  the  Christian 
Church.  The  term  Abba,  Gmecised  a/s/Sa?  (Father), 
in  iise  among  the  Talmudists  as  a  synonym  of 
Rabbi  (my  master),  and  constituting,  according  to 
Maimonides,  the  third  or  lowest  honorary  title  of 
a  Doctor  of  the  Divine  Law,  was  in  the  first 
centui'ies  of  Christianity  applied  indiscriminately  to 
all  theological  writers  who  were  distinguished  1)y 
their  learning,  genius,  or  piety.  Gradually,  how- 
ever, the  word  Father,  or,  more  fully,  Father  of 
the  Church,  was  confined  to  those  teachers  whose 
writings  were  considered  pr'^-cminently  orthodox, 
and  who  might  be  looked  upon  as  the  prorjenitors,  aa 
it  were,  of  certain  dogmas,  upon  the  development 
of  which  they  had  exercised  a  more  or  less  direct 
influence ;  while  those  writers  who  diverged  into  the 
fields  of  heretical  opinion  were  called  simply  Scrip- 
tores  Ecclesiastici  (Church-writers).  Out  of  the  num- 
ber of  the  former,  some  few  master-minds,  to  wiiom 
the  church  owed  a  still  greater  tribute,  were  again 
singled  out  as  Doctores  Ecclesice  (Doctors  of  the 
Church),  which  title  of  pre-eminence,  however,  is 
bestowed  on  many  writers  who  lived  subsequently 
to  the  time  of  the  Fathers,  in  consideration  of  their 
'  purer  and  more  excellent  docti'ine '  (Benedict,  xiv., 
Bulla,  Milit.  Eccles.). 

The  temporal  limits  within  which  the  Fathers  are 
to  be  confined,  as  weU  as  their  proper  share  of 
authority  in  matters  of  faith,  have  long  been 
points  of  grave  discussion.  While  some  include  tli© 
Fathers  of  the  1st  c,  generally  called  the  Apos- 
tolical Fathers,  on  account  of  their  being  the  coti- 
temporaries  or  disciples  of  Christ  and  the  apostles, 
they  are  excluded  by  others  ;  again,  by  some,  the 
7th  c.  is  made  the  closing  period,  while  others  carry 
the  list  down  to  the  r2th,  or  even  the  13th  century. 

With  respect  to  the  authority  of  the  Fathers,  some, 
like  Fredegis,  held  their  words  to  be  as  sacred  as 
those  of  the  prophets  and  sacred  writers ;  whde 
others,  like  Alphonso  di  Castro,  Melehus  Cano,  and 
Cardinal  Cajetan,  ridicided  the  notion  that  Sym- 
machus  should  be  made  equal  to  St  Paid,  or  Didj  mus 
to  St  John  the  Evangelist.  Others,  again,  like 
Pope  Gregory  and  the  majority  of  ^^^:iters,  took  the 
middle  course  of  regarding  them  not  as  infallible^ 
much  less  as  prophets  and  apostles,  but  held,  tha> 


FATHEES  OF 


THE  CHURCH. 


when  in  matters  of  faith  the  most  perfect  and  uu- 
s^ver\'ing  unanimity  reigns  among  tliem,  then,  and 
then  only,  the  Holy  Ghost  is  to  be  considered  to  speak 
tin-ough  them.  See  Rule  of  Faith  ;  Infallibility. 

Immense  as  is  the  range  and  variety  of  their 
writings,  ascetic,  apologetic,  polemical,  exegetical, 
moral,  historical,  or  dogmatical,  so  also  is  the 
diversity  of  their  individual  value.  Nothing  can  be 
further  from  historical  justice  than  either  the  whole- 
Bale  laudation  or  condemnation  of  these  writers  as 
A  body  ;  but  whatever  stand  we  may  take,  we  can- 
not but  p.ee  that  they  are  of  the  utmost  moment. 
Stretching  as  they  do  over  the  entire  extent  of 
tbiit  peiiod  which  forms  the  turning-point  lietween 
the  antique  and  modern  world,  they  faithfully  and 
often  unconsciously  portray  that  awful  change, 
of  V/-bich  tliey  were  in  no  small  degree  the  instm- 
ments — the  gradual  wane  of  old  faiths,  and  of  an 
old  civilisation,  and  the  slow  and  struggling  rise 
of  that  which  was  to  replace  thtnu  ;  while  they 
preserve  the  most  minute  and  trifling  details  with 
the  same  accuracy  as  the  most  momentous  event,  as 
each  happened  to  bear  upon  their  subject.  The 
philosopher,  the  historian,  the  antiquary,  each  and 
all  will  find  their  writings,  as  a  whole,  to  contain  an 
inexhaustible  fund  of  instruction.  Of  no  loss  interest, 
perhaps,  are  their  works  in  relation  to  the  writers 
individually.  These,  issuing  from  all  pai-ts  of  the 
then  known  world,  from  all  ranks,  all  creeds,  could 
not  but  impress  the  stamj^  of  their  nationality  and 
callings,  besides  that  of  their  youth  or  age,  vigour 
or  feebleness,  upon  their  writing — Jew,  Greek, 
lloman,  African,  Si)aniard — orator,  i«oet,  lawyer, 
statesman,  priest,  they  all  bring  with  them  that 
which  was  their  own  before  they  embraced  the  new 
faith  :  their  dialectic  power,  their  fantastic  poetry, 
their  graceful  s])eecii,  their  stern  austerity.  What 
Greek  sul)tlety  did  theoretically  for  the  development 
of  dogma  in  Origen  and  Athanasius,  that  Ivoman 
thoroughness  did  practically  for  the  erection  of  the 
hierarchy  in  Leo  the  Great  and  Gregory  III. ;  while 
from  Egypt  came  asceticism  and  monachism,  the 
ascendency  of  spiritualism  over  sensualism  is  owing 
to  those  who  came  from  the  northern  coast  of  Africa. 
How  far  Platouism,  and  especially  neo-Platonism, 
Aristotle  and  Greek  philosophy  generally,  are  found 
devehiped  in  these  works,  and  infused  into  the  new 
faith  by  the  former  teachers  of  the  academies  them- 
selves, who  mostly  retained  their  old  philosophical 
garb,  upon  this,  as  well  as  ixpou  many  other  points, 
we  mvist  forbear  to  enlarge. 

We  will  now  proceed  to  take  a  brief  survey  of 
these  writers — referring  for  fm-ther  information  to 
the  special  articles  on  the  more  eminent  among  them. 
According  to  the  now  generally  adopted  method  of 
dating  them  from  the  1st  to  the  7th  c,  they  are 
divided  into  tM^o  distinct  periods,  the  first  of  which 
goes  down  to  the  Council  of  Nicsea,  325  a.  d.  Of 
those  who  head  the  list,  the  Apostolic  Fathers — so 
called  from  their  supj.-osed  connection  with  Christ 
and  tha  apostles— very  little  need  be  said,  as  their 
writings,  which  are  mostly  of  an  ascetical  character, 
kave  co'j..^.  down  to  us  in  a  corrupt  and  mutilated 
gtatC;  a  ad  as  the  writers  themselves  owe  their  chief 
celebiity  to  the  times  in  which  they  happened  to 
livr-..  We  have  here  Barnabas,  the  son  of  Teostes, 
anc'.  the  companion  of  St  Paul  (Acts  ix.  27 ;  xii.  25) ; 
Clement,  supposed  to  have  been  the  third  Bishop  of 
B.ome ;  and  the  Clement  mentioned  by  St  Paul 
(Philii)p.  iv.  3)  ;  Hennas,  identical  perhaps  with  the 
Hermas  of  St  Paiil's  Epistle  to  the  Romans  (xvi.  14) ; 
Ignatius,  Bishop  of  Antioch  ;  Polycarp,  Bishop  of 
Smyrna ;  Papias ;  Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  &c. 
Next  follow  the  Apologists,  or  those  Fathers  whose 
chief  aim  was  the  defence  of  the  new  faith  against 
the  Roman  state,  and  non  -Christian  authors,  and  who 


were  the  first  to  make  their  scientific  culture,  and 
more  especially  the  Platonic  philosophy,  subservient 
to  Christianity,  for  this  purpose :  Quadratus  the 
'Evangelist,'  a  travelling  missionary;  Aristides,  an 
Athenian  philosopher ;  Justin  Martyr,  the  well-known 
author  of  the  two  Apologies  and  the  Dialogue  with 
Try|)ho  (or  rather  Tarphon) ;  Tatian  of  Assyria,  who, 
having  examined  the  different  forms  of  worship,  aa 
well  as  the  systems  of  philosophy  prevalent  in  his 
time,  felt  satisfied  with  none  but  Christianity,  and 
became  a  disciple  of  Justin,  and  a  vindicator  of  the 
philosophy  of  the  barbarians  ;  Athenagoras,  who 
addressed  his  Apology  to  the  Emperor  Marcus  Aure- 
lius,  and  his  son  Commodus,  and  wrote  a  Defence 
of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Resurrection  ;  Theophilti.s, 
Bishop  of  Antioch  ;  Miltiades,  &c.  Next  come  the 
Church  Fathers  of  Asia  Minor,  men  of  more  prac- 
tical and  peaceful  tendencies  :  Hegesippus,  perhapa 
an  Ebionite  ;  Irenoeiis,  Bishop  of  Lyon  and  Vienno, 
who  wrote  a  refutation  of  the  Gnostic  system ; 
Hippolytus,  his  disciple,  of  unknown  birthplace  and 
renowned  name.  In  the  North  African  Church,  the 
development  of  which  is  of  the  utmost  moment, 
inasmuch  as  its  language,  dogmas,  and  laws  were 
adojited  by  the  greater  part  of  the  Christian  world 
in  the  West,  we  find  Tertullian  of  Carthage,  the 
rhetorician  and  advocate,  a  man  of  profound  mind  and 
vast  influence ;  Cyprian,  the  author  of  the  Testimonies 
in  favour  of  Chi'ist ;  Commodian,  the  writer  of  the 
Rules  of  Living;  and  Arnobius,  a  rhetorician  of 
Sicca,  in  Numidia.  The  first  comparatively  barren, 
though  otherwise  highly  important  church,  is  the 
Roman.  The  pre-eminently  practical  Roman  mind 
looked  more  to  the  outward  growth  and  wellbeing 
of  the  church  than  to  literary  excellence,  and  thus 
Ave  have  only  two  distinguished  authors-  to  be 
noticed  here — the  Presbyter  Caius,  known  as  an 
op])onent  of  the  Montanists ;  and  the  Presbyter 
Novatian,  who  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  Jewish  laws 
respecting  food.  The  church  which,  more  than  any 
other,  endeavoured  to  combine  speculation  with 
faith,  and  which  gradually  became,  through  its  high 
degree  of  cidture  and  erudition,  the  very  centre 
of  Christianity,  is  the  Alexandrian.  And  here  we 
have  Pantsenus  ;  Clement  the  Alexandrine,  chiefly 
known  by  his  Stromata  or  Elements  of  the  Gnosis  ; 
Origen,  called  Adamantinus,  the  eminent  Neo- 
Platonist,  born  185  A.  D.,  in  Alexandria,  one  of  the 
most  influential  writers  of  the  whole  Christian 
Church ;  Herculas,  with  his  disciple  Dionysius,  » 
liberal  and  moderate  man  ;  Gregory,  the  workei 
of  miracles  ;  Pamphilus  and  Julius  Afric-anus,  the 
first  Christian  chorographer. 

In  the  second  period,  which  dates  from  the 
Nicsean  Council,  and  comes  down  to  Gregory  II., 
604  A.  D.,  a  period  altogether  superior,  on  accoimt 
of  the  great  number  of  intellectual  and  erudite 
men  who  devoted  their  lives  and  labours  to  the 
church,  we  have  to  distinguish  the  Greek  from  the 
Latin  Fathers.  A  mong  the  former,  we  have  again 
to  draw  a  line  between  those  of  the  Alexandi'ine 
school — like  Eiisebius  Pamphili,  the  Herodotus  oi 
the  church  ;  Athanasius,  the  father  of .  orthodoxy ; 
Basil  the  Great,  Doctor  Ecclesiae,  and  his  brother 
Gregory  of  Nyssa ;  Gregory  of  Nazianzen,  called 
the  Theologian,  byway  of  eminence  ;  Didjonus  ;  and 
Cyrillus,  some  time  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  the 
chief  prosecutor  of  Nestorius — and  those  of  the 
Antiochian  school,  where  we  find  Ephraem  Syrus, 
'  the  prophet  of  the  Syrians  ; '  Cyril  of  Jerusalem, 
the  converted  Arian ;  John  Chrysostom,  of  brilliant 
elo({uence  ;  Diodorus,  Bishop  of  Tarsus,  one  of  the 
chief  founders  of  the  Antiochian  school ;  and  Theo- 
doretus,  Bishop  of  Cyrus.  Besides  these  we  find 
of  Greek  Fathers  who  belonged  to  neither  school 
— Epii)hanius,  the  violent  adversary   of  Origeu 


FATHOM— FATS. 


Socrates  Scholasticus,  the  continuator  of  Eiiselnns's 
Ecclesiastical  History  ;  Philostorgins,  au  Ariau  Church 
historian  ;  Logomenus ;  Evagrius ;  Macarius  the 
Elder,  chiefly  known  through  his  miracles  and 
combats  with  the  devil ;  Procopius  of  Gaza,  the 
rhetorician  ;  and  Joannes  Scholasticus,  famous 
through  his  collections  of  canonical  law.  Among 
the  j^atins,  we  have  to  enumerate  first  the  African 
lathers :  Fabius  Victorinus ;  Augustine  of  Tagaste 
in  Numidia,  the  greatest  dogmatist  of  the  Western 
Church;  Pope  Gelasius  I.  (492 — 496),  who  finally 
fixed  the  canon  of  the  Bible  for  the  Roman  Church  ; 
Bad  the  Bishops  Fulgentius,  Junilius,  and  Facundus. 
Of  8[)aniar(ls,  we  have  Prudentius  the  poet ;  Paulus 
Orosius,  whom  Augustine  used  as  his  messenger 
to  the  East  in  his  controversies  with  Pelagius.  Of 
Gaids  there  are  Hilarius  Pictaviensis,  Bishop  of 
Poitiere  about  350,  the  Athanasius  of  the  West ; 
Paulinus  of  Nola ;  Sidpitius  Severus,  friend  of 
Martin  of  Tours ;  Vincent  of  Lerins,  once  a  soldier, 
who  wrote  imder  the  name  of  Peregrin  us  ;  Sidonins 
Apolliuaris,  Bishop  of  Clermont ;  Gennadius,  the 
author  of  an  ecclesiastical  hterary  history  ;  Enno- 
dius  from  Aries,  who  exerted  himself  to  unite  the 
Eastern  and  the  Western  Church ;  and  Gregorins 
Turonensis,  who  WTote  Historia  Ecdesiastica  Fran- 
corum,  the  basis  of  Prankish  history.  From  other 
countries  we  have  Sedulius,  an  Irishman ;  Joannes 
Cassianus,  a  Scythian  ;  and  Mercator,  of  unlcnown 
birthplace.  We  conclude  with  the  Italians  them- 
selves :  Lactantius  Firmianus,  the  Christian  Cicero  ; 
Jidius  Firnisius  Maternus  of  Sicily ;  Ambrose, 
Metropolite  of  Milan,  who  raised  his  see  to  such  a 
power  that  it  dared  to  resist  Rome  herself  up  to 
the  12th  century;  Eufinus  of  Aquileia,  defender  of 
Origen  against  the  charge  of  heresy  brought  against 
him  in  the  West ;  Eusebius  Hieronymus,  undoubt- 
edly the  most  learned  of  all  the  Latin  Fathers, 
and  who  mastered  also  the  Greek  and  Hebrew 
languages,  collected  in  Palestine  the  most  valuable 
notes  for  the  elucidation  of  the  Scriptures,  and  also 
corrected  the  Latin  edition  of  the  Vulgate  ;  Pope 
Leo  I.  ;  Boethius  ;  Aurelius  Cassiodorus,  whose 
Historia  Tripa7tiia,  in  twelve  books,  served  for  a 
thousand  years  as  a  compendium  of  ecclesiastical 
history ;  the  two  poets,  Arator  and  Venantius 
Foi-tunatus ;  and  Pope  Gregory  L  (509 — 604),  is 
regarded  by  Protestants  as  having  first  given  the 
Western  Church  its  peculiarly  Roman  Catholic  stamj? 
by  developing  the  idea  of  the  Eucharist  into  a 
Theophany,  and  making  it  the  centre  of  the  wor- 
ship. His  works,  especially  his  letters,  are  invalualile 
for  the  study  of  his  own  times,  especially  for  the 
history  of  the  conversion  of  the  West. 

On  the  MSS.  of  the  Fathers,  we  refer  to  Petri 
Larnheccii  Commmtarii  de  Bihliotheca  Ccesarea 
Viiidobonensi.  The  editions  of  the  works  of  the 
Fathers  are  of  two  classes — those  of  the  individual 
Fathers,  whose  writings  are  the  most  voluminous 
and  of  highest  dogmatical  im.portance,  and  the  general 
Patristic  collections,  which  comprise  the  writings  of 
the  less  volimiinous  or  minor  Fathers.  In  the  former 
©I31SS,  the  first  place,  beyond  all  dispute,  belongs  to 
the  celebrated  Benedictine  editions,  by  the  members 
of  the  great  Maurist  congregation  of  the  French 
Benedictine  order  (see  Benedictines),  of  which 
community  the  task  of  editing  the  Fathers  came 
to  1)6  considered  as  the  recognise'^  work.  Tlie 
Benedictine  editions  of  the  greater  Fathers,  with 
the  exception  of  two  or  three,  still  maintain  the 
very  highest  place  in  the  estimation  of  the  learned. 
Of  the  collections  of  the  works  of  the  Fathers 
(which,  for  the  most  part,  consist  of  writers  not 
published  separately),  the  most  important  are  those 
of  La  Bigne,  Galland,  Rossler,  Walch,  Zinnnerman, 
*nd  Migne,  the  last  still  in  progress.    Cardinal  Mai 


j  has  also  made  considerable  additions  to  the  Patrisiio 
collections  in  his  Bibliotheca  Patruvi,  Spicihiuium 
Bonianum,  and  Classici  Auctores,  as  have  the  Bene- 
dictines of  Solesme  in  the  Spicilegium  Solesmense. 

FATHOM,  a  measure  of  six  feet,  pnncipally 
used  in  reference  to  marine  soundings,  and  in  micea. 
Originally,  a  fathom  was  taken  as  the  width  to 
which  the  two  outstretched  arms  extended. 

FA'TIM\DES,  or  FA'TIMITES,  the  name  cf  an 
Arabian  dynasty  which  reigned  for  nearly  two 
centuries  over  Egypt.  Its  founder  was  MahacL** 
Obaidallah,  who  liourislied  from  910  to  934  a.d. 
He  asserted  that  he  was  descended  from  Fatima^ 
the  daughter  of  the  Prophet,  and  Ismael,  a  grand- 
son of  Ali.  He  thus  won  over  to  his  side  all  the 
adherents  of  the  widely  diffused  Ismaelites,  an 
extravagantly  schismatic  sect  of  Mohammedans  in 
Africa,  and  overthrew  the  race  of  the  Aghlabides, 
who  ruled  at  Tunis.  His  successor  extended  hia 
j  dominion  as  far  as  Fez,  and  his  descendant,  Moezz,  in 
the  year  970,  conquered  Egyi)t,  expelled  the  reigning 
family,  removed  his  court  thither,  founded  Cairo, 
assumed  the  title  of  Calif,  thus  proclaiming  himself 
the  lawful  successor  of  the  Prophet,  and  subdued 
Syria  and  Palestine.  After  the  death  of  Moezz, 
the  F.  maintained  their  high  position  for  aomQ 
time ;  but  gradually  degenerated,  and  resigned  all 
the  cares  of  government  into  the  hands  of  their 
viziers.  Their  power  now  rapidly  declined,  and 
their  vast  territories  melted  away.  In  religious 
matters,  the  F.,  because  they  were  raised  to  power 
by  the  followers  of  Ali,  took  upon  themselves  the 
protection  of  the  Shiite  sect,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Ismaelitic  doctrines.  Between  the 
years  1002—1021,  the  Calif  Hakem-Biamr- Allah 
persecuted  the  orthodox  Mohammedans  or  Sunnites, 
as  well  as  Jews  and  Christians.  He  founded  ai> 
academy  at  Cairo,  and  endowed  it  largely,  but  con- 
nected with  it  a  secret  society  for  the  diffusion  of 
Ismaelitic  opinions.  In  the  first  stages,  the  no^aco 
was  shewn  the  untenable  nature  of  the  precepts 
of  the  Koran  ;  in  the  sixth,  the  advanced  student 
found  that  religious  legislation  must  give  way  to 
the  claims  of  philosophy  ;  in  the  seventh,  a  mystic 
pantheism  was  proved  to  be  the  true  philosophy  ; 
and  finally,  in  the  ninth,  the  initiated  discovered 
that  he  was  not  required  to  believe  anything,  and 
might  do  whatever  he  pleased.  His  system,  with 
considerable  modifications,  found  a  home  among 
that  peculiar  people  the  Druses  (q.  v.).  After  the 
death  of  Adhid,  the  last  of  the  F.,  in  1171,  the 
founder  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Ayubides,  Sal^h- 
ed-din  (Saladin),  took  possession  of  Egypt. 

FATS  are  those  oily  substances  which  are  solid 
at  ordinary  temperature.  They  do  not  differ  essen- 
tially from  the  liqiud  oils.    See  Oils. 

FATS,  Animal.  There  is  considerable  difference 
of  opinion  amongst  chemists  regarding  the  exact 
nature  of  the  fats  occurring  in  the  animal  body. 
According  to  most  chemists,  they  are  composed  of 
an  admixture  of  three  separate  fats — margarine, 
stearin e,  and  oieine,  of  which  the  two  former  are 
solid,  and  the  latter  fluid,  at  ordinary  temper  atvirea. 
Heintz,  who  has  carefully  studied  these  bodies, 
declares,  however,  that  margarine  is  not  a  simple  fat, 
but  a  mixture  of  stearine  and  palmitine  (a  solid  fat 
occurring  in  palm-oil) ;  and  he  considers  himian  fat 
to  be  a  mixture  of  stearine,  palmitine,  and  oieine. 
For  the  chemical  characters  of  these  substances,  we 
refer  to  the  articles  Margarine,  Oleine,  Palmitine, 
and  Stearine,  and  we  proceed  at  once  to  the  con* 
sideration  of  the  physiological  relations  of  the  fat. 

Fat,  usually  enclosed  in  vesicles,  is  found  very 
extensively  in  the  animal  kingdom.  It  is  abundant 
in  many  larvae,  and  occurs  more  scantily  in  most 

2G3 


FATTY  ACIDS-FATUITY. 


iusects.  It  is  met  Avith  iu  the  mollusca,  and  is 
conipiiratively  abundant  in  all  the  divisions  of  the 
vertebrata.  In  most  lisli,  it  occurs  throughout  the 
body,  but  is  especially  abundant  in  the  liver,  where 
it  is  found  iu  the  hepatic  cells,  and  not  in  its  own 
characteristic  vesicles.  In  reptiles,  it  exists  chiefly 
in  the  abdomen.  In  birds,  we  especially  find  it 
about  the  peritoneum,  and  under  the  skin.  In 
mammals,  it  is  very  generally  diffused,  but  the 
greatest  quantity  is  under  the  skin,  in  the  omentum, 
and  round  the  kidneys. 

The  quantity  of  fat  in  the  human  body  varies 
considerably^  at  different  periods  of  life.  In  the 
earlier  stages  of  ftetal  existence,  we  find  scarcely 
any  fat ;  in  new-born  children,  there  is  usually  a 
considerable  quantity  of  this  substance  dei)osited 
under  the  skin,  and  the  organism  continues  rich  in 
fat  till  the  age  of  puberty,  when  a  marked  diminu- 
tion of  the  sul)stance  occurs.  It  again  increases 
about  middle  life,  and  then  occasionally  occurs  in 
great  excess;  ioi  example,  three  or  four  inches  of 
fat  are  not  unfrequently  found  under  the  skin  of 
the  al)domen  in  cori)ulent  persons. 

Extraordinary  deposits  of  fat  in  some  particular 
part  of  the  body  are  observed  in.  certain  races  of 
men  and  animals.  One  of  the  most  remarkable 
»'xamj)les  of  this  peculiarity  is  afforded  by  the 
Hottentot  women,  in  whom  the  fat  accumulates  in 
the  gluteal  region  to  such  an  extent  as  to  give  a 
most  remarkable  jirominence  to  that  part  of  the 
body ;  and  a  somewhat  analogous  deposit  exists  in 
a  variety  of  sheep  {Ovis  sleatajyi/ga,  the  fat-buttocked 
Bheep),  in  which  a  large  mass  of  fat,  sometimes 
attaining  a  weight  of  forty  pounds,  is  developed  on 
the  buttocks,  and  takes  the  place  of  a  tail. 

The  origin  of  the  fat  in  the  animal  body  must 
tmdoubtedly  be  chiefly  referred  to  the  fat  taken 
with  the  food.  It  has,  however,  been  proved  by  the 
most  careful  investigations  on  various  animals  sub- 
mitted to  the  process  of  fattening,  on  bees  fed  with 
cane-sugar,  or  with  honey  containing  scarcely  any 
wax,  and  on  the  larvre  of  the  insects  inhabiting 
galls,  that  the  animal,  like  the  vegetable  organism, 
has  the  power  of  forming  or  prodnchig  fat,  far  more 
fat  being  found,  iu  these  experiments,  in  the  body 
of  the  animal,  than  could  be  referred  to  the  fat 
taken  in  the  food.  The  excess  must  therefore  have 
been  formed  either  from  the  non-nitrogenous  portion 
of  the  food,  such  as  starch  and  sugar ;  or  from  the 
nitrogenous  matters,  such  as  fibrin,  albumen,  &c. 
In  the  case  of  the  bees,  it  was  distinctly  proved 
that  the  fat  was  formed  from  sugar;  while  in  the 
case  of  the  larvjB  of  the  gall-insect,  it  was  similarly 
ehewn  that  it  was  produced  from  the  starch  which 
forms  the  interior  of  the  gall  in  which  the  animal 
lives ;  and  as  we  have  no  corresponding  evidence  of 
the  convertibility  of  ffbrin,  albumen,  &c.,  into  fat 
(although  such  a  conversion  is  by  no  means  improb- 
able), we  must  for  the  present  regard  the  non- 
nitrogenous  foods  as  the  chief  fat-formers  next  to 
fat  itself. 

The  physiological  value  of  the  fats  is  due  partly 
to  their  physical,  and  partly  to  their  chemical 
characters. 

The  U53S  of  the  fat  deposited  beneath  the  skin 
are,  first,  to  protect  the  body  from  external  shocks 
by  a  uniform  diffusion  of  pressure  through  the 
whole  adipose  tissue;  and,  second,  to  keep  up  the 
heat  of  the  body,  by  materially  checking,  through 
its  very  slight  conducting  power,  the  loss  of  free 
heat  by  radiation.  This  use  of  the  fat  is  most 
clearly  seen  in  some  of  the  lower  animals  (the 
seal,  whale,  &c.),  which  are  ex^^osed  to  very  low 
lemperatures. 

Another  physical  use  of  fat  is  to  promote  the 
mol)ilit/  of  various  organs.     Hence,  in  cases  of 

204- 


extreme  emaciation,  it  always  remaiUb  in  the  parta 
where  motion  is  most  essential,  as  the  heart,  and 

the  orbit  of  the  eye. 

Another  of  its  important  physical  properties  is 
that  of  rendering  other  bodies  supple,  and  diminish- 
ing their  brittleness.  In  this  point  of  view,  the  use 
of  fat  is  very  conspicuous  in  the  bones. 

Tlie  chief  chemical  use  of  the  fat  is  its  power  of 
exciting  and  supporting  the  animal  heat.  In  tJis 
oxidation  of  the  fats  in  the  animal  organism, 
whether  the  process  be  gradual  or  rapid,  i  large 
amount  of  heat  must  necessarily  be  liberated;  and 
that  the^'^  are  oxidised,  and  for  the  most  pari 
reduced  to  carbonic  acid  and  water,  is  evident, 
because  they  neither  appear  in  any  quantity  in  the 
excretions,  nor,  as  a  general  rule,  accumulate  beyond 
a  cei-tain  i)oint  in  the  organism.  An  accumulatioa 
of  fat  thus  serves  as  a  reservoir  of  combustible 
matter  in  time  of  need.  This  is  especially  evident 
in  tlie  case  of  hybernating  mammala.  as,  for  example, 
hedgehogs,  in  which  an  enornwus  quantity  is 
deposited  just  before  the  hybernating  period :  during 
this  period,  it  gradually  disappears,  its  carbon  bein;^ 
slowly  consumed  in  the  respiratory  process,  and 
keeping  up  the  animal  heat. 

Fat  is,  moreover,  one  of  the  most  active  agents 
in  the  metamorphosis  of  animal  matter.  Lehmann 
ascertained  that  a  certain,  although  a  small  quan- 
tity of  fat  was  indispensable  to  the  complete  gastrio 
(Ugestion  of  niti'ogenous  food,  a  fact  which  is  con- 
firmed by  the  observation  that  in  experiments  on 
artificial  digestion,  the  solution  of  substances  used 
as  food  is  considerably  accelerated  by  the  presence 
of  a  little  fat.  The  occurrence  of  fat  in  the  milk  and 
in  the  egg,  as  also  in  all  highly  cellular  organs  (as, 
for  example,  the  liver),  is  a  clear  indication  that  this 
substance  i)lays  an  important  i)art  in  the  process  of 
cell-formation;  and  no  animal  cell  or  cell-yielding 
l^lasma  has  ever  been  observed  in  which  fat  is  not 
a  constituent. 

An  undue  accumulation  or  increased  growth  of 
the  fatty  tissue  gives  rise  to  the  condition  known 
as  Obesity  (q.  v.). 

FATTY  ACIDS.    See  Oils  and  Fats. 

FATU'ITY,  or  DEME'NTIA,  consists  in  the 
impaii  uient  or  extinction  of  certain  mental  powers,  or 
of  all.  Esquirol  has  quaintly  but  descriptively  said 
that  the  idiot  and  imbecile  are  poor  who  have  never 
been  rich,  but  that  the  fatuous  or  dements  are  rioh 
who  have  been  made  poor.  This  impoverishment 
is  sometimes  so  extreme,  and  the  sufferer  is  so  little 
influenced  by  consciousness  as  to  lose  a  knowdedge 
of  his  own  existence ;  and  so  little  by  imjjressiona 
through  the  external  senses,  and  by  the  instincts  of 
the  sensory  ganglia,  as  to  be  equally  ignorant  of 
the  existence  of  others.  Life  is  vegetative  merely. 
This  dei)rivation  may  be  partial  or  complete.  It 
may  appear  as  a  weakening  of  sensibility.  This 
is  not  the  tolerance  of  powerfid  or  painful  im- 
pressions, or  indifference  to  such,  springing  from 
abstraction  or  engrossment  of  the  attention,  but 
positive  extinction  of  perception  ;  or  it  may  presenft 
the  more  common  form  of  enfeeblement  of  intelli- 
gence, of  memory  ;  of  the  will,  where  the  patient  ia 
apathetic,  j\assive,  plastic.  The  disease  may  involve 
the  affections  and  the  moral  sense,  and  abrogate  the 
power  of  decision,  and  all  spontaneity  of  action  and 
thought.  Incoherence  in  ideas  and  words  may  be 
made  to  constitute  another  form,  although  genei-all}' 
regarded  as  a  chai*acteristic ;  whether  it  amounts 
merely  to  forgetfulness,  or  to  confusion  or  irration- 
ality, to  inconsecutiveness  and  inability  to  express 
instincts  and  wishes.  Delusions  and  hallucinations 
may  co-exist  with  these  conditions,  but,  like  the 
real  impressions  received  by  this  class  of  tlie  insane 


FAUCHER— FAUPJEL. 


they  are  feeble,  fugacious,  and  uniufluential.  Under 
all  these  aspects,  the  essential  element  is  privation 
of  power  ;  and  this  is  met  with  as  a  specific  mental 
disease,  arising  from  obvious  causes,  unassociated 
with  general  alienation,  acute  in  its  nature,  and 
rapid  in  its  progress.  It  is  mobt  frequently  the  dis- 
ease of  youth,  of  the  period  of  puberty,  contempor- 
aneous with  growth,  with  debilitating  and  exhaustive 
processes,  and  depending,  in  all  probability,  as  in 
the  other  forms,  upon  insufficient  nutrition  of  the 
braiu.  At  this  age,  the  injiu-y  is  reparable,  and  what 
may  be  designated  juvenile  dementia,  has  the  rare 
distinction  of  being  curable.  More  frequently,  it 
is  the  sequel  of  mania,  melancholia,  and  severe 
affections  of  the  nervous  system.  The  deterioration 
here  arises  from  actual  changes  in  the  nervous 
structure,  which  render  healthy  nutrition  impos- 
eible  ;  so  that,  although  mitigation,  and  sometimes 
to  a  marvellous  extent,  is  within  reach  of  treatment, 
recovery  is  believed  to  be  impracticable.  Again,  it 
is  an  affection  of  old  age ;  and  although  senile 
dementia  may  seem  but  an  exaggerated  state  of 
dotage,  it  is  accompanied  by  such  marked  physical 
changes,  as  to  leave  no  doubt  that  it  originates  in 
circumstances  differing  widely  from  that  gradual 
degeneration  of  the  tissues  which  is  evidenced  by 
the  '  second  childishness  and  mere  oblivion.'  Lastly, 
tliis  state  may  follow  fever,  when  it  is  transitory, 
and  generally  of  brief  duration. 

Fatuity  is  one  of  the  few  morbid  mental  conditions 
recognised  in  our  legal  code,  even  by  name,  as 
relieving  from  the  consequences  of  criminal  acts,  and 
as  disqualifyhig  for  the  administration  and  disposal 
of  property.  Esquirol,  Des  Malad.  MenL,  torn.  ii. 
p.  219. 

FAUCHER,  Leon,  a  French  publicist  and  states- 
man, was  born  at  Limoges,  8tla  September  1803; 
studied  at  first  philology  and  archaeology,  in  which 
branches  of  knowledge  he  acquired  some  reputation ; 
but  about  the  period  of  the  July  revolution  (1830), 
betook  himself,  with  genuine  enthusiasm,  to  jour- 
nalism and  political  economy.  He  became  succes- 
Bively  editor  of  the  Temps,  the  Constitutionnel,  and 
the  Courrier  Frangais.  These  functions  occupied 
him  from  1830  to  1842,  during  which  period  he 
published  many  articles  on  questions  of  political 
economy.  In  1843,  he  began  to  write  for  the  Revue 
des  Deux  Mondes  a  series  of  articles  on  the  indus- 
trial condition  of  England.  The  whole  were  collected 
into  two  volumes,  which  appeared  in  1845,  under 
the  title  of  Etudes  sur  V Angleterre,  and  constitute 
the  most  weighty  and  substantial  of  aU  his  produc- 
tions, though  Englishmen  reckon  the  author  greatly 
in  error  in  many  points.  At  the  general  elections 
of  1846,  he  was  elected  for  the  manufacturing  city 
of  Hheims,  where  his  opinions  on  tariffs  were  highly 
appreciated.  In  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  he  voted 
with  the  dynastic  opposition.  A  ready  but  by  no 
means  brilliant  speaker,  he  came  forward  as  one  of 
the  leading  advocates  of  free-trade,  and  published 
in  the  Siecle,  and  in  the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  a 
Qimaber  of  essays  on  national  economy,  character- 
ised by  their  vigorous  and  spirited  argumentation. 
After  the  revolution  of  1848,  he  sat  both  in  the 
Constituent  and  Legislative  Assemblies  for  the 
department  of  Maine.  When  Louis  Napoleon  was 
chosen  president,  F.  became  first  Minister  of  Public 
Works,  and  subsequently  Minister  of  the  Interior ; 
but  when  the  President  proposed  to  appeal  to  univei- 
sal  suffrage,  F.  gave  in  his  resignation,  and,  after  the 
coup  d'etat,  he  withdrew  from  political  life.  F.  died 
14th  December,  1854.  A  large  number  of  his  most 
valuiible  contributions  to  the  science  of  ])olitics  will  be 
found  in  the  collection  of  the  Economistes  et  Puhlir 
cistes  Conternporaim,  and  in  the  Bibliotheque  des  ^ci- 
tnces  Morales  et  rolitiqucs. 


FAULT,  the  term  in  Mining  and  Geology  for  any 
interruption  in  the  continuity  of  the  strata  coui)led 
with  the  displacement  of  the  beds  on  either  side  ol 
the  line  of  fracture.    See  Dislocation. 

FAUN.  Faunus  was  a  mythical  personage,  an 
ancient  king  of  Italy,  who  instructed  his  subjects  in 
agriculture  and  the  management  of  flocks,  and  was 
afterwards  worshipped  as  the  god  of  fields  and 
of  shepherds.  The  festival  of  the  Faunalia,  held  on 
the  5th  December,  referred  to  the  protecition  he  exer- 
cised over  agriculture  and  cattle.  Fauna  was  liis 
female  complement.  He  was  also  worshipped  as  a 
prophetic  divinity.  As  deity  of  the  woods,  and  of 
flocks  and  herds,  he  corresponds  to  the  Greek  Piin ; 
the  idea  also  arose  of  a  ]jlu]-ality  of  Fauni  or  Fauns, 
like  the  Greek  Satyrs,  who  were  represented  as  mon- 
ster deities  with  short  horns,  pointed  ears,  tails,  and 
goats'  feet,  and  to  whom  all  terrifying  sounds  and 
appearances  were  ascribed. 

FAUNA,  a  term  employed  to  designate  animals 
collectively,  or  those  of  a  particular  country,  or  of  a 
particular  geological  period.  Thus,  we  speak  of  the 
fauna  of  Great  Britain,  the  recent  fauna,  the  fossil 
fauna,  the  fauna  of  the  Eocene  period  or  formation, 
etc.  The  term  bears  the  same  relation  to  the  animal 
kingdom  that  Flora  does  to  the  vegetable.  Its 
derivation  is  from  the  mythological  fauns,  regarded 
as  the  patrons  of  wild  animals.  In  the  fauna  of  any 
country  are  included  only  those  animals  which  are 
indigenous  to  it,  and  not  those  which  have  been 
introduced. 

FAURIEL,  Ci^UDE  Chakles,  a  French  philolo- 
gist, historian,  and  critic,  was  born  at  St  Etienne, 
in  the  department  of  Loire,  21st  October  1772, 
studied  at  the  College  des  Oratoriens  at  Tournon, 
and  afterwards  at  Lyon,  and  in  1799  was  ap]:>ointed 
to  a  situation  under  Fouch6 ;  but,  destitute  of  all 
political  ambition  or  predilections,  and  passionately 
fond  of  learned  studies,  F.  resigned  his  oflice  in 
1802,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  calmer  pursuits 
of  literature.  He  made  himself  familiar  with 
Sanscrit,  Arabic,  and  the  treasures  of  classical 
antiqu.ity  and  of  the  middle  ages ;  and  although  he 
did  not  write  much,  comparatively  speaking,  yet 
the  value  of  what  he  did  write  cannot  easily  be 
over-estimated.  M.  Renan  may  exaggerate  when 
he  affirms  that  F.  '  put  in  circulation  the  greatest 
number  of  ideas'  of  any  contemporary  writer ;  but 
even  the  Germans  allow  that  in  many  points  of 
literary  history,  criticism,  and  philology,  F.  was 
twenty  years  in  advance  of  his  age.  After  the 
July  Revolution,  he  was  appointed  a  professor  at 
the  Sorbonne ;  in  1836,  he  published  his  cliief  work, 
Histoire  de  la  Gaule  Meridionale  sous  la  Domination 
des  Conquerants  Germains  (4  vols.,  Paris),  which  is 
reckoned  one  of  the  best  specimens  cf  historical 
investigation  and  art  produced  in  modern  times. 
Worthy  of  notice,  also,  particularly  on  account  of 
its  remarkable  historical  introduction,  is  his  edition 
of  the  Provencal  rhymed  chronicle,  entitled  Hlsfcire 
de  la  Croisade  confre  les  Heretiques  Alhirjeois  (Paris, 
1837).  F.  also  contributed  several  important  essays 
to  the  literary  jom-nals  of  France,  of  which,  perha]  »9, 
the  best  known  was  that  on  the  origui  of  the  Ejtic 
of  Chivalry  in  the  middle  ages.  He  died  at  l^aria, 
15th  July  1844.  Two  years  after  his  death  appeared 
a  collection  of  his  professorial  lectm-es,  under  the 
title  of  Histoire  de  la  Poesie  Provengale  (3  a^oIs., 
Paris,  1846),  m  which  F.  endeavours,  with  great 
erudition  and  originality  of  criticism,  to  shew  that 
to  the  Provencals  must  be  attributed  the  compo- 
sition and  primitive  development  of  the  greater 
portion  of  the  romances  of  chivahy,  including 
those  which  describe  the  contests  of  the  Chiistiaua 
and  Moors  in  Spain,  and  those  which  form  tna 

260 


FAUSSE-BRAYE— FA  USTINA. 


Charlemagne  cycle,  thus  finding  the  origin  of  the  old 
Spanish  and  German  poetrj'  on  the  soil  of  France. 
F.'s  vieus  have,  however,  met  with  considerable  oppo- 
sition. 

FAUSSE-BIIAYE,  in  Fortification,  a  low  ram- 
part encircling  the  body  of  a  i)luce,  and  raised  about 
three  feet  above  the  level  grountl.  This  work  has 
mostly  been  discarded  by  modern  engineers,  exccjjt 
•when  used  in  front  of  curtains,  under  the  name 
of  Tenailles  (q.  v.).  The  French  engineers  gave 
this  title  to  tlie  work,  as  an  adaptation  from  the 
Italian  term  Fossa  Brea,  which  had  its  origin  from 
the  fausse-bi-aye  being  commonly  in  the  ditch,  in 
front  of  the  main  wall.  Tlie  fausse-braye  had  the 
advantage  of  giving  an  additional  tier  of  guns  for 
defensive  purposes ;  but  the  still  greater  disadvan- 
tage of  affording  facilities  for  the  scaling  of  the 
parapet. 

FAUSSE  TtlVTERE  (in  English,  Fahe  River) 
is  a  lake  of  Louisiana,  United  States,  which  deserves 
notice  chiefly  as  an  index  of  the  physical  character 
of  the  country.  Till  about  a  cent\iry  and  a  half 
ago,  it  was  a  channel  of  the  Mississippi — a  fact 
which  prol)ably  is  still  expressed  in  its  name.  Here, 
as  in  other  alluvial  formations,  the  beds  of  the 
running  waters  are  undergoing  incessant  changes. 

FAUST,  or  FUST,  Joiiann,  the  chief  promoter  of 
the  invention  of  printing,  a  rich  citizen  of  Mayence, 
died  in  the  year  14G0.    See  Gutenberg. 

FAUST,  Dr,  according  to  tradition,  a  celebrated 
dealer  in  the  black  art,  frequently  confounded  with 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Knittlingen,  in  Wiirtem- 
berg,  or,  as  some  say,  at  Roda  near  Weimar.  He 
flourished  during  the  latter  half  of  the  l^th  and  the 
beginning  of  the  ICth  centuries,  and  is  said  to  have 
studied  magic  at  Cracow.  After  haAnng  spent  a  rich 
inheritance  left  him  by  his  uncle,  F.  is  alleged  to 
have  made  use  of  his  '  power'  to  raise  or  conjure  up 
the  devil,  with  whom  he  entered  into  a  contract  for 
twenty-four  years,  obtaining  during  that  time  his 
fill  of  earthly  pleasure,  but  at  its  termination  sur- 
rendering body  and  soid  into  the  hands  of  the  Great 
Enemy,  The  devil  gave  him  an  attendant  spirit  or 
demon,  called  Mephistopheles,  though  other  names 
are  given  him  by  the  later  tradition]  sts,  with  whom 
he  travelled  about,  enjoying  life  in  all  its  forms,  and 
astonishing  people  by  working  wonders,  till  he  was 
finally  carried  off  by  the  Evil  One,  who  appeared  in 
terrible  guise,  between  twelve  and  one  o'clock  at 
night,  at  the  \'illage  of  Rimlich,  near  Wittenberg, 
though  several  other  ])laces  lay  claim  to  that  very 
questionable  honour.  Some  have  doubted,  consider- 
ing the  monstrously  mythical  form  in  which  his 
v^areer  has  come  down  to  us,  whether  such  an  indi- 
vidual as  F.  ever  existed;  bvit  it  is  now  generally 
believed  that  there  was  a  basis  of  fact,  on  which 
tradition  has  built  its  grotesque  superstructure, 
Gones,  indeed,  asserts  that  one  George  SabeUicus, 
who  disapjieared  about  the  year  1517,  is  the  real 
F. ;  but  Philip  Melancthon — the  man  of  all  the 
reformers  whose  word  in  regard  to  a  matter  of  fact 
would  most  readily  be  trusted— says  that  he  had 
himself  conversed  with  Dr  Faustus.  Conrad  Gesner 
^1501)  is  equally  positive ;  and  Luther,  in  his  Table 
Talk,  speaks  of  Dr  F,  as  a  man  lost  beyond  all  hope. 
The  opinion  that  prevails,  and  which  is  reckoned  to 
be  intrinsically  the  more  probable,  is  that  some  man 
of  this  name,  possessed  of  varied  knowledge,  may 
p  jssib>>  have  practised  jugglery  (for  the  wandering 
feavans  of  the  middle  ages  had  all  a  touch  of  the 
qu  ick  about  them),  and  thiis  have  been  taken  by 
the  ignorant  people  for  a  dealer  in  the  black  art, 
and  one  who  maintained  a  secret  and  intimate  rela- 
tion with  evil  si)irits.  His  widely  diffused  celebrity 
not  only  occasioned  the  wonders  worked  by  other  ' 
266 


so-called  necromancers  of  an  earlier  age — Albertuu 
Magnus,  Simon  Magus,  and  Paracelsus — to  be  attri- 
buted to  him,  but  likewise  many  ancient  tales  and 
legends  of  a  marvellous  character  were  gradually 
transferred  to  him,  till  he  finally  ai)pears  as  the  very 
hero  of  magicians.  But  while,  on  the  one  hand,  the 
narrative  of  F.'s  marvels  afforded  amusement  to  the 
P';o])le,  on  the  other,  they  were  made  use  of  tor 
ii  struotion  by  the  clergy,  who  pointed  out,  in  the 
frightfid  fate  of  F.,  the  danger  of  tampering  with 
the  '  black  art ; '  and  the  abominableness  of  a  life 
sunk  in  sensuality  and  vice.  The  myth  of  hiia 
received  a  manifold  literary  treatment.  First  come 
the  Volksbiicher  (or  people's  books),  which  record  F.'s 
enterprises  and  feats.  The  oldest  of  these  now 
known  appeared  at  Frankfort  in  1588.  Then  came 
an  '  improved '  edition  of  the  same,  by  Widmann, 
entitled  Wahrliafthje  Ilbi'orie.n  von  denen  grduUchen 
Siinden  Dr  J  oh.  F.\s  (True  History  of  the  Horrible 
Crimes  of  Dr  John  F.,  Hamb,  3  vols.,  1599) ;  and  iu 
1695,  a  work  was  published  at  Niirnberg  by  Pfitzer, 
based  upon  that  of  Widmann.  The  oldest  of  these 
books  was  translated  into  all  the  civilised  languages 
of  Europe.  Impostors  also  published  books  of 
magic  under  the  name  of  F.,  such  as  Faustus  rjrosser 
und  gevHdii(jer  Hollenzwang  (Faust's  Great  and 
Potent  Book  of  Spells),  FausterCs  Miraculhinst 
(Faust's  Art  of  Performing  Miracles),  and  DreJfacJie 
milmzwang  (The  Threefold  Book  of  Spells).  These 
wretched  productions  are  filled  throughout  with 
meaningless  scrawls  and  figures,  interspersed  with 
texts  from  the  Bilde  scandalously  misapplied  ;  but 
in  the  belief  of  the  vidgar,  they  were  supposed 
capable,  when  properly  understood,  of  accomplishing 
prodigies.  That  the  poetical  art  shoidd  in  due 
time  have  seized  on  a  subject  affording  so  much 
material  for  the  fancy  to  work  upon,  was  inevitable  ; 
and  consequently,  German  literature  abounds  in 
elegies,  })antomimes,  tragedies,  and  comedies  on 
Faust.  Since  the  end  of  the  17th  c,  the  Piippmspid 
(Puppet-show)  of  Dr  F.  (first  published  at  Leii^sio 
in  1850)  has  been  one  of  the  most  po])ular  pieces  in 
Germany.  It  forms  the  transition  from  the  rude 
magic  tales  concerning  F.,  to  the  later  philosophic 
conception  of  the  Faust-myth,  which  has  become  the 
most  perfect  poetical  expression  of  the  eternal  strife 
between  Good  and  Evil  in  the  soul  of  man.  The 
first  writer  who  treated  the  story  of  F.  dramatic- 
ally was  the  English  writer  Chiistopher  Marlowe^ 
about  the  year  1600  (German  translation  by  W 
Miiller,  Berlin,  1818)  ;  but  the  grandest  work  on 
the  subject  is  Goethe's  Faust,  tlie  first  part  of  which 
appeared  under  the  title  of  Dr  F.,  ein  Trmiersjyid 
(Leip.  1790),  and  afterwards  in  a  remodelled  form, 
under  the  title  of  F.,  eine  Tragodle  (Tubingen,  1808). 
The  second  part  was  published  after  the  author's 
death,  at  Stuttgart  in  1833.  Besides  Goetlie's  drama, 
may  be  mentioned  Lessing's  masterly  fragment,  F. 
und  die  Siehen  Geister  (F.  and  the  Seven  S])irits), 
G.  F.  L.  Muller's  Dr  F.'s  Leben  (Dr  F.'s  Life,  Manlu 
1778),  and  Klinger's  F.\s  Leben,  Thaten,  und  Holleri' 
faltrt  (F.'s  Life,  Doings,  and  Descent  into  Hell; 
Petersb.  and  Leip.  1791).  The  plastic  art  has  also 
found  a  fit  subject  in  Faust.  In  Auerbach's  cellar 
at  Leipsic,  where  F.  is  said  to  have  performed  many 
of  his  feats,  are  two  rude  daubs  of  the  year  1525, 
representing  F.  and  Mephistopheles  riding  out 
of  the  cellar  on  a  wine-barrel.  Rembrandt  and 
Christoph  von  Sicliem  have  also  illustrated  the 
story  of  F.,  and,  in  modern  times,  Cornelius  and 
Retzscli  have  done  the  same.  See  Peter's  Die 
LUeraiur  der  Faustsage  (The  Literature  of  the 
Faust  Myth),  2d  cd.  Leip.  1857. 

FAUSTINA,  mother  and  daughter.  The  former, 
Annia  Oaleria,  usually  spoken  of  as  Faustina  Senior^ 
was  the  wife  of  the  Roman  emperor,  Antoninus 


FAUSTINUS  L— FAVRR 


Jr'ius,  and  died  141  A.  D. ;  the  latter,  known  as 
Faustina  Junior,  was  married  to  his  successor, 
Marcus  Am'elius  Antoninus,  and  died  at  a  village 
near  Mount  Taurus  in  175  a.d.  Both,  but  particu- 
larly the  younger,  were  notorious  for  the  profligacy 
of  their  lives,  which  their  exemplary  husbancis  in 
vain  endeavoured  to  check.  After  their  deaths, 
institutions  for  the  relief  of  poor  girls  were  founded 
both  by  Antoninus  and  Marcus  Aurelius  in  honour 
of  th^  n,  and  were  called  ^puellce  alimentarice  Fau.i- 
tincB.^  Marcus  Aurelius,  in  his  Meditations,  speaks 
highly  of  his  wife,  and  an  attempt  has  been  made 
by  Wieland  to  defend  her  against  the  imputations 
of  the  historians  of  the  emperors. 

FAUSTI'NUS  I.,  emperor  of  Haiti,  known, 
before  his  elevation  to  the  throne,  as  Faustinus 
Soulouque,  a  negro  originally  of  very  humble  circum- 
stances, was  born  in  St  Domingo  in  1789.  In  his 
earlier  years,  he  acted  as  servant,  and  afterwards  as 
adjutant,  to  General  Lamarre.  He  subsequently 
served  imder  Presidents  Petion  and  Boyer,  and  by 
the  latter  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  captain.  After 
the  year  1844,  when  the  Haitian  Hepublic — of  which 
General  Boyer  was  then  president — was  dissolved, 
a  struggle  for  the  supreme  power  ensued,  in 
which  F.  played  an  important  part.  In  1817  he 
was  appointed  by  the  senate  President  of  the 
Eepublic.  On  the  16th  April  1848,  a  dreadfvd 
massacre  of  the  mulattoes  in  Port-au-Prince  took 
place  at  his  instigation.  This,  and  similar  measures, 
struck  terror  into  the  hearts  of  his  opponents.  In 
August  1849,  he  had  himself  proclaimed  Emperor 
of  Haiti,  a  title  which  he  enjoyed  for  about  ten 
years  ;  but  a  revolution  having  broken  out  in  1858, 
and  a  republic  having  been  declared,  F.  was  forced  to 
abdicate,  15tb  Jan.  1859.    He  died  6th  Aug.  1867. 

FAUVETTE,  a  French  name,  partially  adopted 
in  the  English  language,  for  some  of  the  little  song- 
birds of  the  family  SylviddcB  or  Warblers,  having 
straight  slender  bills  slightly  compressed  in  front, 
the  ridge  of  the  upper  mandible  curving  a  little 
towards  the  tip,  and  the  legs  not  long.  They  mostly 
'belong  to  the  genus  Curruca,  as  the  Blackcap,  the 
Pettychaps  or  Garden  Warbler,  the  Whitethroat, 
&c.  ;  and  to  the  genus  Salicaria,  as  the  Sedge 
Warbler,  the  Reed  Warbler,  &c.  The  Dartford 
Warbler  {Mdizophilus  ProvinciaUs)  is  also  called 
Fauvette.  They  are  all  very  lively  little  birds, 
continually  flitting  about  in  pursuit  of  insects, 
mostly  frequenting  bushy  places  ;  and  some  of 
them,  particularly  those  of  the  genus  Salicaria, 
preferring  watery  situations  where  reeds  abound. 

FAVA'RA,  a  town  of  Sicily,  in  the  south  of  the 
island,  in  the  province  of  Girgenti,  and  four  miles 
south-east  of  the  town  of  that  name.  It  has  rich 
sulphur-mines,  and  a  poinilation  of  11,400. 

FA V ART,  Charles  Simon,  a  French  dramatist, 
was  born  at  Paris  13th  November  1710,  and  first 
became  known  by  his  La  Chercheuse  cP Esprit, 
performed  in  1741.  In  1745,  he  married  Made- 
moiselle Duronceray,  herself  a  dramatic  writer  of 
VUSiQ  note,  and  a  singer  of  remarkable  talent,  and 
ir.  the  same  year  became  director  of  the  Opera- 
Comique.  The  fine  taste  and  judgment  of  F. 
and  his  wife  soon  obtained  for  their  theatre  a 
great  reputation.  It  was  they  who  made  the  first 
attempt  to  harmonise  the  costume  of  the  actors 
and  actresses  with  their  impersonations,  and  to 
put  a  stop  to  the  ridiculous  practice  of  decking 
o\it  soubrettes  and  country -girls  in  the  attire  of 
coiuii-ladies.  So  powerful,  however,  was  the  oppo- 
sition excited  against  them  by  the  jealousy  of  the 
other  theatres,  that  the  Opera-Gomique  was  closed 
ua  the  first  year  of  its  existence.  After  some  time 
spent  with  Mar6chal  de  Saxe  during  his  campaign 


in  Flanders,  F.  and  his  wife  retunied  to  Paris,  where 
the  former  continued  to  write  opcias.  His  wife  died 
in  1772,  and  he  12th  May,  1793.  F.'s  success  as  a 
writer  was  very  great.  He  may  be  reckoned  the 
father  of  the  comic  o])era,  and  the  hajjpy  successor 
of  Le  Sage,  Piron,  etc.  The  number  of  his  jiieces 
amounts  to  about  sixty,  of  which  the  most  celebrated 
are  Comment  VEajorit  vient  auz  Fille.s,  Le  (Joq  du 
Village,  Bantien  et  Bastienne,  Ninnette  a  la  (Jour,  Lei 
Trois  Sultanes,  and  L^Amjlais  d  Bordeaux.  Hia 
works  have  been  published  several  times.  Ad 
edition  in  ten  volumes  was  pu})lished  at  Paris  in 
1810,  under  the  title  of  Thedtre  de  Monsieur  ei 
Madame  Favart.  A  very  interesting  book,  entitled 
Les  Memoires  et  la  Correspondence  de  Favart,  giving 
delightful  glimpses  of  the  literary  and  theatrical 
world  of  the  18th  c,  ■«  as  published  at  Paris  m  1809 
by  his  grandsom 

FA'VERSHAM,  a  municipal  borough  and  seaport 
in  the  north  of  Kent,  on  a  navigable  creek,  opposite 
Sheppey  Isle,  8  miles  west-north-west  of  Canter- 
bur3^  It  chiefly  consists  of  four  streets  in  an 
irregidar  cross.  It  has  a  valuable  oyster-fishery, 
employing  200  to  300  persons.  It  sends  much 
agricultural  produce  to  London  by  hoys.  The  creek 
admits  vessels  of  150  tons.  In  the  vicinity  are 
some  of  the  most  important  gunpowder  factories  in 
the  kingdom.  Pop.  (1871)  7189.  Under  the  name 
of  Favresfield,  it  was  a  seat  of  the  Saxon  kings, 
where  Athelstan,  in  930,  held  a  Witenageniote.  It 
has  the  remains  of  an  abbey  founded  by  King 
Stephen,  where  he  and  his  queen,  Matilda,  are 
buried.  St  Crispin  is  said  to  have  been  appren- 
ticed to  a  shoemaker  here.  Near  F.  are  some  chalk 
caverns,  with  columns.  In  1869,  2567  vessels,  of 
161,529  tons,  entered  and  cleared  the  port. 

FAVIGNA'NA,  the  chief  of  the  .^^gades,  a  group 
of  islands  in  the  Mediterranean,  ofl"  the  west  coast 
of  Sicily,  lies  at  a  distance  of  six  miles  from  the 
Sicilian  shore,  and  is  about  six  miles  long,  with  an 
average  breadth  of  two  miles.  It  has  a  town  of 
the  same  name,  with  two  castles,  and  a  population 
of  3900.  F.  is  fruitful,  has  good  pasturage,  and 
produces  excellent  wine. 

FA'VOSITES,  a  genus  of  lamelliferous  cora.4>, 
found  in  Silurian,  Devonian,  and  Carboniferous 
strata.  They  were  social  corals,  closely  packed 
together,  no  space  being  left  between  the  walls  of 
the  different  corallites.  As  in  the  other  palajozoio 
corals,  the  lamellae  are  developed  in  multiples  of 
four,  and  the  older  portion  of  the  stony  base  is 
partitioned  ofl"  by  horizontal  tabidse. 

FAVOURS,  or  MARRIAGE  FAVOURS,  bows 
of  white  satin  ribbons  distributed  at  marriages  in 
Great  Britain,  and  usually  pinned  on  the  breast  of 
all  concerned,  attendants  and  postilions  included. 
The  favours  of  those  more  immediately  interested 
are  sometimes  enriched  with  orange  blossom.  This 
is  an  old  usage,  connected  with  the  love-knot  of 
ancient  northern  nations,  which  is  not  likely  soon 
to  disappear;  it  forms  almost  the  only  remaining 
token  of  merriment  in  ;he  nuptial  ceremonial.  See 
Brand's  Popular  AntiqiAtim,  edited  by  EUis,  article 
'  Bride  Favours.' 

FAVRE,  Gabriel  Claude  Julks,  a  French  advo 
cate  and  deputy,  was  born  at  Lyon,  31st  ^March 
1809.  He  is  the  son  of  a  merchant,  studied  for  the 
bar,  and  passed  at  Lyon  in  1830.  His  pohtical 
opinions  were  and  are  intensely  republican,  and 
when  pleading  for  his  clients,  in  the  course  of  the 
niunerous  political  lawsiuts  which  he  was  employed 
to  carry  on,  F.  not  iinfrequently  placed  the  state 
solicitors,  and  even  the  judges,  in  a  very  mbarrassing 
position,  by  the  boldness  of  his  sentimt-nts.  As  the 
defender  of  the  Mutuellists  at  Lyon  in  .831, 


FAVUS— FAYETTEVILLE. 


was  in  danger  of  losing  his  life ;  this,  however,  did 
not  prevent  him  from  appearing  before  the  House 
of  Peers,  in  1834,  as  the  defender  of  those  y\ho 
had  been  impeached  in  A])ril,  and  commencing  his 
Bi)eech  with  Je  suis  licpublicaiu.  Since  1834,  F.  has 
been  a  member  of  the  Paris  bar.  In  the  February- 
revolution  of  1848,  F.  was  appointed  Home  Secre- 
tary, in  which  capacity  he  wrote  the  notorious 
circular  for  which  Ledru-Rollin's  administration  was 
Bo  severely  reproached,  investing  the  commissioners 
of  the  rei)ublic  with  dictatorial  authority  in  the  pro- 
vinces. As  a  member  of  the  Committee  of  Foreign 
Affairs,  and  for  some  time  under- secretary  to  the 
same,  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  labours  of  the 
Assembly.  After  the  election  of  the  10th  December, 
F.  shewed  himself  a  persistent  antagonist  of  the 
President,  Louis  Napoleon,  and  after  the  flight  of 
Ledru-E,ollin,  became  the  orator  of  the  Mountain. 
The  coup  tVetat  virtually  closed  his  political  career. 
He  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  fidelity  to  the 
imperial  government,  and  betook  himself  again 
to  his  professional  duties.  In  1858,  he  defended 
Orsini,  on  his  trial  for  a  consj)iracy  to  murder.  F. 
is  greatest  in  political  repartee,  and  though  long 
accustomed  to  the  rough  arena  of  public  strife,  liis 
language  is  noted  for  its  Attic  elegance.  He  is  the 
author  of  several  political  brochures. 

FA'VUS  (Lat.  a  honeycomb),  a  disease  of  the 
skin,  chiefly  of  the  hairy  scalp,  characterised  by 
yellowish  dry  incrustations  of  more  or  less  roundish 
form,  and  often  cup-shaped,  composed  of  the  Sporules 
and  Mycelia  (q.  v.)  of  a  vegetable  growth  belonging 
to  the  order  of  Fmigi  (q.  v.).  The  discs  of  favus  are 
produced  with  great  rapidity,  and  s])read  rapidly,  if 
not  attended  to  at  the  first,  over  the  whole  scalp, 
destroying  the  bulbs  of  the  hair,  which  becomes 
very  short  and  thin,  and  then  falls  out  altogether. 
Favus  is  a  disgusting  and  unsightly,  but  hardly  a 
dangerous  disorder ;  it  is,  beyond  doubt,  conta- 
gious, but  only  spreads  where  cleanliness  is  greatly 
neglected,  and  is  therefore  almost  imknown  among 
the  better  classes.  It  is  far  more  common  among 
children  than  among  adults,  and  seems  to  be  more 
frequent  in  Scotland  than  in  England,  and  more 
frequent  also  on  the  continent  than  in  either  Eng- 
land or  Scotland.  The  cure  is  sometimes  attempted 
by  a  variety  of  medicated  and  simple  ointments,  and 
by  pulling  out  the  hair  by  the  roots,  or  epilation^  as 
it  is  called ;  but  it  seems  hardly  possible  in  inveterate 
cases  to  get  rid  of  the  disease  without  a  veiy  long 
persistence  in  habits  of  the  most  scrupidous  clea,nli- 
ness,  and  therefore  the  cure  is  seldom  permanent, 
though  easily  attained  for  the  time.  Favus  is  almost 
always  followed  by  permanent  baldness  of  the  parts 
affected  ;  unlike  Ringworm  (q.  v.),  which  is  a  minor 
disease  of  the  same  order. 

The  Favus  fvmgus,  A  chorion  Sclioenleinii,  is  nearly 
allied  to  the  fungus  which  has  recently  proved  so 
destructive  to  vines,  and  has  by  some  botanists 
been  i)laced  in  the  same  genus,  Oidium. 

FAWKES,  Guy  (properly  GinDo),  the  head 
Ci  the  conspiracy  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Gunpowder  Plot,  was  born  of  a  Protestant  family 
in  Yorkshire,  in  the  year  1570.  He  became  a 
Roiaan  Catholic  at  an  early  age,  and  served  in  the 
Spanish  army  in  the  Netherlands.  Inspired  Avith 
fanatical  zeal  for  his  new  religion,  on  his  return 
to  England,  he  entered  into  a  plot  with  several 
Catholic  gentlemen  for  blowing  up  the  king,  his 
miristers,  and  the  members  of  both  houses  at  the 
oi)eaing  of  parliament,  5th  November  1605.  Guy 
F.  was  taker  with  the  burning  match  in  his  hand, 
tried,  and  after  having  been  put  to  the  torture, 
was  jHiblicly  executed  January  31, 1606.  In  remem- 
brance of  this  event,  in  most  English  towns,  but 
K68 


l)articiUarly  in  London,  a  grotesqiie  figure,  stuffed 
with  straw,  is  carried  al^out  the  streets  on  the  5th 
of  November,  and  finally  committed  to  the  flame* 


Guy  Fawkes's  Signature  before  and  after  torture. 

A  political  and  religious  signification  was  again 
imparted  to  this  custom  by  what  was  called  '  the 
papal  aggression'  in  the  year  1850,  when  the  figure 
of  Cardinal  Wiseman  (q.  v.)  was  substituted  for  that 
of  Guy  Fawkes. 

FA'Y,  Andras,  a  Hungarian  author,  was  born  in 
1786,  at  Kohany,  in  the  county  of  Zemplen.  After 
having  studied  philosoj)hy  and  law  at  the  Protestant 
college  of  Saros[)atak,  F.  was  called  to  the  bar.  He 
held  a  situation  for  some  time  in  the  coimty  of 
Pesth,  which,  however,  he  afterwards  relinquished, 
in  order  to  be  able  to  devote  himself  altogether  to 
literary  pursuits.  After  two  volumes  of  poetry. 
a])peared  the  collection  of  Fables  {Mesek,  Vien. 
1820),  and  with  the  issue  of  that  work  F.  obtained 
a  decided  reputation.  The  fables  are  like  those  of 
Pliaedms  and  La  Fontaine,  but  in  prose.  Richness 
of  invention,  simplicity  of  design,  and  truth  of 
character,  are  the  chief  qualities  for  which  the  Mesek 
have  become  a  household  word  among  Hungarians. 
Among  F.'s  dramatic  works  may  be  mentioned  the 
tragedy.  The  Two  Bathorys  (A  Ket  Bdthory,  Pesth, 
1827)  ;  the  comedies.  Ancient  Coins  {Hegi  Penzek)t 
and  Hunters  in  the  Matra  {Mdtrai  Vaddszoh).  The 
novel,  The  House  of  the  Beltekys  [A^  Belteky-liaz, 
Pesth,  1832),  is  rather  of  a  didactic  kind,  but  exhibits 
many  features  of  Hungarian  domestic  life.  Besides 
these,  F.  has  been  a  constant  contributor  to  literary 
and  scientific  periodicals,  and  had  also  his  share  in 
some  of  those  pamphlets  by  which  great  social 
questions,  as,  for  instance,  female  education,  savings- 
banks,  &c.,  were  brought  to  a  successful  issue  in 
Hungary.  In  reading  F.'s  works,  we  are  frequently 
reminded  of  Dean  Swift.  From  1825,  which  year 
may  be  said  to  have  been  the  beginning  of  a  new  poli- 
tical life  for  Hungary,  up  to  the  year  1840,  F.  was 
foremost  among  the  leaders  of  the  liberal  opposition 
in  the  county  sittings  of  Pesth  ;  but  on  the  appear- 
ance of  Kossuth,  the  strides  of  pubhc  hfe  growing 
more  and  more  rapid,  F.  gradually  retired  from  the 
region  of  political  controversy,  turning  his  inventive 
mind  to  social  improvements.  The  first  savings- 
bank  of  Hungary  (at  Pesth)  is  entirely  F.'s  work. 
His  literary  works  were  published  in  eight  volumes 
at  Pesth,  1843 — 1844.  He  is  a  directing  member  of 
the  Himgarian  Academy  of  Sciences. 

FAYA'L,  one  of  the  most  important  of  tne 
Azores  (q.  v.),  contains  about  37  square  miles,  and 
about  25,000  inhabitants.  As  one  must  infer  from 
such  density  of  popidation,  the  island  is  fertile.  In 
its  centre  is  a  mountain  3000  feet  in  height ;  and 
on  its  south-east  coast  a  convenient  bay  with  good 
anchorage.  Its  principal  town,  Horta,  stands  on 
this  bay  in  lat.  38°  30'  N.,  and  long.  28°  41'  W. 

FAYETTEVILLE  is  the  name  of  a  flourishing 
city  of  North  Carolina,  United  States  of  America. 
Standing  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Cape  Fear  River, 
about  140  miles  from  its  mouth,  F.  marks  the  head 
of  its  natural  navigation  j  while,  by  means  of  loclui 


FAYtTM— FEATHER  GRASS. 


anrl  iams,  it  communicates  likewise  with  the  upper 
basin  of  the  river.  While  the  interior  sends  down 
co?i,  the  immediate  neighbourhood  is  covered  with 
forests  of  pine,  which  are  traversed  in  all  directions 
by  350  miles  of  plank-road,  and  yield  not  merely 
timber  but  tar  and  turpentine.  The  Cape  Fear, 
moreover,  gives  abundance  of  water-power,  which  is 
larg^y  applied  to  the  manixfacture  of  cottons  and 
flour.  F.  has  an  arsenal  of  nearly  50  acres  in  extent. 
Pop.  in  1870,  4663. 

FAYUM,  the  name  of  an  Egyptian  province, 
surrounded,  in  the  form  of  a  basin,  by  the  Libyan 
Desert,  and  connected  merely  by  a  narrow  valley 
with  that  of  the  Nile,  between  lat.  29°— 30"  N., 
and  30° — 31°  E.  This  peculiar  depression  of  the 
desert  extends  about  30  miles  from  north  to  south, 
and  about  40  miles  from  east  to  west,  its  lowest 
point  lying  100  feet  below  the  banks  of  the  Nile  at 
Benisuef.  F.  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  provinces 
in  Egypt ;  producing,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary 
useful  plants  of  the  country,  roses,  apricots,  figs, 
vines,  olives,  &c.  in  great  quantities.  This  fertihty, 
j-a  a  province  the  soil  of  which  is  naturally  arid  and 
saudy,  is  the  result  of  irrigation.  A  canal  from 
the  Nile  was,  at  an  early  period,  carried  westward 
through  a  gorge  in  the  Libyan  hills,  which  here 
skirt  the  western  bank  of  the  Nile,  and  after  dividing 
into  numerous  branches,  lodged  its  Avaters  in  a 
depression  in  the  north-west,  thus  forming,  it  is 
said,  the  Lake  Moeris  (q.  v.).  The  ancient  capital  of 
the  province,  called  Krokodilopolis,  and  at  a  later 
perior'  Arsinoe,  stood  on  the  easterrf  shore  of  Lake 
Mceris,  and  upon  its  ruins  stands  the  present  town, 
Medinet-el-Fayftm,  still  a  place  of  considerable  size, 
and  the  cliief  town  of  the  province. 

FEAL  AND  DIVOT  is  a  Predial  Servitude  (q.  v.) 
pecvdiar  to  the  law  of  Scotland,  in  virtue  of  which 
the  proprietor  of  the  dominant  tenement  possesses 
the  right  of  turning  up  and  carrying  off  turf  from 
th^  servient  tenement  for  the  pur])ose  of  building 
fences,  roofing  houses,  and  the  like.  This,  as  well  as 
the  servitude  of  fuel,  implies  tlie  right  of  using  the 
nearest  grounds  of  the  servient  tenement  on  which 
to  Iry  and  dry  the  Turf  Peats  (q.  v.)  or  feal.  These 
servitudes  do  not  extend  beyond  the  ordinary  uses 
of  the  actual  occupants  of  the  dominant  tenement, 
and  cannot  be  taken  advantage  of  for  such  a  pur- 
pose .'^  to  burn  limestone  for  sale.  They  are  not 
included  in  the  servitude  of  pasturage,  but  must 
be  constituted  either  by  express  grant,  or  by  posses- 
sion following  on  the  usual  clause  of  parts  and 
pertinents.  Ersk.  ii.  tit.  ix.  s.  17.  The  etymology 
of  these  words  has  been  much  disputed.  Feal  or 
fail  is  said  to  come  from  the  Suio- Gothic  wall,  any 
grassy  part  of  the  surface  of  the  ground ;  and 
Jamiebon  derives  divot  from  dehe  (Sax.  del/an  or 
delven),  or,  as  another  alternative,  says  that  it  may 
have  tjeen  formed  by  the  monkish  writers  of  old 
charters  from  de/odere,  to  dig  the  earth.  The  former 
is  the  more  probable  conjecture. 

FEALTY  (Lat.  fidelitas)  is  the  fidelity  which  a 
man  who  holds  lands  of  another  owes  to  him,  and  con- 
tains an  engagement  to  perform  the  services,  or  to 
pay  the  dues  for  which  the  land  is  granted.  It  was 
embodied  in  an  oath,  by  Avhich  the  tenant  bound  liim- 
Belf  on  entering  to  the  lands.  In  taking  the  oath  of 
fidelity,  Littleton  says,  s.  91,  that  the  tenant  shall  not 
kneel,  nor  shall  make  such  humble  reverence  as  in 
homage.  The  only  object  of  fealty  in  modern  times 
is  to  keep  up  the  evidence  of  tenure  Avhere  no  other 
services  are  due ;  but  even  to  this  effect  it  has  gone 
into  desuetude. 

FEAR,  Mania  of,  or  PANPHOBIA.  There  are 
many  morbid   manifestations  of   the  instinct  of 


cautiousness.  Sudden  fear  in  sleep,  horrible  dreams^ 
nightmare,  sleep-walking,  have  been  regarded  m 
symptoms  of  a  special  disease.  Actual  terror  ivove 
irregular  circulation  in  the  sensory  ganglia ;  tho 
sense  of  falling  or  drowning  in  cardiac  ai'fcctions 
incubus  from  disturbance  of  the  circulation  in  the 
larger  vessels  by  repletion,  plethora,  or  position,^ 
where  there  is  the  super-addition  of  a  delusion  t«' 
the  feeling  of  apprehension, — all  are  allied  and  dis 
tinguished  by  involuntaiy  and  excited  cautiousness. 
It  IS  not  only,  however,  when  the  intelligence  may 
be  supposed  to  be  dormant,  and  the  instincts  awake, 
that  such  exaggerated  fears  paralyse  minds  other- 
wise sane  and  sound.  Jlurat,  'the  bravest  of  the 
brave,'  and  James  I.  of  EagWd,  learned  if  not  wise, 
were  subject  to  vague,  u  uconirollable  panics,  which 
for  a  time  unmanned  them.  The  condition  is  often 
found  associated  with  disease  of  the  heart,  as  a  con- 
sequence and  concomitant  rather  than  a  cause.  Tho 
presence  of  the  habitual  dread  of  evil,  the  fear  of 
death,  the  sleepless  and  breathless  anxiety  during 
darkness,  or  solitude,  or  silence,  as  well  as  the  sudden, 
wild,  ungovernable  panic,  point  to  the  existence  of 
organic  or  functional  diseases  of  the  heart ;  and 
conversely,  excited  or  irregular  action  of  the  organ, 
murmurs,  angina,  lead  the  astute  psychologist  to 
predicate  fear  as  a  characteristic  of  the  mental 
condition.  It  precedes,  and  is  believed  to  produce 
chorea,  cancer,  and  scirrhus.  Proximately,  however, 
it  depends  upon  alterations  in  the  cajjillary  circida- 
tion,  or  nervous  structure  of  the  brain.  Its  charac- 
teristic is  involuntary,  irresistible,  blind  terror,  which 
arises  and  continues  without  an  adequate  cause, 
and  which  is  not  influenced  by  reason  or  religion, 
not  even  by  the  removal  of  the  supposed  object 
of  alarm.  The  disease  has  appeared  epidemically 
during  commercial  panics,  during  the  horrors  of 
cholera  and  plague,  and  in  that  singular  affection 
called  Timoria,  which  is  marked  by  debility,  tremor, 
and  terror,  and  has  been  traced  to  the  effects  of  the 
damp,  unhealthy  regions  in  Sardinia  and  Sicily,  where 
it  exclusively  occurs.  Panphobia  is  hereditary,  and 
has  been  traced  through  three  successive  genera- 
tions. In  reviewing  the  unobtrusive  members  of  an 
asylum  family,  the  [)allid,  startled,  staring,  flickering 
countenances  may  be  detected  as  those  of  patients 
labouring  under  fear.  They  resemble  melancholies 
in  pallidity  of  skin,  but  in  place  of  courting  they 
shrink  from  sympathy ;  though  horror-stricken  by 
gloom,  they  hide  in  corners,  they  escape,  they 
shriek  in  desperation,  they  climb  trees,  and  appar- 
ently inaccessible  places  ;  and  encounter  real  in  order 
to  elude  fancied  dangers ;  or  they  are  motionless, 
paralysed.  They  fear  and  flee  from  enemies,  police, 
demons,  death,  punishment;  indescribable  agonies 
themselves. — Feuchtersleben,  Principles  of  Medical 
Psychology,  p.  281 ;  Arnold,  Observations  on  Nature, 
Kinds,  Causes,  and  Prevention  of  Insanity,  &c.,  vol.  i. 
p.  257. 

FEASTS.    See  Festivals. 

FEATHER,  a  river  of  California,  and  a  feede» 
of  the  Sacramento,  runs  through  one  of  the  richest 
gold-fields  in  the  state.  It  receives  the  Yuba  near 
Marysville,  which  appears  to  mark  the  head  of  navi- 
gation— the  distance  down  the  F.  and  the  Sacra- 
mento to  the  harbour  of  San  Francisco  being  about 
100  miles. 

FEATHER  GRASS  {Stipa),  a  genus  ot  grasses 
remarkable  for  the  long  awns  which  give  a  pecu- 
liar and  very  gracefid  appearance  to  the  species, 
mostly  natives  of  warm  temperate  climates.  In 
some  of  them,  the  awn  is  beautifully  feathered. 
This  is  the  case  in  the  best  known  species,  the 
Common  F.  G.  [S.  pennata),  a  very  doubtful  native 
of  Britain,  but  found  on  diy  hiUs  in  the  middle  and 


FEATHER  GRASS-FEATHERS. 


i-eather  Grass  {Stipa  pennata). 


ionth  of  Europe.  It  is  perennial,  easy  of  cultiva- 
tion, and  a  favourite  ornament  of  our  gardens.  When 
>?aHiercd  before  the  seeds  are  ripe,  its  feathery  awns 

— sometimes  a  fouc 
in  length  —  remain 
attached,  so  that 
tufts  of  F.  G. 
ret.^in  their  beauty 
iliroughout  •winter, 
and  form  one  of  the 
most  pleasing  and 
familiar  decorations 
of  rooms.  They  are 
often  dyed,  to  givo 
variety  to  the  de- 
coration, but  are 
never  more  beauti- 
ful than  in  their 
natural  yellowish- 
white  colour.  The 
feathery  awns  not 
only  assist  in  the 
diffusion  of  the  seed, 
•which  is  carried  by 
the  wind  to  great 
distances,  but  in 
a  very  interesting 
manner  help  to  tix 
it  in  the  soil.  The 
seed  alights  verti- 
cally, the  furrowed 
base  of  the  awn 
becomes  twisted,  so 
that  its  furro^ws 
form  the  threads  of 
&  ecrew,  the  feathery  portion  becomes  horizontal, 
the  wind  acts  on  it,  and  the  seed  is  screwed  into 
the  ground — a  reverse  action  being  prevented  by 
stiff  hairs  which  act  as  barbs. — The  Esparto  (q.  v.) 
of  Spain  is  nearly  allied  to  the  Common  Feather 
Grass. 

FEATHERS,  a  complicated  modification  of  the 
tegumentary  system  forming  the  external  covering 
or  plumage  of  birds,  and  peculiar 
to  this  class  of  animals.  Not- 
withstanding the  varieties  of 
size,  strength,  and  colour,  all 
feathers  are  composed  of  a  quill 
or  baiTel,  a ;  a  shaft,  bb ;  and  a 
vane,  beard,  or  web,  cc,  on  either 
side  of  the  shaft,  the  vane  con- 
sisting of  barbs  and  barbules. 

The  quill  by  wiiich  the  feather 
is  attached  to  the  skin  is  wider 
but  shorter  than  the  shaft,  and 
forms  a  semi-transparent,  homy, 
cylindrical  tube,  which  termin- 
ates below  in  an  obtuse  ex- 
tremity, presenting  an  orifice 
termed  the  lower  umbilicus,  e. 
A  second  orifice,  leading  into  the 
interior  of  the  quill,  and  termed 
the  upper  umbilicus,  /,  is  situ- 
ated at  the  opposite  end,  wiiere 
the  two  vanes  meet  and  unite. 
The  ca-vdty  of  the  quill  contains 
a  series  of  conical  capsules  fitted 
one  upon  another,  and  united  by 
9  central  pedicle  ;  and  the  whole  structure  presents 
a  remarkable  combination  of  strength  and  lightness. 

The  shaft  is  always  of  greater  length  than  the 
qnill,  and  tapers  gradually  to  its  free  extremity ; 
it  is  llattened  at  the  sides,  is  more  or  less  convex 
t>n  the  back,  and  presents  a  longitudinal  groove 
Inferiorly.  It  is  composed  of  white,  elastic,  spongy 
structure,  which  is  covered  by  a  thin  homy  sheath. 

270 


feather. 


At  the  point  of  junction  of  the  shaft  and  quill, 
we  usually  observe — except  on  the  feathers  of  the 
wings  and  tail — a  small  supplementary  shaft  given 
off,  which  is  furnished  with  barbs  or  fibres,  and  ia 
termed  the  plumule  or  accessory  plume.  In  the 
ostrich  it  is  altogether  absent ;  in  the  rhea,  it  is 
re})resented  by  a  tuft  of  down ;  in  the  emu,  pn  the 
other  hand,  it  equals  the  original  feathers  in  size, 
so  that  the  quill  supports  two  shafts ;  and  in  the 
cassowar^^  there  is  a  second  plumule  of  considerable 
size,  so  that  the  quill  presents  three  distinct  shafts. 

The  vanes  or  webs  are  composed  of  niimeroua 
barbs  or  small  fibres  arranged  in  a  single  series  along 
each  side  of  tlie  shaft.  They  are  fine  prolongations 
of  the  outer  coat  of  the  shaft,  are  of  a  flattened 
form,  and  lie  inclined  towards  the  apex  of  the 
feather,  with  their  fiat  sides  towards  each  other, 
and  their  margins  in  the  direction  of  the  external 
and  internal  sides  of  the  feather.  The  barbs  are 
broader  near  the  shaft  than  at  the  free  apex,  and 
in  the  large  wing-feathers  the  convexity  of  one  ia 
received  into  the  concavity  of  another.  They  are, 
however,  generally  kept  in  position  by  the  barbules, 
which  are  minute  curved  filaments  arising  from  the 
up])er  edge  of  the  barb,  much  as  the  latter  arises 
from  the  shaft.  There  are  two  sets  of  these  bar- 
bules, one  curved  up"wards,  and  tlie  other  down- 
wards, and  those  of  one  barb  hook  so  firmly  into 
those  of  the  next,  as  to  form  a  close  and  compact 
surface.  In  the  ostrich,  the  barbides  are  well 
developed,  but  are  loose  and  separate,  and  it  in 
this  arrangement  which  giv«e  to  the  feathers  of 
this  bird  their  soft,  plumous  appearance. 

Feathers  present  numerous  gradations  of  &tmc- 
ture.  In  the  cassowary,  the  wings,  instead  of  being 
provided  with  ordinary  feathers,  are  furnished  with 
five  cylindrical  stalks  destitute  of  barbs,  so  that 
here  we  have  merely  the  quill  and  shaft.  On  the 
breast  of  the  wild  turkey  there  is  a  tuft  of  feathers 
resembling  long  black  hair.  In  the  Dasijlophus 
Cumingii,  the  feathers  of  the  crest,  breast,  and 
throat  are  changed,  at  their  extremities,  into  round, 
horny  lamella?,  looking  like  shining  black  spangles  ; 
and  in  the  common  waxwing  or  Bohemian  chatterer, 
some  of  the  wing-feathers  present  at  their  extremities 
small  horny  expansions,  resembling  red  sealing-Avax, 
both  in  colour  and  consistence. 

Besides  the  common  feathers,  the  skin  of  many 
birds,  especially  of  aquatic  species — in  which 
plumules  rarely  exist — is  covered  with  a  thick 
coating  of  down,  which  may  be  described  as  con- 
sisting of  very  minute  feathers,  each  of  which 
composed  of  a  very  small  soft  tube  lying  in  the  skm, 
from  the  interior  of  which  arises  a  minute  tuft  of 
soft  filaments,  without  any  central  shaft.  This 
downy  covering  secures  warmth  without  weight, 
like  the  soft  fur  at  the  base  of  the  hair  of  arctio 
mammals.  In  most  birds,  the  skin  also  bears  a 
good  many  scattered  hair-like  appendages,  which 
indicate  their  relations  to  the  ordinary  feathers  by 
the  presence  of  a  few  minute  barbs  towards  the 
apex. 

Feathers  are  developed  in  depressions  of  the  skin, 
lined  by  an  inversion  of  the  epidermis  which  sur- 
roimds  the  bulb  from  which  each  feather  springs ; 
they  grow,  much  in  the  same  manner  as  hairs,  by 
the  addition  of  new  cells  from  the  bulb,  which 
becomes  modified  into  the  horny  and  fibrous  stem, 
and  by  the  elongation  of  previously  existing  cells. 
They  are,  when  first  formed,  li\'ing  vascular  parts, 
growing  by  nutrient  vessels ;  but  when  they  are 
fidly  formed,  the  vessels  become  atrophied,  and  the 
feathers  become  dried  up,  and  gradually  die  from 
tlie  summit  to  the  base.  For  a  full  account  of  the 
development  of  the  different  parts,  we  must  refei 
to  Professor  Owen's  article,  '  Aves,'  and  to  P'-ofessoi 


FEBRIC  QLA— FEBRONIANISM. 


Huxley's  article,  '  Tegumeutary  Aj)pendages,'  in 
the  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology. 

Feathers  grow  with  great  rapidity,  and  in  some 
birds  attain  a  length  of  more  than  two  feet.  They 
are  ahnost  always  renewed  annually,  and  in  many 
Bpecies  oftener ;  hence  it  may  readily  be  conceived 
how  mncli  vital  energy  must  be  exhibited  in  their 
development,  and  how  critical  the  period  of  moult- 
ing must  be.  Tlie  plimiage  is  generally  changed 
several  times  before  it  attains  the  state  v/hich  is 
regarded  as  characteristic  of  the  adult  bird  ;  these 
changes  may  occupy  a  period  usually  rangmg  from 
one  to  five  years. 

Not^^^thstanding  theii*  extra  vascular  nature,  feath- 
ers, as  is  well  known,  undergo  a  change  of  colour 
after  they  are  completely  formed.  In  yearling  birds, 
the  winter  plumage,  which  succeeds  the  autumnal 
moult,  gradually  assumes  brighter  tints,  the  new 
colour  commencing  at  the  part  of  the  vane  nearest 
the  body,  and  gradually  extending  outwards  till 
it  pervades  the  whole  feather.  Dr  Weinland,  an 
American  naturalist,  is  of  opinion,  from  a  compari- 
son ^.L  bleached  specimens  in  museums,  with  recent 
ones  taken  from  the  bird,  that  the  brightness  and 
fading  of  the  colours  are  due  to  the  increase  or  dimi- 
nution of  an  oily  matter.  Thus,  the  microscopic 
examination  of  the  vane  of  feathers  from  the  breast 
of  a  fresh  merganser  shewed  numerous  lacunce  con- 
taining a  reddish  oil-like  fluid ;  some  weeks  after, 
the  same  feathers  having  become  nearly  white  from 
exposure  to  light,  disclosed  air-bubbles  instead  of 
the  reddish  fluid.  If  this  fluid  is  an  actual  oil,  as 
is  most  probably  the  case,  it  could  make  its  way 
into  the  non-vascular  tissue  by  mere  physical  imbi-- 
bition  ;  and  on  the  varying  quantities  of  this  oil  the 
variations  of  plumage  would  depend. 

The  property  possessed  by  the  plumage  of  most 
birds,  of  keeping  the  surface  protected  from  mois- 
ture, is  well  known.  This  is  due  to  two  causes. 
Most  birds  are  provided  with  an  oil-gland  at  the 
base  of  the  tail,  whose  secretion  is  distributed  over 
the  feathers  by  means  of  the  bill ;  and,  additionally, 
the  shedding  of  water  is  partly  due  to  a  thin  plate 
of  air  entangled  by  the  feathers. 

The  feathers  vary  in  form  in  different  parts  of 
the  body,  and  alFoixl  zoological  characters  for  the 
distinction  of  species.  Hence,  they  have  received 
distinct  names,  such  as  piimaries,  secondaries, 
tertiaries,  &c.,  in  ornithology.  These  terms  are 
explained  in  the  article  Birds. 

The  chief  uses  to  which  feathers  are  applied  in  the 
arts  are  three — pens,  due  to  the  peculiar  elasticity 
of  the  barrels ;  bed-feathers,  due  to  the  combined 
softness  and  elasticity  of  the  barbs ;  and  ornam,ent, 
due  to  the  graceful  forms  and  delicate  tints  of  the 
whole  feather.  The  mode  of  preparing  the  barrels 
for  pens  is  described  under  Quills. 

Bed-feathers  were  used  in  England  in  the  time  of 
Henry  VII. ;  but  it  is  not  known  how  much  earlier. 
At  the  present  day,  goose-feathers  are  preferred,  the 
white  rather  than  the  gray.  What  are  called 
foultr-y  feathers,  such  as  those  of  the  turkey,  duck, 
and  fowl,  are  less  esteemed,  on  account  of  their 
deflcient  elasticity.  Wild-duck  feathers  are  soft 
and  elastic,  but  contain  an  oil  difficult  to  remove. 
The  following  is  one  among  several  modes  of  pre- 
paring feathers  for  beds.  Clean  water  is  saturated 
with  quickUme ;  the  feathers  are  put  into  a  tub ; 
the  lime-water  is  added  to  the  de])th  of  a  few 
inches  ;  the  feathers  are  well  stee])ed  and  stirred  for 
three  or  four  days;  they  are  taken  out,  drained, 
washed  in  clean  water,  dried  upon  nets,  shaken 
occasionally  while  drying,  and  finally  beaten  to 
expel  any  dust.  The  larger  esta})lishments,  how- 
evei,  now  i)repare  bed-feathers  by  steaming,  which 
is  founl  to  be  a  more  profitable  and  efficient  pro- 


cess.   The  dovm,  which  is  of  so  light  and  exquisite 

a  texture  as  to  have  become  the  symbol  of  soft- 
ness, is  mostly  taken  from  the  breasts  of  birds, 
and  forms  a  warm  and  delicate  stuffing  for  beds, 
pillows,  and  coverlets.  The  most  valuable  is"  that 
obtained  from  the  eider-duck,  descriljcd  under 
Eider. 

Feathers  used  for  head-dresses,  or  other  pur- 
poses of  ornament,  are  selected  according  to  the 
forms  and  colours  which  they  display.  'Hie  ontrichy 
a  very  valuable  kind  of  feather,  may  be  taken  as 
an  exam))le  of  the  way  in  which  ornainental  feathers 
generally  are  prepared  by  the  p^«>ias.s'u'r.  The 
mode  of  catching  the  bird  itself  is  noticed  under 
OSTRICH;  it  suffices  here  to  state  that  the  hunters 
endeavour  to  avoid  injuring  the  feathers  by  blood  or 
blows.  When  brought  to  England,  the  feathers  are 
assorted  according  to  quality ;  those  from  the  back 
and  above  the  wings  are  the  best,  the  wing-feathers 
next  best,  and  the  tail-feathers  least  valued.  The 
feathers  of  the  male  are  rather  more  prized  than 
those  of  the  female.  They  are  cleaned  for  use  by 
repeated  soakings  and  washings  in  water,  sometimes 
with  and  sometin^es  without  soap.  There  is  also  a 
process  of  bleaching  by  means  of  burning  sulphur. 
When  dried  by  being  hung  upon  cords,  the  feathers 
pass  into  the  hands  of  the  dresser,  who  opens  the 
fibres  by  shaking,  gives  pliancy  to  the  ribs  by  scrap- 
ing them  with  bits  of  glass,  and  curls  the  filaments 
by  passing  the  edge  of  a  blunt  knife  over  them.  If 
the  feathers,  whether  of  the  ostrich  or  any  other 
bird,  remain  in  the  natural  colour,  little  more  has  to 
be  done  ;  but  if  a  change  of  tint  be  required,  the 
feathers  easily  take  dye-materials — such  as  saffiower 
and  lemon-juice  for  rose-colour  or  pink,  Brazil-wood 
for  deep  red,  Brazil-wood  and  cudbear  for  crimson, 
indigo  for  blue,  turmeric  or  weld  for  yellow,  &c. 
A  process  of  bleaching  is  adopted  before  the  dyosing, 
except  for  black. 

The  kinds  of  feathers  chiefly  used  for  ornament 
are  those  of  the  ostrich,  adjutant,  rhea  or  American 
ostrich,  emii,  osprey,  egrett,  heron,  antrenga,  bird 
of  paradise,  swan,  turkey,  peacock,  argus  pheasant, 
ibis,  eagle,  and  grebe.  White  ostrich  feathers 
are  prei)ared  chiefly  for  ladies'  head-dresses;  and 
black  for  the  Highland  regiments  and  for  funereal 
trappings.  The  white  and  gray  marabout- stork 
feathers,  imported  from  Calcutta,  are  beautifully 
soft  and  light,  and  are  in  request  for  head-dresses, 
muffs,  and  boas ;  the  white  kinds  will  sometimes 
sell  for  their  weight  in  gold.  The  flossy  kinds  of 
rhea  feather  are  used  for  military  plumes,  and  the 
long  brown  wing  feathers  for  brooms  and  brushes. 
Osprey  and  egrett  feathers  are  mostly  used  for 
military  plumes  by  Hussar  troopers.  Bird  of  Para- 
dise feathers  are  much  sought  after  by  Oriental 
princes  for  turban -plumes.  Cocks'  feathers  are  used 
for  ladies'  riding-hats  and  for  military  plumes.  Dr 
Macgowan,  who  was  United  States  consul  at  Xingpo 
a  few  years  ago,  has  described,  in  the  Ame^^ican 
Journal  of  Science  and  Art,  an  ingenious  process 
which  the  Chinese  adopt  for  combining  brilliant- 
coloured  feathers  with  bits  of  coloured  metal  into 
garlands,  chaplets,  frontals,  tiaras,  and  ether  cm*^ 
mental  articles. 

FEBRI'CULA  (Lat.  a  little  fever),  sometimes 
called  also  Ephemera  (Gr.  a  fever  of  a  day),  a  fever 
of  short  duration  and  mild  character,  having  no 
distinct  tyi}^  specific  symptoms,  by  which  it  can 
be  distinguished  and  described.    See  Fever. 

FE'BRIFUGE  (Lat.  fehris,  a  fever,  and  fugo,  1 
drive  away),  medicines  calculated  to  remove  or  yut 
short  Fever  (q.  v.). 

FEBRO'NIAN'ISM,in  Roman  Catholic  theology, 
a  system  of  doctrir»e  antagonistic  to  the  admitted 

S71 


FEBRUARY— FEDEliAL  GOV  iLivNMENT. 


claims  of  the  Roman  pontiff,  and  asserting  the  inde- ! 
pendence  of   national   churches,  and    the  diocesan 
rights  of  individual  bishops   in   matters  of  local 
discipline  and  church  government.     Tl\e  name  is  ' 
derived  from  the  nom  de  guerre,  Justin  us  '  Feb-  j 
ronius,'  assumed  by  John  NichoUas  von  Hontheim,  ; 
coadjutor  archbishop  of  Treves,  in  a  work  on  those 
subjects,  entitled  De  Prcesenti  Statu  Ecclesi(je,  which 
he  published  in  the  year  1767,  and  which,  with  its 
several  successive  volumes,  led  to  a  violent  and  | 
protracted  controversy,  and  elicited  the  severest  ; 
censures  of  the  Roman  tribunals.    See  Hontheim, 
Gallican  Church.  | 
FE'BRUARY,  the  second  month  of  the  year,  has  ' 
ordinarily  28  days,  but  in  leap-year  it  has  an  addi-  ! 
tional  or  intercalary  day.    Among  the  Romans,  it 
had  originally  29  days  in  an  ordinary  year,  but  when  \ 
the  senate  decreed  that  the  eighth  month  should 
bear  tlie  name  of  Augustus,  a  day  was  taken  from 
February,  and  given  to  August,  which  had  then 
only  30,  that  it  might  not  be  inferior  to  July.  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  circumstance,  that  during 
this  month  occurred  the  Roman  festival  called  the 
Lupercalia,  and  also  Februalia,  from  fehruare,  to 
purify.  j 

FE'BRUUS  (connected  with  Lat.  februare,  to  ! 
purify)  was  the  name  of  an  old  Italian  divinity,  [ 
whose  woi'ship  was    celebrated  with  lustrations 
during  the  month  of  Fel^ruaiy.    The  ceremonies 
institiited  in  his  honour  were  l)elieved  to  have 
the  effect  of  pi-oducing  fertility  in  man  and  beast.  ' 
F.,  whose  name  in  the  Etruscan  language  is  said 
to  have  signified  god  of  the  lower  world,  was  also  j 
worshipped  as  such  by  the  Romans,  and  identified  j 
with  the  Greek  Pluto.  | 

FECAMP,  a  manufacturing  town  and  seaport  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  Seine  Inferieure,  is  J 
situated  in  a  narrow  valley,  flanked  on  either  side  \ 
by  steep  cliffs,  at  the  mouth  of  a  stream  of  the  j 
same  name  on  the  English  Channel,  23  miles  north- 
east of  Ha\Te.    It  consists  mainly  of  one  long  street.  I 
Its  principal  building  is  the  handsome  church  of 
Notre  Dame,  in  the  early  pointed  style,  and  dating 
from  the  14th  century.    The  harbour  is  frequented 
by  colliers  from  Newcastle  and  Sunderla^id,  and 
by  Baltic  timber-ships  and  fishing-vessels.    F.  has  j 
cotton-mills,  sugar-refineries,  tanneries,  ship-build-  ] 
ing  yards,  and    some  linen-cloth  and  hardware  I 
manufactures.    Pop,  (1876)  12,074. 

FF/Gl  LA,  or  FiECULA,  is  a  term  applied  to  ' 
starch  obtained  from  various  sources,  but  in  France 
is  generally  restricted  to  the  starch  of  the  potato. 
See  Starch. 

FECUNDA'TION,  or  FERTILISA'TION,  5n 
plants,  takes  place  according  to  laws  similar  to 
those  which  prevail  in  the  animal  kingdom.     In  | 
plants,  however,  the  organs  of  reproduction  are  not 
permanent  as  in  animals,  but  fall  off — the  male 
organs  generally  soon  after  fecundation,  the  female 
after  the  ripening  of  the  seed.    The  male  seminal 
Bubstance,  called  2^oUen,  never  exists  in  a  fluid  state, 
but  always  in  that  of  granules  of  various  forms 
(pollen  grains),  which  consist  each  of  one  cell,  Avhose  j 
covering  is  of  various  thickness,  and  contains  the  | 
impregnating  substance.     After  the  dehiscence  of 
the  anthers  the  pollen  gets  into  contact  with  the, 
stigma  of  the  pistil,  which  in  its  lowest  and  thickest ! 
part  (the  ovary  or  germen)  contains  the  rudiments 
of  the  future  seeds  (ovules).    The  inner  layer  of  the 
cell-covering  of  the  pollen  grain  separates  from  the 
outer  and  thicker  layer,  as  if  it  came  out  of  a  bag, 
and  continuing  to  be  elongated  by  growth,  is  can-ied 
down  through  the  style  to  the  germen,  where  it 
reaches  the  foramen  or  small  opening  of  the  embryo 
sac,  and  comes  into  contact  with  the  ovule,  or  even 
372 


in  many  cases  penetrates  into  the  ovule  itssif 
between  its  cells.  By  this  time,  one  or  other  of  the 
cells  of  the  ovide  has  become  considerably  more 
enlarged  than  the  other  cells,  and  what  is  called  the 
am/lion  has  been  formed,  in  the  mucilaginous  fluid 
of  which  {protohlasma),  after  the  contact  of  the 
I)ollen-bag,  through  the  dynamic  operation  of  its 
contents,  a  cell-gann  or  cytohlast  is  soon  developed. 
This  cjrtoblast  is  the  first  commencement  of  a  new 
and  distinct  cell,  which  divides  into  two  ccIIh. 
These  increase,  by  continually  repeated  separation 
of  new  cells,  into  a  cellular  body,  which  forms  tho 
more  or  less  perfect  embryo  of  a  new  plant,  li 
the  organ  from  which  the  pollen  has  proceeded, 
and  the  organ  which  contained  the  ovule,  belong 
to  the  same  plant  or  to  plants  of  the  same  specif^, 
the  embryo  arising  from  this  fecundation  bccomea 
a  plant  of  the  same  s])ecies.  But  if  the  j)ollen 
by  M'hich  the  fecundation  is  effected  comes  from 
a  }>lant  of  another  species  than  that  to  which 
the  plant  belongs  in  whose  germen  the  embryo  is 
formed,  the  seed  resulting  from  this  fecundation 
will  not,  when  it  grows,  ])roduce  plants  of  the  same 
sj)ecies,  but  hybrids,  intermediate  between  the  i)arent 
])lants,  and  with  various  degrees  of  resemblance  to 
one  or  other  of  them,  l)ut  not  perfectly  correspond- 
ing with  either.  litmce  the  production  of  hybrids, 
and  multiplication  of  varieties  of  plants  in  gardens, 
by  what  is  called  the  artificial  impregnation  of  the 
stigma  of  one  j)lant  with  the  jwllen  of  another, 
which,  however,  must  be  of  an  allied  species,  hyl)rid- 
isation  being  confined  by  the  laws  of  nature  within 
very  narrow  limits.    See  Reproduotiox. 

FEDERAL  GOVERN xMENT  (Lat.  foederaius, 
bound  by  treaty,  from  foedvs,  a  treaty).  When 
several  states,  otherwise  independent,  bind  tliem- 
selves  together  l)y  a  treaty,  so  as  to  present  to  the 
external  world  the  aspect  of  a  single  state,  without 
wholly  renouncing  their  individual  powers  of  internal 
self-government,  they  are  said  to  form  a  Federation. 
The  contracting  parties  are  sovereign  states  acting 
through  their  representatives ;  and  the  extent  to 
which  the  central  ovenides  the  local  legislatures  is 
fixed  by  the  terms  of  the  contract.  In  so  far  aa 
the  local  sovereignty  is  renounced,  and  the  central 
power  becomes  sovereign  within  the  limits  of  the 
federated  states,  the  federation  a})])roaches  to  the 
character  of  a  Union  ;  and  the  only  renunciation 
of  sovereignty  which  a  federation  as  such  necessarily 
implies,  consists  in  abandoning  the  power  which  each 
separate  state  otherwise  would  possess  of  forming 
independent  relations  with  foreign  states.  *  There 
are,'  says  Mr  Mill,  '  two  different  modes  of 
organising  a  federal  imion.  The  federal  authorities 
may  represent  the  governments  solely,  and  their 
acts  may  be  obligatory  only  on  the  governments  as 
such,  or  they  may  haA'e  the  power  of  enacting  laws 
and  issuing  orders  which  are  binding  directly  on 
individual  citizens.  The  former  is  the  plan  of  the 
German  so-called  confederation,  and  of  the  Swiss 
constitution  prevnous  to  1847.  It  was  tried  in 
America  for  a  few  years  immediately  following  the 
war  of  independence.  The  other  principle  is  that 
of  the  existing  constitution  of  the  United  States, 
and  has  been  adopted  within  the  last  dozen  years 
by  the  Svnss  confederacy.  The  federal  congress  of 
the  American  Union  is  a  substantive  part  of  the 
goveniment  of  every  individual  state.  Within  the 
limits  of  its  attributions,  it  makes  laws  which  are 
obeyed  by  every  citizen  individually,  executes  them 
through  its  own  officers,  and  enforces  them  l^y  its 
own  tribunals.  This  is  the  only  principle  which 
has  been  found,  or  which  is  even  likely  to  produce 
an  effective  federal  government.  A  union  l^etween 
the  governments  only  is  a  mere  alliance,  and  subject 
to  all  the  contingencies  which  render  alliances 


FEE  AND  LIFERENT— FEE,  ESTA.TE  IN. 


precarious.' — Repreaentatlve  Government,  pp.  301,  302. 
One  of  the  chief  difficulties  which  arise  iu  organising 
a  federal  government,  consists  in  discovering  by 
what  means  disagreements  between  one  or  more 
of  the  local  governments  and  the  central  govern- 
ment as  to  the  Lmits  of  their  respective  powers, 
are  to  be  disposed  of.  The  arrangement  by  which 
this  object  was  sought  to  be  effected  in  America, 
of  which  M.  de  Tocqueville  expressed  his  admir- 
ation, is  thus  explained  by  Mr  Mill :  '  Under 
the  more  perfect  mode  of  federation,  where  every 
citizen  of  each  particular  state  owes  obedience  to 
two  governments— that  of  his  own  state,  and  that  of 
the  federation — it  is  evidently  necessary  not  only 
that  the  constitutional  limits  of  the  authority  of 
each  should  be  precisely  and  clearly  defined,  but 
that  the  power  to  decide  between  them  in  any  case 
of  dispute  should  not  reside  in  either  of  the  govern- 
ments, or  in  any  functionary  subject  to  it,  but  in  an 
umpire  independent  of  both.  There  must  be  a 
supreme  com-t  of  justice,  and  a  system  of  subor- 
dinate courts  in  every  state  of  the  union,  before 
whom  such  questions  shall  be  carried,  and  whose 

i'udgment  on  them,  in  the  last  stage  of  appeal,  shall 
»e  final.  Every  state  of  the  xmion,  and  the  federal 
government  itself,  as  well  as  every  functionary  of 
each,  must  be  hable  to  be  sued  in  those  courts  for 
exceeding  their  powers,  or  for  non-performance  of 
their  federal  duties,  and  must  in  general  be  obliged 
to  employ  those  courts  as  the"  instrument  for 
enforcing  their  federal  rights.  This  involves  the 
remarkable  consequence,  actually  realised  in  the 
United  States,  that  a  court  of  justice,  the  highest 
federal  tribunal,  is  supreme  over  the  various  govern- 
ments, both  state  and  federal,  having  the  right  to 
declare  that  any  new  law  made,  or  act  done  by 
them,  exceeds  the  powers  assigned  to  them  by  the 
federal  constitution,  and,  in  consequence,  has  no 
legal  validity.'— (P.  305.)  'The  tribimals  which  act 
as  umpires  between  the  federal  and  state  govern- 
ments naturally  also  decide  all  disputes  between 
two  states,  or  between  a  citizen  of  one  state  and 
the  government  of  another.  The  usual  remedies 
between  nations,  war  and  diplomacy,  being  pre- 
cluded by  the  federal  union,  it  is  necessary  that  a 
judicial  remedy  should  suj)ply  their  place.  The 
supreme  court  of  the  federation  dispenses  inter- 
national law,  and  is  the  first  great  example  of  what 
is  now  one  of  the  most  prominent  wants  of  civilised 
society,  a  real  intei'national  tribunal.'  Such  is  the 
constitution  of  the  greatest  and  most  completely 
organized  federation  that  the  world  has  ever  seen — a 
model  republic,  which,  though  threatened  with  de- 
struction by  the  enemies  of  civil  and  personal  liberty, 
has  survived  the  shock  of  intestine  Avar,  and,  purified 
from  the  defilement  of  slavery,  has  emerged  stronger 
and  more  secure  in  the  affections  of  the  people. 

FEE  AND  LI'FEHENT  (in  the  Law  of  Scotland) 
— ^the  first  of  which  is  the  full  right  of  proprie- 
torship, the  second  the  limited  right  of  usufruct 
during  life — may  be  held  together,  or  may  co-exist 
in  different  persons  at  the  same  time.  The  settling 
of  the  limits  of  the  rights  which  in  the  latter  case 
tUey  respectively  confer,  is  of  veiy  great  practical 
importance,  and,  from  the  loose  way  in  which  both 
expressions  have  been  used  by  conveyancers,  by  no 
means  free  from  difficulty.  '  In  common  language,' 
nays  Mr  Bell,  *  they  are  quite  distinct ;  liferent 
importing  a  life-interest  merely,  fee  a  full  right 
of  property  in  reversion  after  a  liferent.  But  the 
proper  meaning  of  the  word  liferent  has  some- 
times been  confounded  by  a  combination  with  the 
word  fee,  so  as  in  some  degree  to  lose  its  appro- 
priate sense,  and  occasionally  to  import  a  fee.  This 
seems  to  have  begun  chiefly  in  destinations  "to 
husband  and  wife,  in  conjunct  fee  and  liferent  and 
174 


children  in  fee ; "  where  the  true  meaning  is,  that 

each  spouse  has  a  joint  liferent  while  both  live, 
but  that  each  has  a  possible  fee,  as  it  is  'mccrtain 
which  is  to  survive.  The  same  confusion  ^f  terms 
came  to  be  extended  to  the  case  of  a  destins  tion  to 
parent  and  child — "to  A.  B.  in  liferent,  and  the 
heirs  of  the  marriage  in  fee  " — where  the  word  life- 
rent was  held  to  confer  a  fee  on  the  parent.  It 
came  gradually  to  be  held  as  the  technical  meaning 
of  the  words  "  liferent  to  a  parent,  with  fee  to  his 
children  nascituri,"  that  the  word  liferent  meant  a 
fee  in  the  father.  Finally,  the  ex})ression  came  to 
be  held  as  strictly  limited  to  its  proper  meaning 
by  the  accompanying  word  "Alleuerly"  or  some 
similar  expression  of  restriction ;  or  where  the  fee 
was  given  to  children  nati  and  nominatim  ;  there 
being  in  that  case  no  necessity  to  divert  the  word 
liferent  from  its  proper  meaning,  or,  on  a  similar 
principle,  where  the  settlement  was  by  means  of  a 
t]-ust  created  to  take  up  the  fee.'    [Prin.  s.  1712.) 

FEE,  Estate  in,  the  largest  estate  in  land  in 
point  of  quantity  of  estate  known  to  the  law  of 
England,  being  a  Freehold  (q.  v.)  of  inheritance. 
Estates  in  fee  are  divided  into  fee-simple  and  fee- 
tail.  A  fee-simple  is  defined  by  Littleton  (1,  a.)  to 
be  a  lawfid  and  pure  inheritance.  In  order  to 
create  an  estate  in  fee-sim])le  by  deed,  it  is  necessary 
that  the  word  heirs  should  be  used ;  for  a  gift  by 
deed  to  a  man  for  ever,  or  to  a  man  and  his  assigns 
for  ever,  creates  only  an  estate  for  life.  But  words 
of  perpetuity  annexed  to  a  gift  to  a  man  by  will 
are  construpd  as  carrying  an  estate  in  fee.  The  ])ro- 
pinetor  of  an  estate  in  fee-simple  enjoys  the  fullest 
rights  of  property  over  his  estate,  which  he  may 
alienate  or  burden  at  pleasure,  and  out  of  which  ho 
may  grant  estates  of  a  lower  kind,  as  for  life  or 
years.  He  is  owner  of  the  soil  'a  ccelo  usque  ad 
centrum,''  and  is  therefore  entitled  to  every  product 
of  the  land,  as  timber,  &c.,  and  to  all  minerals  and 
other  valuable  productions  found  beneath  the  sur- 
face. On  his  death,  the  estate  descends  to  his  right 
heirs,  except  in  the  case  of  fees  held  by  coriiora- 
tions,  which  descend  to  their  successors  in  office. 
Where  a  man  claims  an  estate  in  fee-simple  in  pos- 
session in  a  corporeal  Hereditament  (q.  v.),  he  ia 
said  to  be  '  seised  in  his  demesne  as  of  fee.'  Estatea 
in  fee-simple  are  divided  into  fee-simple  absolute, 
qualified  or  base,  and  conditional.  A  qualified  oi 
base  fee  differs  from  a  fee-simple  absolute  by  haAang 
a  qualification  annexed  which  may  determine  the 
estate,  as  where  it  is  granted  to  a  man  and  his  heira 
'tenants  of  the  manor  of  Dale.'  If,  therefore,  at 
any  time  the  holder  of  the  estate  ceases  to  be  the 
tenant  of  Dale,  the  estate,  which  depended  on  tha^^ 
qualification,  determines. 

A  conditumal  fee  was  limited  to  a  particular  clas-s 
of  heirs,  to  the  exclusion  of  others,  as  to  a  man  and 
the  heirs-male  of  his  body.  On  failure  of  heirs- 
male  of  the  body  of  the  grantee,  an  estate  of  this 
kind  reverted  to  the  grantor  or  his  heirs.  But 
although  the  estate  was  thus  limited,  by  the  termi? 
of  the  deed,  to  a  particular  series  of  heirs,  the  judges 
previous  to  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  held  that  the 
gift  was  a  fee-simple  on  condition  of  the  birth  of 
heirs  of  the  body  of  the  grantee,  and  that  on  the 
birth  of  an  heir  of  the  body,  the  condition  on  which 
the  estate  was  held  was  purified.  The  estate  did 
not  indeed  become  ipso  fado  a  fee-simple  absolute, 
but  the  grantee  was  held  entitled  to  sell  the  estate, 
to  forfeit  it  for  treason,  and  to  burden  it  witli 
encumbrances.  But  if  the  estate  was  not  sold,  and 
descended  to  the  heir,  he  continued  to  hf)ld  a  fee- 
simple  conditional.  This  state  of  things  led  to  tht 
famous  statute  De  Donis  ConditionaUhus  (13  Ed.  1 
c.  1),  whereby  it  was  enacted  that  estates  shoulo 
be  held  secundum  formam  doni.    Estates  created 


FEE-FUND— FEIGNING  OF  DISEASE. 


jy  this  statute  wei'e  called  estates  in  fee-tail.  See 
Entail. 

The  original  mode  of  transferring  an  estate  in  fee 
was  by  Feoffment  (q.  v.),  but  the  statute  of  Frauds 
29  Char.  II.  c.  3)  requiring  that  writing  should  be 
used  in  all  transfers  of  land,  estates  in  fee  must 
now  be  conveyed  jy  deed  or  ^vill. 

The  proprietor  of  an  estate  in  fee-simple  in  the 
present  day  is,  as  has  been  said,  absolute  owner  of 
the  freehold,  which  he  holds  without  owing  duty  or 
service  to  any  one,  except  the  allegiance  due  to  the 
sov  ereign,  who  is  regarded  as  supreme  lord  of  all 
thy  lauds  in  the  kingdom.  But  originally  this  was 
not  so ;  an  estate  in  fee  is  in  its  nature  a  feudal 
benefice,  a  feud,  and  the  owner  of  the  fee  held  his 
estate  subject  to  all  the  services  incident  to  the 
feudal  state.  But  these  duties  have  been  by  degrees 
entirely  abolished  in  England.  See  Feudal  Sys- 
tem, Tenures.  In  Scotland,  the  feudal  usages  in 
regard  to  land  are  still  retained  to  a  very  great 
extent.  The  two  distinct  rights  of  superior  and 
vassal  continue  to  subsist.  An  estate  in  fee  in 
Scotland  must  be  held  by  one  of  the  thi-ee  existing 
tenures — viz.,  feu,  blanch,  or  burgage,  and  is  subject 
to  tlie  Casualties  (q.  v.)  attaching  to  these  rights. 
See  Heritable  Rights. 

FEE-FUND,  in  Scotland,  is  the  fimd  arising  from 
the  payment  of  dues  of  court  on  the  tabling  of 
summonses,  the  extracting  of  decrees,  and  the  like. 
Out  of  this  fund,  the  clerks  and  other  inferior 
oiiicers  of  the  court  are  paid.  If  the  fund  is  at  any 
time  insufficient  for  the  purposes  to  which  it  is 
applied,  the  deficiency  is  supplied  out  of  the  moneys 
provided  by  the  acts  7  and  10  Anne  for  keeping  up 
the  Scottish  courts  of  law.  Tlie  collector,  since  the 
passing  of  1  and  2  Vict.  c.  118,  is  appointed  by  the 
erown  at  a  salary  not  exceeding  £400  per  annum. 

FEEJEE.    See  Fiji. 

FEELING.    See  Emotion. 

FEES.  Neither  barristers  nor  physicians  can 
recover  their  fees  by  legal  proceedings  against  their 
clients  or  patients,  except  under  a  special  contract. 
The  ground  of  this  ride  is,  that  they  are  regarded 
not  as  payment,  but  as  an  expression  of  gratitude 
for  ser\dces  the  value  of  which  cannot  be  appre- 
ciated in  money.  The  oi-igin  of  the  rule  in  the 
case  of  the  advocates,  is  traced  to  the  relation 
which  subsisted  between  patrons  and  their  clients 
in  ancient  Rome.  When  the  former  appeared 
as  the  defenders  of  the  latter,  they  practised,  as 
Blackstone  says  (iii.  29,  Kerr's  ed.),  gratis,  for 
honour  merely,  or  at  the  most  for  the  sake  of 
j>-aining  influence ;  and  so  likewise,  it  is  established 
with  us  that  a  counsel  can  maintain  no  action 
for  his  fees,  which  are  given,  not  as  locatio  vel 
conductlo,  but  as  quiddam  honorarium;  not  as 
a  salary  or  hire,  but  as  a  mere  gratuity,  which  a 
counsellor  cannot  demand  without  doing  wrong  to 
his  reputation.  The  rule  at  Rome  was  maintained 
even  under  the  emperors,  and  Tacitus  mentions 
{Ann.  hb.  ii.  c.  5)  that  it  was  directed  by  a  decree 
of  tlie  senate  that  these  lionoraria  shoidd  not  in 
any  case  exceed  10,000  sesterces,  or  about  £80  of 
English  money.  It  has  further  been  decided  in 
England,  that  no  action  lies  to  recover  back  a  fee 
given  to  a  barrister  to  argue  a  cause  which  he  did 
not  attend  (Feake,  122).  But  special  pleaders, 
equity  draftsmen,  and  conveyancers,  who  have  taken 
out  certifijates  to  practise  under  the  bar,  and  there- 
fore are  not  counsel,  may  recover  their  reasonable 
charges  for  business  done  by  them  (Poucher  v. 
Non.'ian,  3  B.  and  C,  744).  Another  rule  with 
reference  to  the  fees  of  barristers  and  advocates  is, 
that  they  are  i)aid  before  they  are  earned ;  a  rule 
which,  by  removing  fron  its  members  all  pecuniary 
274 


interest  in  the  issue  of  suits,  has  done  much  to 
maintain  the  independence  and  respectability  of 
the  bar.  As  regards  physicians,  the  nde  that  a 
fee  cannot  be  recovered  by  an  action  at  law,  was 
applied  in  the  case  of  Chorley  v.  Bolcot,  Juno  .*i0, 
1791  (4  T.  R.  317).  But  if  either  a  barrister  or  a 
physician  acts  under  a  special  agreement,  '  as  if  a 
physician,  who  is  my  friend,  hearing  that  my  son 
is  sick,  goeth  to  him  in  my  absence,  and  helps  and 
recovers  him,  and  I  being  ijiformed  thereof,  promise 
him  in  consideration,  &c.,  to  give  him  £20,  an  action 
will  lie  for  the  money,'  Veitch  v.  Russell  (Q.  B.  R. 
1842,  p.  934) ;  and  the  same  was  decided  regarding 
a  barrister,  in  Egan  v.  the  Guardians  of  the 
Kensington  Union,  tried  before  Lord  Denman,  C.  J., 
at  the  sittings  in  Middlesex,  after  Hilary  term, 
1841.  Members  of  the  inferior  branches  of  both 
professions — attorneys,  solicitors,  &c.,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  surgeons,  dentists,  cuppers,  and  the  like 
on  the  other — are  all  entitled  to  raise  action  for 
theii  fees.  In  Scotland,  the  same  rides  prevail  as 
in  England  with  reference  to  both  professions.  In 
France,  though  the  delicate  sense  of  honour  of  the 
bar  has  always  been  preserved  with  quite  as  much 
care  as  in  England,  the  rule  is  somewhat  diflerent 
In  law,  an  action  for  the  recovery  of  fees  woidd  be 
maintainable  in  that  country  by  an  advocate ;  but 
'in  Paris,  the  rule  of  the  ancient  bar,  founded  on 
the  disinterestedness  which  was  its  cliaracteristic, 
and  according  to  which  any  judicial  demand  of 
payment  of  fees  was  strictly  forbidden  under  pain 
of  erasure  from  the  table  (of  advocates),  has  been 
religiously  preserved.' — History  of  the  French  Bar^ 
by  Robert  Jones,  1855.  The  practice  in  France, 
however,  seems  to  be  for  the  fees  of  advocates  to  be 
paid  afterwards,  though  any  bargain  with  the  client 
or  his  agent  that  their  amount  shall  depend  on 
the  issue  of  a  trial,  is  regarded  as  dishonourable; 
and  on  several  occasions  the  bar  has  vehemently 
resisted  regulations  calling  on  them  to  acknowledge 
receipt  of  their  fees,  as  wounding  their  sensibility. 
There  can  scarcely  be  a  stronger  proof  of  the  value 
of  what  seem  in  themselves  to  be  trifling  and 
pedantic  pieces  of  etiquette,  than  the  dignified  and 
independent  position,  which,  from  its  scrupiilous 
sense  of  honour,  the  French  bar  has  maintained 
during  all  the  political  revolutions  which  the 
country  has  undergone. 

FEHERVAr  (SZEKES),  the  same  as  the  Latin 

Alba  liegia,  or  the  German  Stuhlweissenhurg,  is  one 
of  the  most  ancient  royal  free  towns  of  Hungary, 
situated  in  a  marshy  district  about  40  miles  south- 
west of  Pesth.  'Under  the  Arpadian  kiii^s,  it  was 
the  metropolis  of  the  realm,  and  the  residence  of 
the  sovereigns,  who  have  been  often  crowned  and 
buried  there.  On  many  occasions,  the  diets  also  were 
held  in  F.,  where  twelve  kings— among  which  are 
St  Stephen,  and  the  great  Mathias  Corviiius — lie 
buried.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  contains  a 
population  of  21,000,  chiefly  Roman  Cath  olics,  and 
all  of  the  Magyar  race.  Water  is  su2)plied  by  an 
artesian  well. 

FEI'A,  a  large  lake  of  Brazil,  lies  on  the  mari- 
time border  of  the  province  of  Rio  Janeiro,  and  is 
distant  150  miles,  to  the  north-east,  from  the  city 
of  the  same  name.  It  is  so  near  to  the  Atlantic 
that  it  has  been  connected  with  it  by  means  of  a 
canal.  F.  is  about  a  degree  to  the  north  of  the 
southern  tropic. 

FEIGNING  OF  DISEASE  is  much  practised 
in  the  army  and  na\y,  and  also  by  convicts  and 
others  anxious  to  escape  from  discipline,  or  procure 
a  discharge  from  compulsory  service.  In  the  army, 
it  is  technically  called  malingering.  The  detectioD 
of  feigned  disease,  of  course,  necessarily  belongs  to 


FEINT— FELID^ 


the  biglily  educated  physician,  and  is  impossible 
without  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  reality,  unless, 
indeed,  the  imitation  be  very  coarse  and  badly 
studied.  The  diseases  most  commonly  simidated 
are  epdepsy,  catalepsy,'  convulsions,  blindness,  deaf- 
ness, palsy,  insanity,  indigestion,  neuralgia,  rheuma- 
tism, palpitation  of  the  heart,  and  generally  all 
disorders  Avhich  may  exist  without  leading  to  any 
distinct  external  appearances,  leers  of  the  legs, 
however,  have  often  been  made,  and  kept  open 
artihcially  through  the  application  of  irritant  sub- 
stances ;  and  vomiting  or  coughing  up  of  blood  is 
very  easily  simulated,  if  the  supposed  patient  can 
get  access  to  the  necessary  materials  in  the  slaughter- 
house or  elsewhere.  The  detection  of  such  impos- 
tures is  easy  or  not  according  to  the  02)portunities 
and  knowledge  and  skill  of  the  deceiver,  as  compared 
with  those  brought  to  bear  on  the  discovery  of  the 
fraud.  Many  men  in  the  public  services,  and  women 
affected  with  hysteria,  have  become  so  expert  as  to 
deceive  even  men  of  high  character  and  skill.  The 
writer  has  known  of  an  instance  in  which  a  man 
submitted  to  successive  amputations  of  the  arm 
upwards,  nearly  to  the  shoulder,  for  an  ulcer  pro- 
duced and  kept  open  at  will  by  local  applications  ; 
and  a  case  has  been  lately  recorded  by  Dr  Murchison 
in  the  Medico-chirurgical  Transactions,  in  which 
there  is  no  reasonable  doubt  that  a  large  opening 
into  the  stomach  was  the  result  of  caustic  substances 
deliberately  applied  to  the  abdomen,  with  the  view 
of  exciting  sympathy. 

FEINT  (from  the  Fr.  femdre),  in  military  or 
naval  matters,  a  mock  attack  or  assault,  usually 
made  to  throw  an  enemy  off  his  guard  against  some 
real  design  upon  his  position.    See  Fencing. 

FEITH,  Rhijnvis,  a  distinguished  Dutch  poet, 
who  ranks  next  to  Bilderdijk  (q.  v.)  as  a  reviver 
of  the  national  poetry,  was  born  7th  February  1753, 
at  ZwoU  in  Overyssel,  studied  law  at  Leyden,  and 
returned  to  his  native  town  in  1776,  where  he  held 
the  office  of  burgomaster.  He  died  8th  February  1824. 
F.  tried  almost  all  kinds  of  jwetry.  In  his  earlier 
productions,  he  shewed  an  excessive  inclination 
for  the  sentimental;  but  in  1792  appeared  his  Het 
Graf  (The  Tom))),  a  didactic  poem,  which,  though 
not  free  from  the  weakness  referred  to,  is  yet  on 
the  whole  happily  conceived,  and  contains  some 
admu-able  passages.    His  De  Ouderdom  (Old  Age), 

Eublished  in  1802,  is  deficient  in  plan.  Among 
is  lyrical  pieces,  Oden  en  Gedichten  (Odes  and  Mis- 
cellaneous Poems,  4  vols.,  Amst.  1796 — 1810),  are 
several  marked  by  a  high  enthusiasm  and  warmth  of 
feeling.  Of  his  tragedies,  the  best  known  are  Thirza 
(1791),  Jolmnna  Gray  (1791),  and  hies  de  Castro 
(1793).  Along  with  Bilderdijk,  he  recast  in  a  nobler 
form  Haren's  famous  patriotic  poem,  De  Geuzen  (Les 
Gueux,  or  the  Beggars),  which  celebrates  the  first 
Btruggles  of  the  Dutch  for  independence.  Of  F.'s 
prose  works,  the  most  imijortant  are  Brieven  over 
verscheide?i  Onderiverpen  (Letters  on  Different  Sub- 
jects, 6  vols.,  Amst.  1784-1790).  These  Letters, 
by  their  polished  style  and  refined  criticism,  did 
much  to  imj)rove  the  literary  taste  of  Holland. 

FE'LDMANN",  Leopold,  a  German  writer  of 
comedies,  was  born  at  Munich  in  1803,  of  Jewish 
parents,  to  whose  faith  he  remains  attached- 
Apprenticed  in  1815  to  a  saddler,  and  afterwards 
to  a  cobbler,  he  soon  gave  evidence  of  his  deter- 
mmation  to  be  a  poet  by  sending,  in  a  pair  of  shoes, 
which  he  had  mended,  a  poetical  expression  of  his 
devotion  to  their  fair  wearer.  For  this  his  master 
Kent  him  back  to  school,  where  in  1817,  when  only 
in  his  14th  year,  he  wrote  a  play,  Der  Falsche  Evd 
(The  Falso  Oath),  which  was  actually  prodiiced  on 
the  stage.    After  spending  a  few  years  in  business 


at  Pappenheim,  and  subsequently  in  Munich,  he 
was  induced,  by  the  reputation  which  he  gained 
from  some  humorous  pieces,  entitled  Genrehikler,  to 
devote  himself  entirely  to  literature.  In  1835, 
his  IloUen-lkder  (Hell-Songs)  appeared ;  and  his 
first  comedy,  Der  Solui  aiif  Reiseii  (The  ^:'on  on  his 
Travels),  was  acted  in  Munich  with  applause.  While 
travelling  thereafter  for  five  years,  cliicfiy  ia 
Greece,  he  wrote  'Pictures  of  Travel'  for  Lewald'a 
Europa,  and  the  correspondence  for  the  AUjjmieim 
Zeitung.  In  1841,  his  comedy  was  produced  ia 
Vienna,  and  since  1850,  he  has  been  emj^loyed  as 
histrionic  teacher  in  the  National  Theatre  of  that 
capital.  F.'s  works,  which  are  numerous,  aro 
reckoned  among  the  best  specimens  of  modern 
German  comedy,  pleasing  by  their  cheerful  humour, 
and  happy  emi)loyment  of  contemporary  ideaa 
and  events,  though  complained  of  as  deficient  iu 
artistic  finish.  F.  has  published  a  collection  of  his 
comedies  in  six  volumes  {Deutsche  Orifjinallustspiele 
(Original  German  Comedies),  Wien,  1844 — 1852). 

FELEGYHA'ZA,  a  town  of  Little  Cumania, 
Hungary,  is  situated  on  the  railway  between  Pesth 
and  Temesvar,  67  miles  south-east  from  the  former. 
It  has  an  extensive  trade  in  grain,  fruit,  wine, 
tobacco,  and  cattle.  In  the  neiglibourhood,  several 
Roman  urns  have  been  found.    Pop.  19,420. 

FELICU'DL    See  Lipari  Islands. 

FE'LID^,  or  FELI'N^,  a  famdy  of  digitigrade 
carnivorous  quadrupeds  (see  Carnivora  and  l)iGi- 
tigrada),  corresponding  to  the  genus  Fells  oi 
Linnajus,  and  sometimes  collectively  called  cats  or 
the  cat  tribe.  They  are,  generally  speaking,  the  most 
carnivorous  of  aU  the  Carnivora,  holding  the  same 
relative  place  among  quadrupeds  that  the  Falconidce 
do  among  birds.  Their  organisation  is  admirably 
suitable  to  their  habits.  They  have  a  very  lithe 
muscular  frame ;  the  body  is  rather  long,  and 
remarkably  flexible ;  the  limbs  generally  short. 
Few  of  the  species  possess  much  fleetness,  but  most 
of  them  excel  in  climbing  and  in  leaping.  When 
moving  rapidly  over  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
they  generally  advance  by  a  series  of  zigzag  bounds, 
rather  than  by  direct  running.  They  are  mostly 
inhabitants  of  forests,  and  many  even  of *the  larger 
species  live  much  among  the  branches  of  ti'ees, 
although  some  of  the  largest  do  not  leave  the 
ground.  They  all  advance  stealthily  on  their  prey, 
which  all  of  them  kill  for  themselves,  and  devour  in 
a  perfectly  fresh  state,  and  generally  whilst  stdl 
warm  and  quivering.  When  they  have  approached 
within  a  sufficient  distance,  they  complete  the 
seizure  by  a  spring,  many  of  them  uttering  a  roar 
or  yell  as  tbey  do  sOj  and  thus  rendering  their 
victory  more  secure  by  the  consternation  which 
paralyses  the  object  of  their  attack.  Their  move- 
ments are  extremely  noiseless,  owing  to  the  soft 
velvety  pads  with  which  then-  toes  are  provided. 
Their  claws  are  strong,  much  curved,  very  shar]), 
and  retractile  ;  being  withdrawn  by  special  muscles 
and  ligaments  into  sheaths  when  not  in  use,  and 
their  points  even  turned  upwards,  so  that  they  are 
not  blunted  by  imnecessary  friction,  and  do  not 
interfere  with  the  movements  of  the  animal  by 
accidentally  hooking  objects  which  are  in  the  way. 
The  last  bone  [pJuilanx)  and  joint  of  the  toe  exhibit 
peculiarities  requisite  for  the  extension  and  retrac- 
tion of  the  claws.  The  lore-feet  have  five  toes,  tho 
hind-feet  four.  The  head  of  the  F.  is  charactej-ised 
by  great  breadth  of  skull,  whilst  the  muzzle  is 
short,  and  sometimes  even  rounded ;  the  jaws  are 
moved  by  very  powerful  muscles,  and  the  articula- 
tion of  the  lower  jaw  is  such  that  it  has  no  rotatory 
motion ;  the  teeth  also  being  so  shaped,  and  those 
of  the  two  jaws  so  fitting  to  each  other,  that  they 

275 


FELID^-FELIX. 


cnt  like  scissors — the  lower  teeth  shutting  within 
the  upper — and  are  not  at  all  adapted  to  the 
trituration  of  food.  There  are  six  small  incisors  in 
each  jaw,  followed  on  each  side  by  one  very  large 
i-aoine  tooth,  adapted  for  prehension;  and  this  by 


Characteristic  Feattires  of  the  Felidse : 
1,  tiffpr's  head;  2,   shewing  the   dent  tion ;    3,   portion  of 
tongue;  4,  right  lore  p^w,  shewing  claws  ;  6,  claw,  shewing 
terKions. 

two  i)rjEmolars,  or  false  molars,  which,  particularly 
in  the  lower  jaw,  are  compressed  and  sharp-edged, 
their  edges  rising  to  a  central  summit,  with  infenor 
lateral  cusps,  so  that  flesh  between  them  is  sub- 
jected to  a  cutting  action  in  various  directions. 
Finally,  there  is  on  each  side  of  each  jaw  one  true 
molar,  and  in  the  upper  jaw  of  many  species,  a 
second  time  molar.  The  cro\A'n3  of  all  the  teeth  are 
covered  with  enamel.  The  toncjue  is  rou^h,  with 
horny  papillae  directed  backwarcls,  by  which  it  is 
fitted  for  cleaning  the  bones  of  the  prey.  The 
Htomach  is  simple,  the  intestines  short,  and  digestion 
rapid.  The  senses  of  sight  and  hearing  are  extremely 
dcute ;  the  eyes  are  adapted  to  seeing  both  by  day 
and  by  night ;  the  sense  of  smelling  is  also  very 
acute,  although  apparently  not  equal  to  that  of 
dogs ;  the  sense  of  taste  is  sup[>osed  to  be  less 
acute ;  the  bulbs  from  which  the  long  whiskers 
arise  appear  to  possess  the  sense  of  touch  in  great 
perfection,  and  the  whiskers  thus  become  useful 
in  the  progress  of  the  animal  through  entangled 
thickets. 

The  F.  agree  so  much  in  form  and  structure,  that 
many  naturalists  still  refuse  to  divide  the  Linnaean 
genus  Feds.  None  of  the  F.  are  gregarious.  Almost 
all  of  them,  when  taken  young,  seem  capable  of 
domestication,  but  in  general  they  are  little  to  be 
trusted.  The  opecies  are  numerous.  They  are 
distributed  ove '  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  America,  and 
the  islands  adjacent  to  these  continents ;  but  none 
are  found  in  Australia,  where  their  place  is  supj)lied 
by  the  carnivorous  marsiipial  quadrupeds.  The 
largest  species  are  chiefly  foxind  in  warm  climates. 
No  species  is  known  to  be  common  to  the  Old  and 
New  worlds,  although  some  are  very  nearly  allied. 

Vast  numbers  of  the  larger  F.  were  brought 
from  Africa  and  the  East  for  those  savage  sports 
and  shows  in  which  the  ancient  Eomans  delighted. 
Five  hundred  lions  were  slain  in  five  days  at  the 
opening  of  Pompey's  theatre,  and  five  hundred 
panthers  have  been  let  loose  at  once  in  a  similar 
Konian  arena.  The  wealth  of  Indian  princes  has 
also  boen  often  spent  in  fights  of  such  beasts. 

The  i)rincipal  F.  are  noticed  in  separate  articles,  as 
liTON,  TioER,  Jaguar,  Pctma,  Leopard,  Panther, 
Cat,  Tiger-cat,  Lynx,  Cheetah,  Ounce,  Caracal, 
Skrval,  Ocisi  ot,  &c. 

276 


FE'LIX,  Antonius,  a  Eoman  procurator  ol 
Judfea  (51 — C2  a.d.)  in  the  time  of  the  Apostle 
Paul,  was  a  freedman  of  the  Emperor  Claudius  I. 
The  circumstances  under  which  he  received  hia 
appointment  are  related  differently  by  Tacitus  and 
Josephus.  His  government,  jiolitically  considered, 
was  in  some  respects  good.  According  to  Josephus 
and  other  authorities,  he  cleared  the  country  of 
robbers,  and  vigorously  suppressed  the  chaotic 
seditions  of  the  Jews ;  but  his  cruelty,  lust,  and 

freed  were  unboundecL  His  wife  was  DrusiJla,  a 
eautiful  but  renegade  Jewess,  whom  he  had 
induced  to  abandon  her  first  husband,  and  to  form 
a  questionable  connection  with  himself.  It  was 
therefore  not  at  all  wonderful  that  F.  should 
tremble  as  Paul  reasoned  of  '  righteousness,  temper- 
ance, and  judgment  to  come'  (Acts  xxiv.  25). 
He  was  recalled  to  Rome,  62  a.d.,  on  account  ol 
the  accusations  preferred  against  him  by  the  influ- 
ential Jews  of  Caisarea,  and  narrowly  escaped  the 
sentence  of  death. 

FE'LIX  (Pope)  I.— IV.— Felix  I,  reckoned  the 
2Cth  in  the  succession  of  popes,  succeeded  Dionysiua 
in  the  see  of  Rome  probably  in  the  year  209.  Hia 
pontificate  is  chiefly  interesting  as  an  early  example 
of  the  relations  of  the  Christian  Church  to  the  Roman 
empire,  and  of  the  recognition  by  the  state  of  the 
civil  rights  of  Christians.  In  the  pontificate  of 
Felix's  predecessor,  Dionysius,  Paul  of  Samosata, 
Bishop  of  Antioch,  had  been  deposed  by  a  council 
held  in  that  city.  Paul  having  resisted  the  sen- 
tence, the  matter  was  laid  before  Felix,  Dionysiua 
being  now  dead ;  and,  as  Paul  held  possession  of 
the  church  and  church  buildings,  the  bishops  were 
obliged  to  claim  the  interfereiice  of  the  Emperor 
Aurelian,  who  was  passing  through  Antioch  on  hia 
retuni  from  Palm^Ta.  Aurelian  retiu-ned  a  decision 
which  is  often  appealed  to  in  modern  controversy, 
to  the  efi"ect  that  the  buOdings  should  belong  to 
the  po'son  '  to  whom  they  should  be  adjudged  by 
the  bishops  of  Italy  and  Rome.'  Felix  afterwartUi 
suffered  martyrdom  in  the  persecution  of  the  same 
emperor,  Aurelian,  probably  in  274. — Felix  II. 
occupied  the  Roman  see  duiing  the  banishment  of 
Liberius,  in  355.  It  is  agreed  on  aU  hands  that 
his  first  appointment  was  intrusive,  but  much 
diversity  of  opinion  exists  as  to  his  subsequent 
career.  In  reply  to  a  petition  for  the  recall 
of  Liberius,  it  was  proposed  by  the  Emperor 
Constantius  that  Liberius  and  Felix  should 
exercise  jurisdiction  jointly;  but  this  proposition 
was  rejected  by  the  Romans,  and  Felix  appears 
to  have  been  compelled  to  retire  from  the  city. 
According  to  the  Liber  Pontificalis,  he  suffered 
martyrdom  in  the  end,  at  the  hands  of  his  former 
patron,  Constantius  ;  but  this  is  not  confirmed  by 
any  contemporary  authority. — Felix  III.  occupied 
the  see  of  Rome  from  483  till  492.  He  was  a 
native  of  Rome,  and  of  the  family  from  which 
afterwards  sprung  Pope  Gregory  the  Great.  His 
pontificate  is  historically  memorable,  as  presenting 
the  first  commencement  of  the  disruption  of  the 
Greek  and  Roman  churches.  The  contemporai'y 
occupant  of  the  see  of  Constantinople,  Acacius,  as 
well  as  the  imperial  court,  M'as  a  favourer  of  the 
Monophysite  party,  who  refused  to  accept  the 
decision  of  the  council  of  Chalcedon.  See  MONO- 
PHYSITES.  By  their  influence,  the  patriarch  of 
Alexandria  was  deposed,  and  replaced  by  the 
monophysite,  Peter  Mongus.  The  deposed  patri- 
arch having  appealed  to  Rome,  Felix  sent  two 
legates  to  Constantinople  to  require  his  restoration ; 
and  the  legates  having  failed  in  their  trust,  and 
Acacius  still  adhering  to  the  heterodox  party,  Felix 
assembled  a  council  at  Rome,  and  excommunicated 
not  only  the  offending  legates,  but  also  Acacius 


FELIXIANS-FELLOWS. 


himself,  the  sentence  being  pinned  by  a  monk 
upon  the  back  of  the  patriarch's  robes  while  he 
■was  actually  officiating  in  the  church.  Felix  had 
previous]^'-  rejected  the  Henoticon,  or  Decree  of 
Union,  published  by  the  Emperor  Zeno.  The  schism 
thus  inaugurated  was  not  healed  till  the  year  519. 
The  only  literary  remains  of  this  poatiff  are  the 
letters  and  other  acts  of  this  controversy.  He  died 
February  24,  492. — Felix  IV.,  a  native  of  Bene- 
vento,  succeeded  John  I.  in  526.  His  pontificate 
presents  no  noteworthy  event.  He  died  in  530. — 
Felix  V.  (anti-pope).    See  Amadeus. 

FELI'XIAXS,  a  Spanish  sect  of  the  latter  part 
of  the  8th  c,  so  called  from  Felix,  Bishop  of  Urgel. 
See  ADOPTiA^f  Controversy. 

FE'LLAH  (plural,  El  Fellahin),  an  Arabic 
word  meaning  peasant  or  agriculturist,  specially 
applied  to  the  agricultural  or  labouring  popula- 
tion of  Eg;y^t  by  the  Turks,  in  a  contemptuous 
sense,  as  '  clowns,'  or  '  boors.'  They  form  the  great 
bulk  of  the  population,  and  are  descendants  of 
the  ancient  Egyptians,  intermingled  with  Syrians, 
Arabs,  and  other  races  who  have  been  converted 
to  Islam.  In  their  physical  conformation  and 
features,  they  differ  among  themselves,  those  of 
the  northern  provinces  of  the  Mediterranean  being 
of  whiter  hue,  while  at  Assouan  they  are  almost 
black.  They  are  described  as  having  a  large  skidl, 
facial  angle  almost  90  degrees,  oval  face,  arched 
eyebrows,  deep  eyes,  projecting  lips,  large  mouth, 
thin  beard,  short  nose,  large  chest,  and  small  beUy ; 
arched  back,  and  small  hands  and  feet,  and  being 
of  mean  height.  They  form  the  fourth  class  of 
the  population,  and  are  distinguished  from  the 
Bedouin  or  free  Arabs,  who  have  entered  the 
country  later  than  the  Saracenic  conquest,  and  the 
Arabs  of  the  tovnis  and  villages.  Their  dress 
consists  of  a  shirt  and  linen  drawers,  over  which  is 
a  larger  blue  shii-t  {herie),  girdled  by  a  leather  or 
stuff  belt,  which  is  exchanged  in  the  winter  for  a 
coat  with  sleeves  {zabout).  On  their  head,  they 
wear  the  tarboush,  turban,  or  a  black  or  gray  cap  ; 
the  women  tattoo  themselves,  and  are  nubile  at 
an  early  age,  being  often  married  at  II  years, 
mothers  at  12,  and  grandmothers  at  24.  The 
food  of  the  Fellahin  consists  entirely  of  vegetables, 
which  they  eat  in  a  crude  state,  dhourra  bread, 
and  beans.  Even  rice  is  too  dear  for  them  and 
animal  food  unattainable.  Their  drink  is  limited 
to  the  waters  of  the  Nile  and  coffee,  and  the 
only  luxury  which  they  enjoy  is  the  green  tobacco 
of  the  country ;  yet  on  this  diet  they  are  robust 
and  healthy,  and  capable  of  much  labour  and 
fatigue.  In  their  social  position,  they  are  inferior 
to  the  Bedouin,  who,  although  they  will  marry 
the  daughters  of  the  Fellahin,  will  not  give  to 
them  their  own  in  marriage.  They  appear  to 
exhil)it  the  moi'al  qualities  of  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
being  intelligent,  grave,  and  calm,  docile,  pliable, 
and  sober  on  the  one  hand;  and  idle,  jealous, 
quarrelsome,  satirical,  licentious,  and  of  unbending 
obstinacy,  on  the  other,  and  inherit  the  traditional 
hatred  of  their  ancestors  to  the  payment  of  taxes, 
■which  are  often  only  extorted  by  the  bastinado. 
Their  political  condition  is  most  miserable.  Each 
vUlage  is  governed  by  a  Sheik-el-Beled,  who  is 
responsible  to  the  Nazirs  and  Mam  ours,  or  district 
ofBceis,  for  the  conduct  of  the  inhabitants,  and 
their  due  pajnnent  of  taxes.  So  oppressive,  indeed. 
Is  the  taxation  and  extortion,  scarcely  of  the 
produce  falling  to  their  lot,  that  it  would  not  be 
possible  for  them  to  live  if  it  were  carried  to  a 
higher  pitch,  and  none  cultivate  the  lands  with 
dihgence  unless  compelled  by  their  superiors. — 
Giidd  OjJ,  Types  of  Mankind,  p.  319 ;  Lepsius,  E'ji/pt  \ 


and  Ethiopia,  p.  76;  Lane,  Manners  and  Cusfoms 
of  Modern  Egyptians,  pp.  125,  12G,  192,  193;  Cllot 
Bey,  Aper^u  generale,  i.  pp.  159,  160. 

FB'LLENBERG,  Philip  Emanuel  von,  the 
founder  of  the  institution  for  the  improvement  of 
education  and  agriculture  at  Hofwyl  in  the  canton 
of  Bern,  in  Switzerland,  was  born  at  Bern  in  177i. 
His  father  was  a  man  of  patrician  rank,  and  in  con- 
sequence, a  member  of  the  government.  From  him 
F.  received  a  very  careful  education;  but  it  was  hia 
mother,  a  great-grand-daughter  of  the  famous  Dutch 
admiral,  van  Tromp,  who  inspired  him  with  tha 
ardent  desire  of  being  useful  to  his  fellow-creatures. 
In  1789,  he  went  to  the  university  at  Tubingen,  for 
the  purpose  of  studying  law,  and  subsequently 
travelled  in  various  parts  of  Europe,  taking  up  his 
quarters  not  in  the  hotels  of  the  large  towais,  but  in 
the  cottages  of  the  peasantry,  that  he  might  know 
at  first  hand  the  real  condition  and  the  manners  of 
the  poor,  as  well  as  the  kind  of  education  received 
by  those  whose  life  was  to  be  spent  in  agricultural 
pursuits.  When  the  revolution  of  1798  broke  out 
in  Switzerland,  F.  took  part  in  it  for  some  time ; 
but  the  faithlessness  and  want  of  public  spirit  on 
the  part  of  the  Bernese  government  induced  him 
to  withdraw  from  political  life  altogether,  and 
to  devote  himself  solely  to  philanthropic  schemes. 
He  now  purchased  the  estate  of  Hofwyl,  near 
Bern,  and  soon  after  entered  into  an  alliance  with 
Pestalozzi,  the  educationist.  Their  different  char- 
acters, however,  rendered  such  a  union  impracti- 
cable, and  they  found  it  necessary  to  sei^arate.  F. 
now  proceeded  with  redoubled  zeal  to  increase  the 
produce  of  his  estate  by  new  improvements,  to  influ- 
ence the  neighbourhood  by  his  example,  and  to 
make  his  experiments  known  to  the  world  by  his 
agricultural  treatises.  At  the  same  time,  he  founded 
an  asylum  for  forsaken  children.  He  also  opened  a 
school  of  theoretical  and  practical  agriculture,  and 
comiected  with  it  an  institution  for  the  education  of 
the  children  of  the  higher  classes.  The  establish 
ment  at  Hofwyl  acquired  for  its  founder  a  very 
great  reputation,  and  pupils  hastened  to  it  from  all 
quarters.  Many  foreign  princes  visited  it,  and  on 
their  return  to  their  own  countries,  founded  similar 
institutions.  In  the  year  1830,  F.  founded  a  school 
of  art,  and  some  years  later,  an  infant  school.  He 
died  21st  November  1844.  The  institutions  at 
Hofwyl  were  continued  for  some  years  by  his  son 
Wilhelm,  and  then  entirely  given  up.  Comparo 
Hamm,  F.^s  Leben  und  Wirken  (Bern,  1845). 

FE'LLOWS,  Sir  Charles,  an  antiquary  of 
considerable  reputation,  was  born  at  Nottingham  in 
1799.  In  the  beginning  of  1838,  he  commenced 
those  travels  in  the  East  by  means  of  which  hia  nama 
has  been  brought  so  prominently  into  public  notice. 
His  researches  were  chiefly  confined  to  the  western 
peninsula  of  Asia  Minor,  and  to  the  coiu-se  of  the 
ancient  Xauthus,  in  the  south  of  that  peninsula. 
Commencing  his  investigations  at  Patara,  at  tha 
mouth  of  the  Xanthus,  and  proceeding  inland  along 
the  valley  of  that  river,  he  discovered,  only  nine 
miles  from  the  coast,  the  ruins  of  the  city  of 
Xanthus,  formerly  the  capital  of  Lycia.  Fourteen 
or  fifteen  miles  higher  up  the  river,  he  met  with 
the  ruins  of  another  city,  which,  from  insci-iptions, 
he  found  to  be  the  ancient  Tlos.  Ha\Ting  made 
drawings  of  some  of  the  fine  remains  of  architectm-e 
and  sculpture  which  he  found  in  the  ruins  of 
these  cities,  and  copies  of  some  of  the  inscriptions, 
F.  returned  to  England,  and  published  A  Journal 
written  during  an  Excursion  in  Asia  Minor,  by 
CJuxrles  Fellows,  1838  (Lend.  1839).  In  1839,  he 
again  visited  Lycia,  and  in  the  course  of  another 
excursion,  he  discovered  the  ruins  of  no  less  than 


FELLOWSHIP— FELON  AND  FELONY. 


thirteen  cities,  each  of  Avhich  contauied  -works  of 
ai't.  Another  journal,  entitled  An  Account  of 
.'Discoveries  in  Lycia^  bring  a  Joiirnal  Icept  during 
a  Second  Excursion  in  Anla  Minor  (Lond.  1841), 
Avas  the  result  of  this  journey.  In  1841,  an  exi)e- 
dition  left  England  for  the  purpose  of  selecting 
works  of  art  from  the  ancient  cities  discovered  hy 
F.,  who  aecojiipanied  the  expedition,  and  directed 
its  operations.  Authorised  hy  a  firman  from  the 
flultan,  they  made  their  selections,  and  returned  in 
thf-  spring  of  1842.  Another  expedition  sent  out  hy 
the  trustees  of  the  British  Museum  brought  home 
twenty  oases  of  marbles  and  casts  in  1844.  These 
rtmiiins  Lave  been  deposited  in  the  British  Museum 
in  what  has  been  called  the  Lycian  Saloon.  In  1845, 
F.'s  labours  were  rewarded  by  the  honour  of  knight- 
hood. The  other  works  of  F.  are — 7V/e  Xanthian 
Marhls:  their  Acquisition  and  Transmission  to 
England  (1843);  An  Account  of  the  Ionic  Trophi/ 
Monurtient  Excavated  at  Xanlhus  (1848);  a  re-issue  of 
his  earlier  Journals  under  the  title  of  Travels  and 
Jiesearches  in  Asia  Minor,  particularbj  in  the  Pro- 
vince of  Lycia  (1852);  and  Coins  of  Ancient  Lycia 
before  the  Beign  of  Alexander ;  vnih  on  Essay  on 
the  liclative  Dates  of  the  JAjcian  Monuments  in  the 
British  Museum  (1855).    He  died  in  1860. 

FE'LLOWSHIP,  IN  A  University.  As  the 
history  of  this  institution  will  be  treated  under 
University,  we  shall  here  only  mention  its  leading 
characteristics,  as  it  exists  in  the  two  great  universi- 
ties of  England — Oxford  and  Cam])ridge.  In  these 
ancient  and  celebrated  scats  of  learning,  the  fellow- 
ships were  either  constituted  by  the  original  foiniders 
^f  the  colleges  to  which  they  belong,  or  they  have 
been  since  endowed.  In  almost  all  cases,  their 
holders  must  have  taken  at  least  the  first  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Arts,  or  student  in  the  civil  law.  One 
of  the  greatest  changes  introduced  by  the- commis- 
sioners under  the  University  Act  of  1854,  was  the 
throwing  open  of  the  fellowships  to  all  members  of 
the  imiversity  of  requisite  standing,  ])y  removing 
the  old  restrictions  by  which  many  of  them  were 
confined  to  founder's  kin,  or  to  the  inhabitants  of 
certain  dioceses,  archdeaconries,  or  other  districts. 
Fellowships  vary  greatly  in  value.  Some  of  the 
best  at  Oxford,  in  good  years,  are  said  to  reach 
£700,  or  even  £800,  whilst  there  are  others  which 
do  not  amount  to  £100,  and  many  at  Cambridge 
which  fall  short  of  that  sum.  Being  paid  out  of 
the  college  revenues  which  arise  from  land,  they 
also  vary  from  year  to  year,  though  from  this 
ai-rangement,  on  the  other  hand,  their  general  value 
with  reference  to  the  value  of  commodities  is 
preserved  nearly  unchangeable,  which  woidd  not 
be  the  case  if  they  consisted  of  a  fixed  payment 
in  money.  The  senior  fellowsliips  are  the  most 
lucrative,  a  system  of  promotion  being  established 
among  their  holders  ;  but  they  all  confer  on  their 
holders  the  privilege  of  occupying  apartments  in 
the  college  and  generally,  in  addition,  certain  per- 
quisites as  to  meals  or  commons.  Many  fellow- 
%hi]'S  are  tenable  for  life,  but  in  general  they  are 
fc-Tt'eited  should  the  holder  attain  to  certain  pre- 
ferments in  the  church  or  at  the  bar,  and  sometimes 
in  the  case  of  his  succeeding  to  property  above  a 
certain  amount.  In  general,  also,  they  are  forfeited 
by  marriage,  though  this  disability  may  now  be 
removed  by  a  special  vote  of  the  college,  permitting 
tlie  fellow  to  retain  his  fellowship  notwithstanding 
his  marriage.  With  the  single  exception  of  DoAvning 
College,  Cambridge,  in  which  the  graduates  of  both 
universities  are  eligible,  the  fellowships  are  confined 
to  tlie  graduates  of  the  university  to  which  they 
belong. 

FELLOWSHIP.    See  Partnership. 


FE'LO  DE  SE,  in  Enolish  Law,  is  where  a  uan,  cf 
the  age  of  discretion,  and  compos  mentis,  voluntarily 
kills  himself.  'No  man,'  says  Sir  M.  Hale  {PI.  of  ihe. 
Cr.  411),  'hath  the  absolute  interest  of  himself,  but 
Is^,  God  Almighty  has  an  interest  and  propriety  in 
him,  and  therefore  self-murder  is  a  siu  against  God ; 
Id,  The  king  hath  an  interest  in  him,  and  therefore 
the  injimction  in  case  of  self-murder  is  felonice  et 
voluntarid  se  interfecit  et  murderavit  contra  pacem 
domini  regis.''  A  man  or  woman  is  considered  of  full 
age  in  regard  to  capital  offences  at  the  age  of 
fourteen.  A  lunatic  killing  himself  during  a  fit  io 
not  guilty  of  felo  de  se ;  but  a  merely  melancholy 
and  hypochondriacal  temperament  is  not  such  a  stats 
of  mind  as  wiU  relieve  a  person  from  the  con8(>« 
quences  of  this  offence.  Where  two  persons  agree 
to  die  together,  and  in  pursuance  of  this  design  one 
or  both  die,  it  is  suicide,  or  felo  de  se.  And  in  some 
cases,  where  one  maliciously  attempts  to  kill  another, 
and  unwittingly  kills  himself,  this  is  said  (Hawkins, 
P.  C.  c.  27,  s.  4)  to  be  felo  de  se.  But  as  a  general 
rule  the  act  must  be  voluntary.  Therefore,  if  death 
ensue  from  a  rash  act  not  intended  to  kill,  as  where 
a  man  cuts  off  his  hand  to  prevent  a  gangrene,  and 
the  act  is  followed  by  death,  this  is  not  felo  de  se. 
Foi'merly,  the  law  punished  this  offence  by  infiicting 
ignominy  on  the  body  of  the  offender,  which  was 
ordered  to  be  bmied  by  night  at  four  cross-ways, 
and  that  a  stake  should  be  driven  through  the 
body.  But  by  4  Geo.  IV.  c.  52,  this  ignominious 
mode  of  burial  is  abolished,  and  it  is  provided 
that  a  felo  de  se  shall  be  privately  buried  at  night 
in  a  burial-groimd.  All  the  chattels,  real  and 
personal,  of  a  felo  de  se  are  forfeited  to  the  crown. 
In  Scotland,  the  crime  of  self-murder  is  known  as 
Suicide  (q.  v.). 

FE'LON  AND  FE'LONY.  The  etymology  of  the 
word  felon  has  given  rise  to  much  difference  of 
opinion.  By  the  majority  of  the  most  reliable  lexi- 
cographers, it  is  supposed  to  have  a  common  root 
Avitli  fail,  and  its  original  signification  was  supposed 
to  be  a  vassal  who  failed  in  his  fidelity  or  allegiance 
to  his  superior,  thus  committing  an  offence  by 
which  he  foi'feited  his  fee  or  feud.  From  this  it 
came  to  signify  traitorous  or  rebellious,  and  was 
gradually  generalised  till  it  reached  its  popular 
meaning  of  a  crime  of  so  heino\is  a  nature  as  to 
infer  a  capital  punishment. 

The  characteristic  distinction  of  a  felony,  in  the 
opinion  of  all  legal  writers,  is,  that  it  is  a  crime 
which  occasions  the  forfeiture  of  the  offender's 
goods.  '  Felony,'  saj^s  Blackstone,  '  in  the  general 
acceptation  of  our  English  law,  comprises  every 
species  of  crime  which  occasioned  at  coraiuon  law 
the  forfeiture  of  lands  and  goods.  Treason  itself, 
says  Sir  Edward  Coke,  was  anciently  comprised 

under  the  name  of  felony   And  to  this  also 

we  may  add,  that  not  only  all  offences  now  capital 
are  in  some  degree  or  other  felony,  but  that  this  is 
likewise  the  case  with  many  other  offences  which 
are  not  punishable  with  death — as  suicide,  where 
the  party  is  already  dead,  manslaughter,  and  larceny, 
all  which  are  felonies,  as  they  sul)ject  the  commit- 
ters of  them  to  forfeitures.  So  that,  upon  the 
whole,  the  only  adequate  definition  of  felony  seems 
to  be,  that  which  is  before  laid  down — viz.,  an 
offence  which  occasions  a  total  forfeiture  of  either 
lands  or  goods  (or  both)  at  the  common  law,  and 
to  which  capital  or  other  punishment  may  be  sujjer' 
added,  according  to  the  degree  of  guilt.' — Stephen's 
Com.,  vol.  iv.  p.  81.  From  this  statement  it  appears 
that  the  popular  notion  that  capital  punishment  is 
inseparable  from  the  idea  of  felony,  is,  as  Blackstone 
elsewhere  remarks  (Stephen,  ut  sup.  p.  83),  an  error. 
As  to  the  present  law  of  forfeiture  in  cases  of  felony, 
see  Forfeiture  of  Lands. 


FELSPAE— FELT,  FELTING. 


FE'LSPAR  (Ger.  fddspath,  field-spar),  a  minercal 
extremely  abundant  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  world. 
It  is  a  principal  constituent  of  many  rocks,  as 
granite,  gneiss,  greenstone,  trachyte,  &c.  ;  and  clays 
seem  very  genei-ally  to  have  resulted,  at  least  in 
great  part,  from  its  decomposition.  It  occurs  hoth 
massive  and  crystallised,  in  rhomboidal,  pyramidal, 
and  prismatic  crystals,  often  having  their  edges  and 
angles  truncated,  and  thus  very  variously  modified. 
There  are  many  different  lands  of  F.,  which  mineral- 
ogists have  recently  attempted  to  arrange  in  mineral 
epecies,  distinguished  by  physical  and  chemical 
characters,  and  also  by  geognostic  position,  and  by 
tbe  groups  of  minerals  Avith  which  they  are  asso- 
ciated. For  these  mineral  species  new  names  have 
been  invented,  Orthodafte,  OUgoclase,  AUnte,  Lahra- 
dorite,  Sec.  All  the  felspars  are  anhydrous  silicates 
of  alumina,  and  of  an  alkali  or  lime.  Orthoclase, 
and  the  other  more  silicious  felspars  containing 
potash,  abound  chiefly  in  granite  and  the  pbitonic 
rocks  ;  the  less  silicious,  containing  soda  and  lime, 
characterise  the  volcanic  rocks — '  as  labradorite  the 
basaltic  group,  glassy  felspar  .the  trachytic'  All 
the  kinds  of  F,  are  so  hard  as  not  to  be  easily 
Bcratched  with  knife,  and  are  fused  with  diffi- 
culty. Some  of  them  are  soluble,  some  insoluble 
in  acids. — The  kind  known  as  Commox  F, — referred 
to  Orthoclase — is  generally  white  or  flesh-coloured, 
has  a  glassy  and  somewhat  pearly  lustre,  is  trans- 
lucent at  least  on  the  edges,  and  has  an  uneven  or 
splintery  fracture.  Crystals  four  or  five  inches  long 
are  found  in  Aberdeenshire.  This  variety,  under 
the  name  of  Petunse  or  Petunfze,  is  used  by  the 
Chinese  in  the  manufacture  of  porcelain  ;  along  with 
some  of  the  quartz  which  is  associated  with  it  in 
the  rock.  It  is  used,  with  other  materials,  as  a 
flux  ;  and  alone  to  form  an  enamel  or  glassy  cover- 
ing, without  which  the  porcelain  would  absorb 
moisture  and  grease,  and  woidd  be  imfit  for  any 
except  mere  ornamental  purposes. — Adularia  is  a 
transparent  and  almost  colourless  variety  of  F., 
often  cut  as  an  ornamental  stone,  the  finest  varieties, 
of  which  one  is  known  as  Moonstone,  being  prized 
almost  as  gems.  A  variety,  found  among  rolled 
stones  in  Ceylon,  and  remarkable  for  the  reflection  of 
a  pearly  light,  has  been  sometimes  confounded  with 
Cat's  Eye. — Avanturine  F.  is  similar  to  the  variety 
of  quartz  called  Ava'nturine  (q.  v.)  in  the  y)lay  of 
light  which  it  exhibits,  and  which  is  said  to  be 
owing  to  minute  crystals  of  specular  or  titanic  iron. 
It  is  much  esteemed  as  an  ornamental  stone.  A 
variety  with  golden  yellow  specks,  caUed  Sunstone, 
is  very  rare  and  very  beautiful :  it  sells  at  a  high 
rice. — Labradorite  exhibits  rich  colours  and  a 
eautiful  opalescence,  on  accoimt  of  which  it  is 
much  used  for  ornamental  purposes. — A  blue  variety 
of  F.,  found  only  in  Styi-ia,  and  a  green  variety, 
sometimes  called  Amazon  Stone,  are  also  esteemed 
as  precious  stones. — All  the  finer  varieties  of  F.  are 
chai  acterised  by  a  soft  beauty,  which  well  compen- 
SQtea  for  the  want  of  that  brilliancy  which  belongs 
to  the  true  goms. 

Kaolin,  or  Porcelain  Clay,  is  regarded  as  a  decom- 
pr>8ed  felspar. — To  F.  also  are  referred,  as  chiefly 
0<'in])osed  of  it,  or  apparently  derived  from  it, 
FdJ  stone.  Trachyte,  Claystone,  Clinkstone,  Pitch- 
Stone,  Obs'dian,  and  Pumice. 

FE'LSTONE,  a  name  introduced  by  Professor 
Sedgwick  to  designate  those  rocks  which  are  com- 
nosed,  either  in  whole  or  to  a  large  extent,  of  felspar. 
When  they  consist  of  a  compact  and  ap]>arently 
amorj)hous  felspar,  they  are  known  as  Trachytes — 
a  varietv  of  this  rock,  which  sjJits  into  small  slabs, 
that  rmg  with  a  metallic  sound,  is  called  Phonolite. 
Trachyte,  with  distinct  crystals  of  felspar  scattered 
khrough  it,  becomes  felstoue  porphyry ;  when  the  rock 


is  in  a  vitreous  condition,  and  has  a  resinous  lustre^ 
it  is  I'itchstone.  Even  in  the  most  comi)act  fclstoncs 
minute  crystals  may  be  'Ictccted,  and  these  some- 
times increase  in  size  till  we  have  varieties  which 
are  completely  granular  and  crystalline. 

FELT,  FELTING,  a  fabric  formed  witliout 
weaving  by  taking  advantage  of  the  natural 
tendency  of  the  fibres  of  hair  and  wool  to  iiiterluco 
with  and  cling  to  each  other.  The  hatters'  tradition 
concerning  the  invention  of  felt  affords  as  good 
an  illustration  as  any  we  can  find  of  the  jirinciple 
of  this  manufacture.  In  most  lioman  Catholic 
countries,  the  hatters  celebrate  as  a  festival  the 
23d  of  November,  St  Clement's  Day,  as  they 
formerly  did  in  this  countvy ;  and  it  is  stated  that 
St  Clement,  when  on  a  pilgrimage,  j)ut  carded  wool 
between  his  feet  and  the  soles  of  his  sandals,  and 
found  on  his  journey's  end  that  the  wool  was  con- 
verted into  cloth.  Although  this  tradition  is  very 
questionable,  as  the  manufacture  of  felt  is  of  far 
more  ancient  origin,  there  can  be  no  doul)t  that  if 
carded  wool  were  thus  continually  trodden,  and  at 
the  same  time  moistened,  it  would  become  felt,  and 
all  the  manufacturer's  processes  of  felting  are  but 
modifications  of  such  treatment. 

This  matting  or  felting  of  the  fibres  of  hair  and 
wool  results  from  their  structure,  for,  when  exa- 
mined by  the  microscope,  the  hair  of  all  animals  is 
found  to  be  more  or  less  jagged  or  notched  on  its 
surface ;  in  some  animals  it  is  distinctly  barbed ;  and 
this  structure  is  so  directed  that  the  teeth  or  Ijarba 
all  point  towards  the  tip  of  the  hair.  See  Hair. 
If  a  piece  of  human  hair  (in  which  this  structure  ia 
less  marked  than  in  most  animals)  be  held  between 
the  finger  and  thumb,  and  rubbed  in  the  direction 
of  its  leng-tli,  it  will  invariably  move  between  the 
fingers  in  the  direction  of  its  root ;  for  the  skin,  while 
moving  towards  the  tip  of  the  hair,  slides  freely 
upon  it,  but  moving  in  the  other  direction,  agamst 
the  inclination  of  the  barbs,  it  brings  the  hair  with  it. 
It  will  be  easily  understood  that  when  a  number  of 
hairs  are  pressed  together,  those  which  lie  in  opposite 
directions  to  each  other  and  in  contact  will  inter- 
lock at  these  barbs  or  teeth,  and  thus  resist  any 
effort  to  tear  them  asunder.  When  once  this  close 
contact  and  interlocking  is  established  between  any 
two  or  more  haiis,  they  remain  attached,  but  the 
others  that  are  differently  arranged,  or  not  in  con- 
tact, will  still  be  free  to  move  upon  each  other ;  and 
therefore,  if  subjected  to  continual  blows,  pushing, 
and  pressure,  like  the  treading  of  the  feet  in  walking, 
the  unattached  hairs  will  be  continually  shifting 
i;ntil  they  reach  others  in  suitable  positions  for 
clinging  together,  either  by  crossing  obliquely  or  by 
lying  in  the  same  line,  and  overlapping  at  their 
ends  or  any  other  portion.  When  the  hair  has  a 
natural  tendency  to  curl,  the  felting  is  still  more 
readily  brought  about  by  the  additional  interlacing. 
This  is  the  case  with  wool  to  such  an  extent,  that 
when  free  from  grease  it  cannot  be  retained  in  the 
straight  carded  condition  required  for  spinning  and 
weaving.  When  it  is  required  to  be  felted,  the 
natural  grease  has  to  be  removed.  This  tendency  to 
felt  is  shewn  in  the  hard  lumps  formed  in  wool- 
mattresses  that  have  been  long  used. 

Tht*  beaver-hat  maker  produces  his  felt  by  taking 
a  few  ounces  of  the  mixed  fur,  distributing  it  in 
an  even  layer  by  twanging  a  bowstring  against  the 
heap,  and  then  condensing  this  into  a  telt  by  a 
sort  of  kneading  process  with  his  hands.  For  further 
information,  sec  Hat. 

The  felt  now  extensively  used  for  carpeting  and 
other  purposes  is  made  by  machinery,  chiefly  from 
the  waste  wool  from  the  weaving-mills.  Many 
patents  have  been  taken  out  for  the  various  detaiLi 
of  felting-machinery,  but  the  main  principle  is  the 


FELTRE-FEME  COVERTE. 


same  in  all.  The  wool  is  carded  more  or  less  per- 
fectly, and  steamed  or  moistened  with  hot  water, 
and  passed  between  beaters,  which  act  like  the 
pilgrim's  feet  in  the  maimer  already  described. 
When  used  as  druj^get  for  covering  carpets,  or  as 
a  substitute  for  carpet,  the  felt  is  printed  by  means 
of  blocks  with  various  patterns,  or  simply  dyed. 
Felt  is  also  used  for  padding  coats  and  other  gar- 
ments, sometimes  for  cloaks  and  capos ;  for  table- 
covers,  some  of  which  are  beautifully  embossed 
pud  printed;  for  carriage-linings,  upholstery  work, 
polishing  cloths,  pianoforte  hammers,  and  various 
other  purj)oses  wliere  a  coarse  or  thick  cloth  is 
required.  A  sirai)le  kind  of  saddle,  cwt  out  of  very 
thick  felt,  is  in  common  use  in  South  America. 

The  '  felted  sheathing '  used  as  a  non-conducting 
covering  for  retaining  the  heat  in  steam-boilers,  is 
a  substance  intermediate  between  felt  and  paper, 
being  composed  of  the  commonest  woollen  refuse 
froni  paper-mills,  &c.,  made  into  a  semi-pulp,  and 
beaten  to  prod^'oe  a  partial  felting.  This  when 
dried  hardens,  and  though  i)0ssessing  but  little 
tenacity,  and  unfit  for  the  wear  of  friction,  is,  from 
its  compactness,  better  adapted  than  ordinary  felt 
for  the  piu'poses  to  which  it  is  applied. 

Asphalted  BooJinf/-fdt  is  a  very  coarse  felt  satur- 
ated with  pitch,  asphalt  or  coal-tar— usually  the 
latter,  on  account  of  its  cheapness ;  it  is  retailed  at 
one  penny  per  foot,  and  used  for  covering  sheds  and 
other  buildings.  A  more  expensive  kind,  free  from 
coal-tar,  is  called  Inodorous  Felt,  and  used  as  a 
lining  for  damp  walls  upon  which  paper  has  to  be 
hung.  Asphalted  felt  is  also  used  as  a  flooring  for 
griuiaries  and  similar  buildings,  and  has  been  recom- 
mended for  public  schools,  to  prevent  the  noise  from 
the  shuffling  of  the  children's  feet. 

FE'LTRE',  a  town  of  Northern  Italy,  in  the 
Venetian  territory,  is  situated  near  the  right  bank 
;>f  the  Piave,  44  miles  north-north- west  of  Venice. 
It  suffered  severely  from  the  attacks  of  the  Goths 
in  the  5th  centmy.  The  chief  buildings  are 
the  cathedral,  the  college,  ecclesiastical  seminary, 
and  gymnasium.  F.  has  some  trade  in  corn,  wine, 
and  oil.    Pop.  6U00. 

FELU'CCA,  a  small  class  of  vessel  used  in  the 
Mediterranean.     It  is  propelled  by  from  iO  to 


Felucca, 


7.G  oars,  and  by  lateen  sails.  It  has  frequently  a 
rudder  at  each  end,  to  be  ap])lied  as  occasion 
demands.  ])uring  the  French  war,  feluccas  were 
armed  with  a  heavy  gun  )r  two,  and  sent  out  as 
2r0 


gun-boata  against  our  ships,  when  becalmul  near  the 
Spanish  ports  ;  from  their  speed  in  smooth  water,  and 
the  difficulty  of  hitting  them,  they  were  very  ti'ouble- 
some  antagonists. 

FEME  COVERTE  {faemina  viro  co-operta).  In 
the  language  of  the  law  of  England,  a  woman  by  her 
marriage  becomes  subject  to  her  husband,  who  has  the 
control  of  her  person,  and  is  entitled  to  fix  her  resi- 
dence. This  control  in  the  husband  is  admitted  to  a 
certain  extent  in  criminal  cases  to  excuse  a  nuirried 
woman  from  guilt ;  hence  the  term  coverte — under 
cover,  authority,  or  protection. 

The  general  j)rinciples  of  American  law,  as  respe«';tff 
married  women,  may  be  expressed  as  follows :  1  st.  In 
the  sale  of  the  property  of  the  wife,  the  consent  and 
united  act  of  the  husband  are  required  to  render  it  valid. 
In  the  execution  of  a  deed  of  conveyance  of  any  kind, 
touching  the  interest  of  the  wife,  it  is  required  that 
she  be  joined  with  the  husband  in  the  act,  and  that  she 
be  separately  examined  to  ascertain  and  certify  that  the 
act  was  free  and  voluntary.  She  may  hold  a  separate 
property,  which  will  be  protected  from  the  improper  in- 
terference of  her  husband.  The  law  protects  the  wife 
against  the  neglect  and  desertion  of  her  husband,  and 
secures  for  her,  as  far  as  possible,  her  claims  upon  him 
for  sup])ort.  For  gross  violation  of  the  marriage  con- 
tract, the  statutes  of  sundry  states  provide  that  she 
r.hall  be  entitled  to  a  decree  of  the  court  for  divorce, 
and  for  alimony.  See  Divorce.  A  husband  and 
wife  may  contract  with  each  other  in  some  states,  and 
may  pass  and  convey  property  through  the  medium  of 
a  trustee.  A  devise  may  be  made  by  a  husband  to  a 
wife,  and  in  Ohio  a  wife  may  make  a  will  iDecjueathing 
any  i)roperty  to  her  husband.  The  general  rule  is 
this :  a  husband  becomes  entitled,  upon  marriage,  to 
all  the  goods  and  chattels  of  the  Avife,  the  rents  and 
pi'ofits  of  her  lands  ;  and  liable  for  her  debts,  and  to 
perform  her  conti'acts  ;  and  if  he  survives  her,  is  en- 
titled to  enjoy  her  real  property.  This  has  been  in 
some  measure  modified  by  our  statutes.  As  to  th« 
personal  property  of  the  wife,  at  marriage  in  her  own 
right,  and  not  as  trustee,  etc.,  it  vests  immediately  and 
absolutely  in  the  husband.  He  may  sue  and  recover 
her  claims,  or  release  or  compromise  them,  as  he 
pleases.  The  laws  of  several  states  of  the  Union  have 
materially  modified  the  common  law  in  I'espect  to  the 
rights  of  husband  and  wife  as  to  property,  and  have 
made  the  amplest  provisions  for  her  protection  :  1.  In 
Ohio  the  husband  cannot  convey  or  encumber  the  real 
estate  of  his  wife,  which  belonged  to  her  at  the  time 
of  marriage,  or  shall  come  to  her  by  gift  or  inher- 
itance, or  be  purchased  wi*^h  her  separate  property 
during  coverture,  or  held  in  her  name  by  a  trustee, 
unless  by  her  consent  and  by  her  deed,  executed  in  the 
required  manner.  2.  Her  household  furniture,  brought 
with  her  at  marriage  or  inherited  thereafter,  is  not 
liable  for  her  husband's  debts.  3.  At  the  death  of  the 
husband,  the  laAv  of  Ohio  secures  to  the  wife,  and 
children  under  15  years,  a  liberal  allowance  out  of  the 
estate  and  a  year's  support,  even  against  creditors. 
4.  She  has  right  of  dower  in  one-third  of  all  the  real 
estate  of  her  husband  at  his  decease,  and  to  remain  in 
the  mansion-house  one  year  after  his  death  if  hei 
claims  of  dower  be  not  sooner  satisfied.  5.  She  is  en- 
titled to  a  large  amount  of  specific  personal  property, 
free  from  levy  by  execution  for  the  debts  of  her  hus- 
band, and  also  a  homestead  not  to  exceed  $500  in 
value.  The  husband  is  not  liable  for  the  contracts  of 
the  wife  after  mai'riage,  and,  as  a  general  rule,  her  con- 
tracts ai-e  void  unless  contracted  by  his  authority;  but 
his  authority  is  presumed  unless  the  wife  go  beyond 
what  is  reasonable  and  prudent.  If  the  wife  elope 
from  her  husband  and  live  in  adultery  with  another 
man,  the  husband  is  not  bound  for  her  support ;  nor 
is  he  when  she  leaves  him  without  cause,  so  long  as 
she  remains  absent.    The  husband  is  liable  for  the 


FEMERN— FEMGERICHTE. 


fraud  of  the  wife,  committed  during  coverture,  and 
after  marriage  the  wife  cannot  be  sued  for  her  pre- 
vious debts,  but  the  husband  must  be  joined  with  her 
in  the  action ;  and  he  may,  in  certain  cases,  be- 
come liable  to  pay  her  debts  contracted  before  mar- 
riage, even  after  her  death.  After  her  death  suit  can- 
not be  brought  against  the  husband,  but  the  right  of 
action  survives  against  the  wife,  and  a  judgment 
against  her  can  only  be  satisfied  out  of  her  individual 
property.  By  the  married  Avomen's  acts  of  the  Legis- 
lature of  Pennsylvania  of  April  11,  1848,  the  separate 
estate  of  a  woman  is  not  made  so  exclusively  her  own 
as  to  exclude  her  husband's  use  of  it  as  the  head  of 
the  family,  or  enable  her  to  invest  it  in  any  way  she 
please  without  his  consent.  It  is  to  be  construed  so 
as  to  protect  the  wife's  estate  from  being  encumbered 
or  conveyed  for  her  husband's  debts,  or  taken  by  his 
creditors  against  her  consent;  but  it  does  not  give 
the  woman  the  absolute  right  of  her  property  as  & 
feme  sole  Avithout  her  husband's  consent. 

For  the  laws  of  England  regarding  the  rights  of 
married  women,  see  former  editions  of  this  work,  and 
for  those  of  Scotland,  see  Majhj  and  Wife.  See  also, 
Afiahjsis  of  American  Laio,  by  T.  W.  Powell,  Phila- 
delphia, 1870. 

FE'MGERICHT^:  (derived  from  the  old  German 
Fern,  pmiisliment,  and   Gericht,  court  of  justice), 
spoken  of  as  the  Holy  Feme  (or  Fehme),  and  also 
known  as  the  Westphalian  or  Secret  Tribunals, 
v<'exe  among  the  most  remarkable  phenomena  of  the  j 
middle  ages,  and  supplied  the  place  of  the  regu-  j 
lar  administration  of  justice,  then  in  a  deplorable  | 
condition.     The   origin  of  these  courts  has  been  j 
ascribed  to  Charlemagne,  who,  it  was  i)retended,  had 
instituted  them  to  prevent  the  relapse  into  Paganism  | 
of  the  Saxons  who  had  been  forcibly  converted  to  j 
Christianity.     It  is  more  probable,  ho^vever,  that  | 
they  were  a  relic  of  the  ancient  German  free  courts  | 
of  justice,  the  preservation  of  which  may  have  been  j 
favom-ed  in  Westphalia  by  special  circumstances.  [ 

When  Henry  the  Lion  was  put  under  the  ban  of  j 
the  empire,  and   deprived  of  his  possessions  in 
1170,  Westphalia,  which  then  comprised  nearly  the  \ 
whole  district  between  the  Rhine  and  the  Weser,  | 
was  granted  to  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne  ;   and  \ 
from  this  time  the  secret  tribunals  gained  in  import-  j 
ance.     In  the  general  confusion  which  then  pre- 
vailed in  Germany,  when  all  laws,  both  civil  and 
ecclesiastical,  had  lost  their  authority,  and  the 
fabric  of  society  seemed  on  the  point  of  toppling  j 
into  ruins,  the  Femgerichte  were   organised  for  j 
the  purpose  of  arresting  and  controlling  the  inci-  j 
pient  anarchy  that  threatened  to  bring  chaos  back  j 
again,  and  of  inspiring  Math  feelings  of  salutary  \ 
terror,  through  the  agency  of  their  mysterious  ' 

f)owers  and  solemn  judgments,  all  rapacious  and  j 
awless  persons  (but  especially  the  feudal  barons),  i 
who — on  account  of  the  impotence  of  the  ordinary 
legal  checks — committed  crimes  with  impunity.    In  | 
the  causes,  therefore,  vdiich  led  to  their  forma-  j 
tion,  and  in  their  general  design,  the  Femgerichte  \ 
resemljle  the  Hanseatic  towns.    They  soon  acquired  ! 
tremendous    influence,   the    emperors    themselves ! 
having  recourse  to  their  assistance  against  power- 
ful and  rebellious  nobles.    It  was  in  the  14tli  and 
15th  centuries,  however,  that  they  attained  the 
summit  of  their  dread  authority,  when  they  began 
to  extend  the)nselves  over  the  whole  of  Germany. 
Beneficial  as  in  many  instances  they  proved  to  be, 
they  could  not  fail,  in  the  long-run,  to  degenerate, 
and  to  be  fre(^uently  emj)loyed  as  a  cloak  to  self- 
interest  and  malice.    It  is  therefore  by  no  means 
6ur})rising  that  many  voices  were  raised  against 
them,  and  that  in  1461  various  p/inces  and  cities 
of  Germany,  as  well  as  the  Swiss  confederates,  I 
fcrnj  :d  \inious  for  affording  justice  to  every  iudi-  [ 


vidual,  and  preventing  any  from  seeking  it  from 
the  secret  tribunals.  Particular  classes  likewise 
obtained  imperial  letters  of  protection  against  the 
pretensions  of  these  triljunals.  The  emperors  them- 
selves, however,  could  go  no  further  than  to  make 
some  unavailing  attempts  to  introduce  im]>rove- 
ments  into  the  constitution  of  the  Femgerichte,  aa 
the  latter  were  bold  enough  to  oppose  the  imperial 
authority,  and  even  summoned  the  emperor  Friedricb 
III.  to  appear  before  them.  Their  influence  came  to 
an  end  only  when  the  public  peace  {Landfriede)  was 
established  in  Germany,  and  an  amended  form  ofi 
trial  and  penal  judicature  was  introduced.  The  last 
real  Femgericht  was  held  at  CeH^^  in  Hanover,  ia 
the  year  1508.  A  remnant  of  the  iastitution,  how- 
ever, existed  in  Westphalia  until  the  year  1811,  at 
which  time  it  was  performing  the  function  of  a 
society  for  the  suppression  of  vice,  when  it  was 
abolished  by  an  order  of  Jerome  Bonaparte.  Be5'ond 
the  limits  of  Westphalia,  notwithstanding  all  their 
endeavours,  the  Femgerichte  never  succeeded  in 
fully  establishing  their  authority  ;  and  even  in  the 
Red  Land,  as  Westphalia  was  called  (probably  from 
the  colour  of  the  soil),  they  were  restricted  by  the 
imperial  privileges  on  which  they  founded  their 
authority. 

The  members  of  the  Feme  were  called  Wiasende, 
*  the  knowing  ones,'  or  the  initiated.  It  was  neces- 
sary that  they  should  be  born  in  wedlock,  be  of  the 
Christian  religion,  lead  a  blameless  life,  and  bind 
themselves  by  a  tremendous  oath  *  to  support  the 
holy  Feme,  and  to  conceal  it  from  wife  and  child, 
father  and  mother,  sister  and  brother,  tire  and 
wind,  from  all  that  the  sun  shines  on  and  the  rain 
wets,  and  from  all  that  is  between  heaven  and 
earth.'  Originally,  none  but  an  inhabitant  of  the 
'  Red  Land,'  possessed  of  real  property,  could  be 
admitted  a  member  of  the  Wissende ;  at  a  later 
period,  this  ride  was  relaxed.  From  the  general 
body  were  elected  officers  called  Freischoffen  (fre9 
justices),  who  were  assessors  of  the  court,  and. 
executors  of  its  sentences.  The  presiding  judge 
was  called  the  Fre'iffraf  (free  count).  The  general 
superintendence  and  presidency  of  the  secret 
tribunals  belonged  to  the  lord  of  the  land — i.  e.,  in 
Westphalia,  to  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne.  The 
highest  office,  however,  as  supreme  president,  was 
nominally  held  by  the  emperor,  who  was  usually 
elected  into  the  uuml)er  of  the  Wissende  on  the 
occasion  of  his  coronation  at  Aix-la-Chapelle.  The 
court  of  a  Freigraf  was  called  Freiding  (a  free  court 
of  justice),  and  the  place  where  he  held  court  a 
Freisluld  (free  bench  or  court).  One  of  the  most 
celebrated  free  courts  had  its  seat  at  Dortmund. 
The  sittings  of  the  tribunal  were  either  open  or 
secret.  The  former  were  held  by  day  in  the  open 
air,  and  decided  in  ci\dl  disputes :  the  secret 
tribunals  took  cognizance  of  those  who  had  been 
unable  to  prove  their  innocence  in  the  open  courts, 
as  well  as  of  those  who  were  accused  of  heresy, 
sorcery,  rape,  theft,  robbery,  or  murder.  The 
accusation  was  made  by  one  of  the  Freisc  holl'en, 
who  declared,  upon  oath,  that  the  accused  had 
committed  the  crime.  The  citation  was  secretly 
affixed,  wdth  symbolical  signs,  to  the  door  of  the 
accused,  who  was  to  meet  the  Wissende  at  a  certain 
hour  and  place,  and  be  conducted  by  them  before 
the  tribunal.  The  accused  could  now  clear  himself 
by  an  oath,  but  the  accuser  and  witnesses  could 
oppose  this  with  another.  If  the  accused  coidd 
now  bring  forward  six  witnesses  to  swear  in  his 
favour,  the  accuser  could  strengthen  his  oath  with 
14  witnesses  ;  and  it  was  not  till  after  21  witnesses 
had  made  their  affidavit  in  his  favour  that  sentence 
of  acquittal  necessarily  followed.  The  persona 
convicted,  as  well  as  those  who  refused  to  obey  th« 

2»l 


FENCES— FENCIKG. 


summons,  were  given  over  to  the  Freischoffen.  The 
first  Freischoffe  who  met  him  was  bound  to  hang 
him  on  a  tree,  or,  if  he  made  any  resistance,  to  ])ut 
him  otherwise  to  death.  A  knife  was  left  by  the 
corpse,  to  show  that  it  was  not  a  m artier,  l)ut  a  pun- 
ishment inflicted  by  one  of  the  Frcischolfcn,  Com- 
pare Wigand,  Das  Fehmgcricht  Wcstfalen^s  (Hamm. 
1825),  and  Usener,  Die  li\eiund  Jieimlichen  Oerichte 
Westfalen's  (Frankfort,  1832). 

FENCES,  in  Agincultnre,  serve  the  twofold 
purpose  of  enclosing  animals  on  pastnre-gronnds, 
and  of  protecting  land  from  straying  animals.  They 
Rre  formed  of  a  great  variety  of  materials,  and  of 
Veiy  different  structure.  In  conn  tries  where  wood 
or  stones  are  scarce,  more  especially  where  they 
have  been  long  settled,  hedges,  formed  of  various 
kinds  of  plants,  are  common.  These,  when  well 
kept  and  managed,  give  a  clothed  and  pictiiresqne 
appearance  to  the  landscape.  The  hawthorn  is  the 
favourite  hedge-plant  in  this  countr3^    Sec  Hepopzs. 

When  stones  are  used  as  fences,  they  are  l)uilt  as 
walls.  The  form  and  mode  of  building  varies  with 
the  nature  and  quality  of  the  stones,  and  the  degree 
of  taste  and  nicety  required.  Aberdeenshire  forms 
its  walls  or  dykes  surrounding  its  fields  "vWth  the 
granite  boulders  that  are  strewed  over  the  surface 
of  the  country.  The  graywacke  affords  slaty  stones, 
which  give  the  walls  their  i)cculiar  form  in  other 
parts,  and  so  with  the  various  kinds  of  sandstone. 

In  new  countries,  where  wood  is  abundant,  the 
fences  are  all  of  this  material.  The  snake-fence, 
named  from  its  zigzag  form,  is  made  hy  merely  lay- 
ing the  ends  of  trees  above  each  other,  and  requires 
no  other  means  of  fixing.  As  wood  becomes  more 
Valuable,  it  is  made  into  stobs  and  rails.  The 
etobs  are  driven  into  the  ground  from  two  to  three 
yards  apart,  and  from  four  to  five  rails  are  nailed 
across,  according  to  the  purpose  it  is  meant  to 
serve.  The  stob  and  rafter  fence  is  made  by  driving 
the  stobs  from  three  to  four  inches  apart,  and 
binding  the  whole  by  a  rafter  or  rail  nailed  across 
the  top.  This  is  one  of  the  strongest  of  wooden 
fences,  but  requires  more  material  than  the  other. 

Iron  or  wire  fencing  has  come  much  into  use  of 
late.  Vast  stretches  of  waste  land  in  this  country, 
as  well  as  i)astures  m  Australia,  have  been  enclosed 
by  means  of  wire-fencing.  Strong  \\^res  are  stretched 
on  posts  firmly  secured  in  the  ground,  from  100 
to  200  yards  or  more  apart.  Intermediate  or  lighter 
posts  are  put  in  at  from  two  to  three  yards'  dis- 
tance. After  the  -wares  are  fully  stretched,  they 
are  fixed  to  the  smaller  posts  ;  when  of  wood,  by 
means  of  staples,  or  threaded  through,  when  of  iron. 

Laio  regarding  Fences. —  In  England,  it  is  held  to 
be  the  duty  of  the  occupier  of  lands  to  repair  and 
uphold  fences,  and  not  of  the  landlord ;  and  without 
any  special  agreement,  the  landlord  may  maintain  an 
action  against  the  tenant  for  not  domg  so.  Though 
a  tenant  from  year  to  year  is  not  bound  to  put  the 
fences  and  other  buildings  on  his  farm  into  repair, 
he  must  not  do  anything  that  amounts  to  waste,  or 
a  breach  of  the  rules  of  good  husbandry.  He 
cannot  cut  and  sell  hedgerows,  or  if  he  does  so,  he 
must  make  up  the  hedges  and  fences  according  to 
the  couvse  of  good  husbandry.  '  If  there  be  a 
quickset  fence  of  white  thorn,  and  the  tenant  shut 
it  up,  or  suffer  it  to  be  destroyed,  this  is  destruction  ; 
but  cutting  up  quicksets  is  not  waste,  if  it  preserves 
the  spring.' — Woodfall  On  Landlord  and  Tenant, 
pp.  45G,  457,  and  cases  cited.  Where,  in  answer  to 
a  declaration  against  a  tenant  for  not  using  premises 
in  a  Inisbandlike  manner  in  repairing  fences,  on  his 
implied  obligation  to  do  so,  the  tenant  pleaded  that 
the  fence  became  out  of  repair  by  natural  decay, 
and  that  there  was  no  proper  wood  which  he  had  a 
right  to  cut  for  repairing  the  fences,  and  that  the 


plaintiff  ought  to  have  set  out  proper  wood  for  the 
purpose  of  repairs,  which  he  had  neglected  to  do. 
the  plea  was  held  to  be  bad,  because  it  did  not  aver 
any  request  to  the  plaintiff  so  to  do,  or  a  custom  of 
the  country  in  that  respect. — Wliitfield  v  Weedon, 
2  Chit.  68/).  By  7  and  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  29,  ss.  '^3,  40,  44, 
the  destruction  of  fences  is 'declared  to  be  punish- 
able summarily  with  a  fine  of  not  more  than  £5; 
or  in  the  case  of  a  deer-park  fence,  with  £60.  Tho 
statute  is  limited  to  England. 

United  States. — A  lawful  fence  in  most  of  the  states 
of  the  Union  is  defined  as  any  structure  of  wood  or 
stone  of  the  nature  of  a  fence,  close,  strong,  and  suffi- 
cient to  prevent  the  passage  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep, 
and,  in  general,  also  swine.  Division  or  partition 
fences  are  required  to  be  erected  and  kept  in  repair  at 
the  joint  expense  of  the  owners  of  property  to  Ite  pro 
tected.  In  Maine,  Massachusetts,  New  York,  also  in 
Ohio  and  the  north-western  stfites.  Fence-viewers  arc 
chosen,  to  whom  questions  in  dispute  relative  to  the 
rights  and  duties  of  owners  of  fences  are  referred. 
The  lieight  of  fences  considered  lawful  varies  in  the 
different  sections  of  the  Union,  but  in  general  in  New 
England  and  the  north-western  states,  post-and-ruil 
fences  must  be  at  least  4^  feet  high,  and  worm  fences, 
not  ridered,  at  least  5  feet.  In  New  Jersey,  a  fence 
must  be  4  feet  2  inches  if  of  posts  and  rails,  boards, 
brick,  or  stones,  but  4^  feet  if  of  any  other  material. 
In  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  South  Carolina,  Alabama, 
Florida,  Mississippi,  Missouri,  Tennessee,  Kentucky, 
and  Texas,  a  fence  must  be  5  feet  high,  and  in  Cali- 
fornia, if  of  rails,  5^  feet.  In  Georgia,  all  fences 
must  be  six  feet  high.  In  Maine,  Mas.sachusetts, 
Vermont,  New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania,  owners  of 
land  are  not  bound  to  fence  against  cattle  on  the  high- 
ways, while  in  Connecticut,  IS^ew  York,  South  Caro- 
lina, Georgia,  Alabama,  Florida,  and  Tennessee,  they 
are  refjuired  to  protect  their  property  by  a  lawful 
fence,  or  fail  to  obtain  damages  for  injury  by  trespass. 
In  New  Hampshii'e  and  Ohio,  railway  companies  are 
obliged  to  maintain  a  lawful  fence  along  their  line  of 
road.  In  Ohio  and  Wisconsin  planters  are  permitted 
to  protect  their  young  hedges  by  fences  six  feet  be- 
yond the  precise  line  of  road,  upon  which  also  a  hedge 
may  be  planted.  In  these  latter  states,  any  person 
who  shall  open  an  enclosure,  or  leave  the  fence-bars  or 
gate  open,  shall  be  fined,  on  conviction,  not  more  than 
$100,  or  be  imprisoned  not  exceeding  thirty  days,  if 
prosecuted  within  one  year.  For  a  digest  of  the  hnva 
of  the  states  respecting  fences,  see  Hedges  and  Ever- 
greens, by  Dr.  J.  A.  Warder,  New  York,  1858. 

FENCIBLE,  a  word,  of  doubtful  origin,  mean- 
ing defensive.  Eegiments  raised  for  local  defence, 
or  at — and  only  for — a  special  crisis,  used  to  be 
denominated  'Fencible.'  In  the  last  French  war. 
the  local,  as  distinguished  from  the  general  militia, 
was   called  fencible,  and  many  of  the  volunteer 

corps    styled   themselves    the   '  Royal  shire 

Fencible  Infantry.'  The  only  regiment  of  this 
character  still  bearing  the  title  is  the  '  Eoyal 
Malta  Fencible  Artillery,'  although  the  Ceylon 
Kifle  Eegiment  has  also  essentially  the  character 
of  fencible. 

FENCING  may  be  described,  for  a  generaJ 
definition,  as  the  art  of  defending  one's  own  body 
or  assailing  another  person's  in  fair  fight  by  the 
aid  of  a  side- weapon — 1.  e.,  by  a  sword,  rapier,  or 
bayonet.  Technically,  fencing  is  usually  limited 
to  the  second  of  these ;  and  works  on  the  art 
touch  only  on  attack  and  defence  with  the  foil  in 
pastime,  and  the  ra|?ier  in  actual  personal  combat. 
The  present  opportunity  will,  however,  be  taken 
to  introduce  the  elements  of  single  combat  ^^^th 
foil,  sword,  and  bayonet.  The  objection  formeHy 
existed  that  instruction  in  fencing  encouraged  a 


FENCING. 


propensity  to  duellmg ;  but  as  tliat  absurdest  of 
absurd  customs  has  entirely  ceased — at  least  in 
Britain — to  demand  its  annual  victims,  no  sucli 
objection  now  holds.  Fencing  may  therefore  be 
safely  learned  and  taught  as  an  elegant  and  manly 
accomplishment,  developing  gi-acefuluess  and  acti- 
vity, while  it  imparts  suppleness  to  the  limbs, 
strength  to  the  muscles,  and  quickness  to  the  eye. 
This  regards  fencing  with  the  foils  (the  rapier  has 
disappeared  with  the  duels  which  employed  it) ; 
but  instruction  in  fencing  with  the  sword  and 
bayonet,  while  conferring  the  same  advantages,  has 
in  addition  the  recommendation  of  helping  to  fit  the 
student  for  taking  an  active  part  in  any  general 
national  defence  that  political  circumstances  might 
render  necessary.  The  Foil  (q.  v.)  is  a  circular  or 
polygonal  bar  of  pHable  and  very  highly  tempered 
Bteel,  mounted  as  any  other  sword,  and  blunted  at 
the  point  by  a  '  button,'  to  prevent  danger  in  its  use. 
From  its  nature,  the  foil  can  only  be  employed  in 
thrusting,  and,  being  edgeless,  it  can  be  handled 
•without  liability  to  cutting  wounds.  The  length  of 
the  blade  should  be  proportioned  to  the  height  of 
the  person  using  it — 31  inches  being  the  medium 
length  for  men,  and  38  inches  from  hilt  to  point 
the  maximum  allowable.  As  a  protection  against 
accidental  thrusts,  the  face  is  generally  guarded 
by  a  ^\'ire-mask.  The  two  portions  of  the  blade 
are  known  as  the  '  forte '  and  the  '  feeble ; '  the 
first  extending  from  the  hilt  to  the  centre,  and  the 
other  from  the  centre  to  the  point. 

In  drawing,  advance  the  right  foot  slightly  to  the 
front,  take  the  scabbard  with  the  left  hand,  raise 
the  right  elbow  as  high  as  the  shoulder,  seize  the 
hilt  with  right  hand,  nails  turned  inward,  and  hav- 
ing drawn  the  foil,  pass  it  ^vith  vivacity  over  the 
head  in  a  semicircle,  and  bring  it  do^wii  to  the 
guard  (of  which  presently)  with  its  point  towards 
the  adversary,  not  higher  than  his  face,  nor  lower 
than  his  lowest  rib.  Simultaneously  with  the 
weapon  being  brought  into  position,  the  left  hand 
with  lingers  extended  should  be  raised  to  a  level 
with  the  head,  as  a  counterpoise  in  the  various 
motions  to  ensue.  In  establishing  the  position  of 
guard,  the  right  foot  must  be  advanced  24  inches 
Defore  the  left,  the  heels  in  a  straight  line,  and 
each  knee  slightly  bent,  to  impart  elasticity  to  the 
movements,  but  not  too  much,  lest  the  firmness  of 
the  position  be  diminished. 

In  fencing,  there  are  three  openings  or  entrances 
— the  inside,  comprising  the  whole  breast  from 
shoulder  to  shoulder  ;  outside,  attackable  by  all  the 
thrusts  made  above  the  wrist  on  the  outside  of  the 
sword  ;  and  the  loio  parts,  embracing  from  the  arm- 
pits to  the  hips.  For  reaching  and  guarding  these 
entrances,  there  are  five  positions  of  the  wrist — 
prime,  seconde,  tierce,  carte  (quarte),  and  quinte. 
The  most  important,  and  those  to  commence  with, 
are  carte  and  tierce,  from  which  are  derived  the 
subordinate  positions  of  carte  over  the  arm,  low 
carte,  and  flauconnade  or  octave. 

To  engage  is  to  cross  swords  with  j'^our  adversary, 
pressing  against  his  with  sufficient  force  to  prevent 
any  raanceu\Te  taking  you  unawares.  To  disengage 
is  to  slip  the  point  of  your  sword  briskly  under  his 
blade,  and  to  raise  it  again  on  the  other  side,  press- 
ing in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  of  the  previous 
case. 

The  guard  in  each  position  is  a  passive  obstnic- 
tion  to  the  o})posin^  thnist ;  the  parade  is  an  active 
obstruction,  in  which  the  Sfiiard  is  first  assumed, 
and  the  blade  then  pressed  outward  or  inward  by 
a  turn  of  the  wrist  against  the  adversary's  sword, 
BO  that  when  thrust  at  your  body  it  shall  be 
diverted  from  its  aim,  an(l  held  off.  The  parade 
not  7  therefore  be  regarded  as  a  mere  extension  of 


the  guard  If  the  parade  were  called  the  'parry,'  it 
woiild  convey  its  meaning  more  readily  to  English 
ears.  Another,  and  perhai)S  more  approj)riate  name 
for  thrust,  is  the  '  lunge '  or  '  longe,'  as  the  thrust 
is  almost  always  accompanied  l)y  a  lunge  forward 
of  the  right  foot,  to  give  at  once  greater  force  and 
longer  command  to  the  blow. 

The  following  are  directions  for  the  principal 
guards  and  thrusts,  which  may  also  be  seen  depicted 
roughly  in  the  sketches  below. 

Carte,  Guard. — Turn  wi'ist  with  nails  upwards  ; 
hand  on  a  line  with  lower  part  of  breast;  arf/i 
somewhat  bent,  and  elbow  inclined  a  little  to  t'.ie 
outside  ;  point  of  foil  elevated  at  an  angle  of  about 
15°,  and  directed  at  upper  part  of  adversary's 
breast. 

Thrust. — Being  at  the  guard  in  carte,  straighten 
the  arm,  raise  the  wrist  above  the  head,  drop  the 
foil's  point  to  a  line  \vith  the  adversary's  breast,  throw 
first  the  wrist,  and  then  the  whole  body,  forward 
by  a  lunge  with  the  right  foot  of  two  feet  from  the 
'  guard,'  the  left  foot  remaining  firm.  The  left  hand 
should  be  dropped  during  the  lunge  to  a  level  with 
the  thigh,  and  to  a  position  distant  about  a  foot 
from  the  body ;  it  will  then  afford  a  good  counter- 
poise to  the  sword-arm.  Duiing  the  whole  action, 
the  body  must  be  perfectly  upright.  When  per. 
formed  briskly,  it  appears  that  the  point  and  foot 
are  advanced  simultaneously,  but  in  fact  the  point 
has,  or  should  have,  prioiity,  in  order  that  the 
instantly  following  limge  may  drive  it  home.  Most 
of  these  observations  concerning  thrust  in  carte 
apply  equally  to  all  other  thrusts. 


Fig.  1.— Carte. 


Carte  'over  the  arm  is  a  variety  of  this  thrust. 
The  sword  is  driven  outside  the  adversnry's  blade, 
from  the  carte  position,  but  in  the  tierce  line. 

Low  Carte. — Engage  adversary's  blade  in  carte, 
then  drop  point  under  his  wrist,  in  a  line  to  his 
elbow,  and  thi-ust  at  his  flank,  the  body  being  con- 
siderably bent. 

Flanconnade  or  Octave. — Engage  adversary's  blade 
in  carte,  and  bind  it  mth  yours,  then  carry  your 
point  behind  his  wrist  and  under  his  elbow  :  ^^-ith- 
out  quitting  his  blade,  plunge  your  point  to  his 
flank. 

Tierce,  Guard — As  in  carte,  the  nails  and  wrist 
being  somewhat  more  do\\-nward,  and  the  arm 
stretched  a  little  outward,  to  cover  the  outside. 

Parade.— Move  arm,  from  the  guard,  ol)liquely 
downward  to  the  right  about  six  inches,  and  c  ppose 
the  inside  of  the  adversary's  blade. 

Thrust. — From  the  guard,  turn  wrist  with  nails 
dow-iward,  the  same  height  as  n  carte,  the  inside  of 
the  arm  in  a  line  wath  the  right  temple  ;  then  thrust 
and  lunge  as  in  carte. 

Seconde,  Parade. — Nails  and  wrist  downward,  hand 
opposed  outward,  and  blade,  pointing  low,  should 
form  an  angle  of  about  45°  with  th3  ground. 

282 


FENCING. 


Tliriiat— Tlie  same  as  tierce,  but  delivered  under 
the  ad-jersary's  wrist  and  elbow,  to  a  point  between 


Kg.  2.— Tierce. 


his  rifrlit  armpit  and  riglit  breast :  the  body  to  be 
more  bent  than  in  carte  or  tierce. 


Fig.  3. — Seconde. 


Prime,  Parade. — In  using  prime  to  parry^  the 
thrust  in  secOnde,  pass  yoiu-  point  over  the  adver- 
sary's blade,  lower  it  to  the  waist,  keeping  your 
wrist  as  high  as  yovir  mouth,  nails  downward,  elbow 
bent,  and  body  held  back  as  far  as  possible.  The 
left  foot  should  also  be  drawn  backward  a  few 
inches,  te  remove  the  body  further  from  the  hostile 
point. 

Thrust. — An  extension  movement  from  the  parade. 


Fig.  4.— Prime. 


^tn^r.  Parade; — Wrist  in  high  carte,  aword-point 
low,  and  oppose  adversary  from  the  forte  of  the 
outside  edge  ( f  your  blade. 

Thrust. — Make  a  feint  on  the  half-circle  parade, 
with  the  wrist  in  carte ;  disengage  your  point  over 
the  adversary's  blade,  and  thrusi  directly  at  his 
flank. 

11  a/.f -circle.  Parade — One  of  the  principal  defen- 
sive pardAloa :  straighten  arm,  keep  wrist  in  line 

284 


with  shoulder,  nails  up :  by  quick  motion  of  wrist 
sweep  point  from  right  to  left  in  a  circle  covering 


Fig.  5.— <iuinte. 


your  body  from  head  to  knee,  until  the  adversary  a 

blade  is  found  and  oj)position  established. 

The  parades  parry  thrusts  as  follows  : 

Carte,  with  wrist  low,  parries  low  carte  and 
seconde  ;  with  wrist  raised,  all  the  thrusts  over  the 
point  on  the  inside  of  the  sword  and  the  fianconnade. 

Tierce  parries  high  carte ;  with  raised  wrist, 
parries  tierce. 

Seconde  parries  aU  lower  thrusts,  both  inside  and 
outside. 

Half-circle  parries  carte,  high  carte,  tierce,  and 
seconde. 

Pnme  parries  carte,  low  carte,  and  seconde. 

Qui}ite  parries  seconde  and  fianconnade. 

In  all  parades  or  parries,  care  must  be  taken  that 
in  covering  the  side  attacked,  the  parade  is  Qot  so 
wide  as  to  expose  the  other  side  to  the  enemy.  A 
steady  countenance,  shewing  no  disquietude  at  any 
attempt  he  may  make,  is,  above  all,  necessary  in 
parades. 

Every  parade  has  its  return,  which  should  be 
made  with  \nvacity  and  decision.  A  thrust  can  be 
retiuT^^d  when  the  adversary  thrusts,  or  when, 
baffled  in  his  attack,  he  is  recovering  to  his  guard. 
In  the  first  case,  no  lunge  is  necessary,  the  return 
being  made  from  the  WTist :  this  return  requires 
great  skill  and  quickness,  since  the  adversary  should 
receive  the  thrust  before,  by  finishing  his  own,  he 
has  touched  your  body. 

Ordinary  Returns. — After  carte  parry,  return  in 
carte ;  after  tierce,  return  in  tierce ;  after  parrying 
high  carte,  return  seconde  ;  after  parrying  seconde, 
return  m  quinte  ;  after  parade  in  prime,  return 
seconde  or  low  carte. 

Feints,  of  which  there  are  many  varieties,  con- 
sist in  threatening  an  attack  on  one  side  of  the 
sword,  and  then  executing  it  on  the  other.  The 
best  parade  against  a  feint  is  that  of  the  half- 
circle,  which  will  be  sure  to  find  the  adverEary'i 
point. 

Advance  and  Retreat  are  motions  of  attack  or 
withdrawal,  performed  by  advancing  the  right,  or 
withdra^\^ng  the  left  foot  suddenly  about  18  mches, 
and  instantly  following  it  with  the  other  foot.  As 
the  adversary  advances,  you  must  retreat,  imlesa 
prepared  to  receive  him  at  the  sword-point. 

Salute. — The  salute  is  a  coiirteous  opening  of  the 
fencing,  and  consists  in  gracefully  taking  off  the 
hat,  while,  with  the  foils,  your  adversary  and  your- 
self measure  your  respective  distances. 

Appels  or  beats  with  the  right  foot,  heats  on  the 
adversary's  blade,  and  glissades  or  glidings  of  one 
sword  along  the  other,  are  motions  intended  to 
confuse  the  enemy,  and  give  openings  for  thrusts. 

Voltes,  demi-voltes,  and  disarming,  were  mauoeuvrea 
formerly  taught  with  care,  but  they  are  now  quite 


FENCING. 


discarded  in  tb  ^  academies  of  England  and  France, 
as  useless  and  undesirable. 

In  Suain  and  Italy,  considerable  differences  of 
practice  from  that  in  France  and  England  prevail. 
The  left  hand  is  used  as  an  auxiliary  in  parrying, 
and  in  Italy  is  aided  by  a  dagger,  or  sometimes  a 
cloak.  The  Spaniard,  though  trusting  to  his  sword 
and  left  hand  only,  has  his  blade  five  feet  long,  with 
sharp  edges ;  his  guard  is  nearly  straight,  and  one 
of  his  favourite  attacks  is  by  a  cut  (not  thrust)  at 
the  head. 

In  an  article  limited  in  length  as  this  must 
necessarily  be,  it  is  impossible  to  give  more  than 
the  merest  outline  of  the  various  motions  ;  but,  of 
course,  in  actual  practice,  there  are  endless  varia- 
tions of  the  different  modes  of  attack  and  defence, 
which  will  be  severally  adopted  according  to  the 
skill  and  option  of  the  fencer.  There  is  no  finer 
indoor  exercise  than  fencing,  as  the  muscles  in 
every  limb  are  developed  and  strengthened  by  it. 
The  great  requirements  for  success  are  a  steady  eye 
and  hand,  a  quick  pm-pose  as  quickly  executed,  and, 
perhaps-above  aU,  perfect  equanimity  of  temper. 

The  Sword  Exercise  differs  from  fencing  with 
the  foil ;  in  that,  the  weapon  employed  has  one 
cutting  edge  as  well  as  a  point,  and  is  therefore 
intended  to  cut  and  thrust.  The  sword  is  the  arm 
of  all  officers  in  the  army  and  na^^,  of  many  non- 
commissioned officers,  and  constitutes  the  sole  mode 
of  attack  and  defence  for  the  officers  of  the  British 
volunteers.  A  certain  degree  of  proficiency  in  its 
use  is  therefore  alw^ays  serviceable.  In  practice,  the 
usual  substitute  is  a  stout,  straight  stick,  called  a 
'  single-stick,'  having  a  basket-handle  to  protect  the 
knuckles. 

The  position  of  the  combatant  is  the  same  as 
that  assumed  in  fencing  with  the  foil ;  the  lunge  is 
similar,  as  are  also  the  '  advance '  and  '  retreat,'  and 
other  minor  points.  According  to  the  instructions 
of  drill- masters,  there  are  seven  cuts,  with  seven 
con-esponding  giiards,  and  three  thrusts.  The 
theoretical  directions  of  all  these  are  shewn  on  the 
accompanying  diagram,  which  represents  a  target 
placed  opposite  a  pupil,  so  that  he  may  see  the 
motions  he  is  expected  to  perform  displayed  before 
him.  The  centre  of  the  target  is  supposed  to  be  in 
a  line  with  the  centre  of  his  breast. 


CUT? 


Fig.  6. 


Thd  cuts  proceed  from  the  circumference  towards 
the  centre  aJong  the  thick  lines.  Nos.  1,  3,  and  5 
are  inside  cuts,  and  attack  the  left  cheek,  left  side, 
and  inside  of  the  right  leg  respectively ;  2,  4,  and  6 
are  outside  cuts,  attacking  the  enemy's  right  cheek, 
right  side,  and  right  leg  on  th(!  outside.  No.  7  is  a 
vertical  cut,  aimed  at  the  head. 

The  dotted  lines  show  the  position  of  the  sword 


in  the  several  guards  by  wliich  the  cuts  are  opposed. 
The  sword  handles  illustrate  the  situation  of  the 
right  hand  with  reference  to  the  centre  of  the  body. 

The  points  or  thrusts  are  shown  by  the  black 
circles.  That  towards  No.  1  should  be  directed 
mth  the  wrist  and  edge  of  the  sword  upwards  to 
the  right ;  towards  2,  with  the  edge  upwards  to  the 
left ;  and  in  the  3d  point,  with  the  wrist  rising  to 
the  centre,  and  the  edge  uj)wards  to  the  right. 

The  '  parry '  is  an  acklitional  defensive  movement, 
and  consists  m  bringing  the  wrist  nearly  to  the 
right  shoidder;  whence,  as  centre,  a  circidar  sweep 
of  the  sword  is  made  from  left  to  right. 

A  considerable  latitude  is  allowable  in  regard  to 
the  cuts,  as  to  the  part  of  the  adversary's  body  a^ 
which  they  are  directed,  provided  the  geueraS 
inclination  of  the  blow  be  observed ;  similarly,  the 
cut  may  at  times  be  parried  by  a  guard  other  than 
that  intended  sjiecially  for  it,  according  to  the  dis  - 
cretion  of  the  fencer. 

In  engaging,  or  joining  swords,  with  the  enemy, 
press  the  l^lades  but  lightly  together,  so  that  the 
hand  and  wrist  may  be.  readily  susceptible  of  any 
motion.  In  making  the  guards,  care  must  always 
be  taken  to  receive,  if  possible,  the  feeble  of  the 
enemy's  blade  on  the  forte  of  your  own,  so  as  to 
offer  the  greater  opposition.  It  should  also  be  borne 
in  mind  that,  in  all  cuts  at  the  leg,  when  at  proper 
distance,  the  shifting  of  your  own  leg,  and  delivering 
a  cut  at  the  same  moment,  becomes  the  most  eSec- 
tual  and  advantageous  defence,  particularly  if  you 
happen  to  be  taller  than  your  adversary,  as  you  will 
then  probably  be  out  of  his  reach,  while  he  is  within 
yours. 

In  contending  with  bayonet  or  pike,  the  most 
effectual  guard  is  the  5th,  which,  if  well  timed, 
enables  the  swordsman  to  seize  the  musket  or  pike 
with  his  left  hand,  and  then  make  the  6th  cut  at  his 
opponent's  neck.  In  ati  encounter  with  the  rapier, 
the  best  cuts  are  Nos.  3  and  4,  as  they  attack  the 
enemy's  arm,  which  must  be  advanced  within  reach 
before  he  can  touch  your  body,  and  also  constitute 
a  defence  against  his  thrust.  If  the  enemy — no 
matter  how  armed — be  on  horseback,  the  dismoimied 
swordsman  (provided  he  have  proper  nerve  and 
agility)  has  decidedly  the  advantage.  Endeavour  to 
place  yourself  on  his  left,  where  he  has  less  power  oi 
defending  himself  or  his  horse,  and  cannot  reach  to 
so  great  a  distance  as  on  his  right :  an  attack  on  the 
horse  will  probably  render  it  ungovernable,  and  it 
becomes  easy  then  to  avoid  the  rider's  blows,  while 
he  himself  may  be  attacked  with  impunity  in  almost 
any  direction. 

Bayonet  Exercise.— If  the  sword  exercise  be 
of  use  to  volunteer  officers,  there  are  at  least  thirty 
times  as  many  volunteers  themselves  to  whom  a 
proper  command  of  the  bayonet  is  indispensable. 
In  close-quarter  engagements,  there  is  no  weapon 
more  formidable :  from  its  length  and  weight,  the 
thrust  of  the  bayonet  gives  a  terrible  wound,  and  ita 
force  is  such  that  there  is  great  difficulty  in  parrying 
the  attack.  Like  other  small-arms,  it  is  most  ser- 
viceable when  handled  on  scientific  principles ;  and 
the  art  of  using  it  to  advantage  is  so  simple  as  to  b« 
very  easily  acquired,  while  the  exercise,  from  the 
weight  of  the  rifle,  admirably  aids  in  developing  the 
muscles  of  all  parts  of  the  body. 

Of  course,  the  bayonet  is  always  fixed  at  the  end 
of  the  musket,  when  it  becomes  virtually  a  pike.  The 
position  of  the  feet  in  the  bayonet  exercise  remains 
always  the  same  relatively,  and  absolutely  until 
advance  or  retreat  be  effectecL  The  right  foot  is 
thrown  back  24  inches,  and  the  weight  of  the  bodv 
thrown  upon  it.  The  heels  are  kept  in  a  line  with 
each  other,  both  knees  bent  and  well  apart ;  the 
right  knee  directly  over  the  foot,  the  left  easy  an(1 


FENCING  -FENELON. 


flexible,  pointing  to  the  front.  In  this  position  of  the 
body,  all  the  defensive  motions  of  tlie  bayonet  are 
made.  In  'guard,'  the  bayonet  is  brought  nearly  to 
a  horizontal  direction,  level  with  the  waist,  and 
pointing  towards  the  breast  of  an  advancing  enemy. 
Similarly,  to  'guard,'  the  positions  'low,'  'high,'  and 
'second  point'  are  assumed,  the  bayonet  pointing  as 
Uiown  by  the  dotted  lines  in  fig.  7.     The  butt  of 


!2  POINT 


FifT.  7. 

<Ue  rifle  is  always  kept  well  to  the  right  side,  the 
hrtiid  behind  the  trigger-guard,  and  the  whole  body 
in  attittide  to  offer  great  resistance.  In  '  low,'  the 
barrel  is  turned  downwards  ;  but  in  all  the  other 
defensive  motions  it  is  held  upwards.  The  position 
of  the  arms  is  in  each  case  that  which  would  natur- 
tilly  be  taken  in  placing  the  bayonet  and  musket 
in  the  required  direction. 

The  offensive  position  of  the  body  is  acquired  by 
the  extension  of  the  right  leg,  and  bending  forward 
of  the  left  witho\it  moving  the  feet.  The  hu'ct  ol 
the  rifle  is  at  the  same  time  pressed  firm>j  to  the 
shoulder.  This  position  is  called  'point,'  and  con- 
stitutes an  extens'ion  of  the  weapon  in  a  direction 
parallel  with  either  of  those  pre\dously  taken.  _  As 
there  were  four  '  guards,'  so  there  are  four  poiuts, 
which  are  shewn  in  fig.  8.    The  barrel  is  in  Bach 


may  suggest.  In  contending  with  a  swordsman, 
the  action  of  changing  from  right  to  left,  when  at 


Rg.8. 

case  upward,  and  the  motions  for  eacli  are  similar, 
except  in  pointing  from  '  2d  point,'  when  the  rifle, 
seized  by  the  right  hand  round  the  small  of  the 
butt,  is  thrust  straight  up  above  the  head  to  the 
full  extent  of  the  arm,  the  left  hand  falling  along 
the  thigh,  and  the  legs  being  straightened  so  as  to 
form  an  isosceles  triangle. 

'  Shorten  arms '  is  a  useful  motion,  both  as  a 
defence  and  as  a  pre]iaration  for  a  strong  attack.  It 
consists  in  carrying  the  butt  back  to  the  full  extent 
of  the  right  arm,  while  the  barrel  (downwards)  rests 
upon  the  thick  part  of  the  left  arm.  The  body  is 
thrown  upon  the  right  leg,  and  the  left  straightened. 
This  powerful  position  is  seen  in  the  annexed  cut. 

In  all  the  guards  and  points,  and  also  'shorten 
arms,'  the  bayonet  may  be  turned  directly  to  the 
front,  to  the  right,  or  to  the  left,  as  circumstances 

286 


the  'high'  or  'low,'  is  sufficient  defence  against  Uie 
ordinary  cuts  of  the  latter. 

Among  the  treatises  consulted  for  this  article 
have  been  the  works  on  fencing  by  Angelo  and 
Roland,  as  well  as  the  shorter  instructions  issued 
by  the  military  authorities. 

FENELON,  Francis  de  Salionac  de  la  Mothe, 
was  bom,  August  G,  1651,  in  the  chflteau  Fenelon, 
province  of  Perigord,  now  included  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Dordogne,  of  a  family  which  has  given 
maiiy  celebrities  both  to  the  church  and  to  the  state 
in  France.  His  education  was  conducted  at  home 
up  to  his  l?th  year,  when  he  was  transfeiTcd  to 
Cahors,  and  afterwards  to  the  Plessis  College  in 
Pai'is.  At  the  close  of  a  most  blameless  collegiate 
career,  he  selected  the  church  as  his  profession, 
ixcd  entered,  in  his  20th  year,  the  newly  founded 
seminary  of  St  Sul])ice,  then  under  the  direction  of 
the  celebrated  Abl)e  Tronson,  where  he  received 
holy  orders  in  1075.  Unlike  but  too  many  eccle- 
siastics of  his  own  rank  at  that  period,  he  gave  his 
wdiole  hpart  to  his  sacred  calling.  For  some  time 
after  his  ordination,  he  was  employed  ii*  attendance 
at  the  hospitals,  and  in  other  parochial  duties  of 
the  parish  of  St  Sulpice ;  and  in  the  year  1678, 
he  was  named  director  of  an  institution  recently 
founded  for  the  reception  of  female  converts  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  faith,  in  Paris.  During  his  tenure  of 
this  office,  he  Vv^rote  his  first  work,  On  the  Education 
of  Girls,  which  is  still  a  standard  authority  ;  and 
the  gentleness,  moderation,  and  charity  with  which 
he  discharged  his  duties  towards  the  young  con- 
verts, led  to  his  appointment  as  head  of  a  mission, 
which,  on  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes 
in  1685,  was  sent  to  preach  among  the  Protestant 
population  of  Saintonge  and  Poitou.  In  1688,  he 
resumed  his  duties  in  the  Maison  des  Nouvellea 
Converties,  at  Paris  ;  and  in  the  following  year,  he 
was  named  by  Louis  XIV.  to  the  highly  confideutial 
post  of  preceptor  of  his  grandson,  the  young  Duke  of 
Burgundy.  F.'s  management  of  this  most  important 
and  delicate  tnist  shewed  how  well  he  understood 
the  true  nature  and  objects  of  education.  All  his 
own  instructions,  and  all  the  exercises  enjoined  upon 
his  pupil,  were  so  contrived,  as,  while  they  imparted 
the  actual  knowledge  which  it  is  the  ordinary  busi- 
ness of  a  master  to  communicate,  at  the  same  tine 
served  to  prepare  the  mind  and  the  heart  of  the  puf  lU 
for  what  was  to  l)e  the  real  business  of  his  life,  by 
impressing  upon  him  a  sense  of  the  responsibility 
which  awaited  him,  of  the  great  principles  of  truth 
and  justice  upon  which  these  responsibilities  are 
founded,  and  of  the  hollo wness  and  futility  of  all 
earthly  glory,  power,  and  happiness,  which  do  not 
rest  upon  this  foundation.  To  this  wise  design  of 
the  preceptor  we  are  indebted  for  many  works  still 
popular  in  educational  use;  for  the  Fables,  for  thf 


,1 


FENELOK 


Dialogues  of  the  Dead,  tor  the  History  of  the  Ancient 
Philosophers,  for  the  genn  at  least  of  tlie  I'ele- 
machus,  and  for  the  Life  of  Charlemay^ie,  the 
manuscript  of  which  last  work,  unfortunately, 
was  burned  in  the  fire  which  destroyed  the  archi- 
epiacopal  palace  of  Canibray  in  the  year  1697.  As 
an  ackuowledgjiient  of  these  great  merits,  he  was 
presented  by  the  king,  in  1694,  to  the  Abbey  of  St 
Valery,  and  in  the  following  year,  to  the  Arch- 
bishopric of  Cambray,  which  he  only  accepted  on 
the  ex])ress  condition,  that  for  nine  months  of  each 
year  he  should  be  exempted  from  all  duties  as 

E receptor  of  the  prince,  and  left  at  liberty  to  devote 
imself  exclusively  to  the  care  of  his  diocese.  It  is 
to  this  period  of  F.'s  life  that  the  history  of  the 
unhappy  controversy  about  Quietism  belongs.  With- 
out entering  into  the  details  of  this  singidar  revival 
of  the  ancient  Mysticism  (see  jNIysticism),  it  be 
enough  to  say  that  two  separate  schools  of  Quietism 
are  to  be  distinguished,  the  moral  character,  or  at 
least  the  moral  tendency,  of  Avhich  was  exceedingly 
different.  See  Quietism.  In  one  of  these,  the 
common  mystic  princi])le  of  the  absorption  of  the 
Boul  in  the  love  and  contemplation  of  God,  led  to 
the  conclusion,  tbat  the  sold,  in  this  state  of  absorp- 
tion, became  entirely  passive ;  that  it  was  thence- 
forth independent  of  the  external  world ;  that  it 
Buffered  no  contamination  from  the  material  actions 
of  the  outer  man,  and  that  no  acts  of  virtue,  not 
even  of  prayer,  were  any  longer  required.  See 
MoLiNOS.  The  other  school,  while  it  maintained  the 
theory'-  of  passive  contemplation  and  love,  yet  repu- 
diated the  dangerous  and  immoral  consequences 
which  were  deduced  therefrom.  It  was  exclusively 
the  latter  and  less  objectionable  form  of  Quietism, 
the  professors  of  which  for  a  time  claimed,  although 
not  the  patronage,  yet  at  least  the  indulgent  con- 
sideration of  Fenelon.  He  formed,  in  the  year  1687, 
the  acquaintance  of  the  celebrated  Madame  Guyon, 
who  may  be  regarded  as  the  foundress  of  the  French 
Bchool  of  Quietism.  See  Guyon.  The  extraordinary 
piety  and  exemplary  life  of  this  remarkable  woman, 
and  his  own  natural  bias  towards  the  tender  and 
lofty  spirituality  which  she  professed,  ai)pear  to  have 
blinded  F.  to  the  true  nature  and  to  the  practical 
consequences  of  the  system  which  she  followed. 
Fully  convinced  of  the  unfairness  of  much  of  the 
outcry  which  was  raised  against  her,  and  which  made 
her  responsible  for  all  the  principles  of  the  grosser 
Quietism  of  Molinos,  his  generous  mind  was  perhaps 
attractefl  to  her  cause  by  the  very  injustice  of  her 
opponents.  He  advised  her  to  submit  her  works  to 
the  judgment  of  Bossuet,  who  was  then  in  the  zenith 
of  his  fame,  and  with  whom  F.  was  in  the  most 
friendly  relations.  In  the  condemnation  of  the  book 
of  Madame  Guyon  by  this  prelate,  F.  acquiesced  ;  but 
as  she  made  a  formal  submission  to  the  church, 
he  refused  to  join  in  any  condemnation  of  herself 
personally.  Nevertheless,  when  a  commission  was 
appointed  to  examine  the  whole  affair,  F.,  although 
not  a  member,  took  a  part  in  the  proceedings  ;  and 
he  even  suggested  certain  changes  in  their  report, 
which  he  subscribed  in  common  with  the  rest.  To 
the  articles  prescribed  for  her  signature  by  this  com- 
mission, Madame  Guyon  readily  subscribed  ;  but  it 
was  further  considered  necessary  not  only  to  publish 
a  condemnation  of  her  several  works,  but  also  to 
prepare  a  special  exposition  of  the  tnie  doctrine  of 
the  church  on  these  qiiestions.  When  the  work  of 
Bossuet  on  this  subject  was  completed,  he  submitted 
it  to  F.  for  his  approval.  This  F.  not  only  refused 
to  give,  but  even  composed  his  ovm.  Maxims  of  the 
faints  in  the  Interior  Life,  in  explanation  and  defence 
of  certain  at  least  of  Madame  Guyon's  doctrines. 
He  submitted  his  book  to  the  Archbishop  of  Paris, 
and  introduced  into  it  some  modifications  which  were 


suggested  by  the  diocesan  censors,  ciieerfully  agre^ 
ing  to  the  stipulation  of  the  archbishoi),  that  it  should 
be  kept  l^ack  from  publication  until  the  comj>letiou 
of  the  rival  treatise  of  Boss  iet,  On  the  States  oj 
Prayer.  An  unfortunate  violation  of  this  engage- 
ment, committed  without  the  knowledge,  and  in  th^ 
absence  of  F.,  was  the  last  of  a  long  train  of  causes 
which  led  to  the  painful  and  disedifyire  rupture 
between  these  two  great  prelates.  F.  a  book  was 
received  with  much  clamour,  that  of  Bossuet  waa 
universally  approved  ;  and  in  the  controversy  which 
ensued,  all  the  weight  of  the  displeasure  of  the  court, 
which  F.  had  provoked  by  the  covert  strictures  ui>on 
the  existing  state  of  things,  in  wliich  he  was  believed 
to  have  indulged  in  his  works  of  fiction,  was  brought 
to  bear  against  him.  He  was  ordered  to  submit  his 
book  to  the  judgment  of  an  ecclesiastical  tribunal, 
of  which  Bossuet  was  a  member.  F.  refused  to 
accept  Bossuet  as  judge,  on  the  gi-ound  that  he  had 
already  i^rejudged  the  cause ;  and  in  the  end  he 
appealed  to  the  judgment  of  the  holy  see.  Unfor- 
tunately, even  while  the  affair  was  ])ending  at  Borne, 
the  controversy  was  still  maintained  in  France. 
Bossuet  published  a  succession  of  jiamphlets.  Several 
of  the  bishops  who  had  espoused  the  side  of  Bossuet, 
issued  pastorals  in  the  same  sense.  F.  defended 
himself  vigorously  against  them  all  in  several  publi- 
cations, explanatory  as  well  of  his  principles  as  of  thf» 
personal  imputations  in  which  some  of  his  adversaries" 
did  not  scruple  to  indulge.  The  last  blow  against 
the  ancient  friendshi})  of  the  great  rivals  was  struck 
by  Bossuet  in  his  celebrated  lielation  sur  le  Quietlsme. 
F.  was  wounded  to  the  heart.  The  copy  of  Bossuet's 
pamphlet  which  first  came  into  his  hands  is  stiU 
preserved  in  the  British  Museum  ;  and  the  margin  is 
literally  filled  with  remarks,  annotations,  replies, 
denials,  and  rejoinders,  in  the  smgularly  delicate 
and  beautiful  handwriting  of  the  indignant  arch- 
bishop. The  copy  now  in  the  British  Museiun  ia 
most  probably  one  which,  as  we  learn  from  his  cor- 
respondence, he  sent  to  his  agent  at  liome,  and  on 
the  margin  of  which  he  corrected,  for  the  guidance 
of  his  friend,  the  many  false  and  exaggerated  charges 
of  his  gi-eat  antagonist.  The  substance  of  these 
replies  he  gave  to  the  public  in  a  most  masterly 
defence,  WTitten,  printed,  and  published  within  little 
more  than  a  fortnight  from  the  appearance  of  Bos- 
suet's Relation.  From  this  point,  the  controversy 
assumed  a  more  personal,  and  therefore  a  more 
acrimonious  character ;  and  it  was  maintamed  on 
both  sides  tdl  the  long  delayed  decision  of  the  pope 
brought  it  to  a  close,  March  12,  1699,  by  a  brief, 
in  the  usual  form,  condemning  the  Maxims  of  the 
Saints,  and  marking  with  especial  censure  23  pro- 
positions extracted  from  it.  The  conduct  of  F, 
under  this  blow  constitutes,  in  the  eyes  of  his  fellovr- 
churchmen,  one  of  his  highest  titles  to  glory.  He 
not  only  accepted,  without  hesitation,  the  decision  of 
Rome,  but  he  took  the  very  earliest  occasion  to 
publish  from  his  own  pulpit  the  brief  of  his  condem- 
nation ;  he  issued  a  pastoral  address  to  his  flock,  to 
apprise  them  of  the  judgment  of  Rome,  and  of  his 
own  cheerful  acquiescence  ;  and  he  presented  to  his 
cathedral  a  magnificent  piece  of  church-plate,  a  gold 
ostensory,  in  which  the  Angel  of  Truth  is  represented 
trampling  under  foot  many  erroneous  works,  the 
most  prominent  of  which  bears  the  title  of  Maxiins 
of  the  Saints  !  Bossuet  is  said  to  have  been  greatly 
touched  by  the  conduct  of  his  noble  adversary,  and 
to  have  earnestly  desired  a  reconciliation.  But  the 
adverse  influence  of  the  king,  Louis  XIV.,  and  of 
the  court,  stood  in  the  way.  The  jealousy  with 
which  the  political  pi'inciples  of  F.  were  already 
regarded  was  heightened  about  this  time  into  open 
hostdity  by  the  appearance  of  his  Telemachus,  which 
was  printed  from  a  copy  surreptitiously  obtained  bv 


FENESTELLA— FENUGREEK. 


his  servant,  and  which  the  king  regarded  as  bnt  a 
masked  satire  upon  his  own  court :  Sesostris  being 
Bupposed  to  represent  the  Grand  Monarque  him- 
self ;  Calypso,  Madame  de  Montespan  ;  Protesilaus, 
Louvois ;  and  Eucharis,  Mademoiselle  de  Fontanges. 
Louis's  anger  knew  no  bounds.  F.  was  strirtly 
restrained  within  his  diocese  ;  measures  were  taken 
to  give  tlie  condemnation  of  his  book  every  character 
of  publicity;  and  what  wounded  him  most  of  ail, 
all  intercourse  Avith  him,  whether  personal  or  by 
letter,  was  forbidden  to  his  old  and  much-loved 
pupil,  the  Didce  of  Burgundy.  From  this  date,  F. 
lived  exclusively  for  his  flock.  He  founded  at 
Cambray  a  seminary  for  his  archdiocese,  which  he 
made  his  own  especial  charge.  He  was  assiduous  in  i 
preaching,  and  in  the  discharge  of  the  other  duties 
of  his  office ;  and  the  fame  of  his  benevolence, 
charity,  and  enlightened  li])erality  is  attested  by 
the  order  given  in  the  campaign  of  1709  to  spare  the 
palace  and  the  stores  of  the  Archbishop  of  Cambray. 
The  only  later  controversy  in  which  he  a})pears  is 
the  revival  of  the  Jansenistic  dispute  in  the  well- 
known  form  of  '  The  Case  of  Conscience'  (see  Jan- 
senism), in  which  F.  engaged  earnestly  on  the  side 
of  orthodoxy.  Notwithstanding  the  prohibition  of 
his  grandfather,  the  yoimg  Duke  of  Burgundj'^ 
retained  all  his  old  affection  for  his  preceptor ;  and 
the  highest  hopes  were  entertained  as  to  tlie  future 
career  of  the  pupil  of  such  a  school.  These  hopes 
were  unfortunately  cut  short  by  the  premature  death 
of  the  duke  in  1712.  F.  survived  him  but  a  short 
time.    He  died  Jantiary  7,  1715. 

The  works  of  F.  are  very  voluminous.  The  latest 
collected  edition  extends  to  twenty  8vo  volmnes, 
and  em})races  every  variety  of  subjects — theolr>gy, 
philosopliy,  history,  literature,  ancient  and  modern, 
orator\%  especially  the  eloquence  of  the  pulpit, 
asceticism,  and  spirituality  in  all  its  branches.  His 
correspondence  is  verj^  extensive  and  most  interest- 
ing. Of  his  early  sermons  (one  of  which  was 
delivered  in  his  15th  year),  a  volume  was  printed  in 
1744.  Of  his  mature  discourses,  two  only  have 
reached  us  in  a  finished  state.  They  are  of  the  very- 
highest  order  of  sacred  eloquence.  Of  the  rest,  we 
can  only  jiidge  from  the  skeletons  which  it  was  his 
habit  to  pre])are  with  great  exactness,  and  of  which 
very  many  have  been  preserved.  His  literary  and 
historical  works,  many  of  which  were  composed  for 
the  instruction  of  his  pupil,  are  filled  wdth  allusions 
and  suggestions  illnstivative  of  the  principles  of 
government  and  of  the  relative  duties  of  sovereigns 
and  subjects,  far  in  advance  of  the  time  in  which  he 
lived.  His  work  the  Temporal  Power  of  the 
Medieval  Popes  presents  that  doctrine  in  a  form 
which  divests  it  ol  many  of  those  characteristics 
which  are  most  objectionable  in  the  eyes  of  Protes- 
tants ;  and  even  his  sjiiritual  writings  in  general 
may  be  read,  and  indeed  are  not  unfrequently  read, 
not  only  without  offence,  but  even  with  positive 
advantage,  by  Christians  of  all  denominations.  See 
Card.  Gaussett's  Vie  de  Fenelon,  4  vols.  12mo  ;  also 
ihe  Vie  de  Bosmet  of  the  same  author.  See  also  the 
Life  prefixed  to  the  collected  edition  of  the  (Euvres  de 
Fmelon  ;  the  voluminous  correspondence  contained 
in  that  collection  ;  and  above  all,  the  Vie  de  Fenelan, 
recently  published,  by  one  of  the  Sulpician  congrega- 
tion (M.  Gosselin),  in  four  large  8vo  volumes. 

FENESTE'LLA,  or  FENESTEELLA,  a  genus 
of  Polyzoa,  resembling  the  recent  '  lace  coral,'  very 
common  in  Palaeozoic  rocks,  ranging  from  the  Lower 
Silurian  to  the  Permian.  Thirty  species  have  been 
described. 

FE'NNEC,  or  ZERDA  {Megalotis),  a  genus  of 
CanidcB,  peculiar  to  Africa,  resembling  foxes  in 
generU  form  and  in  the  bushy  tail,  but  having  eyes 
886 


adapted  for  diurnal  and  not  for  nocturnal  vision,  and 
remarkably  large  ears.  The  species  are  small  and 
beautifiU.  They  feed  partly  on  dates  and  othcx 
vegetable  food,  also  on  eggs,  and  on  insects,  which 
they  adroitly  snap  as  they  pass. 

FE'NNEL  {Fanfiiculum),  a  genus  of  umbelliferous 
plants,  allied  to  DiU  (q.  v.),  but  distinguished  by  the 
cylindrical  strongly  ribbed  fruit.  The  floweis  are 
yellow.  All  the  species  are  aromatic,  and  have 
much  divided  leaves  with  thread-like  segments.  The 
best  known  is  the  Common  F.  {F.  vulgare),  a  native 
of  the  south  of  Europe  and  of  some  parts  of  Englar  d. 
It  is  a  biennial,  three  or  four  feet  high,  and  is  culti- 
vated in  gardens,  chiefly  for  the  sake  of  its  leaves, 
which  are  boiled,  and  served  up  with  mackerel,  with 
salmon,  and  occasionally  wdth  other  kinds  of  fish  ot 
are  employed  to  form  a  sauce  for  them. — Sweet  F., 
Italian  F.,  or  Cretan  F.  {F.  dulce),  is  a  plant  of 
much  humbler  growth,  and  annual,  much  cultivated 
in  the  south  of  Europe,  but  too  tender  for  the  climate 
of  Britain.  The  young  si)routs  from  the  root  are 
sweeter  and  less  aromatic  than  those  of  Common  F 


Fennel  {Foeniculum  vulgarc) : 
o,  a  tiower. 


and  when  blanched,  are  a  very  agi-eeable  salad  an'l 
I  potherb.  The  fruit  (seed)  is  longer  and  paler  than 
i  that  of  Common  F.,  has  a  more  agTceable  odour  and 
flavour,  is  the  favourite  aromatic  condiment  of  the 
Italians,  and  is  used  in  medicine  as  a  carminative 
i  and  aromatic  stimidant.  Oil  of  F.,  an  aroniatio, 
j  stimulant,  and  carminative  essential  oil,  is  also  made 
from  it. — Cape  F.  [F.  Capense),  found  in  the  interior 
of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  has  a  thick,  aromatic, 
escident  root. — The  Panmuhooree  of  India  {F. 
pamnorium)  is  a  species  of  F.  much  cultivated  in  ita 
native  country  for  its  sweet,  warm,  and  aromatic 
fruit,  which  is  much  used  as  a  carminative,  and  in 
curries. — The  Giant  F.  of  the  south  of  Exirope  is  a 
plant  of  a  different  genus  (Ferula),  and  abounds 
in  a  fetid  juice.  It  is  indeed  closely  allied  to 
asafoetida,  but  forms  a  favourite  food  of  buffaloes  in 
Apulia,  where  it  particiilarly  abounds.  The  dry 
dead  stem  is  fuU  of  a  white  pith,  which  is  used  in 
Sicily  as  tinder. 

FENS.    See  Bedford  Level. 
FE'NUGREEK  [Trigonella),  a  genus  of  plants  4 
the  natural  order  Papilionacece.,  sub-order  Legurmn- 
08ce,  allied  to  clover  and  melilot.    The  leaves  have 


FENYES— FEOFFMENT. 


three  obovate  leaflets  and  scytlie-shaped  stipules. 
The  flowers  generally  have  the  keel  very  small,  so 
that  the  wings  and  standard  present  the  appearance 
of  a  tripetalous  corolla.  The  Common  F.  [T.foinum 
GroECum)  is  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  and  of 
Borae  parts  of  Asia ;  it  is  much  cultivated  in  India 
as  a  fodder-i)lant,  and  derives  its  name  [Fcenum 
Cfrcscum,  Greek  hay)  from  its  iise  as  fodder  in  Greece. 


Fenugreek  [THgonella  fcenum  GrcBCum). 

Its  pods  are  many-seeded,  and  cylindrical ;  its  seeds 
have  a  strong  peculiar  smell,  and  an  oily  bitter  taste ; 
the  flour  made  from  them  is  used  for  emollient 
poultices,  but  only  in  veterinary  practice.  The 
seeds  of  F.  were  formerly  held  in  great  esteem  in 
medicine. — Another  species  [T.  incisum),  growing 
spontaneously  in  many  parts  of  India,  is  much  used 
as  fodder  for  cattle.  The  legumes  of  the  Esculent 
Trigonella  {T.  esculeiita),  also  an  Indian  plant,  are 
used  as  human  food.  One  species  only,  the  Bird's 
Foot  F.  {T.  ornithopodioides),  is  a  native  of  Britain, 
a  small  plant,  gi'owing  in  sandy  pastures  near  the 
Bea,  and  not  very  common. 

FENYES,  Elek  (Alexius),  a  Hungarian  geo- 
grapher and  statistical  author,  was  born  in  1807  at 
Csokaj,  in  the  county  of  Bihar.  After  the  usual 
career  of  studies  in  philosophy  and  law,  F.  became 
barrister-at-law  as  early  as  1829 ;  but  instead  of 
frequenting  the  law-courts,  he  began  travelling  all 
over  the  country,  with  the  purpose  of  making 
bimaelf  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  state  of 
the  Hungarian  kingdom,  of  which  there  had  never 
before  been  an  authentic  survey.  The  first  fruits 
of  F.'s  enterprise  appeared  in  1840,  under  the  title, 
Huigary  and  its  Annexed  Parts,  Oeographicalbj 
and  Statistically  considered  (6  vols.,  Pesth).  The 
great  prize  of  200  ducats  was  awarded  to  the 
author  by  the  Hungarian  Academy.  The  Statistics 
of  Hungary,  in  3  vols.,  followed  (1843) ;  General 
Atlas  for  Hungary  (1845);  Description  of  Hungary 
(1847);  Geographical  Dictionary  cf  Hungary  {1851) 
— all  of  which  were  published  at  Pesth.  The 
whole  of  F.'s  works  are  written  in  the  Magyar 
tongue,  but  several  of  them  have  been  translated 
into  German,  and  repeatedly  published.  Besides 
that  these  works  are  the  first  true  expounders  of 
the  state  of  Hungary,  it  is  also  generally  admitted 
that,  as  to  their  completeness,  solidity,  and  exaot- 


ness,  they  will  bear  a  comparison  with  the  best 
of  kindred  works  in  European  literature.  During 
the  national  government  of  Hungary  (1848),  r. 
was  made  the  chief  of  the  statistical  section.  After 
a  respite  of  several  years,  from  failing  health,  F. 
is  a^rain  busily  engaged  in  the  periodical  press, 
and  IS  editor  of  the  Farmers'  Journal  (A  Falusi 
Gazda). 

FEODO'SIA,  or  THEODO'SIA.    See  Kaffa. 

FEO'FFMENT  [infeudare],  the  oldest,  and  for  a 
long  period  the  only,  method  for  the  conveyance  of 
land  known  in  England.  Feoffment  consisted  in 
the  formal  conveyance  of  the  land  from  the  f coffer  to 
the  feoffee,  the  former  stating  distinctly  the  measure 
of  the  estate  conferred,  whether  it  was  in  fee,  in 
tail,  or  for  life.  Where  no  mention  of  the  diiration 
of  the  estate  was  made,  the  gift  was  presumed  to  be 
for  life.  This  conveyance  of  the  land,  in  order  to  be 
complete,  required  to  be  accompanied  by  delivery  of 
Sasine  (q.  v.).  Livery  of  sasine  wa?  of  two  kinds — 
viz.,  by  deed,  and  in  law.  In  the  former  case,  the 
parties  being  actually  upon  the  land,  the  feoffor,  Ijy 
delivery  of  a  twig  or  a  turf,  testified  his  conveyauco 
of  the  land.  In  livery  in  law,  the  parties  being  in 
sight  of  the  land,  the  feoffor  referring  to  the  land 
gave  possession  to  the  feoffee.  This  mode  of  feoff- 
ment was  ineffectual  unless  the  feoffee  entei'ed  into 
possession  during  the  life  of  the  feoffor.  Livery  in 
deed  might  be  effected  by  attorney ;  but  livery  in 
law  only  by  the  parties  themselves.  In  the  earliest 
times,  these  ceremonies  completed  the  conveyance. 
But  by  degrees  the  practice  of  embodying  the  trans- 
action in  a  deed  was  introduced.  When  a  deed  was 
used,  it  became  customary,  but  not  essential,  to 
endorse  on  the  deed  the  fact  that  livery  of  sasine 
had  been  made.  By  the  statute  of  Frauds  (29  Car. 
II.  c.  3),  it  was  declared  that  no  estate  created  by 
livery  of  sasine,  unless  accompanied  by  WTiting, 
signed  by  the  party  or  his  agent,  should  be  of  any 
effect,  except  as  an  estate  at  will ;  aud  by  8  and  9 
Vict.  c.  106,  s.  3,  a  feoffment  is  void  unless  accom- 
panied by  deed.  The  law  formerly  gave  so  gi-eat  an 
effect  to  a  feoffment,  that  even  when  the  party 
ostensibly  making  the  conveyance  was  not  lawfully 
seised  in  the  estate,  the  feoSment  was  sustained. 
This  was  called  a  tortious  conveyance  ;  the  party  in 
whose  favour  it  was  made  was  said  to  have  acc^uired 
an  estate  by  wrong,  the  rightful  owner  was  disib.ised, 
and  was  left  to  his  right  of  Entry  (q.  v.).  But  by 
the  act  last  mentioned,  this  tortioiis  effect  of  a  feoff- 
ment was  removed.  It  must  be  observed  that  the 
practice  of  feoffment  above  described,  and  which  haa 
existed  in  England  from  time  immemorial,  differed 
materially  from  the  old  form  of  investiture  in  use  in 
strictly  feudal  times,  and  from  that  which  still  pre- 
vails in  Scotland.  In  England,  the  transaction  was 
simply  a  conveyance  by  the  actual  holder  of  the 
land  to  a  new  tenant,  testified  by  certain  ceremonies, 
but  requiring  no  confirmation  by  a  third  party  to 
complete  it.  But  by  feudal  usages,  every  holder 
land  was  the  vassal  of  some  superior  lord,  to  whon\ 
he  owed  suit  and  service,  and  without  \vliose  consent 
he  could  not  even  part  vdth.  his  land  ;  hence  no 
conveyance  was  complete  "without  the  reception  of 
the  new  tenant  by  the  lord  paramount  as  his  vassal. 
In  like  manner,  to  this  day,  in  Scotland,  no  transfer 
of  heritage  is  complete  wathout  the  formal  confirma- 
tion of  the  superior ;  and  although  by  recent  legis- 
lation the  old  feudal  usages,  which  for  two  centuries 
have  existed  as  landmarks,  telling  us  of  a  system 
now  passed  away,  have  been  abolished,  yet  the  fact 
of  acceptance  by  the  superior,  and  the  performance 
of  the  pecuniary  services  attendant  on  that  accept- 
ance, are  still  preserved.  See  Infeftment,  Saslnk, 
Feudal  System. 

389 


FER  OLIGISTE-FEllDINAND. 


Feoffment  to  Uses. — ^This  was  an  application  of  the 
feudal  form  of  feoffment  in  England  in  order  to  effect 
a  conveyance  in  trust.  The  common  law  courts, 
adhering  to  feudal  rules,  refused  to  recognize  any 
interest  in  the  land  but  that  of  the  person  actually 
infeft ;  but  where  a  feoffment  was  made  to  one  man 
to  the  use  of  another,  the  equity  courts  gave  effect 
to  the  transaction  by  compelling  the  party  infeft  to 
hold  in  trust  for  the  third  person,  called  the  cestui 
que  use,  who  was  said  to  have  an  equitable  estate,  in 
contradistinction  to  the  legal  estate  which  remained 
in  the  feoffee  to  uses.  By  the  statute  of  Uses,  it 
M'as  enacted  that  in  all  such  conveyances  the  actual 
legal  estate  should  pass  to  the  cestui  que  use.  See 
Uses. 

FER  OLIGISTE  is  a  mineralogical  term  applied 
to  a  variety  of  anhydrous  red  oxide  of  iron  (FegOg), 
otherwise  called  Specular  Iron  Ore.  The  famous 
Swedish,  Russian,  and  Elba  iron  are  in  greater  pai-t 
prepared  from  this  iron  ore.  Si)ecular  iron  ore  is  mostly 
confined  to  crystaline  or  metaniorphic  rocks.  See  Iron, 

FE'R^  (Lat. wild),  in  the  Linntean  system 
of  zoology,  an  order  of  Mammalia^  nearly  corres- 
ponding to  the  Carnaria  (q.  v.)  of  Cuvier. 

FE'R^  NATU'R^  (Lat.  of  a  wild  nature). 
Those  animals  which  flee  the  dominion  of  man, 
whether  beast,  bird,  or  fish,  and  retain  their  natural 
freedom,  are  thus  characterised  in  the  Roman  law. 
According  to  that  system,  such  animals  became  the 
property  of  any  one  who  might  catch  them,  irrespec- 
tively of  the  ownership  of  the  soil  on  which  they 
were  taken,  on  the  principle  that  '  natural  reason 
gives  to  the  first  occupant  that  which  has  no  owner.'* 
— IpM.  ii.  tit.  i.  s.  12.  But  this  regidation  did  not 
prevent  the  prohibition  of  trespass.  '  Of  course,  any 
one  who  enters  the  ground  of  another  for  the  pur- 
pose of  hunting  or  fowling,  may  be  prohibited  by 
the  proprietor,  if  he  perceives  his  intention  of  enter- 
ing' {lb.).  This  right  on  the  part  of  the  proprietor 
did  not  affect  the  property  of  the  animal  taken, 
though  it  gave  him  an  action  against  the  trespasser. 
If  a  wild  animal  escaped  from  its  captor,  his  proprie- 
torship instantly  ceased,  and  the  animal  might  again 
be  appropriated  by  its  captor.  This  occurred  even 
though  the  animal  was  not  out  of  sight,  if  it  could 
not  be  pursued  without  great  difficulty.  Even  a 
wounded  animal  was  not  the  property  of  the  sports- 
man till  it  was  caught,  though  the  point  which  is 
decided  in  this  sense  {Imt.  ii.  tit.  i.  s.  13)  is  yaid  to 
have  been  one  on  which  difference  of  opinion  had 
prevailed.  Except  in  so  far  as  it  is  modified  by  the 
Btatutes,  which  will  be  explained  under  Gajvie-laws, 
these  provisions  form  part  of  the  common  lav/  both 
of  England  and  Scotland.  Animals  which  are  said  to 
be  ferae  naturae,  or  of  a  wild  and  untamable  dispo- 
sition, any  man  may  seize  upon  and  keep  for  his 
own  use  or  pleasure  ;  but  if  they  escape  from  his 
custody,  though  without  his  voluntary  abandon- 
ment, it  naturally  follows  that  they  return  to  the 
common  stock,  and  any  man  else  has  an  equal  right 
to  seize  and  enjoy  them  afterwards  (Stephen's 
Blackstone,  i.  161).  The  law  of  Scotland  followed 
the  law  of  Rome  so  closely  in  this,  as  in  other 
respects,  that  the  passage  from  the  Institutes  of 
Justinian  above  referred  to  was  translated  into 
one  of  the  oldest  collections  of  Scottish  laws — that, 
viz.,  contained  in  the  Cromortie  MS.,  the  date  of 
which  may  be  assigned  to  the  latter  part  of  the  14th 
c,  and  which  certainly  is  not  later  than  the  reign  of 
liobert  III.  (Irvine's  Game-lmvs,  p.  20,  and  statutes 
published  by  the  Record  Commission,  Appendix  v. 
p.  385)  ;  see  also  Stair,  ii.  1,  5,  and  33 ;  and  Ersk.  ii 
1,  10.  Under  animals,  feraj  naturae,  the  law  of 
Ikome  included  bees,  unless  included  in  a  hive,  or 
t3cej>,  aa  it  is  still  called  in  Scotland,  or  unless  the 
290 


proprietor  be  in  pursuit  of  them,  and  has  kept  them 
in  sight.  See  Bee.  Domestic  animals,  thoudi  they 
stray,  do  not  cease  to  be  the  proj)erty  >f  those  to 
whom  they  have  belonged  ;  but  as  regards  animals 
which  have  a  tendency  to  return  to  a  state  of 
nature,  the  rule  of  the  Roman  law  wan,  that 
property  in  them  continued  so  long  as  they  Lad 
the  intention  of  returning  {animum.  revertendi),  or 
rather,  one  would  imagine,  the  habit  of  doing  so. 
This  rule  applied  to  peacocks  and  i)igeons,  l^ut  not 
to  fowls  and  geese ;  with  reference  to  which  it  was 
provided,  that  though  they  should  be  frightened  and 
take  to  flight,  they  were  still  yours,  though  yon 
might  have  lost  sight  of  them,  and  that  whoever 
detained  them  with  a  view  to  his  own  profit,  was 
guilty  of  tlieft.  See  DOVECOT;  Warren ;  Forest 
Laws;  Fishes,  IJoyal. 

FE'RDINAND  I.,  emperor  of  Germany,  1556 
—  15G4,  was  born  in  Spain,  1503.  He  waa  the 
son  of  Philip  I.,  and  brother  of  Ciiarlea  V.,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  the  empire  in  1556,  having  been 
previously  elected  king  of  Rome.  F.  had  married, 
in  1521,  Anna,  daughter  of  Ladislaus  VI.,  king  of 
Bohemia  and  Hungar3\  When  her  brother  Louis 
fell  in  1526  in  battle  Avith  the  Turks,  leaving  no 
issue,  the  crown  w'as  claimed  by  F.  in  right  of 
his  wife.  This  involved  him  in  a  long  and  bloody 
struggle  with  a  rival,  John  of  Zapolya,  who  laid 
claim  to  Hungary,  and  who,  as  well  as  his  son 
Sigismund,  was  supported  by  Soliman,  sultan  of 
the  Turks.  F.  at  last  gained  the  upper  hand, 
bought  off  the  Turks  by  a  yearly  tribute,  and  finally 
secured  Hungary  and  Bohemia  to  the  House  of 
Austria.  When  he  was  elected  emperor,  the  con- 
cessions he  had  made  to  the  Protestants  caused 
the  pope,  Paul  IV.,  to  refuse  to  acknowledge  him. 
That  pope  dying,  his  successor,  Pius  IV.,  was  more 
complaisant ;  but  the  electors  resolved  that  for 
the  future  the  consent  of  the  pope  should  not  be 
asked  ;  and  this  was  carried  out.  F.  nfade  several 
attempts  to  reconcile  the  Protestants  and  Catholics, 
and  urged,  though  fruitlessly,  the  reformation  of 
abuses  on  the  Council  of  Trent.  He  died  in  1564, 
leaving  the  reputation  of  a  prudent  and  enlightened 
ruler,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Maximilian  IL 

FERDINAND  II.,  emperor  of  Germany,  1619 
—1637,  was  bom  at  Gratz.  9th  July  1578.  He 
was  grandson  of  Ferdinand  I.,  his  father  being 
Charles,  Archduke  of  Stjnria,  the  younger  brother 
of  Maximilian.  F.'s  mother,  Maria  of  Bavaria, 
early  inspired  him  with  hatred  against  the  Protest- 
ants. He  was  educated  by  the  Jesuits  at  Ingol- 
stadt,  along  with  Maximilian  of  Bavaria;  and  at 
Loretto,  he  had  taken  a  solemn  oath,  before  the 
altar  of  the  Mother  of  God,  to  reinstate  Catholicism 
as  the  sole  religion  of  his  dominions,  at  any  cost. 
As  soon  as  he  succeeded  to  the  goverrunent  of  his 
own  duchy  of  Styria,  he  set  about  putting  down 
Protestantism  by  force.  He  attempted  the  same  in 
Bohemia  and  Hungary,  of  which  countries  he  had 
been  elected  king  during  the  lifetime  of  Matthias 
Corvinus ;  but  though  at  first  unsuccessful,  and  even 
in  danger  of  losing  his  dominions,  he  ultimately 
managed,  with  the  aid  of  the  Catholic  league  and 
of  the  Elector  George  I.  of  Saxony,  to  subdue 
them.  Bohemia  lost  all  its  privileges.  By  hanging, 
confiscation  of  property,  and  the  banishment  of 
innumerable  families,  the  wretched  land  was  reduced 
to  obedience;  and  the  introduction  of  the  Jesuits, 
and  rigorous  persecution  of  Protestants,  re-estab- 
lished Catholicism.  Meanwhile,  F.  had  been  elected 
emperor  of  Germany  (1619).  The  war,  which 
properly  ended  with  the  subjugation  of  Bohemia, 
was  at  the  same  time  transferred  to  the  rest  of 
Germany,  and  took  the  character  of  a  religiuaa 


FERDINAND. 


war  —the  famous  '  Thirty  Years'  War '  (q.  v.).  The 
two  imperial  generals,  Tilly  and  Wallenstein,  were 
opposed  by  a  confederacy  of  the  Protestant  states 
of  Lower  Saxony,  with  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark 
at  their  head;  but  the  confederates  were  defeated 
by  Tilly  at  the  battle  of  Lutter,  in  Brunswick,  and 
forced  to  conclude  peace  (Lubeck,  1G29).  Confident 
in  the  ascendency  which  he  had  acquired,  F.,  in 
the  same  year,  issued  an  Edict  of  Restitution  for 
the  whole  of  Germany,  taking  away  from  the 
Protestants  nearly  all  the  rights  they  had  acquired 
by  a  century  of  struggles ;  and  the  troops  of  Wal- 
lenstein and  of  the  league  were  immediately  set 
to  work  to  carry  it  out  in  several  places.  But 
further  proceedings  were  soon  arrested  by  the 
dismissal  of  Wallenstein,  on  which  the  diet  of  the 
empire  at  Regensburg  had  insisted;  and  by  the 
opposition  of  llichelieu,  who  put  every  wheel  in 
movement  to  curb  the  power  of  the  House  of 
Austria.  At  this  time  also,  a  formidable  opponent 
to  the  schemes  of  the  emperor  appeared  in  the 
I)erson  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  of  Sweden  (q.  v.). 
After  the  murder  of  Wallenstein,  the  connivance  at 
which  is  an  ineffaceable  blot  on  F.'s  memory,  the 
imperial  commander,  Gallas,  gamed,  1634,  the  battle 
of  Nordlingen,  which  had  the  effect  of  detaching 
Saxony  from  the  Swedish  alliance ;  but  the  ability 
of  the  Swedish  generals,  for  whom  Austria  had 
none  that  were  a  match,  and  the  open  part  that 
France  now  took  in  the  contest,  brought  back  the 
balance  of  victory  so  far  to  the  Protestant  arms, 
that  when  F.  died,  February  15,  1637,  he  had  given 
up  the  hope  of  ever  attaining  his  objects.  His 
reign  is  one  of  the  most  disastrous  in  history;  for 
Germany  owes  him  nothing  but  bloodshed,  and 
misery,  and  desolation. 

FERDINAND  III.,  emperor  of  Germany,  1637— 
1657,  the  son  of  Ferdinand  II.,  was  bom  11th  July 
1608.  He  was  not  so  much  under  Jesuitical  and 
Spanish  influence  as  his  father.  Having  accom- 
panied the  armies  in  their  campaigns  after 
death  of  Wallenstein,  he  had  witnessed  the  miseries 
of  war,  and  was  inclined  for  peace;  but  the  con- 
flicting interests  of  the  individual  belligerents 
hindered  any  unity  of  view,  and  made  it  necessary 
to  proceed  with  the  contest.  Thus  was  this  miser- 
able war  protracted,  ever  extending  in  circuit,  and 
increasing  in  devastation  owing  to  the  growing 
licentiousness  of  the  soldiery.  At  last,  in  1643,  a 
congi'ess  met  at  Munster  to  arrange  terms  of  peace, 
which  was  concluded  in  1648,  and  is  known  as  the 
Peace  of  Westphalia.  At  the  diet  of  the  empire, 
1653 — 1654,  the  last  presided  over  by  an  emperor 
in  person,  F.  effected  important  alterations  in  the 
administration  of  justice.  He  died,  2d  April  1657, 
shortly  after  concluding  an  alliance  with  Poland 
against  Sweden.  His  son,  Leopold  I.,  succeeded 
him  in  the  German  empire. 

FERDINAND  I.,  emperor  of  Austria  (1835— 
1848),  eldest  son  of  Francis  I.  by  his  second  marriage 
with  Maria  Theresa  of  the  House  of  Naples,  was 
bom  at  Vienna,  19th  April  1793.  He  was  from 
the  first  of  a  weak  constitution,  and  was  unf  ortimate 
in  those  to  whom  his  education  was  intrusted. 
Yet  he  shewed  on  all  occasions  a  goodness  of  heart, 
which  was  fostered  by  the  example  of  his  uncle,  the 
Archduke  Charles,  to  whom  he  was  much  attached. 
While  crown-prince,  he  travelled  through  his  Italian 
provinces,  Switzerland,  and  part  of  France,  and 
took  great  interest  in  manufacturing  industry.  In 
1835  he  succeeded  his  father  on  the  thi-one.  It 
was  expected  from  his  character  that  he  would 
inaugurate  a  more  liberal  policy  than  his  prede- 
cessors had  pursued,  but  the  absolutist  principles 
{nat  seemed  destined  to  rule  for  ever  the  Austrian 


cabinet,  triumphed,  and  Metternich  was  allowed  to 
carry  on  the  government.  It  now  became  obvioua 
that  F.  sadly  lacked  moral  decision,  and  his 
'  goodness '  exhausted  itself  in  numerous  acts  of 
clemency  and  benevolence.  Nevertheless,  during 
his  reign,  the  industry  of  Austria  made  a  great 
advance,  and  the  great  network  of  railroads"  and 
highways  was  begun.  The  insurrection  in  Galicia, 
1846,  led  to  the  annexation  of  Cracow  to  Austria. 
No  country  was  more  affected  Ijy  the  European 
movement  that  began  in  the  winter  of  1847—  1848 
than  Austria,  though  the  revolutionary  storms  thnt 
shook  the  empire  cannot  be  attributecl  to  any  van  b 
of  goodwill  to  his  people  on  the  i)art  of  Ferdir  and, 
but  only  to  a  comjilete  want  of  political  wisdom. 
On  the  disturbances  breaking  out  in  Mai-ch,  h(-  c  m- 
sented  to  the  dismissal  of  Metternich,  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  responsible  ministry,  and  granted  the 
outlines  of  a  constitution.  In  May,  he  retired  with, 
his  court  to  Innspruck,  but  was  induced  to  return 
to  the  capital  in  August.  At  last,  the  October 
insurrection  in  Vienna  made  him  again  leave  the 
palace  of  Schonbrunn,  and  retire  to  Olmlitz,  where, 
on  2d  December  1848,  he  abdicated  in  favour  of 
his  nephew,  Franz  Joseph.  Subsequently  he  resided 
at  Prague  until  his  death,  June  29,  1875.  He  mar- 
ried, 27th  February  1831,  Caroline,  daughter  of  Vic- 
tor Emanuel  I.,  king  of  Sardinia,  but  left  no  children. 

FERDINAND  the  Catholic,  5th  of  Castile, 
2d  of  Aragon,  3d  of  Naples,  and  2d  of  Sicily,  was 
born  10th  March  1452.  He  was  the  son  of  John 
II.,  king  of  Navarre  and  Aragon ;  and  in  1469 
married,  at  Valladolid,  Isabella,  sister  of  Kenry  IV. 
of  Castile.  Even  in  the  lifetime  of  his  father, 
events  were  paving  the  way  for  the  subsequent 
union  of  the  two  kingdoms  of  Castile  and  Aragon. 
On  the  death  of  Henry  IV.  of  Castile  in  1474,  the 
Cortes  refused  to  acknowledge  the  legitimacy  of 
his  daughter  Juana,  and  proclaimed  Isabella  and 
her  husband  F.  joint- sovereigns.  A  war  ensued, 
in  which  they  were  completely  successful.  In  1479, 
F.  becoming  king  of  Aragon  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  the  two  kingdoms  of  Aragon  and  Castile 
were  united  in  the  persons  of  F.  and  Isabella. 
Isabella,  however,  as  long  as  she  lived,  maintained 
her  position  as  queen  of  Castile,  and  allowed  her 
husband  no  other  share  in  the  government  than 
the  privilege  of  affixing  his  signature  to  the  decrees, 
and  of  uniting  his  arms  with  her  omu.  F.'s  whole 
reign  was  an  uninterrupted  series  of  successfid  wars. 
In  Castile,  he  distinguished  himself  by  the  effectual 
suppression  of  the  banditti,  who  had  become  foraiid- 
able  in  the  confusion  resulting  from  the  civil  wara. 
This  he  accomplished  by  re- organising  and  putting 
in  force  against  them  the  hermandad,  or  brother- 
hood, a  kind  of  Spanish  militia,  composed  of  the 
citizens  and  the  coimtry-people.  But  F.,  whose 
craft  and  vigour  were  quite  MachiaveUan,  was  not 
content  with  taking  strong  measures  against  the 
Castilian  outlaws ;  he  also  resolved  to  break  the 
power  of  the  feudal  nobility,  and  made  good 
use  of  the  hermandad  in  carrying  out  this  design. 
Cities  and  towns  were  encouraged  to  make  them- 
selves independent  of  the  nobles,  who  were  depri\"ed 
of  many  important  privileges.  Among  othei 
humiliations,  they  were  subjected  to  the  ordinary 
tribunals  of  justice.  The  establishment  of  the 
Inquisition  in  1478 — 1480,  although  primarily  and 
mainly  intended  to  further  'religious'  ends,  like- 
wise helped  to  lessen  their  influence.  F.  also 
strengthened  his  power  by  vesting  in  himself  and 
his  successors  the  grand-mastership  of  the  military 
orders  of  Calatrava,  Alcantara,  and  Santiago.  la 
all  his  schemes,  F.  was  ably  seconded  by  his  queen 
Isabella,  and  by  the  celebrated  Cardinal  Ximenes, 
The  year  1492  was  the  most  bi'illiant  in  his  reign. 


FERDINAND. 


and  is  one  of  the  most  important  in  the  history 
ol:  the  material  progress  of  the  workl.  It  was  signal- 
ized by  the  discovery  of  America  by  Christopher 
Colmnbus,  though  the  honour  of  luuing  aided  the 
great  navigator  belongs  not  to  F.,  but  to  Isabella. 
The  same  year  witnessed  the  capture  of  Granada, 
and  the  retreat  of  the  last  Moorish  monarch  into 
Africa.  F.,  who  had  a  true  Spanish  hatred  of  heresy, 
immediately  issued  an  order  for  the  expulsion  of 
the  JeAVS  from  the  conquered  kingdom  ;  and,  in 
consequence,  160,000  —  some  say  800,000 — of  his 
D3W  subjects  were  compelled  to  scatter  themselves 
over  Europe.  This  act  was  neither  Mdse  nor 
Christian,  but  it  was  in  accordance  with  the  reli- 
gious barbarism  of  the  age,  and  especially  of  Spain. 
It  was  followed,  several  years  after,  by  the  persecu- 
tion and  expulsion  of  the  Moors — an  act  still  more 
unwise  than  the  former,  for  the  Moors  of  Granada 
were  unquestionably  the  most  industrious,  civilised, 
and  refined  inhabitants  of  the  Peninsula.  F.  was 
as  successful  abroad  as  at  home.  He  was  victorious 
over  Alfonso  V.,  king  of  Portugal ;  while  his 
general,  Gonzalvo  de  Cordova,  twice  wrested  Naples 
from  the  French — the  second  time  in  1503 — after 
which  it  remained  permanently  in  F.'s  ])ossession. 
In  the  following  year,  Isabella  died  ;  and  in  1505, 
he  married  Germaine  de  Foix,  a  niece  of  Louis  XII. 
of  I'rance.  He  took  part  in  the  famous  league  of 
Cambrai  formed  against  Venice  in  1508 ;  made 
himself  master  of  various  towns  and  fortresses  in 
Africa;  and  in  1512,  conquered  the  kingdom  of 
Navarre  ;  thus  becoming  monarch  of  Sj^ain  from  the 
P_yi-enees  to  the  Rock  of  Gibraltar.  He  died  at 
Madrigalejo,  January  23,  151G ;  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  grandson,  Charles  V.  To  F.  and  Isabella 
Spain  owes  her  unity  and  greatness  as  a  nation ; 
and,  in  the  no  less  skilful  hands  of  their  successor, 
she  exercised  an  imperial  intluence  over  Europe, 
which  it  required  Luther  and  the  Reformation  to 
check.  See  Prescott's  History  of  the  lielgn  of  Ferdi- 
nand and  Isabella  of  Spain  (1838). 

FERDINAND  VII.,  king  of  Spain,  born  I4th 
October  1784,  was  the  son  of  King  Charles  IV.  and 
the  Princess  Maria  Louisa  of  Parma.  Although  he 
had  the  advantage  of  excellent  preceptors,  especially 
the  Canon  Escoiquiz,  in  his  youth,  yet  the  machina- 
tions of  the  notorious  Godoy,  minister  of  Spain, 
prevented  him  from  enjoying  any  opportunities  for 
the  intelligent  exercise  of  his  facilities.  A  deliberate 
attempt  was  made  by  his  mother  and  Godoy  to 
degrade  him  into  a  lover  of  mere  animal  pleasures, 
that  their  influence  and  authority  might  be  un- 
restrained. F.  soon  conceived  an  aversion  to  the 
minister,  which  was  increased  by  his  marriage  in 
1802  with  the  amiable  and  accomplished  Maria 
Ajitonietta  Theresa,  daughter  of  Ferdinand  L,  king 
of  the  Two  Sicilies.  This  lady,  who  endeavoured 
to  maintain  her  husband's  dignity,  died,  21st  May 

1806,  of  grief,  as  is  supposed,  at  the  insidts  offered 
to  her  by  Godoy,  the  king  himself,  and  above  all  by 
the  queen.  Suspicions  of  foul  play,  however,  were 
ertertained  by  Ferdinand.  Mainly  for  the  purpose 
of  gratifying  their  hatred  towards  Godoy,  a  number 
of  t\ie  nobles,  headed  by  the  Duke  of  Infantado, 
assembled  round  the  crown-prince.  A  false  step 
that  the  latter  now  took  proved  the  beginning  of 

geat  misery  to  Spain.  By  the  advice  of  the  Canon 
sGoiquiz,  he  wrote  a  letter  to  Napoleon,  in  which 
he  expressed  a  wish  to  marry  the  eldest  daughter 
of  Lucien  Bonaparte.  This  letter  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  minister  himself,  and  the  prince  was 
in  consequence  arrested  in  the  Escorial,  28th  October 

1807,  and  declared  a  traitor  by  a  royal  proclama- 
tion, written  in  Godoy 's  OAvn  hand,  and  addressed 
to  the  Council  of  CasLile.  The  animosity  of  the 
people  towai'ds  the  minister  led  to  the  revolution 


of  Aranjuez,  and  the  king  abdicated  in  favour  of 
F.  19th  March,  1808.  Almost  immediately  after, 
however,  Charles  wrote  to  Napoleon,  declaring  his 
abdication  to  be  forced.  Napoleon,  who  had  designs 
of  his  own  upon  Spain,  refused  to  recognize  F.  as  king, 
but  sent  him  an  invitation  to  meet  him  at  Bayonne. 
In  spite  of  all  warnings  to  the  contrary,  F.  repaired 
to  Bayonne,  at  which  place  he  arrived  on  tlie 
20th  April,  and  was  received  with  distinction  by 
Napoleon.  Meanwhile,  however,  the  French  troops 
under  Murat  had  marched  across  the  Pyrenees, 
and  taken  possession  of  the  Spanish  capital.  The 
wretched  squabbles  and  recriminations  that  now 
took  j)lace  between  Charles  and  his  son,  and  which 
were  encouraged  by  Napoleon,  ended  in  F.'s  renounc- 
ing the  crown  of  Spain  unconditionally,  receiving 
for  himself  and  his  posterity  an  annual  income  of 
600,000  francs  from  the  crown  revenues  of  France, 
ard  likewise  the  palace  and  parks  of  Navarre.  The 
chilteau  of  Valen^-ay,  belonging  to  Prince  Talley- 
rand, was  assigned  to  him  as  a  residence,  along 
with  his  brother  Don  Carlos,  his  uncle  Don  Antonio, 
the  Canon  Escoiquiz,  and  the  Duke  of  San  Carlos. 
Here  his  proceedings  were  watched  with  the  utmost 
\ngilance;  and  it  was  not  till  the  end  of  the  year 
1813,  when  the  splendid  series  of  British  triumphs 
in  the  Peninsula  had  made  a  longer  occupation  of 
the  country  by  the  French  impossible,  that  Napoleon 
offered  to  reinstate  him  on  the  throne  of  Spain. 
On  the  14th  of  March,  F.  returned  to  Spain,  where 
he  was  received  with  every  demonstration  of  loyalty 
and  affection.  Very  unfortunately  for  Spain,  and 
also  for  his  own  comfort,  F.  had,  in  the  meantime, 
learned  to  associate  liberalism  with  Jacobinism,  and 
both  with  Bonapartism,  so  that,  on  his  reaccession 
to  power,  he  threw  himself  into  the  hands  of  the 
clergy  and  the  reactionary  portion  of  his  nobility. 
Even  before  his  arrival  in  Madrid,  he  refused  to 
swear  or  accede  to  the  constitution  of  the  Cortes, 
as  interfering  too  much  with  the  free  exercise  of 
regal  authority,  though  he  promised  another  in  its 
pk.ce.  From  the  moment,  however,  that  he  assumed 
the  reins  of  government,  a  series  of  transactions 
took  place  which  excited  the  astonishment  and 
disgust  of  all  liberal-minded  politicians  in  Europe. 
Instead  of  the  promised  constitution,  there  com- 
menced a  fearful  system  of  persecution  against  all 
who  were  suspected  of  holding  lil^eral  opinions ;  and 
executions,  imprisonment,  exile,  and  confiscation  of 
property  reigned  in  all  parts  of  the  kingdom.  The 
monastic  orders,  the  Inquisition,  and  the  rack  were 
restored,  and  every  expression  of  opinion  rigorously 
repressed.  At  length,  in  January  1820,  an  insurrec- 
tion broke  out,  and  F.  was  compelled  to  restore  the 
constitution  of  the  Cortes  of  1812;  but  the  French 
government  interfering  by  force  of  arms,  absolutism 
was  restored  in  Si)ain  in  1823.  In  1829,  F.  married 
the  notorious  Maria  Christina.  She  was  his  fourth 
spouse.  By  the  first  three,  he  had  no  chikb-en. 
Maria,  however,  bore  him  two  childi-en :  Isabella  IL, 
the  present  queen  of  Spain,  and  the  Infanta  Maria 
Louisa,  who  married  the  Duke  of  Montpensier.  By 
the  influence  of  Maria  Christina,  F.  was  induced  to 
abrogate  the  Salique  law  excluding  females  from 
the  throne,  and  to  restore  the  old  Castilian  law  of 
cognate  succession.  This  step  led  to  a  dangerous 
combination  among  the  adherents  of  the  king's 
brother,  Don  Carlos,  even  during  the  lifetime  of 
the  former,  and  after  his  death,  to  a  civil  war.  See 
Dox  Carlos,  Espartero,  &c.  On  the  20th  June 
1833,  the  deputies,  Cortes,  and  grandees  of  the 
kingdom  took  the  oath  of  fealty,  and  did  homage 
to  the  Princess  of  the  Asturias,  and  F.  died  on  the 
29th  September  of  the  same  year. 

FE  RDINAND  L,  king  of  the  Two  Sicillca 
was  the  son  of  Charles  III.  of  Spain,  and  bora 


J'ERDINAND— FERGUSO^. 


12th  January  1751  When  Charles  ascended  the 
'Spanish  throne  in  1759  F.,  though  a  minor,  suc- 
i'eeded  him  on  that  of  Naples  under  a  regency. 
Aiter  his  marriage,  in  176S,  with  Maria  Carolina, 
daughter  of  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa,  he  fell 
completely  under  her  influence,  and  lost  all  his 
former  popularity.  The  queen  and  her  favourite 
minister  Acton  (q.  v.)  ruled  the  kingdom.  F. 
joined  England  and  Austria  against  Fi'auce  in 
1793,  but  in  1801  was  forced  to  enter  into  a  treaty 
with  the  First  Consul.  A  subsequent  violation  of 
this  treaty  compelled  him,  in  1806,  to  take  refuge  in 
Sicily,  under  the  protection  of  the  English.  A 
French  army  marched  into  Naples,  and  took  pos- 
session of  the  kingdom,  which  Napoleon  bestowed 
fiist  on  his  brother  Joseph,  and  afterwards  on  Miirat. 
F.  was  reinstated  by  the  congress  of  Vienna,  and 
entercxi  Naples,  after  Murat's  flight,  in  June  1815. 
His  queen  had  died  in  1814.  During  the  revolu- 
tion of  1820,  he  was  obliged  to  introduce  the  Spanish 
constitution  of  1812,  but  abolished  it  next  year 
with  the  help  of  Austrian  arms.  He,  however, 
expelled  the  J esuits,  and  abolished  superfluous  con- 
vent^s ;  acts  that  may,  perhaps,  partly  atone  for  his 
bloody  persecution  of  the  republicans  in  1800,  and 
his  general  antipathy  to  enlightened  })rinciples  of 
government.  He  died  January  4,  1825  ;  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Francis  I.,  who  died  in  1830. 

FERDINAND  II.,  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies, 
was  the  son  of  Francis  I.  by  his  second  Mdfe, 
Isabella  Maria  of  Spain,  and  was  born  12th 
January  1810.  He  succeeded  his  father  in  1830. 
Th3  country  was  in  the  most  \ATetched  condition ; 
and  all  eyes  were  turned  to  the  young  king, 
the  beginning  of  whose  reign  was  marked  by 
various  acts  of  clemency  towards  political  enemies, 
and  also  by  the  introduction  of  reforms  in  the 
economy  and  government  of  the  country.  But  it 
was  not  long  before  he  began  to  listen  to  foreign 
counsels,  which  saw  danger  for  the  whole  peninsula 
in  liberal  measures.  From  that  time,  Naples  became 
the  scene  of  incessant  conspiracy,  insurrection, 
bloodshed,  and  political  prosecutions.  Ferdinand 
yielded  to  the  storm  of  1848,  and  granted  a  consti- 
tution to  both  parts  of  his  dominions  ;  he  was  even 
obliged  to  take  part  in  the  war  against  Austria  in 
Northern  Italy.  The  Sicilians  mistrusted,  ^yad  with 
reason,  the  king's  proceedings,  and  declared  that  he 
and  his  family  had  forfeited  the  Sicilian  crowTi. 
F.  followed  the  constitution  so  far  as  to  call  the 
chambers  together,  but  quickly  dismissed  them, 
impatient  of  any  interference  with  his  authority. 
Alter  the  subjugation  of  Sicily  in  1849,  when  the 
reaction  began  to  set  in  all  over  Italy,  he  hastened 
completely  to  set  aside  the  new  constitution  ;  while 
all  who  had  taken  any  part  in  state  reforms 
were  subjected  to  those  cruel  persecutions  that  the 
Letters  of  Mr  Gladstone  hav^e  held  up  to  the  execra- 
tion of  the  world.  F.  died  22d  May  1S59,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Francis  II. 

FERDINAND  III.,  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany, 
and  Archduke  of  Austria,  was  born  at  Florence, 
6th  May  1769.  In  1790,  he  succeeded  his  father, 
Leopold  IT.,  in  the  government  of  Tuscany,  when 
the  latter  obtained  the  imperial  throne  at  the  death 
of  the  Emperor  Joseph  II,,  Leopold's  brother.  F.'s 
rule  in  Tuscany  was  one  of  combined  mildness 
and  ability  ;  and  during  his  reign  were  inaugurated 
many  judicial,  economical,  and  legislative  reforms  : 
sominerce  was  protected  and  encouraged  ;  hospitals 
and  asylums  founded,  good  roads  opened  through 
the  state,  and  the  greatest  attention  bestowed  on 
the  welfare  of  his  subjects,  which  an  eidightened 
and  good  prince  could  exercise.  A  lover  of  peaceful 
progress,  he  remained  strictly  neutral  in  the  lirst 


coalition  against  France,  and  was  the  first  sovereign 
in  Europe  to  recognise  and  treat  diplomatically 
with  the  French  riei)ublic  in  1792.  In  1703,  intimi- 
dated l>y  the  combined  menaces  of  the  Russian 
and  British  cabinets,  F.  was  constrained  to  reiui- 
quish  his  neutral  policy,  and  become  a  i)a3sive 
member  of  the  coalition  formed  Ijy  the  above  <mveru- 
ments  against  France,  In  1795,  on  the  French 
occupation  of  Piedmont,  he  S])eedily  reassumed 
friendly  relations  with  France.  In  1797,  in  order 
to  save  his  states  from  annexation  to  the  Cisalpine 
RepubKc,  F.  concluded  a  treaty  with  Bonaparte  on 
most  unfavourable  terms  ;  imdertaking  to  pay  a 
war-levy  to  France,  and  to  transfer  to  the  Museum 
of  Paris  some  of  the  chief  master-pieces  of  the  Flor- 
entine galleries,  including  the  '  Venus  de'  Medici,' 
Owing  to  the  continued  intrigues  of  France  in  his 
states,  F.  was  forced  to  seek  an  Austrian  alliance, 
which  furnished  Bonaparte  with  a  pretext  for 
declaring  war  simidtaneously  against  Austria  and 
Tuscany.  In  1799,  F.  retired  to  Vienna,  leaving 
the  French  troops  in  occuixition  of  Tuscany.  In 
1801,  at  the  peace  of  Luneville,  he  was  forced  to 
renounce  all  claim  on  Tuscany.  In  1814,  the  peace 
of  Paris  reinstated  him  in  Tuscany,  and  even  I'estored 
his  artistic  treasures.  He  died  17th  June  1824, 
leaving  his  states  to  his  son  Leopold  II. 

FERENTI'NO,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  delegazion 
of  Frosinoue,  and  six  miles  north-west  of  the  town  of 
that  name.  Portions  of  the  ancient  walls,  built  in 
the  Cyclopean  style  of  large  irregular  and  polygonal 
blocks  of  limestone,  and  patched  or  surmounted 
with  Roman  masonry,  no  mortar  having  been  used, 
are  still  extant.  F.  is  the  ancient  Ferentinimi,  a  city 
of  the  Hernici.    Present  pop.  8300. 

FE'RGUSON,  Ad.vm,  a  Scottish  philosopher  and 
hiefeorian,  was  born  (1724)  at  Logierait,  in  Perth- 
shire, where  his  father  was  parish  minister.  He 
studied  at  the  universities  of  St  Andrews  and 
Edinburgh,  and  was  appointed  (1742)  chaplain  to 
the  42d  Regiment,  in  which  cajjacity  he  was  jn-esent 
at  the  battle  of  Fontenoy,  and  is  said  to  have 
charged  the  enemy  sword  in  hand,  among  the 
foremost  of  the  regiment.  In  1757,  he  succeeded 
David  Hume  as  keeper  of  the  Advocates'  Library  in 
Edinburgh.  He  was  next  appointed  professor  in 
the  Edinburgh  University,  flrst  of  natural  phil- 
osophy, in  1759,  and  subsequently  (1764),  of  moral 
philosophy — a  subject  which  had  always  had  great 
attractions  for  him.  While  holding  this  office,  he 
accompanied  the  young  Earl  of  Chesterfield  (1774) 
on  his  travels  on  the  continent ;  and  in  1778 — 1779, 
he  acted  as  secretary  to  the  commission  sent  out  by 
Lord  North  to  try  to  arrange  the  disputes  between 
the  North  American  colonies  and  the  mother-country. 
The  state  of  his  health  induced  him,  in  1784,  to 
resign  his  profes.sorship,  in  which  he  was  succeeded 
by  Dugald  Stewart.  In  1793,  he  \dsited  various 
parts  of  the  continent ;  and  on  his  return,  took  up 
his  residence  for  some  time  at  Neidpath  Castle,  i^a 
Tweeddale,  and  latterly  in  St  Andrews,  where 
died;  22d  February  1816.  His  chief  works  sre — 
Essay  on  the  History  of  Civil  Society  (L-">nd.  1707), 
Institutes  of  Moral  Philosophy  (Loud.  1769),  Histor  y 
of  the  Prorp'&ss  and  Termination  of  the  Boman 
Republic  (Lond.  1783),  and  PHnciples  of  Moral  arid 
Political  Science  (Lond.  1792).  The  work  by  which 
he  is  best  known  is  his  History  of  the  Boman 
Bepublic;  this,  together  with  the  Essay  and  Insti- 
tutes, have  gone  through  a  number  of  editions.  All 
liis  works  hove  been  translated  into  Gennan  and 
French,  and  the  Institutes  has  been  used  as  a 
text-book  in  several  foreign  universities.  F.  was 
distinguished  for  the  decision  and  manliness  of  hia 
character. 

893 


FERGUSON— FERMATA. 


FERGUSON,  James,  was  born  (1710)  near  Keith, 
ft  vilhige  in  Banffshire,  Scotland.  Ilis  father  being 
a  poor  day-labourer,  he  enjoyed  only  three  months 
of  instniction  at  school,  and  his  subsequent  acquire- 
ments were  the  result  of  liis  own  iiisatiable  thirst 
for  knowledge.  His  tastes  lay  principally  for 
oractical  mechanics  and  astronomy ;  and  while 
Lee})ing  sheep,  to  which  he  was  early  sent,  he  was 
constantly  employed  in  making  models  of  mills,  &c., 
and  at  night  in  studying  the  stars.  After  working 
at  v.xrious  country  emi)loyments,  he  took  to  drawing 
yatterna  for  ladies'  dresses,  and  copying  pictures 
and  prints  with  pen  and  ink.  He  then  su})ported 
himself  and  his  parents  by  drawing  portraits,  first 
in  Edinburgh,  and  afterwards  (1743)  in  London  ; 
his  leisure  time  being  all  the  while  given  to 
as,tronomical  pursuits.  In  1748,  he  began  lecturing 
on  astronomy  and  mechanics  with  great  acceptance. 
He  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in 
1763,  and  received  from  George  Hi.  a  pension  of 
£50.  He  now  gave  up  portraits,  and  devoted 
himself  to  lecturing  and  writing  on  his  favourite 
8ul)joct3.  He  died  in  1776.  F.  was  held  in 
high  esteem  for  the  worth  and  amiability  of  his 
character,  as  well  as  for  his  extraordinary  and  self- 
taught  acquirements.  Few  men  have  done  more  to 
promote  a  knowledge  of  the  results  of  science, 
among  those  who  have  not  the  advantage  of  regular 
scientific  training.  His  principal  works  are — 
Astronomy  explained  upon  Sir  Isaac  Neivton''s 
Principles  (1756 ;  Sir  David  Brewster's  ed.,  2 
vols.  1811)  ;  Lectures  on  Mechanics,  JlydrosicUics, 
Pneumatics,  and  Optics  (1760)  ;  also  edited  by  Sir 
Da\'id  Brewster  in  1805 ;  and  Select  Mechanical 
Exercises,  with  an  Autobiography  (1773). 

FERGUSSON,  Robert,  a  Scottish  poet,  was  bom 
at  Edinbiu-gh  about  the  year  1750,  and  received 
his  education  at  the  university  of  St  Andrews, 
where  he  was  in  possession  of  a  bursary  foxinded 
by  a  person  of  his  own  name,  and  resided  four  years. 
Subsequently,  he  removed  to  Edinburgh,  and  was 
employed  in  the  office  of  the  commissary  clerk. 
His  poems  were  chiefly  contributed  to  Ruddiman's 
Weekly  Magazine,  and  gained  him  considerable  local 
reputation.  Unhappily,  this  reputation  proved  his 
ruin.  His  society  was  eagerly  sought ;  and  in  that 
convi^'ial  time,  he  was  led  into  excesses  which 
permanently  injured  his  health.  He  fell  into  a 
religious  melancholy,  and  finally,  throuc^h  an  acci- 
dental fracture  of  the  skull,  became  totally  deranged. 
He  died  on  the  16th  October  1774,  at  the  age  of 
twent}"-four. 

-  F.'s  poems  are  distinguished  by  considerable 
humour,  fancy,  and  purity  of  language,  and  he 
possessed  great  mastery  over  Lowland  Scotch.  He 
sketches  with  liveliness  contemporary  life  and  inci- 
dents, and  much  of  our  knowledge  of  old  Edinburgh 
is  derived  from  his  verses.  His  fame  however, 
rests  quite  as  much  upon  his  unhappy  life  and 
early  death,  and  upon  the  circumstance  that  he 
'vas  to  some  extent  the  forerunner  of  Burns,  as 
»ipon  the  essential  merits  of  his  verse.  Burns 
«^mired  his  works,  was  indebted  to  them  for  hints, 
railed  him  '  his  elder  brother  in  the  Muses,'  and 
■when  he  came  to  Edinburgh,  erected  a  memorial- 
stone  over  his  grave. 

FE'RI^  (Lat.),  holidays  during  which  political 
and  legal  transactions  were  suspended  in  ancient 
B,ome,  and  slaves  enjoyed  a  cessation  from  labour. 
Feriie  were  thus  dies  nefasti,  the  opposite  of  the  dies 
fosti.  See  Fasti.  Daj'^s  which  were  consecrated 
to  a  ]>ai'ticular  divinity,  on  which  any  public  cere- 
mony was  celebrated,  and  the  like,  were  ferife.  In 
contradistinction  to  these  which  were  ferus  pidAicce 
public  holidays),  there  were  ftrioi  privatce,  which 


were  observed  by  single  families,  in  oomm  jmoi-ation 
of  some  particular  occurrence  of  importance  to  them 
or  their  ancestors.  Birthdays,  days  of  purification 
after  a  fimeral,  &c.,  were  also  observed  as  family 
ferire.  The  public  ferisB  were  divided  into  those 
which  were  always  kept  {stativce)  on  certain  days 
marked  in  the  calendar ;  and  those  which  were 
kei)t  by  command  of  the  consuls  or  other  superior 
magistrates  on  the  occasion  of  any  public  emergency. 
'  The  maimer  in  which  all  public  feriae  were  kt.p< 
bears  great  analogy  to  our  Sunday.  The  people 
generally  visited  the  temples  of  the  gods,  and 
offered  up  their  prayers  and  sacrifices.  The  most 
serious  and  solemn  seem  to  have  been  the  fer»(B 
imperativce  ;  all  the  others  were  generally  attesid^d 
by  rejoicings  and  feasting.'  See  an  elaborate  article 
by  Dr  Schmitz  in  Smith's  Dictionary  of  Greek  and 
Boman  Antiquities.  In  Scotland,  those  days  during 
which  it  was  not  lawful  for  courts  to  be  held, 
execution  to  proceed,  or  any  other  judicial  step 
to  be  taken,  used  to  be  called  feriat  times,  but  the 
expression  is  obsolete. 

FERMA'NAGH,  an  inland  oounty  in  the  south- 
west of  Ulster  province,  Ireland.  It  is  45  milea 
long,  and  29  broad.  Area,  714  square  miles, 
5  arable,  7V  "wood,  and  above  ^  in  water,  including 
Up]ier  and  Lower  Lough  Erne.  There  are  other 
smaller  lakes,  as  Loughs  Melvin  and  Macnean.  The 
surface  is  mostly  a  succession  of  abrupt  mountains 
and  hills,  rising  in  Cuilcagh  2188  feet,  and  in  Belmore 
1312  feet.  Tlie  scenery  varies  from  the  richest 
vales  to  the  wildest  uplands.  The  chief  rocks  are 
mountain  limestone,  with  many  cavities  and  under- 
ground water-courses,  millstone  grit,  and  old  red 
sand?toue.  Some  coal,  iron,  and  marble  occur.  The 
chief  rivers  are  the  Erne  and  its  tributaries,  the 
Colebrooke,  Woodford,  and  Amey.  The  soil  in 
the  low  grounds  is  a  deep  rich  loam,  but  in  the 
limestone  and  sandstone  districts,  it  is  cold  and 
thm.  The  climate  is  mild  ?.nd  moist.  Marsh-fever 
prevails  in  summer  and  autumn  in  the  low  tracts 
near  Lough  Erne.  In  1872,  106,091  acres  were  in 
crop;  oats,  barley,  wheat,  potatoes,  turnips,  and 
hay  being  the  chief  products.  The  chief  exports 
are  oats,  batter,  and  eggs.  F.  is  divided  into  8 
baronies  and  23  parishes.  It  returns  2  members 
to  parliament.  Principal  towns:  Enniskillen,  Lis- 
naskea,  and  Lontberstown.  Pop.  (1851)  116,047; 
(1871)  92,688.  In  1872,  there  were  96  national 
schools,  with  14,925  scholars.  The  chief  antiquities 
are  raths  or  rude  hill-forts,  and  some  ecclesiasticj>J 
ruins. 

FERMAT,  Pierre  de,  a  French  mathematician, 
was  bom  at  Toidouse  in  1590,  and  at  an  early 
period,  in  conjunction  wdth  his  friend  PascaJ,  hit 
upon  a  very  ingenious  mode  of  considering  figurate 
numbers,  upon  which  he  subsequently  based  his 
doctrine  of  the  calcidation  of  probabilities.  F. 
employed  himself  greatly  with  the  properties  of 
numbers,  and  made  many  acute  discoveries  in 
regard  to  their  composition  and  analysis.  He  al3'> 
squared  the  parabola  in  a  much  simpler  way  than 
Archimedes  at  an  earlier  period  had  done,  and 
made  many  other  discoveries  in  geometry*.  His 
method  of  finding  the  greatest  and  least  ordinates  of 
curved  lines  was  analogous  to  the  method  of  the 
then  unknown  differential  calculus.  In  addition  to 
his  scientific  attainments,  F.  possessed  an  extraor- 
dinary knowledge  of  ancient  and  modern  languages. 
He  died  at  Toulouse  in  1665.  A  collection  of  F.'s 
works  appeared  at  Paris  in  1679. 

FERMA'TA,  in  Music,  is  the  name  given  to  a 
pause  or  resting-point,  generally  marked  by  the 
sign  ^  .  The  notes  over  which  this  sign  is  i)laced 
are    prolonged    beyond   their    true    length.  Th* 


FERMENTATIOi^— FERMENTED  AND  DISTILLED  LIQDORS. 


fermata  is  frequently  found  near  the  end  of  a  part 
of  a  composition,  which  aflbrds  an  opportunity  for 
the  singer  or  player  to  introduce  an  extempore 
embellishment. 

FERMENTATION  is  the  term  applied  to  the 
change  which  occurs  in  one  organic  substance  when 
intluenced  by  another  in  a  state  of  decay  or  putre- 
faction. The  process  was  originally  understood  to 
include  all  the  changes  which  matter  of  plant  and 
animal  origin  undergoes  when  disunited  from  the 
living  force,  but  is  now  restricted  to  certain  of  the 
changes.  Thus,  there  are  many  substances,  such  as 
etarch  and  sugar,  w^hich  have  no  power  of  them- 
Sb'ves  to  pass  into  decay,  or  change  in  composition 
thi ougli  lengthened  periods  of  time  ;  whilst  there  is 
another  class  of  substances,  including  albumen,  fibrin, 
and  oaseine,  as  well  as  gelatinous  tissues,  mucus, 
&c.,  which,  when  exposed  to  moderately  heated  air 
in  a  moist  condition,  more  or  less  rapidly  begin  to 
putrefy  or  decompose.  The  latter  substances,  viz., 
those  which  spontaneously  pass  into  a  state  of 
change,  are  called  ferments,  and  when  they  are 
brought  in  contact  with  sugar,  &c.,  which  otherwise 
would  not  be  altered,  they  cause  the  latter  to  be 
broken  up  into  simpler  compounds ;  it  is  this 
process  that  constitutes  fermentation.  Yeast  consists 
of  microscopic  egg-shaped  balls,  which  develop  into 
cells  and  feed  upon  the  substance  undergoing  fermen- 
tation. In  the  commercial  beer-ycast,  the  cells  of 
Torvula  crevisice  and  PenicilUum  glaucum  may  be 
distinguished  by  aid  of  the  microscope  ;  and  the  for- 
mer appears  to  be  as  necessary  to  the  production  of  the 
vinous  as  the  latter  is  in  exciting  the  lactic  fermenta- 
tion. The  ferments  are  believed  by  some  naturalists 
to  exist  in  organic  matter,  and  that,  whenever  a  plant 
or  an  animal  dies,  the  process  of  fermentation  proceeds 
more  or  less  rapidly.  The  most  important  kind  of 
fermentation  is  that  known  under  the  designation 
of  vinous,  and  which  forms  part  of  the  processes  in 
the  preparation  of  alcohol,  beer,  wine,  etc.  It  con- 
sists in  the  action  of  a  peculiar  ferment  called  Yeast 
(q.  v.)  upon  a  saccharine  liquid,  when  the  glucose  or 
directly  fermentable  sugar  (C6l:Ii206)  is  decomposed 
into  two  atoms  of  alcohol,  each  (CiHeO),  and  two 
atoms  of  carbonic  acid,  each  composed  of  (CO2).  In 
this  change  it  will  be  observed  that  the  yeast,  whilst 
it  causes  the  change,  does  not  unite,'  directly  or 
indirectly,  with  any  of  the  constituents  of  the  sugar. 
The  vinous  fermentation  proceeds  best  at  a  tem- 
perature ranging  from  60^  to  80°  F.,  the  mean 
and  more  desirable  being  about  70"  F.  The  process 
itself  causes  the  development  of  heat,  and  recours3 
must  be  had,  therefore,  to  large  airy  rooms,  where 
the  fermenting  tuns  or  vessels  are  arranged,  and 
also  to  the  circulation  of  cold  water  in  pipes  distrib- 
uted round  the  interior  of  the  vessels,  and  in  contact 
with  the  liquid.    See  Beer. 

The  lactous  fermentation  takes  place  in  milk  when 
it  begins  to  sour.  In  this  the  PeuicUlium  glaucum 
acts  the  part  of  a  ferment,  and  causes  the  change 
in  the  sugar  of  milk,  which  is  in  part  resolved  into 
lactic  acid  (CsHeOs).  The  latter  then  curdles  the 
caseine,  and  the  milk  becomes  clotted.  When  the 
milk  still  further  sours,  and  the  material  is  kept  at  a 
tempei-ature  of  77°  to  86°  F.,  the  butyric  acid  fermen- 
tation takes  place,  in  which  the  putrefying  caseine 
changes  the  sugar  (q.  v.)  of  milk  into  butyric  acid 
(CiHsO,). 

The  viacous  or  mucous  fermentation  occurs  when 
the  juice  of  the  beet  root,  dandelion,  ash  tree,  etc.,  is 
allowed  to  decompose  at  a  temperature  of  90"  to  100° 
F.,  when  a  i)eculiar  mucous  ferment  px-esent  causes 
the  sugar  to  decompose  into  mannite  and  a  gummy, 
mucilaginous  substance,  alcohol,  and  various  gases. 
The  same  kind  of  fermentation  occurs  when  boiled 
reast  or  boiled  gluten  is  added  to  ordinary  sugar. 


The  remaining  processes  of  fermentation  are  the 
arnyydalous  fermentation,  yielding,  amongst  other 
matters,  the  Essential  Oil  of  Bitter  Abnonds  {({.  v.) ; 
the  sinapous  fermentation,  which  occurs  in  mustard 
when  moistened  with  water,  and  during  which  the 
pungent  oil  of  mustard  is  devcloj)ed ;  and  the  acetoiu 
fermentation,  which  is,  however,  not  a  true  instance 
of  fermentation,  as  the  oxjgen  of  the  air  is  required 
to  complete  the  change.  Much  diversity  of  opinion  yet 
exists  respecting  the  existing  cause  of  fermentation, 
but  living  organisms  appear  essential  to  the  process. 

FERMENTED  LIQUORS  are  alcoholic  bever- 
ages made  by  fermentation  of  saccharine  fluids 
and  juices  ;  the  principal  being  the  different  kinda 
of  ale  or  heer,  made  by  fermentation  of  an  infusion 
of  malt,  chiefly  of  barley,  but  also  sometimes  of  other 
kinds  of  grain  ;  and  loine,  made  by  fermentation  of 
grape- juice.  Cider  is  made  by  fermentation  of  the 
juice  of  apples  ;  perry,  of  that  of  pears  ;  palm-wine^ 
by  fermentation  of  the  sap  of  different  kinds  of 
palm.  Fermented  liquors,  commonly  called  wines, 
■  are  also  made  from  the  juice  of  various  kinds  of 
fruit,  as  currant  wine  from  that  of  the  red  currant ; 
and  from  the  juice  of  some  roots,  as  parsnip  wine 
from  that  of  the  parsnip,  &c.  The  sap  of  the 
American  Aloe,  or  Agave  (q.  v.),  yields  the  fer- 
mented liquor  called  Pulque,  much  used  in  Mexico. 
A  wine  is  made  from  the  sap  of  the  birch,  and  that 
of  some  other  trees  is  used  for  a  similar  purpose. 
Mead  is  a  fermented  liquor  made  from  honey. 
From  every  fermented  liquor,  a  kind  of  sjnrit  may 
be  obtained  by  distillation. 

FERMENTED  AND  DISTILLED  LIQUORS, 

Statistics  of.  Under  the  headings  Beer,  Spirits, 
and  Wine,  will  be  found  particulars  as  to  the 
history,  manufacture,  &c.,  of  these  liquors.  All  that 
is  contemplated  in  the  present  article,  is  a  statement 
of  the  quantities  manufactured  and  consumed  in 
the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 
In  1801,  the  consumption  of  spirits,  British,  colonial, 
and  foreign,  in  the  United  Kingdom  was  8,800,840 
gallons.  In  fifty  years,  it  had  considerably  more 
than  trebled,  having  risen  in  1851  to  28,760,224 
gallons.  In  the  same  time,  the  population  had 
risen  from  15,506,794  to  27,452,262.  In  the  former 
period,  therefore,  the  consumption  was  at  the  rate 
of  little  more  than  half  a  gallon  per  head,  while  in 
the  latter  period  it  amounted  to  more  tuan  a  gallon. 
There  would  seem,  however,  to  have  been  something 
exceptional  in  the  year  1801  to  reduce  the  consump- 
tion to  the  low  point  we  have  mentioned,  as  in 
the  previous  year,  the  consumption  was  nearly  12 
million  gallons,  and  in  the  succeeding  year,  more 
than  154  million  gallons  ;  and  in  no  year  during  the 
half  century  did  it  fall  so  low  as  in  1801.  The  con- 
sumption at  the  two  periods  was  di\'ided  over  the 
three  countries  as  follows  :  England,  1801,  6,150,983 
gallons— namely,  2,555,920  Bntish  ;  1,687,839  colo- 
nial ;  and  1,907,224  foreign.  In  1851,  13,916,313  gal- 
Ions— namely,  9,595,368  British  ;  2,542,395  colonial 
and  1,778,550  foreign.  In  the  former  period,  the 
consumption  of  each  indi\ddual  was  less  than  three- 
foui-ths  of  a  gallon  ;  in  the  latter,  nearly  seven-ninths 
of  a  gallon.  Scotland,  1801,  930,490— namely, 
British,  295,931  ;  colonial,  349,237 ;  and  foreion, 
285,322.  1851,  7,090,894— namely,  British,  6,830,710; 
colonial,  179,883;  and  foreign,  80,301.  The  con- 
sumption  per  head  in  Scotland  in  1801  was  thus 
only  three-fifths  of  a  gallon,  while  in  1851  it  was  2| 
gallons.  Ireland,  1801,  1,719,367— namely,  British, 
355,106  ;  colonial,  1,057,316  ;  foreign,  306,945.  1851. 
7,753,017 — namely,  British,  7,550,518 ;  colonial, 
158,147  ;  foreign,  44,352.  In  the  former  period,  the 
consumption  per  head  was  two-thirds  of  a  gallon 
in  the  latter,  about  1^  gallon.    But  there  is  everj 


FEEMO— FERN^Us^DO  PO. 


reason  to  believe  that  the  consumption  in  1801  was 
much  larger  in  the  United  Kingdom  generally  than 
the  statistics  indicate.  Between  the  periods  we 
have  mentioned,  the  duty  on  British  spirits  varied 
considerably.  In  England,  in  1802,  it  was  .Os.  4^d. 
per  gallon;  in  1819,  it  had  risen  to  lis.  8id.;  and 
in  1851,  it  stood  at  Is.  lOd.  In  Scotland,  in  1802, 
the  duty  was  3s.  lOl^d.  per  gallon  ;  it  rose  to  9^.  44r^. 
in  1815;  and  in  1851,  was  3s.  Sd.  In  Ireland,  in 
1802,  it  was  2s.  lO^d. ;  in  1815,  it  had  risen  to 
65.  l^cZ, ;  in  1851,  it  stood  at  2s.  8d.  The  duties  in  the 
three  countries  have  now  been  equalised,  the  sum 
fixed  being  at  lirst  8s.  per  gallon,  since  raised 
to  JO^.,  at  which  it  now  (1873)  remains.  The 
total  number  of  gallons  of  proof-spirits  distilled 
in  the  United  Kingdom  in  1860  was  28,289,731 
— namely,  in  England,  7,868,525 ;  in  Scotland, 
13,946,536  ;  Ireland,  6,474,670.  The  number  of 
gallons  on  which  duty  was  paid  in  the  United 
Kingdom  in  1860  was  21,873,384,  the  duty  amount- 
ing to  £9.702,807.  Of  this  sum,  £4,493,212  was 
paid  in  England  on  10,108,522  gallons;  £2,863,811, 
in  Scotland  on  6,428,549  gallons;  £2,345,783  iu 
Ireland  on  5,3;i6,313  gallons.  Of  the  whisky  dis- 
tilled in  Scotland  in  1860,  4,621,283  gallons  were 
exported  into  England,  and  771,637  gallons  into 
Ireland  ;  Scotland  receiving  in  return  from  England 
7352  gallons,  a-id  from  Ireland  4904  gallons.  Ireland 
Bent  to  England  1,087,347  gallons,  and  got  back  in 
return  72,228  gallons.  Of  foreign  spirits,  there  were 
imported  into  the  United  Kingdom  in  1860,  rum, 
7,353,114  gallons,  of  Avhich  3,729,419  were  entered 
for  home  consumption ;  brandy,  2,342,540  gallons, 
1,463,636  being  for  home  consmnption  ;  and  Geneva, 
635,408  gallons,  261,208  for  home  consumption. 
The  quantity  of  wine  entered  for  consumption  in 
1802  was  5,449,710  gallons,  upon  which  a  duty  of 
£1,723,339  was  paid;  in  1851,  6,280,653  gallons 
\reie  entered  for  consumption,  and  a  duty  of 
£1,776,246  was  levied  thereupon.  In  1860, 12,483,362 
gallons  were  imported,  chiefly  from  Spain,  Portugal, 
and  France,  of  Avhich  7,358,192  were  retained  for 
home  consumption,  4,356,779  being  white  wine,  and 
the  rest  red. 

The  quantity  of  beer  manufactured  in  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  can  only  be  arrived  at  approxi- 
mately, the  duty  being  leviable  on  the  malt,  and  not 
on  the  liquid  made  from  it.  The  general  estimate, 
however,  is,  that  two  bushels  of  malt  produce  one 
barrel,  or  36  gallons  of  beer.  In  1867,  the  quantity 
of  malt  brewed  in  the  United  Kingdom  was  50,915,798 
bushels,  equal  to  25,457,899  barrels,  or  916,483,364 
gallons  of  beer.  A  revenue  of  £6,816,386  was  de- 
rived from  this  vast  waste  of  barley,  and  another  rev- 
enue of  debasement,  vice,  and  crime,  the  extent  of 
which  is  incalculable.  Alcohol  in  any  form  is  a  fruit- 
ful source  of  demoralization  and  crime. 

FE'RMO,  a  town  of  Italy,  capital  of  the  delega- 
tion of  the  same  name,  is  situated  on  a  rocky  height 
4  miles  from  the  Adi-iatic,  and  32  miles  south- 
south-east  of  Ancona.  It  is  well-built  and  fortified, 
surrounded  with  walls  and  ditches,  is  the  seat  of 
an  archbishop,  and  has  a  cathedral,  a  university 
(not,  however,  of  any  importance),  and  an  elegant 
theatre.  It  has  some  trade  in  corn  and  wool.  Pop. 
9130.  In  the  immediate  vicinity  are  the  ruins  of  the 
ancient  Firmum,  whose  name  F.  inherits.  Firmum 
had  been  a  Pwoman  colony  from  the  year  264  B.C. 

FERMOY,  a  town  in  the  east  of  Cork  county, 
Ireland,  chiefly  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Black- 
water,  19  miles  north-east  of  Cork  city.  Its  origin 
dates  from  the  12th  c,  when  it  was  the  seat  of  a 
gi-eat  (vistercian  abbey  ;  but  its  present  importance, 
which  commenced  in  the  end  of  last  century,  is  due 
to  Mr  (aftervvarda  Sir  John)  Anderson,  who  int.-o- 


duced  mail-coaches  into  Munster.  The  hills  to  the 
south  of  the  town  rise  in  Knockinskeagh  1388 
feet.  F.  is  handsomely  built  and  regularly  laid 
out.  A  large  ecclesiastical  establishment  (Uoman 
Catholic),  consisting  of  a  church,  a  bishop's  house, 
two  convents  with  large  schools,  and  a  college  with 
nearly  100  students,  has  recently  been  erected  on 
a  hill  rising  from  the  Blackwater.  A  bridge  of 
13  arches,  built  in  1689,  crosses  the  river.  Infantry 
and  cavalry  barracks  for  3000  men  crown  the 
heights  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  and  command 
one  of  the  chief  approaches  to  Cork.  F.  has  a  trade 
in  agricultural  produce.  Pop.  (1861)  8705;  (1871) 
7611,  of  whom  about  5000  are  Ciitholics. 

FERN,  Male,  a  name  given,  in  consequence  of  an 
erroneous  notion,  long  since  exploded,  to  a  fern  very 
common  in  the  woods  of  Britain  and  of  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe,  the  Aspidhim  filix  mas  of  some 
botanists,  and  Lastrcea  Jilix  mas  and  Nephrodium 
filix  mas  of  others.  The  fronds  are  bi2)innate ;  the 
pinnules  oblong,  obtuse,  and  serrated  ;  the  sori  near 
the  central  nerve,  orbicular,  kidney-shaped,  and 
fixed  by  the  sinus ;  the  stipes  and  rachis  chaffy.  If 


Common  Male  Fern. 


not  one  of  the  very  finest  of  our  ferns,  it  is  certainly 
a  chief  ornament  of  many  of  our  woods,  and  a  plant 
of  very  considerable  beauty.  The  subterranean 
stem  (rhizome)  is  officinal.  It  is  about  a  foot  long, 
and  of  the  thickness  of  a  quill,  almost  inodorous, 
with,  a  nauseous  sweet  taste,  becoming  astringent 
and  bitter.  It  was  anciently  used  as  an  anthelmintic, 
and  its  use  has  been  revived,  especially  in  cases 
of  tapeworm,  m  which  it  is  believed  to  be  very 
efficacious.  Its  anthelmintic  powers  are  due  to  a 
thick,  almost  black  volatile  oil  which  it  contains, 
and  which  is  now  itself  also  used  in  medicine. 

FERN,  Sweet  [Comptonia  asphnifolia),  a  shrub 
of  the  natural  order  Amentacece,  sub  -  order  M7jriceoe,  a. 
native  of  the  mountain-woods  of  North  America, 
forming  a  small  bush  with  linear  pinnatifid,  fem- 
bke  leaves.  Its  leaves  have  a  powerful  aromatic 
fragrance  when  rubbed.  It  is  tonic  and  astringentj 
and  is  much  used  in  the  United  States  as  a 
domestic  remedy  for  diarrhoea. 

FERNA'NDO  PO,  an  island  on  the  west  coast  of 
Africa,  in  the  Bight  of  Biafra,  is  situated  about  20 
miles  from  the  nearest  point  on  the  shore,  and  is 
about  44  miles  long  and  20  miles  broad.  The 
appearance  of  this  island  from  the  sea  is  exceedingly 
picturesque  and  beautiful.  It  is  traversed  by  a 
mountain  ridge,  which,  in  Clarence  Peak,  rises  to 
the  height  of  10,650  feet,  and  is  fertile,  well  watered, 
and  in  many  parts  thickly  wooded.  Besides  swarms 
of  monkeys,  some  of  which  are  of  great  size,  the 


TERNAN-NUNEZ— rEllITS. 


bland  contains  many  goats  and  sheep  in  a  state  of 
rature.  The  climate,  always  excessively  hot,  is 
tendered  more  intolerable,  during  the  rainy  season, 
by  a  pestilential  wind  from  the  continent.  The 
native  population,  who  are  of  negro  race,  are  said 
to  amount  to  from  10,000  to  12,000  in  number,  and 
to  inhabit  iifteen  villages.  The  English,  with  the 
consent  of  Spain,  into  whose  hands  E.  P.  had 
fallen,  made  an  attempt  in  1827  to  form  a  settle- 
ment on  the  island,  l)ut  abandoned  it  in  18.34.  In 
1844,  it  was  again  taken  possession  of  by  Spain. 
The  colony  has  a  population  of  about  900,  most  of 
whom  are  liberated  Africans. 

FERNAN-NUNEZ,  a  small  town  of  Spain, 
in  the  province  of  Cordova,  and  10  miles  south  of 
the  town  of  that  name.  It  has  some  linen  and 
woollen  manufactures.    Pop.  5500. 

FERN'S  {Filices),  an  order  of  acrogenous  or  cryp- 
togamous  plants,  divided  by  some  botanists  into 
several  orders  ;  whilst  some  make  Filices  a  sub-class, 
and  include  in  it  Lycopodiacece,  Marsileacece,  and 
Fquisetacece.  See  these  heads.  F.  are  either  her- 
baceous perennial  plants,  or  more  rarely  trees,  the 
root-stock  or  the  stem  producing  leaf-like  fronds 
(often  called  leaves),  which  are  sometimes  simple, 
sometimes  pinnated,  or  otherwise  compound,  exhibit 
great  variety  of  form,  and  are  generally  coiled  up 
icireinate)  in  bud  (see  accomi^anying  illustration). 


Ceterach  Officinarum. 

rhe  fronds  are  traversed  by  veins,  generally  of 
uniform  thickness,  which  are  simple  or  forked,  or 
netted,  sometimes  produced  from  the  sides  of  a 
midx-ib  or  primary  vein,  sometimes  from  a  primary 
vein  on  one  side,  sometimes  radiating  from  the 
base  of  a  frond  or  segment  of  a  frond.  The  fructi- 
fication takes  place  either  on  the  lower  surface  or 
on  the  margin  of  the  fronds,  and  arises  from  the 
veins.  The  spores  are  contained  in  capsules  or 
Bpore-cases  {thecce,  sporanrjla),  \vhich  are  often 
Burrounded  with  an  elastic  ring,'  and  are  either 
naked  or  covei'cd  with  a  membrane  {Involucre  or 
indiislum),  and  are  generally  clustered  in  round  or 
elongated  or  kidney-shaped  masses  {sori).  The 
margin  of  the  frond  is  sometunes  folded  so  as  to 
cover  the  spore-cases,  and  sometimes,  as  in  the 
Flowering  Fern  {Osmunda)  (q.  v.),  the  fertile  part 
of  the  frond  is  so  transformed  that  its  leaf-like 
fjjaracter  entirely  disappears,  and  it  becomes  a  spike 
or  panicle.    The  spore -cases  burst  at  their  circum- 


ference, or  longitudinally,  or  irregularly.  Moving 
spiral  filaments  exist  in  F.,  but  their  functions  iu 
connection  with  reproduction  are  not  well  known 


Ferns  : 

Shewing  the  Sori  on  the  back  of  the  Fronds. 

The  reproduction  of  F.  has  been  the  subject  of 
much  investigation  and  discussion,  and  sujjposed 
discoveries  of  sexual  organs  have  been  announced, 
but  satisfactory  evidence  of  their  nature  has  not 
been  obtained. — The  number  of  known  species  of  F. 
is  about  2500.  They  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the 
world,  but  are  fewer  towards  the  poles  than  within 
the  tropics,  and  fewer  in  continental  than  in  mari- 
time countries,  abounding  exceedingly  in  moim- 
tainous  tropical  islands,  as  in  Jamaica.  Many 
of  them  delight  in  moisture  and  shade,  altliough 
some  are  found  in  the  most  exj50sed  situations. 
Some  of  them  resemble  mosses  in  size  and  appear- 
ance ;  whilst  Tree  Ferns  (q.  v.)  resemble  palms, 
and  sometimes  attain  a  height  of  forty  feet.  A 
few  are  climbers.  One  climliing  species  [Lygo- 
diam  palinatum)  is  found  in  North  America  as  far 
north  as  Boston. — F.  are  divided  into  PolypodieoB^ 
HymenophjjUece,  Gleicheniece,  SchizcecB,  Osimmdece, 
Dancece,  and  Ophioglossece,  of  which  sub-orders  (or 
orders)  the  first,  second,  fifth,  and  seventh  alone 
contain  British  species,  and  the  first  contains  a 
great  majority  of  all  ferns. — The  root-stocks  of  some 
F.  contain  so  much  starch  that  they  are  either  used 
as  food,  or  food  is  prepared  from  them,  particularly 
those  of  the  Tara  (q.  v.)  Fern  in  New  Zealand 
and  Van  Diemen's  Land,  and  those  of  Aspidium 
(or  Nephrodium)  escuUntum  in  Sikkim  and  Nepal ; 
also  the  stems  of  some  of  the  tree-ferns,  as  of 
Gyatliea  tmdidlaris  in  New  Zealand,  and  Alsophila 
spinulosa  in  India.  The  young  and  tender  froads 
of  some  F.  are  occasionally  used  as  pot-herbs  in 
the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  Norway,  the  Himalaya, 
&c.  The  fronds  are  generally  mucilaginous,  slightly 
aromatic  and  astringent.  Those  of  some  sj^ecies  of 
Maidenhair  (q.  v.)  are  used  for  making  capillaire ; 
whdst  the  bitter  and  astringent  root-stocks  of  some 
F.  are  occasionally  used  in  medicine,  as  those  of  the 
Male  Fern  (see  Fern,  Male)  and  the  Peruvian 
Polypodium  Caliguala,  particularly  as  anthelminticSi 
The  fronds  of  a  few  species  are  delightfully  fra- 
grant.— The  cultivation  of  F.  is  now  in  many  places 
successfully  conducted  on  a  somewhat  extensive 
scale,  both  in  the  open  air  and  iu  hothouses  ;  aJid 
to  such  an  extent  has  the  occupation  of  fern-collect* 
ing  reached,  that  many  excellent  treatises  on  this 
subject  alone  have  been  written  and  elaborately 
illustrated.  Amongst  others,  we  may  mention 
British  Ferns  (Is.),  published  by  Routledge,  London, 
as  an  excellent  handbook  ;  while  the  magnificent 
Nature-printed  work,  published  in  2  volumes,  royal 
8vo,  by  Bradbury  and  Evans,  supplies  all  needful 
information.  Wardiau  cases,  filled  with  them,  nave 
also  become  common,  and  are  most  pleasing  orna- 
ments of  apartments.  The  princij)al  species  will  b« 
noticed  under  their  particular  heads. 


FEROZfi  PORE— FERRAEL 


FERO'ZE  PORE  (so  called  from  its  founder, 
Feroze  To^^hluk,  who  reigned  in  Delhi  from  1351  to 
1388)  stands  about  3  miles  from  the  left  or  south- 
east bank  of  tbe  Sutlej,  in  lat.  30"  55'  N.,  and  long. 
74"  35'  E.  At  one  time  a  large  and  important  town, 
as  its  massive  fortifications  and  extensive  ruins  still 
indicate,  it  hjvd  sunk  into  poverty  and  insignificance 
before  it  actually  came,  in  1835,  into  the  possession 
of  tbe  English.  Since  then,  the  place  has  regained 
much  of  its  former  consequence,  holding  out,  with 
its  wdde  streets  and  its  colonnaded  bazars,  the 
promise  of  a  grand  emporium  of  commerce.  Politic- 
Ally,  too,  F.  P.  has  become  prominent  under  British 
supremacy,  having  been  a  starting-point,  whether 
for  war  or  for  negotiation,  in  many  of  our  dealings 
"With  Afghanistan  and  the  Punjab.  In  connection 
with  this  feature  in  its  history,  the  city  contains  a 
monumental  church  in  honour  of  the  memory  of 
those,  both  privates  and  officers,  nho  fell  in  the 
various  conflicts  witli  the  Sikbs.  The  population  in 
1868  was  20,592. — Tbe  district  of  tbe  same  name  bas 
an  estimated  area  of  2696  square  miles,  and  a  popula- 
tion (1868)  of  549,253.  It  is  now  for  tbe  most  part 
eitber  barren  or  covered  with  jungle,  but  the  ruins  of 
towns  and  villages  indicate  tbat  it  must  have  been  at 
one  time  both  more  fertile  and  more  i)opulous. 

FERO'ZE  SHAH,  a  village  apparently  \\athin 
the  district  of  Feroze  Pore,  and.  situated  about  10 
miles  east-south-east  of  the  town  of  that  name,  is  in 
lat.  30''  52'  N.,  and  long.  74°  50'  K,  lying  about  12 
miles  from  the  left  bank  of  the  Sutlej.  It  claims 
notice  mainly  as  the  scene  of  the  second  in  order  of 
the  fom-  great  battles  of  the  first  Sikh  war.  The 
conflict  in  question,  which  lasted  two  days,  took 
place  in  December  1845,  ending  in  the  rout  of  the 
natives  and  the  capture  of  their  intrenchmcnts. 
The  British  army  was  commanded  by  Sir  Hugh 
Gougli  and  Sir  Henry  Hardiiige  ;  and,  as  in  the 
victory  of  Moodkce,  gained  only  thi-ee  days  before, 
it  sustained  hea\'y  loss. 

FEROZE  SHAH  CANAL,  a  work,  including 
its  branches,  of  240  miles  in  length,  demands  detailed 
notice  as  well  for  its  historical  intei-est  as  for  its 
economical  value.  It  dates  back  as  far  as  1356, 
owing  its  origin,  as  well  as  its  name,  to  Feroze 
Toghluk,  king  of  Delhi.  Viewed  as  a  whole,  it 
leaves  the  riglit  bank  of  the  Jumna  in  lat.  30"  19' 
N. ;  and,  after  sweeping  round  so  as  to  skirt 
Sirhind,  a  territory  on  the  Sutlej,  it  rejoins  its 
parent  stream  at  Delhi  in  lat.  28°  39',  thus  measur- 
mg,  in  mere  difference  of  latitude,  100  geographical 
miles.  This  artificial  water-course,  intended  prin- 
cipally for  the  purposes  of  irrigation,  seems  to  be 
equally  creditable  to  native  enterprise  and  native 
skill.  But,  as  nothing  of  the  kind  appears  to  be 
permanent  in  the  East,  this  noble  channel  was 
so  much  neglected,  that,  in  the  beginning  of  the 
17th  c,  it  was  cleared  out  by  Vizier  Ali  Murdan 
Khan,  who,  in  point  of  fact,  was  the  first  to  carry 
it,  through  its  lower  half,  back  into  the  Jirmna. 
Finally,  the  entire  line  has,  during  this  19th  c,  been 
again  repaired  and  improved  by  the  British  govern- 
ment In  the  light  of  the  drought  and  famine  of 
1860,  the  importance  of  such  undertakings  as  the 
Fcsroze  Shah  Canal  can  scarcely  be  overrated. 

FERRANDl'XA,  a  town  in  the  south  of  Italy, 
in  the  province  of  Basilicata,  stands  on  a  height  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Basento,  35  miles  east-south- 
east of  Potenza.  Good  wine  is  produced  in  the 
neighbourhood.    Pop.  about  6000. 

FERRA'RA,  the  most  northern  of  the  Italian 
provinces  that  are  washed  by  the  Adriatic.  It 
extends  immediately  south  of  the  Po,  between  the 
main  branch  of  which,  and  the  Po  di  Primar),  it 
is  for  the  most  part  enclosed.    As  one  of  the  old 

298 


delegations,  it  had  an  area  of  1180  square  miles, 
with  a  population  amounting  to  24  4,524 ;  but 
according  to  the  official  Slatistica  AdminiMrativa 
del  Itegno  d'ltalia,  published  at  Turin  in  1861,  the 
province  had  undergone  certain  modifications,  and 
its  population  in  1871  stood  at  215,369.  Tbe  area 
consists,  for  the  most  part,  of  swamp  and  lake; 
and  many  rivers  and  canals  intersect  it.  Between 
the  Po  di  Volano  and  the  Po  di  Primaro,  tbe 
marshes  become  very  extensive,  and  receive  the 
name  of  ]''alli  di  Comaccio.  This  province  produces 
great  quantities  of  fish,  affords  good  i)astures,  and 
carries  on  a  great  trade  in  corn  and  hemj).  It 
was  at  one  time  a  dukedom  under  the  House  of 
Este,  but  on  the  failure  of  a  legitimate  male  heir, 
Pope  Clement  VIII.  wrested  it  from  this  family, 
and  annexed  it  to  the  States  of  the  Church  in 
1598.  It  became  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy  in 
1860. 

FERRA'RA,  an  ancient  city  of  Italy,  capital  of 
the  pi'ovince  of  the  same  name,  is  situated  in  a  low 
marshy  plain  in  the  delta  of  the  Po,  and  about  4 
miles  south  of  the  main  branch  of  that  river,  28 
miles  north-north-east  of  Bologna,  and  40  milea 
north-west  of  Ravenna.  F.  was  first  made  a  walled 
city  by  the  exarch  of  Ravenna  about  the  close  of  the 
6th  c,  and  in  the  following  century  (661  A.D.)  became 
the  seat  of  a  bishop.  In  the  middle  ages,  it  was  the 
great  commercial  emporium  of  Italy,  and  the  seat 
of  a  court  renowned  throughout  Eurojje ;  but  now 
the  city  has  a  peculiarly  deserted  and  melancholy 
appearance  ;  gi-ass  grows  on  the  pavements  of  ita 
broad  and  regular  streets,  and  its  churches  and 
palaces  are  either  rapidly  falling,  or  have  already 
fallen  into  decay.  It  is  surrounded  with  walls, 
and  is  sti'cngthened  by  bastions  and  a  fortress.  The 
old  castle,  or  ducal  palace,  once  the  residence  of  the 
Dukes  of  Este,  but  recently,  until  1860,  occupied 
by  the  papal  legates,  rises  like  a  huge  rock,  is 
strengthened  with  corner-towers,  and  surrounded 
by  a  ditch.  Its  ecclesiastical  edifices,  which  are 
very  numerous,  and  of  which  the  churches  of 
Santa  Maria  degl'  Angeli  and  of  San  Benedetto 
are  the  most  remarkable  in  point  of  architecture, 
are  rich  in  paintings  by  the  great  masters  of 
the  Ferrara  and  Bologna  schools.  Besides  their 
valuable  paintings,  these  churches  contain  numer- 
ous sculptured  monuments  of  famous  pereons ;  the 
churcu  of  San  Francesco  has  a  curious  echo, 
sixteen  reverberations.  The  university,  founded  in 
1264,  was  reoi-ganised  in  1402,  closed  in  1794,  and 
reopened  in  1824.  It  is  in  high  repute  as  a  school 
of  medicine  and  jurisprudence,  and  is  attended  by 
about  200  or  300  students.  It  has  an  excellent 
library,  which,  besides  a  variety  of  MSS.,  missal 
paintings,  and  old  editions  of  jirinted  works,  con- 
tains several  of  the  works  of  Tasso  and  Ariosto 
in  their  own  hand.  F.  is  si)ecially  remarkable  for 
its  art  associations.  Under  the  patronage  of  the 
Dukes  of  Este,  it  produced  a  school  of  painters 
who  rank  high  in  the  history  of  art ;  while  in 
literature  the  name  of  F.  is  immortalised  through 
its  connection  with  those  of  Tasso,  Ariosto,  acd 
Guarini.  At  the  j^eriod  of  its  greatest  prosperity, 
F.  had  about  100,000  inhabitants,  but  in  1873  ita 
population  was  oi^ly  72,447. 

In  1849,  the  Austrians  took  possession  of  the 
town,  but  were  compelled  to  abandon  it  at  the 
commencement  of  the  Italian  campaign  in  June 
1859.  In  Apiil  1860,  F.,  ^vith  the  state  of  which 
it  is  capital,  was  formally  annexed  to  the  kingdom 
of  Italy  imder  Victor  Emanuel. 

FERRAHI,  Gaudenzio,  sprung  from  a  family 
which  followed  a  career  of  art  as  if  by  inheritance, 
was  born  at  Valdugia,  in  the  JSIilanese,  in 


FERRATES— 1  /JRRIER. 


A  scholar  of  Andrea  Scotto  and  Perugino,  and  the 
chosen  associate  and  friend  of  Raphael,  his  own 
creations  may  be  said  to  have  caught  some  inspir- 
ation from  each  of  these  three  great  masters,  while 
they  also  unmistakably  reflect  genius  of  a  bold, 
unshackled  originality.  The  chief  characteristics 
of  F.'s  style  are  correct  and  vigorous  delineation, 
extreme  vividness  and  delicacy  of  colouring,  noble 
grace  of  form  and  attitude,  and  unsurpassable  art 
m  the  classic  disposal  of  drapery.  Being  one  of 
the  most  laborious  artists  of  his  day,  he  has  executed 
innumerable  paintings  both  in  fresco  and  in  oil,  the 
greater  part  of  which  are  possessed  by  the  Lombard 
galleries.  His  most  comprehensive  work,  the 
frescos  at  Barallo,  in  Piedmont,  rejireseuts  the 
Passion ;  the  '  Martyrdom  of  St  Catherine,'  to 
which  he  owes  his  brightest  fame,  is  in  the  Milanese 
collection  of  paintings.  He  died  in  1549,  having 
formed  some  good  scholars,  the  chief  of  whom  is 
Andrea  Solario. 

FE'RRATES  are  combinations  of  ferric  acid 
(FeO-i),  a  weak  unstable  compound  of  iron  and 
oxygen  with  bases.    See  Iron. 

FERREI'RA,  Antonio,  one  of  the  classic  poets 
of  Portugal,  was  born  at  Lisbon,  1528.  He  was 
educated  at  Coimbra,  where  he  occupied  himself 
with  the  study  of  the  Italian  and  Latin  authors, 
more  especially  Horace,  whom  he  almost  rivalled 
in  conciseness,  but  not  in  elegance  of  expression. 
After  holding  for  some  time  the  oflice  of  a  professor 
at  Coimbra,  he  obtained  a  civil  appointment  of  some 
importance  at  the  court  of  Lisbon.  He  carried  to 
perfection  the  elegiac  and  epistolary  styles,  ali-eady 
attempted  with  success  by  Sa  de  Miranda,  and 
transplanted  into  Portuguese  literature  the  epi- 
thalamium,  the  epigram,  ode,  and  tragedy.  His  Iiies 
de  Castro  is  the  second  regular  tragedy  that  appeared 
after  the  revival  of  letters  in  Europe,  the  lirst  being 
the  Sophonisba  of  Trissino.  It  is  still  regarded  by 
the  Portuguese  as  one  of  the  finest  monuments 
of  their  literature,  for  its  sublime  pathos  and  the 
perfection  of  its  style.  The  works  of  F.  are  not 
numerous,  as  his  official  duties  left  him  little  leisure. 
He  died  1569.  All  his  w^orks  are  distinguished  by 
soundness  and  depth  of  thought.  His  expression 
is  strong  rather  than  sweet,  is  extremely  animated, 
and  full  of  that  fire  which  elevates  the  mind  and 
warms  the  heart.  His  efforts  after  brevity,  how- 
ever, frequently  led  him  to  sacrifice  harmony  to 
thought.  His  Poemas  Lusitanos  were  first  jiub- 
lished  at  Lisbon,  1598,  and  the  Todas  as  ohras 
de  Ferreira  in  1771.  Compare  Sismondi's  work.  La 
Litterature  du  Midi  (Paris,  1813),  and  Bouterwek's 
Gescliichte  der  neuern  Poesie  und  Beredsamkeit  (12 
vols.  Gott.  18U1— 1819). 

FE'RRET  {Mustela  faro),  an  animal  of  the  weasel 
family  {Mustelidce),  so  nearly  allied  to  the  Polecat 
(q.  v.),  that  many  regard  it  as  a  mere  domesticated 
variety.  It  is  of  rather  smaller  size,  the  head  and 
body  being  about  fourteen  inches  long,  the  tail  five 
inches  and  a  half,  the  muzzle  rather  longer  and  more 
pointed,  the  head  rather  narrower ;  and  the  colour 
IS  very  diflferent,  being  yellowish,  ^dth  more  or  less 
of  white  in  some  parts,  there  being  two  kinds  of  hair, 
the  longer  partly  white,  the  shorter  yellow.  The 
eyes  are  pink.  It  is,  however,  miueh  more  suscep- 
tible of  cold  than  the  polecat,  and  requires  careful 
protection  from  it  in  climates  where  the  polecat  is 
a  hardy  native.  It  was  imported  into  Eui'ope  from 
Africa,  and  was  well  known  to  the  Romans,  being 
anciently  erapiL^'ed  as  it  still  is,  in  catching  rabbits, 
for  which  piirpose  it  is  often  sent  into  their  bur- 
rows muzzled,  or  *  coped,'  by  means  of  a  piece  of 
string,  to  drive  them  out  into  nets,  or,  with  a  string 
attached  to  it,  it  is  allowed  to  seize  a  rabbit  in  the 


buvrows,  and  is  then  drawn  out,  boiling  it  fast. 
The  usual  phm,  however,  is  to  let  the  F  have 
free  range  of  ral)bit  liolcs  unmuzzled.  Ferrets  are 
generally  kept  in  boxes,  and  attention  to  warnth 


Ferret  {Mustela  furo). 


and  cleanliness  is  essential  to  their  health.  Ttiey 
are  capable  only  of  partial  domestication,  acquiring 
a  kind  of  familiarity  with  man,  and  submitting  M-ith 
perfect  quietness  to  his  handling,  but  apparently 
never  forming  any  very  decided  attachment ;  and 
they  never  cease  to  be  dangerous  if  not  carefully 
watched,  especially  where  infants  are  within  their 
reach.  If  allowed  any  measure  of  freedom,  they 
are  ready  to  attack  poultry,  and  kill  far  more  than 
they  can  devour,  merely  sucking  the  blood.  They 
generally  breed  twice  a  year,  each  brood  consisting 
of  six  or  nine.  The  female  sometimes  devours 
the  young  ones,  in  which  case  another  brood  is 
speedily  produced. 

FE'RRIDCYA'XOGEN  is  a  compound  organic 
radical  which  has  not  been  isolated,  but  which 
forms  with  potassium  a  well-known  compound  used 
in  the  arts,  called  the  ferridcyanide  of  potassium  or 
red  prussiate  of  potash.  In  the  preparation  of 
this  salt,  a  solution  of  ferrocyanide  of  potassium 
is  acted  on  by  a  stream  of  chlorine  gas  until  the 
colour  of  the  liquid  passes  from  yellow  to  deep  red, 
and  thereafter,  on  evaporation  and  cooling,  fine 
red  crystals  are  obtained.  The  Chlorine  (CI)  acts  upon 
the  ferrocyanide  of  potassium,  or  yellow  prussiate 
of  potash  (K4re2Cy6  =  4KCy.2FeCy),  removing  one 
equivalent  of  potassium  (K),  forming  chloride  of 
potassium  (KCl),  whilst  the  remaining  constituents 
combine,  and  produce  ferridcyanide  of  potassium,  or 
ferricyanide  of  potassium  (K3Fe2Cy6  =  3KCy.Fe2Cy3). 
The  latter  is  known  commercially  in  red  crystals, 
readily  soluble  in  water,  and  yields  a  fine  deep  Pries- 
sian  blue  (Turnbull's  blue)  when  mingled  with  solu- 
tion of  protosulphate  of  iron  (green  vitriol),  and 
hence  is  used  largely  in  dyeing  and  calico  printing. 
There  are  numerous  ferricyanides. 

FERRIER,  James  F.,  LL.D.,  a  metaphysician, 
was  born  in  Edinburgh,  November  1808.  After 
studying  at  Oxford,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  B.A. 
in  1832,  he  was  admitted  to  the  Scottish  bar  in  1833. 
In  1842,  he  was  elected  to  the  chair  of  History  in 
the  university  of  Edinburgh,  and  in  1845  to  that  of 
Moral  Philosophy  in  the  university  of  St  Andrews, 
Mr  F.  early  attracted  notice  by  some  metaphysical 
essays,  which  appeared  ir.  Blackwood's  Magazine; 
and  in  1854  he  i^ublished  the  Institutts  of  Meta- 
physics,  in  which  he  endeavours  to  construct  a 
system  of  idealism  in  a  series  of  propositions,  demon- 
slrated  after  the  manner  of  Euclid.    In  1855 — 185a 

299 


FERPdER— FERKY. 


he  edited  the  collected  works  of  his  fiithcr  in-law,  the 
late  Professor  John  Wilson,  of  the  University  of  Ed'n- 
tonrgh.    He  died  in  1864. 

FERRIER,  Susan  Edmonston,  aunt  of  the 
former,  a  successful  novelist,  was  born  iu  Edinburgh 
in  1782,  and  died  in  1854.  Her  father,  James  Ferrier, 
one  of  the  principal  clerks  of  the  Court  of  Session, 
and  the  colleague  in  that  office  of  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
lived  on  terms  of  intimacy  with  the  wits  and  literati 
of  his  day  in  Edinburgh,  and  Miss  F.'s  talents  and 
quick  powers  of  observation  were  early  called  into 
play  in  the  midst  of  the  literary  society  in  which 
her  youth  was  passed.  Her  first  work.  Marriage, 
appeared  in  1818,  and  this  was  followed  by  The 
Inheritance  (182-4),  and  Destiny  (1831).  The  merit  of 
these  tales,  which  are  characterised  by  genial  wit, 
a  quick  sense  of  the  ludicrous,  and  considerable 
ability  in  the  delineation  of  national  peculiarities, 
is  sufficiently  proved  by  the' fact,  that  they  have 
stood  their  ground,  notwithstanding  the  enormous 
nimiber  of  works  of  liction  which  have  flowed  from 
the  press  since  their  publication.  Miss  F.  enjoyed 
the  esteem  and  friendship)  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  who, 
in  the  days  of  his  strength,  repeatedly  gave 
expression  to  his  appreciation  of  her  talents,  and 
who  derived  consolation  from  her  sym}»athy  in 
the  seasou  of  gloom  which  darkened  the  close  of 
his  life. 

FB'RRO,  or  HIE'RRO,  the  most  western  of 
the  Canary  Isles,  was  formerly  considered  the 
most  westerly  point  of  the  Old  World,  and  for 
this  reason  geographers  at  one  time  took  it  as  the 
point  of  dcjiarture  in  reckoning  longitudes,  as  is 
still  done  by  the  Germans  and  others.  Hence,  in 
all  probability,  originated  the  present  hemispherical 
division  of  the  maps  of  the  world,  F.  being  taken  as 
the  boundary-line.  The  English,  however,  have 
adopted  the  meridian  of  Greenwich  as  the  first 
meridian,  and  in  this  their  example  is  followed  by 
the  Dutch,  and  in  sea-charts  generally ;  area,  82 
square  miles  ;  pop.  4400.  The  meridian  of  F.  is 
18°  9'  west  of  that  of  Greenwich.    See  Loxgitude. 

FE'RROCYA'Ts^OGEN  is  a  compound  organic 
radical,  generally  regarded  by  chemists  as  existing  in 
ferrocyanide  of  potassium,  or  the  yellow  prussiate 
of  potash,  but  which  has  not  j^et  been  obtained 
iu  a  separate  state.  The  i)rincipal  compound  of 
ferrocyanogen  is  the  ferrocyanide  of  potassium, 
wliich  is  prepared  by  heating  to  redness  in  a  covered 
iron  pot  a  mixture  of  3  parts  by  weight  of  nitro- 
genised  matter,  such  as  dried  blood,  hoofs,  parings 
of  hides,  scrapings  of  horn,  or  the  fi.esh  of  old 
or  diseased  horses  and  other  animals,  3  parts  of 
carbonate  of  i)otash,  and  one  part  of  iron  filings. 
The  carbon,  nitrogen,  and  iron  combine  together, 
and  form  feiTOcyanogen  (FeCgNa  =  FeCyg,  or 
Cfy),  which,  at  the  same  time,  unites  with  the 
potassium,  and  produces  ferrocyanide  of  potassiima, 
or  yellow  prussiate  of  potash  (2K,Cfy).  The  com- 
pound which  is  obtained  from  the  heated  iron  vessel 
is  impure,  but  by  repeated  solutions  in  hot  water, 
and  recrystallisation  on  cooling,  the  salt  is  obtained 
pure  ia  fine  large  tabular  crystals  of  a  lemon-yellow 
colour.  The  ferrocyanide  of  potassium  is  largely 
used  in  dyeing  and  Calico-printing  (q.  v.)  in  the 
production  of  many  shades  of  Prussian  blue ;  and 
when  it  is  treated  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  subjected 
to  heat  applied,  hydrocyanic  or  prussic  acid  (HCgN 
=  HCy)  distils  off  from  the  mixture.  The  ferro- 
cyanide of  ])otassium  is  characterised  by  giving  no 
indication  of  the  presence  of  iron  in  its  radical  on 
the  application  of  any  of  the  tests  for  iron.  It 
gives  a  light- blue  precipitate  on  the  addition  of  a 
Bolution  of  proto-sulpliate  of  iron ;  a  dark  blue 
inecij)itatc  with  percLdoride  of  iron  ;  a  iiiddy  brown 
800 


precipitate  with  sulphate  of  copper;  and  a  white 
precipitate  with  acetate  of  lead. 

FE'RROL,  a  strongly  fortified  seaport  town  of 
Spain,  in  Galicia,  is  most  advantageously  situated 
on  a  narrow  arm  of  the  sea,  14  miles  north-east  of 
the  town  of  Corunna.  It  was  originally  a  fishing- 
tov/n,  until  selected  for  its  natural  advantages  as  a 
seaport  by  Charles  III.,  who  erected  here  what  was 
at  one  time  the  finest  naval  arsenal  in  tlie  •vorld, 
and  destined  it  exclusively  for  the  Si)anish  royal 
navy.  The  entrance  to  the  harbour,  formed  by  d 
narrow  inlet  from  the  Bay  of  Betanzos,  admits 
the  a])proach  of  only  one  ship-of-the-liue  at  a  tiiie, 
and  is  defended  by  the  castles  of  San  Felipe  and 
Palma.  The  town  is  defended  by  walls  and  fortifi- 
cations, is,  on  the  whole,  regularly  built,  and  has 
several  squares  and  pleasing  alauiedas  or  i>ublic 
walks.  The  arsenal,  in  which  fifteen  ships-of-tlie- 
line  coidd  be  simultaneously  built,  covers  a  great 
space ;  and  though  now  in  a  somewhat  ruinou3 
condition,  is  still  the  most  important  in  Spain.  F. 
has  manufactures  of  hats,  naval  stores,  hardwares ; 
and  exj)orts  corn,  brandy,  vinegar,  and  fish.  Pop. 
(including  the  garrison)  1G,G40. . 

FE'RROTYPE,  a  term  applied  by  Mr  Robert 
Hunt,  the  discoverer,  to  designate  some  photo- 
graphic processes,  in  which  salts  of  iron  play  an 
important  jjart.  The  term  is  also  applied  by  photog- 
raphers to  a  cheap  and  instantaneous  method  by 
which  a  positive  picture  is  fixed,  by  the  collodion  pro- 
cess (q.  v.),  on  thin  sheets  of  iron.  The  process  has 
become  very  popular  in  America. 

FERRU'GINOUS  is  a  term  employed  in  chemis- 
try  to  denote  the  presence  of  iron  in  natural  waters, 
minerals,  &c.  It  is  synonjonous  -with  the  term 
chalybeate.    See  Chalybkyte  Waters. 

FERRY  (from  Sax.  /arau,  Ger.  fahren,  to  move, 
proceed,  allied  to  the  Lat. /ero.  Eng.  hear),  a  passage 
by  boat  across  water.  By  the  law  of  England, 
a  man  ma}'-  have  a  right  to  keep  a  boat  and  to 
ferry  passengers  for  a  consideration,  just  as  he 
may  have  a  right  to  hold  a  fair,  either  by  royal 
grant,  or  by  ^prescription,  from  which  a  royal  grant 
at  some  previous  time  will  be  presumed.  No 
other  title,  unless  conferred  by  act  of  parliament, 
will  suffice,  for  no  fair,  market,  or  ferry  can  be  set 
up  without  licence  from  the  crown  either  actual 
or  presumed.  The  possessor  of  such  a  title  n<'.ed 
not  necessarily  be  the  proprietor  of  the  soil  on 
which  the  market  is  held,  or  of  the  water  over 
which  the  right  of  ferry  is  exercised.  In  the 
latter  case,  he  need  not  be  the  proprietor  of  the  soil 
on  either  side  of  the  river,  though  he  must  possess 
such  rights  over  it  as  \W11  enable  him  to  embark  and 
disembark  his  passengers.  As  fulfilling  his  part  of 
the  bargain  with  the  public,  the  owner  of  a  ferry  ia 
bound  to  keep  a  boat  fit  for  the  purpose  of  carrying 
passengers,  whilst  on  the  other  hand  he  has  a  right 
of  action  not  only  against  those  who  refuse  br 
evade  payment  of  the  toll  or  passage  money,  but 
against  those  who  disturb  his  franchise  by  setting 
up  a  new  ferry  so  near  as  to  diminish  his  custom. — 
Stephens,  i.  pp.  663,  664.  It  has  been  more  thaa 
once  decided,  that  the  erection  of  a  second  ferry  in 
sxich  circumstances  is  a  nuisance  to  the  owner  of 
the  old  one,  wh8  is  bound  to  keep  his  ferry  in  readi- 
ness for  the  use  of  the  Queen's  subjects,  a  burden 
which  is  not  shared  by  his  rival  (North  and  South 
Shields  Ferry  Co.  v.  Barker,  2  Exch.  136).  The 
rule  in  Scotland  as  to  rival  ferries  is  the  same ;  but 
a  grant  of  ferry  from  the  crown  to  one  heritor  does 
not  prevent  his  neighbours  from  keeping  private 
boats  for  the  transport  of  themselves  and  their 
families  and  servants.  Where  ferries  have  not  been 
giveii  out  by  royal  gift,  either  express  or  presumed 


FERTILISATION  OF  PLANTS -FESCUE. 


as  above  described,  they  are  inter  regalia,  i.  e.,  they 
beloug  to  the  crown  for  the  public  benetit.  lu 
this  case,  they  are  under  the  management  of  the 
trustees  of  the  roads  connected  with  them,  or  are 
regxdated  by  the  justices  of  the  peace  for  the  county, 
or  by  special  acts  of  parliament.  By  8  and  9  Vict, 
c.  41,  certain  rules  are  laid  down  for  the  regulation 
of  ferries.    The  act  is  confined  to  Scotland. 

Common  rowing-boats  are  generally  used  for 
ferrying  foot-passengers,  but  when  horses  and 
carriageo  have  to  be  taken  across,  a  flat-bottomed 
barge,  with  an  inclined  plane  at  one  end,  to  rest 
•flpon  the  shore,  for  landing  and  embarking,  is 
generally  used.  This  is  either  rowed  across  or 
pulled  by  a  rope.  When  the  current  is  stiong, 
and  the  river  of  moderate  width,  the  latter  is  best. 
The  rope  stretched  across  the  river  passes  through 
rings  or  over  pulleys  attached  to  the  barge,  and  the 
ferrjTuen  move  the  barge  across  by  pulling  the 
rope.  The  chief  advantage  of  the  rope  is  to  restrain 
the  barge  from  drifting  in  tlie  direction  of  the 
stream.  With  a  small  boat,  this  is  obviated  by 
the  ferryman  rowing  obliquely,  as  though  he  were 
steering  for  a  point  higher  up  the  river  ;  thus  he 
moves  through  the  water  upwards  to  the  same 
extent  that  the  water  moves  over  the  land  down- 
wards ;  and  by  a  composition  of  these  motions,  and 
his  tending  to  the  other  side,  he  is  carried  directly 
across.  Broad  estuaries  are  now  traversed  in  many 
places  by  steam-ferry. 

Bafts  are  sometimes  used  for  ferrying.  On  the 
Kile,  a  sort  of  raft  is  made  of  inverted  earthen-pots 
full  of  air.  For  further  information  on  the  crossing 
of  rivers,  see  Fords  and  Fording. 

Flying-hridge  is  the  name  given  to  a  kind  of 
ferry-boat  which  is  moved  across  a  river  by  the 
action  of  the  combined  forces  of  the  stream  and  the 
resistance  of  a  long  rope  or  chain  made  fast  to  a 
fixed  buoy  in  the  middle  of  the  river.  The  boat 
thus  attached  is  made  to  take  an  oblique  position 
by  means  of  the  rudder;  the  stream  then  acting 
against  the  side,  tends  to  move  it  in  a  direc- 
tion at  right  angles  to  its  length,  while  the  rope 
exerts  a  force  in  the  direction  towards  the  buoy. 
If  these  two  forces  be  represented  by  the  sides 
of  a  parallelogram,  the  actual  coarse  of  the  boat 
woiild  be  in  the  direction  of  the  diagonal  (see 
CoMPOsi-noN  AND  Besolutjon  of  Forces)  ;  but  as 
the  length  of  the  rope  remains  the  same,  the  boat 
must  continue  always  at  the  same  distance  from 
the  buoy,  and  therefore  its  course  is  a  curve,  a 
portion  of  a  circle,  of  which  the  buoy  is  the  centre, 
and  ''he  rope  the  radius.  The  course  of  the  boat 
and  the  action  of  the  two  forces  are  strictly  analo- 
gous to  the  path  of  a  rising  kite,  and  to  the  forces 
of  which  this  path  is  the  resultant.  The  holder  of 
the  kite  corresponds  to  the  buoy,  the  wand  to  the 
tidal  stream,  and  the  tail  to  the  iiidder.  Flying- 
cridges  are  used  for  miHtary  purposes,  and  the 
modes  of  adapting  them  to  the  varying  circum- 
stances of  the  width  of  rivers  and  the  velocity  of 
their  currents,  forms  a  part  of  the  study  of  mili- 
tary engineering.  An  important  element  in  the 
problem,  is  the  determination  of  the  right  point  of 
attachment  for  the  rope.  In  the  case  of  a  wide 
river,  the  rope  or  chain  requires  ^o  be  of  consider- 
able length,  and  miist  be  supported  by  movable 
buojrs  or  by  small  boats. 

FERTILISA'TION  OF  PLANTS.  See  Fecun- 
dation. 

FESA,  or  FASA,  a  town  of  Persia,  in  the  province 
of  Fars,  80  miles  soxith-east  of  Shiraz,  is  situated  in 
a  mountain  defile,  is  of  considerable  size,  and  is  said 
ir\  have  a  pojmlation  of  18,000.  It  has  manufac- 
tares  of  silken,  woollen,  and  cotton  fabrics,  and 


some  trade  in  a  superior  kind  of  tobacco  which  ia 
grown  in  the  vicinity. 

FE'SCENNINE  VERSES,  a  brancn  of  the 
indigenous  poetry  of  ancient  Italy,  were  a  sort  of 
dialogues  in  rude  extempore  verses,  generally  in 
Saturnine  measure,  in  which  the  parties  rallied 
and  ridiculed  one  another.  It  formed  a  favourite 
amusement  of  the  country-people  on  festive  occa- 
sions, especially  at  the  conclusion  of  harvest  and  at 
weddings.  As  was  to  be  expected,  it  often  degene- 
rated into  licentiousness,  that  at  last  required  the 
curb  of  the  law.  The  Fescenniue  verses  are  usually 
considered  to  be  of  Etruscan  origin,  and  to  have 
derived  their  name  from  the  Etrurian  town  Fescen- 
nium ;  but  there  is  little  probability  in  this  ety- 
mology. Verses  of  this  sort  were  and  are  popular 
to  this  day  all  over  Italy.  The  name  is  more  likely 
connected  with  fascinum,  fascination,  enchantmeni;, 
or  the  evil  eye,  against  w^hich  the  chanting  of 
verses  may  have  originally  been  intended  as  a 
protection. 

FESCUE  {Festuca),  a  genus  of  grasses,  very 
nearly  allied  to  Brome-grass  (q.  v.),  and  having  in 
some  species  a  loose,  in  some  a  contracted  panicle ; 
the  spikelets  many-flowered,  with  two  unequal 
ghimes,  which  they  much  exceed  in  length ;  each 
floret  having  two  lanceolate  palese,  the  outer  palea 
rounded  at  the  back,  and  acuminate  or  awned  at  the 
summit ;  the  stigmas  growing  from  the  apex  of  the 
germen.    The  species  are  numerous,  and  are  very 


Fescue  Grass  {Fcstuca  pratensis) ; 

o,  germen  and  etigmas  ;  b,  a  spikelet. 

widely  diffused  over  the  world,  both  in  the  northern 
and  southern  hemispheres.  Among  them  are  many 
of  the  most  valuable  pasture  and  fodder  grasses. 
None  are  more  valuable  than  some  of  the  British 
species. — Me^vdow  F.  (F.  j^ratensis),  a  species  with 
spreading  panicle  and  linear  spikelets,  from  two  to 
three  feet  high,  common  in  moist  meadows  and 
pastures  of  rich  soil,  in  Britain  and  throughout 
Europe,  in  Northern  Asia,  and  in  some  parts  of 
North  America,  is  perhaps  excelled  by  no  meadow 
or  pasture  grass  whatever.    It  ia  suitable  both  fo; 

2iu 


PESS— FESTIVALS. 


fclfcjmate  husbandry  and  for  permanent  i)asture. — 
•St  :kei>  F.  {F.  loliacea)  —  hy  many  botanists  regarded 
as  a  variety  of  Meadow  F.,  althougb  it  departs  from 
the  bal)it  of  the  genns  in  having  the  branches  of 
the  f»aiiicle  reduced  to  a  single  s})ikelet,  and  forming 
a  two-rowed  raceme  or  spike — is  regarded  as  an 
excellent  grass  for  rich  moist  meadows. — Hard  F., 
{F.  dui  iuftcula),  a  grass  fiom  one  foot  and  a  half  to 
two  feet  high,  with  a  somewhat  contracted  panicle, 
mostly  on  one  side,  is  one  of  the  best  grasses  for 
lawns  and  sheep-jiastures,  particularly  on  dry  or 
Bandy  soils.  Several  varieties  are  known  to  seeds- 
men and  farmers. — Creei'INO  F.  or  IIku  F.  [F. 
rubra)  is  probably  a  mere  variety  of  Hard  F.,  being 
distinguished  chicHy  by  its  extensively  creeping 
root,  which  i)articularly  adapt  it  to  sandy  })astures, 
and  to  |)lac'^s  liable  to  occasional  inundations. — 
Shf.kp's  F.  {F.  ovhut)  is  a  smaller  grass  than  any  of 
these,  not  generally  exceeding  a  foot  in  height,  and 
often  much  less,  abundant  in  mountainous  pastures, 
and  especially  suital)le  for  such  situations,  in  which 
it  often  forms  a  principal  ])art  of  the  food  of  slieep 
for  many  months  of  the  year.  It  is  common  in  all 
the  mountainous  parts  of  Europe,  and  in  the  Hima- 
laya, it  is  also  a  native  of  North  America,  and 
species  very  similar,  if  not  mere  varieties,  aljound  in 
the  southern  hemisphere.  Its  habit  of  growth  is 
much  tufted. — Tall  F.  {F.  tlatior)  is  a  grass  of 
very  dillerent  ai)pearance,  four  or  five  feet  high, 
with  si)reading  much  branched  panicle,  growing 
chiefly  near  rivers  and  in  moist  low  grounds,  and 
yielding  a  great  quantity  of  coarse  herbage,  which, 
however,  is  relished  by  cattle. — Of  foreign  species, 
which  have  been  introduced  into  Britain,  F.  .hdero- 
phylla  best  desei'ves  notice,  a  tall  species  with 
narrow  root-leaves,  and  broad  leaves  on  the  culm  ; 
a  native  of  France  and  other  parts  of  the  continent 
of  Europe,  and  pretty  extensively  cultivated  in  some 
countries,  particularly  the  Netherlands. — All  these 
species  are  perennial. — Some  small  annual  species 
occasionally  form  a  considerable  part  of  the  pasture 
in  dry  sandy  soils,  b\it  are  never  sown  by  the 
farmer. — A  Peruvian  species  (F.  quadridetitata), 
called  Picfonil  in  its  native  country,  and  there  used 
for  thatch,  is  said  to  be  poisonous  to  cattle. 

FESS.  The  fess  in  heraldry  consists  of  lines 
drawn  horizontally  across  the  shield,  and  containing 
the  third  part  of  it,  between  the  honour  point  and 
the  nombril.  It  is  one  of  the  honourable  ordinaries, 
and  is  supposed  to  represent  the  waist-belt  or  girdle 
of  honour,  which  was  one  of  the  insignia  of  knight- 
hood. 

Per  Fess. — A  shield,  or  charge  in  a  shield,  is 
said  to  be  party  per  fess,  when  it  is  horizontally 
divided  through  the  middle,  or,  as  the  French  say, 
simply  cotipe. 

Fesswise  is  said  of  a  charge  placed  in  fess ; 
that  is  to  say,  horizontally  across  the  shield. 

FE'SSLER,  Ignaz.  Aurelris,  a  celebrated  Hxm- 
garian  historian,  was  born  in  1756,  in  the  county 
of  Soprony  or  Oedenburg.  During  a  long  life  full 
of  adventures,  F.  served  successively  the  Emperor 
Joseph  [I.,  the  King  of  Prussia,  and  the  Emperor  of 
Russia ;  and  also  held  the  office  of  Professor  of 
Oriental  Languages  at  different  universities.  He 
died  at  St  Petersburg  15th  December  1839.  Among 
his  woiks  of  a  lasting  value  are — Attila  (Breslau, 
1794),  Mathias  Corvinus  (2  vols.  1793;  2d  edition, 
1806,  Breslau),  and  the  History  of  the  Hungarians, 
&c.  {Oeschichte  der  Unrjern  und  deren  Landsassen, 
10  vols.,  Leip.  1812 — 1825).  His  autobiogra])hy, 
untitled  Recollections  of  my  70  Years'  Pilgrimage 
[Ruckhlicke  auf  me'ine  70  jdhrige  Pilgerscha/l,  Breslau, 
)826  ;  2d  edit.  Leip.  1851),  is  also  a  very  interesting 
work.  Deep  learning,  coupled  with  a  rare  beauty 
3(VJ 


of  style,  render  F.'s  works  (all  written  in  German) 
attractive  in  the  highest  degree. 

FE'STIVAL  PLAYS.  See  Morai  ities,  Miracle 
Plays,  Mysteries. 

FE'STIVALS,  or  FEASTS  {Lnt.  festiim,  probably 
from  the  same  root  as  fast  (q.  v.) ;  according  to  some, 
from  Gr.  hestia,  hearth),  a  term  denoting  certain 
periodically  recurring  days  and  seasons  set  aside  by 
a  community  for  rest  from  the  ordinary  labour  of 
life,  and  more  or  less  hallowed  by  religious  solem- 
nities. Originating  within  the  narrow  circle  of  the 
family,  and  commemorating  momentous  events  affect- 
ing one  member  or  all,  these  pauses  became  more 
frequent,  and  of  "wider  scope,  as  the  house  gradually 
expanded  into  a  tribe,  a  people,  a  state.  The  real 
or  imaginary  founders,  legislators,  heroes,  became 
objects  of  veneration  and  deification,  and  the  salient 
ei)ochs  of  their  lives  the  consecrated  ei)ochs  of  the 
year.  National  calamities  or  triumphs  were,  in  the 
absence  of  annals,  best  remembered  by  corresponding 
general  days  of  humiliation  or  exultation.  Earliest 
of  all,  however,  did  the  marked  stages  in  the  onward 
march  of  nature  :  s])ring  and  autumn,  seed-time  and 
harvest-time— symbols  of  life  and  death  ;  the  sol- 
stices— turning-points  of  summer  and  winter  ;  the 
new  moon  and  the  full  moon  ;  the  termination  of 
cycles  of  moons  and  cycles  of  years,  i)resent  them- 
selves as  opportune  halting- j)Iaces  for  man  himself. 
No  less  were  the  all-important  periodical  rises  of 
fertilising  rivers,  and  the  anniversaries  of  importa- 
tions and  inventions  of  new  implements  for  the 
better  cultivation  of  the  soil,  or  tending  of  the  flocks, 
belittingly  celebrated.  The  inherent  human  tendency 
towards  referring  all  things  of  graver  import,  life 
and  death,  abundance  and  want,  victory  and  defeat, 
to  a  higher  power,  could  not  but  infuse  a  religious 
feeling  into  epochs  so  marked.  Fostered  and  guided 
by  i)riests  and  lawgivers,  this  property  of  our  nature 
erelong  found  its  expression  in  common  sacriflces, 
prayers,  and  ceremonies,  consecrated  to  the  various 
superior  and  minor  deities  who  presided  over  and 
inhabited  the  elements  of  the  visible  and  invisiblo 
creation,  and  who,  working  all  the  changes  within 
them,  acted,  each  in  his  sphere,  as  a  partial  pro\-i- 
dence  over  man.  .  According  to  the  event  which 
called  them  forth,  these  festivals  were  mournful  or 
joyoiis,  jubilant  or  expiatory.  Even  when  sorrow 
was  to  be  expressed,  the  mortification  of  the  body 
did  not  always  suffice,  but  plays,  songs,  dances,  and 
processions  full  of  boisterous  mirth,  were  resorted 
to — as  in  the  festivals  of  Isis  at  Busiris,  of  Mars 
at  Papremis,  in  the  Adonia  of  Egypt,  Phoenicia,  and 
Greece — because  the  divine  AiNTath  or  sorrow  was, 
like  that  of  man,  to  be  changed  into  satisfaction. 
Besides  the  relation  betw^een  the  common  tutelary 
deity  and  those  he  protected,  the  bond  also  by 
which  the  otherwise  disconnected  members  of  the 
body  politic  were  held  together  was,  by  means  of 
these  festive  gatherings,  periodically  brought  in 
view,  and  invested  with  gi-eater  strength  and 
importance.  Apart,  however,  from  this  their  his- 
torical, astronomical,  religious,  and  political  end, 
festivals  served  another  purjjose — that  of  growing 
civilisation.  It  was  the  glowing  spirit  of  emulation 
which,  stimulating  the  gifted  in  mind  and  body  to 
strive  for  the  festive  laurel  in  contests  of  genius  and 
skill,  in  honour  of  the  gods,  and  in  the  face  of  all 
the  peoi)le,  matured  all  that  was  noble  and  brilliant 
within  the  community.  Archaic  rudeness  and  rustic 
extravagance  became  refined  grace  and  classic  har- 
mony. The  stirring  drama,  the  glorious  anthem, 
the  melodious  dance,  the  elegant  game,  which 
accompanied  the  festive  sacrifice  of  some  nations 
at  their  highest  stage  of  development,  had  arisen 
out  of   those  very  mimicnes  and   shouts,  rude 


FESTIVALS. 


and  savage  beyond  expression,  of  generations  not 
*ong  before  them.  Enthusiastic,  wikl,  metaphysical 
Egypt  i/ivested  the  countless  days  consecrated  to 
her  deified  stars,  plants,  animals,  and  ideas  ;  to  the 
Nile,  to  Ammon,  Kneph,  Menes,  Osiris ;  to  Horus, 
to  Neitha,  to  Ptah,  with  a  mystery,  sensuality, 
and  mournfulness  always  exaggerated,  sometimes 
monstrous.  The  Hindu,  no  longer  daring  to  offer 
human  sacrifices,  shews  his  odd  and  cruel  mate- 
rialism by  throwing  into  the  waves,  on  his  festival 
of  rivers,  some  of  his  costliest  goods,  gold,  jewels, 
garments,  and  instruments  ;  while  in  the  licentious- 
ness and  debaucheries  perpetrated  on  the  festival  of 
Shiva,  the  god  of  procreation,  or  on  the  Bacchantics 
of  the  goddess  Bliavani,  he  exceeds  even  those  of 
the  Eg^'jitians  on  their  Neitha  feasts  at  Bubastis, 
and  the  Greek  worship  of  Venus  in  her  Cy|)i-ian 
groves.  Phoenicians  and  Assyrians,  Babylonians 
and  Phrygians,  according  to  the  little  we  know  of 
their  religions  and  manners,  appear  to  have  feasted, 
thanked,  propitiated,  mourned  all  at  different  times, 
and  in  the  way  most  befitting  their  several  natures, 
even  in  the  case  of  those  gods  and  festivals  which 
thoy  had  in  common. 

The  ancient  Persians  alone  of  all  nations  had  no 
festivals,  as  they  had  no  temples  and  no  common 
worship.  These  '  Puritans  of  Polytheism,'  who 
worshipped  the  sun  only,  and  his  representative 
on  earth,  fire,  scorned  show  and  pomp,  and  large 
religious  gatherings.  A  striking  contrast  to  them 
is  formed,  in  another  hemisphere,  by  the  ancient 
Mexicans,  who  M'ere  found  to  possess  one  of  the 
most  richly  developed  calendars  of  festivals,  scien- 
tifically divided  into  movable  and  immovable  feasts. 
As  a  strange  and  singidar  phenomenon  among 
festivals,  we  may  also  mention  here  that  '  of  the 
Dead  or  Souls,'  celebrated  among  the  wild  tribes  of 
North  America.  At  a  certain  time,  all  the  graves 
are  emptied,  and  the  remains  of  the  bodies  buried 
since  the  last  festival  are  taken  out  by  the  relatives, 
«ind  thrown  together  into  a  large  common  mound, 
amid  great  rejoicings  and  solemnities,  to  which  aU 
the  neighbouring  tribes  are  invited. 

Greece  had  received  the  types  of  civilisation, 
religion,  and  art  from  Egypt  and  the  East  generally, 
but  she  developed  them  all  in  a  manner  befitting  her 
glorious  clime  and  the  joyous  genius  of  her  sons. 
At  the  time  of  the  Iliad,  two  principal  festivals 
only — the  harvest  and  the  vintage — seem  to  have 
been  celebrated  (ix.  250)  ;  but  they  increased  with 
Buch  rapidity,  that  in  the  days  of  Pericles  they  had 
reached  the  number  of  a  thousand ;  some  indeed 
being  an  epitome  only  of  their  memorable  feats 
of  arms,  others  restricted  to  one  town,  or  pro- 
vince, or  profession,  or  sex,  or  to  a  few  initiated, 
or  recurring  only  at  intervals  of  several  years ; 
but  there  were  still  so  many  kept  by  the  whole 
people,  that  ancient  writers  bitterly  denounce 
them  as  merry  beginnings  of  a  sad  end,  as  the 
slow  but  sure  ruin  of  the  commonwealth.  Their 
forebodings  proved  true  enough;  and  yet  Greece 
would  certainly  never  have  reached  the  highest 
place  among  nations,  as  far  as  hterature,  the  arts, 
and  philosophy  are  concerned,  had  it  not  been 
for  the  constant  contests  attached  to  her  many 
festivals.  She  resisted  Asia,  because  her  citizens 
were  always  alert,  always  ready.  The  religious 
part  of  the  festival — homage  offered  to  personifie<l 
ideas — consisted  mostly  in  the  carrying  about  of  the 
deity  of  the  day  to  the  sound  of  flute,  lyre,  and 
hymns,  and  in  a  sacrifice,  followed  by  a  general 
meal  upon  certain  portions  of  the  animal  offered. 
Then  followed  scenic  re])resentations  symbolising 
the  deeds  of  the  gods ;  after  which  came  games  and 
matches  of  all  kinds — foot,  horse,  and  chariot  races, 
leaving,  boxing,  throwing,  wrestKng,  &c.  Separate 


accounts  are  given  of  some  of  the  more  rem nrkable 
Greek  festivals.  See  Bacchus,  Eleusinian  Mys- 
teries, Panathen^A,  &c.  There  were  also  special 
times  set  aside  for  the  'Holy  Games'  proper.  The 
most  important  of  these  were  the  Olymjjian,  the 
Pythian,  the  Nemean,  and  the  Isthmian.  (See  these 
heads.)  As  all  these  festivities  were  provided  out  of 
the  public  purse — from  the  confiscated  estates  of  the 
'tyrants'  and  political  delinquents — the  individual 
did  not  suffer  more  than  a  welcome  interruption  of 
his  usual  business,  and  under  that  genial  sky  the 
penalty  to  be  paid  for  occasional  indolence  was  not 
too  heavy. 

Home,  founded  amid  pastoral  festivities  in  honour 
of  some  god  Pales,  adopted  and  acclimatised,  as 
she  went  on  from  conquest  to  conquest,  the  foreign 
deities,  exactly  as,  with  her  usual  prudence  and 
practical  sense,  she  coufeiTcd  her  right  of  citizenship 
on  her  foreign  inhabitants,  and  on  whole  nationa 
subjected  to  her  rule.  Her  yoke  was  thus  less 
galling  to  the  new  provinces,  while  at  the  same 
time  the  populace  at  home  found  sufficient  dis- 
traction in  the  many  ancient  and  newly  imported 
festivals,  with  their  quaint  rites  and  gorgeous 
pageantry.  Yet  the  Komans — more  parsimonious 
and  abstract  by  nature  than  the  vivacious  Greek 
neighbours  from  whom  they  had  accepted  the 
greatest  part  of  their  religion — never  exceeded  in 
their  festivals  the  number  of  one  hundred,  and  in 
these,  again,  a  distinct  line  was  drawn  between  civil 
and  religious  ones.  Some  of  the  principal  religious 
festivals  were  the  Sementinse,  on  the  25th  of  January 
— the  rural  festival  of  the  seed-time ;  the  Lupercalia, 
in  honour  of  Pan ;  the  Cerealia ;  the  night  festival 
of  the  Bona  Dea ;  Matronalia ;  Minervalia  ;  &c.  To 
the  purely  civil  ones  belong  the  Janualia,  the  1st 
of  January  and  the  new-year's  daj",  when  the  new 
consuls  entered  upon  their  office,  and  fi-iends  used  to 
send  presents  (strence)  to  each  other;  the  Quirinalia, 
in  memory  of  Romulus,  deified  under  the  name  of 
Quirinus;  and  the  Saturnalia,  in  remembrance  of 
the  golden  age  of  Saturn,  beginning  on  the  19th  of 
December.  The  celebration  of  these  festivals  was 
in  all  respects  imitated  from  the  Greeks,  with  this 
difference  only,  that  the  games  connected  with  them 
became,  with  the  pre-eminently  bellicose  Romans, 
terribly  lifelike  images  of  war.  Their  sham  sea- 
fights;  ,their  pitched  battles  between  horse  and  foot, 
between  wild  beasts  and  men ;  their  so-called  Trojan 
games,  executed  by  the  flower  of  the  nobility ;  their 
boxing-matches  (with  gloves  that  had  lead  and  iron 
sewed  into  them):  circus,  arena,  and  amphitheatre 
gave,  especially  in  later  times,  the  greater  satisfac- 
tion the  greater  the  number  of  victims. 

It  is  one  thing  only  that  monotheism  has  in 
common  with  polytheism  with  respect  to  its  festi- 
vals— namely,  that  they  are  vidth  each  the  religious 
expression  of  human  joy  or  human  sorrow.  But  if 
the  former,  with  a  dim  misgiving  of  some  awful 
and  supreme  power,  invited  the  multifarious  gover- 
nors of  the  many  provinces  of  natm-e  to  partake, 
as  guests,  of  bodily  and  intellectual  feasts,  together 
with  their  hosts;  monotheism,  in  binding  up  all 
fear  and  all  hope,  all  gratitude  and  all  awe,  which 
moved  the  heart  of  man,  in  one  almighty  Creator, 
Mover,  and  Maintainer  of  all  things,  celebrated  it« 
festivals  in  honour  of  this  omnipresent  Spirit  with 
a  veneration,  a  purity,  and  a  lofty  elevation,  such 
as  the  worshippers  of  star,  ai.imal,  or  image  never 
knew.  With  the  first  and  stiictest  monotheists,  the 
Hebrews,  whose  very  existence  as  a  nation  was 
traced  to  the  special  and  miracidous  interference  of 
this  highest  and  only  God,  the  remembrance  of  that 
great  event,  their  liberation  from  Egypt,  and  the 
momentous  period  of  preparation  in  the  desert  which 
followed  it,  minglod  -with  almost  aU  their  religious 


FESTIVALS. 


observances,  and  especially  their  festivals,  and  infused 
into  them  all  a  tone  of  deep  and  fervent  gratitude ; 
while  at  the  same  time  it  held  ever  before  their 
eyes  the  cause  of  their  nationality,  and  their  aim 
and  destiny  '  to  be  a  kingdom  of  priests  and  a  holy 
peop.'e.'  The  Hebrew  festivals,  too,  are  of  a  historical, 
agricultural,  astronomical,  and  political  nature;  but 
they  mostly  combine  all  these  characteristics,  and 
are  always  hallowed  by  the  same  religious  idea,  and 
the  same  piety  and  devotion  to  one  and  the  same 
holy  name.  Connected  with  their  festivals  were 
no  plays  and  no  representations  of  a  god's  deeds,  no 
games  and  no  cnielty,  no  mystery  and  no  sensuality, 
but  the  sacrifice  of  the  day,  and  a  special  occupation 
with  the  divine  law,  were  the  visible  signs  of  the 
exalted  seasons.  The  influence  of  the  number  seven 
— an  influence  met  with  among  most  eastern  nations 
— is  seen  in  the  recurrence  of  many  of  the  Jewish 
solemnities.  See  Seven.  The  Sabbath,  the  first 
and  most  important  of  tlicse  septenary  festivals,  is 
trcivted  of  under  its  own  head.  Of  the  serxace  in 
the  temple,  and  of  the  way  in  wdiich  this  and  the 
other  festivals  were  and  are  kept  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  temple,  something  will  ])e  said  under 
Hebrews  and  Jews.  The  most  exalted  of  new- 
moon  festivals  was  that  of  the  first  day  of  tlie  seventh 
month,  'the  day  of  remembrance  of  the  sounding' 
or  '  of  tnunpcts '  (Lev.  xxiii.  24),  to  which  in  later 
times,  when  the  Seleucidian  era  was  introduced  (the 
Syi'ian  year  beginning  with  the  autumnal  equinox), 
the  name  of  Ilosh  hashana  (New  Year)  was  given ; 
notwithstanding  that  in  Exodus  (xii.  2)  Nisan  is 
spoken  of  as  the  first  month  of  the  year.  After  a 
period  of  six  years  of  labour,  the  earth,  too,  was  to 
celebrate  a  Sabbath-year ;  what  it  produced  sponta- 
neously belonged  to  the  poor,  the  stranger,  and  to 
animals.  It  is  remarkable  that  even  Alexander  the 
Great  and  Cresar  remitted  the  taxes  of  Judea  in  this 
year  of  Shemitta  (abandoning).  After  a  revolution  of 
seven  times  seven  years,  the  year  of  Jubilee  or  Jobel 
was  to  be  celebrated,  in  w^hich  all  the  Hebrew  slaves 
were  set  free,  and  all  land  which  had  been  sold  in 
the  interval  was  restored  to  the  former  oAvners,  in 
order  that  the  original  equilibrium  in  the  families 
and  tribes  should  be  maintained  intact.  (These  two 
festivals,  however,  were,  according  to  the  Talmud, 
not  kept  before  the  Babylonian  captivity.)  The 
pre-eminently  agronomical  and  histoaical  festivals 
were  the  three  Char/gim  (whence  the  Arab.  Ilagg, 
a  pilgrim  to  Mecca) — \dz.,  Pesach  (Passover),  Scha- 
buoth  (Feast  of  Weeks),  and  Succoth  (Feast  of 
Tabernacles),  on  which  three  every  male  was 
obliged  to  go  up  to  Jerusalem  and  ofler  some  of 
the  first  fruits,  besides  the  prescribed  sacrifices 
(see  Passover,  &c.). 

The  postmosaic  and  exclusively  historical  festivals, 
Purim,  the  feast  of  Haman,  Chanuca,  the  feast  of 
the  Maccabees,  will  be  noticed  in  the  article  on 
Jews. 

Only  a  cursory  glance  can  be  here  taken  of  the 
Christian  festivals,  which  are  treated  fully  and 
separately  under  their  various  names.  They  were 
for  the  most  part  grafted,  in  the  course  of  time, 
upon  the  Jewish  and  Pagan  ones,  but  always  with 
a  distinct  reference  to  Christ  and  other  holy  person- 
ages. The  weekly  day  of  rest  was  transferred  from 
Saturday  to  Sunday,  and  called  the  Day  of  J oy,  or 
Resurrection,  just  as  the  weekly  Jewish  fasts  of 
Monday  and  Thm-sday  were  changed  for  Wednesday 
and  Friday.  See  Fasts.  For  a  long  time,  both 
Saturday  and  Sunday  were  celebrated,  especially  in 
the  East.  Two  sei)arate  celebrations  took  the  place 
of  the  Jewish  Passover  :  the  Pascha  Staurosimon 
was  the  festival  of  the  Death,  the  Pascha  Anasiasi- 
mon  of  the  Resurrection  of  our  Lord  (see  Eastkr)  ; 
and  the  festival      Pentecost,  or  the  law-giving  at 


Sinai,  became  the  festival  of  the  oiitpoarinff  of  th« 
Holy  Ghost  and  of  the  inauguration  of  the  New 
Covenant. 

In  the  course  of  the  4th  c.,  two  new  festivals  were 
introduced:  Epiphany  (q.  v.),  which  originated  in 
the  East ;  and  that  of  the  Nativity  or  Christmas 
(q.  v.).  Circimacision,  Corpus  D.^niiui,  the  festivals 
of  the  Cross,  of  Transfiguration,  the  Trinity,  and 
many  others,  are  of  still  later  date  The  veneration 
felt  for  Mary  as  the  'Mother  of  God,'  found  its 
expression  likewise  in  the  consecration  of  many 
days  to  her  special  service  and  worship;  such  aa 
that  of  her  Presentation,  Annunciation  (Lady's 
Day),  Assumption,  Visitation,  Immaculate  Concep- 
tion (q.  v.),  and  many  minor  festivals,  over  and 
above  the  Saturdays,  which  in  some  parts  were 
entirely  dedicated  to  her,  in  order  that  the  Mother 
might  have  her  weekly  day  like  the  Son.  Besides 
these,  there  were  festivals  of  Angels,  of  Aj)ostle3, 
Saints,  Martyrs  (on  the  supposed  anniversary  of 
their  death,  called  their  birthday,  dies  natalin),  of 
Soids,  Ordinations,  &c. 

Celebrated  at  first  with  all  the  primitive  simplicity 
of  genuine  piety,  most  of  these  festivals  were  ere  long 
invested  with  such  pomp  and  splendoiu-  that  the;; 
surpassed  those  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans. 
Burlesque,  even  coarse  and  profane  representations, 
I)rocessions,  mysteries,  and  night-services,  were,  in 
some  places,  although  unauthorised  by  the  general 
church,  connected  with  them,  and  voices  within  the 
church  loudly  denounced  these  'pagan  practices.' 
Ordinances  forbidding  mundane  music  and  female 
singers  for  divane  service  were  issued,  the  vigils 
were  transformed  into  fasts,  days  of  abstinence  and 
penance  were  instituted,  partly  as  counterpoises, 
but  with  little  residt.  Nor  did  the  prodigious 
increase  of  these  festive  occasions,  and  the  rigour 
with  which  abstinence  from  labour  was  enforced  in 
most  cases,  fail  to  produce  the  natural  residts  of 
indolence  and  licentiousness  among  the  large  mass 
of  the  people.  Bitter  and  frequent  were  the  com- 
plaints throughout  Christendom ;  but  although  even 
men  like  Archbishop  Simon  of  Canterbury  (1332), 
Petrus  de  Alliaco,  Nicolaus  of  Clemangis,  did  theii 
utmost  to  obtain  a  reduction  of  these  festive  occa- 
sions, which  overspread  well-nigh  the  whole  year,  it 
was  only  after  the  most  decided  and  threatening 
demands,  such  as  that  pronounced  by  the  Gcrmjin 
Diet  of  NUrnberg  in  1522,  that  Pope  Urban  was 
prevailed  upon  to  reduce  the  niimber  for  Catholio 
Christianity  (1G42).  Benedict  XIV.  (1742),  Clement 
XIV.  (1773),  followed  in  the  same  direction.  On 
the  change  produced  both  in  their  niimber  and  in 
the  manner  of  their  celebration  through  the  Reforma- 
tion, we  must  forbear  to  enlarge  here. 

The  Christian  festivals  have  been  divided  vari- 
ously :  into  ferice  statutce  (returning  annually  at  fixed 
times),  indictee  (extraordinary,  specially  proclaimed), 
duplicia  (double  reminiscence,  or  of  higher  import- 
ance), semidupUcia  (half  double),  &c.  Another 
division  is  into  weekly  and  yearly  feasts,  these  lattei 
being  subdivided  into  greater  and  minor,  or  into 
movable  and  immovable.  There  is  also  a  distinction 
made  between  integri  (whole  days),  iutercisi  (half- 
days),  &c. 

The  only  trace  of  the  ancient  manner  of  dating  a 
festival  from  the  eve  or  vesper  of  the  previous  day 
— a  practice  discontinued  since  the  12th  c,  when 
the  old  Roman  way  of  coimting  the  day  from 
midnight  to  midnight  was  reintroduced — survives  in 
the  '  ringing  in '  of  certain  days  of  special  solemnity 
on  the  night  before,  and  in  the  fasts  of  the  vigils. 

On  some  of  the  principal  Mohammedan  festivals, 
partly  based  upon  those  of  the  Jews  and  Christiana, 
such  as  the  weekly  Friday,  the  Yom  Ashoora  (the 
Jewish  Day  of  Atonement),  the  Birthday  of  the 


FESTOON— FEU  AND  FEU-DUTY. 


Prophet  (Molid  An-Nebee),  that  of  Hussein,  of 
Mohammed's  gi-anddaughter  Zeyneb,  of  the  Night 
of  the  Prophet's  Ascension  to  Heaven  (Leylet  Al- 
Mearag),  the  Night  of  the  MidtUe  of  the  month 
Shaaban,  in  which  the  fate  of  every  man  is  con- 
firmed for  the  ensiling  year ;  the  Eed  Al-Shagheer 
or  Ramadan-Bejrram,  at  the  end  of  the  Eamadan 
fasts,  and  the  Eed  Al-Kabir,  or  the  great  festival 
of  the  Sacrifice  (Kurban  Beyram),  see  Moham- 
TVIEDANISM.  For  further  information,  see  Herodotus 
(ii.  60) ;  Pkitarch  (vii.) ;  Strabo  (vi.  and  x.)  ;  Ovid, 
Fasti;  Macrobius,  Sat.  i.  7,  11  ;  Meursius,  Grcecia 
Feriata ;  Meiners,  Geschichte  d,  Eeltg. ;  Fasold, 
lerolorjia ;  Bible ;  Mishna ;  Gemara ;  Shulchan 
Aruch  ;  Josephus  ;  Philo  ;  Maimonides  ;  Biixtorf, 
Lex.  Talm.  ;  Synag.  Jud. ;  Bartolocci,  Bibl.  Bcd)h.  ; 
Lightfoot, i/^or.  Hebi'.  and  Talm.;  Lund,  Bibl.  Hebr.; 
Wette,  Archceologie ;  Neander,  Hid.  of  the  Ch.; 
Blackmore,  Christ.  Antiq. ;  Baumgarten,  Erldute- 
rung  d.  chr.  Alterth.;  Siegel,  Handb.  d.  chr.  AUerth.; 
Mai,  Discorsi  di  Argomento  Bd'tgioso  ;  Koran,  &c. 

FESTOO'N,  in  Architecture,  a  scidptured  wreath 
of  flowers  or  fruit,  frequently  used  as  an  ornament 
in  Poman  and  renaissance  buildings.  Like  many  of 
the  other  ornaments  of  classic  architecture,  it  owes 
its  origin  to  one  of  the  sacrificial  emblems,  viz.  the 


Festoon : 
St  Mark's  Library,  Venice. 

fiowers  with  which  the  heads  of  the  animals,  the 
altars,  &c.,  used  to  be  decorated.  The  festoon 
occurs  along  with  bulls'  heads  on  the  frieze  of  the 
temple  of  Vesta  at  Tivoli.  The  fig.  is  an  example  of 
a  renaissance  festoon,  from  the  library  of  St  JNIark 
at  Venice. 

FE'STUS,  Sextus  Pompeius,  a  Latin  lexico- 
grapher, of  the  third  or  fourth  c.  of  our  era,  is  one 
of  the  most  important  ancient  authorities  we  have 
on  the  Latin  language.  He  made  an  epitome  of  the 
great  work  of  Verrius  Flaccus,  De  Verborum  Slg- 
nificatione.  This  compilation,  which  was  arranged 
alphabetically  in  20  books,  was  still  further  abridged 
and  spoiled  in  the  end  of  the  8th  c.  by  Paul,  son 
of  Warnefried,  commonly  called  Paulus  Diaconus. 
The  great  work  of  Flaccus  has  unfortunately  entirely 
perished,  and  of  the  abridgment  made  by  Festus, 
only  a  single  MS.,  and  that  in  a  deijlorably  imper- 
fect condition,  has  survived.  It  came  from  Illyria, 
and  fell  mto  the  hands  of  Pomponius  Ltetus,  a 
distinguish*^d  scholar  of  the  15th  century.  It  ulti- 
mately passed  into  the  library  of  Cardinal  Farnese, 
at  Parma,  and  is  now  preserved  at  Naples.  The  work, 
in  spite  of  all  its  imperfections,  is  a  grand  storehouse 
of  knowledge  on  points  of  mythology,  grammar,  and 
ftn  tiqiiities.  All  previous  editions  of  F.  are  of  little 
vahie  compared  with  that  of  K.  0.  Mliller  (Gott. 
1839),  in  which  he  has  made  use  of  the  Farnese  MS. 
and  other  sources,  distinguishing  the  value  of  each. 

FE'TICHISM  is  the  worship  of  a  fetich.  The 
word  fetich  comes  to  us  from  the  Portuguese,  who 
were  the  first  Europeans  that  traded  on  the  west 
coast  of  Africa,  and  who  expressed  their  idea  of  the 
rehgion  of, the  natives  by  the  Portuguese  word 
feitiQao,  'magic'  This  word,  somewhat  modified, 
passed  into  the  French  langua(;e,  through  Brosse's 
treatise,  Du  CvXte  des  Dievac  Fetiches  (Dijon,  1760), 


and  from  him  into  German,  through  the  medium  ol 
Pistorius  (Stralsuntl,  1785).  The  term  has  now 
received  European  recognition.  A  fetich  is  any 
thing  in  nature  or  art  to  which  a  magical  power  is 
ascribed,  e.  g.,  stones,  carved  figures,  or  certain 
parts  of  plants,  animals,  &c.  In  this  general  sense 
fetichism  coincides  with  the  belief  in  charms — a 
belief  which  is  also  to  be  found  among  monotheistic 
nations.  The  first  step  out  of  fetichism,  is  when 
ignorant  tribes  cease  to  be  satisfied  with  believing 
merely  in  the  magical  power  inherent  in  their 
fetiches,  and  begin  to  ascribe  a  certain  conscioua 
operation  to  the  objects  of  their  reverence,  especi- 
ally to  the  fetiches  in  the  forms  of  beasts  or  men. 
In  this  way  the  fetich  becomes  an  idol,  and  fetichism 
an  idolatry.  The  lowest  form  of  such  idolatry  is 
where  the  savage  does  not  hesitate  to  throw  away, 
to  chastise,  or  even  to  destroy  his  fetich,  if  it  does 
not  appear  to  gratify  his  desires.  The  reverence  for 
sacred  woods,  mountains,  streams,  &c.,  which  formed 
part  of  the  religion  of  the  old  Greeks,  Celts,  and 
Germans,  is  not  fetichism  proper,  but  rather  belongs 
to  the  worship  of  nature. 

FE'TID  LI'MESTONE,  a  variety  of  limestone 
which  gives  out,  on  being  violently  rubbed,  or 
struck  with  a  hammer,  a  smell  like  that  of  sulpliu- 
retted  hydrogen  gas.  It  has  a  dark  colour,  produccti 
very  probably  from  the  perishable  portions  of  the 
animals  whose  hard  skeletons  compose  the  rock. 
This  animal  matter  may  perhaps  also  be  the  cause 
of  the  disagreeable  smell.  Stinkstone  or  Swinestone 
have  been  likewise  employed  as  characteristic  names 
for  this  limestone. 

FETLOCK,  or  FETTEPLOCK.  English  heral- 
die  writers  speak  of  a  horse  fetlock  or 
fetterlock,  and  represent  it  thus.  It 
seems  to  have  been  an  instrument  fixed 
on  the  leg  of  a  horse  when  put  to 
pasture,  for  the  purpose  of  preventing 
him  from  running  off.  In  Scotch 
Heraldry,  a  hoop  is  usually  substituted 
for  the  chain,  and  the  fetlock  is  repre- 
sented thus,  as  in  the  arms  of  Lokkert 
(Lockhart)  of  Barre,  given  by  Sir  David 


Lindsay ;  Argent,  on  a  bend  sable  three 


fetterlocks  or.     Some  branches  of  this 


Fetlocks. 


family  carry  a  man's  heart  within  the 
fetterlock,  one  of  the  heads  of  it  having  accom* 
panied  Good  Sir  James  Douglas  wath  King  Robert 
the  Bruce's  heart  to  Jerusalem  (Nisl)et,  i.  p.  325). 

FEU  AND  FEU-DUTY.  A  feu  may  be  described, 
in  familiar  language,  as  a  right  to  the  use  and  enjoy- 
ment of  lands,  houses,  or  other  heritable  subjects,  in 
perpetuity,  in  consideration  of  an  annual  payment 
in  grain  or  money,  called  feu-duty,  and  certain  other 
contingent  burdens  called  casualties  of  superiority 
(see  Casualty).  Though  a  feu  was  frequently  used 
to  express  any  kind  of  tenure  by  which  the  relation 
of  superior  and  vassal  was  constituted,  in  its  nar- 
rower meaning,  which  we  have  here  indicated,  and 
which  is  that  in  which  it  is  now  almost  exclusively 
used,  it  was  opposed,  on  the  one  hand,  to  those 
tenures  in  which  the  return  consisted  of  mihtary  or 
other  personal  service  (ward  and  the  like),  and  on 
the  other,  to  those  in  which  the  return  was  illusory 
(blanch),  the  only  object  of  which  was  to  preserve 
the  relation  of  superior  and  vassal.  A  feu,  in  short, 
was  a  perpetual  lease — a  feu-farm,  as  it  vras  often 
called — by  which  the  tenant  became  bound  to  pay 
a  substantial  consideration,  and  his  rights  under 
which  he  might  forfeit,  as  the  penalty  of  non-pay- 
ment. In  the  present  day,  the  disposal  of  land  in 
feu  is  practically  a  sale  for  a  stij)idated  annual  pay- 
ment, equivalent  to  chief  rent.  It  is  in  this  light, 
accordingly,  that  feus  are  generally  regarded  iu 

305 


FEUD— FEUDAL  SYSTEM. 


Scotland  ;  and  as  it  is  on  this  footing  that  almost  all 
the  house-property  in  towns  and  suburban  villa- 
property  is  held,  they  form  an  important  element 
in  the  proprietary  relations  of  the  country.  The 
Bystem  of  feuing  property  for  building  purposes  seems 
to  have  several  advantages  over  that  of  the  long 
building-leases  common  in  England.  From  its  \^r- 
petual  character,  it  gives  to  the  person  actually  in 
possession  a  feeling  of  greater  interest  in  the  pro- 
perty, and  usually  leads  him  to  erect  more  enduring 
structures  than  he  probably  would  do  under  a 
lease.  For  as  time  runs  on,  the  feu  of^en  increases 
in  value,  while  the  reverse  must  always  be  the 
case  with  leasehold  property.  Neither  does  it  in 
any  degree  interfere  with  the  letting  of  property 
on  lease  or  otherwise.  Almost  all  the  houses  in 
Edinburgh  and  the  other  towns  in  Scotland  which 
are  let,  either  on  leases  or  from  year  to  year,  are 
held  by  those  who  are  spoken  of  as  their  proprietors 
not  in  absolute  property,  but  as  feus.  Modern  feu- 
duties  are  in  general  paid  in  money.  When  the 
stipulation  is  for  a  duty  in  grain,  the  quantity  is 
valued  by  fiar  prices  for  the  year  (see  Fiars),  and 
paid  in  money  accordingly.  The  deed  transferring  ■ 
the  land  in  feu  from  the  superior  to  the  vassal  is 
called  a  feu-charter — a  clumsily  conceived  and 
expensive  document,  which  requires  renewal  in  the 
case  of  heirs  to  vassals,  or  of  parties  to  whom  the 
vassal  sells  his  right;  and  this  repetition  of  the 
transaction,  designated  as  '  entering  with  the  supe- 
rior,' forms  the  heavy  drawback  on  the  acquisition 
of  laud  in  feu,  no  matter  how  small  in  amount. 
Usually,  the  feu-charter  reserves  to  the  sujierior 
all  minerals  in  the  ground,  and  stipidates  that  the 
vassal  shall  build  his  house  either  in  a  particular 
style  or  of  a  certain  value.  By  the  Scottish  stat. 
1597  c.  246,  it  is  declared  that  all  vassals  by  feu-farm 
failing  to  pay  their  feu-duty  for  two  years  together, 
shall  lose  their  right,  in  the  same  manner  as  if  an 
irritant  clause  had  been  specially  engrossed  in  their 
charter.  But  as  the  superior  must  obtam  a  decree 
declaring  the  loss  of  the  vassal's  right,  before  the 
forfeiture  can  take  effect,  if  the  feu  is  worth  keep- 
ing, the  duties,  as  a  matter  of  course,  will  be 
paid.  In  the  very  rare  case  of  the  property  haxdng 
fallen  off  in  value  to  the  extent  of  rendering  the 
feu  a  positive  burden,  it  is  possible  that  the  irritancy 
may  be  voluntarily  incurred.  For  the  most  part, 
land  proprietors  near  towns  and  manufacturing 
villages  are  anxious  to  add  to  their  annual  rental 
by  feuing  grounds  for  building  purposes.  The  rate 
of  feu  is  very  various,  from  as  low  as  £8  to  as  high 
as  £500  per  acre  per  annum ;  a  common  rate  is 
from  £20  to  £30  per  acre.  Whatever  be  the  amount, 
it  is  payable  by  the  feuar — not  the  tenant  to  whom 
the  feuar  may  have  let  the  property.  When  a 
building  consists  of  several  floors  forming  distinct 
dwellings,  the  feu-duty  is  allocated  in  certain  pro- 
portions among  the  respectiv^e  proprietors  ;  the  feuar 
to  whom  the  lower  floor  belongs  usually  paying 
most.  In  properties  of  this  kind,  each  is  responsible 
only  for  his  own  share.  Occasionally,  feu-duties 
are  offered  for  sale  ;  and  as  a  safe  investment,  bring 
from  25  to  30  years'  purchase.  In  such  cases,  the 
vassal  has  an  opportunity  of  extinguishing  his 
feudal  tenure,  and  becoming  the  superior.  There 
are  also  instances  of  vassals  sub-feuing.  It  is 
customary  in  feuing  building  lands  for  the  superior 
to  make  the  roads  and  drains.  Kelieved  of  this 
obligation,  and  getting  possession  of  a  site  on  a 
mere  prospective  annual  payment  of  perhaps  only  a 
few  sliillings,  the  feuar  has  an  tmdoubted  advantage  ; 
looking,  however,  to  the  cumbersomeness  and  cost 
of  the  feu-charters,  and  the  liability  of  successors 
to  pay  fines  at  entry,  the  system  is  entangled, 
troublesome,  and  expensive ;  and,  at  least  as  far  as 
aos 


forms  are  concerned,  is  allowed  to  stand  in  need  oi 
reform. 

FEUD  (Angl.-Sax.  foetjht)  seems  to  be  only 
another  form  of  the  word  fight,  and  is  allied  to  /oc, 
and  i)robably  to  f  end.  It  meant  a  war  waged  by 
one  family  or  small  tribe  on  ahother,  to  avenge  the 
death  or  other  injury  of  one  of  its  members.  In  a 
ceiiiain  state  of  society,  this  is  a  legitimate  mode  of 
obtaining  redress.  It  prevailed  extensively  among 
the  jiations  of  Northern  Europe  ;  and  it  was  only  by 
gradual  steps  that  the  practice  was  first  restricted 
and  then  abolished.  The  laws  of  Kiidolf  I.  of 
Germany  recognised  the  right  of  waging  feuds.  At 
last,  partial  associations  were  formed,  the  members 
of  which  bound  themselves  mutually  to  settle  theii 
difTerences  by  courts  of  arbitration  and  compensa- 
tion, without  going  to  war. 

FEU'DAL  SYSTEM.  By  some,  the  word  feu 
or  feud,  of  which  feudal  is  the  adjective,  is  derived 
from  the  Lat.  fides,  faith,  and  end  or  odh,  or  od, 
a  Teutonic  word  signifying  a  property,  or  estate,  in 
land  ;  whilst  by  others,  with  perhaps  gi-eater  prob- 
ability, the  first  syllable  also  is  maintained  to  be 
Teutonic,  equivalent  to  vieh,  cattle,  ultimately  from 
the  same  root  with  the  Latin  pecus,  which,  in  the 
form  of  pecunia,  came  to  signify  property,  and  its 
representative,  money — because,  as  Varro  remarks, 
property  amongst  jjastoral  nations  consisted  of 
cattle  (Varr.,  JDe  Lingua  Lat'ina,  5,  19,  s.  95,  ed. 
Mull).  A  feudum,  in  this  sense,  would  be  a  piece  of 
land  held  for  a  fee,  or  pecuniary  consideration,  using 
pecvmiary  in  the  wide  sense  which  its  etymology 
suggests.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  feudal  system, 
as  a  developed  institution,  belonged  neither  to  the 
Teutonic  nor  to  the  Romanic  nations,  in  their  original 
and  immixed  condition.  We  find  it  neither  in  the 
woods  of  Grermany,  nor  in  the  Roman  empire  pre- 
vious to  the  incursions  of  the  Franks  and  Lombards. 
Neither  the  institutions  described  by  Tacitus,  nor 
those  with  which  the  Roman  jurists  have  rendered 
us  familiar,  exhibit  anything  that  is  even  analogous 
to  it  as  a  whole.  But  they  each  exhibit  partial 
indications  of  some  of  the  characteristics  which 
most  peculiarly  distinguish  it ;  and  as  it  arose  about 
the  beginning  of  the  9th  c,  just  when  the  fusion 
between  the  conquering  barbarians  and  the  subject 
populations  of  the  Romanised  provinces  was  e\  ery- 
v/here  taking  place,  it  seems  impossible  to  doubt  that 
it  was  a  result  of  the  mutual  influence  of  the  two 
races.  The  subordination  of  class  to  class,  and  the 
intimate  relations  by  which  all  the  classes  of  the 
community  were  bound  together,  taken  along  -with 
the  independence  and  equality  of  the  individual 
members  of  each  class  within  itself,  were  amongst 
the  most  prominent  features  of  the  simple  society 
of  the  Teutonic  nations  ;  and  these  correspond  with 
wonderful  accuracy  to  the  relations  of  superior  and 
vassal,  beginning  with  the  sovereign  and  descending 
to  the  smallest  feudal  proprietor,  and  also  with  the 
equality  amongst  peers,  which  existed  within  each 
of  the  feudal  classes.  On  the  other  hand,  the  incom- 
plete and  fiduciary  character  oi  the  proprietorship 
imj^lied  in  a  feu,  as  held  in  tru^t  from  a  superior 
on  the  faith  of  services  to  be  rendered,  or  dues  to 
be  paid,  bore  a  very  close  analogy  to  the  Roman 
emphyteusis  (from  which  indeed  the  word  feu  has 
often  been  derived),  and  to  the  dominium  utile  as 
opposed  to  the  dominium  directum.  See  Dominium 
and  Emphyteusis. 

The  nature  of  this  very  important  social  institu- 
tion, by  which  the  life  of  every  European  people 
of  any  importance  was  governed  from  the  beginning 
of  the  9th  till  the  close  of  the  13th  c,  and  by 
which  many  of  the  forms  of  our  modern  life  are 
still  affected,  will  probably  be  more  clearly  understood 


FEUDAL  SYSTEM. 


If  we  commence  our  description  of  it  from  below, 
by  exhibiting  the  position  of  the  simple  land- 
holder, than  by  adopting  the  monarch  in  whom 
it  culminated,  and  from  whom,  in  a  technical  sense, 
it  was  supposed  to  flow  (see  Allodium),  as  our 
point  of  departure.  The  latter  coui'se  has  been 
more  strictly  adhered  to  by  English  writers,  from 
the  circumstance  that,  subsequent  to  the  Conquest, 
the  whole  territory  of  England  was  regarded  as  the 
property  of  the  conqueror,  and  was  by  him  divided 
amongst  his  barons,  and  by  them  amongst  their 
dependents,  an  arrangement  which  was  somewhat 
peculiar  to  England  (see  Allodial),  whereas  the 
feudal  system,  in  its  essentials,  was  common  to  the 
whole  of  Europe.  A  feudal  proprietor,  then,  or  feud- 
atory, was  a  person  who  held  his  lands  from  another, 
for  his  own  lifetime  merelj'-,  in  the  earlier  times,  on 
condition  of  certain  services  which  he  was  to  perform 
to  a  superior  or  suzerain.  Apart  from  the  duties  to 
which  he  was  thus  bound,  he  was  not  only  a  free 
man,  but  his  position  was  that  almost  of  an  inde- 
pendent sovereign  within  his  own  small  dominions. 
If  his  holding  was  at  all  an  extensive  one,  he  lived 
in  a  castle,  which,  notwithstanding  the  efforts  of 
Charlemagne  and  his  successors  to  prevent  it,  was 
generally  fortified,  not  only  for  purposes  of  defence, 
but  to  enable  him  to  pursue  that  life  of  rapine 
which  in  lawless  times  was  not  considered  incon- 
sistent wdth  honesty  or  personal  worth.  Eor  greater 
security,  the  castle  was  generally  situated  on  a 
height,  and  under  its  walls  there  nestled  a  village, 
in  which  all  the  dependents  of  the  proprietor,  with 
the  exception  of  his  immediate  family,  and  all  those 
who  lived  b}^  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  usually  dwelt 
— isolated  farmhouses  and  cottages  being  too  much 
exposed  to  plunder  to  admit  of  their  being  scattered 
over  the  coxinty  then,  as  we  see  them  in  England 
now.  A  portion  of  the  inhabitants  of  each  feudal 
domain  were  usually  bound  to  the  soil,  and  were 
thus  subject  to  a  species  of  slavery,  the  conditions 
of  which  varied  according  to  the  customs  of  different 
districts.  These  were  spoken  of  as  adscripti  or 
adscriptitii  glebce,  and  were  called  nativi,  or  bond- 
men, and  villein-socmen,  as  opposed  to  free-socmen 
on  the  one  hand,  and  serfs  or  ilieowes  on  the 
other,  of  whose  position  we  shall  speak  below. 
(Stephen's  Com,  i.  p.  188.)  'He  was,'  says  Sir 
Francis  Palgvave,  speaking  of  the  ceorl,  '  a  villain 
appurtenant ;  and,  notwithstanding  the  language 
which  was  employed  (to  the  effect,  namely,  that 
he  could  be  bequeathed,  bought,  and  sold),  it 
must  be  understood  that  the  gift,  the  bequest,  or 
the  sale,  was  in  effect  the  disposition  of  the  land 
and  of  the  ceorl,  and  of  the  services  which  the 
ceorl  performed  for  the  land,  a  transaction  widely 
differing  from  the  transfer  of  a  slave,  whose  person 
is  the  subject  of  the  purchase.'  {Rise- and  Progress 
of  the  English  Commonwealth,  vol.  i.  p.  18.)  The 
ceorl,  moreover,  could  purchase  his  own  freedom 
and  that  of  his  wife  and  offspring  {lb.).  See  Villein. 
The  rest  were  free  tenants,  farmers  in  the  modern 
sense,  though  personal  services  to  the  proprietor 
probably  m  almost  every  case  constituted  a  portion 
of  the  rent  which  was  paid.  Latterly,  when  the 
system  of  subinfeudation  was  introduced,  many  of 
his  wealthier  tenants  came  to  stand  to  the  baron, 
or  lord  of  the  domain,  very  much  in  the  relation 
which  we  are  about  to  describe  as  subsisting 
between  him  and  his  lord  paramount.  From 
being  tenants-at-will,  scarcely  less  subject  to  his 
authority  and  exposed  to  his  caprices  than  the 
thralls,  or  villeins  of  the  lowest  class,  they  became 
vassals  of  their  lord,  and  free  citizens  of  what  thus 
^adually  developed  itself  into  a  feudal  monarchy 
in  miniature.  The  tenure  by  which  this  latter  class 
held  tlieir  lands  was  generally  known  in  England 


as  Free  Socage  (Stephen's  ut  sup.  i.  205  et  seq.). 
The  castles  by  which  the  banks  of  the  lUiine  ar« 
studded  along  its  whole  course,  from  Bonn  to 
Bingen,  with  their  villages  and  parish  churches, 
for  tlie  most  part  in  the  condition  in  which  they 
were  erected  centuries  ago,  afford  the  most  niuuer- 
ous  and  perfect  examples  of  the  arrangements  of 
the  feudal  period  which  are  perhaps  anywhere  to 
be  met  with.  The  possessors  of  these  castles  stood 
in  a  magisterial  as  well  as  a  pro})rietary  relation 
to  their  dependents.  They  exercised  jurisdiction, 
extending  even  to  the  infliction  of  capital  punish- 
ment, either  in  person  or  by  means  of  officers  whom 
they  appointed  for  the  purpose ;  and  the  castle 
was  in  general  furnished  with  dungeons  and  other 
appliances  for  carrying  their  sentences  into  exe- 
cution. Towards  each  other  they  stood  in  tho 
relation  of  equals,  or  peers  (Lat.  pares) ;  they  were 
neighbours,  simply,  and  friends  or  enemies  as  the 
case  might  be — too  often  the  latter.  But  towards 
their  immediate  feudal  superior,  the  count,  marquis, 
duke,  or  whatever  might  be  his  title,  to  whom 
the  government  of  the  whole  district  belonged,  they 
all  stood  in  a  relation  which  brought  them  in  con- 
tact, and  in  some  degree  bound  them  to  each  other. 
Of  him  they  held  their  lands  on  conditions  some- 
what similar  to  those  on  which  they  let  them  out 
to  their  own  dejiendents.  At  first,  as  we  have 
said,  they  were  only  tenants  for  life;  but  their 
rights  in  most  coiuitries  very  early  assumed  a  here- 
ditary character,  the  dominant  proprietor's  rights, 
on  the  death  of  a  tenant,  being  confined  to  the 
exaction  of  certain  dues  from  his  son  and  suc- 
cessor, as  a  consideration  for  conferring  on  him, 
or  rather  for  confirming  to  him,  the  feu  which  his 
father  had  held.  Where  the  feu,  fief  or  feoff,  as 
it  was  sometimes  called  from  the  mode  of  admission 
— feoffment,  or,  as  it  is  said  in  Scotland,  infeft- 
ment  (q,  v.) — descended  to  a  female,  the  dominant 
proprietor  was  entitled  to  control  her  marriage, 
for  the  purpose  of  procuring  himself  a  sufficient 
and  trustworthy  vassal ;  a  privilege  which,  hke 
all  those  of  the  lord,  was  latterly  converted  into 
a  mere  pecuniary  claim.  When  the  lord  para- 
mount, or  suzerain,  as  he  was  called,  held  his 
court  of  justice,  his  vassal  barons  were  the  judges, 
being  all  on  a  footing  of  equality,  or  pares  cuma:, 
as  it  was  called.  When  he  made  war,  either, 
on  his  own  account,  or  as  furnishing  a  contingent 
to  the  army  of  the  state,  in  such  cases  as  in  the 
national  wars  between  France  and  England  in  the 
12th  and  13th  centuries — which  were  the  earliest 
instances  of  really  national  wars — his  vassals  were 
bound  to  attend  him  in  person,  and  to  furnish 
each  the  contribution  of  men,  horses,  arms,  and 
other  materials  of  war  for  which  he  was  liable  by 
the  tenure  on  which  he  held  his  lands.  In  addition 
to  these  ser\4ces,  he  was  bound  to  watch  and  ward 
his  castle,  a  duty  which  the  minor  barons  almost 
invariably  imposed  on  their  vassals  when  the  sj'stem 
of  granting  feus  extended  downwards  to  the  class 
of  persons  who  had  formerly  been  mere  tenants-at- 
will.  Then  there  were  certain  dues  which  were 
almost  always  exigible  from  the  vassal,  such,  e.  g., 
as  contributions  towards  providing  a  ransom  for  ma 
lord  when  in  captivity,  for  enabling  him  to  cele- 
brate the  marriage  of  his  eldest  son  with  due  pomp, 
or  to  provide  a  suitable  dowiy  for  his  daughter. 
If  these  dues  were  not  paid,  the  land  reverted  to 
the  dominant  proprietor,  in  relation  to  whom  the 
vassal  all  along  was  a  mere  usufructuary.  So  far 
were  the  conditions  of  feudal  holdings  from  being 
always  the  same,  that  no  less  than  eighty  different 
tenures  have  been  enumerated  ;  the  onerous  char- 
acter  of  which  varied  from  what  was  merely 
nominal,  e.  g.,  the  payment  of  a  white  rose  or 


FEU  DE  JOIE-FEUERBACH. 


pair  of  spurs, '  if  asked  merely/  up  to  what  was  a  rent 
in  some  degree  equivalent  to  the  value  of  the  land. 
For  an  account  of  the  manner  in  which  the  feudal 
system  affected  the  constitution  of  land  rights  and 
the  conveyance  of  landed  property,  and  still  affects 
tliem,  see  Conveyancing. 

Inferior  to  all  the  classes  of  society  in  feudal 
Europe  of  which  we  have  hitherto  spoken,  there 
is  reason  to  fear  that  there  existed  almost  every- 
where, in  the  earlier  times,  a  class  of  the  posi- 
tively unfree.  The  lot  of  those  who  were  in 
absolute  slavery  excluded  them  from  the  influences 
of  feudality  as  a  legal  and  social  institution — 'they 
were  not  reckoned,'  says  Palgrave,  'amongst  the 
people,' — but  their  existence  is  by  no  means  to 
be  left  out  of  account,  in  forming  to  ourselves  a 
picture  of  I^uropean  society  in  feudal  times.  Of  the 
condition  of  this  class,  as  fonning  the  substratum 
of  feudal  society,  we  shall  have  a  pretty  accurate 
conception  from  the  following  passage,  in  which 
Lappenberg  describes  them  in  Anglo-Saxon  times, 
if  we  bear  in  mind,  on  the  one  hand,  that  subse- 
tpiently  to  the  Conquest  their  ranks  were  probably 
swelled  by  such  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  population  as 
was  in  absolute  poverty  ;  and  on  the  other,  that 
their  position,  in  all  the  countries  of  Europe,  was 
gradually  ameliorated  by  the  influences  of  Chris- 
tianity, the  spirit  if  not  the  letter  of  which  has 
everywhere  proved  hostile  to  slavery.  '  One  class 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon  population,  at  the  period  of  the 
Norman  Conquest,  consisted  of  the  unfree  or  servile 
{theotvas,  es)ias),  whose  number,  as  registered  in 
Domesday-book,  was  little  above  25,000.  Of  these, 
the  majority  were  in  a  state  of  slavery  by  birth, 
whose  forefathers  had  been  either  Roman  slaves, 
British  prisoners  of  war,  or  other  enemies.  Others, 
denominated,  w'tte-theoxoas,  or  penal  slaves,  had 
been  freemen,  but  rediiced  by  the  sentence  of  the 
law  to  the  servile  condition,  on  account  of  debt  or 
delinquency.  (Pal grave  ut  sup.  i.  28.)  The  master 
luid  the  right  of  selling  the  theow  in  the  country, 
l>ut  not  beyond  the  sea,  even  if  he  had  pei-petrated 
crime.  In  other  respects,  the  condition  of  the  serAdle 
seems  to  have  differed,  little  from  that  of  the  indigent 
free  slaves  who  had  a  sjiecial  wergild,  half  of  which 
fell  to  the  master  and  half  to  the  kin.'  (Thorpe's 
Lappenberg,  ii.  p.  320,)  It  is  ju-obable  that  the 
vast  majority  of  the  servile  class  in  Anglo-Saxon, 
and  even  in  Norman  times,  consisted  of  persons  of 
Celtic  blood.  (Pal grave  ut  sup.  p.  26.)  In  proof  of 
this  fact,  Lappenberg  remarks  that  their  numbers 
diminish  as  we  recede  from  the  Welsh  border  and  from 
Cornwall,  the  places  in  which  the  Celtic  or  original 
British  population  is  knowai  to  have  taken  refuge. 

The  social  elements  which  coimteracted  and 
mitigated  the  influences  of  feudality  in  medireval 
life,  were  monarchy,  the  church,  wdiich  vigorously 
promoted  the  emancipation  of  the  unfree,  and  above 
all,  The  gromng  wealth,  power,  and  importance  of 
the  commons.  In  order  to  free  himself  from  the 
rude  and  insolent  dictation  of  his  great  feudal 
rassals,  the  king,  in  almost  every  European  state, 
coui-ted  the  alliance  of  the  town  communities,  who 
had  remained  more  in  the  condition  in  which  they 
had  been  left  l)y  the  Romans  than  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  country,  and  who  were  consequently 
all  along  more  or  less  opposed  to  the  growth  and 
influences  of  feudality.  See  Municipium.  By  their 
aid,  even  before  the  formation  of  standing  armies, 
something  approaching  to  executive  power  was 
placed  ia  the  hands  of  the  sovereign.  He  was 
thus  enabled  to  appoint  and  enforce  the  decrees  of 
iude])endcnt  judges  of  his  own,  who  in  the  earlier 
time  were  generally  churchmen,  and  thus  greatly  to 
circumscribe  the  power  and  influence  of  all  classes 
of  feudal  proprietors  over  their  dependents.  Though 


the  period  of  bloom  of  the  feudal  system  vt  as,  aj  we 
have  said,  from  the  9th  to  the  L3th  centuries,  in 
most  of  the  countries  of  Europe,  it  everywhere,  itt 
many  of  its  features,  long  survived  the  latter  period- 
Even  considered  as  a  social,  and  not  merely  as  a 
legal  institution,  in  which  latter  capacity  it  still 
exists,  it  was  in  many  respects  in  vigour  in  Scot- 
land down  to  the  year  1747,  when  militaiy  tenures 
were  abolished  by  statute,  as  dangerous  to  public 
tranquillity. 

FEU  DE  JOIE,  or  *  running-fire,'  a  discharge  of 
musketry  into  the  air,  made  in  honour  of  a  victory 
or  other  great  occasion.  It  commences  with  the 
right-hand  man  of  the  line,  who  discharges  his 
rifle,  and  is  followed  successively,  at  scarcely  per- 
ceptible intervals,  by  the  men  on  his  left,  until  the 
extreme  left  of  the  line  is  reached.  The  efTect  much 
depends  on  the  regularity  with  which  the  slight 
interval  between  the  discharges  is  preserved. 

FEU'ERBACH,  Paul  Joiiann  Anselm,  Ritter 
VON,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  criminal  jurists 
of  Germany,  was  born  at  Jena  14th  November  1775. 
Brought  up  at  Frankfurt-on-the-Maine,  where  his 
father  was  an  advocate,  and  educated  in  the  gymna- 
sium there,  he  went  in  1792  to  Jena,  where  he  culti- 
vated his  mind  by  the  study  of  philos  »phy,  and  then 
devoted  himself  to  positive  law.  In  1798  he  appeared 
as  criminal  jurist  in  a  work  On  the  Crime  of  Hi/jh 
Treason,  and  in  the  following  year  he  began  to 
deliver  lectures  in  the  university  of  Jena.  In  his 
lectures  and  published  writings,  he  introduced  into 
criminal  jurisprudence  a  new  method  of  treatment, 
which  was  systematised  in  his  Compendium  of  Ger- 
man Penal  Law  [LeJirhuch  des  Gemeinen,  in  Deutsch* 
land  (jeltenden  peinlichen  Privatreclds,  Giessen,  1801 ; 
14  Aufi.  von  Mittermaier,  1847).  This  celebrated 
work  placed  F.  at  the  head  of  a  new  school  of  jurists, 
who  maintain  that  the  decision  of  the  judge  in  every 
case  ought  to  be  determined  solely  by  an  express 
deliverance  of  the  penal  law,  never  by  his  ovm  dis- 
cretion, and  who  on  that  account  obtained  the  nama 
of  Rigorists.  In  1801  F.  was  appointed  ordinary 
professor  in  Jena,  but  in  1802  accepted  a  call  to  Kiel. 
In  1804  he  was  removed  to  the  university  of  Land- 
shut  ;  but  next  year,  having  received  a  commission 
to  prepare  a  penal  code  for  Bavaria,  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  Munich  as  privy  referendary  for  the  minis- 
terial, judicial,  and  poKce  departments;  and  in  1808 
was  appointed  privy-councillor.  The  new  penal 
code  which  he  planned  for  Bavaria  {Strafgesetzhuch 
f  i'ir  das  Konigreich  Baiern,  Munchen,  1813),  received, 
after  a  few  modifications,  the  royal  approval,  and 
was  taken  as  a  basis  in  the  emendafuon  of  the 
criminal  law  of  several  other  countries.  During  tliis 
period  also,  he  published  his  Remarkable  Cases  in 
Criminal  Law  {Merhwardige  Criminalrechtsfdlle,  2 
Bde.,  Giessen,  1808 — 1811),  which  first  led  the  way 
to  a  deeper  psychological  treatment  of  such  cases. 
In  1812,  he  published  a  work  on  Trial  by  Jury,  to 
which  a  second  volume,  on  the  Judicial  Procedure 
of  France,  was  added  in  1825,  as  the  result  of  a  visit 
to  Paris  in  1821.  In  1817  he  became  second 
president  of  the  Court  of  Appeal  in  Bamberg,  and 
afterwards  first  president  of  the  Court  of  Appeal 
at  Anspach  for  the  Rezat  district.  In  1832  he 
jjublished  a  work  on  the  unfortunate  Kaspar  Hauser, 
whose  mysterious  fate  had  strongly  attracted  his 
interest.  He  had  just  edited  a  collection  of  his 
miscellaneous  writings,  when  he  died  at  Frankfort- 
on-the-Main,  25th  May,  1833.  An  interesting  life 
of  F.  has  been  Avritten  by  his  son  Ludwig  (teben 
imd  Wirken  A7iselm  von  FeuerbacJts,  2  Bde.,  Leip. 
1852).  F.  left,  besides  three  daughters,  five  sons, 
who  have  all  distinguished  themselves  in  German 
literature. 


FEUERB  A.CH— FEVER. 


FEUERBACH,  Ltjdwio  Andreas,  German 
philosopher,  fourth  son  of  the  preceduig,  was  born 
at  Anspach,  2Sth  July  1804.  After  studying  theology 
for  two  years  at  Heidelberg  under  Paulus  and  Daub, 
in  1824  he  was  attracted  to  Berlin  for  the  purpose 
of  hearing  Hegel,  and  soon  after  he  abandoned 
theology,  with  the  view  of  devoting  himself  entirely 
to  philosophy.  In  1828  he  became  privatdocent  in 
the  university  of  Erlangen,  but  in  a  few  years 
quitted  the  academical  chair,  and  gave  up  his  whole 
time  to  literary  labour.  In  a  small  anonymous 
work  {Gedanken  ilher  Tod  und  Unsterhlichkeit,  Nlirn- 
berg,  1830),  which  attracted  little  attention  when  it 
appeared,  he  indicated  that  he  had  already  gone 
beyond  the  standpoint  of  his  master  Hegel,  by  com- 
bating the  doctrine  of  immortality.  During  the 
next  few  years,  he  published  three  works  on  portions 
of  the  history  of  philosoph}^  treating  severally  of 
the  period  between  Bacon  and  Spinoza,  of  Leibnitz 
and  of  Pierre  Bayle.  But  these  historical  works 
only  paved  the  way  to  a  critical  investigation  into 
the  nature  of  religion  and  its  relation  to  philosophy, 
the  results  of  which  have  been  given  to  the  world 
in  several  works  well  known  to  speculative  theolo- 
gians. The  most  celebrated  of  these  is  his  work  on 
the  Nature  of  Christianity  {Das  Wesen  des  Chrisien- 
thums,  Leip.  1841 ;  2  Aufl.  1843),  which  has  been 
translated  into  English.  Starting  from  the  Hegehan 
doctrine,  that  the  Absolute  comes  to  consciousness 
only  in  htmianity,  F.  denies  to  it  any  existence 
beyond  the  human  consciousness,  maintaining  it  to 
be  merely  the  projection  by  man  of  his  own  ideal 
into  the  objective  world,  on  which  he  feels  his 
dependence.  All  authority  above  man,  and  conse- 
quently all  moral  obligation,  is  therefore  consistently 
regarded  as  a  delusion  proceeding  from  man  himself, 
and  the  highest  good  is  explained  as  that  which 
is  on  the  whole  most  pleasurable.  Yet  even  this 
highest  good  is  further  explained  as  consisting  in 
resemblance  to  that  ideal  humanity  which  man 
creates  for  himself,  and  w^orships  as  God.  .  A  kind 
of  ideal  theism  is  therefore  retained  by  F. ;  but  when 
his  doctrines  were  adopted  by  the  mass  of  German 
communists,  they  degenerated,  perhaps  logically, 
into  an  actual  atheism,  which  ignored  any  moral 
or  social  law  imposed  on  the  individual  from  any 
other  source  than  himself. — The  works  of  F.  have 
been  collected,  with  additions  and  corrections  to 
bring  them  into  accordance  with  his  later  views 
{F:8  Sdmmtliche  Werke,  8  Bde.,  Leip.  1846  -1851), 
He  published  a  work  entitled  Theogouie  in  1857.  He 
died  in  1872. 

FEUILLANS,  Congregation  of,  a  reform  of 
the  Cistercian  order,  remarkable  as  forming  part  of 
the  great  religious  movement  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Chmch  during  the  16th  c,  contemporary  with  and 
probably  stimulated  by  the  progress  of  the  Refor- 
mation. The  author  of  this  reform  was  Jean  de 
la  Barriere,  abbot  of  the  Cistercian  monastery  of 
FeuiUans,  who,  painfully  struck  by  the  relaxation 
of  its  discipline,  laid  down  for  liimself  a  new  and 
much  more  austere  course  of  life,  in  which  he  soon 
found  many  imitators  and  associates  among  the 
brethren  of  his  order.  The  rule  thus  reformed  was, 
after  considerable  opposition  from  the  advocates 
of  the  old  rule,  approved,  with  certain  modifica- 
tions, by  Pope  Sixtus  V. ;  the  reformed  congre- 
gation, however,  being  still  left  subject  to  the 
authority  of  the  abbot  of  Citeaux ;  and  a  con- 
vent was  founded  for  them  by  Henry  HI.  in  the 
Rue  St  Honore,  Paris.  Tho  subjection  to  the 
abbot  of  Citeaux  was  removed  by  Clement  VIII. 
in  L')95 ;  and  Urban  VII.,  in  1630,  se])arated  the 
congregation  into  two  branches,  one  for  France, 
and  tlic  other  for  Italy,  each  under  a  distinct 
(;nneral.    The  rules  of  both  these  branches  were 


subsequently  modified  about  the  middle  of  the 
same  century. 

The  celebrated  revolutionary  club  of  the  Feuillants 
took  its  name  from  this  order,  the  convent  of  which, 
in  the  Rue  St  Honore,  was  the  place  of  meeting  for 
the  members  of  the  club.  It  was  founded  in  1790 
by  Lafayette,  Si^yes,  Larochefoucauld,  and  others 
holding  moderate  opinions.  The  club  was  at  first 
called  tire  'Company  of  1789,'  and  was  intended 
to  support  the  constitution  against  the  idtra  party. 
It  reckoned  among  its  menabers  individuals  of  all 
classes,  who  took  the  constitution  of  England  as 
their  model.  This  opposition  served,  however, 
only  to  accelerate  the  revolutionary  movement. 
On  the  27th  January  1791,  on  Coimt  Clermont 
Tonnerre  being  elected  president  of  the  club,  a 
l)opular  msurrection  broke  out  against  it ;  and,  on 
the  28th  March,  the  assembly  in  the  cloister  was 
forcibly  disj)ersed  by  a  raging  mob. 

FEUILLETON  (Fr.),  literally  a  small  leaf, 
signifies  that  portion  of  a  political  newspaper  set 
apart  for  intelligence  of  a  non-political  character, 
for  criticisms  on  art,  literature,  &c.,  and  usually 
separated  fi'om  the  main  sheet  by  a  line.  The 
feuilleton  is  an  invention  of  the  Journal  des  Debuts, 
which,  since  the  year  1800,  has  held  an  important 
place  in  the  sphere  of  literary  criticism.  By  degrees, 
the  belles-lettres  element  began  to  pervade  it ;  and 
the  result  was  a  species  of  light  journalistic  litera- 
ture, in  which  Jides  Janin  became  the  acknow- 
ledged king.  In  the  years  immediately  preceding 
the  February  revolution,  entire  romances  were  spun 
out  in  the  feuilleton.  The  Constitutionnel,  in  par- 
ticular, made  large  j)ecuniary  profits  by  the  social 
romances  of  Eugene  Sue,  which  it  published  in  this 
manner.  The  French  system  has  been  imitated  in 
England  and  Germany,  though  with  less  success 
than  in  France. 

FEVE'DA,  an  island  of  British  Columbia,  ia 
situated  in  the  Gulf  of  Georgia,  between  Vancouver 
Island  and  the  continent.  It  is  in  lat.  49°  41'  N., 
and  long.  124°  W.,  measuring  32  miles  in  length  by 
2  in  average  breadth.  It  possesses  a  snug  little 
harbour,  which  appears  to  be  all  the  more  valuable 
on  account  of  the  superior  quality  of  the  fuel  v/hich 
abounds  on  the  spot.  Its  formation  is  understood 
to  be  wholly  of  limestone. 

FEVER  (Lat.  fehris,  from  fei^veo,  I  grow  w^arm, 
or  perhaps  from  febmo,  I  cleanse),  a  form  of  disease 
characterised  princij)ally  by  increase  of  the  tem- 
perature of  the  body,  which,  however,  requires  to 
be  estimated  according  to  the  state  of  the  internal 
parts,  rather  than  the  external ;  the  sm-face  of 
the  body,  and  particularly  of  the  extremities,  being 
not  unfrequently  cold  rather  than  warm.  Having 
regard  to  the  heat  of  the  surface  only,  fever  haa 
commonly  been  considered  as  passing  through  three 
distinct  stages,  more  or  less  maa  ked  :  1,  the  cold  or 
shivering  stage  ;  2,  the  hot  stage ;  3,  the  sweating 
stage.  This  description  is  perfectly  correct  in  most 
cases,  but  it  requires  to  be  qualified  by  the  remai-k, 
that  even  m  the  cold  stage  of  fevers,  it  is  now  well 
ascertained  that  the  blood  and  the  interaal  organs 
have  an  elevated  temperature,  as  estimated  by  the 
thermometer  introduced  into  the  cavities  of  the 
body.  In  the  cold  stage  of  fever,  accordingly, 
and  even  in  the  most  violent  ague,  when  the  teeth 
are  chattering  with  cold,  and  the  whole  surf^.ce 
is  pale  and  clammy,  the  state  of  the  system  \ 
well  expressed  by  the  aphorism  of  Virchow  (th, 
most  ingenious  and  comprehensive  of  the  modern 
exponents  of  the  pathology  of  fever),  to  the  effect 
that  '  the  outer  parts  freeze  while  the  inner  burn.' 
Increased  heat  of  the  body,  therefore,  is  the  most 
essential,  perhaps  the  only  essential  phenomenon  of 


FEVER-FE  VERFEW. 


fever.  The  other  symptoms  are  loss  of  appetite, 
tliirst,  restlessness,  and  va<^ue  general  uneasiness, 
often  headache,  and  diffused  pains  in  the  back 
and  limbs ;  a  frequent  pulse,  which  is  sometimes 
also  full  and  hard ;  a  furred  tongue,  often  with 
red  margin ;  a  flushed  face  and  suffused  eyes ; 
vitiated  secretions,  and  general  derangement  of  the 
functions,  with  great  debility  of  the  voluntary 
inOT'ements  of  the  limbs.  The  disease  often  com- 
meuces  with  a  shivering,  or  rigor,  as  it  is  techni- 
cally called ;  this  leads  through  the  ooli  stage 
to  the  hot,  which  usually  follows  i)retty  rapidly, 
and  is  attended  by  all  the  febrile  phenomena  in 
their  liighcst  degree ;  the  skin  being  often  very 
puugently  warm  to  the  hand,  dry,  and  harsh ;  by 
and  by,  the  pores  appear  to  open,  moisture  begins 
to  bedew  the  surface,  and  the  pungent  heat  dis- 
appears :  the  disease  is  then  about  to  pass  into  its 
third  or  sweating  stage,  which  ushers  in  the 
convalescence.  For  the  special  symptoms  of  par- 
ticular fevers,  see  Typhus  and  Typhoid  Fevkks, 
SfiiALL-Pox,  Scarlet  Fever,  Measles,  Ague, 
IxTERMrriENT  and.  Rejmittent  Fever,  Yellow 
Fever. 

Besides  being  thus  the  leading  fact  in  a  number 
of  specific  diseases,  fever  is  also  associated  with 
many  other  forms  of  disease  as  a  secondary  or 
Bubordinate  phenomenon,  connected  with  an  inflam- 
mation or  other  distinctly  local  disease.  Thus,  in 
Pneumonia  (q.  v.)  or  Enteritis  (q.  v.),  fever  is  as 
much  a  part  of  the  symptoms  as  pain  or  any  other ; 
and  even  in  some  chronic  or  long-standing  diseases, 
as  in  Consumption  (q.  v.),  a  slow  and  consuming 
type  of  fever  (see  Hectic  Fever)  is  found  to  be 
very  generally  present.  Indeed,  there  is  no  condi- 
tion which  rules  so  large  a  part  of  the  physician's 
duty,  whether  in  the  way  of  distinguishing  diseases 
or  of  curing  them,  as  this  constitutional  state. 
Fever  is  also  very  generally  prevalent  after  surgical 
operations  and  injuries,  of  which  it  constitutes  one 
of  the  leading  dangers  ;  and  in  midwifery  practice, 
it  is  well  known  as  constituting  a  large  ])art  of  the 
risks  of  the  puerperal  stace,  whether  in  the  slighter 
form  commonly  called  a  weed,  or  in  the  more  dreaded 
and  fatal,  often  ei)idemic,  form  of  Puerperal  Fever 
(q.v.). 

The  family  of  fevers  is  thus  seimrated  pretty 
naturally  into  two  large  groups,  in  one  of  which  the 
fever  is  the  greatly  predominating  fact,  and  deter- 
mines the  specitic  character  of  the  disease  :  the 
local  disease  (if  present)  being  quite  subordinate, 
and  usually  secondary  in  point  of  time ;  the  other, 
where  the  opposite  order  prevails,  and  the  fever  is 
obviously  secondary.  Hence  the  distinction  em- 
bodied in  medical  language  between  idiopathic  (i.  e., 
eelf-originatmg,  spontaneous)  and  syviptomatic  or 
secondary  fcA'ers.  Fevers  are  also  distinguished, 
with  reference  to  their  mode  of  diffusion,  as  Epi- 
demic (q.  V.)  and  Endemic  (q.  v.) ;  or  with  reference 
to  their  supposed  cause,  as  contagioiis,  infectious, 
malarious,  pneumonic,  rheumatic,  &c. ;  or  with 
reference  to  their  incidental  symptoms  and  their 
peculiarities  of  course  and  teniiination  (the  presumed 
specific  phenomena  attracting,  of  course,  particular 
attention),  as  eru})tive  (see  Exanthemata)  or  non- 
eruptive,  bdious,  gastric,  enteric,  mucous,  putrid, 
malignant,  typhoid,  &c. 

Among  these  distinctions,  based  upon  the  course 
of  the  fever,  one  demands  particular  notice,  as 
involving  an  important  law  of  febrile  diseases 
generally,  and  of  a  largo  class  of  fevers  of  warm 
climates  in  particidar.  Periodic  increase  and  dimi- 
nution, or  paroxysms  of  longer  or  shorter  duration, 
with  intervals  of  more  or  less  perfect  relief  from 
all  the  symptoms,  are  characteristic  of  most  diseases 
of  tiiis  kind,  but  especially  of  those  arising  from 
310 


malaria,  i.  e.,  emanations  from  the  soil,  educed 
under  the  influence  of  solar  heafc.  The  duration  of 
the  paroxysms  and  of  the  intervals,  the  complete 
intermission,  or  more  partial  remission,  of  symjjtoms, 
become  in  such  cases  the  characteristic  facts  that 
mark  the  tijpe,  as  it  is  called,  of  the  fever,  which 
is  accordingly  distinguished  as  intermittent,  remit- 
tent, or  continued  ;  and,  according  to  the  length 
of  the  periods,  Tertian,  Quartan,  Quotidian,  &c. 
(q.v.). 

The  true  patholcg}-,  or  ultimate  essence  of  the 
febrile  state,  is  still  a  subject  open  to  question  ;  but 
it  is  in  accordance  with  modern  physiology  to  regard 
fever  as  connected  with  some  complex  derangement 
of  the  functions  on  which  the  animal  heat  is  kuov^-n 
to  depend — viz.,  the  nutrition  of  the  textures,  or  the 
vital  changes  constantly  in  operation  between  the 
blood,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  ultimate  atoms  of 
solid  texture,  on  the  other,  llecent  observations 
have  shewn  that,  in  the  paroxysm  of  ague,  the  waste 
of  the  nitrogenous  tissues  is  in  excess ;  and  further, 
the  curious  result  appears  to  be  anived  at,  that  for 
almost  every  grain  of  excretion  representing  this 
excess  of  waste  in  a  given  time,  there  is  a  proper* 
tional  increase  of  the  temi)erature  of  the  blood, 
according  to  accurate  thermometric  observations. 
If  such  observations  are  corroborated  and  extended, 
it  will  pi-obably  appear  that  the  cause  of  fever  is  to 
be  found  in  an  increased  destructive  decomposition 
of  the  atoms  of  texture  through  the  oxygen  absorbed 
at  the  lungs  and  circidated  with  the  blood ;  perhaps 
under  the  influence  of  a  derangement  of  nervous 
system ;  which  has  been  shewn  by  experiment  to 
have  a  very  marked  control  over  the  generation  of 
animal  heat. 

The  treatment  of  fever  %vill  be  considered  under 
the  separate  forms  already  referred  to. 

FE'VERFEW  {Pyrethrum  parihenium  or  Matri- 
caria partheniiim),  a  perennial  jilant,  found  in  waste 
places  and  near  hedges  in  Britain  and  many  parts  of 
Europe.  It  is  botanically  allied  to  Chamomile  (q.  v.), 
and  still  more  nearly  to  Wild  Chamomile  {Matricaria 
chamomilla),  and  much  resembles  these  plants  in  its 


Wild  Chamomile  {Matricaria  OhamomiUa). 

a,  floret  of  the  ray;  h,  floret  of  the  disc;  c,  fruit,  showing  tha 
toothed  membrauous  pappus. 

properties,  but  differs  in  appearance,  the  segments  ol 
its  leaves  being  flat  and  comparatively  broad,  and 
its  flowers  smaller.  Its  habit  of  growing  is  erect,  its 
stem  much  branched,  and  about  1 — 2  feet  high.  It 
has  a  strong,  somewhat  aromatic  smell.    It  was  once 


FEVERWORT-irrAKi^. 


a  popular  remedy  in  ague,  and  from  time  immemorial 
has  been  used  as  an  emmcnagogue.  It  is  employed 
in  infusion,  and  is  stimidant  and  tonic.  A  double 
variety  is  not  uncommon  in  gardens.— Of  the  same 
^enus  wdth  F.  is  the  Mayweed  {P.  inodm-um  or  M. 
modora),  with  leaves  more  resemblirg  those  of 
chamomile,  but  almost  scentless,  and  large  flowers, 
with  v/hite  ray  and  yellow  disc,  very  common  in 
cornfields  and  waste  places  in  Britain  and  thi'ough- 
out  Europe. 

FE'VERWORT  [Triostmm  perfolkitum),  a  per- 
ennial plant  of  the  natural  order  Caprifolicvceoi,  having 
an  erect,  round,  hairy,  listular  stem,  from  one  to  four 
feet  high,  opposite  ovato-lanceolate  entire  loaves, 
axillary  whorls  of  flowers,  with  tubular  5-lobed 
corolla,  and  leathery  3-seeded  berries.  It  is  a  native 
of  North  America,  where  its  dried  and  roasted  berries 
have  been  occasionally  used  as  a  substitute  for  coffee ; 
but  it  is  chiefly  valued  for  its  medicinal  properties, 
it'j  roots  acting  as  an  emetic  and  mild  cathai'tic.  It 
is  sometimes  called  Tinker's  Weed^  from  Dr.  Tinker, 
who  first  brought  it  into  notice. 

FEZ  (At.  Fas),  the  chief  and  most  northerly 
province  of  the  empire  of  Marocco,  occupies  the 
country  between  the  Atlas  Mountains  and  the 
Mediterranean.  Ifs  population  is  estimated  at 
about  3,200,000,  consisting  of  Berbers,  Moors,  Arabs, 
Negroes,  Jews,  and  a  few  Europeans.  The  i)roviuce 
is  divided  into  fifteen  districts. — Fez,  the  capital  of 
the  province,  in  lat.  34°  6'  N.,  and  long,  about  5'  0' 
W.,  was  founded  by  Muley  Edris  II.,  in  the  year 
808  A.D.,  and  was  reckoned  during  tlie  middle 
ages — when  it  was  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
Marocco — one  of  the  most  magnificent  and  largest 
cities  in  the  Mohammedan  world.  It  is  said  to 
have  contained  about  90,000  dwelling-houses,  and 
about  700  mooques,  and  was  celebrated  for  its 
splendid  public  buildings,  schools,  and  scientific 
institutions.  On  the  removal  of  the  court  to  Marocco, 
about  the  middle  of  the  16th  c,  F.  gradually 
fell  into  decay.  It  is  still,  however,  a  place  of 
considerable  importance.  The  situation  of  F.  is 
eingidar;  it  lies  in  a  valley,  formed  by  surround- 
ing hills  into  a  sort  of  funnel,  the  higher  parts  of 
which  are  covered  with  trees,  orange  groves,  and 
orchards.  It  is  divided  into  Old  and  New  F.  by 
one  of  the  upper  branches  of  the  Sebu,  and  has 
a  population  variously  estimated  at  from  20,000  to 
nearly  90,000  souls.  There  are  100  mosques,  of 
which  the  most  important  is  that  built  by  the 
Sultan  Muley  Edris,  which  contains  his  monument, 
and  is  an  inviolable  refuge  for  criminals,  however 
guilty.  On  account  of  its  numerous  mosques  and 
relics,  it  is  regarded  as  the  Holy  City  of  the  western 
Ai'abs.  It  has  seven  well-attended  schools.  The 
old  palace  of  the  sidtan  is  large,  but  is  now  falling 
into  decay.  In  other  respects,  the  external  aspect 
of  F.,  with  its  numerous  baths,  caravanseras  (of 
which  there  are  about  200),  and  bazaars,  resembles 
that  of  Mohammedan  towns  in  general ;  the  mul- 
titude of  hotels  and  shops  alone  imparting  to  it  a 
peculiar  and  more  European  character.  A  consider- 
able trade  is  still  carried  on,  by  means  of  caravans, 
with  the  adjoining  countries  on  the  south  and 
east,  extending  as  far  as  Timbuktu.  F.  carries 
on  manufactui'es  of  woollens,  sashes,  silk-stuffs, 
girdles,  slippers,  fine  carpets,  &c.  Its  artisans  are 
also  skilful  workers  in  gold  and  jewellery. 

FEZZA'N  (more  correctly,  Fii,CSA>i,  an  extensive 
oasis  in  the  north  of  Africa,  in  2-1" — 31'  N.  lat., 
tnd  12 — 18°  E.  long.  It  lies  south  oi  the  regency 
oi  Tripoli,  and  has  a  popidation  variously  estonated 
at  from  75,000  to  150,000  souls.  Tlie  north  is  for 
the  most  part  hills,  but  the  hills  are  composed 
«f  perfectly  bare,  black  quartz  sandstone,  with  no 


rivers  or  brooks  among  them,  and  the  south  ia 
mainly  a  level  waste  of  dry  sand.  Not  more  than  a 
tenth  of  the  soil  is  cultivable.  In  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  villages,  which  are  situated  maiidy  in  the 
wadies,  wheat,  barley,  etc.,  are  cultivated.  Camels 
and  horses  are  reared  in  considcruble  numbers. 
Lions,  leopards,  hyenas,  jackals,  wild  cats,  porcu- 
pines, vultures,  ostriches,  buzzards,  etc.,  are  found 
in  abundance.  The  inhabitants  are  a  mixed  race, 
of  a  brown  colour,  in  many  respects  resembling 
the  negroes,  but  are  generally  well  formed.  The 
original  inhabitants  belonged  to  the  Berber  family 
but  since  the  invasion  of  the  country  by  the  Arabs 
in  the  15th  c,  the  tra/;es  of  this  native  North 
African  element  have  gradually  become  very  faint 
The  language  spoken  is  a  corrupt  mixture  of  Berbei 
and  Arabic.  The  people  are  far  behind  in  civilisa* 
tion,  and  occupy  themselves  with  gardening  and  the 
manufacture  of  the  most  indispensable  necessaries 
of  life.  Considerable  trade  is  carried  on  by  means 
of  caravans  between  the  interior  of  Africa  and  the 
coast.  F.  is  the  Phazania  of  the  ancients,  against 
which  the  Romans,  under  Cornelius  Balbus,  under- 
took a  campaign  about  20  b.  c.  During  the  classic 
period,  as  well  as  in  the  middle  ages,  it  waa 
governed  by  its  own  princes  who  were  at  first 
independent,  but  afterwards  became  tributary  to 
the  pashas  of  Tx-ipoli.  In  the  year  1842,  F.  was 
conquered  by  the  Turks,  and  since  that  time  has 
remained  a  Turkish  pashalic.  Mm-zuk,  the  capital 
of  F.,  is  a  well-built  town,  with  broad  streets  and 
a  population  of  2800.  Merchandise  to  the  value  of 
£21,000  annually  changes  hands  here,  and  of  that 
amount  the  slave-trade  forms  seven-eighths.  Murzuk 
is  now  the  great  starting-point  from  the  north  for 
the  interior  of  Negroland.  Compare  Earth's  I'raveh 
in  Central  Africa  (Loud.  1857),  and  also  the  descrip- 
tions given  of  Fezzan  by  Denham,  Clapperton, 
Oudney,  Richardson,  Dr  Vogel,  &c. 

FIAR.    See  Fee  and  Liferent. 

FIARS  (a  word  said  by  Jamieson  to  be  of 
Gothic  origin,  and  to  exist  in  the  same  form  in 
Icelandic).  The  fiars  prices  in  Scotland  are  the 
prices  of  the  different  kinds  of  grain  of  the 
growth  of  each  county  for  the  precedmg  crop, 
as  fixed  by  the  sentence  of  the  sheriff,  proceeding 
on  the  report  of  a  jury  summoned  for  the  pur- 
pose, before  whom  the  evidence  of  fannera  and 
corn-dealers  is  produced.  The  values  thus  officially 
ascertained  serve  as  a  rule  for  ascertaining  the 
prices  of  grain  in  all  contracts  where  they  are 
not  fixed  by  the  parties ;  and  in  many  sah  s  it 
is  agreed  to  accept  the  rates  fixed  by  the  tiars. 
Ministers'  stipends,  in  so  far  as  they  cons' st  of 
grain,  and  crown  dues,  are  also  f  aid  by  the  fiars 
prices  of  the  county  for  each  year.  With  a  view  to 
the  lattei',  fia.rs,  in  former  times,  were  struck  in 
exchequer.  An  error  in  sticking  the  fiars  wiU  not 
afford  a  ground  of  suspension. 

The  form  of  procedure  in  '  striking  the  fiars,'  as  it 
is  called,  is  regulated  by  Act  of  Sederunt,  21st  Dec. 
1723,  renewed  29th  February  1728.  The  time  fixed 
by  this  act  for  summoning  the  jury  is  between  the 
4th  and  20th  of  February,  and  the  verdict  must  be 
returned  before  1st  March,  old  style  ;  which  is  gene- 
rally considered  too  early,  as  before  that  time  not 
much  grain  of  the  previous  crop  has  been  brought 
into  the  market.  Mr  Barclay,  sheriff-substitute 
of  Perthshire,  in  his  Digest,  gives  the  follown'ng 
account  of  this  difficult  and  delicate  process  as 
practised  in  his  county.  'In  Perthshire,  the  fiirs 
court  is  held  on  the  last  Friday  of  February,  or  the 
first  Friday  of  March.  The  jury  consists  of  eight 
heritors,  a  few  farmers,  and  some  ne  itral  parties, 
especially  one  or  two  able  to  check  the  calculationa. 


FIASCO— FIBRE. 


An  expeiienced  accountant  is  sworn,  and  acts 
as  such,  but  is  not  on  the  jury,  and  is  paid  a  fee 
from  the  county  rates.  The  list  of  the  jury  is 
shifted  every  alternate  year,  thereby  ^^iving  sufficient 
release  from  duty,  and  yet  securing  i)ersons  skilled 
in  the  practice.  Some  years  ago,  it  was  arranged  to 
take  no  juror  who  either  paid  or  received  rents 
according  to  the  fiars  ;  but  this  greatly  limited  the 
choice,  and  was  complained  of,  and  abandoned.  All 
considerable  dealers  in  Perthshire  victual,  whether 
resident  in  Perthshire  or  elsewhere,  are  uniformly 
Bummoned,  and  in  addition,  every  person  whoso 
name  is  given  in  by  whatever  i)erson  interested.' 
Aa  grain  is  commonly  sold  according  to  weight, 
one  shilling  being  generally  allowed  on  wheat  for 
every  additional  ])Ound- weight  on  every  bushel ; 
on  an  application  by  the  farmers,  it  was  agreed  to 
determine  the  classification  by  taking  a  certain 
weight  as  the  point  of  division.  The  first  thing 
which  the  jury  do  is  consequently  to  determine  the 
point  of  Aveight.  The  witnesses  are  then  sworn  to 
the  schedules,  which  they  receive  after  harvest, 
and  in  which  they  insert  every  separate  quantity  of 
grain  sold,  with  the  dates  and  prices  diAaded  into 
Brst  and  second  classes,  according  as  the  judgment 
of  each  witness  dictates,  and  tlie  weight  of  each 
parcel.  The  residts  of  the  separate  scliedules  are 
inserted  by  the  accountant  in  a  general  schedule, 
whicli  is  summed  up  by  the  accountant,  such  mem- 
bers of  the  jury  as  are  capable  assisting  him.  The 
result  constitutes  the  fiars  prices  for  the  year.  The 
Bame  mode  is  not  adojited  in  England ;  but  weekly 
averages  of  all  grain  sold  at  public  markets  are 
ascertained  and  published  in  the  Gazette,  and  this 
is  without  respect  to  the  produce  of  particular 
counties.  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  60 ;  5  and  6  Vict.  c.  14 ; 
0  and  10  Vict.  c.  22.  See  Historical  Accoimt  of 
the.  Striking  of  the  Fiars  in  Scotland,  by  George 
Paterson,  Esq.,  Advocate,  1852. 

FIA'SCO,  a  term  borrowed  from  the  Italian 
theatre,  and  now  naturalised  in  France  and  Ger- 
many, besides  being  occasionally  used  by  English 
writers.  It  signifies  a  failure  to  please  on  the  part 
of  an  actor  or  singer,  and  is  thus  the  opposite  of 
furore,  although  why  the  word,  which  simply  means 
a  bottle,  should  come  to  be  thus  applied,  is  more 
than  anybody  knows.  In  Italy,  it  is  not  uncom- 
mon to  hear  an  audience  cry  out,  '  Old,  old,  fiasco,^ 
even  when  the  singer  has  only  made  a  single  false 
note. 

FI'AT,  in  English  Law,  a  short  order  or  warrant 
of  some  judge  for  making  out  or  allowing  certain 
piocesses. 

FIBER.    See  Musquash. 

FI'BRE  (Lat.  fibra),  a  term  of  very  common  iise 
as  applied  to  objects  of  a  stringy  or  thread-like 
character,  whether  of  the  animal,  vegetable,  or  min- 
eral kingdom.  Minerals  are  often  described  as  of  a 
fibrous  structure  or  appearance,  in  which  there  is, 
how^ever,  no  possibility  of  detaching  the  aj^parent 
fibres  from  the  general  mass,  or  in  which  they  are 
inflexible  and  brittle  if  detached :  but  a  more  perfect 
example  of  mineral  fibre  is  found  in  Amianthus,  a 
variety  of  Abbestus  (q.  v.).  For  the  scientific  use 
of  fibre  with  regard  to  the  animal  kingdom,  we 
refer  to  the  article  Muscle  ;  for  its  scientific  use 
with  regard  to  the  vegetable  kingdom,  to  Vege- 
table Tissue  and  to  Wood  and  Woody  Fibre. 
In  its  more  popular,  but  perfectly  accurate  use,  it 
Includes  the  hair  or  wool  of  (]uadrupeds,  the  silken 
threads  of  the  cocoons  of  silk-worms  and  other 
insects,  the  fibres  of  the  leaves  and  of  the  inner 
bark  of  plants,  and  the  elongated  cells  or  hairs 
connected  with  the  seeds  of  plants,  the  ordinary 
Biaterials  of  cordage  and  of  textile  fabrics. 
312 


Of  mineral  substances,  amianthus  alone,  has  been 
used  for  textile  fabrics,  and  that  only  to  a  very 
limited  extent.  Animal  and  vegetable  fibres  have, 
from  the  earliest  ages,  supplied  man  with  cordage 
and  with  cloth.  How  the  invention  took  place,  can 
only  be  matter  of  conjecture. 

The  animal  fibres  used  for  textile  purposes  are 
chiefly  of  the  two  classes  already  mentioned— (1) 
the  wool  or  hair  of  quadrupeds,  and  (2)  the  silk  of 
the  cocoons  of  insects.  To  these  may  be  added  (3) 
the  Byssus  (q.  v.)  of  molluscs,  but  this  class  contains 
only  the  Byssus  of  the  Pinna  (q.  v.)  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, an  article  of  ancient  and  high  reputation, 
but  more  of  curiosity  than  of  use.  The  skins  and 
intestines  of  animals,  although  sometimes  twdsted 
or  plaited  for  various  uses,  can  scarcely  be  reckoned 
among  the  fibrous  materials*  afforded  by  the  animal 
kingdom.  For  information  regarding  the  fibres 
obtained  from  the  cocoons  of  insects,  see  Silk  and 
Silkworm.  It  is  to  the  first  class  that  the 
greater  numl)er  of  different  kinds  of  animal  fibre 
used  for  textile  purposes  belong;  and  the  wool  of 
the  sheep  far  exceeds  all  the  rest  in  importance. 
See  Sheep  and  Wool.  But  the  wool  or  hair  of  other 
quadrupeds  is  also  to  some  extent  used,  as  of  the 
Goat  (see  Goat  and  Angora),  the  Al[)aca  (q.  v.), 
the  Camel  (q.  v.),  the  Bison  (q.  v.),  the  Musk  Ox 
(q.  v.),  the  Yak  (q.  v.),  and  the  Chinchilla  (q.  v.) ; 
all  of  which,  except  the  last — and  it  has  but  a 
doubtfid  claim  to  be  mentioned — are,  like  the 
sheep,  ruminants.  The  hair  of  comparatively  few 
animals  is  sufficiently  long  for  textde  purposes,  or 
can  be  procured  in  sufficient  abmidance  to  make 
it  of  economic  iinportance.  The  warmth  of  cloth- 
ing depends  much  on  the  fineness  of  the  hair, 
and  on  other  characters  in  which  wool  particularly 
excels. 

The  useful  vegetable  fibres  are  far  more  numerous 
and  various  than  the  animal.  They  are  obtained 
from  plants  of  natural  orders  very  different  from 
each  other ;  none  of  them,  however,  belonging  to 
the  class  of  acrogenous  or  cryptogamous  plants. 
They  are  obtained  also  from  different  parts  of  plants. 
Those  which  are  derived  from  exogenous  plants^  are 
either  the  fibres  of  the  inner  bark  (or  Bast,  q.  v.), 
as  flax,  hemp,  &c.,  or  hairs  of  the  fruit,  as  cotton. 
The  useful  fibres  of  endogenous  plants  sometimes  also 
belong  to  the  fruit,  as  coir  or  cocoa-nut  fibre,  and 
the  unimportant  fibre  of  cotton-grass.  The  spathe 
of  some  of  the  palms  is  sometimes  also  sufficiently 
fibrous  and  strong  to  be  used  for  bags,  &c.,  without 
separation  of  its  fibres ;  the  fibres  of  the  interior  of 
the  stem  of  old  cocoa-nut  palnis  are  sometimes  used 
for  coarse  purposes ;  the  fibrous  character  of  the 
stems  of  the  slender  palms  called  rattans,  of  bid- 
rushes,  &c.,  fits  them  for  Vkdcker-work,  for  plaiting 
into  chair-bottoms,  and  the  like ;  the  roots  of  the 
Agaves  (q.  v.)  yield  fibres  useful  for  various  pur- 
poses ;  but  generally,  the  more  valuable  fibres 
obtained  from  endogenous  plants  are  those  of  their 
leaves,  either  of  the  leaf-stalks — as  Piassaba  fibre 
and  Gomuto  or  Ejoo  fibre,  both  produced  by  palma 
— or  of  the  blade  of  the  leaf,  as  Pine-ai)ple  fibre, 
Pita  Flax,  New  Zealand  Flax,  Bowstring  Hemp,  &c. 
The  fibres  of  the  leaves  of  endogens  being  parallel 
to  each  other,  are  easily  obtained  of  sufficient  length 
for  economical  purposes ;  whilst  the  reticulated 
fibres  of  the  leaves  of  exogens,  even  if  long  enough, 
which  is  comparatively  seldom  the  case,  cannot  be 
separated  for  use.  The  bast  fil)res  of  exogens, 
liowever,  are  often  of  sufficient  length,  and  easily 
separable.  Their  separation  is  generally  accom- 
plished by  steeping  in  water,  or  by  frequent  l)edew- 
ing  with  water,  so  as  to  cause  a  partial  rotting  of 
the  other  parts  of  the  bast  and  of  the  bark  which 
covers  it.    But  the  fibres  of  endogens  being  in 


FIBRE-FIBRINE. 


general  discoloured  and  injured  by  this  process  to 
a  much  greater  degree  than  those  of  exogens,  mere 
mechanical  means  are  usually  preferred  for  their 
separation,  such  as  beating,  ])assing  between  rollers, 
and  scraping.  The  fibres  of  many  leaves  are  separ- 
ated by  bcraping  alone.  The  hbres  of  fnnts,  as 
cotton,  exist  in  nature  in  a  separate  state,  like  the 
wool  or  hair  of  animals,  and  require  merely  to  be 
collected  and  cleaned. 

A  complete  enumeration  of  the  kinds  of  vegetable 
fibre  applied  to  economical  purposes  would  not  be 
easy.  Flax,  Hemp,  and  Cotton  have  long  had  the 
pre-eminence.  To  these  have  recently  been  added 
New  Zealand  Flax,  Jute,  Sunn  or  Sunn  Hemp, 
Coir,  Pita  Flax,  Abaca  or  Manilla  Hemp,  Bow- 
string Hemp,  China  Grass,  Piassaba,  and  many 
others.  New  kinds  are  continually  being  brought 
under  notice,  and  to  this  industrial  exhibitions  and 
industrial  museums  have  most  beneficially  contri- 
buted. New  kinds,  however,  do  not  immediately 
command  the  attention  they  deserve.  *If  a  new 
product  is  sent  into  the  market,'  says  Dr  Royle, 
*few  of  the  regiilar  customers  will  buy  it,  as  they 
want  that  to  which  their  machinery  and  manufac- 
tures are  suited.'  But  for  the  judgment  and  enter- 
prise of  Mr  Salt,  it  might  have  been  long  ere  alpaca 
wool  had  obtained  its  present  place  among  the 
materials  of  our  manufactures ;  and  there  is  much 
reason  to  think  that  many  vegetable  fibres,  now 
little  regarded,  may  yet  in  like  manner  be  exalted 
to  importance. 

For  the  use  of  vegetable  fibres  in  the  manufacture 
of  paper,  see  Paper. 

Fibrous  Plants.  Without  attempting  a  com- 
plete enumeration  of  plants  which  yield  fibres 
employed  for  economical  jmrposes,  we  give  the 
following  as  a  list  which  may  be  useful.  Many  of 
the  subjects  will  be  found  treated  in  separate 
articles,  or  more  fully  noticed  under  the  natural 
orders.  The  most  important  are  indicated  by 
capitals. 

I.  Exogenous  Plants. 

1.  Fibres  of  the  Fruit. 

Nat.  Ord.  Malvacece.  COTTON,  produced  by  species 
of  Gossypium. 

'   Sterculiacece.    Silk-cotton,  or  vegetable  silk, 

the  produce  of  Bombax  villosum,  kc. 

  Asclepiadacece.    The  silk-like  down  of  the 

seeds  of  Virginian  Silk  {Asclepias  Syriaca). 

2.  Fibres  of  the  Inner  Bark  or  Bast. 

Nat.  Ord-  Malvacece.  Deckanee  Hemp  [Hibiscus  can- 
nabinus). — Other  species  of  Hibiscus,  Al- 
thcca  cannabina,  Sida  abutilon,  &c. 

-  Sterculiacece.  A  number  of  species  of  different 

genera  ;  some  of  them  cultivated  to  a  small 
extent. 

■'■  TiliacecB.    JuTE  {Cor chorus  oliiorius,  G.  cap- 

sularis,  kc.) — The  bast  of  some  trees  of 
this  family,  as  the  Linden  or  Lime  [Tilia 
Europcea,  kc.)  is  used  for  mats,  ropes,  &c. 
See  Bast. 

  Linacea;.    FLAX,  the  produce  of  Linum  mi- 

tatissimum. 

■  Lcffuminosce. — Sunn,  Jubbvilpore  Hemp,  &c., 
the  produce  of  species  of  Grotalaria. 

Spanisli  Broom  [Spartium  junccum). 

Bokhara  Clover  (Melilotus  arborca). 

Dhunchee  {Sesbania  aculcata). 

Species  of  Cytisus  (as  Common  Broom),  Butea, 
Parkinsonia,  Bauhinia,  kc. 

—  ■■         Asclepiadacece.     Jetee  {Marsdenia  tenacis- 

sima). 

Yercum  or  Mudar  (species  of  Calotropis). 
Virginian  Silk  (Asclepias  Syriaca,  A.  debilis). 
Other  species  of  several  genera. 
— Apocynacece.     CanacUan  Hemp  {A]^'*cynum, 
oannabinum). 


Nat.  Ord.  XJrticeai.  Common  N(Htle  {Urtica  dioiea)  and 

other  species  of  Urtica. 
Species  of  Bielimrria,  one  of  them  yieldiDg 

China  Grass  Pibrc. 

  Cannabinacece-    HEMP  [Cannabis  saliva). 

Hop  (// umulus  lupulus). 

  Moracece.    The  bark  of  some  species  of  Fig. 

— '   Conifcrcc.     Inner  bark  and  roots  of  some 

species  of  Pine  and  Fix. 
  Unknown.  Buaze. 

n.  Endogenous  Plants. 

Nat.  Ord.  Liliaceoe. 

New  Zealand  Flax,  fibre  of  leaves  of 

Phormium  tenax. 
Bowstring  Hemp,  fibre  of  leaves  of  species 

of  Sanscviera. 
Fibre  of  leaves  of  species  of  Ahii  and  of 
Yucca. 

  AmaryUidcce.    Pita  Flax,  fibre  of  leaves  *^ 

Agave  Americana. 
Fibre  of  leaves  of  specicJ  of  Fourcroya. 
  Musacece.     Abaca  or  Manilla  Hemp,  and 

Plantain  Fibre,  obtained  from  leaves  of 

species  of  Musa. 
  Bromeliaccce-     Pine-apple  Fibre,  Curratow^ 

&c.,  fibres  of  leaves  of  species  of  Broraclia, 

kc. 

  PandanacccB.  Fibres  of  leaves  of  Screw-pines. 

  Palmacece.    CoiE  or  cocoa-nut  fibre,  from 

husk  of  cocoa-nut.  Fibre  of  cocoa-nut 
stem.  Gomuto  or  Ejoo  fibre,  from  leaf- 
stalks of  Gomuto  Pahn  [Arenga  sacchari- 
fera). 

Piassaba,  from  Atfalea  funifera  and  Leopold- 
inia  Piassaba  (the  Chiquichiqui  Palm). 

Other  fibres  from  leaf-stalks,  kc,  of  many 
pahns. 

  Cyperacece.    Fibre  from  leaves  of  Eriophorum 

cannabinum  (see  Cotton-grass).  Mats, 
chair -bottoms,  &c.,  made  of  different 
Cypo'acece. 

  GraminecB  or  Grasses.    Esparto  [Stipa  tena- 

cissima). 
Moonja  [Saccharum  munja). 

FI'BRINE  is  an  organic  compound,  occurring 
both  in  animals  and  plants.  In  its  chemical  com- 
position it  closely  resembles  albumen  and  caseine, 
and  it  was  until  recently  believed  that  these  three 
substances  possessed  a  common  radical,  to  which 
the  name  j^roleine  (from  proteno,  I  am  first)  was 
given,  the  proteine  being  regarded  as  the  primary 
basis  of  all  the  tissues  of  the  body.  Hence  we 
frequently  find  fibrine  described  as  one  of  the 
proteine  bodies. 

Fibrine  is  mainly  distinguished  from  the  allied 
substances,  albumen  and  caseine,  by  its  separation 
in  a  solid  state,  in  the  form  of  extremely  delicate 
filaments  or  lamellse,  from  any  fluid  in  which  it  ia 
dissolved,  very  shortly  after  the  abstraction  of  the 
latter  from  the  organism. 

Animal  fibrine,  which  is  of  the  greatest  physio- 
logical importance,  occurs  principally  in  the  blood, 
the  lymph,  and  the  chyle.  In  order  to  obtain  it  in 
a  state  of  purity,  we  beat  or  stir  the  blood  with 
a  bundle  of  twigs,  to  which  the  fibrine  adheres  in 
strings.  The  impure  fibrine  thus  obtained  is  then 
rinsed  with  water,  boiled  vdth  alcohol  and  ether, 
— to  remove  fatty  iri»\tters — and  dried.  In  healthy 
venous  blood,  it  scarcely  ever  amounts  to  3  in  lOOC 
parts,  its  average  quantity  being  2  'S.  Small,  how- 
ever, as  its  amount  is,  it  varies  more  than  any  othei 
constituent  of  the  blood,  and  in  acute  inflammatory 
diseases  sometimes  exceeds  its  average  by  five  or 
six  times.  Moreover,  arterial  blood  contains  more 
fibrine  than  venous  blood.  In  the  lymph  and  chyle, 
it  occiu-s  in  considerably  less  quantity  than  in  the 
blood.  In  inflammatory  exudations,  we  find  fibrine 
in  the  contents   of  the  serous  cavities — as.  for 

813 


FIBROUS  TISSUE— FICIITE. 


example,  of  the  pleura  and  peritoneum — and  on  the 
mucous  meuibrane  (as  in  croup);  in  these  cases,  it 
usually  occurs  in  a  state  of  spontaneous  coagula- 
tion. 

There  are  good  physiological  reasons  for  believing 
that  tibrine  is  formed  from  albumen,  and  not  directly 
from  the  food ;  and  as  Hbriue  contains  a  little  more 
oxygen  than,  albumen,  it  has  been  inferred  that  it  is 
formed  from  the  latter  by  a  process  of  oxidation. 
As,  however,  more  tibrine  is  found  in  the  blood 
in  pneumonia— when  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
lungs  is  rendered  impervious  to  air— than  in  almost 
any  other  disease,  we  are  inclhicd  to  adoj)t  the 
opposite  hypothesis,  that  the  augmentation  of  the 
fibrine  in  inflammatory  blood  is  caused  by  an 
insufficient  supply  of  oxygen.  When  oxygen  is 
abundantly  introduced  into  the  blood,  the  fibrine 
rapidly  undergoes  further  transformations;  on  the 
other  hand,  when,  in  consequence  of  imj)ede<l  respi- 
ration, the  quantity  of  oxygen  conveyed  to  the  blood 
is  not  sufficient  to  effect  the  further  normal  oxi- 
dation or  transformation  of  the  fibrine,  we  have  an 
accumulation  of  that  constituent  in  the  cii-cidating 
fluid. 

It  has,  however,  been  a  disputed  question,  whether 
fibrine  is  produced  in  the  elaboration  or  in  the 
disintegration  of  the  tissues.  For  the  discussion  of 
this  subject,  and  of  other  points  connected  with 
fibrine,  we  must  refer  to  Lehmann's  Physiolorjlcal 
Chemistry,  vol.  i.  pp.  361—364. 

The  substance  forming  the  mass  of  flesh  or  mus- 
cular tissue  was  formerly  regarded  as  identical  with 
coagulated  blood-fibrine.  The  two  substances  are, 
however,  chemically  distinct,  and  the  muscle-tibrine 
will  be  described  imder  its  new  chemical  name, 
Syntonine  (from  aunteinein,  to  contract  or  render 
tense). 

FIBROUS  TISSUE.    See  Tissues. 

FI'CHTE,  JoHANN   Gottlieb,   an  illustrious 

German  philosopher,  was  born  at  Rammeau,  in  Upper 
Lusatia,  19th  May  1762.  His  earliest  years  were 
marked  by  a  love  of  solitary  musing  and  meditation. 
When  a  mere  child,  he  was  wont  to  wander  forth 
to  upland  fields,  that  he  might  enjoy  the  pleasure 
of  gazing  into  the  illimitable  distance.  In  1775,  he 
was  placed  at  the  gymnasium  of  Pforta,  near  Raum- 
burg ;  and  in  1780  he  entered  the  university  of 
Jena,  w^here  he  devoted  himself  at  first  to  theology, 
but  afterwards  to  philosophy.  During  the  years 
1784 — 1788,  he  supported  himself  in  a  precarious 
way  as  tutor  in  varioiis  Saxon  families.  Subse- 
quently, he  went  to  Zurich  in  a  similar  capacity, 
where  he  made  the  acqxiaintance  of  the  excellent 
lady  who  afterwards  became  his  ^vife,  Johanna  Maria 
Rahn.  In  1791,  F.  obtained  a  tutorship  at  Warsaw, 
in  the  house  of  a  Polish  nobleman.  The  situation, 
however,  proved  disagreeable,  and  was  thrown  up 
by  the  fastidious  philosopher,  who  next  proceeded 
to  Koiiigsberg,  where  he  had  an  interview  with 
Kant,  of  whom  he  had  become  an  ardent  disciple. 
Here  he  ^vrote,  in  1792,  his  Kritih  aller  Offenharung 
(Critiq^ue  of  all  Revelation),  which  he  shewed  to 
that  philosopher,  who  praised  it  highly,  but  still 
maintained  a  certain  air  of  reserve  towards  the 
enthusiastically  earnest  author,  which  pained  the 
latter  greatly.  At  Konigsberg,  F.  was  reduced  to 
such  straits  for  want  of  the  means  of  subsistence, 
that  he  was  forced  to  ask  the  loan  of  a  small  sum 
of  money  from  Kant,  which  the  latter  was  stoical 
enough  to  refuse.  Things  were  now  at  the  worst 
with  F.,  and  of  course — according  to  the  old  adage 
— they  began  to  mend.  He  entered  the  delightful 
family  of  the  Count  of  Krokow,  near  Danzig,  as 
tutor;  was  enabled  to  marry;  and  in  1794  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  Philosophy  at  J ena,  where 


he  commenced  to  expound  with  extraordinary  zeal 
his  system  of  transcendental  idealism.    F,  in  fact, 
preached  his  philosophy  as  if  he  believed  its  recep- 
tion essential  to  the  salvation  of  his  hearers.  In 
1795,  he  published  his  Wvssenschaflslehre  (Doctrine 
of  Science),  in  which  he  clearly  broke  away  from 
Kant,  whose  speculations  did  not  seem  to  him 
sufficiently  thorough,  or,  as  Englishmen  would 
say,  idealistic.     Indeed,  as  early  as  1793,  writing 
to  Niethammer,  he  says:  'My  conviction  is,  that 
Kant  has  only  indicated  the  truth,  but  neither 
unfolded  nor  proved  it.'    An  accusation  of  atheism, 
which  F.  fervidly  but  fruitlessly  refuted,  cost  him 
his  chair  in  1799.    In  the  previous  year,  he  pub- 
lished his  System  dcr  SUtenkhre  (System  of  Ethics, 
Jena,  1798),  considered  by  many  to  be  his  most 
mature  work.    He  now  removed  to  Berlin,  where  ha 
delivered  lectures  on  philosophy  to  a  select  auditory. 
In  1800,  appeared  his  Ueber  die  Bestimmungen  des 
Mertschen  (On  the  Destiny  of  Man).     In  1805,  he 
obtained  the  chair  of  Philosojjhy  at  Erlangen,  with 
the  privilege  of  residing  at  Berlin  in  the  winter. 
Here  he  delivered  his  celebrated  lectures,  Ueher  das 
Wesen  des  Gelehrten  (On  the  Nature  of  tlie  Scholar, 
Berfin,  1805—1806).    In  the  same  year,  appeared 
his  Grundziirje  des  gegeniourt'ujen  Zeitalters  (Char- 
acteristics of  the  Present  Age);  and  in  1806,  his 
A  nwelsvng  zum  seligen  Leben  oder  die  ReUgionslehre 
(The  Way  to  the  Blessed  Life,  or  the  Doctrine  of 
Religion).    But  F.  was  a  patriot  as  well  as  a  philo- 
sopher. The  victories  of  Napoleon  at  Auerstadt  and 
Jena  drew  forth  the  famous  Reden  an  die  De^^tsclien 
(Addresses  to  the  Germans).    These  addresses  were 
full  of  the  most  exalted  enthusiasm.    F.  '  laments 
that  his  age  has  denied  him  the  privilege  accorded 
to  ^Eschylus  and  Cervantes,  to  make  good  hiy  wordj 
by  manly  deeds.'     The  Pnissian  king  appreciated 
the  zeal  of  the  eloquent  metaphj'^sician,  and  on  the 
restoration  of  peace,  requested  him  to  draw  up  a 
new  constitution  for  the  Berlin  University.  In 
1810,  the  university  was  opened,  with  a  host  of 
brilliant  names,  F.,  Wolfi",  Miiller,  Humbtjldt,  De 
Wette,  Schleiermacher,   Neander,   Klaproth,  and 
Savigny.    By  the  votes  of  his  colleagoies,  F.  was 
unanimously  elected  rector.    Here,  as  at  Jena,  he 
laboured  wath  unremitting  energy  for  the  suppres- 
sion of  all  those  customs  which  he  deemed  barbarous 
in  themselves,  and  incompatible  with  the  tiue  idea 
of  a  scholar.     In  1813,  the  war  of  independence 
broke  out,  and  the  hospitals  of  the  Prussian  capital 
were  soon  crowded  with  patients.     F.'s  wife  was 
one  of  the  first  who  offered  her  services  as  a  nurse. 
For  five  monthis,  she  tended  the  sick  with  all  the 
patient  tenderness  and  devotion  of  her  natiu-e.  At 
last,  she  w^as  seized  w^ith  fever,  3d  January  1814. 
After  a  fearful  struggle,  she  recovered;  but  her 
husband  caught  the  infection,  and  in  spite  of  ail 
remedies,  sank  under  its  influence,  and  died  27th 
January  1814.    It  is  difficult  to  speak  calmly  of 
Fichte.    His  life  stirs  one  like  a  trumpet.    He  com- 
bines the  penetration  of  a  philosopher  with  the  fire 
of  a  prophet,  and  the  thunder  of  an  orator ;  and  over 
all  his  life  lies  the  beauty  of  a  stainless  purity.  See 
Ficlde's  Leben  und  literarischer  Briefweclisel  (pub- 
lished by  I.  H.  Fichte,  2  vols.  Sulzb.  1830—1831); 
and  W.  Smith's  Memoir,  published  by  Chapman 
and  Hall  (Lond.  1848).    The  fundamental  notion  of 
the  idealism  set  forth  in  F.'s  writings,  at  least  in 
the  earlier  of  them,  is  the  sole  reality  of  the  Eyo  or  I, 
which  posits  both  itself  and  the  Non-ego,  or  Mot- 1. 
(The   phrase  'to   posit,'  it  ought   to  be  observed 
here,  signifies  in  German  metaphysics,  to  present  to 
the  consciousness.    Hence,  when  it  is  said  that  the 
ego   posits   itself,  the    meaning  is,  that  the  ego 
becomes  a  fact  of  consciousness,  which  it  can  only 
become  through  the  antithesis  of  the  non-ego.) 


FICHTE— nCINO. 


Under  this  ego,  however,  must  not  be  understood, 
according  to  the  usual  misapprehension,  the  human 
and  finite,  hut  the  '  absolute  subject-objectivity ' 
{absolute  subject- ohjectivitdt),  the  eternal,  universal 
reason.  The  ego  is  the  absolutely  productive, 
which,  however,  would  not  attain  to  conscious- 
ness of  itself — i.e.,  of  its  infinite  spontaneous 
activity,  did  it  not  at  the  same  time  place  in 
contrast  to  itself,  and  as  an  impediment  [anstoss) 
and  limit  to  its  activity,  the  non-ego — i.  e.,  the 
objective  world,  or  nature.  The  ego,  in  so  far 
as  it  is  determined  by  the  non-ego,  is  the  intelli- 
gent ego,  and,  as  such,  the  subject  of  theoretical 
science ;  the  ego,  on  the  other  hand,  as  deter- 
mining the  non-ego,  is  the  subject  of  practical 
science.  Freedom,  absolute,  spontaneous  activity, 
for  its  own  sake,  is  not  with  F.,  as  with  Kant,  the 
condition  and  pre-supposition  of  moral  action,  but 
is  itseK  the  highest  expression  of  the  problem  of 
the  moral  law.  To  realise  this  self-activity,  how- 
ever, the  ego  requires  an  external  world  of  objects, 
in  order  that  in  them  as  limits  it  may  become  con- 
scious of  its  own  activity.  To  this  idealistic  system 
of  ethics  it  has  been  plausibly — some  think  un- 
answerably— objected  that  it  makes  the  non-ego  be 
required  as  the  condition  of  morality,  and  at  the 
same  time  represents  the  removal  of  this  condition 
as  the  aim  of  moral  effort.  With  respect  to  the 
idea  of  right,  F.'s  theory  of  freedom,  in  its  funda- 
mental principles,  attached  itself  to  the  Kantian 
theory  of  freedom  as  the  innate  and  primitive  prin- 
ciple of  right.  Generally  speaking,  F.  makes  that 
which,  from  the  stand- point  of  ordinary  conscious- 
ness, we  call  the  world,  merely  a  product  of  the  ego ; 
it  exists  only  through  the  ego,  for  the  ego,  and  in  the 
ego.  F.  himself  afterwards  modified  or  extended 
his  system,  so  as  to  bring  out  more  prominently  the 
theistic  character  of  his  metaphysics.  The  tran- 
sition to  this  later  stage  of  F.'s  philosophy  is 
seen  in  his  Bestimmung  des  Mensclien  (Destination 
of  Man).  It  arose  from  the  intense  religiosity  of 
his  nature.  F.  was  essentially  a  worshipping  nature, 
and  though  he  never  ceased  to  be  a  philosopher,  the 
untiring  aspiration  of  his  later  years  was  to  realise 
in  his  own  way  the  belief  of  the  great  Jewish  law- 
giver :  '  The  eternal  God  is  thy  refuge,  and  round 
thee  are  the  everlasting  arma  '  A  popular  exj^osi- 
tion  of  his  philosophy  is  given  in  his  Anwelsung  zum 
seligen  Leben.  It  is  set  forth  in  a  strictly  scientific 
manner  in  the  lectures  published  in  the  Nacligelas- 
senen  Werlce,  edited  by  I.  G.  Fichte  (3  vols.  Bonn, 
1834 — 1835),  in  which  his  Sjyeculative  Logik  and  his 
revised  theory  of  right  and  morals  are  jiai-ticularly 
deserving  of  attention.  Althougli  F.  never,  strictly 
speaking,  formed  a  school,  and  though  his  system 
has  only  been  adopted  by  a  few,  such  as  J.  B. 
Schad,  Mehmel,  Cramer,  Schmidt,  and  Michaelis, 
his  influence  upon  the  subsequent  development  of 
German  i)hilosophy  has  been  very  important.  F.'s 
collective  works  have  likewise  been  published  by 
his  son,  I.  H.  Fichte.  His  popular  works  have 
been  translated  into  English  by  W.  Smith,  and 
published  1  )y  J.  Chapman  of  London  in  his  '  Catholic 
Series,'  Their  titles  are — The  Destination  of  Man, 
The  Vocation  of  the  ScJiolar,  The  Naiure  of  the 
Scholar,  The  Way  to  the  Blessed  Life^  and  The 
Cliaracteristlcs  of  the  Present  A  ge. 

FICHTE,  Immanuel  Hermann,  son  of  the 
former,  and  professor  of  philosophy  in  the  univer- 
sity of  Tubingen,  was  born  in  1797,  and  early 
devoted  himself  to  philosophical  studies,  being 
attracted  by  the  later  views  of  his  father,  which 
he  considers  were  essentially  theistic.  He  also 
attended  tlie  lectures  of  Hegel,  but  felt  averse  to 
his  pantheistic  tendencies,  and  leaned  more  to  j 
Schleiermacher  and  SchcUing.     Occupied  at  first  | 


as  a  teacher,  F.  was  aj)pointed  professor  of  philos- 
oi)hy  in  Bonn  in  1830,  and  in  1842  received  a 
call  to  the  university  of  'I'ubingen.  His  cluc£ 
works  arc- -Jkitrage  z/ir  Character istik  der  neaern 
I'hilosoj^hie  (1841);  (Iraudznge  zum  Sijateint  der 
Piaiosophie  (Hcidel.  1839—1847);  stem  der  Kthik 
(Lcip.  1850— 18ol);  and  Anihropologie,  oder  die 
Lehre  von  der  Mensclilicken  ISeele  (Leip.  1850).  He 
suggested  meetings  of  philosophers  siuiilur  to  those 
held  by  physicists;  and  at  the  one  held  jit  Gotha, 
1847,  he  delivered  an  address  On  the  ridUmrphg 
of  the  Future  (Stuttg.  1847).  The  great  aim  of  his 
speculations  has  been  to  find  a  philosophic  basis  for 
the  personality  of  God,  and  for  his  theory  on  this 
subject  he  has  proposed  the  term  Concrete  ThAsm^ 
to  distinguish  it  alike  from  the  abstract  theism 
which  makes  God  almost  an  unreality — a  bari-en 
aggregate  of  lifeless  attributes  ;  and  on  the  other 
hand,  from  the  all-absorbing  pantheism  of  Hegel, 
which  swalloM^s  up  the  human  and  the  divine 
in  its  own  inapprehensible  totality.  Recently, 
F.  has  published  an  important  work,  Zvr  Seelen- 
frage,  eine  Philosojjhlsche  Confession,  which  has 
been  translated  into  English  by  J.  D.  Morcll,  under 
the  title  of  Contributions  to  Mental  Philosopliy 
(1860),  for  an  account  of  which  see  art.  Con.scious- 
NESS.  During  the  movements  of  1848,  he  issued 
several  political  tracts.  The  principle  of  F.'s 
i:)olitics  is  not  milike  Dr  Arnold's  maxim.  He 
holds  that  there  is  only  one  kind  of  real  conser- 
vatism, that  of  constant  well-planned  reform  ;  and 
that  all  revolution  consists  either  in  attempts  to 
precijiitate  prematurely  the  future,  or  to  go  back 
to  ideas  that  are  effete,  the  last  being  only  the 
chrysalis  form  of  the  first.  The  state,  '  according 
to  the  idea  of  benevolence,'  belongs  to  the  future. 
The  rejQ;eneration  of  Christianity  would  consist  in 
its  becoming  the  vital  and  organising  power  in 
the  state,  instead  of  being  occupied  solely,  as' 
heretofore,  with  the  salvation  of  individuals.  To 
this  recent  school  of  philosophy  belong  Weisse, 
Chalyba?us,  Wirth,  and  others. 

FICI'NO,  Maesilio,  an  illustrious  philosopher 
of  the  Italian  Platonic  school,  was  born  at  Florence 
1433.  He  was  tlie  son  of  the  principal  physi- 
cian of  Cosmo  de'  Medici  ;  and  to  the  liberality  of 
this  prince  he  owed  the  classical  culture  which 
inspired  his  futm^e  career.  At  the  suggestion  of 
Cosmo,  F.  undertook  the  translation  of  Plotinus, 
Jamblichus,  Proclus,  and  Pori^hyry,  besides  a  Latin 
but  by  no  means  literal  version  of  Plato.  In  1463, 
he  was  appointed  by  Cosmo  president  of  a  classical 
society  or  academy,  founded  in  1440,  having  for  its 
aim  the  diffusion  of  the  Platonic  doctrines,  which 
F.  held  to  be  the  basis  and  confirmation  of  the 
Christian  system.  On  the  death  of  Cosmo,  F. 
found  a  no  less  munificent  pati'on  in  this  prince's 
grandson,  Lorenzo  de'  Medici ;  and  ha^dng,  at 
the  mature  age  of  40,  decided  on  entering  the 
church,  he  was  endowed  by  Lorenzo  with  the 
rectorship  of  two  churches  in  Florence,  and  a 
canonry  in  the  cathedral.  His  theological  doctrine, 
while  undoubtedly  sincere,  presents  a  strange 
medley  of  incongruous  views,  the  natural  result  of 
his  attempt  to  fuse  the  philosophy  of  Plato  with 
the  Christian  creed.  He  died  in  1499,  and  was 
interred  in  the  cathedral  of  Florence,  where  a 
monimient  commemorates  his  upright  and  manly 
qualities  no  less  than  his  learning  and  philosophy 
F.'s  collected  works  were  pubhshed  at  Basel  (2  vols, 
f.  1491),  and  consist  of  translations  from  the  Greek 
philosophers,  and  original  metaphysical  and  theo- 
logical comiX)sitions,  of  which  R-e  may  mention  the 
Theologica  Platonica,  De  PeLgione  Christiana,  hif 
j  Latin  epistles,  and  a  Commentary  on  the  Epistles  ol 
1  St  Paul 


FICTION— FIELD. 


FICTION-.    See  Novels. 

FICTION  OF  LAW  has  been  defined  to  be  *  a 
supposition  of  law  that  a  thing  is  true,  which  is 
either  certainly  not  true,  or  at  least  is  as  probably 
false  as  true.' — Erskine,  List.  iv.  2,  38.  Fictions 
have  existed  in  all  legal  systems.  They  must  be 
regarded  as  a  species  of  legal  fraud,  which  has  been 
tolerated  as  enabling  individuals  who,  by  the  strict 
letter  of  the  law,  would  have  been  excluded  from 
obtaining  redress  of  evils,  to  procure  that  remedy  by 
a  pious  fraud.  Tliere  are  two  general  maxims  which 
regulate  the  application  of  lictions — viz.,  that  no 
fiction  shall  be  allowed  to  operate  a  wrong,  and 
that  no  fiction  shall  l)e  admitted  which  in  the  nature 
of  things  is  imiiossible.  The  lioman  form  of  judi- 
cial procedure  abounded  with  fictions,  by  which 
alone,  in  many  cases,  a  party  aggrieved  could  enforce 
his  right.  Thus,  an  heir,  im justly  disinherited,  by 
tlie  querela  inofficiosi  testameiiti,  feigned  that  his 
father  had  been  mad.  A  stranger  in  Rome,  who 
had  been  robbed,  could  not  obtain  restitution  without 
the  ficlio  civitatis,  whereby  he  feigned  himself  a 
citizen.  !Many  of  the  fictions  existing  in  Rome  have 
found  a  counterpart  in  modern  systems ;  thus,  the 
fi'-tio  lon(/te  maims,  Avherel)y  lands  at  a  distance 
were  feigned  to  be  delivered,  resembles  an  English 
feotHnent  at  law.  In  like  manner,  the  fictio  traditlonis 
e]/))ibolic(B  of  keys  of  a  warehouse  to  give  possession 
of  the  articles  contained  therein,  and  of  a  deed  in 
conlirniation  of  the  covenants  contained  therein. 
The  jict'to  icnilatis  personarum  was  the  original  of  the 
Scottish  liction,  that  the  heir  is  eadem  pernona  cum 
defnncto.  But  in  no  system  of  laws  have  fictions 
been  so  liberally  adopted  as  in  that  of  England.  It 
is  by  means  of  fictions  alone  that  the  original 
limited  jurisdiction  of  the  courts  of  Queen's  Bench 
and  Exchequer  has  been  extended  to  ordinary  suits. 
In  the  latter  court,  every  plaintiff  assumed  that  he 
was  a  del)tor  to  the  crown,  and  was  debarred  from 
discharging  his  obligation  by  the  failure  of  the 
defendant  to  satisfy  his  demand  ;  in  the  former,  it 
was  assumed  that  the  defendant  had  been  arrested 
for  some  supposed  trespass  which  he  had  never  in 
fact  comniitted.  The  fictitious  characters  of  John 
Doe  and  Richard  Roe  long  contributed  to  make  the 
action  of  ejectment  famous.  And  though  these 
fictions  have  disappeared  before  the  ruthless  hand  of 
modern  legislation,  yet  to  this  day,  in  an  action  at 
the  instance  of  a  father  for  the  seduction  of  his 
daughter,  damages  can  only  be  awarded  on  the 
assumption  that  she  was  his  servant,  and  that  he  has 
Buffered  pecuniary  loss  by  deprivation  of  her  services. 
In  Chanceiy,  again,  the  whole  doctrine  of  uses  and 
trusts  is  based  upon  a  fiction.  Perhaps  the  best 
ex[>lanation  of  the  introduction  of  fictions  into  legal 
systems  is  to  be  found  in  Dr  Colquhoun's  Summary 
of  the  Roman  Civil  Law,  2027.  It  involves,  he  says, 
'less  ditficulty  to  adhere  to  known  and  admitted 
forms,  and  gradually  to  accommodate  them  to  the 
changed  state  of  society,  than  to  upset  all  the 
incidents  connected  with  them  by  a  sudden  change, 
which  must  ever  tend  to  unsettle  the  law  and 
practice  of  the  courts.  AJl  nations  have  therefore 
f<jund  it  more  desirable  to  let  the  one  glide  into  the 
other,  than  to  adopt  any  abrupt  measm-e  which 
might  disturb  the  practice  and  effect  of  former 
decisions.' 

In  the  law  of  Scotland,  fictions  of  law  are  not  of 
frequent  occurrence.  For  the  benefit  of  creditors, 
the  pi'inciple  that  the  heir  is  eadem  j'^ersona  cum 
defanclo  is  admitted;  and  in  an  action  of  'Reduction- 
improbation'  of  a  deed,  it  is  assumed  that  the 
document  was  false,  whether  the  fact  be  so  or  not. 
But  in  general  the  legal  system  of  Scotland  has 
shewn  a  facility  of  ada])ting  itself  to  the  circum- 
Btxncea  of  the  case,  and  that  without  producing  the 


alarming  results  which  presented  themselves  to  the 
imagination  of  Dr  Colquhoun. 

FICUS.    See  Fig. 

FID  (from  the  Lat.  findere,,  fidi,  to  divide),  for 
splicing  ropes,  is  a  large  pointed  pin,  with  an  eye  at 
the  thick  end,  of  iron  or  lignum  vitae,  used  by 
sailors  in  separating  and  interlacing  the  strands  of 
which  the  rope  is  composed. 

A  mast-Jid  is  a  bolt  inserted  through  the  bottom 
of  a  ship's  topmast  or  top-gallant-mast,  with  ends 
resting  on  the  trestle-trees  sustained  by  the  head  of 
the  lower  mast  or  topmast.  Unless  tlie  mast- (id  be 
withdrawn,  the  supported  mast  cannot  be  lowered. 

FIDDEMIN,  one  of  the  handsomest  villages  of 
the  Faytim,  inhabited  by  a  Mussulman  and  Coptic 
population.  It  is  surrounded  by  fruit  trees,  and  is 
remarkable  for  a  large  olive,  supposed  to  be  the 
original  one  planted  in  Egypt,  and  yielding  annu- 
ally 268  pounds  of  olives. — Clot  Bey,  Aper{-u  r/ene- 
rale  sur  VE(jypte  (8vo,  Paris,  1840),  vol.  i.  p.  213. 

FIDDLE.    See  Violin. 

FIDEICOMMISSUM,  in  the  Civil  Law,  was  a 
conveyance  of  projierty  in  trust  to  be  transferred  to 
a  third  person  named  by  the  truster.  Fideicom- 
missa,  when  first  introduced,  were  not  supported 
by  the  law.  The  performance  of  them  de[)ended, 
therefore,  on  the  conscience  of  the  party  intrusted, 
and  they  were  consequently  frequently  not  carried 
out.  They  were  originally  adopted  for  the  pur- 
pose of  convejang  property  either  where  a  party, 
from  the  circumstances  of  the  case,  as  inability  to 
procure  the  proper  number  of  witnesses,  was  pre- 
vented from  executing  a  wiQ  ;  or  where  he  desired 
to  benefit  those  who,  by  law,  were  precluded  from 
takint;  the  property.  To  efiect  this  purpose,  an 
actual  conveyance  was  made  to  a  friend,  coui)lod 
with  a  request  that  the  property  should  be  trans- 
ferred to  another.  Fideicommissa  having  thus  been 
introduced  for  a  special  purpose,  were  by  degrees 
extended  to  conveyances  of  the  whole  inheritance, 
and  finally  were  used  for  the  purpose  of  settling 
estates  in  a  particular  order  of  succession,  forming 
the  earliest  instance  of  Entails  (q.  v.).  Fideicom- 
missa first  received  the  sanction  of  positive  law  in 
the  reign  of  Augustus,  by  whom  authority  was 
given  to  the  praetor  to  enforce  the  performance  of 
these  fiduciary  obligations. — Institutes,  ii,  23,  s.  1. 
The  Emperor  Claudius  subsequently  extended  this 
authority  to  the  consuls  and  presidents  of  provinces. 
Fideicommissa  were  either  parficw/or  or  universal, 
the  former  being  a  bequest  of  a  particular  subject, 
or  a  part  oidy  of  the  inheritance ;  the  latter  compre- 
hended the  whole  estate. 

In  Holland,  the  principles  of  the  civil  law  as 
to  fideicommissa  form  an  important  branch  of 
the  law  in  regard  to  landed  estates.  An  heir  may 
be  required  to  transfer  either  the  whole  or  a  portion 
of  his  inheritance.  The  provisions  of  the  Senatus- 
Consultum  Trebellianum  also  have  been  adopted  ; 
but  if  an  heir  resist  the  intentions  of  the  testator, 
and  is  compelled  by  law  to  execute  the  trust,  he  is 
not  allowed  to  take  the  benefit  of  these  provision* 
The  benefit  also  may  l)e  excluded  by  express  direc* 
tion  in  the  will.  Children  who  have  received  their 
legal  portions,  and  are  required  to  transfer  to  a 
stranger  the  rest  of  the  inhci-itance,  are  entitled  to 
retain  a  fourth  part  for  tliemselves.  Grotius,  DutcJ^ 
Jurisprudence,  by  Herbert,  b.  ii.  c.  20. 

FIDI'CULA,  a  srrall  musical  i/istrument  in  the 
shape  of  a  lyre. 

FIEF.    See  Ff  jdal  System. 

FIELD.  In  Heraldry  the  field  is  the  whole  sur- 
face or  contine'it  of  the  escutcheon  or  sniekl.  It  is 
so  called,  according  to  some,  because  it  represents 


FIELD-ALLOWANCE-FIELDING. 


tlie  field  of  battle  on  which  the  achievements 
or  charges  represented  on  it  are  supposed  to  have 
been  gained.  In  blazoning,  the  tincture  or  metal  of 
the  field  must  be  the  first  thing  mentioned. 

FIELD-ALLOWANCE,  a  daily  allowance 
gi-auted  to  officers  of  the  British  army  in  consi- 
deration of  extra  expense  entailed  upon  them  in 
consequence  of  military  operations.  Ordinary  field- 
allowance,  ranging  from  £1,  10s.  for  a  general  officer 
to  \s.  for  a  subaltern,  is  applicable  when  troops  are 
encamped  at  home  or  in  the  colonies.  Extra- 
(yrdinaru  field-aUowance  is  sanctioned  when  and 
wherever  troops  are  engaged  in  actual  warfare  :  it 
ranges  for  the  above  ranks  from  £2,  IO5.  to  Is.  &d. 
Strict  rules  are  laid  dowTi  that  no  officer  shall 
receive  this  allowance  unless  positively  present  with 
the  army. 

FIELD-GLASS,  is  the  lens  usually  interposed 
between  the  object-glass  and  eye-glass  of  a  micro- 
scope, which,  receiving  the  diverging  rays  from 
the  former  before  they  form  an  image,  contracts 
the  dimensions  of  the  image,  and  increases  its 
brightness,  so  as  to  render  it  of  a  proper  size 
and  degree  of  distinctness  for  being  viewed  by 
means  of  the  eye-glass.  See  Field  of  View,  and 
Microscope. 

FIELD-MAKSHAL,  the  highest  rank  of  general 
officei's  in  the  British  and  some  foreign  armies.  In 
the  former,  it  is  a  special  honour  enjoyed  by  very  few 
ofllcers.  and  only  conferred  by  selection,  either  on 
the  ground  of  distinguished  service  or  of  royal  birth. 
WTien  unemployed,  the  field-marshal  has  no  higher 
pay  than  any  other  general,  but  if  commanding  an 
army,  he  receives  £16,  8s.  9d.  a  day  for  staff-pay, 
while  a  general  has  but  £9,  9s.  Q>d.  The  equiva- 
lent rank  in  the  navy  is  that  of  admiral  of  the 
fleet.  Formerly,  a  captain -general  was  occasionally 
appohited,  who  had  rank  higher  even  than  a  field- 
marshal. 

FIELD-MOUSE,  a  name  popularly  given  to 
certain  species  both  of  Mouse  and  of  Vole.  See 
these  articles. 

FIELD-OFFICERS,  in  the  Army,  are  such  as 
are  competent  to  command  whole  battalions — viz., 
majors,  lieutenant-colonels,  cjolonels — in  contradis- 
tinction to  those  merely  intrusted  with  company 
duties,  as  captains,  lieutenants,  and  ensigns. 

FIELD  OF  VIEW  is  the  whole  space  within 
which  objects  can  be  seen  through  an  optical  instru- 
ment ;  more  strictly,  it  is  the  space  within  which 
the  image  of  an  object  may  be  seen  by  whole 
pencils.  That  part  of  the  image  which  is  seen  by 
I)artial  pencils  of  the  liglit  from  the  object  specidum 
or  lens  is  called  the  ragged  edge,  and  usually  a 
diaphragm  is  employed  to  cut  it  off  from  the  view  of 
the  observer  altogether. 

FIELD -TRAIN,  a  department  of  the  Royal 
Artillery,  consisting  of  commissaries  and  conductors 
of  stores,  responsible  for  the  safe  custody  of  the 
ammunition,  for  the  formation  of  proper  depots  of 
Bhot,  &c.,  between  the  front  and  the  base  of  opera- 
tions, and  that  a  due  proportion  shall  be  constantly 
at  the  service  of  each  gun  during  an  engagement. 

FIELD-WORKS  are  intrenchments  and  other 
temporary  fortifications  thrown  up  by  an  army  in 
tliC  field,  either  as  a  protection  from  the  onslaught 
of  a  hostile  force,  or  to  cover  an  attack  upon  some 
stronghold.  Field-works  will  be  more  particularly 
described  under  the  article  Fortification  (q.  v.). 

FIELDFARE  {Turdus  pilaris),  a  species  of 
Thrush  (q.  v.),  in  size  about  equal  to  the  blackbird, 
but  with  greater  len^h  of  wing  ;  the  general  colour 
gray,  the  feathers  tipped  with  a  brownish  black 
elongated  spot ;   the  throat  and  breast  reddish 


yellow,  streaked  and  spotted  with  black ;  the  fore 
part  of  the  back  and  wings  of  a  rich  brown  colour , 
the  tail  slightly  forked  and  nearly  black ;  the 
under  parts  white.  The  F.  is  a  vei-y  common  Tvinter 
visitant  of  Britain,  although  it  rarely  breeds  even  la 


Fieldfare  {Turdus  pilaris). 


the  northern  parts  of  the  island.  It  arrives  from 
more  northern  regions  when  the  winter  has  fully 
come,  and  departs  again  towards  the  end  of  spring. 
It  is  well  known  to  youthful  sportsmen,  and  afi"orda 
much  employment  for  their  guns  during  the  Christ- 
mas holidays,  when  it  may  generally  be  found  in 
small  flocks — often  along  with  its  smaller  congener, 
the  redwing— in  fields,  if  the  weather  is  mild, 
feeding  on  worms,  snails,  &c.,  or,  in  severe  weather, 
about  hedges,  thickets,  and  woods,  wherever  hawa 
and  other  such  fruits  or  seeds  are  abundant.  Its 
winter  migrations  extend  southward  as  far  at  least 
as  the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  one  of 
the  summer  songsters  of  the  north  of  Europe  and  of 
Siberia  ;  its  song  is  soft  and  melodious,  but  is  much 
less  familiar  to  us  in  Britain  than  its  call-note, 
which  is  harsh.  It  is  extremely  plentiful  in  Nor- 
way, where  its  nests  are  very  generally  built  in 
spruce  firs,  and,  contrary  to  the  ordinary  habits  of 
thrushes,  in  society  ;  numerous  nests  being  often  to 
be  found  in  the  same  tree,  and  '  two  hundred  nests 
or  more  being  frequently  seen  within  a  very  smaU 
space.'  The  F.  is  easily  tamed,  and  sings  well  in 
captivity. 

FIELDING,  Henrv,  born  April  22,  1707,  was 
the  son  of  General  Edmund  Fielding,  connected 
with  the  Earls  of  Denbigh.  He  was  sent  to  Eton, 
and  was  afterwards  transferred  to  the  university  of 
Leyden,  to  prosecute  legal  studies.  Returning  to 
London,  he  began  to  write  for  the  stage,  and 
worked  with  so  much  industry  that  between  1727 
and  1730  he  produced  nearly  a  score  of  comedies 
and  farces,  which  were  forgotten  with  nearly  as 
much  speed  as  they  were  produced.  He  married  in 
1736,  and  falling  heir  to  a  small  estate,  he,  with  hia 
young  wife,  retired  from  London-  But  his  was  not 
a  Fortunatus's  purse,  and  his  hand  was  continually 
in  it ;  and  in  three  years  after  his  marriage,  he  was 
back  in  London  a  student  at  the  Temple.  He  was 
called  to  the  bar  at  the  usual  time,  but  gout  inter- 
vening, steady  practice  was  rendered  impossible. 
Happily,  a  way  of  escape  was  at  hand.  Richardson 
published  Pamela ;  the  town  was  ringing  with  it ; 
and  F.,  whose  strong,  healthy,  imconventional  nature 
revolted  from  the  moral  priggishness  of  *  Virtue 
Rewarded,'  resolved  to  write  a  counterpart,  pur- 
porting to  be  the  adventui-es  of  Pamela's  brother, 
Joseph  Andrews.  This  work,  begun  in  a  satirical 
mood,  and  intended  merely  to  quiz  Richardson, 
deepened  as  it  proceeded,  and  flowered  out  into 
'  humorous  adventure.     The  exquisite  character  of 


FIELDING— FIESCHl. 


Parson  Adams  took  the  world  bj  surprise,  and 
rernuius  one  of  the  permanent  glories  of  English 
fiction.  I'lie  next  important  work  undertaken  by 
him  was  Juiutthan  Wild,  a  mastei'-pieee  of  irony, 
which  has  never  been  suliicientlj'  appreciated,  and 
which  doubtless  suggested  to  Mr.  Thackeray  the 
Bcopc  and  conduct  of  Barry  Lyndon.  The  rebellion 
of  1745  induced  F.  to  undertake  the  direction  of 
the  Jacuhite  Journal,  in  support  of  the  Hanoverian 
succession;  and  s^hortly  after,  as  a  reward  for  his 
loyalty,  he  was,  through  the  influence  of  Lord 
Lyttelton,  promoted  to  a  jiension,  and  to  the  ])lace 
of  justice  of  the  peace  of  Middlesex  and  West- 
minster. While  engaged  in  magisterial  duties,  he 
produced  Tom  Jones,  his  most  famous  fiction,  which 
the  world  has  never  ceased  to  read,  nor  critics  to 
admire.  His  next  work  was  Amelia — less  striking 
and  masterly  than  its  predecessor,  but  quieter 
in  style,  and  enriched  with  scenes  of  domestic 
tenderness.  Shortly  after  its  publication,  he  was 
attacked  by  dropsy,  jaundice,  and  asthma,  a  com- 
plication of  disorders  which  bafiied  the  skill  of  the 
physicians.  Seeking  relief,  he  left  England  for 
Lisbon  on  the  2Gth  June  1754,  and  died  there  on 
the  8th  October  of  the  same  year,  at  the  early  age 
of  forty-seven. 

F.  was  the  first  great  English  novelist,  and  he 
remains  to  this  day  one  of  the  greatest.  Tom.  Jones  is 
a  miracle  of  invention,  charactei',  and  ^vit.  It  contains 
the  most  amusing  scenes  and  adventures,  the  most 
siiarkling  delineations  of  life,  high  and  low,  the  most 
aljundant  satire.  Everywhere,  the  author's  manliness, 
"shrewd  sense,  and  scorn  of  meanness  and  hypocrisy, 
are  apparent.  If  defects  may  be  hinted,  it  may  be 
Baid  tliat  F.'s  nature  was  more  robust  than  delicate; 
that  it  M'as  deficient  in  the  sentimental  and  poetic 
Bide ;  and,  as  a  consequence,  that  his  ideal  of  woman 
is  not  high,  and  his  descriptions  of  the  tender 
passion  either  commonplace  or  extravagantly  rap- 
turous. The  love-scenes  between  Tom  and  Sophia, 
anl  the  episode  of  the  'Man  of  the  HiU,'  which 
is  meant  to  be  passionate  and  poetic,  are  perhaps 
the  only  portions  of  the  gi'eat  novel  which  readers 
Bki]».  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  all  F.'s  works 
ai'e  disfigured  by  coarseness  of  circumstance  and 
expression  ;  but  that  w^as  the  fault  of  the  time  as 
much  as  of  the  man.  He  was  coarse,  as  he  wore 
ruffles,  drank  claret,  and  hated  the  Pretender.  He 
6et  himself  to  paint  society  as  he  saw  it,  and  we 
must  forgive  the  coarseness  for  the  truthfiduess  of 
the  picture. 

FIELDING,  Copley  Vandyke,  an  English 
oainter  in  water-colours,  was  born  about  17S7,  and 
began  to  exhibit  in  1810.  For  many  years  he  held 
the  ofSce  of  President  of  the  Society  of  Painters  in 
Water-colours,  and  was  generally  recognised  as  the 
representative  of  that  branch  of  art  in  England.  He 
died  at  Worthing,  in  Sussex,  March  3,  1855,  in  his 
G8th  year,  and  after  a  career  of  steady  prosperity. 
Possessing  remarkable  mechanical  dexterity  and 
knowledge  of  effect,  F.  painted  with  what  severe 
critics  would  call  fatal  facility.  He  contributed 
about  a  score  of  pictures  annually  to  the  exhibition 
of  the  Water-colour  Society.  But,  to  do  him  justice, 
he  always  exhibited  a  certain  easy  finish  of  treatment, 
which  was  perhaps  of  itself  a  kind  of  secondary 
talent.  Although  his  range  of  subjects  was  but 
limited,  yet  within  it  he  was  almost  unrivalled.  As 
a  painter  of  marine  effects,  and  of  the  landscapes  of 
down  and  glade,  it  is  thought  by  many  that  he  has 
had  as  yet  no  equal. 

FIEKDING  COURT  (Fierding  Thing),  a  district 
court  in  use  among  the  early  Gothic  nations.  This 
coui-t  was  established  for  the  purpose  of  rendering 
Bjieedy  justice  in  small  matters.    There  w*^re  four  of 
318 


these  courts  in  every  hundred,  each  presided  ovtf 
by  a  separate  judge,  whose  jurisdiction  extruded  to 
all  causes  where  the  matter  in  dispute  did  not  exceed 
the  sum  of  three  marks.  Stiernhook,  De  Jure  Ooik 
lib.  i.  c.  2. 

FI'ERI  FA'CIAS,  Writ  of,  an  English  writ  for 
enforcing  the  judgment  of  a  court  of  law  against  the 
goods  of  a  debtor.  It  may  be  sued  out  as  soon  as 
final  judgment  has  been  signed,  or,  in  case  of  a  trial 
out  of  term,  in  fourteen  days  after  verdict,  unless,  on 
special  cause  shewn,  a  judge  order  speedy  execution. 
But  a  writ  of  fieri  facias  cannot  be  enforced  after  a 
Capias  ad  satisfaciendum  (q.  v.)  has  been  issued.  The 
sheriff,  in  executing  this  writ,  may  not  break  open 
doors ;  hut  having  obtained  ])eaceable  entrance,  he 
may  break  open  inner  doors,  cupboards,  and  trunks. 
The  officer  in  execution  having  taken  possession,  may 
leave  an  assistant  in  charge,  by  whom  an  inventory 
of  the  goods  is  made.  He  is  entitled  to  remain  ou 
the  ])remises  a  reasonable  time,  in  order  to  remove 
the  goods ;  but  if  he  continue  longer  wdthout 
permission  of  the  o-svner,  he  is  liable  to  an  action 
for  trespass.  By  8  Anne,  c.  14,  if  goods  are  removed 
from  land  or  premises  let  on  lease,  the  party 
removing  them  must  pay  the  rent  and  taxes.  A 
creditor  may  not  take,  in  execution,  manure,  hay, 
&c.,  where,  by  the  covenants  of  the  lease,  the 
tenant  is  prohibited  from  removing  them  (56 
Geo.  III.  c.  50).  Growing  crops,  if  seized  in  execu- 
tion, and  sold,  are  liable  for  rent  accruing  after  the 
date  of  the  seizure,  as  long  as  they  remain  on 
the  ground  (14  and  15  Vict.  c.  25).  By  1  and  2  Vict, 
c.  110,  money,  bank-notes,  bills  of  exchange,  and 
other  securities,  may  be  taken  under  a  writ  of  fieri 
facias.  By  8  and  9  Vict.  c.  127,  a  creditor  is  not 
entitled  to  take  w^earing-apparel  and  bedding  or 
tools  where  the  value  of  the  whole  does  not 
exceed  £5.  Such  fixtures  as  belong  to  the  heir, 
and  not  to  the  executor,  cannot  be  taken  under 
this  writ.  The  goods  of  the  party  only  who  is 
named  in  the  writ  may  be  seized ;  and  if  the 
officer  take  goods  belonging  to  a  stranger,  he  la 
liable  to  an  action  for  damages.  By  1  and  2  Vict, 
c.  110,  decrees  and  orders  in  Chancery  have  the 
effect  of  a  judgment  in  a  court  of  law,  hence,  fieri 
facias  and  other  common  law  writs  proceed  upon 
the  former  as  well  as  the  latter. 

Fieri  facias  de  bonis  ecclesiasticis  is  a  writ  directed 
to  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  requiring  him  to  attach 
the  ecclesiastical  goods  of  a  clergyman  within  bis 
diocese,  in  satisfaction  of  the  judgment  of  a  court 
of  law. 

FIE'SCHI,  Count  Giovanni  Luigi,  a  member  of 

one  of  the  most  illustrious  Houses  of  Genoa,  waa 
born  about  the  year  1523.  Jn  addition  to  the  lustre 
of  ancestral  fame,  his  name  has  attained  a  tragic 
historical  celebrity  in  connection  with  a  remarkable 
conspiracy  of  which  he  was  the  chief.  Andren 
Dox'ia,  a  famous  admiral,  sprung  from  a  race 
hereditarily  at  feud  with  that  of  F.,  having  expelled 
the  forces  of  Francis  I.  from  the  state,  had  restored 
the  republican  form  of  government,  but  at  the  same 
time,  by  his  vigorous  administration,  effectually  held 
in  check  the  ambition  of  the  nobles.  Count  F. 
organized  a  plot,  having  for  its  object  the  death  of 
Doria,  and  his  nephew  Giannettino,  the  object  of 
F.'s  special  hatred,  and  the  establishment  of  an 
oligarchic  form  of  government.  Instigated  by  the 
approval  of  France  and  Rome,  and  supported  by 
an  alliance  with  the  Duke  of  Parma,  F.  speedily 
enrolled  a  formidable  array  of  accomplices,  his 
three  brothers  among  the  foremost.  Crowds  of  his 
own  feudal  retainers  were  secretly  armed  and 
assembled  from  the  various  hereditary  lands  of  the 
House ;  three  galleys,  purchased  mth  the  connivance 


FIESCHI— FIFESHIRE. 


of  the  pope,  were  fully  equipped,  and  all  being  in 
readiness,  the  attempt  was  fixed  for  the  2d  of 
January  1547.  Doria,  'i  spite  of  repeated  warn- 
ings, refused  to  ascribe  treacherous  or  subversive 
designs  to  F.,  whom  he  regarded  as  a  fast  friend 
and  partisan.  Complete  success  seemed  at  first  to 
;;rown  the  conspirators ;  the  gates  of  the  city  were 
forced,  the  fleet  captured,  Gianettino  assassinated, 
Doria  in  flight.  F.  had  but  to  appear  and  dictate, 
but  he  was  nowhere  to  be  found ;  and  the  strangest 
episode  of  this  wild  drama  is  the  sudden  disappear- 
ance of  its  hero.  In  stepping  from  one  galley  to  the 
other  in  the  darkness  of  night,  F.  stumbled,  and 
falling  overboard,  was  borne  down  by  his  ponderous 
armour,  and  miserably  drowned  in  the  harbour,  or, 
according  to  some,  stifled  in  the  slime. 

FIESCHI,  Joseph  Marco,  known  by  his  attempt 
on  the  life  of  King  Louis  Philippe,  was  born  in 
Corsica  m  the  year  1790.  His  early  life  contains 
nothing  of  note.  A  profligate  career  appears  to  have 
reduced  him  to  great  poverty  about  the  year  18.35, 
when  he  conceived  the  idea  of  assassinating  the 
kmg.  The  immediate  cause  of  his  diabolical  design 
was  the  suppression  of  a  situation  which  he  held, 
by  order  of  the  prefect  of  the  Seine.  Disguising 
his  crime  under  the  cloak  of  political  enthusiasm, 
he  leagued  with  himself  one  or  two  obscure  persons, 
of  pothouse  politics,  who  hated  the  government  of 
the  Citizen  King.  These  were  Pierre  Morey,  a 
Badd5er;  Pepin,  a  grocer;  and  Victor  Boireau,  a 
maker  of  lamps.  F.  sketched  the  plan  of  an 
infernal  machine  with  twenty  barrels,  that  could 
be  simultaneously  discharged;  got  one  made,  and 
placed  it  in  a  house  of  the  Boulevard-du- Temple. 
The  review  of  the  National  Guard  held  there, 
28th  July  18.35,  afforded  F.  the  opportunity  he 
desired.  On  the  approach  of  the  king  and  queen, 
he  fired  his  machine.  Eighteen  people  were  killed, 
among  whom  was  Marshal  Mortier,  who  fell  dead 
beside  his  sovereign.  Louis  Philippe,  however, 
himself  escaped  with  a  mere  scratch,  and  was  able 
fco  continue  the  review.  F.  was  immediately  seized, 
and  along  with  his  accomplices,  was  tried,  con- 
demned, and  executed,  16th  February  1836. 

FIE'SOLE  (anciently,  Fcesulcn),  one  of  the  most 
ancient  Etruscan  cities,  is  situated  on  the  crest  of 
a  hill,  at  about  three  miles'  distance  from  Florence, 
'.>f  which  it  may  be  said  to  be  the  parent  city. 
iVom  the  heights  of  F.,  the  view  presented  by 
Florence  and  the  neighbouring  valleys  is  gorgeous 
in  the  extreme.  We  find  F.  first  mentioned  in 
225  B.C.  during  the  great  Gaulish  war.  Hannibal 
encamped  here  after  crossing  the  Apennines.  The 
city  was  next  destroyed  by  Sulla  in  the  Social  War 
(90 — 89  b,c,),  who  afterwards  despatched  thither  a 
military  colony.  At  the  invasion  of  Tuscany  by 
the  Goths,  F.  also  fell  under  their  dominion,  and 
being  by  nature  and  art  a  formidable  stronghold, 
was  numerously  garrisoned  by  the  barbarians.  The 
growth  of  Florence  during  the  middle  ages  gradually 
reduced  it  to  insignificance.  It  is  now  a  place  of 
about  2500  inhabitants.  The  only  vestige  of  Etrus- 
can structures  still  remaining  is  the  cyclopean  city 
wall,  constnicted  of  huge  blocks  of  stone,  many 
portions  of  which  are  wonderfully  perfect.  The  site 
of  the  Etruscan  fortress  is  now  occupied  by  a 
convent,  and  interesting  fragments  of  the  foundations 
are  often  brou,ght  to  light.  The  amphitheatre  and 
other  remains  belong  to  the  Roman  age.  The  very 
ancient  church  of  St  Alexander,  supposed  to  have 
originally  served  as  a  pagan  temple,  contains  an 
altar  dedicated  to  Bacchus,  the  inscription  of  which 
U,  how^ever,  illegible,  owing  to  a  fissure  in  the 
middle.  Coins  an  I  other  relics  have  been  repeatedly 
dug  up. 


FIESOLE,  Fra  Giovanni  da,  one  of  the  most 
eminent  regeneratoro  of  Italian  art,  also  known  by 
the  title  of  II  beato  Arirjelicxj,  was  l)orn  at  Mugello 
in  1387.  In  1407,  he  entered  the  Dominican  order, 
and,  together  with  his  brother,  consecrated  his 
artistic  abilities  exclusively  to  sacred  aims,  illus- 
trating various  works  of  devotion  with  l)cautiful 
miniature  designs.  These  early  artistic  efforts  aro 
remarkable  for  their  rich  effects  of  colouring, 
gorgeous  illumination,  and  exquisite  elaboration  of 
the  most  minute  ornamental  details.  Having 
achieved  a  high  re])utation  as  fresco-i)ainter  by 
some  noble  compositions  with  which  he  endfjwed 
his  own  and  other  convents,  he  was  commissioned 
hj  Cosmo  de'  Medici,  with  the  decoration  of  tho 
church  of  Santa  Annunziata  and  the  convent  San 
Marco,  Each  cell  of  the  convent  was  adorned  with 
a  fine  fresco  of  large  dimensions,  and  amidst  other 
paintings,  one  can  still  distinguish  F.'s  'Annuncia- 
tion.' The  fame  of  this  work  induced  Pope  Nicholas 
V,  to  summon  him  to  P^ome,  and  intrust  him  with 
the  execution  of  a  series  of  illustrations  taken  from 
the  life  of  St  Laurence,  destined  to  embellish  the 
private  chapel  of  St  Laurence  in  the  Vatican.  See 
Giangiacomo  Romano,  Le  PUture  delta  Cappello  di 
Nicold  v.,  &c,  (Rome,  1810).  So  rigid  a  disciplin- 
arian was  F.,  that  no  private  or  public  work  was 
ever  undertaken  without  the  formal  consent  of  his 
superiors  being  obtained,  and  to  them  all  pecuniary 
remuneration  was  transferred.  The  archbishopric 
of  Florence,  spontaneously  offered  him  by  the  pope, 
was  humbly  declined.  He  died  in  Rome  in  1454. 
The  gallery  of  Florence  possesses  several  pictures 
of  F.,  still  undimmed  in  brilliancy  of  colouring. 
One  of  these,  the  '  Birth  of  John  the  Baptist,'  is  a 
conception  full  of  simple  and  winning  grace.  Some 
of  the  largest  easel-compositions  of  this  artist  at 
present  adorn  the  gallery  of  the  Loiivre;  among 
those  in  the  antechamber  are  the  '  Coronation  of 
the  Virgin,'  and  the  '  Miracles  of  St  Dominico.'  One 
supreme  aim  pervades  all  the  creations  of  F. — that 
of  arousing  lofty  devotional  feeling  through  the 
contemplation  of  the  beautiful  in  art. 

FIFE,  an  ancient  wind-instrument  of  military 
music,  in  which  the  melody  is  produced  by  blowing 
through  a  hole  in  a  reed  or  tube,  while  the  escape 
of  air  is  regulated  by  the  fingers  stopping  or  open- 
ing a  number  of  other  holes  in  different  parts  of 
the  pipe.  It  has  a  compass  of  two  octaves,  from  D 
on  the  fourth  line  of  the  treble  clef  to  D  above 
in  altissimo.  The  fife  figures  in  the  scidptiu-ed 
memorials  of  the  Argonautic  expedition,  and  from 
that  time  to  this  has  maintained  its  place  as  a 
simple  yet  effective  instrument  for  inartial  pur- 
poses. It  was  common  \dth.  English  troops  till  the 
reign  of  James  I,,  but  was  then  discontinued  ;  to  be 
re-introduced  by  the  Duke  of  Cumberland  at  the  siege 
of  Maestricht  in  1747.  It  is  a  universal  favourite 
in  the  navy,  and  many  a  stirring  air  on  drums  a^id 
fifes  has  cheered  the  British  sailor  to  deeds  of 
daring. 

In  the  infantry,  there  is  a  Jifer  to  each  company, 
and  a  fife-major  to  each  battalion,  the  former 
receiving  the  daily  pay  of  Is.  \d.,  the  latter,  who  is 
a  non-commissioned  officer,  Is. 

FIFE-NESS,  a  promontory  of  Scotland,  the 
eastmost  point  of  Fifeshire,  in  lat.  56°  17'  N,,  and  long. 
2°  35'  W.  On  the  north,  in  the  sea,  are  the  dangerous 
Carr  Rocks,  with  an  iron  beacon  35  feet  high, 
which  required  six  years  to  construct.  F.  is  in  view 
of  the  Isle  of  May  and  Bell  Rock  lights.  In  the 
Ness,  trap  rocks  jut  through  the  carboniferous 
strata,  and  the  rocks  contain  small  caves. 

FIFESHIRE,  a  maritime,  almost  peninsular 
county  of  the  east  of  Scotland,  between  the  Firth  ol 

31U 


FIFTEENTH— FIG. 


Fortk  on  (lie  south  .and  the  Firth  of  Tay  on  the 
north.  It  is  44  miles  in  extreme  length  from  north- 
east to  south-west,  and  18  at  its  greatest  breadth; 
area.  503  square  miles  ;  coast-line,  85  miles,  mostly- 
rocky,  and  having  many  good  ports.  The  surface 
is  a  succession  of  cultivated  vales  and  hills.  The 
hills  rise  in  the  West  Lomond,  1713  feet,  and  Largo 
Law,  1020.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Tay,  Forth, 
Eden  (20  miles  long),  and  Loven  (12).  F.  rests  on 
old  red  sandstone,  with  trap  rocks  in  the  north,  and 
carboniferous  strata,  with  trap,  in  the  south.  There 
are  many  coal  and  iron  mines,  and  lime  quarries. 
The  climate  is  dry,  healthy,  and  mild  on  the  Forth  ; 
but  the  valleys  in  the  north  are  much  exposed  to 
the  full  sweep  of  the  east  and  north-east  gales.  The 
Boii  is  a  rich  loam,  or  wet  clay  on  till.  The  Howe 
of  Fife,  on  the  Eden,  is  mostly  sandy  and  gravelly, 
and  not  very  productive.  In  1872,  six-sevenths  of 
the  surface  were  in  croj),  the  chief  crops  being  oats, 
wheat,  barley,  turnips,  llax,  and  beans.  F.  has  a 
greater  number  of  pi'oprietors,  gentlemen's  seats,  and 
plantations,  in  proportion  to  its  size,  than  any  other 
Scotch  county,  and  its  coasts  are  thickly  studded 
with  towns  and  villages.  The  chief  manufactures 
are  linen,  sea-salt,  and  malt  liquors.  The  chief 
exports  are  coal,  lime,  and  fish.  F.  contains  Gl 
parishes.  Pop.  (1871)  160,310.  In  1851  there  was 
a  population  of  153,. 546;  219  places  of  worship 
(77  Established  Church,  49  Free,  45  United  Presby- 
terian); 397  public  day  schools,  with  23,145  scholars. 
It  returns  one  member  to  parliament.  The  chief 
towns  are  Cupar,  the  cou.nty  town,  Dunfermline,  St 
Andrews,  Kirkcaldy,  East  and  West  Anstruther, 
Burntisland,  Crail,  and  Dysart.  The  ancient  '  King- 
dom of  Fife'  was  the  most  cultivated,  as  well  as 
the  most  warlike,  of  Scotch  counties.  It  contains 
striking  monastic,  feudal,  and  palatial  ruins  at  St 
Andrews,  Dunfermline,  Falkland,  and  Lindores ; 
many  Celtic,  lloman,  and  military  remains,  and  a 
round  tower  at  Abernethy.  Many  of  the  events 
connected  with  the  Scottish  Ueformation  took  place 
here. 

FIFTEENTH,  a  stop  in  English  organs  tuned 
two  octaves  above  the  diapasons,  the  lowest  C  pipe 
of  which  is  two  feet  long. 

FIFTH  MONARCHY  MEN.  Among  the 
strange  and  whimsical  forms  of  opinion  which  the 
religious  and  political  fermentation  of  the  17th  c. 
brought  to  the  surface  of  society,  and  embodied  in 
the  shape  of  religious  sects,  were  those  of  the  Fifth 
Monarchy  Men.  The  date  which  has  been  assigned 
to  their  first  appearance  is  1654.  Notwithstanding 
the  ridicule  with,  which  they  have  often  been  over- 
whelmed, there  seems  nothing  in  their  tenets  more 
objectionable  than  we  find  in  those  of  many  of  the 
other  sects  of  the  period,  and  there  is  no  reason  to 
believe  that  the  practices  of  their  leaders  exceeded 
in  absurdity,  or  equalled  in  impiety,  those  of  Rob- 
bins,  Reeve,  Muggleton,  and  other  apostles  of  the 
Ranters.  In  common  with  most  persons  who  hold 
the  literal  inteqjretation  of  prophecy,  they  believed 
in  the  four  great  monarchies  of  Antichrist  marked 
out  by  the  prophet  Daniel ;  and  quite  consistently 
with  Christian  orthodoxy,  they  added  to  them  a 
/iflh — viz.,  the  kingdom  of  Christ  on  earth.  So  far, 
there  was  nothing  pecidiar  in  their  views.  But 
their  error  was  twofold.  1st.  They  believed  in  the 
immediate,  or  at  least  in  the  proximate,  advent  of 
Christ  (a  tenet  which  was  common  tu  them  -^-ith  the 
«arly  church) ;  and  2d.  They  held  that  the  fulfilment 
jf  God's  promise  to  this  effect  must  be  realised  by 
the  forcible  destruction  of  the  kingdom  of  Antichrist. 
Every  obstacle  which  opposed  itself  to  the  setting 
nj)  the  Messiah's  throne  was  to  be  thrown  down,  and 
what  these  obstacles  were  was  a  question  for  the 


solution  of  which  the  only  criterion  which  presented 
itself  was  their  own  fanatical  prejudices  and  hatreds. 
It  is  obvious  that  such  doctrines  in  such  times  must 
have  given  rise  to  practical  as  well  as  speculative 
disorder.  The  Fifth  Monarchy  Men  became  extinct 
as  a  sect  shortly  after  the  Restoration ;  a  fact  which, 
by  depriving  them  of  exponents  of  their  own 
body,  may  have  exposed  them  to  misrepresentation 
(Marsden's  History  of  the  Later  Puritans,  p.  387). 
In  politics,  the  Fifth  Monarchy  Men  were  republicans 
of  the  extremest  section ;  and  when  their  conspiracy 
to  murder  the  Protector,  and  revolutionise  tho 
government,  was  discovered  in  1657,  their  leaders, 
Venner,  Grey,  Hopkins,  «fec.,  were  imprisoycd  in 
the  Gate  House  till  after  the  Protector's  death. 
x\mongst  their  arms  and  ammunition  which  waa 
seized,  was  found  a  standard  exhibiting  a  lion 
couchant,  supposed  to  represent  the  lion  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  with  the  motto,  'Who  will  rouse 
him  up?' — Niel's  Puritans,  vol.  iv.  p.  186.  See  also 
Carlyle's  CromwelVa  Letters  and  Speeches,  vol.  iii. 
p.  31. 

FIG  {Ficus),  a  genus  of  trees  and  shrubs  belong, 
ing  to  the  natural  order  Moracece,  and  distinguished 
by  having  the  flowers — male  and  female  mixed — 
within  an  almost  closed  top-shaped  fleshy  receptacle, 
which  enlarges  to  form  the  fruit,  and  enclosea 
numerous  one-seeded  carpels,  imbedded  in  its  pulp. 
There  are  more  than  100  species,  some  of  them  very 
large  trees.  Almost  all  belong  to  tropical  and  sub' 
tropical  countries,  of  the  vegetation  of  which  they 
often  form  a  most  important  feature.  They  abound 
in  India,  in  every  jungle  and  hilly  situation,  to  the 
most  northern  Himalaya,  and  some  of  them  are 
cultivated  about  every  village.  Both  F.  religiosa 
(the  Peepul)  and  F.  llumphii  are  held  in  veneration 
by  the  Hindus.  The  most  notable  species  art*  tho 
Common  Fig  (see  below) ;  the  Banyan  (q.  v.) ,  the 
Peepul  (q.  v.),  Bo  Tree  or  Sacred  Fig  of  India ,  the 
Sycamore  (q.  v.);  and  the  East  Indian  Caoutcl  nio 
(q.  V.)  Tree.  The  leaves  of  some  species  are  enti.'<^, 
those  of  others  are  lobed.  Several  species  of  fig 
exhibit  the  character  for  which  the  banyan  m 
particular  has  become  celebrated,  of  sending  roota 
straight  down  to  the  ground  from  their  spreading 
branches,  and  thus  multiplying  the  apparent  stems, 
by  which  a  vast  canopy  of  branches  and  foliage  is 
supported.  The  East  Indian  Caoutchouc  or  India 
Rubber  Tree  is  remarkable  for  the  exposure  of  its 
roots,  which  appear  in  masses  above  ground,  extend- 
ing on  nil  sides  from  the  base  like  great  writhing 
snakes.  Some  figs  are  creeping  or  trailing  shrubs, 
with  slender  stems,  covering  lieaps  of  stones,  oi 
ascending  trees  like  ivy. — Besides  the  Common  Fig, 
many  species  yield  edible  fruits,  although  none  ot 
them  are  nearly  equal  to  it  in  value.  Amongst 
them  are  the  Peepul  {F.  religiosa),  F.  Benjamina,  F. 
pumila,  F.  auriculata,  F.  JRumpJiii,  F.  Bengalensis,  F. 
aspera,  F.  racemosa,  and  F.  granatum,  all  East  Indian, 
also  the  Sycamore  of  Egypt. — The  milky  juice  of 
some  species  is  bland  and  abundant,  as  of  F.  Satis- 
sureana,  which  has  therefore  been  ranked  among 
Cow-trees.  In  other  species,  the  milky  juice  is  very 
acrid.  That  of  the  Common  Fig  produces  a  burning 
sensation  on  the  tongue.  That  of  F.  toxicaria,  a 
native  of  the  Malayan  islands,  is  used  for  poisoning 
arrows. — Lac  (q.  v.)  is  gathered  from  some  species. 
— The  leaves  of  F.  politoria  are  so  rough  that  the}^ 
are  used  for  polishing  wood  and  ivory  in  India.  The 
juice  of  the  fnut  of  F.  tinctoria  is  used  in  Tahiti  tc 
dye  cloth  :  the  colour  is  at  first  green,  but  being 
acted  on  by  the  juice  of  a  Cordia,  it  becomes  bright 
red.  The  bark  supplies  cordage,  of  which  fishing- 
nets  are  made. 

The  Common  Fig  (Ficus  Carica)  is  a  native  ot 
the  East,  as  the  specifiic  name  Carica  (from  Caria) 


FIGARO— FIGUF.ATE  NUMBEES. 


imports ;  but  it  is  now  cultivated  throughout  the 
whole  of  the  south  of  Europe,  and  is  even  found 
naturahsed  there.  Its  cultivation  has  also  extended 
to  many  warm  countries.  In  North  America,  it  is 
seldom  to  be  seen  further  north  than  Philadelphia ; 


Common  Fig  [Ficus  Carica) : 
t*,  male  flower,  masnitied  ;  b,  male  flower,  natural  size;  c, 
lemale  flower,  magnified  ;  d,  female  flower,  natural  size. 

and  i-6  is  not  sufficiently  hardy  to  be  a  common  fruit 
tree  in  Britain,  although  even  in  Scotland  figs  may 
occasionally  be  seen  ripened  on  a  wall ;  and  in  the 
south  of  England  fig-trees  are  sometimes  grown  as 
etandards,  and  a  few  small  fig  orchards  exist.  Pro- 
tection is  always  given  in  some  way  during  winter. 
Near  Paris,  and"  in  some  other  parts  of  the  continent 
of  Europe,  fig-trees  are  so  trained  that  the  branches 
can  be  tied  in  bundles  and  laid  along  the  ground, 
when  they  are  covered  with  litter  an(l  earth.  The 
fig  is  a  low  deciduous  tree  or  shrub,  with  large  deeply 
lobed  leaves,  which  are  rough  above,  and  downy 
beneath.  The  branches  are  clothed  with  short  hairs, 
and  the  bark  is  greenish.  The  fruit  is  produced 
singly  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  is  pear-shaped,  and 
has  a  very  short  stalk  ;  the  colour  in  some  varieties 
is  bluish-black  ;  in  others,  red,  purple,  j^ellow,  green, 
or  white.  The  varieties  in  cultivation  are  numerous. 
In  warm  climates,  the  fig  yields  two  crops  in  the 
year — one  from  the  older  wood  (midsummer  shoots  of 
the  preceding  year),  and  a  second  from  the  young 
wood  (spring  shoots  of  the  same  year) ;  but  in  colder 
regions  the  latter  never  comes  to  perfection.  Fig- 
trees  are  propagated  by  seed,  by  suckers,  &c. ;  very 
frequently  by  layers  or  by  cuttings.  In  Britain, 
they  are  often  to  be  seen  in  hothouses,  and  grow 
well  in  pots.  Dried  figs  form  an  important  article 
of  food  in  the  Levant ;  in  more  northern  regions, 
they  are  used  for  dessert,  or  for  medicinal  pnqjoses, 
bein^  applied  to  gumboils  and  other  sores,  and  also 
adimnistered  in  pulmonary  and  nephritic  affections, 
Rnd  to  relieve  habitual  constipation.  The  pulp 
contains  about  62  per  cent,  of  a  kind  of  sugar  called 
Sugar  of  Figs.  Fi^s  are  either  dried  in  the  sun 
or  in  ovens  built  for  the  purpose.  Great  quan- 
tities are  annually  imported  into  Britain  from  the 
Mediterranean.  The  best  are  mostly  brought 
from  Smyrna,  and  are  known  as  Turkey  Jigs,  of 
which  those  called  ELeme  or  Elemi  are  most  highly 
BBteemed-  Figs  of  inferior  quality  are  imported  in 
considerable  quantities  in  the  form  of  jig-cake, 
pressed  along  with  almonds  into  cakea  some- 
what like  small  cheeses.  In  the  Levant,  Portugal, 
177 


and  the  Canaries,  a  spirit  is  distilled  from  fermented 
figs. 

FI'GAKO,  a  dramatic  character  introduced  on 
the  Parisian  stage  in  1785  by  Beaumarchais  (q.  v.) 
in  his  Burbler  de  Seville  and  his  Marlage  de  Figaro 
These  plays,  in  which  F.,  who  coolly  outwits  every 
one,  is  first  a  barber  and  then  a  valet-de-chambre, 
secured  for  their  author  a  brilliant  reputation  not 
only  in  France,  but  also  in  Germany,  where  many 
translations  and  adaptations  of  the  pieces  appeared. 
Mozart,  l^aesiello,  and  Kossini  also  made  them  the 
basis  of  classic  operas.  Since  their  publication,  the 
character  of  F.  has  stood  as  a  type  of  cunning, 
intrigue,  and  dexterity.  After  the  restoration  oi 
the  Bourbons,  a  hterary  periodical,  distingviished 
for  its  satirical  talent,  assumed  the  name. 

FIGEAC,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
Lot,  is  situated  in  a  valley  surrounded  by  finely 
wooded  hills  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Selle,  32 
miles  east-north-east  of  Cahors.  It  is  irregular,  its 
streets  are  narrow,  and  badly  planned,  and  its 
houses  in  general  not  well  built,  but  the  antiquity 
and  quaintness  of  many  of  its  buildings  give  it  a 
picturesque  and  interesting  appearance.  It  has  two 
beautiful  Gothic  churches,  one  of  them,  that  of  St 
Sauveur,  has  a  choir  of  the  11th,  a  general  super- 
structure of  the  15th,  and  a  modern  front  of  the 
19th  century.  F.  owes  its  origin  to  a  Benedictine 
monastery,  founded  by  Pepin  in  755  A.D.  It  haa 
some  cotton  manufactures,  and  a  trade  in  wine  and 
cattle.    Pop.  6820. 

FIGHTING    FISH   [Macropodus  pugnax  or 
Ctenops  pugnax),  a  small  fresh- water  fish,  of  the 
family  AnabantidcB  (q.  v.),  a  native  of  the  south-east 
I  of  Asia,  and  particuhu'ly  of  Slam,  Avhere  it  is  very 
j  commonly  kept  as  goldhshes  are  in  Britain,  but  on 
!  account  of  its  pugnacity.     Two  of  these  creatures 
I  when  brought  together,  often  rush  immediately  to 
j  combat,  or  it  is  even  enough  to  introduce  a  lool-dng- 
glass  into  the  water,  and  the  fish  hastens  to  attack 
its  own  image.    Fish-fights  are  a  favoui'ite  amuse* 
j  ment  of  the  Siamese  ;  the  licence  to  exhibit  them 
I  yields  a  considerable  annual  revenue  ;  and  an  extra* 
ordinary  amount  of  gambling  takes  place  in  con- 
I  nection  with  them ;  not  merely  money  and  jiroperty, 
I  but  children  and  liberty  being  sometimes  staked, 
i  The  F.  F.  has  the  anal  and  dorsal  fins  prolonged 
into  tapering  points.    When  the  fish  is  quiet,  ita 
j  colours  are  dull ;  but  when  it  is  excited,  they  glow 
!  with  metallic  splendom-,  and   '  the  jirojected  gill- 
{  membrane,  waving  like  a  black  frill  around  the 
j  throat,  adds  something  of  grotesqueness  to  the 
general  ai^pearance.' 

FIGUE'RAS,  a  town  in  the  north-east  of  Spain, 
is  situated  near  the  French  frontier,  in  the  province 
of  Gerona,  in  a  fruitful  district,  20  miles  north-north- 
east of  the  town  of  Gerona.  Its  streets  are  gloomy, 
but  it  has  beautiful  promenades.  On  a  height  near 
the  to^vn  is  the  citadel  of  S.  Fernando,  the  strongest 
fortress  of  Spain,  and  the  key  of  the  Pyrenees  on 
their  south  side,  with  accommodation  for  20,000 
men.  This  foitress  has  been  so  frequentlj'-  taken 
by  the  French,  as  to  give  rise  to  the  remark,  com- 
mon enough  among  the  Spaniards,  that  the  citadel 
of  S.  Fernando,  in  time  of  peace,  belongs  to  Spain 
but  in  time  of  war  to  France.    Pop.  8350. 

FI'GULINE.    See  Potter's  Clay. 

FIGURANTES  is  the  term  applied  in  the 
ballet  to  those  dancers  that  do  not  come  forward 
alone,  but  dance  in  troops,  and  also  serve  to  fill  up 
the  scene  and  form  a  background  for  the  solo 
dancers. 

FI'GURATE    NUMBERS.     The    nature  of 

321 


FIGUKE— FIJI  ISLANDS. 


fi[  aratc  numbers  will  be  understood  from  the  foUow- 
in„'  table : 

I.  2,   3,    4,   5.     6,      7,  &c. 

I.  i,  3,  6, 10,  15,  21,  28,  &c. 

II.  1,  4, 10,  -20,  35,  56,  84,  kc. 
IIL  1,  5,  15,35,  70,  12G,  210,  &c 

kc.  kc. 
The  natural  numbers  are  here  taken  as  the  basis, 
and  the  first  order  of  figurate  numbers  is  formed 
from  the  series  by  successive  additions ;  thus,  the 
6th  number  of  the  first  order  is  the  sum  of  the  first 
fi\e  natural  numbers.  The  second  order  is  then 
formed  from  the  first  in  the  same  way  ;  and  so  on. 

If  instead  of  the  series  of  natural  numbers,  whose 
difi'ercnce  is  1,  we  take  series  whose  ditlerences  are 
2,  3,  4,  &c.,  we  may  form  as  many  different  sets  of 
figurate  numbers.    Thus  : 

1.  3.    5,  7,    9.  &c. 
I.  1,4,  9,16,  25,  &c. 
II.  1.  5,  H  ^c. 
III.  1,  6,  20,  50, 105,  kc. 
kc.  kc. 

Or— 

1.  4.   7.  10,     13.  fee. 
I.  1,  5,  12,  "22,  35,  kc. 

II.  1,  0,  18,  40,  75,  kc. 

III.  1,  7, 25,  65, 140,  kc. 

kc.  kc. 

The  name  Jigurate  is  derived  from  the  circumstance, 
that  the  simpler  of  them  may  be  represented  by 
arrangements  of  equally  distant  points,  forming 
geometrical  figures.  The  numbers  belonging  to  the 
first  orders  receive  the  general  name  of  j^olugonal, 
and  the  special  names  of  triajigular,  square,  j^ento-- 
go7ml,  &.C.,  according  as  the  difference  of  the  basis  is 
1,  2,  3,  &;c.  Those  of  the  second  orders  are  called 
pyramidal  numbers,  and  according  to  the  differ- 
ence of  the  basis,  are  triagonally,  quadragonallj'-,  or 
pentagonally  p^yramidal.  The  polygonal  numbers 
may  be  represented  by  points  on  a  surface ;  the 
pyramidal  by  piles  of  balls. 

The  general  formida  for  polygonal  numbers,  from 
which  any  particular  one  may  be  found  by  substi- 
f.uting  the  proper  values  for  w  and  7'  is, 
(r  -  2)  71^  -  (r  -  4:)n 
2 

where  n  =  number  of  the  term  required,  r  =  the 
denomination  (3  if  triagonal,  5  if  pentagonal,  &c.). 

FIGURE,  in  general,  is  the  outline  or  si'irface  of 
a  body  determining  its  form  or  shape.  In  Arith- 
metic, figure  denotes  a  numerical  character  such  as 
1,  2,  3,  &c.  Figure,  in  Geometry,  denotes  a  surface 
or  space  enclosed  on  aU  sides,  and  is  superficial 
when  enclosed  by  lines ;  solid,  when  by  surfaces. 
See  Regular  Figures,  Similar  Figures,  &c. 

FIGURED  BASS,  in  Music,  is  a  bass  part  with 
figures  placed  over  the  notes,  which  indicate  the 
harmony  to  be  played  to  each  note,  and  serves  as  a 
guide  to  the  accompanist.  Ludovico  Viadana  is 
said  to  have  been  the  inventor  of  figured  bass  in  the 
J  7tli  century. 

FIGURE-STONE.    See  Soap-stone. 

FI'GWORT  [Scrophularia),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Scrophulariacece,  ha\nng  a  nearly 

{;lobose  corolla,  with  a  small  5-lobed  limb ;  the 
owest  lobe  reflexed ;  and  four  stamens  wnlth  an 
additional  rudimentary  one.  They  are  mostly 
herbaceous  plants,  and  natives  of  the  temperate  parts 
of  the  eastern  hemisphere,  not  possessed  of  much 
beauty  either  in  flowers  or  foliage.  The  roots  of 
some  are  purgative  and  emetic.  The  leaves  of  the 
Knotted  F.  {S.  nodosa),  a  common  plant  in  moist 
grounds  in  Britain,  are  used  for  fomentation  of 
ttunours,  repellent  powers  being  ascribed  to  them. 


f  nd  in  the  form  of  an  ointment  in  cutaneous 
'  liseases.  A  decoction  of  them  is  used  to  cure  scab 
in  swine.  They  have  a  fetid  odour  when  bruised, 
and  their  taste  is  acrid.  The  tuberous  root  was 
formerly  esteemed  in  scrofula,  but  perhaps  only  on 
account  of  a  supposed  resemblance  to  scrofuioun 
tumours. 

FIJI,  FEEJEE,  or  VITI  ISLANDS,  a  group 
of  islands  of  volcanic  origin,  in  the  South  Pacific 
Ocean,  situated  in  lat.  15°  30'^— 20°  30'  S.,  and  long, 
177° — 178°  W.  They  were  discovered  by  TasmaE, 
the  Dutch  navigator,  in  1643.  There  are  altogethe? 
about  225  islands,  80  of  which  are  said  to  be  inha- 
bited. The  principal  are — Viti  Levu,  or  Great  Fiji, 
and  Vanua  Levu  (Great  Land),  the  former  having 
an  area  of  about  90  miles  by  50,  with  an  estimated 
population  of  50,000,  and  the  latter  extending  over 
100  miles  in  length,  with  a  breadth  of  20  miles,  and 
a  population  of  about  30,000.  The  total  population 
of  the  group  has  been  variously  stated  at  from 
130,000  to  300,000.  Of  the  other  islands,  the  most 
imi)ortant  and  best  known  are  Ovolau,  the  residence 
of  most  of  the  whites ;  Yuna,  or  Somosomo ;  Kan- 
davu,  Koro,  Mljau,  and  Taviuni.  Shoals  and  reefs 
surromid  the  islands,  making  the  access  to  them 
very  dangerous.  Earthquakes  are  common,  and 
destructive  hurricanes  are  periodical.  The  tempera- 
tiu-e  ranges  from  60°  or  70°  to  upwards  of  120° ;  but 
the  mean  is  set  down  at  about  80°.  On  Vanua 
Levu,  there  are  several  hot  springs,  ranging  from 
200°  to  210°.  The  soil,  which  is  of  a  deep  yellov/ 
loam,  and  well  watered,  is  exceedingly  fertile,  even 
to  the  very  summits  of  the  mountains,  which,  in 
Great  Fiji,  reach  an  elevation  of  more  than  4000  feet. 
The  chief  vegetable  productions  are  the  bread-fruit 
tree,  the  banana,  plantain,  and  cocoa-nut.  The  yam 
and  the  taro  are  extensively  raised,  and  great  care 
is  bestowed  on  the  culture  of  the  yangona  (kava), 
from  which  an  intoxicating  liquor  is  obtained.  The 
sugar-cane,  arrow-root,  nutmeg,  caraway,  capsicum, 
tea-plant,  &c.,  flourish.  Cotton  grows  wild,  two 
kinds  of  tomato  are  found,  and  the  botany,  so  far 
as  can  be  judged,  is  rich.  The  domestic  animals 
seem  to  be  limited  to  a  few  fowls  and  hogs.  The 
agricultural  implements  of  the  Fijians  are  of  the 
most  primitive  character  ;  but  in  manufactures  of 
a  rude  kind  they  are  further  advanced  than  other 
Polynesians.  The  natives  are  of  middle  size,  strong 
limbed  and  short  necked ;  complexion  between  a 
copper  colour  and  a  black,  and  hair  dark,  curly, 
and  bn-shy.  They  are  horrible  cannibals,  and  ship- 
wrecked mariners  frequently  fall  victims  to  their 
insatiable  appetite  for  human  flesh,  though  they  are 
said  to  prefer  coloured  to  white  men,  objecting  to 
the  latter  that  '  they  smeU  too  much  of  tobacco.' 
The  Fijians  are  di\aded  into  various  tribes,  each 
governed  by  its  own  chief,  whose  rule  is  absolute, 
and  to  whom,  in  a  variety  of  ways,  the  most  abject 
homage  is  tendered.  Of  late  years,  great  efforts 
for  their  conversion  have  been  made,  especially 
by  Wesleyan  missionaries.  In  1857,  there  werta 
54,281  attendants  upon  the  religious  services  con- 
ducted by  these  missionaries.  Compare  Williams 
and  Calvert's  Fiji  and  the  Fijians  (2  vols..  Lend. 
1858).  A  letter  in  the  Athenceum  (February  22, 
1862),  and  dated  'Levuka,  Fiji,  August  2,  1861,' 
affords  still  more  recent  information  concerning 
these  islands.  From  this  source,  we  learn  that  in 
order  to  escape  from  the  insupportable  exactions 
and  tyrannies  of  the  Ton^iese  (the  boldpst  and 
most  ambitious  of  all  the  Polynesians),  who  have 
planted  hostile  colonies  in  Great  Fiji,  the  king  and 
chiefs  of  this  island  formally  offered  to  cede  it  to 
Great  Britain.  Her  Majesty's  consul,  Mr  Pritchard, 
at  once  hastened  to  England  with  the  news,  and 
on  his  return  intimated  to  the  Fijians  that  Hor 


M 


FIL^'^GIEPJ— FILE,  FILING. 


Majesty's  government  had  taken  the  cession  into 
favoiri'ahie  consideration.  Tlie  Icing  and  chiefs  there- 
upon solemnly  ratified  their  offer,  but  the  offer  was 
formally  declined  by  the  British  government  on  the 
11th  of  July,  1862,  It  is  making  rapid  progress  in 
civilization.  'Men  of  capital,'  says  the  writer  in  the 
Athen(f7mi,' arc  beginning  to  flock  hither;  flourishing 
plantations  of  sugar,  coffee,  and  cotton  are  established, 
and  extensive  tracts  of  land  have  been  purchased  for 
sheep  runs.' 

FILANGIE'RI,  Gaeiano,  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished judicial  writers  and  reformers  of  his 
century,  was  born  of  noble  parentage  at  Naples  in 
1752.  Having  early  abandoned  the  career  of  arms 
to  which  he  was  originally  destined,  he  devoted  his 
intellect  to  the  study  of  morals,  politics,  and  legis- 
lation. In  1774,  the  promulgation  of  some  wise 
judicial  reforms,  limiting  the  arbitrary  jurisdiction 
of  courts,  having  met  with  considerable  opposition 
from  these  legal  officials,  young  F.  published  a 
defence  of  the  royal  decree,  and  at  once  attracted  the 
favourable  notice  of  court  and  minister.  In  1777, 
he  was  appointed  court-chamberlain ;  and  in  1780, 
published  the  first  volume  of  his  great  work,  La 
Scienza  della  Leriislazione.  The  first  part  is  devoted 
to  an  analysis  of  the  essentially  fixed  ethics  of  legis- 
lation, and  of  those  principles  which  are  modifiable 
according  to  local  and  national  exigences  ;  the 
Becond  treats  of  the  two  great  problems  of  all  poli- 
tical economj'-,  wealth  and  population ;  the  third, 
of  criminal  law  in  its  widest  extent ;  the  fourth,  of 
(»ublic  instruction  ;  and  the  fifth,  which  considers 
ecclesiastical  and  religious  law,  was  on  the  eve  of 
being  published,  when  its  author,  in  1788,  was 
prematurely  cut  off  at  the  age  of  36,  leaving  in  this 
work  an  incomplete  but  splendid  monument  to  the 
noble  sense  of  justice  and  the  exalted  humanity 
of  its  author.  The  best  Italian  edition,  which  also 
includes  his  Opuscoli  Scelti,  is  in  /  Classici  Italiana 
(6  vols.  8vo,  Milan,  1822). 

FILA'RIA.  See  Gthnea-worm  and  Thread- 
worm. 

FILBERT.    See  Hazel. 

FILE,  FILING.  A  file  is  a  steel  tool,  having 
its  surface  covered  with  teeth  or  serratures,  and 
used  for  cutting  dowai  and  shaping  metals  and 
other  hard  substances.  There  is  little  doubt  that 
in  the  earliest  stages  of  metal-working,  when  bronze 
implements  first  superseded  those  of  stone,  rough 
stones  were  used  for  the  purposes  to  which  files 
are  now  applied  ;  nevertheless,  the  use  of  files  dates 
from  high  antiquity.  They  are  mentioned  in  the 
Old  Testament  in  the  first  book  of  Samuel,  xiii. 
21,  also  in  the  Odyssey. 

Files  are  made  of  almost  every  conceivable  shape, 
to  suit  the  very  varied  purposes  to  which  they 
are  applied — flat,  sqviare,  round  or  rat-tail,  trian- 
gular, half-round,  feather-edged,  &c.,  besides  being 
variously  bent,  in  order  to  get  at  intricate  work. 
Nearly  all  these  files  are  made  thicker  in  the  middle, 
or  '  bellied,'  the  object  of  which  wiU  be  explained 
under  Filing. 

Files  require  to  be  made  of  the  very  best  steel; 
which  is  first  forged  into  the  required  shape,  and  is 
then  called  a  '  blank.'  The  blanks  are  then  finished 
more  accurately  to  the  required  form  by  grinding, 
planing,  or  filing. 

The  blanks  thus  prepared  and  well  softened  (see 
Tempering)  are  next  handed  to  the  cutter,  who 
sits  astride  on  a  low  bench  or  stool,  and  has  before 
liim  a  stone  anvil,  with  a  flat  piece  of  pewter  laid 
upon  it.  The  blank  is  held  upon  the  tmxW,  wit\i 
its  tang  towards  the  cutter,  by  means  of  a  long 
loop  of  leather- strap,  into  which  the  cutter  places 


his  foot.  He  then  cuts  the  teeth  by  striking  witli 
a  hammer  a  short  stout  chisel,  held  obliquely  at  an 
angle  of  about  12"  or  14"  from  the  perpendicular. 
The  object  of  this  will  be  easily  understood,  for 
if  the  chisel  were  perpendicular,  a  fuxTow  like 
the  letter  V  would  be  indented,  and  an  equal  burr 
struck  up  on  each  side ;  but,  instead  of  this,  a 
cutting  tooth  like  that  of  a  saw,  but  with  less 
obliquity,  is  required  ;  this  is  effected  by  the  obli- 
quity of  the  chisel,  and  a  burr  is  thrown  up  on  one 
side  only — viz.,  towards  the  tang. 

The  astonishing  regularity  observable  in  the  dis- 
tance betw^een  the  teeth  is  secured  in  this  way : 
!  The  cutting  is  commenced  at  the  point  of  the  file ; 
I  the  chisel  is  then  diuwn  backwards,  laid  upon  tho 
i  blank,  and  slid  forwards  till  it  reaches  the  burr 
!  raised  by  the  last  cut ;  the  blow  is  now  struck, 
I  and  another  tooth  and  burr  produced,  which  serves 
i  as  a  guide  for  the  next  cut ;    and  so  on.  The 
i  distance  between  the  teeth  thus  depends  on  thn 
!  force  of  the  blow  and  the  obliquity  of  the  cut ;  for 
the  heavier  the  blow,  the  greater  the  ridge  or  burr, 
and  the  obliquity  determines  the  distance  of  the  cut 
from  the  burr ;  the  skill  of  the  workman  consists, 
therefore,  in  the  precise  regulation  of  the  blows 

Most  files  are  double  cut — that  is,  they  have  two 
series  of  courses  of  chisel-cuts,  which  are  oppositely 
I  inclined  at  an  angle  of  about  55°  to  the  central  line 
I  of  the  file.    The  second  course  is  made  in  the  same 
]  manner  as  the  first,  but  with  lighter  blows,  and  is 
j  usually  somewhat  finer  than  the  first.   This  angular 
crossing  converts  the  ridges  into  pointed  teeth. 
Files  used  for  soft  metals  which  are  liable  to  clog 
the  teeth,  are  single  cut — that  is,  they  have  but  one 
course  of  cuts.     Taper  files  have  the  teeth  finer 
towards  the  point.     Easps  for  wood  are  cut  with 
pointed  chisels ;  each  tooth  being  an  angular  pit 
with  a  strong  burr,  instead  of  a  long  furrow.  The 
newly  cut  teeth  in  the  soft  steel  are  preserved  from 
injury  by  being  laid  M^ow  the  softer  pewter  block 
before  referred  to.    The  rapidity  with  which  the 
bloM'^s  are  struck  varies  with  the  fineness  of  the 
file  ;  60  or  80  cuts  are  commonly  made  per  minute. 

Files  have  to  be  very  carefully  hardened  and 
tempered.  If  heated  too  strongly,  or  made  too 
hard,  the  steel  is  so  brittle  that  the  teeth  tear  off ; 
if  too  soft,  they  wear  down  rapidly,  and  the  file 
soon  becomes  useless.  Great  care  is  also  required  in 
keeping  them  straight,  as  the  sudden  cooling  neces- 
sary for  hardening  is  very  apt  to  warp  the  steel. 

At- first  sight,  it  would  appear,  frcgn  the  simplicity 
and  continual  repetition  of  the  movements  required 
in  ^le-cutting,  and  the  precision  and  regularity  of 
the  work,  that  it  is  an  operation  specially  adapted 
for  machinery.  Many  attempts  have  been  made  to 
cut  files  by  machinery,  but  with  only  partial  success ; 
the  chief  difficulty  arises  from  the  necessity  of  modi- 
fying the  force  of  the  blow  to  suit  the  hardness  of 
the  steel.  It  is  practically  impossible  to  supply  a 
large  number  of  blanks  all  of  exactly  the  same  hard- 
ness ;  and  if  the  machine  be  adjusted  to  suit  the 
hardness  of  one  blank,  it  may  strike  too  heavy  or 
too  light  a  blow  for  the  next ;  whereas  the  wori-maa 
feels  at  once  the  hardness  of  the  steel  he  is  working 
upon,  and  adjusts  his  blows  accordingly. 

Filing. — To  the  uninitiated,  this  may  seem  » 
simple  operation  of  rubbing  one  piece  of  metal  upon 
another,  and  requiring  only  muscidar  strength  ana 
no  skill.  This  is  far  from  being  the  case,  for  a 
skilful  workman  w^ill,  in  a  given  time,  with  a  giveu 
amount  of  muscular  work,  cut  away  a  far  greater 
quantity  of  metal  ^\dth  a  file  than  one  who  is  un- 
skilfid,  for  he  makes  every  tooth  cut  into  the  work, 
instead  of  rubbing  over  it.  To  do  this,  he  must 
adapt  the  pressure  and  velocity  of  motion  of  tho 
file  to  the  coarseness  of  its  teeth,  and  the  hardness, 

323 


FILE— FILLAN. 


brittleness,  and  toughness  of  the  material  he  is  work- 
in^  upon. 

To  Jile  Jlat,  that  is,  to  avoid  rounding  the  sharp 
edges  of  a  narrow  piece  of  work,  is  very  difficult, 
and  some  years  of  continual  practice  is  required 
before  an  apprentice  can  do  this  well,  especially  in 
'smoothing  up'  or  finishing  work  before  polishing, 
and  there  are  some  who  never  succeed  in  filing, 
emoothiug,  and  polishing  without  rounding  the  edges 
of  fine  work.  The  power  of  doing  this  constitutes 
the  main  test  of  skill  among  mathematical  instru- 
ment makers  and  other  metal-workers.  The  flattest 
surface  can  be  obtained  by  laying  the  work,  where 
its  form  admits,  upon  a  piece  of  cork  held  in  the 
vice,  and  filing  it  with  one  hand,  the  pressure  on 
the  file  being  communicated  by  the  forefinger. 

It  is  mainly  to  aid  the  workman  in  filing  flat 
that  the  rounded  or  bellied  form  is  given  to  files  ; 
this  partially  compensates  the  tendency  of  the 
hands  to  move  in  a  curved  line  with  its  convexity 
^^pwards  when  they  move  forward  and  apply  pres- 
sure, as  in  the  act  of  filing. 

FILE  (Fr.  Jile,  a  row,  Lat.  Jilnm,  Ital.  Jila,  filo), 
in  a  military  sense,  is  used  to  signify  any  line  of 
men  standing  directly  behind  each  other,  as  rank 
refers  to  men  standing  beside  one  another.  In 
ordinary  formations  of  the  j^resent  day,  a  battalion 
stands  two  deep,  or  in  two  ranks — front  and  rear — 
wherefore  a  file  consists  of  two  men.  Sometimes, 
however,  the  battalion  may  be  formed  much  more 
solidly,  as  in  a  square,  when  the  file  comprises  a  far 
larger  number.  The  number  of  files  in  a  company 
describes  its  width,  as  the  number  of  ranks  does  its 
depth:  thus,  100  men  in  'fours  deep'  would  be 
spoken  of  as  25  files  in  4  ranks. 

FILIA'TION",  the  coiTclative  of  paternity.  In 
the  law  of  Scotland,  the  filiation  of  a  child  is  the 
process  by  which  its  paternity  is  detenniued.  The 
general  rule  that  the  father  iSj)ie  whom  the  marriage 
points  out  {pater  est  quern  nuptloi  demonstrant),  is  a 
presumption  which  may  be  overcome  by  shemng 
its  imjjossibility  in  point  of  fact — as,  for  exami)le, 
where  the  husband  is  impotent,  or  where  he  has  been 
absent  from  his  wife  during  the  period  between  the 
eleventh  solar  and  the  sixth  lunar  month  preceding 
the  birth.  As  regards  natural  children,  a  copula 
more  than  ten  months  before  birth  does  not  filiate, 
but  it  forms  an  important  adminicle  of  proof,  which, 
till  the  passing  of  16  Vict.  c.  20,  it  was  held  might 
be  completed  by  the  oath  of  the  mother.  As  to  the 
effect  of  that  sta^lite  on  the  previously  existing  law, 
see  Evix>ENCE,  and  Semi  Plen^a  Probatio. 

FILICA'JA,  ViNCENZO,  a  lyrical  poet  of  Italy, 
was  born  at  Florence,  of  an  ancient  but  impoverished 
familj  in  1642.  Deeply  wounded,  while  yet  a 
youth,  in  his  affections,  he  resolved  to  dedicate 
his  undivided  genius  to  heroic,  martial,  and  sacred 
themes,  forswearing  all  amatory  compositions  for 
the  future,  and  perversely  consigning  his  exquisite 
love  inspirations  to  the  flames.  In  six  sublime 
i)des,  F.  celebrated  the  deliverance  of  Vienna  in 
1683  from  the  besieging  forces  of  the  Turks,  chiefly 
jffected  by  the  heroism  of  John  Sobieski,  king  of 
Poland,  and  of  Charles  Duke  of  Lorraine.  On  the 
publication  of  the  odes  in  Florence  in  16S4,  F. 
became,  almost  in  sjjite  of  himself,  famous,  and 
attracted  the  notice  of  Queen  Christina  of  Sweden, 
an  ardent  admirer  and  munificent  protectress  of 
Italian  letters  and  genius.  Relieved  from  harassing 
pecuniary  embarrassments  by  the  liberal  patronage 
of  Christina,  F,  was  enabled,  with  undisturbed 
powers,  to  devote  himself  to  composition,  some  of 
Lis  most  touching  verses  being  addressed  to  his 
royal  benefactress.  Patriotic  sonnets,  the  grandest 
of  which  is  a  lament  over  the  internal  weakness 
ail 


of  Italy— /toZm,  Italia,  0  tu  cui  feo  la  sorfc— and 
heroic  odes,  severely  classic  in  form,  are  the  chief 
works  of  Filicaja.  His  career  as  patriot,  citizen, 
and  man,  won  him  reverence  and  love  as  univeraal 
as  was  the  admiration  accorded  to  his  Avorks.  In 
advanced  age,  he  was  appointi-j  judge  and  senator, 
and  in  1702  was  called  to  one  ot  the  highest  magis- 
terial offices  in  Florence,  where  he  died  in  honoured 
peace,  September  24,  1707.  His  works,  under  the 
title  of  Poesie  Toscane  di  Vimenzo  da  Filicaja^ 
Senatore  Fiorentino  e  Accademico  della  Crusca,  were 
published  after  his  death.  The  best  edition  is  that 
of  Venice  (2  vols.  1762),  containing  both  the  Italian 
and  Latin  verses  of  the  author. 
FI'LICES.    See  Ferns. 

FI'LIGREE,  from  the  Italian  flir/rana  {flo,  a 
thread  or  wire,  and  grano,  a  grain  or  bead),  the  old 
filigree-work  being  ornamented  with  small  beads. 
The  name  is  now  applied  to  delicate  wire-work 
ornaments,  usually  made  of  gold  or  silver  wire, 
wiiieh  is  twisted  into  spii-als  and  other  convoluted 


Filigree  Ornaments: 
From  a  drawing  by  M.Mariana,  in  the  Florence  Exhibitloa 
(1861), 


forms ;  and  these  spirals,  &c.,  are  combined  to  form 
a  sort  of  metallic  lace- work,  which  is  shaped  into 
brooches,  earrings,  crosses,  head  ornaments,  and 
others  of  a  very  light  and  elegant  character.  This 
work  is  chiefly  done  in  Malta,  Sardinia,  the  Ionian 
Islands,  and  some  parts  of  Turkey.  It  sometimes 
receives  the  general  name  of  Maltese  work. 

FI'LIPO-D'ARGIRO,  San,  a  town  of  SicHy,  in 
the  province  of  Catania,  and  about  30  miles  west- 
north- west  of  the  town  of  that  name,  stands  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Traina,  in  an  exceedingly  fertile 
district.  It  contains  a  ruined  Saracenic  castle,  and 
several  religious  edifices.  Saffron  of  good  quality, 
and  in  considerable  quantity,  is  grown  in  the 
vicinity.  Pop.  7300.  San  F.  stands  on  the  site 
of  the  ancient  Sikelian  city  of  Agyrium,  the  birth- 
place of  Diodorus  Siculus  the  historian,  and  which, 
about  400  B.  c,  is  said  to  have  had  20,000  citizens. 

FI'LLAN,  St.  Two  Scoto-Irish  saints  of  tha 
name  of  Fillan  appear  in  the  church  calendars, 
and  have  left  their  mark  on  the  topography  of 
Scotland  and  Ireland.  (1.)  St.  Fillajn,  or  Faolan, 
surnamed  the  Leper,  had  his  yearly  festival  on 
the  20th  of  June.  His  chief  church  in  Scotland 
was  at  the  east  end  of  Loch  Erne,  in  Perthshire, 
where  *  St.  Fillan's  Well'  was  long  believed  to  have 


FILLET— FILLMORE. 


Bupernatural  powers  of  healing.  A  seal;  in  the  rock 
of  Dunlillan  still  keeps  the  name  of  '  St  Fillan's 
Chair;'  and  two  cavities  beside  it  are  said  to  have 
been  hollowed  by  St  F.'s  knees  in  prayer.  His  Irish 
church  is  at  Ballyheyland  (anciently  called  Kill- 
helan  or  Kill  Faelain),  in  the  barony  of  Cullenagh, 
in  Queen's  County.  (2.)  St  Fillan,  the  abbot,  the 
son  of  St  Kentigerna  of  Inchcaileoch,  in  Loch 
Lomond,  lived  in  the  8th  c,  and  had  his  yearly 
festival  on  the  7th  or  9th  of  January.  His  church 
in  Ireland  was  at  Cluain  Maoscna,  in  Fartullach, 
in  the  county  of  Westmeath.  His  chief  church  in 
Scotland  was  in  Perthshire,  in  the  upper  part  of 
Glendocliart,  which  takes  from  him  the  name  of 
Strathtillan.  Here,  a  well- endowed  priory,  dedi- 
cated in  his  honour,  was  repaired  or  rebuilt  in  the 
beginning  of  the  14th  century.  King  llobert  Bruce 
made  a  grant  of  money  to  the  work,  in  gratitude, 

Erobably,  for  the  miraculous  encouragement  which 
e  was  said  to  have  received  on  the  eve  of  Bannock- 
burn  from  a  relic  of  the  saint — one  of  his  arm- 
bones  enclosed  in  a  silver  case.  Another  relic  of  St 
F. — the  silver  head  of  his  crosier,  or  pastoral  staff 
—has  been  preserved  to  our  time.  It  is  called  the 
*Coygerach'  or  '  Quigrich,'  and  appears  in  record 
as  early  as  the  year  1428,  when  it  was  in  the  here- 
ditary keeping  of  a  family  named  Jore  or  Dewar, 
who  were  believed  to  have  been  its  keepers  from 
the  time  of  King  Robert  Bruce.  They  had  half  a 
boU  of  meal  yearly  from  eveiy  parishioner  of  Glen-, 
dochart  who  held  a  merk  land,  and  smaller  quan- 
tities from  smaller  tenants  ;  and  they  were  bound, 
in  return,  to  follow  the  stolen  cattle  of  the  painsh- 
ioners  wherever  their  traces  could  be  found  within 
the  realm  of  Scotland.  The  Quigrich,  besides  its 
virtues  in  the  detection  of  theft,  was  venerated  also 
for  its  miraculous  povrers  of  healing.  In  1487,  the 
right  of  keeping  it  was  confirmed  to  Malice  Doire  or 
Dewar  by  King  James  III.  in  a  charter,  which  was 
presented  for  registration  among  the  public  records 
of  Scotland  so  lately  as  the  year  1734.  Sixty  years 
later,  the  Quigrich  still  commanded  reverence ;  but 
its  healing  virtues  were  now  only  tried  on  cattle, 
and  its  once  opulent  keepers  had  fallen  to  the  rank 
of  farm-labourers.  It  was  publicly  exhibited  in 
Edinburgh  in  the  year  1818,  before  being  carried 
to  Canada,  where  it  now  is,  in  the  hands  of  a 
descendant  of  its  old  custodiers,  a  farmer  named 
Alexander  Dewar.  He  puts  such  a  value  on  the 
relic,  that  he  has  hitherto  refused  to  part  with  it 
for  less  than  £400  sterling,  or  1000  acres  of  Canadian 
land.  It  has  been  recently  figured  and  described  by 
Dr  Daniel  Wilson  in  a  paper  in  the  Canadian  J our- 
nal,  No.  xxiv.j  reprinted  in  a  pamphlet,  with  the 
title  of  I'he  Quigrich,  or  Crosier  of  St  Fillan  (Toronto, 
1859) ;  and  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries  of  Scotland,  vol.  iii.  part  ii.  p.  233,  plate 
jcxvi.  (Edin,  1361).  A  linn  in  the  river  Fillan 
or  Dochart,  in  Strathfillan,  was  long  believed  to 
work  wondei-ful  cures  on  insane  persons,  who  were 
immersed  in  the  stream  at  sunset,  and  left  bound 
hand  and  foot  till  sunrise  in  the  ruins  of  the  neigh- 
bouring church  of  St 
Fillan.  A  hand-bell, 
which  bore  the  name 
of  St  Fillan,  was 
also  believed  to  work 
miracles. 


FILLET,  in  Archi- 
tecture, a  small  space 
IiUcts.  or  band  like  a  narrow 

ribbon  used  along  with 
mo\ilding8.  a,  a,  a  (see  fig.)  are  examples  of  fillets, 
both  in  classic  and  Gothic  architecture. 

FILLET,  in  Heraldry,  is  an  ordinary  which. 


according  to  Guillim,  contains  the  fourth  part  of  the 
chief. 

FI'LLIBUSTERS,  another  name  for  the  piratica 
adventurers  whose  origin  and  history  arc  treated 
of  under  Bucaneers  (q.  v.).  Recently,  it  has 
become  familiar  to  English  ears  as  the  designation 
of  certain  lawless  adventurers  belonging  to  tho 
United  States,  who  have  attempted  vjolently  to 
possess  themselves  of  various  countries  in  jS'oi'th 
America.  The  plea  urged  by  these  persons  hjvs 
generally  been,  that  such  countries  were  a  Jjrey  to 
anarchy  and  oppression,  and  could  only  attain  to 
prosperity  by  annexation  to  the  United  States, 
and  the  introduction  of  'democratic'  instituticns,  and 
obedience  to  law,  while  themselves  lawless  adven- 
turers. The  most  notorious  of  these  fillibusters 
was  the  late  William  Walker,  whose  expedition 
against  Nicaragua  in  1855  was  so  far  successful 
that  he  kept  his  ground  in  that  country  for  nearly 
two/  years.  At  last,  he  was  driven  out  by  a  com- 
bination of  the  various  states  of  Central  America. 
He  was  subsequently  captured  and  shot,  September 
12,  1860,  at  Truxillo,  in  Central  America,  in  the 
coiu-se  of  another  piratical  expedition. 

FILLMORE,  Millard,  an  American  statesman, 
the  thirteenth  president  of  the  United  States,  was 
born  in  Cayuga  county,  New  York,  on  the  7th  of 
January  1800.  His  history  presents  a  remarkable 
example — not,  however,  unparalleled  in  America 
— how  one  who,  Avithout  the  advantages  of  early 
education,  and  without  any  aid  from  influential 
connections,  may  rise  to  the  very  highest  position 
in  the  government.  His  jjarents  removed,  near  the 
close  of  the  last  c,  from  New  England  to  Cayuga 
county,  which  was  then  a  wilderness.  Young  F. 
reached,  it  is  said,  the  age  of  10  without  ever 
having  seen  a  grammar  or  a  geography.  In  1821, 
he  removed  to  Erie  county,  in  the  western  part 
of  New  York,  making  the  journey  principally  on 
foot.  Soon  after,  he  entered  a  law-office  in  Buffalo, 
and,  while  pursuing  his  legal  studies,  supported 
himself  by  teaching  a  school.  He  commenced  the 
practice  of  law  at  Aurora,  in  Erie  county,  and  in 
a  few  years  rose  to  eminence  in  his  profession.  He 
was  elected  in  1829  to  the  state  legislature,  and  in 
1832  was  chosen  a  representative  to  Congress.  Here 
he  distinguished  himself  by  the  faitMulness  and 
ability  with  which  he  discharged  his  public  duties. 
He  was  elected  in  1832  by  the  anti- Jackson  i^arty, 
and  was  re-elected  as  a  Whig  in  1836,  1838,  and 
1840.  In  1841,  Mr  F.  was  ajjpointed  chairman  of 
the  committee  of  Ways  and  Means,  after  the  speaker- 
ship, the  most  responsible  as  well  as  the  most 
honourable  position  in  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives. Under  his  auspices  and  direction,  the  cele- 
brated tariff  of  1842  was  prepared  and  carried 
through  the  House.  In  1848,  he  was  elected  to  the 
vice -presidency  of  the  United  States,  with  General 
Taylor  as  president,  and  entered  upon  the  duties 
of  his  office  in  March  1849.  General  Taylor  having 
died  in  July  1850,  Mr  F.  succeeded  to  the  presi- 
dency for  the  unexpired  portion  of  the  term  of  foul' 
years.  Although  his  party  was  a  minority  in  both 
houses  of  Congress,  his  administration  was  marked 
by  a  number  of  useful  measures,  but  by  his  signa- 
ture to  the  act  for  the  rendition  of  fugitive  slaves 
to  bondage  he  forfeited  the  esteem  of  the  f rienils  of 
liberty.  Among  his  most  important  measures  may 
be  mentioned  the  expedition  sent  out  under  Com- 
modore Perry  for  the  purpose  of  opening  the  porta 
of  Japan  to  American  commerce — an  luidertaking 
which  was,  at  least  for  the  time,  eminently  success- 
ful. When  he  retired  from  office  on  the  4th  of 
Mai-ch  1853,  he  left  the  country  in  the  enjoj-ment 
of  a  high  degree  of  prosperity.     He  was  the 

33«> 


FILTER,  FILTRATION. 


candidiitc  of  the  American  party  for  the  presidency  in 
1856  ;  but  in  the  contest  which  followed,  having  failed 
to  move  with  the  progress  of  opinion,  he  received 
no  electoral  votes  except  those  of  Maryland.  After 
liis  retirement  from  public  life,  Mr  F.  resided  at  Buf- 
falo (which  bad  previousl}^  been  his  home  for  some 
years)  until  his  death,  Avhich  occurred  on  the  8th  of 
March,  1874. 

FILTER,  FILTRATION.  _  When  solid  matter 
13  suspended  in  a  liquid  in  which  it  is  insoluble,  it 
may  be  separated  by  various  means.  Under  the 
article  Fining,  various  methods  of  causing  such 
suspended  matter  to  collect  together  and  sink  to 
the  bottom  or  float  on  the  sui'face,  and  thereby 
clearing  the  liquid,  are  described.  The  process  of 
filtration  consists  in  passing  the  liquid  through 
som3  porous  sid)stance,  the  interstices  of  which  are 
too  small  to  admit  of  the  passage  of  the  solid  par- 
ticles, the  principle  of  the  action  being  the  same 
as  that  of  a  sieve ;  but  as  the  particles  of  fluids  are 
''mmeasurably  small,  the  pores  must  be  extremely 
minute. 

One  of  the  simplest  forms  of  fdter  is  that  com- 
monly used  in  chemical  laboratories  for  separating 

Erecipitates,  &c.  A  square  or  circular  piece  of 
lotting-paper  is  folded  in  four,  the  corner  where 
the  four  folds  meet  is  placed  downwards  in  a  funnel, 
and  one  side  is  partly  opened,  so  that  the  pajier  forms 
a  linmg  to  the  funnel.  The  liquid  passes  through 
the  pores  of  the  paper,  and  the  solid  matter  rests 
upon  it.  The  chief  advantages  of  this  filter  are  its 
simplicity,  and  the  ease  with  which  the  solid  matter 
may  be  removed  and  examuied. 

A  simple  water-filter  for  domestic  purposes  is 
sometimes  made  by  stufiing  a  i)iece  of  sj)onge  in 
the  bottom  of  a  funnel  or  the  hole  of  a  flower-pot, 
and  then  placing  above  this  a  layer  of  i)ebbles,  then 
a  layer  of  coarse  sand,  and  above  this  a  layer  of 
pounded  charcoal  three  or  four  inches  in  depth. 
Another  layer  of  pebbles  should  be  placed  above 
the  charcoal,  to  prevent  it  from  being  stiiTcd  up 
when  the  w^ater  is  poured  in.  It  is  obvious  that 
such  a  filter  will  require  occasional  cleaning,  as 
the  suspended  impurities  are  left  behind  on  the 
charcoal,  &c.  This  is  best  done  by  renewdng  the 
charcoal,  &c.,  and  taking  out  the  sponge  and  wash- 
ing it.  By  a  small  addition  to  this,  a  cottage-filter 
may  be  made,  which,  for  practical  use,  is  quite 
equal  to  the  most  expensive  filters  of  corresponding 
size.  It  consists  of  two  flower-pots,  one  above  the 
other ;  the  lower  one  is  fitted  with  the  sponge 
and  filtering  layers  above  described,  and  the  upper 
one  with  a  sponge  only.  The  upper  pot  should 
be  the  largest,  and  if  the  lower  one  is  strong, 
the  upper  one  may  stand  in  it,  or  a  piece  of  wood 
with  a  hole  to  receive  the  upper  i)ot  may  rest 
upon  the  rim  of  the  lower  one.  The  two  pots  thus 
arranged  are  placed  upon  a  three-legged  stool  with 
a  hole  in  it,  through  which  the  projecting  part  of  the 
lower  sponge  passes,  and  the  water  drops  into  a  jug 
placed  below.  The  upper  pot  serves  as  a  reservoir, 
and  its  sponge  stops  the  coarser  impurities,  and 
thus  the  filtering  layers  of  the  lower  one  may  be 
ased  for  two  or  three  years  without  being  renewed, 
if  tho  upper  sponge  be  occasionally  cleaned.  Care 
must  be  taken  to  wedge  the  upper  spofige  tightly 
enough,  to  prevent  the  water  passing  from  the  upper 
j)ot  more  rapidly  than  it  can  filter  through  the 
lower  one. 

A  great  variety  of  filters  are  made  on  a  similar 
principle  to  the  above,  but  constructed  of  orna- 
mental earthenware  or  porcelain  vessels  of  suitable 
shape.  It  would  occupy  too  much  space  to  enter 
upon  the  merits  of  the  filters  of  different  makers, 
esi)ecially  as  there  is  really  very  little  difference 
bobween  them  in  point  of  etficiency,  and  nearly  all 


the  domestic  filters  that  are  offered  for  sale  are 
well  adapted  for  their  required  purpose.  In  pur- 
chasing a  filter,  the  buyer  must  not  be  satisfied 
with  merely  seeing  that  the  water  which  haa 
passed  through  it  is  rendered  perfectly  transparent 
— this  is  so  easily  done  by  a  new  and  clean  filter — 
but  he  shoidd  see  that  the  filter  is  so  constructed  as 
to  admit  of  being  readily  cleansed,  for  the  residual 
matter  must  lodge  somewhere,  and  must  be  some- 
how removed.  When  large  quantities  of  water  have 
to  be  filtered,  this  becomes  a  serious  difficidty,  and 
many  ingenious  modes  of  overcoming  it  have  been 
de\dsed.  In  most  of  these,  water  is  made  to  CLscend 
through  the  filtering  medium,  in  order  that  the 
impurities  collected  on  it  may  fall  back  into  the 
impure  water.  Leloge's  ascending  filter  consists 
of  four  compartments,  one  above  the  other ;  the 
upper  part,  containing  the  impure  water,  is  equal 
in  capacity  to  the  other  three.  This  conmiunicatea 
by  a  tube  with  the  lower  one,  winch  is  of  small 
height.  The  top  of  this  is  formed  by  a  piece  of 
porous  filtering-stone,  through  which  alone  the 
water  can  pass  into  the 
third  compartment,  which 
is  filled  with  charcoal,  a-nd 
covered  with  another  plate 
of  porous  stone.  The  fourth 
compartment,  immediately 
above  the  third,  receives 
the  filtered  water,  which 
has  be«n  forced  through 
the  lower  stone,  the  char- 
coal, and  the  upper  stone. 
A  tap  is  affixed  to  this,  to 
draw  off  the  filtered  water, 
and  a  plug  to  the  second 
or  lower  compartment,  to  Leloge's  Filter  r 
remove  the  sediment.  i,  2,  3, 4,  the  four  compart- 

In  the  diagram  shewing  ments;  oft,  the  first  porous 
this  filter  in  section,  the 
figures  1,  2,  3,  and  4  indi- 
cate the  corresponding  com- 
partments. At  /,  the  top 
of  the  tube  by  which 
the  first  and  second  com- 
partments communicate,  a 
sponge  may  be  jjlaced  to  stop  some  of  the  grosser 
impurities. 

Since  1831,  when  this  filter  was  contrived,  a 
number  of  ascending  filters  have  been  patented, 
many  of  them  being  merely  trifling  modificatiotis  of 
this.  Bird's  Syphon  Filter  is  a  cylindrical  pewter 
vessel  containing  the  filtei'ing  media,  and  to  it  is 
attached  a  long  coil  of  flexible  pe^^i;er  j^pe.  When 
used,  the  cylinder  is  immersed  in  the  water-butt  or 
cistei-n,  and  the  pipe  uncoiled  and  bent  over  the 
edge  of  the  cistern,  and  brought  doMTi  considerably 
below  the  level  of  the  water.  It  is  then  started  by 
applying  the  mouth  to  the  lower  end,  and  sucking 
it  till  the  water  begins  to  flow,  after  which  it  con- 
tinues to  do  so,  and  keeps  up  a  large  supply  of  clear 
water.  This,  of  course,  is  an  ascending  filter,  and 
the  upward  .ressure  is  proportionate  to  the  differ- 
ence between  the  height  of  the  water  in  the  cistern 
and  that  of  the  lower  end  of  the  exit  tube.  See 
Syphon.  Sterling's  filtering  tanks  are  sbte  cisterns 
divided  into  compartments,  the  water  ei'tering  the 
first,  then  passing  through  a  coarse  /liter  to  a 
second,  and  from  there  through  a  fiiier  filter  to  the 
main  rece])tacle,  where  the  filtered  water  is  stored 
and  drawn  off  for  use. 

A  common  water-butt  or  cistern  may  be  made  to 
filter  the  water  it  receives  by  the  following  mea.nB: 
Divide  the  cistern  or  butt  into  two  compartments, 
an  upper  and  a  lower,  by  means  of  a  water-tight 
partition  or  false  bottom ;  then  take  a  wooden  box 


stone  of  third  or  filiering 
coMipartment  ;  cd,  the 
exit  filtering  stone  of  d; 
e,  the  plug  to  remove 
for  ckanini^  out  second 
compaitment;  /,  a  loose 
sponfre  at  entrance  of 
Communicating  tube. 


FILTER,  FILTRATlOi^. 


or  small  barrel,  and  perforate  it  closely  with  holes  ; 
St  a  tube  into  it,  reaching  to  about  the  middle  of 
the  inside,  and  projecting  outside  a  little  distance  ; 
rill  the  box  or  barrel  \vith  powdered  charcoal,  tightly 
rai .'imed,  and  cover  it  with  a  bag  of  felt ;  then  fit 
the  projecting  part  of  the  tube  into  the  middle  of 
the  false  bottom.  It  is  evident  that  water  cau  only 
i;as3  from  the  upper  to  the  lower  compartment  by 
goii^g  through  the  felt,  the  charcoal,  and  the  tube, 
and  thus,  if  the  upper  part  receives  the  supply,  and 
th3  water  for  use  is  drawn  from  the  lower  part, 
the  whole  vnll  be  filtered.  It  is  easily  cleaned  by 
removing  the  felt  and  washing  it. 

Various  means  of  compressing  carbon  into  solid 
oorous  masses  have  been  patented,  and  filters  are 
made  in  which  the  water  passes  through  blocks  of 
this  compressed  carbon.  Most  of  these  are  well 
adapted  for  the  purpose,  but  their  asserted  supe- 
riority over  filters  composed  of  layers  of  sand  and 
charcoal  is  doubtful.  A  very  elegant  and  con- 
venient portable  filter  for  soldiers,  travellers,  and 
others  who  may  require  to  drink  from  turbid  ponds 
and  rivers,  was  constructed  of  Ransome's  filtering 
stone,  and  is  also  made  of  the  compressed  carbon. 
A  small  cyhuder  of  the  stone  or  carbon  is  connected 
with  a  flexible  India-rubber  tube  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  cylinder  may  be  immersed  in  a  river,  the 
mouth  applied  to  a  mouth-piece  at  the  other  end  of 
the  tube,  and  the  water  drawn  through  the  filtering 
cylinder. 

The  filtration  of  water  on  a  large  scale  will  be 
treated  of  under  Waier-supply. 

Some  very  interesting  experiments  were  made  by 
Mr  H.  M.  Witt,  to  ascertain  whether  soluble  matter, 
such  as  common  salt,  is  in  any  degree  removed  from 
water  by  filtration.  Theoretically,  it  has  been 
assumed  that  this  is  impossible,  since  the  filter  only 
acts  mechanically  in  stoj)ping  suspended  particles; 
but  the  residts  of  Mr  Witt's  experiments  shew  that 
from  five  to  fifteen  i)er  cent,  of  the  soluble  salts 
were  separated  by  sand-filters  such  as  above 
described.  This  is  a  curious  and  interesting  subject, 
well  worthy  of  further  investigation.  Another  most 
important  matter,  on  which  a  series  of  accurate 
experiments  is  required,  is  to  ascertain  to  what 
extent  soluble  organic  matter  may  be  decomposed 
by  filtration,  especially  by  charcoal  filters,  and  to 
ascertain  how  long  charcoal  and  other  porous 
matter  retains  its  property  of  acting  on  organic 
matter  in  watery  solution.  The  power  of  dry  char- 
coal in  decomposing  organic  matter  in  a  gaseous 
Btate  is  well  established  (see  below),  and  it  is 
also  well  known  that  fresh  charcoal  acts  powerfully 
upoii  organic  matter  in  solutions,  but  the  extent  to 
whi(  a  this  power  is  retained  in  the  charcoal  of  a 
filte/  in  continuous  action  has  not  been  satisfactorily 
aso'irtained.  This  is  of  the  highest  importance,  as 
it  sometimes  happens  that  water  of  brilliant  trans- 
parency, and  most  pleasant  to  drink,  on  account  of 
the  carljonic  acid  it  contains,  is  charged  with  such 
an  amount  of  poisonous  organic  matter  as  to  render 
its  use  as  a  daily  beverage  very  dangerous.  Char- 
CC-il  obtained  from  burning  bones  is  still  more 
efficacious  than  charcoal  from  wood.  A  filter  of 
amimal  charcoal  will  render  London  porter  colourless. 
L-oam  and  clay  have  similar  projjerties.  Professor 
Way  found  that  putrid  urine  and  sewer-water, 
when  passed  through  clay,  dropi)ed  from  the  filter 
colourless  and  inoffensive. 

When  a  liquid  contains  mucilaginous  or  other 
matter  having  viscous  properties,  there  is  consid- 
erable difficulty  in  filtering  it,  as  the  pores  of  the 
medium  become  filled  up  and  made  water-tight. 
Special  filters  are  therefore  required  for  syrups, 
oils,  etc.  Such  liquids  as  ale,  beer,  etc.,  Avould  be 
exceedingly  difficult  to  filter,  and  therefore  they  are 


clarified  by  the  processes  described  under  TiNiNO. 
Oil  is  usually  passed  through  long  ba^^i  made  of 
twilled  cotton  cloth  (Canton  flannel).  These  are 
conunonly  4  to  8  feet  long,  and  12  to  Ih  inches  in 
diameter,  and  are  enclosed  in  coarse  Ci?'jvus  bags, 
8  or  10  inches  in  diameter,  and  thus  the  inner 
filtei'ing-bag  is  corrugated  or  creased,  aiid  a  largo 
surface  in  proportion  to  its  size  is  thus  presented. 
Syrups  are  filtered  on  a  small  scale  by  confectionerfj, 
&c.,  by  passing  them  through  conical  flannel  bags, 
and  on  a  large  scale  in  the  created  hag- filter  just 
described.  Thick  syrups  have  to  be  diluted  or 
clarified  with  white  of  egg,  to  collect  the  sediment 
into  masses,  and  then  they  may  be  filtered  through 
a  coarse  cloth  strainer.  Vegetable  juices  generally 
require  to  be  treated  in  this  manner. 

The  simple  laboratory  filter  has  to  be  modified 
when  strong  acid  or  alkaline  solutions,  or  sub- 
stances which  are  decomposed  by  organic  matter, 
require  filtration.  Pure  silicious  sand,  a  plug  of 
asbestos,  pounded  glass,  or  clean  charcoal,  are  used 
for  this  purpose.  Bottger  recommends  gun-cotton 
as  a  filter  for  such  purposes.  He  has  used  it  for 
concentrated  nitric  acid,  fuming  sulplim-ic  acid, 
chromic  acid,  permanganate  of  potash,  and  concen- 
trated solutions  of  potash  and  aqua  regia.  He  says 
that  properly  prepared  gun-cotton  is  only  attacked 
at  ordinary  temperatures  by  acetic  ether. 

Filtering  paj^er  for  laboratory  purposes  reqiiires 
to  be  freed  from  inorganic  impurities  that  are  soluble 
in  acids,  &c. ;  this  is  efi'ected 
by  washing  the  paper  with 
hydrochloric  acid,  or,  when 
thick,  with  nitric  and  hydro- 
chloric acid,  and  removing  the 
acid  by  washing  thf  roughly 
with  distilled  water. 

When  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  liquid  has  to  pass 
through  a  filter,  it  is  some- 
times desirable  that  it  should 
be  made  to  feed  itself.  In 
the  laboratory,  this  is  done  by 
inverting  a  flask  filled  with 
the  liquid  over  the  filtering 
funnel,  the  mouth  of  the  flask 
just  touching  the  surface  of 
the  liquid  when  at  the  desired 
height  in  the  funnel.  As  soon 
as  it   sinks  below  this,  air 

enters  the  flask,  and  some  liquid  falls  into  the  funneL 
On  a  large  scale,  self-acting  filters  are  fed  by  the 
common  contrivance  of  a  ball-cock  and  supply-pipe. 

A  ir  Filters. — The  extraordinary  powers  of  char- 
coal in  disinfecting  the  gaseous  products  evolved 
from  decomposing  animal  and  vegetable  matter, 
have  been  made  available  by  Dr  Stenhouse  in  con- 
structing an  apparatus  for  purifying  air  that  is  made 
to  pass  through  it.  A  suitable  cage,  containing 
charcoal  in  small  fragments,  is  fitted  to  the  opening 
from  which  the  deleterious  gases  issue,  and  is  foimd 
to  render  them  perfectly  inodorous,  and  probably 
innocuous.  The  first  application  of  this  was  made 
in  1854,  when  a  charcoal  air-filter  was  fitted  up  in 
the  justice-room  of  the  Mansion  House,  London, 
the  window  of  which  opens  above  a  large  urinal,  th« 
smell  of  which  was  very  offensive  in  the  room.  Tho 
filter  at  once  destroyed  the  nuisance,  and  '  although 
six  years  have  elapsed,  the  charcoal  has  never 
required  to  be  renewed.'  103  of  such  filters  have 
been  applied  to  the  outlets  of  the  sewers  of  one 
district  of  the  city  of  London,  and  no  bad  smell  ia 
observable  where  they  are  placed,  and  no  obstruc- 
tion offered  to  the  ventilation  oi  the  sewers.  They 
have  been  applied  with  like  residts  in  two  or  three 
county  towns.    The  subject  is  fully  treated  by  Dr 

327* 


FIMBRIATED -FINDER  OF  GOODS. 


Stenhouse  in  a  letter  to  tlic  lord  mayor,  published  by 
Churcliill  (London),  Charcoal  respirators  are  small 
air-filters  of  the  same  kind  applied  to  the  mouth.  See 
Respirator. 

FI'MBRIATED  (Lat.  fimbria,  a  border  or  hem) 
is  said,  in  Heraldry,  of  an  ordinary  having  a  narrow 
border  or  edging  of  another  tincture. 

FINAL  JUDGMENT.  The  meaning  of  tliis 
term  in  the  law  of  Scotland  having  led  to  some 
dispute,  an  Act  of  Sederunt  (q.  v.)  was  jxassed  on 
the  11th  July  1828,  declaring  it  to  be  applicaljle  to 
a  case  in  which  '  the  whole  merits  of  the  cause  have 
been  disposed  of,  although  no  decision  has  been 
given  as  to  expenses,  or,  if  expenses  have  been 
round  due,  although  they  have  not  been  modified 
or  decerned  for.'  The  inii)ortance  of  the  definition 
arises  from  the  fact,  that  only  final  judgments  can 
be  can-ied  by  advocation  from  the  inferior  to  the 
superior  courts.  '  The  whole  merits  of  the  caxise' 
has  been  held  to  mean,  not  only  the  merits  of  the 
action  to  which  the  advocator  is  a  par-ty,  but  also 
those  of  any  other  conjoined  with  it.  If  the  parties 
in  the  conjoined  action  will  not  proceed  to  have  it 
determined,  the  advocator  ought  to  a])ply  to  the 
mfeiior  jiidge,  stating  his  intention  to  advocate, 
and  praying  him  to  call  on  the  parties  to  proceed 
with  the  conjoined  process  ;  and,  failing  their  doing 
t50,  to  disjoin  the  causes,  which  disjunction  will 
render  an  advocation  competent.  Sliand's  Practice, 
i.  p.  454.  In  Advocations  (q.  v.)  and  Suspensions 
(q.  v.),  if  the  record  be  closed,  and  the  ])roof  con- 
cluded in  the  inferior  court,  the  case  may  be  taken 
at  onco  to  the  Inner  House  without  a  judgment  of 
the  Lord  Ordinary,  13  and  14  Vict.  c.  30.  In  order 
to  warrant  an  appeal  to  the  circuit  court  in  a  civil 
cause  (where  otherwise  competent)  not  only  the 
merits  must  have  been  disposed  of,  but  the  expenses 
modified  and  decerned  for. 

FINA'LE,  the  name  given  to  that  part  of  a 
musical  composition  which  finishes  the  act  of  an 
opera  ;  also  to  the  last  movement  of  an  instrumental 
composition,  as  in  the  symphony,  quartet,  quintet, 
sonata,  &c.  The  character  of  the  finale,  in  purely 
instrumental  works,  is  always  lively.  In  the  opera, 
it  depends  on  the  subject,  while  in  some  operas 
the  finale  consists  of  an  aria  alone,  as  in  Mozart's 
Figaro,  instead  of  the  usual  full  concerted  music 
iox  soli  and  chorus. 

FINA'NCE,  a  French  word  incorporated  -with 
our  language,  means  the  art  of  managing  money 
matters,  the  person  who  professes  this  art  being 
called  a  financier.  Finance,  in  the  plural,  is  often 
used  for  money  itself,  but  still  with  a  reference  to 
the  purpose  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied,  as  where 
the  finances  of  a  country  are  said  to  have  imi)roved 
or  fallen  off — that  is  to  say,  have  become  abund- 
ant or  scanty  according  to  the  expenditure  of  the 
country.  Sometimes  the  word  is  applied  to  private 
wealth,  but  it  is  properly  applicable  to  public  funds. 
We  use  it  in  this  country  rather  in  a  political  and 
economic  sense  than  officially,  but  in  France  there 
haA'e  been,  from  time  to  time,  comptrollers-general 
of  finance,  coi\ncils  of  finance,  bureaus  of  finance, 
&c.  Many  statesmen  have  been  spoken  of  as  great 
financiers,  from  the  talent  which  they  have  shewn 
for  adjusting  national  revenue  and  expenditure, 
as  Colbert,  Turgot,  and  Necker  in  France,  and 
Godolphin  and  Peel  in  Britain.  As  a  branch  of 
statesmanship,  finance  is  intimately  connected  with 
other  branches.  In  questions  of  national  policy 
• — such  as,  whether  a  state  can  go  to  war  or  not 
—the  financier  is  the  person  who  is  expected  to 
count  the  cost,  and  say  how  the  necessary  funds 
are  to  be  obtained.  In  the  question,  whether  an 
Jui  popular  or  oppressive  tax  is  to  be  abolished,  the 

X28 


financier  is  an  authority  on  the  question,  whether 
the  government  can  do  without  it.  Hence,  there 
is  a  special  connection  between  finance  and  taxation, 
which  has  become  closer  and  stronger  since  the 
progress  of  political  economy  has  shewn  that  the 
taxes  which  are  the  most  productive,  and  even 
the  most  easily  collected,  are  not  always  the  best, 
looking  at  the  gain  or  loss  of  a  nation,  in  the 
long-run.  Turgot  said  that  finance  was  the  art  of 
plucking  the  fowl  without  making  it  cry.  On  thip 
notion,  the  principle  of  indirect  taxation  achieved 
its  popularity.  For  instance,  customs  duties  seem 
to  fall  on  no  one.  The  importer  and  the  retailei 
add  them  to  the  price  of  the  article,  and  tho 
ultimate  purchaser  only  knows  that  the  article  is 
dear  without  exi)eriencing  the  sense  of  hardship 
felt  by  one  who  pays  out  money  directly  in  the 
shape  of  a  tax.  But  many  indirect  taxes  have,  on 
the  other  hand,  bpen  found  to  affect  the  triule  and 
the  wealth  of  communities  to  an  extent  which  has 
made  them  very  deleterious  in  comi)arison  with 
direct  taxes.  See  further  on  matters  connected 
with  finance  the  heads  Customs  ;  Debt,  National  ; 
Corn  Laws  ;  Excise  ;  Free  Trade  ;  Taxation  ; 
Revenue. 

FINCH  (Ger.  Finh ;  for  the  origin  of  the  word, 
see  Chaffinch),  the  popular  name  of  a  great  num- 
ber of  species  of  little  birds  of  the  order  Inses.^ores, 
and  tribe  Conirostres.  Many  of  them  have  great 
l)owers  of  song,  and  are  called  Jlard-hilled  Sonrj- 
birds,  in  contradistinction  to  the  Warblers  {Syl- 
viada;)  or  Soft-billed  Song-birds.  The  name  F.  is 
sometimes  used  as  equivalent  to  FringilVubz  (q.  v.), 
either  in  its  more  extensive  or  more  restricted  ap})li- 
cation  ;  but  the  limits  of  its  popular  use  are  very 
indeterminate,  and  some  birds  are  equally  known  aa 
finches  and  as  linnets,  or  as  grosbeaks,  &c.  The 
word  F.  often  forms  j^art  of  the  popular  name  of 
birds  of  this  family,  as  bullfinch,  chaffinch,  haw- 
finch, pine-finch,  &c. 

FINDER  OF  GOODS.  The  finder  acquires  a 
special  property  in  goods,  which  is  available  to 
him  against  all  the  world  except  the  true  owner; 
but  before  appropriating  them  to  his  own  use,  he 
miist  use  every  means  within  his  power  to  discover 
the  owner.  It  has  been  decided  that  if  the  property 
had  not  been  designedly  abandoned,  and  the  finder 
knew  who  the  owner  was,  or,  with  due  exertion,  could 
have  discovered  him,  he  was  guilty  of  larceny  in 
keeping  and  appropriating  the  articles  to  his  own 
use.  Armourie  v.  Delamirie,  1  Str.  505 ;  Merry  v. 
Green,  7  M.  and  W.  G23.  In  the  latter  case,  in  which 
a  person  purchased,  at  a  public  auction,  a  bureau, 
in  which  he  afterwards  discovered,  in  a  secret 
drawer,  a  purse  containing  money,  which  he  ap])ro- 
priated  to  his  own  use,  Mr  Baron  Parke  thus  laid 
down  the  law.  '  The  old  rule,  that  "  if  one  lose  h'' 
goods,  and  another  find  them,  though  he  conven; 
them  amnio  furandi  to  his  own  use,  it  is  ne 
larceny,"  has  undergone  in  more  recent  times  some, 
limitations.  One  is,  that  if  the  finder  knows  who 
the  owner  of  the  lost  chattel  is,  or  if,  from  anv 
mark  upon  it,  or  the  circumstances  imder  which  it 
is  found,  the  owner  could  be  reasonably  ascertained, 
then  the  fraudulent  conversion,  animo  furandi,  oop- 
stitutes  a  larceny.  Under  this  head  fall  the  cases* 
where  the  finder  of  a  pocket-book  -with  bank-)  lot'^s 
in  it,  with  a  name  on  them,  converts  them  o.nifnto 
furandi ;  or  a  hackney-coachman,  who  abstracts 
the  contents  of  a  parcel  which  has  been  left  in  nis 
coach  by  a  passenger  whom  he  could  easily  ascei* 
tain ;  or  a  tailor,  who  finds  and  applies  to  his  own 
use  a  pocket-book  in  a  coat  sent  to  hiin  to  repair 
by  a  customer  whom  he  must  know.  All  theee  hava 
been  held  to  be  cases  of  larceny ;  and  the  present  w 


FESTDHOKN"— FINIAL. 


an  instance  of  the  same  kind,  and  not  distinguisli- 
able  from  them'  (Pp.  631,  632). 

FI'NDHORN,  a  river  rising  on  the  west  side  of 
the  Mnnadh  Liadh  Mountains,  in  the  east  of  Inver- 
ness-shire. It  runs  north-east  through  the  counties 
of  Inverness,  Nairn,  and  Elgin,  in  the  valley  of 
Strathdearn,  passes  Forres,  and  enters  the  Moray- 
Firth  at  the  village  of  Fiudhorn  by  a  lagoon  three 
by  one  and  a  half  •  ^iles  in  extent,  after  a  course  of 
about  90  miles.  Its  waters  abound  in  salmon  and 
trout.  Its  liasin  consists  of  gneiss  in  the  upper  part, 
and  of  old  red  sandstone  in  the  lower.  At  one 
place,  it  rose  nearly  50  feet  in  the  great  floods  of 
August  1829,  known  as  the  '  Moray  Floods,'  and  did 
m\ich  damage.  West  of  the  mouth  of  the  F.  are  the 
Culbin  Sands,  in  one  part  118  feet  high,  and  covering 
9500  acres  of  a  formerly  fertile  tract. 

FINE  OF  LANDS,  in  England,  fictitious  pro- 
ceedings formerly  in  common  use  in  order  to  transfer 
or  secure  real  property  by  a  mode  more  efficacious 
than  an  ordinary  conveyance.  A  fine  is  defined  by 
Coke,  quoting  from  Glanville,  an  amicable  composi- 
tion and  final  agreement  by  leave  and  licence  of  the 
king  or  his  justiciaries  ;  and  such  indeed  it  was  in 
its  original  eff"ect,  and  it  was  called  a  fine  because  it 
put  a  termination  {Jr7iis)  to  all  litigation  between  the 
parties,  and  those  claiming  through  them,  in  regard 
to  all  matters  touching  the  suit.  The  proceedings  in 
a  fine  were  shortly  as  follow :  The  pariy  to  whom  the 
land  was  to  be  conveyed  commenced  a  fictitious  suit 
against  the  vendor.  But  the  case  was  no  sooner  in 
court  than  the  plaintiff  asked  leave  to  agree  or 
Bettle  with  the  defendant.  This  leave  having  been 
obtained,  a  covenant  was  entered  into  whereby  the 
vendor  or  defendant,  called  the  cognizor,  recognised 
the  right  of  the  plamtiff,  called  the  cognizes^  to  the 
lands,  of  which  he  admitted  that  the  plaintiff  was 
wrongfully  kept  from  the  possession.  These  pro- 
ceedings, which  at  fi  -st  were  real,  were  afterwards 
adopted  universally  without  having  a  shadow  of 
foundation  in  fact.  This  solemn  farce  having  been 
comjileted,  a  note  of  the  fine,  being  an  abstract  of 
the  covenant,  the  names  of  the  parties,  and  the 
parcels  of  the  land,  was  entered  on  the  rolls  of  the 
court ;  and  the  business  was  concluded  by  what  was 
called  the  foot  of  the  fine,  setting  forth  the  parties, 
the  time  and  place  of  agreement,  and  before  whom 
the  fine  was  levied.  The  whole  was  embodied  in 
indentures  commencing  hcec  est  Jinalis  concordla.  It 
was  necessary  that  a  fine  shoidd  be  levied  openly  in 
the  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  or  before  the  chief- 
justice  of  that  court,  or  before  two  or  more  com- 
missioners appointed  in  the  countiy.  Fines  were 
of  four  kinds,  which  need  not  be  specified  here.  In 
order  that  a  fine  should  have  fidl  effect,  it  required 
to  be  levied  with  proclamations,  L  e.,  open  proclama- 
tion of  the  transaction  in  court.  A  fine  so  levied 
cut  off  the  right  even  of  strangers  who  failed  to 
assert  their  claim  during  the  period  allowed  by  law ; 
hei>ce  an  estate  was  said  to  be  barred  by  fine  and 
non-claim.  A  fine  levied  by  a  married  woman  had 
the  effect  of  cutting  off  all  right  she  might  have 
in  the  lands,  and  was  the  only  mode  by  which  a 
married  woman  could  convey  lands  ;  and  in  order  to 
protect  her  from  undue  influence,  she  was  privately 
examined  as  to  the  voluntary  nature  of  the  trans- 
action. A  fine  levied  by  tenant  in  tail  cut  off  the 
listatH  tail,  but  did  not  affect  remainders  ;  hence, 
though  a  fine  was  sometimes  used  to  bar  an  entail, 
the  usual  method  was  by  common  Eecovery  (q.  v.). 
But  while  a  recovery  was  the  most  eflectual  method 
of  baning  an  entail,  it  required  the  consent  of  the 
tenant  in  possession,  VS'here,  then,  that  consent 
could  not  be  obtained,  or  whertj  the  tenant  in  tail 
was  at  tho  same  time  tenant  in  fee  in  remainder,  a 


fine  was  a  convenient  mode  of  barring  the  entail. 
The  statute  De  Donls  prohil)ited  fines  as  a  means  of 
bamng  entails,  but  this  restriction  was  removed  by 
32  Hen.  VIII.  c.  30. 

Tbe  old  law  as  to  fines  has  been  abolished  by 
the  Fines  and  Recoveries  Act,  3  and  4  Will.  IV.  c.  74, 
This  act  was  passed  for  the  purpose  of  abolishing 
the  cumbrous  machinery  used  in  the  transfer  oi 
land  according  to  the  ancient  f(jnns  and  fictions. 
The  act  abolishes  all  the  fictions  formerly  in  use. 
In  regard  to  fines  and  recoveries  heirs  of  entail, 
it  j:>ermits  every  tenant  in  tail  of  freehold  land 
whether  in  jiossession,  in  remainder,  or  contingency, 
to  dispose  of  the  hinds  for  an  estate  of  fee-simplo 
absolute,  or  any  less  estate,  by  any  of  the  ordinary 
conveyances,  except  a  will,  at  common  law,  or 
under  the  statute  of  Uses  (q.  v.).  The  conveyance 
must  be  registered  in  the  Court  of  Chancery  within 
six  months  after  its  execution.  But  where  there  is 
an  estate  of  freehold  prior  to  the  estate  tail,  the  act 
requires  that  the  consent  of  the  tenant  of  the  free- 
hold shall  be  necessary  in  order  to  give  full  eflect  to 
the  conveyance.  This  person  is  called  the  protector 
of  the  settlement.  Where  a  conveyance  is  made 
without  consent  of  the  protector,  it  has  the  efi"ect  of 
barring  those  only  who  would  succeed  under  the 
heir  by  whom  it  is  executed.  This  is  precisely  the 
effect  which  under  the  old  law  belonged  to  a  recovery 
without  the  consent  of  the  tenant  to  the  prcecipe, 
and  of  a  fine  levied  by  a  tenant  in  tail ;  so  that 
the  statute,  while  it  abolishes  the  fictions,  sustains 
entails  as  family  settlements  to  the  limited  eflect 
which  they  formerly  possessed.  In  regard  to  fines 
by  married  women,  the  act  provides  that  a  Feme 
Coverte  (q.  v.)  may  dispose  by  deed  of  any  lands,  or 
of  money  subject  to  be  invested  in  the  purchase  of 
lands.  It  is  necessary,  unless  specially  dispensed 
with  by  the  court,  that  her  husband  should  concur 
in  the  conveyance,  and  that  she  should  acknowledge 
it  before  a  judge  of  one  of  the  superior  courts  at 
Westminster,  or  a  Master  in  Chancery,  or  two  of 
the  commissioners  appointed  for  that  purpose  under 
the  act. 

FI'NGAL'S  CAVE.    See  Staffa. 

FINGER-BOARD,  that  part  of  a  stringed  musical 
instrument,  as  in  the  violin,  violoncello,  guitar,  &c., 
which  is  made  of  ebony-wood,  and  glued  on  the  neck 
of  the  instrument,  and  shajied  on  the  top  somewhat 
round,  to  suit  the  position  in  which  the  strings  lie 
on  the  nut  and  the  bridge.  At  the  lower  end,  the 
finger-board  projects  over  the  sounding-board  of  all 
those  instruments  played  with  the  bow,  while  in 
the  guitar  species  the  finger-board  is  glutd  down 
on  both  neck  and  sounding-board.  The  strings  are 
stretched  along  the  finger-board  from  the  nut  at 
the  top  to  the  bridge  at  the  lower  end,  and  are 
pressed  down  by  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand,  to 
make  the  different  notes  in  music  ;  while  the  right 
hand  produces  the  soimd  either  by  a  bow  or  tlxe 
points  of  the  fingers. 

FINGERS.    See  Hant5. 

FINGERS- AND-TOES,  the  popular  name  of  » 
disease  in  turnips,  called  also  Anbury  (q.  v.). 

FI'NIAL,  an  ornament,  generally  carved  to 
resemble  foliage,  which  forms  the  termination  cf 
pinnacles,  gables,  sj)ires,  and  other  portions  of  Gothic 
architecture.  There  are  traces  of  foliated  termina- 
tions, both  in  stone  and  metal,  on  the  pediments  cf 
classic  buddings  (see  Acroterion),  but  it  was  not  till 
the  12th  c.  that  the  finial  proper  was  introduced. 
During  the  latter  part  of  that  century  and  the  whole 
of  the  13th  c,  finials  of  the  most  perfect  form  and  * 
of  infinite  variety  were  used  as  the  crowning  orna- 
ments of  every  salient  point  in  the  buildings  of  the 


FINING— FINISTEEE. 


period  (see  fig.  1).  The  architects  of  the  14th  c, 
in  finials,  as  in  other  ornaments,  imitated  more 
closely  the  forms  of  natural  foliage ;  but  their 
finials  had  neither  the  variety  of  design  nor  the 
vigour  of  outline  of  those  of  the  preceding  century 
(see  fig.  2). 

In  the  15th  and  16th  centuries,  the  finials  became 
more  and  more  meagre  in  form,  and  are  frequently 
only  four  crockets  set  upon  a  bare  pyramidal 
terminal.    Some  variety  of  effect  is  often  obtained 


Finials : 

1,  from  Bishop  Bridport's  Monument,  Salisbury  Catheriral ; 
2,  York  Minuter  ;  3,  Maulbroun,  Germany  ;  4,  Crew  Hall, 
Cheshire ;  5,  Autjsburg. 


during  this  period  by  surmounting  the  finial  with  a 
gilded  vane.  Tliis  is  common  in  Tudor  and  domestic 
architecture  (fig.  3).  Finials  were  carved  both  in 
stone  and  wood,  and  in  the  latter  material  with 
great  delicacy  and  minuteness.  In  connection  vrith 
metal- work,  finials  of  metal  were  used,  and  whatever 
the  material  adopted,  its  natural  capabilities  were 
made  a  source  of  special  beauty. 

The  fiaial  is  one  of  the  most  effective  ornaments 
of  Gothic  architectm-e,  and  when  that  style  was 
succeeded  by  the  revival  of  classic,  in  the  reign  of 
Queen  Elizabeth,  our  forefathers  coidd  not  persuade 
themselves  to  part  ^vith  the  finials  to  their  buildings. 
We  thus  find  in  Elizabethan  architecture  a  great 
variety  of  finials  ;  they  are,  however,  almost  entirely 
of  a  geometric  form,  and  without  foliage  (fig.  4),  and 
are  frequently,  especially  when  teiminating  wooden 
gables,  combinations  of  finial  and  vane  partly  wood 
and  partly  iron  (fig.  5).  In  the  stricter  classic 
which  succeeded  the  Elizabethan,  some  traces  of  the 
favourite  finial  still  remain  in  the  balls,  obelisks,  &c., 
used  as  terminations,  and  also  in  tlie  shields  and 
supporters  (themselves  a  remnant  of  feudalism) 
which  form  the  crowning  ornament  of  gate-piers, 
pedestals,  &c. 

FINING,  the  process  of  clearing  turbid  liquors, 
Buch  as  beer,  wine,  &c.  The  simplest  mode  of 
fiuing  is  by  passing  the  liquor  through  a  porous 
substance  that  retains  the  solids  and  allows  the 
clear  liquid  to  pass  through  (see  Filter)  ;  but  this 
method  is  only  applicable  to  particles  mechanically 
suspended  in  a  limpd  liqtiid.  When  the  liquid 
contains  mucilaginous  or  other  matter,  that  readily 
clogs  the  filter,  some  other  means  of  fining  must  be 
used.  Such  is  the  case  with  all  malt  liquors  and 
most  wines  when  turbid.  When  in  good  condition, 
these  do  not  usually  require  fining,  as  the  suspended 
matter  agglomerates,  and  sinks  to  the  bottom  shortly 
after  the  fermentation  is  completed.  When  this 
830 


does  not  take  place,  some  means  of  promoting  such 
action  are  usiially  adopted.  One  of  the  simplest  is 
to  add  soluble  albumen,  such  as  white  of  egg,  to  a 
portion  of  the  liquid,  and  after  beating  it  well  in 
this,  to  add  the  mixture,  and  stir  it  into  the  whole 
of  the  liquid.  Upon  the  application  of  heat,  the 
albumen  coagulates  and  contracts  from  its  diffusion 
into  a  scum,  enveloping  and  drawing  together  the 
suspended  matter.  The  scum  is  then  easily  removed. 
This  method  is  adopted  for  syrups  and  other  liquids 
that  may  be  heated  without  mischief.  In  making 
clear  soups,  the  albumen  of  the  meat  performs  this 
function.  As  alcohol  coagidates  albumen,  it  niay 
be  used  for  fining  wines  and  cordials  without  the 
application  of  heat.  It  is  generally  used  for  red 
wanes.  Malt  liquors  are  usually  fined  by  means  of 
gelatine,  either  isinglass  or  cheajjer  substitutes  being 
used.  One  pound  of  isinglass  is  soaked  in  three  or 
four  pints  of  water,  or  sour  beer,  then  more  sour 
liquor  added  as  the  isinglass  swells,  until  it  amounts 
to  about  a  gallon.  The  jelly  thus  formed  is  next 
dissolved  in  seven  or  eight  gallons  of  the  liquor  to 
be  fined.  This  solution,  having  the  consistence  of  a 
syinip,  is  called  '  bi'cwers'  linings,'  and  about  a  pint 
to  a  pint  and  a  half  is  added  to  a  barrel  of  ale  oi 
porter,  or  to  a  hogshead  of  cider  or  wine.  The 
action  of  this  depends  upon  the  combination  of  the 
gelatine  with  the  astringent  matter  (tannic  acid) 
of  the  liquor,  forming  thereby  an  insoluble  solid, 
which  sinks  to  the  bottom,  and  cairies  with  it,  like 
the  coagiJating  albumen,  the  suspended  matter ; 
but  as  the  flavour  of  malt  liquors  partly  dei)end8 
upon  the  astringents  they  contain,  the  fining  afiects 
the  flavour;  the  astringents  also  help  to  preserve 
the  liquor,  and  hence  their  retnoval  is  in  this  respect 
disadvantageous.  Malt  liquors  thus  fined  do  not 
'  stand  well  on  draught.'  The  use  of  gelatine  for 
fining  red  wines  is  objectionable,  as  in  most  of 
these  the  astringent  flavour  is  an  esteemed  quality, 
and  therefore  albumen  is  preferred. 

Other  methods  of  fining  are  adopted.  Sugar  of 
lead  is  sometimes  added,  and  afterwards  one-half  its 
weight  of  sulphate  of  potash  dissolved  in  water. 
By  this  means,  an  insoluble  sulphate  of  lead  is 
preci^utated,  which  in  subsiding  carries  down  other 
matters  with  it.  This  is  a  dangerous  process,  tho 
salts  of  lead  being  poisonous.  If  properly  conducted, 
the  whole  of  the  lead  may  be  precipitated,  hxit  a 
casual  mistake  in  tlie  quantities  might  cause  the 
death  of  many  people.  Ox-blood  is  used  in  the 
same  manner  as  albumen  and  isinglass.  Lime, 
alum,  alcohol,  and  acids  act  by  coagulating  albumen 
&c.,  contained  in  the  liquor.  Plaster  of  Paris,  clay, 
and  even  sand,  are  sometimes  used  to  carry  down 
the  suspended  matters.  A  strip  of  isinglass  or  a 
piece  01  dried  sole-skin  is  often  used  for  fining 
coffee,  and  it  acts  in  the  manner  above  described. 
Liquors  that  are  unusually  difficult  to  fine  are 
called  '  stubborn '  by  coopers  and  cellarmen. 

FINISTERE,  or  FINISTERPvE  (Lat.  Finis  terrce^ 
'Land's  End'),  a  department  at  the  western  extre- 
mity of  France,  comprehending  a  part  of  the  former 
duciiy  of  Bretngne,  has  an  area  of  2648  square  miles, 
find  a  population  in  1872  of  642,963.  It  is  traversed 
from  east  to  west  by  two  low  but  picturesque  chains 
of  hills.  Its  coast  is  very  rugged  and  broken,  its 
shores  bristling  with  dangerous  granite  rocks,  and 
fringed  with  many  islands.  The  soil,  one-third  of 
which  is  occupied  by  sandy  tracts  and  marshes,  is 
moderately  productive;  and,  owing  to  tho  vicinity 
of  the  sea,  which  washes  the  northern,  western,  and 
southern  shores  of  the  department,  the  climate  is 
mild  and  humid.  Corn,  hemp,  and  flax  are  grown 
in  considerable  quantities.  In  the  valleys,  smiling 
meadows  everywhere  occur.  The  silver  and  lead 
mines  of  F.  are  very  valuable ;  those  of  PouillaoueD 


FINISTERRE— FINLAY. 


and  Hueigoet  being  about  the  ricliest  in  France.  Its 
priucii)al  rivers  are  the  Aulne,  the  Elorn,  and  the 
Odet.  The  first  of  these  is  connected  by  a  canal 
with  the  Blavet,  and  forms  part  of  the  great  line 
of  communication  by  water  from  Brest  to  Nantes. 
This  department  is  divided  into  the  following 
five  arroudissements :  Quimper,  Brest,  Chfiteaulin, 
Morlaix,  and  Quimperle.  Quimper  is  the  chief 
town. 

FINISTERRE,  Cape,  or  LAND'S  END,  is  the 
name  given  t<^  a  promontory  at  the  north-western 
extremity  of  Spain,  in  lat.  42'  54'  N.,  and  long, 
about  9''  20'  W.  It  is  the  Promontorium  Nerium 
of  the  ancients. 

FI'NLAND  (Fin.  Suomesimaa,  land  of  lakes  and 
marshes)  is  a  grand  duchy  of  Russia,  lying  between 
69°  and  70°  N.  lat.,  and  between  21°  and  33  E. 
long.,  is  about  750  miles  from  north  to  south,  and 
has  an  average  breadth  of  about  185  miles.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Russian  census  of  1851,  the  population 
was  1,636,915,  and  it  has  maintained  a  pretty  con- 
stant rate  of  increase;  in  1870  the  population 
amounted  to  1.774,342.  The  area  of  F.  may  be 
estimated  at  about  135,000  square  miles,  of  which 
nearly  one-third  is  occupied  by  marshes  and  lakes. 
The  largest  of  these  sheets  of  water,  independently 
of  Lake  Ladoga,  which  belongs  pai-tly  to  the  Russian 
province  of  Olonetz,  are  Lakes  Puruvesi,  Payane, 
Enara,  and  Saima;  the  last  of  these,  which  is 
about  180  miles  in  length,  constitutes  a  portion  of 
the  system  of  water-communication  which  has  been 
established  betM'een  the  central  parts  of  the  country  I 
and  the  Gulf  of  Finland.  The  lakes  are  especially  I 
numerous  in  the  soxith-west  of  F.,  where  they  are  | 
almost  all  united  together  by  rivers  and  waterfalls,  j 
round  the  central  lake  of  PyhiijUrvi  The  surface  is  j 
a  table-land,  from  400  to  600  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea,  with  occasional  higher  elevations.  There 
are,  however,  no  mountain-ranges,  and  hence  the 
rivers  are  unimportant ;  but  in  the  north  the  country  1 
is  intersected  by  a  sandy  ridge  known  as  the  ! 
'  Maanselkae,'  which  merges,  under  the  name  of  the  | 
Lapintunturit  Mountains,  into  the  great  Lappo- 
Norwegian  Alpine  chain.  The  coast-line  is  generally 
low,  but  to  the  south  it  is  skirted  by  numerous 
rocky  islands,  separated  from  the  laud  by  nari'ow 
channels,  difficult  of  navigation,  but  well  adapted 
for  purposes  of  defence  against  hostile  attacks  from 
the  sea.  The  principal  geological  formations  are 
friable  gi-anite,  hard  limestone,  and  slate.  The 
forests  of  F.  are  still  very  abundant,  although  they 
have  been  recklessly  cut  down  in  many  parts  of  the 
country  for  the  sake  of  their  ashes,  which  are  used 
to  stimulate  the  soil,  whose  natural  poverty  requires 
to  be  counteracted  by  frequent  manuring.  Pine  and 
fir  predominate,  but  birch,  beech,  oak,  &,c.,  thrive  in 
the  south  parts  of  the  country,  where  some  good 
pasture -land  is  to  be  met  with.  Since  the  incorpor- 
ation of  F.  with  Russia,  agriculture  has  declined, 
and  fishing  and  cattle-breeding  increased  in  import- 
ance. The  most  valuable  exports  of  F.  are,  however, 
the  products  of  its  forests,  as  timber,  pitch,  potash, 
tar,  and  rosin,  for  although  it  still  yields  some 
grain,  the  supply  is  scarcely  greater  than  the  home 
demaud,  although,  when  it  belonged  to  the  Swedish 
crown,  F.  was  regarded  as  the  granary  of  Sweden 
for  barley  and  rye.  Wheat  and  oats  are  but  little 
grown.  Few  fruits  ripen  except  hardy  berries ;  and 
in  the  extreme  north,  vegetation  is  almost  limited  to 
mosses  and  liverworts.  F.  yields  some  copper,  iron, 
hme,  and  slate,  but  it  produces  scarcely  any  salt, 
which  constitutes  one  of  the  principal  articles  of 
imjiort.  Reindeer,  wolves,  elks,  beavers,  and  various 
kmds  of  game  abound  ;  while  the  numerous  lakes, 
and  the  adjacent  gulfs,  supply  the  inhabitants  with 


an  abundance  cf  salmon,  lierruig,  and  other  fisn. 
The  climate  is  rigorous,  and  winter,  which  lasts  seven 
or  eight  months,  is  succeeded  by  a  brief  spring, 
which  passes  almost  suddenly  into  a  short  but 
hot  summer  of  six  or  seven  weeks,  succeeded  in 
its  turn  by  a  rainy  season,  which  ushers  in  the 
return  of  cold  weather.  In  the  north,  the  sun 
is  absent  during  a  part  of  December  and  January, 
and  almost  perpetually  above  the  horizon  during 
the  short  summer.  F.  is  divided  into  eight 
lienes  or  governments  —  Nyland,  Abo-Biorneborg, 
Tawastehuus,  Wiborg,  Kiiopio,  St  Michel,  Wasa, 
Uleaborg,  which  are  included  in  the  three  diocesea 
of  Abo,  Borgo,  and  Kuoj)io,  and  contain  in  all  214 
parishes.  The  predominant  form  of  religion  is  the 
lAitheran,  but  the  Greek  Church  has  of  late  years 
been  gaining  ground.  The  courts  of  law  are  held 
at  Abo  (the  ancient  capital),  Wasa,  and  Wiborg; 
and  there  is  one  university,  which  was  founded 
in  1640  at  Abo,  but  removed  from  thence  to  the 
present  capital,  Helsingfors,  in  1829.  The  highest 
administrative  authority  is  vested  in  the  imperial 
senate  for  F.,  consisting  of  18  members,  nominated 
by  the  emperor,  and  presided  over  by  the  governor- 
general  of  Finland.  The  army,  which  numbers 
only  679  men,  has  the  privilege  of  serving  in  distinct 
corps,  without  being  incorporated  in  the  general 
forces  of  the  empire.  The  naval  force  also  forms  a 
distinct  squadron,  under  its  own  national  flag. 

The  early  history  of  F.  is  shrouded  in  obscurity, 
and  little  is  known  of  the  people  before  the  12th  c, 
when  Eric  the  Saint,  king  of  Sweden,  exasperated  by 
their  piratical  inroads,  undertook  a  crusade  against 
them,  and  compelled  them,  by  force  of  arms,  to 
profess  Christianity.  The  hold  which  the  Swedes 
then  acquired  over  the  country  was  never  wholly 
lost  till  1809,  when  Sweden  secured  peace  mth 
Russia  by  the  cession  of  all  F.  and  the  island  of 
Aland  ;  before  that  time,  however,  the  Russians  had 
at  various  epochs  wrested  portions  of  the  Finnish 
territories  from  the  Swedes,  while  F.  had  been  for 
centuries  the  perjietual  cause  and  scene  of  wara 
between  the  two  nations.  The  Swedish  language 
had  taken  such  deep  root  in  F.,  that  the  efibrts  of 
the  Russian  government  to  displace  it  in  favour  of 
the  native  Finnish  have  hitherto  met  wdth  only 
partial  success,  and  in  many  parts  of  the  country, 
the  peoi)le  still  openly  prefer  their  old  masters. 
The  inhabitants,  who  call  themselves  Suomes,  and 
are  denominated  Tschudes  by  the  Russians,  have, 
however,  no  affinity  of  race  ^dth  the  Swedes, 
and  may  be  regarded  as  differing  from  all  other 
European  nations,  excepting  the  Lapps  and  the 
Finmarkers,  to  whom  they  are  very  probably  allied. 
See  Finns  and  Finnish  Literature. — For  further 
information,  see  Gerschau,  Versuch  einer  Gesch. 
Finland  (1821);  Ruhs,  Finland  (Stockh.  1827); 
Friis,  Beskrivelse  over  de  norske  Finlapper  (1841); 
Gylden,  Histor.  ock  statls.  Antechiing.  om  Stdderna 
i  Finland  (1845) ;  Stockfleth,  Bidrag  til  Kiinds.  om 
Finneme  i  Norge ;  Topelius,  Finland  frcemstdlldt  i 
Teckning  (1860). 

FINLAND,  Gulf  of,  the  eastern  arm  of  the 
Baltic  Sea,  between  22°  and  30°  E.  long.,  and 
between  59°  and  61'  N.  lat.  Its  coasts  are  entirely 
Russian  territory.  It  receives  the  waters  of  the 
great  lakes  Onega  and  Ladoga.  The  water  of  the 
gulf  is  not  deep,  and  only  very  shghtly  salt.  The 
topography  of  the  GuK  of  F.,  which  has  been 
thoroughly  elucidated  by  Struve,  forms  an  inter- 
esting part  of  the  great  work  of  the  Russian  survey 
of  the  Baltic. 

FINLAY,  George,  a  distinguished  historian,  wa« 
born  in  Scotland  about  the  commencement  of  th* 
present  century.  Circumstances  induced  him  to  take 


FINMARK- FINNS. 


up  h\s  residence  in  Athens,  wliere  he  patiently 
nnd  industriously  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
the  later  Greek  history.  The  fruits  of  his  labour 
and  researches  are  contained  in  his  History  of  Greece 
under  the  Iioman.%  146  B.C.  to  717  a.d.  (London,  1843; 
2d  ed.  1857)  ;  History  of  Greece  from  its  Conquest 
by  the  Crusaders  to  its  Conquest  hy  the  7'urks,  and  of 
iJie  Eynpire  of  Treh'^ond,  1204—1461  a.d.  (London, 
1851)  ;  History  of  Lte  Byzantine  and  Greek  Em- 
pires, 716—1453  A.D.  (London,  2  vols.,  1853—1854) ; 
History  of  Greece  under  the  Othoman  and  Venetian 
Dominion  (1854)  ;  and  History  of  the  Greek  Revolu- 
tion (Edin.  Blackwood  and  Sons,  1861).  F.  is  not 
regarded  as  a  })liilosopliical  historian,  in  the  highest 
sense  of  the  term ;  but  he  wms  earnest  and  indefati- 
gable in  his  endeavours  to  obtain  a  solid  and  accu- 
rate conception  of  the  times  about  which  he  wrote, 
and  was  thus  enabled  to  tlivow  a  flood  of  new  li<>;ht  on 
the  obscurity  of  modern  Greek  history.  F.  also  ex- 
hibits a  profound  kno\vled<i;e  of  Greek  art,  antiquities, 
and  topography.    lie  died  in  1875. 

FI'NMAIiK,  a  province  of  Norway,  and  the  most 
northern  part  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  lying 
between  68"  30'  and  71°  N.  lat.,  and  17°  and  31"  E. 
long.,  constitutes  Norwegian  Lajiland  (q.  v.).  Area 
about  20,000  square  miles,  of  which  three-fourths 
are  occupied  by  the  continent,  the  rest  belonging 
to  the  numerous  islands  which  skii-t  its  north-west 
shores,  and  terminate  in  the  North  Cape.  Innumer- 
able fiords  and  bays  indent  the  coast.  The  interior 
is  intersected  by  a  snow-covered  range  of  moun- 
tains, reaching  an  elevation  of  4000  feet ;  the  line 
of  per]ietual  snow  being  here  less  than  3000  feet 
Rbove  the  level  of  the  sea.  Agriculture  is  impracti- 
cable above  an  elevation  of  100  feet ;  a  few  berries 
are  the  only  fmits  that  ripen  ;  and  although  barley, 
potatoes,  and  a  few  other  vegetables  thrive  in  some 
parts,  fish  and  game  constitute  almost  the  sole  food 
of  the  inhabitants.  In  the  north,  where  no  ti'ees 
are  to  be  found,  the  turf  of  the  marshes  affords  a 
good  supply  of  fuel.  The  thin  vegetable  mould 
which  covers  the  stony  soil  yields  grass  for  the 
Bheep  and  cows,  which  graze  on  the  declivities  of 
the  rocks  skirting  the  fiords  and  creeks.  The 
principal  source  of  wealth  is  the  reindeer  in  the 
north,  and  the  cod-fisheries  in  the  south.  The  pop., 
in  1871,  numbered  22,500,  consisting  principally  of 
Lapps  (see  Lapland),  a  people  of  Finnish  origin. 
Hammerfest,  the  capital  of  F.  (70°  40'  N.  lat.),  is  the 
most  northern  town  of  Europe. 

FINNISH  LITERATURE.  To  Elias  Lonnrot 
of  Helsingfors  belongs  the  merit  of  having  rescued 
from  utter  oblivion  some  of  the  numerous  sagas  and 
Bongs  which  had  for  ages  been  recited  by  the  Finnish 
Eunolainen,  or  singers,  to  the  sound  of  the  kantela, 
or  harp,  and  thus  transmitted  from  one  generation  to 
another.  Although  his  researches  were  limited  to 
the  district  of  Karelia,  in  the  government  of  Kupio, 
he  obtained  numerous  songs  and  proverbs,  and  a 
oomplete  epos,  consisting  of  32  parts,  each  of  which 
Lontained  from  200  to  700  verses.  This  singidar 
monument  of  the  earlier  culture  of  the  people  was 
published  by  him  in  1835,  under  the  title  of  Kalewala 
(the  ancient  name  of  Finland),  but  it  met  with  little 
notice  till  the  academy  of  Dorpat  made  it  the  sub- 
ject of  discussion  at  their  meetings  in  1840.  This 
publicity  soon  attracted  the  attention  of  foreign 
philologitits,  and  led  to  its  translation  into  Russian, 
Swedish,  and  German.  The  learned  Finnish  scholar, 
Carsten,  the  Grimms,  and  Brockhaus,  agree  in 
regarding  the  Kalewala  as  a  pure  epic,  and  charac- 
terise it  as  a  composition  possessing  a  thoroughly 
Oriental  appreciation  of  nature,  an  almost  unparalleled 
wealth  of  images  and  tro])es,  great  fleribility  of 
rhythm,  and  a  copiousness  of  synonyms  not  to  be  met 

m 


with  in  any  other  northern  tongue.  There  is  less 
unanimity  in  regard  t«,  the  character  of  the  plot,  for 
while  one  critic  believes  that  the  incidents  refer  to 
definite  historical  epochs,  another  regards  them  as 
purely  allegorical.  But  whatever  discrepancy  of 
opinion  there  may  be  in  this  respect,  the  Kalewala 
is  admitted  by  all  who  are  entitled  to  form  a  judgment 
of  its  merits,  to  be  one  of  the  most  curie  us  monu- 
ments of  the  kind  possessed  by  any  European  people. 
The  date  of  its  composition  must  be  referred  to  a 
period  anterior  to  the  introduction  of  Christianity 
amongst  the  Finns  in  the  14th  c,  while  there  is  evea 
strong  internal  evidence,  from  an  identity  li.  the 
names  and  traditions  of  the  Kalewala  with  many 
still  current  iiiEsthonia,  that  the  poems  very  probably 
belong  to  an  epoch  anterior  to  the  immigrations 
of  the  Karelians  into  the  districts  which  they  now 
occupy.  The  publication  of  the  Kalewala  has 
given  a  powerful  impetus  to  the  study  of  the  Finnish 
language,  which  the  Russian  government  effectively 
sustains  by  encouraging  the  cultivation  and  use  of 
their  native  tongue  by  the  Finlanders.  The  upper 
classes  still  cling  to  the  use  of  Swedish,  but  the 
peasantry  and  small  landed  proprietors  welcome 
with  avidity  every  addition  to  the  limited  stock  of 
their  printed  literature.  Finnish  weekly  papers 
circulate  freely  among  them,  and  political  questions 
are  discussed  with  an  enthusiasm  which  is  never 
met  with  among  similar  classes  in  Scandinavia  or 
Russia  Proper,  but  which  affords  additional  proof  of 
the  diversity  of  character  which  distinguishes  the 
Finn  from  either  of  the  neighbouring  nations  with 
which  he  has  been  successively  incorporated. 

The  prose  literature  of  Finland  is  almost  exclusively 
devoted  to  religious  and  moral  subjects.  The  Bible 
was  translated  into  Finnish  in  1642,  but  a  part  of 
the  Old  Testament  had  been  translated  a  century 
earlier.  Several  Finnish  poets  have  acquired  a 
reputation  of  late  years,  but  their  works  breathe 
the  same  melancholy  tone  which  so  strongly  charac- 
terises the  more  ancient  poems  of  Finland.  Lonnrot 
has  made  a  collection  of  about  7000  proverbs  {Suomen 
kansan  Sanalsknja,  1842),  and  about  2000  charades 
[Suom.  kans.  arivoitnskia,  1851).  See  Erman's  ^?r7iit; 
f.  d.  Kunde  v.  Bussland.  Tenr/strom  i  Fosterldndskt 
^Alb.  (Helsingf.) 

FINNS,  geographically,  the  name  of  the  inha. 
bitants  of  Finland ;  but  in  ethnology,  that  of  a 
considerable  branch  of  the  Ugrian  race,  dwelling  for 
the  most  part  in  Finland,  though  with  some  repre- 
sentatives in  Sweden  and  Norway  as  welL  The 
Ugrians  have  been  classed  among  the  nations  said 
to  have  a  Mongolian  origin.  Dr  Latham  places 
them  among  the  '  Turanian  Altaic  MongolidiE,'  and 
divides  them  into  Ugrians  of  the  East,  and  Ugrians 
of  the  West.  The  Western  Ugrians  consist  of 
Lapps,  Finns,  Permians,  and  other  nations  or  tribes 
in  the  north  and  north-west  of  Russia,  and  of  the 
Magyars  in  Hungary.  The  Magyars  are  the  most 
numerous,  and  next  after  these  come  the  Finns, 
comprising  about  2,000,000  of  individuals.  All  the 
other  tribes  of  Western  Ugrians  do  not  together 
comprise  so  many.  The  F.,  in  common  with  the 
other  Ugrians,  are  of  the  Mongolian  type.  A 
recent  traveller,  Mr  Bayard  Taylor,  describes  them 
as  having  'high  cheek-bones,  square,  strong  jaws, 
fidl,  yet  firm  lips,  low  broad  foreheads,  dark  eyes 
and  hair,  and  a  deeper,  warmer  red  on  the  cheeks 
than  on  those  of  the  rosy  Swedes.  The  average 
height  is,  perhaps,  not  quite  equal  to  that  of  the 
latter  race,  but  in  physical  vigour  there  is  no 
inferiority,  and  there  are  among  them  many  men 
of  splendid  stature,  strength,  and  proportiorL' 
Other  travellers  bear  similar  testimony  to  the 
physical  appearance  of  the  F.  proper,  or  those 
of  pure  Finnish  blood ;  but  although  these  form  the 


FINS— FIR. 


majority,  there  are  many,  in  the  towns  especially, 
who  pass  tor  F,,  while,  in  reality,  they  are  quite  as 
much  entitled  to  be  called  Swedes,  or  even  Ilussians, 
on  account  of  the  frequent  intermarriages  of  the 
F.  with  individuals  of  those  two  nations.  The  F., 
from  having  been  originally  a  nomadic  race,  have 
for  many  centuries  been  stationary  and  civilised. 
Long  before  the  arrival  of  tlie  German  and  Slavic 
nations  in  the  north  of  Europe,  the  Ugrians,  or  Ogres 
(for  the  name  so  common  in  fiction  is  really  of 
historic  origin),  possessed  it,  and  were  gradually 
pushed  further  north  and  east  by  the  new  invaders. 
Both  F.  and  Lapps,  there  is  good  reason  to  believe, 
originally  extended  much  further  south  than  they 
do  at  present,  occupying,  perhaps,  the  whole  of 
Sweden  and  Norway.  '  The  Finns,'  says  Prichard, 
'were,  in  the  time  of  Tacitus,  as  savage  as  the 
]jai>ps ;  but  the  former,  during  the  succeeding 
ages,  became  so  far  civilised  as  to  exchange  a 
Domadic  life  for  one  of  agricultural  pursuits  ;  while 
the  Lapps  have  ever  continued  to  be  barbarous 
nomades,  as  well  as  the  Siberian  tribes  of  the  same 
race — namely,  the  Woguls  and  Ostiaks.  The  Finns, 
as  well  as  their  brethren  the  Beormahs,  or  Finns  of 
the  White  Sea,  had  probably  undergone  this  change 
long  before  the  time  when  they  were  visited  by 
Otther,  the  gaest  of  Alfred.  When  the  Finns  were 
conquered  by  the  Swedes,  they  had  long  been  a 
settled  people,  but  one  of  curious,  and  singular,  and 
isolated  character.' 

The  Finnish  lanqiiage,  like  that  of  the  other 
Ugrian  nations,  belongs  to  the  Turanian  family  of 
languages,  and  hence  offers  some  striking  points  of 
resemblance  to  the  languages  and  dialects  of  the 
Turks,  Tartars,  Mongols,  Mandshurians,  Tungusians, 
and  even  Magyars  or  Hungarians.  In  Finnish, 
the  nouns  are  not  inflected,  but  an  additional 
word  is  required  to  denote  the  variations  of  case, 
number,  and  sex.  The  prepositions  and  pronouns 
are  suffixed  to  the  words  they  modify.  The  verbs 
have  only  two  tenses,  joast  and  present ;  the  future 
being  expressed  by  adding  to  the  present  some 
word  indicating  a  future  action  or  state  of  being. 
Bask  considers  the  Finnish  to  be  the  most  harmoni- 
ous of  tongues.  Many  Swedish,  and  a  few  Russian 
words  have,  of  course,  become  incorporated  with 
the  language,  in  consequence  of  the  social  and 
political  relations  of  the  F.  with  those  two  countries. 
The  F.  of  our  time  are  doubtless  the  same  race  as 
the  Feniii  of  Tacitus,  and  the  Phinnoi  of  Strabo 
and  Ptolemy,  though  not  occupying  the  same  geo- 
graphical area.  *  The  nearest  approach  to  a  name 
at  once  general  and  native,'  says  Dr  Latham,  'is 
Suomelaiset,  meaning  swamp,  morass,  or  fen  people  ; 
the  term  Finn  and  Finlander  being  of  foreign  origin.' 
With  respect  to  the  social  habits,  morals,  and 
manners  of  the  F.,  all  travellers  are  unanimous  in 
praising  them.  They  are  of  a  cheerftd  disposition, 
aflfectionate  towards  each  other,  and  honest  and 
honourable  in  their  dealings  vvdth  strangers.  They 
are  also  cleanly  in  their  persons,  being  much 
addicted  to  the  use  of  the  vapour-bath,  to  which 
circumstance  may  be  attributed  the  strongly  marked 
difference  in  physical  appearance  between  them  and 
the  stunted  Lapps,  to  whom,  in  language  as  well  as 
many  other  respeots,  they  stand  closely  related 

FINS  (allied  to  Lat.  pinna  or  penna,  see  letter 
F),  organs  adapted  for  swimming  or  locomotion  in 
water.  The  limits  of  the  application  of  the  term 
are  rather  vague.  It  is  always  applied  to  the 
locomotive  organs  of  fishes,  when  they  possess 
special  organs  of  locomotion,  as  almost  all  of  them 
do;  and  equally  to  those  organs  (the  pectoral 
and  ventral  fins)  which  are  homologous  to  the 
limbs  of  other  vertebrate  animals,  and  to  those 
tthe  vertical  fins)  which  may  be  said  to  be  super- 


added to  them,  and  to  belong  to  fishes  alono ; 
equally  also  to  those  which  are  furnished  with 
rays,  having  a  membrane  stretched  on  them,  as 
is  generally  the  case  in  all  the  fius  of  fishes,  and  to 
those  which  consist,  as  in  some  fishes,  of  a  mere 
fold  of  the  skin,  and  which,  when  they  exist  in 
fishes,  are  in  reality  not  very  much  organs  of 
locomotion.  The  name  fins  is  given  to  the  locomo- 
tive organs  of  Cetacexi,  but  not  to  those  of  any 
other  Mammalia,  even  when,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
hind  feet  of  seals,  they  approach  very  nearly  to 
the  character  of  the  fins  of  fishes.  Nor  is  it  ever 
given  to  the  webbed  feet  of  birds.  But  it  ia 
often  given  to  the  swimming  organs  of  inverte- 
brate animals,  as  to  the  expansions  of  the  m.antlH 
whi'^^'-  serve  this  purpose  in  the  Cephalopola.  and 
which  are  entirely  destitute  of  rays. 

FI'NSBUKY,  or  FEN  TOWN,  a  parliamentary 
borough  of  Middlesex,  forming  the  north  part  of 
London  (q.  v.). 

FI'NSCALE.    See  Red-Eye. 

FI'NSTERAA'RHORN,  the  highest  peak  of  the 
Berneso  Alps.    See  Alps. 

FINSTERWALDE,  a  small  town  of  Prussia, 
in  the  province  of  Brandenburg,  is  situated  on  an 
affluent  of  the  Black  Elster,  40  miles  north  of 
Dresden.  It  has  manufactures  of  cloth  and 
machinery  ;  spinning  and  weaving  are  carried  on. 
Pop.  (1871)  7370. 

FI'ORIN.  See  Bent  Grass. 

FIR,  a  name  often  used  in  a  sense  co-extensive 
with  the  widest  sense  of  the  word  Pine  (q.  v.),  and 
therefore  so  as  to  include  a  large  portion  of  the 
Conifers  (q-v.),  or  at  least  the  whole  of  the 
Linnjean  genus  Pinus.  But  the  name  fir  is  often 
also  used  in  a  more  restricted  signification,  and 
the  trees  so  designated  are  those  forming  the  genua 
Abies  of  some  authors,  Abies  and  Picea  of  others, 
which  the  greater  number  of  botanists  have  now 
agreed  in  separating  fi'om  PintLS.  The  Scotch  Fir, 
however,  is  a  true  Pine  {Pinus  sylvestris),  and  wiU 
be  described  along  with  its  congeners.  See  Pine. — 
The  genus  Abies  is  distinguished  from  Pinus  by  the 
flat  rounded  apex  of  the  scales  of  its  cones,  and  by 
leaves  not  in  clusters  of  .definite  number.  Some 
botanists  include  the  species  of  Larch  (q.v.)  and 
Cedar  (q.v.)  in  the  genus  Abies;  but  if  these  bo 
separated,  no  species  with  clustered  leaves  remain 
in  this  genus,  which  then  contains  only  the  different 
kinds  of  Spruce  Fir  and  of  Silver  Fir,  or 
species  most  nearly  allied  to  those  which  ordin- 
arily bear  these  names.  All  of  them  are  ever- 
green. The  Spruce  Firs  form  the  genus  Abies  of 
some  authors,  distinguished  by  short  solitary  leaves, 
scattered  all  round  the  branchlets,  and  by  the 
scales  of  the  (pendulous)  cones  being  attenuated 
at  the  apex,  and  remaining  fixed  to  the  axis  of  tho 
cone.  The  Silver  Firs  form  the  genus  Picea  of 
some,  distinguished  by  the  deciduous  scales  of  the 
(erect)  cones.  It  being  supposed,  however,  that  the 
Linnsean  names  had  been  given  tlirough  mistake, 
and  that  the  common  Silver  Fir  is  the  true  Abies  of 
the  ancients,  and  the  Norway  Spruce  their  Picea, 
Link  has  attempted,  but  without  being  followed  by 
many,  to  restore  these  names  to  their  ancient  use, 
and  to  denominate  the  genera  accordingly. — The 
Norway  Spruce  {Abies  excelsa  or  Pinus  Abies) 
is  a  noble  tree,  sometimes  attaining  the  height  of 
180  feet,  with  long  cylindrical  pendulous  cones, 
denticulate  scales,  and  scattered,  green,  crowded, 
suddenly  pointed,  almost  quadrangular  leaves.  It 
is  the  Fichte  of  the  Germans,  called  also  Rothtanne  cr 
Schwarztanne.  Like  the  other  kinds  both  of  Spruce 
and  Silver  Fir,  it  exhibits  the  peculiar  character 


FIR. 


of  the  Conifvrce  more  perfectly  than  many  of  the 
trsjt  Fines  do,  in  its  perfectly  erect  stem,  from 
♦"^hich  proceed  almost  whorled  horizontal  branches. 


CJommon,  or  Norway  Spruce  Fir  {Abies  excelsa) : 
Copied  from  Selby's  British  Forest  Trees. 

it  is  a  very  beautiful  pyi-amidal  tree,  and  when  old, 
its  long  branches  droop  towards  the  ground.  It 
forms  entire  forests  in  the  middle  and  north  of 
Europe  and  in  Asia,  chiefly  upon  elevated  ridges, 
although  it  prefers  moist  places.  It  loves  districts 
of  primitive  rock.  In  some  i)laces,  it  is  found  even 
v/itkin  the  Arctic  Circle.  It  is  not  a  native  of 
Britain,  but  has  long  been  very  generally  planted, 
although  too  often  it  is  merely  made  a  nurse  for 
other  trees,  and  is  not  allowed  to  attain  a  consider- 
able age  or  size.  It  is  of  rapid  growth,  but  is 
believed  to  live  to  the  age  of  400  years.    It  yields 


Cone  of  Norway  Spruce  Fir : 
«f,  branchlet  and  cone  ;  b,  scale,  with  seeds ;  r,  a  seed. 

fc*«  same  products  as  the  Scotcb  Fir,  resin,  tuipen- 
tine,  tar,  and  lampblack  (see  these  heads) ;  but 
more  resin  than  turpentine.  The  true  Spruce  Rosin 
flows  spt  mtaneously  from  the  baiic.  The  purest 
pieces  arc  whitish  or  pale  yellow,  are  sold  under  the 
name  of  Common  Frankincense,  and  used  for 
ointments  and  plasters,  and  when  melted  yield  the 
common  Burgundy  Pitch  (q.  v.).  The  bark  of  the 
spruce  is  a  good  and  cheap  non-conductor  o*  heat  : 
334 


the  cones  are  an  excellent  substitute  for  tanners' 
bark.  In  Sweden  and  Norway,  the  inner  bark  ia 
made  into  baskets  ;  and  the  long  and  slender  roots, 
split  and  boiled  with  alkali  and  sea-salt,  are  dried, 
and  twisted  into  cordage,  which  is  used  both  for 
vessels  and  by  farmers.  The  wood  is  used  for  fuel 
and  for  house-building ;  it  also  supplies  masts  and 
spars  for  ships.  It  is  the  White  Christiania  Dea.l 
and  Danzig  Deal  of  the  market,  and  is  very  large  ly 
imported  into  Britain  from  Norway  and  the  Baltia 
It  is  whiter,  lighter,  less  resinous,  and  more  elaatio 
than  the  timber  of  Scotch  Fir.  The  sapwood,  wh  ilst 
still  in  a  gelatinous  state,  is  sweet,  and  is  eaten 
fresh  in  Sweden  and  Lapland;  and  the  inner  bark, 
in  times  of  scarcity,  is  mixed  with  a  little  flour  or 
meal  of  some  kind,  and  baked  into  bread.  The 
young  shoots,  still  covered  with  their  bud-scales,  are 
in  many  parts  of  Europe  used  for  fumigation.  The 
leaf-buds  are  also  employed  medicinally  in  cases  of 
scurvy,  rheumatism,  and  gout.  The  pollen  is  oft^u 
sold  by  apothecaries  instead  of  the  dust  of  the  Club- 
moss  or  Lycopodivm. — A  very  superior  variety  of  thia 
fir  is  known  as  the  Red  Norway  Spruce.  Dwarf 
varieties  are  cultivated  amongst  ornamental  shrubs. 
— The  Black  Spruce  {Abies  nigra),  of  which  the 
Red  Spruce  (sometimes  called  A.  rubra)  is  regarded 
as  a  mere  variety  caused  by  difference  of  soil,  and 
the  White  Spruce  {A.  alba),  form  great  woods  in 
North  America.  The  Black  Spruce  is  found  as  far 
north  as  lat.  65°.  Both  species  are  now  common  in 
plantations  in  Britain.  Both  have  quadrangular 
leaves ;  those  of  the  Black  Spruce  are  of  a  dark 
glaucous  green,  those  of  the  White  Spruce  are  of  a 
lighter  colour.  The  cones  of  the  Black  Spruce  are 
short,  ovate-oblong,  obtuse,  and  pendulous,  vnth. 
rounded  scales  ragged  at  the  edge ;  those  of  the 
White  Spruce  are  oval,  and  tapering  to  a  point  with 
entire  scales.  The  Black  Spruce  is  a  valuable  timber 
tree,  supplying  yards  of  ships,  &c.,  but  its  planks 
are  apt  to  split.  The  White  Spruce  is  smaller,  and 
the  timber  inferior.  From  the  Black  Spruce  the 
Essence  of  Spruce  is  obtained,  which  is  so  usefid  as 
an  antiscorbutic  in  long  voyages,  and  is  used  for 
making  spruce-beer.  Spruce-beer  is  also  made  by 
adding  molasses  or  maple  sugar  to  a  decoction  of  the 
young  branchlets,  and  allowing  the  whole  to  ferment. 
From  the  fibres  of  the  root  of  the  White  Spruce, 
macerated  in  water,  the  Canadians  prepare  the 
thread  ^^dth  which  they  sew  their  birch-bark  canoes ; 
and  the  seams  are  made  water-tight  with  its  resin. 
— From  the  twigs  of  the  Oriental  Fir  {A.  Orien- 
talis),  a  native  of  the  Levant,  a  very  fine  clear  resin 
exudes,  which  is  known  by  the  name  of  Sapindus' 
Tears.  This  fir  has  very  short  quadrangular  leaves, 
densely  crowded,  and  uniformly  imbricated. — The 
Hemlock  Spruce  of  North  America  {A.  Canadensis) 
forms  great  part  of  the  forests  of  Canada  and  of 
the  Northern  States  of  America,  extending  north- 
wards as  far  as  Hudson's  Bay.  Its  timber  is  not 
much  esteemed,  as  it  splits  very  obliquely,  and 
decays  rapidly  in  the  atmosphere ;  but  the  bark 
is  valued  for  tanning.  The  leaves  are  two-rowed, 
flat,  and  obtuse.  The  cones  are  scarcely  longer  than 
the  leaves.  The  young  trees  have  a  very  graceful 
appearance,  but  the  older  ones  are  generally  much 
disfigured  by  remaining  stumps  of  their  lower 
branches. — A.  dumosa  of  Nepal  is  very  much  allied 
to  the  Hemlock  Spruce. — A.  Douglasii  is  a  noble 
tree,  attaining  a  height  of  250  feet,  which  forms 
immense  forests  in  the  north-west  of  America,  from 
lat.  43°  to  lat.  52°.  The  bark,  when  the  tree  is  old 
is  rugged,  and  6—9  inches  thick.  It  abounds  in 
a  clear,  yellow  resin.  The  timber  is  heavy,  firm, 
and  valuable;  the  growth  very  rapid. — A.  Menzies^ii^ 
a  native  of  North  California,  veiy  similar  to 
I  A.  Douglasii  in  gereral  appearance,  also  jjroduces 


FIR— FIRDUSI. 


timber  of  excellent  quality. — A.  Brunoniana,  a 
Himalayan  sj)ecies,  forms  a  stately  blunt  pyramid 
of  120 — 150  feet  in  height,  with  brandies  spreading 
like  the  cedar,  and  drcoping  gracefully  on  all  sides. 
It  is  found  only  at  considerable  elevations.  The 
wood  is  not  durable,  but  the  bark  is  very  useful. — 
The  KnuTROwor  Himalayan  Spruce  [A.  Smithiana, 
called  also  A.  Morlnda  and  A.  Khulrow)  much 
resembles  the  Norway  Spruce,  but  has  longer  and 
mere  pendulous  branches.  The  wood  is  white,  and 
not  highly  esteemed,  although  it  readily  splits  into 
planks.— The  Mount  Enos  Fir  [A.  Cephalonica),  a 
native  of  Cephalonia,  attaining  a  height  of  60  feet, 
and  a  diameter  of  three  feet,  yields  durable  and 
very  valuable  timber. — All  these  species  have  been 
introduced  into  Britain,  and  some  of  them  seem 
likely  soon  to  be  pretty  common  in  our  plantations, 
as  well  as  others  from  the  rorth-west  of  America 
and  from  the  mountains  of  As:  a,  as  A.  Wlttmanniana, 
kc,  noble  trees,  and  apparently  quite  suitable  to 
the  climate. — The  common  Silver  Fir  [Picea 
pectinata,  or  Abies  or  Piuus  picea)  has  erect  cylin- 
drical cones,  5 — 6  inches  long,  and  two-rowed 
leaves,  with  two  white  lines  upon  the  under  side. 
It  forms  considerable  woods  upon  the  moim tains 
of  Central  Europe  and  of  the  north  of  Asia,  and 
attams  a  height  of  150—180  feet,  and  an  age  of 
300  years.  It  is  not  a  native  of  Britain,  but  large 
trees  are  now  to  be  seen  in  very  many  places.  The 
wood  is  white,  contains  little  resin,  is  very  soft  and 
light,  and  is  employed  for  the  ordinary  purposes 
of  coopers,  turners,  and  joiners,  and  in  ship  and 
house  carpentry,  also  for  making  band-boxes  and 
for  many  fine  purposes,  especially  for  the  sound- 
ing-boards of  musical  instruments.  The  same 
resinous  and  oily  products  are  obtained  from  the 
Silver  Fir  as  from  the  Spruce  and  Scotch  Fir, 


Silver  Fir  {Picea  pectinata) : 
Copied  from  Selby's  British  Forest  Trees. 


but  (f  superior  quality.  It  yields  the  beautiful 
clear  tur])entine  kno\vn  as  Strasburg  Turpentine. 
Very  similar  to  the  Silver  Fir,  but  generally  of 
much  smaller  size,  and  indeed  seldom  much  above 
thirty  feet  iu  height,  is  the  Balm  or  Gilead  Fir 
Picea  or  Abiis  bahamea),  a  native  of  North  America, 
from  Virginia  to  Canada.     The  wood  is  of  little 


value,  but  the  tree  yields  Canada  Balsam  (q.  v.). 
Besides  these,  a  number  of  other  species  of  Picta 
are  found  in  the  western  parts  of  North  America, 
and  in  the  Himalaya,  some  of  which  are  trees  of 
great  magnitude,  and  yielding  excellent  timber,  aa 


Cone  of  Silver  Fir : 
a,  branchlet  and  cones ;  b,  a  scale ;  c,  a  seed. 


P.  grandis,  a  Calif ornian  tree  of  170 — 200  feet  in 

height— P.  amabilis,  a  species  much  resembling  it — 
P.  nobilis,  a  majestic  tree,  which  forms  vast  forests 
on  the  moxmtains  of  Northern  California — P.  brae- 
teata,  a  Californian  species  remarkable  for  its  slender 
stem,  which  rises  to  a  height  of  120  feet,  and  yet 
is  only  about  one  foot  in  diameter  at  the  base, 
and  likewise  for  the  manner  in  which  the  middle 
lobe  of  each  bractea  of  its  cones  is  produced  so  as 
to  resemble  a  leaf — P.  Webbiana,  the  Himalayan 
Silver  Fir,  which,  in  its  native  regions,  fills  the 
upper  parts  of  mountain  valleys,  and  crowns  summits 
and  ridges  at  an  elevation  of  upwards  of  10,000 
feet,  a  tree  of  great  size,  35  tee<-  in  girth,  and  with 
a  tnmk  rising  40  feet  before  it  sends  out  a  branch. 
Most  of  these  have  been  introduced  into  Britain 
with  good  prospect  of  their  succeeding  well  in  oxvi 
climate,  and  other  species,  as  P.  Plcfda,  a  native 
of  the  Altai  Mountains,  very  nearly  resembling  the 
Silver  Fir,  P.  N ordmann'iana,  P.  Fraserii,  &c. — P. 
religiosa  is  a  tall  and  elegant  tree,  a  native  of  the 
mountains  of  Mexico,  with  slender  branches,  which 
are  very  much  used  by  the  Mexicans  for  adorning 
churches,  and  cones  shorter  than  those  of  any  other 
Silver  Fir.  P.  Jezoensis  is  a  new  species  recently 
introduced  from  J apan. 

FIRDUSI,  FIRDOWSI  (Tusi),  Abu'l-Kasim 
Mansur,  the  greatest  epic  poet  of  Persia,  was  born 
between  304—328  h.,  or  916—940  a.d.,  at  Shadab  or 
Rizvan,  near  Tus  in  Khorassan.  Whether  the  name 
Firdusi  (from  firdus,  garden,  paradise)  was  given  to 
him  because  his  father  (Fachreddin  Ahmad)  was  a 
gardener,  or  on  account  of  the  'Paradise  of  Poetry' 
which  he  had  created,  is  matter  of  controversy. 
All  that  is  known  of  his  early  life  is,  that  when 
a  boy  he  was  very  indiistrious,  and  also  that  'he 
loved  to  sit  for  days  alone  on  the  bank  of  a  river.' 
At  the  age  of  between  thirty  and  forty,  he  went  to 
Gazneh,  where  Mahmud  the  Gaznewade,  a  great 
admirer  and  patron  of  poetry  and  the  arts  generally, 
then  resided.  Erelong,  F.  had  an  opportunity  of 
displaying  both  his  talent  and  his  extraordinary 
knowledge  of  ancient  Persian  history  and  legendary 
lore  before  the  sultan  himself,  who  was  so  pleased 
with  an  episode  (the  story  of  Sijavush)  -WTitten  by 
him  at  his  majesty's  order,  that  he  at  once  paid  him 
a  gold  dirhem  for  each  couplet,  and  shortly  after- 
wards sent  him  a  great  number  of  fragmentary 
ancient  chronicles  and  histories  of  Persia,  that  he 
might  versify  them,  and  thus  7arry  out  the  task 
once  attempted  by  Dakiki — viz.,  to  write  a  poeticaJ 


FIRE— FIREARMS. 


history  of  the  Persian  kings  from  the  creation  of 
the  world  to  the  end  of  the  Sassanide  dynasty 
(630  A.  D.) — the  reward  to  be  a  dirhem  a  line.  F. 
spent  thirty  ycnrs  over  the  work,  and  j^roduccd  the 
famous  Book  of  Kin(js  {ShaJi  Naiaeh),  consisting  of 
60,000  double  lines.  Without  going  so  far  as  many 
critics  have  gone,  we  may  fairly  rank  it  among  the 
greatest  epics  of  all  nations :  the  Iliad,  the  Ilahabhd- 
rata,  the  Nlbelungen.  Truth  and  fiction,  history 
and  fairy  lore,  all  the  most  gorgeous  imagery  of  the 
East  and  its  quaintest  conceits,  together  with  the 
homeliest  and  most  touching  descriptions  of  human 
joy  and  human  sorrow,  of  valour  and  of  love,  the 
poefc  has  formed  into  one  glowing  song.  Though 
abounding — in  strict  adherence  to  its  sources— in 
impossibilities  and  anachronisms  (such  as  Alexander 
the  Great  being  a  Christian,  Ki-Khosroo  holding 
the  Zend  Avesta  in  his  hands — some  hundred  and 
twenty  years  before  it  was  brought  to  light — 
Abraham  being  Zerduslit,  &c.),  it  yet  contains  not 
1  little  that  is  of  real  historical  value,  quite  apart 
from  its  being  the  most  faithfid  mirror  of  its  own 
times.  See  SiiAii  Nameii.  But  while  F.  was 
•  weaving  his  poetical  carj^et,'  his  enemies  had  not 
been  idle.  Unable  to  attack  his  genius  and  his 
honesty,  they  attacked  his  religious  opinions;  and 
the  sultan,  inlUienced  by  bigotry  and  avarice,  sent 
the  poet,  instead  of  60,000  dirhems  of  gold,  so 
many  dirhems  of  silver.  F.  was  at  a  public  bath 
when  the  messenger  arrived  A\dth  the  money,  and 
on  discovering  that  it  was  silver,  and  not  gold, 
Mahmud  had  sent  him,  he  di  vided  the  amount  into 
three  portions,  and  gave  one  to  the  attendant  at  the 
bath,  anotlxcr  to  the  messenger,  and  the  third  to  a 
man  who  brought  him  a  glass  of  sherbet.  He  then 
burned  several  thousand  verses  which  he  had  written 
in  praise  of  the  sultan,  as  seqiiel  to  the  Sliah  Nanieh, 
and  composed  one  of  the  bitterest  satires  against  him, 
which  he  handed  over,  well  sealed,  to  the  king's 
favourite  slave,  to  give  it  to  him  when  he  might  be 
seized  mth  one  of  his  fits  of  despondency,  as  it 
contained  a  beautiful  panegyric  on  him.  Dreading 
the  sultan's  rage,  he  fled  precipitately,  first  to  Tus  ; 
persecuted  here,  he  next  went  to  Bagdad,  where 
Kadir  Billah,  the  calif,  received  him  with  all 
honour.  But  the  unrelenting  anger  of  Mahmud 
followed  him  thither,  and  he  removed  to  Tabaristan, 
which  again  he  had  to  leave,  to  seek  another  place  of 
refuge.  After  eleven  years  of  restless  wanderings,  he 
was  at  last  allowed  to  return  to  his  native  place,  a 
broken,  wretched  old  man.  Mahmud  is  said  to  have 
repented  his  cruelty  at  last,  and  to  have  sent  a 
caravan  loaded  with  the  costliest  goods  to  F.,  to 
entreat  his  forgiveness,  and  induce  him  to  become 
once  more  the  star  of  his  court.  But  while  the 
king's  messengers  entered  one  gate  of  the  city,  F.'s 
bier  was  carried  out  to  his  last  abode  by  the  other, 
1020  A.D.  (411  H.).  His  only  daughter — an  only 
BOD  of  his  had  died  long  before  him  at  the  age  of  37 
vears — refused  the  sidtan's  present,  and  certain 
buildings  were  erected  instead,  in  honour  of  the 
dead  poet. 

The  great  popularity  which  the  Shah  Nameh  has 
always  enjoyed  in  the  East,  is  to  a  certain  amoimt 
also  the  cause  of  the  uncritical  state  of  the  texts. 
Every  transcriber  shaped  and  moulded  certain 
passages,  or  even  episodes,  according  to  his  ow^n 
fancy,  so  that  not  two  out  of  the  innumerable  copies 
are  quite  alike.  Nor  are  the  60,000  couplets  extant 
in  any  one  instance,  the  utmost  number,  including 
all  the  most  palpable  interpolations,  never  exceed- 
ing 56,600.  The  first  complete  edition  of  the  text, 
with  a  glossary  and  introduction,  was  published  by 
Turner  Macan  (Calcutta,  1829,  4  vols.).  Another 
edition,  with  a  French  translation,  was  published  by 
Mohl  (Paris,  1840,  &c).  Champion  published  some 
8M 


English  extracts  in  1788.    F.  also  wrote  anothor 

poem,  Yumf  and  Zule'ikha,  which  has  been  edited  by 
Morley,  and  a  Divan,  or  collection  of  poems.  Many 
European  Orientalists  have  written  on  F.  ;  among 
others,  Hammer,  Wahl,  Gon-es,  Schack,  lluckert, 
Morley,  Ouseley,  Atkinson,  Nasarianz,  &c. 

FIRE.  For  the  superstitions  connected  with 
fire,  see  Beltein,  Need-fire,  and  Sun  and  Fire 
Worship. 

FIRE,  in  Armorial  Bearings,  is  used  to  denote 
those  who,  being  ambitious  of  honour,  perform  brave 
actions  with  an  ardent  courage,  their  thoughts 
always  aspiring  as  the  fire  tends  upwards.  A  fiame 
of  fire  is  more  frequently  used  as  a  charge  in 
France  and  (xcrmany  than  in  this  comitry  ;  but  we 
have  fire-balls  or  bombs,  fire-beacons,  firebranda 
fire-buckets,  &c.,  in  abundance. 

FIRE,  Ordeal  by.    See  Ordeal. 

FIRE,  St  Anthony's.    See  Erysipelas. 

FIRE  AND  SWORD.  By  the  law  of  Scotland, 
though  decree  may  be  given  in  a  civil  action  against 
an  al)sent  defender,  no  criminal  sentence  can  bo 
pronounced  unless  the  accused  be  present.  But  to 
resist  a  criminal  citation,  is  to  rebel  against  the  law 
of  the  land,  and  in  former  times  might  be  treated  as 
treason.  In  this  view,  letters  of  fire  and  sword  were 
occasionally  issued  by  the  privy  council  (Stair,  iv. 
89).  These  letters  were  directed  to  the  sherifi'of  the 
county,  authorising  him  to  call  in  the  assistance 
of  the  country,  and  to  proceed  to  the  extremities 
which  the  terrible  words  fire  and  sword  indicate, 
should  such  proceedings  be  necessary  for  apprehend- 
ing the  accused  i)arty.  Lord  Stair  describes  this 
remedy  as  the  '  last  legal  execution,  warranting  all 
manner  of  force  of  arms  that  is  competent  in  war.' 
The  same  course  might  be  resorted  to  where  the 
decree  of  a  court  was  resisted ;  and  the  object 
with  which  letters  of  fire  and  sword  were  more 
frequently  issued  than  any  other,  was  to  enable  the 
sheriff"  to  dislodge  refractory  tenants  who  retained 
possession  contrary  to  the  order  of  the  judge,  or  the 
diligence  of  the  law.  By  t)ie  modem  practice,  the 
judge  may,  of  course,  always  call  in  the  aid  of  the 
military  to  apprehend  an  accused  party,  or  to  enforce 
a  decree  where  the  ordinary  means  have  proved 
unavailing. 

FIRE  ANNI'HILATOR.  An  apparatus  bearing 
this  name  was  patented  by  Mr  Phillips  in  1849,  and 
attracted  a  good  deal  of  public  attention,  as  it  was 
expected  at  the  time  that  it  wovild  supersede  the 
ordinary  Fire  Engine  (q.  v.).  The  object  of  this 
invention  was  to  extinguish  fires  by  jiouring  into 
the  midst  of  the  conflagration  streams  of  carbonic 
acid,  sulphurous  acid,  and  other  gases  which  do  not 
support  combustion.  A  bottle  containing  sulphuric 
acid  was  placed  immediately  over  a  mixture  of 
chlorate  of  potash  and  sugar,  which,  again,  was  sur 
rounded  by  a  mixture  of  charcoal,  nitre,  and  gy[)sum. 
On  breaking  the  bottle,  the  sulphuric  acid  drops 
upon  the  chlorate  of  potash  and  sugar,  which,  as  ia 
well  known  to  chemists,  produces  immediately  an 
intense  combustion  of  the  sugar ;  the  heat  from  this 
fires  the  surrounding  mixture,  and  dense  volumes  of 
the  above-mentioned  gases  are  evolved.  The  F.  A., 
as  at  present  made,  simply  throws  out,  with  great 
force,  an  abundance  of  spray  and  carbonic  acid. 

FI'REARMS  may  be  defined  as  vessels— of 
whatever  form — used  in  the  propulsion  of  shot,  shell, 
or  bullets,  to  a  greater  or  less  distance,  by  the  action 
of  gunpowder  exploded  within  them.  They  have 
played  so  great  a  part  in  the  world's  story,  that 
their  invention,  development,  and  science  deserve 
careful  analysis.  At  a  more  advanced  period,  an 
obvious  division    of    the    subject    into  cannon 


FIREARMS. 


uiortars,  and  small-arms  presents  itself ;  but  in  the 
infancy  of  the  invention,  and  amid  the  obscurity 
enshrouding  it,  we  can  only  seek  to  inquire  into  the 
origin  of  firearms  generally. 

The  invention  of  gunpowder  bears  so  directly 
upon  the  gradual  introduction  of  firearms,  that  it 
will  be  well  to  consider  the  two  discoveries  concur- 
rently. The  widely  prevalent  notion  that  gun- 
l)owder  was  the  invention  of  Friar  Bacon,  and  that 
cajmon  were  first  used  by  Edward  III.  of  England, 
must  be  at  once  discarded.  It  is  certain  that 
gunpowder  differed  in  no  conspicuous  degree  from 
the  Greek  fire  of  the  Byzantine  emperors,  nor  from 
the  terrestrial  tJiunder  of  China  and  India,  where  it 
had  been  known  for  many  centuries  before  the 
chivalry  of  Europe  began  to  fall  beneath  its  level- 
ling power. 

'  Nitre,'  says  Sir  George  Staunton,  '  is  the  natural 
and  daily  produce  of  China  and  India ;  and  there, 
accordingly,  the  knowledge  of  gunpowder  seems  to 
be  coeval  with  that  of  the  most  distant  historic 
events.'  The  earlier  Arab  historians  call  saltpetre 
'  Chinese  snow '  and  '  Chinese  salt ; '  and  the  most 
ancient  records  of  China  itself  shew  that,  when 
they  were  written,  fireworks  w^ere  well  known, 
several  hundred  years  before  the  Christian  era. 
From  these  and  other  circumstances,  it  is  indu- 
bitable that  gunpowder  was  used  by  the  Chinese 
as  an  explosive  compound  in  pre-historic  times ; 
when  they  first  discovered  or  applied  its  power  as  a 
propellant,  is  less  easily  determined.  There  is  an 
account  of  a  bamboo  tube  being  used,  from  which 
the  'impetuous  dart'  was  hurled  a  distance  of  100 
feet :  this  was  at  a  very  early  period,  but  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  say  precisely  when.  It  is  recorded,  however, 
that  in  618  B.C.,  during  the  Taing-ofF  dynasty,  a 
cannon  was  employed,  bearing  the  inscription  :  '  I 
hurl  death  to  the  traitor,  and  extermination  to 
the  rebel.'  This  must  almost  necessarily  have  been 
of  metal.  We  have  also  curious  e^  idence  in  regard 
to  the  armament  of  the  Great  Wall ;  for  Captain 
Parish,  who  accompanied  Lord  Macartney's  mission, 
reported  that  '  the  soles  of  the  embrasures  were 
pierced  with  small  holes,  similar  to  those  used  in 
Europe  for  the  reception  of  the  swivels  of  wall- 
pieces.  The  holes  appear  to  be  part  of  the  original 
construction  of  the  wall,  and  it  seems  difficult  to 
assign  to  them  any  other  purpose  than  that  of 
resistance  to  the  recoil  of  firearms.'  If  this  surmise 
be  correct,  the  use  of  jingalls  would  be  carried  back 
to  three  centuries  at  least  before  the  Christian  era. 
Stone  mortars,  throwing  missiles  of  12  lb.  to  a 
distance  of  300  paces,  are  particularly  mentioned 
as  having  been  employed  in  757  a.d.  by  Thang's 
army;  and  in  1232  a.d.,  it  is  incontestable  that 
the  Chinese  besieged  in  Caifong-fou  used  cannon 
against  their  Mongol  enemies.  Thus,  the  Chinese 
must  be  allowed  to  have  established  their  claim 
to  an  early  practical  knowledge  of  gunpowder  and 
its  eflects. 

It  seems  likely,  however,  that  the  principles  of 
firearms  reached  Europe  from  India  rather  than 
Cliiua,  and  that  countiy  has  equal,  if  not  superior, 
claims  to  the  first  acquaintance  with  the  art.  The 
ancient  Sanscrit  writings  appear  to  point  very 
plaiidy  to  the  operation  of  some  primitive  sort  of 
cannon,  when,  in  recording  the  wars  of  the  Egyp- 
tian Hercules  in  India,  it  is  stated  that  the  sages 
remained  miconcemed  si)ectators  of  the  attack  on 
their  stronghold,  till  an  assault  was  attempted,  when 
they  rei)uised  it  with  whirlwinds  and  thunders, 
hurling  destruction  on  the  invaders ;  and  a  Greek 
historian  of  Alexander's  campaign  testifies  that  the 
Hindtls  had  the  means  of  discharging  flames  and 
missiles  on  their  enemies  from  a  distance. 

ITiese  Ind'an  philosophers  seem,  from  the  writings 
I7a 


of  Ctesias  and  .^lian,  to  have  also  possessed  an 
unquencliable  fire  similar  to  that  employed  later  by 
the  Greeks.  Passing  from  these  very  early  times, 
in  which  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  some  sort  of 
great  gun  was  employed,  we  come  to  tho  compara- 
tively recent  date,  1200  a.d.,  when  tludr  use  ia 
established  beyond  a  doubt,  for  Chased,  the  Hindu 
bard,  writes  (in  stanza  257)  that  the  culivers  and 
cannons  made  a  loud  report  when  they  were  fired 
off,  and  that  the  noise  of  the  ball  was  heard  at  the 
distance  of  about  ten  coss,  which  is  more  than  three* 
quarters  of  a  mile.  In  1258,  the  vizir  of  tlie  king  of 
Delhi  went  forth  to  meet  the  ambassador  of  Hulaku, 
the  grandson  of  Genghis  Khan,  with  3000  carriagea 
of  fireworks  (in.  the  sense  of  weapons,  probably  » 
sort  of  rude  muskets).  In  1368,  300  gun-carriagea 
were  caj^tured  by  Muhammed  Shah  Bahmiani.  The 
use  of  cannon  had  so  far  advanced  in  India  by  1482, 
that  they  were  even  used  for  naval  purposes  ;  sheila 
having  been  employed  two  year§  earlier  by  the 
sovereign  of  Guzerat.  In  1500,  the  Portuguese  had 
matchlockmen  to  contend  with,  as  well  as  heavy 
ordnance.  Pigafetta,  in  1511,  found  the  town  of 
Borneo  defended  by  62  pieces  of  cannon  mounted  on 
the  walls.  So  much  for  the  antiquity,  and  appar- 
ently common  use  of  firearms  in  China  and  India, 
at  times  long  antecedent  to  any  knowledge  of  them 
in  Europe,  and  during  the  period  at  which  they 
were  scarcely  develo])ed  in  an  effectual  degree. 
Most  of  the  pieces  discovered  in  India,  and  supposed 
to  be  of  early  manufactm^e,  are  composed  of  i)aralle] 
iron  bars  welded  together,  and  very  often  they  had 
a  movable  breech-piece. 

The  knowledge  of  gimpowder  and  firearms  may 
be  presumed  to  have  extended  in  a  westerly  direc- 
tion through  the  Arabs,  whom  we  find  using  them 
possibly  in  711  a.d.,  under  the  name  of  manjanika, 
and  certainly  very  early  in  the  14th  century.  The 
Byzantine  emperor,  Leo,  introduced  '  fire-tubes ' 
between  890  and  911,  for  use  in  connection  with 
Greek  fire ;  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  these 
were  a  sj)ecies  of  cannon,  probably  of  small  bore. 
In  Spain,  both  Moors  and  Christians  used  artillei"y 
as  early  as  the  12tli  century. 

Friar  Bacon  was  conspicuous  among  his  contem- 
poraries for  his  general  learning,  and  we  have  nc 
evidence  to  shew  whether  he  discovered  the  ingre- 
dients  of  gunpowder  independently  of  foreign  aid, 
or  whether  he  derived  the  knowledge  from  some 
ancient  manuscripts ;  the  latter,  however,  seema 
the  more  likely  conclusion,  as  Sir  F.  Palgrave 
brought  to  light  in  the  Bodleian  Library  a  letter 
from  a  Spanish  friar.  Brother  Ferrarius,  who  waa 
a  contemporary  of  Bacon,  in  which  the  materials  of 
Greek  fire  are  detailed,  differing  only  in  proportions, 
and  in  these  but  slightly,  from  real  gunpowder. 
That  the  latter  was  identified  of  old  vriiii  Greek 
fire,  is  shewn  by  the  name  '  Crake,'  applied  to  the 
first  cannon  used.  This  word,  which  still  survivea 
in  '  cracker,'  is  pointed  out  by  Sh*  F.  Palgrave  to 
be  nothing  more  than  a  Norman  corruption  of 
'  Grec'  Bacon's  announcement  dates  from  1216; 
but  the  powder  of  his  time,  as  made  in  the  West, 
was  not  readily  explosive,  since  the  materials  were 
but  roughly  cleared  of  impurities,  and  then  mixed 
together  on  a  slab;  and  probably  little  use  could 
be  made  of  it  as  a  propellant  until  the  i)rocess  of 
granulating  had  been  introduced  by  Bei-tholdua 
Schwartz  in  1320.  Immediately  after  this  dis- 
covery, cannon  of  small  size  appeared  in  the  armoury 
of  almost  every  state,  as  if  their  use  had  been 
knowm  previously,  although  no  practical  eifect  had 
been  given  to  the  knowledge,  on  account,  of  the 
badness  of  the  powder  manufactured.  These  cannon 
generally  consisted  of  a  smaller  barrel  or  chamber 
to  receive  the  charge,  which  fitted  iuto  a  largex 


FIREARMS. 


Fig.  1. 

From  the  Santlni  Manuscripts. 


one  containing  the  projectile  (see  fig.  1).  It  may 
be  safely  assumed  that  these  weapons,  if  terrifying 
Irom  their  noise,  were  tolerably  harmless — at  least 
to  the  enemy — in  their 
practice.  In  1326,  the 
Florentine  republic  ordered 
the  making  of  iron  shot 
and  cannon  for  the  defence 
of  its  villages.  In  1327, 
Edward  III.  used  '  crakeys 
of  war'  against  the  Scotch ; 
in  1339,  ten  cannons  were  employed  in  the  siege 
of  Cambray.  By  1346,  vai'ious  improvements  had 
heen  made;  and  we  find  in  the  same  year  the 
consuls  of  Bruges  witnessing  experiments  by  one 
Peter,  a  tinman,  who  had  constructed  a  cannon 
with  a  square  bore,  to  throw  a  cubical  shot  of 
about  eleven  pounds  ;  his  bolt  passed  both  walls  of 
the  toAvn,  and  unfortunately  killed  a  man  on  the 
other  side.  We  have  the  authority  of  Villani  for 
believing  that  Edward  III.  had  three  cannon  at 
Cr6cy ;  but  tlie  cannon  then  made  were,  from  the 
little  knowledge  of  casting,  limited  to  about  tlie 
size  of  modern  duck-guns,  and,  as  has  been  re- 
marked, three  very  inferior  muskets  could  have  had 
but  little  to  do  with  putting  50,000  men  to  flight. 

Up  to  this  time,  European  ordnance  had  been 
kept  back  by  the  rarity  and  high  prices  of  sulphur, 
saltpetre,  and  iron,  the  last  having  been  so  scarce 
in  England,  that  it  was  thought  neccssaiy  to  forbid 
its  expoi'tation  by  a  statute  of  28  Edw.  III.  Still, 
crude  as  was  their  form,  and  small  their  nximbcr, 
firearms  had  established  a  Arm  footing  in  Christen- 
dom ;  their  mission  of  civilisation,  and,  paradoxical 
as  it  may  appear,  of  humanity,  had  be^un.  With 
the  first  killing  discharge,  the  doom  or  feudalism 
had  gone  forth.  Plated  armour  no  longer  availed 
against  the  weapon  of  the  peasant ;  and  the  mailed 
chivahy,  the  sinews  of  previous  battles,  who  had 
trampled  with  their  iron  heels  upon  popular  rights, 
uo  longer  could  carry  all  before  them,  but,  like 
other  soldiers,  were  now  as  loath  to  be  slain 
by  unseen  foes  as  the  veriest  villein  in  the  host. 
The  people  discovered  their  powers  of  contending 
with  the  noblesse ;  by  degrees,  they  rose  for  liberty, 
and  suppressed  the  tyrannies  of  the  petty  lords  who 
had  long  held  them  as  mere  bondsmen.  In  war, 
again,  as  artillery  became  more  general,  so  the 
slaughter  of  battles  diminished,  for  an  army  out- 
manoeuvred was  an  army  at  the  enemy's  mercy, 
and  therefore  beaten;  whereas,  pre\nously,  in  the 
hand-to-hand  fights  where  victors  and  vanquished 
mixed  pell-mell  in  single  combat,  a  victory  could 
only  be  really  won  when  there  were  no  foes  left 
to  slay.  A  battle  as  great  as  that  at  Crecy  might 
now  be  gained  with  a  loss  to  the  vanquished  of  not 
more  than  1000  men,  instead  of  the  30,000  who 
are  said  to  have  fallen  victims  to  the  English  sword 
or  bow. 

Dating  from  the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  the 
employment  of  cannon  and  bombards  in  siege 
operations  became  more  or  less  general.  Froissart 
records  that  the  Black  Prince  took  bombards, 
cannon,  and  Greek  fire  to  the  reduction  of  the 
castle  of  Romozantin  in  1356,  but  it  does  not 
appear  that  he  availed  himself  of  firearms  at  the 
battle  of  Poitiers  in  the  same  year.  The  bombards 
seem  to  have  been  short,  capacious  vessels,  from 
which  stone  balls  were  shot  with  small  charges  to 
a  short  distance,  and  at  considerable  elevation ; 
they  were  essentially  the  parents  of  the  present 
bombs  or  mortars  (see  fig.  2).  The  cannon  (canna, 
ft  reed),  on  the  other  hand,  were,  for  some  time  at 
least,  of  extremely  small  bore,  scarcely  larger  than 
muskets  of  the  18th  c;  they  discharged  leaden 
Dullets,  and  would  have  probably  been  used  as 

m 


hand-weapons,  but  for  their  cumbrous  and  heavy 
workmanship,  which  necessitated  small  carriages. 
Arms  of  tnis   description   are   doubtlesa  those 


Fig.  2,  from  the  Chroniques  de  St  Denis,  Fourteentii 
Centuiy.  Fig.  3,  Bombard  of  the  Fifteenth  Century, 
from  Froissai-t.  Fig.  4,  Cannon  of  the  Fifteenth 
Century,  from  Les  Vigiles  de  Charles  VII. 

referred  to  as  having  been  brought  by  Richard  II. 
to  the  siege  of  St  Malo,  to  the  number  of  400 
pieces,  where  they  are  said  to  have  kept  up  an 
incessant  fire  day  and  night  on  the  town  without 
success. 

In  the  15th  c,  armies  for  siege  operations  were 
usually  accompanied  by  great  and  small  guns,  the 
latter  being  intended  to  keep  down  the  fire  of  the 
besieged  while  the  large  bombards  were  being  loaded, 
an  operation  requiring  no  small  time.  These  guns 
were  gradually  improved,  but  it  was  not  until  th© 
reign  of  Henry  VIII.  that  the  founders  succeeded 
in  casting  iron  ordnance,  to  the  entire  exclusion, 
thenceforward,  of  cannon  formed  of  square  or 
rounded  bars  welded  together.  England  had  even 
then  become  famous  for  the  workmanship  of  its 
ordnance.  The  accompanying  sketch  (tig.  5)  of  a  gun 
found  in  the  wreck  of  the  Mary  Hose,  which  sunk  at 


Fig.  5. 

Spithead  in  the  above  king's  reign,  will  shew  that  & 
degree  of  excellence  had  been  attained  in  the  manu- 
facture of  artillery,  little  inferior  to  that  which  has 
lasted  till  our  own  day,  when  rifled  ordnance  are 
rapidly  superseding  cannon  of  smooth  bores.  Still, 
so  late  as  Henry's  reign,  although  great  guns  were 
found  very  serviceable  in  siege  and  naval  opera- 
tions, where  the  defences  of  those  days  offered  but 
a  trifling  resistance  to  their  power,  they  appear  to 
have  been  looked  upon  rather  as  an  encumbrance 
than  an  advantage  with  armies  in  the  field.  This 
is  attributed  partly  to  the  heavy  character  of  tho 
guns  themselves,  and  especially  of  their  carriages, 
but  more  particidarly  to  the  badness,  or  rather 
absence,  of  the  necessary  roads  for  their  transport. 
In  1522,  it  is  recorded  in  the  state  jjapers  that  tho 
'  kinges  orclonauns  [were]  unable  to  pass  ovei  Stanes 
More  towards  Carlile.' 

As  time  passed  on,  the  details  of  the  manufacture 
were  improved,  the  general  principles  remaining 
the  same  ;  the  size  of  the  guns  increased,  while  th<» 
proportionate  weight  of  the  carriagei;  diminished, 
limbers  (q.  v.)  were  added,  and  the  equipage  of  a  gun 
gradually  perfected  and  lightened.  With  increased 
calibre,  to  which  augmented  range  was  usually 
added,  the  number  of  cannon — at  one  period  enor- 
mous— taken  with  an  army  was  by  degrees  reductd, 


FIREARMS— FIREBALLS. 


antil  now  a  certain  standard  proportion  between 
artillery  and  infantry  is  ordinarily  maintained.  Of 
course,  this  proportion  differs  with  the  opinions  of 
various  coimnanders  ;  but  the  greatest  modern 
generals  have  always  acted  on  the  maxim,  that  it 
is  wasteful  to  send  a  soldier  on  any  duty  of  danger 
which  a  ball  can  be  made  to  perform.  As  a  weapon 
of  offence,  Vauban  doubted  the  utility  of  heavy 
or'lnance  when  he  applied  the  Ricochet  (q.  v.) 
system  of  tiring.  Napoleon  may  almost  be  said 
to  have  won  his  battles  by  artillery,  for  he  rarely 
if  ever  brought  his  infantry  into  action  except  as 
supports,  until  a  way  had  been  opened  for  them, 
or  a  panic  caused,  by  the  massed  fire  of  large 
batteries  of  guns.  The  Duke  of  Wellington  also 
devoted  the  greatest  attention  to  his  ordnance- 
train  ;  while,  refen-ing  to  recent  events,  the  cami)aign 
of  Lord  Clyde  in  Oude  is  a  remarkable  instance  of 
the  use  of  artillery  being  pushed  with  abundant 
success  to  its  greatest  limit. 

Cannon  of  widely  varying  bores  have  at  different 
times  been  cast,  and  the  various  sorts  became  so 
numerous  in  continental  armies,  as  at  one  time  to 
cause  much  inconvenience  from  the  large  quantities 
of  ammunition  which  it  was  necessary  to  carry. 
Gustavus  Adoljjhus  set  the  example  of  reducing 
his  guns  to  a  few  standard  calibres,  and  the  same 
Improvement  was  immediately  adopted  systematic- 
ally in  the  French  and  other  armies.  The  caimon 
recently  in  use  in  the  British  army  are  detailed 
under  the  article  Cannon  ;  but  the  action  of 
government  has  tended  for  some  years  to  call  in 
all  the  guns  which  are  not  of  a  few  general 
standards,  such  as  6,  9,  12,  18,  24,  32,  and  68 
pounders,  and  8-inch  gims.  These,  with  the 
various  sizes  of  Armstrong  guns,  which  have  a 
special  sort  of  ammunition,  represent  now  nearly 
all  the  ordnance  on  the  British  batteries.  For  a 
more  particular  explanation  of  the  several  sorts  of 
cannon  and  their  parts,  see  Gunnery,  Cannon, 
Carronades,  Howitzer. 

The  mortar  differs  from  all  other  guns  in  its 
solidity  of  form,  its  shortness,  and  its  large  bore. 
The  object  is  the  projection  of  shells  by  a  more  or 
less  vertical  fire,  with  the  intention  of  breaking 
through  and  destroying,  by  weight  and  explosion 
together,  roofs  of  magazines,  public  buildings,  and 
so  on,  or  of  sinking  a  shell  deep  into  earthworks 
of  a  fortress,  in  which  it  shall  explode  as  a  most 
deadly  mine.  The  different  sorts  of  mortar  will 
be  described  under  Mortar.  The  mortar  arose 
naturally  out  of  the  old 
bombard,  and  doubtless 
deviated  by  degrees  more 
and  more  from  the 
cannon.  Fig.  6  shews 
a  bombard  or  mortar 
designed  in  the  15th 
century.  In  very  early 
days,  we  read  in  Arabian 
authors  of  a  cylinder 
hewn  in  the  rock  at 
Alexandria,  and  used  as  a  mortar.  Such  a  cylinder, 
and  of  large  size,  is  still  to  be  seen  at  Gibraltar, 
where  it  was  employed  in  the  last  siege  against 
the  Spanish,  when  it  was  made  to  discharge 
voUeys  of  large  stones,  which  spreading  at  times 
to  a  distance  of  500  yards,  constituted  a  formidable 
means  of  defence. 

In  the  British  service,  the  calibre  of  solid-shot 
guns  is  described  by  the  pounds  which  the  shot 
weigh ;  m  the  case  of  guns  for  hollow  shot  or  snell, 
atid  of  mortars,  by  the  inches  in  the  diameter  of  the 
bore.  In  some  continental  armies,  the  power  of  the 
gun  is  reckoned  by  the  weight  of  a  stone  ball  fitted 
to  the  bore. 


Fig.  6. 

From  Leonardo  da  Yinci. 


A  gun  is  a  frustrum  of  a  right  cone,  with  a 
cylinder  (bore)  removed  around  the  axis  ;  from  which 
it  follows  that  the  thickness  of  metal  is  gieatest 
at  the  breech,  where  it  has  to  withstand  the  effect 
of  ignited  powder  in  its  most  condensed,  and  there- 
fore most  powerful  state.  Guns  are  first  cast  in 
loam  or  dry  sand,  then  turned  to  the  required 
shape,  and  lastly  bored  with  the  minutest  accuracy 
Formerly,  they  were  cast  with  the  bore  already 
formed ;  but  the  direction  was  rarely  exactly  cor- 
rect, and  the  sui'face  scarcely  ever  strictly  even. 
Some  additional  particulars  of  their  manufacture 
will  be  given  under  Gun-factories,  Royal  ;  and 
the  science  of  artillery  will  be  summarised  under 
Gunnery. 

An  article  on  firearms  woidd  be  incomplete 
without  some  allusion  to  the  progress  made  in 
small-arms.  In  the  15th  c,  the  smallest  sort  of 
cannon  were  probably  at  times  mounted  and  used  as 
hand-gu.ns.  From  this  the  step  to  the  arquebus  was 
rapid ;  that  weapon  developed  as  years  passed  into 
the  clumsy  matchlock ;  that  into  the  firelock 
and  flint-musket  ;  then  the  percussion-musket ;  and 
lastly,  into  the  beautiful  rifles  of  our  own  day. 
For  diminutives,  small  arquebuses  were  made  to 
do  duty  as  horse-pistols ;  genuine  pistols  succeeded 
them  ;  these  were  gradually  improved  and  reduced 
in  size,  till  they  have  culminated  in  the  saloon 
pistol,  available  for  a  waistcoat-pocket ;  and  the 
deadly  re/olver,  which  quadruples  a  man's  defen- 
sive power.  All  these  weapons  are  described  under 
their  respective  heads — Arquebus,  Matchlock, 
Musket,  Pistol,  Revolver,  Rifle, 

Many  valuable  works  have  been  written  on  fire- 
arms from  the  days  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci  and 
Tartaglia  to  the  present.  Among  those  consulted 
for  this  article  have  been  Etudes  sur  le  Passe  et 
VAvenir  de  V Artillei'ie  of  the  Emperor  Napoleon 
III.  ;  Our  Engines  of  War,  by  Captain  Jervis ; 
Major  Straith's  Treatise  on  Artillery;  General 
Chesney  On  Firea^'ms,  &c. 

FIREARMS,  Proving  of  (in  Law).  In  consu- 
qnence  of  the  frequency  of  accidents  from  the 
bursting  of  insufficient  barrels,  the  legislature  has 
interfered,  not  to  regulate  their  manufacture 
directly,  but  to  prevent  all  persons  from  using 
or  selling  them  until  they  have  been  regidarly 
proved  in  a  public  proof-house.  The  first  act 
for  this  purpose,  which  was  passed  in  1813,  was 
soon  after  superseded  by  the  fuller  and  more 
complete  one  (55  Geo.  III.  c.  59).  By  this  statute,  a 
fine  of  £20  is  imposed  on  any  person  using,  in  any 
of  the  progressive  stages  of  its  manufacture,  any 
barrel  not  duly  proved;  or  any  person  delivering 
the  same,  except  through  a  proof -house  ;  and  on  any 
person  receiving,  for  the  purpose  of  making  guns, 
any  barrels  which  have  not  passed  through  a  proof- 
house.  These  penalties  are  to  be  levied  on  convic- 
tion before  two  justices,  and  the  like  penalties  on 
persons  counterfeiting  the  proof-marks.  The  statute 
does  not  extend  to  Scotland  or  to  Ireland,  and 
arms  manufactured  for  Her  Majesty,  are  exempted 
from  its  operation.  By  10  Geo.  IV.  c.  38,  repeal- 
ing 6  Geo.  IV.,  the  malicious  and  unlawful  use  of 
firearms  in  Scotland  is  punishable  at  law.  See 
Game. 

FIREBALLS  are  projectiles  occasionally  dis- 
charged from  guns  or  mortars,  for  the  purpose  either 
of  setting  fire  to,  or  of  merely  illuminating  some  work, 
against  which  hostile  operations  are  directed.  ITie 
usual  ingredients  are — ^mealed  powder,  2  ;  saltpetre, 
14  ;  sulphur,  1 ;  rosin,  1 ;  tnrpentine,  2^ ;  with  pitch, 
tow,  naphtha,  &c.,  as  circumstances  dictate.  The  use 
of  fireballs  has,  however,  been  in  great  measure 
superseded  by  the  introduction  of  rockets  (q.  v.) 


FITtEBOTE-FIRE-ENGINE. 


Rud  incendiary  shells  (q.  v.).  Akin  to  the  fireball, 
was  the  fire-arrow  of  ancient  warfare,  which  con- 
eisted  of  tow  steeped  in  pitch,  rosin,  or  some  inflam- 
mable mixture,  wrapped  round  the  shaft,  and  fired 
aliglit  among  an  enemy's  works  or  troops.  Greek 
fire  was  also  discharged  in  many  cases  on  large 
arrows  surrounded  by  tow  and  shot  from  halistcB. 

FIREBOTE,  the  right  of  a  tenant  for  life  or 
years,  according  to  English  law,  to  cut  wood  on  the 
estate  for  the  purpose  of  fuel.    See  Estover. 

FIllEBIlICK.    See  Brick. 

FI'RECLAY  is  the  variety  of  clay  which  is 
employed  in  the  construction  of  gas-retoi-ts,  glass- 
pots,  firebricks,  crucibles,  &c.,  which  require  to 
withstand  high  temperatures.  It  is  found  chiefly 
in  the  coal  measures  ;  and  the  more  famous  kind  is 
the  Stoneb ridge,  which  is  found  in  a  bed  about  four 
feet  thick.  It  also  occurs  largely  near  Glasgow, 
Newcastle-on-Tyne,  and  in  Belgium  and  France. 
The  principal  constituents  of  fireclay  are  silica  and 
ahimina,  accompanied  by  small  proportions  of  iron, 
lime,  magnesia,  water,  and  organic  matter,  as  may 
be  observed  from  the  following  table  : 


No.  1. 

No.  2. 

No.  S. 

No.  4. 

No.  5. 

Silica,  . 

Alumina,  . 
Oxide  of  Iron,  . 
Lime, 

Magnesia,  . 
Organic  Matter 
and  Water,  > 

C4  10 
2315 
1-85 

0  95 
1000 

61  10 
31  3.) 
4-G3 
1-4(5 
1  54 

10-47 

48  5.5 
30-25 
4-06 
1  GG) 
l-9li" 

10-67 

69-25 
17  90 
2-97) 

1-30) 
7-50 

83  29 
810 

1-  88 

2-  99 

3-  64 

Fireclay  is  found  abundantly,  near  and  at  the 
surface  of  the  groimd,  and  is  readil}'  reduced  to 
powder  by  travelling  wheels.  When  kneaded  with 
water,  and  fashioned  into  vessels  and  other  articles, 
it  is  dried,  and  is  then  generally  subjected  to  a 
strong  heat,  which  drives  off  the  water  and  organic 
matter,  causes  the  silica  to  unite  more  firmly 
with  the  alumina,  &c.,  and  leaves  a  more  or  less 
porous  material,  which  can  withstand  very  high 
temperatures.  The  Passau  crucibles  are  merely 
dried,  and  are  not  fired  like  Hessian  crucibles  and 
other  fireclay  wares.  The  larger  the  percentage 
of  silica  (sand)  in  the  clay,  the  more  refractory  are 
the  articles  fashioned  from  it ;  and  hence  sand  is 
often  added  to  clay  to  increase  its  fusing-point 
and  refractory  powers ;  but  a  certain  proportion 
of  alumina,  &c.,  is  required  to  serve  as  a  flux, 
to  cement  and  hold  together  the  particles  of  sand. 
The  pioportions  of  sand  and  clay  are  determined 
by  the  temperature  to  which  the  manufactured 
article  is  intended  to  be  exposed ;  and  the  fireclay 
of  crucibles  or  bricks,  which  are  serviceable  at  a 
comparatively  low  temperature,  as  in  the  lining 
of  limekilns,  woidd  become  soft,  and  yield  in  glass 
or  porcelain  furnaces. 

FIRP2DAMP  is  the  miners'  term  applied  to  light 
carburetted  hydrogen  or  coal-gns  when  it  issues  from 
crevices  in  coal-mines.    See  Gas. 

FIRE-EATING,  a  name  usually  given  to 
a  variety  of  feats  performed  by  jugglers  with 
flaming  substances,  melted  lead,  red-hot  metal,  &c. 
Evelyn,  writing  under  date  October  8,  1672,  thus 
describes  fire- eating  in  his  day  :  '  I  took  leave  of 
my  Lady  Sunderland.  She  made  me  stay  dinner 
at  Leicester  House,  and  afterwards  sent  for 
Richardson,  the  famous  fire-eater.  He  devoured 
brimstone  on  glowing  coals  before  us,  chewing 
and  swallowing  them  ;  he  melted  a  beer-glass,  and 
eat  it  quite  up :  then  taking  a  live  coal  on  his 
tongue,  he  put  on  it  a  raw  oyster  ;  the  coal  was 
blown  on  with  bellows  till  it  flamed  and  sparkled 
in  his  mouth,  and  so  remained  till  the  oyster 


gaped,  and  was  quite  broiled  ;  then  he  melted 
pitch  and  wax  with  sulphur,  which  he  drank  down 
as  it  flamed  ;  I  saw  it  flaming  in  his  mouth  a 
good  while  ;  he  also  took  up  a  thick  piece  of  iron, 
suc-h  as  laundresses  use  to  put  in  their  smoothin^- 
boxes,  when  it  was  fiery  hot,  held  it  between  hia 
teeth,  then  in  his  hand,  and  threw  it  about  like  a 
stone ;  then  he  stood  on  a  small  pot,  and  bendiag 
his  body,  took  a  glowing  iron  with  his  mouth 
from  between  his  feet,  without  touching  the 
pot  or  ground  with  his  hands  ;  with  divers  other 
prodigious  feats.'  About  1818,  Signora  Josephine 
Girardelli,  who  described  herself  as  the  '  original 
Salamander,'  performed  astonishing  feats  of  this 
kind  in  London  and  other  places  in  England. 
According  to  the  accounts  of  her,  '  She  commences 
her  performances  by  passing  plates  of  red-hot  iron 
over  her  legs  ;  she  then  stands  with  her  feet  naked 
on  a  plate  of  red-hot  iron,  and  afterwards  di-aws  the 
same  plate  over  her  hair  and  across  her  tongue,* 
&c.  About  the  same  time  appeared  in  Paris  M. 
Chaubert,  whose  astonishing  powers  of  resisting 
heat  attracted  the  attention  of  the  National  Insti- 
tute. Among  other  things  performed  by  this  person, 
was  his  going  into  a  common  baker's  oven,  with  a 
leg  of  mutton  in  his  hands,  and  remaining  with 
the  oven  closed  until  the  mutton  was  comjdetely 
dressed.  Another  of  his  performances  was  standing 
in  a  flaming  tar-barrel  until  the  whole  of  it  was 
consumed  around  him.  He  subsequently  exhibited 
in  London. 

Many  of  the  feats  of  this  kind  are  undoubtedly 
mere  tricks,  or  illusions,  produced  by  sleight  of 
hand ;  others  are  capable  of  scientific  explanation. 
There  is  nothing  more  wonderful  in  stuffing  blazing 
tow  into  the  mouth — a  common  form  of  mountebank 
fire-eating — than  in  eating  flaming  plimi-pudding, 
or  in  dipping  the  finger  into  spirits  and  letting  it 
burn  like  a  candle.  It  is  also  well  known  that  the 
tongue,  or  the  hand  dipped  in  water,  may  be  rubbed 
with  impunity  against  a  white-hot  bar  of  iron  ;  the 
layer  of  vapour  developed  between  the  hot  metal 
and  the  skin  prevents  contact  and  jjroduces  coolness 
(see  Spheroidal  Condition  op  Liquids).  Snch 
performances  as  those  of  M.  Chaubert  are  explained  by 
the  well-known  power  of  the  living  body  to  maintain 
its  nohnal  temperati;re,  for  a  time,  independently  of 
the  external  temperature  (see  Animal  Heat). 

FIRE-ENGINE,  a  machine  employed  for  throw- 
ing a  jet  of  water  for  the  purpose  of  extinguishing 
fires.  This  name  was  formerly  applied  to  the 
steam-engine.  Machines  for  the  extinguishing  of 
fires  have  been  used  from  a  very  early  date.  They 
were  employed  by  the  Romans,  and  are  referred  to 
by  PHny  ;  but  he  gives  no  account  of  their  construc- 
tion. Apollodorus,  architect  to  the  Emperor  Trajan, 
speaks  of  leathern  bags,  with  pipes  attached,  from 
which  water  was  projected  by  squeezing  the  bags. 
Hero  of  Alexandria,  in  his  Treatise  on  Pneumatics 
— wT-itten  jjrobably  about  150  years  before  tlie 
Christian  era— proposition  27,  describes  a  machine 
which  he  calls  '  the  siphons  used  in  conflagrations.' 
It  consisted  of  two  cylinders  and  pistons  connected 
by  a  reciprocating  beam,  Avhich  raises  and  lowers 
the  pistons  alternately,  and  thus,  with  the  aid  of 
valves  opening  only  towards  the  jet,  projects  the 
water  from  it,  but  not  in  a  continuous  stream,  as 
the  pressure  ceases  at  each  alternation  of  stroke. 

The  accompanying  coi)y  of  Hero's  diagram 
explains  itself.  Little  or  nothing  is  known  as  to 
the  extent  to  which  engines  of  this  kind  were  ]n'ac- 
tically  used.  We  have  accounts  of  '  instruments  for 
fires,'  and  '  water  syringes  useful  for  fires,'  in  the 
building  accounts  of  the  city  of  Augsburg,  1518 ;  and 
in  1657,  Casimr  Schott  describes  a  fire-engine  used 
in  Nuremberg,   which  must  have  beea  almost 


FniE-ENGINE. 


identical  in  construction  with  that  described  by  Hero. 
It  had  a  water-cistern,  was  drawn  by  two  horses, 
was  worked  by  28  men,  and  threw  a  jet  of  water, 


ao  inch  in  diameter,  to  a  height  of  80  feet.  It  was 
not  until  late  in  the  17th  c.  that  the  air-chamber 
and  hose  were  added ;  the  first  being  mentioned 
by  Perraiilt  in  1684,  and  the  hose  and  suction-pipe 
being  invented  by  Van  der  Heide  in  1670.  In 
England,  hand-squirts  were  used  up  to  the  close 
of  the  16th  century.  They  were  of  brass,  and 
contained  three  or  four  quarts  of  water.  Two  men 
held  the  handles  at  the  sides,  while  a  third  forced 
up  the  piston.  The  nozzle  was  dipped  in  a  vessel 
of  water  after  each  discharge,  then  raised,  and  the 
water  again  forced  out.  So  clumsy  an  apparatus 
could  have  been  but  of  little  service  in  the  fearful 
conflagrations  to  which  our  old  wood-built  towns 
were  so  subject. 

With  the  addition  of  the  air-chamber  and  hose, 
and  some  improvement  in  the  details  of  construc- 
tion, the  'siphons'  of  Hero  became  the  modern 
fire-engine.  The  principle  of  the  action  of  the  air- 
chamber,  and  of  its  connection  with  the  pumps,  &c., 
will  be  easily  understood  by  the  aid  of  the  annexed 
liagram,  where  a  represents  in  section  a  piston 
ascending,  d  the  other 
piston  descending,  /  the 
pipe  or  hose  communicat- 
ing with  the  water-supply, 
g  the  hose  that  conveys  the 
issuing  stream  to  the  fire, 
he  the  level  of  the  water 
in  the  air-chamber,  e  the 
space  above  filled  with 
compressed  air.  The  rising 
,  piston  raises  the  water  from 
/  to  fill  its  cylinder ;  the 
descending  piston  forces 
the  water  contained  in  its 
cylinder  into  the  bottom 
of  the  air-chamber,  and 
thereby  compresses  the  air 
in  s.  The  pistons  rise  and 
descend  alternatel,y.  The 
••ompressed  air  reacts  by  its  elasticity,  and  pressing 
upon  the  surface  be,  forces  the  water  through  the 
hose  fj.  In  the  space  e,  above  be,  the  whole  of  the 
air  tll!it  formerly  filled  the  chamber  is  supposed  to 
be  compressed.  Assuming  this  to  be  one-third  of  its 
ariginal  bulk,  its  pressure  will  be  about  45  lbs.  to  the 
•quare  inch,  and  this  pressure  will  be  contimious 
^ind  nearly  steady,  if  the  pumps  act  with  sufficient 
Zorce  and  rapidity  to  keep  the  water  at  that  level. 
As  air  may  be  compressed  to  any  extent — and  its 
elasticity  is  increased  in  exactly  the  same  proportion 
— the  force  that  may  be  stored  in  the  compressed 
air  is  only  limited  by  the  force  put  upon  the  pumps, 
and  the  strength  of  the  apparatus. 

Under  propo&:*;ion  9  of  the  same  work,  in  which 
*tbe  siphons  used  in  conflagrations'  are  described, 


Hero  describes  and  figures  the  air-chamber  as  *a 
hollow  globe  or  other  vessel,  into  which  if  any  liquid 
be  poured,  it  will  be  forced  aloft  spontaneously 
and  with  much  violence,  so  as  to  empty  the  vessel, 
though  such  upward  motion  is  contrary  to  natiire.' 
The  globe  is  rejjresented  with  a  single  ]>iston 
attached  for  compressing  the  air.  Thus,  aljout  1800 
years  elapsed  before  proposition  9  and  proposition 
27  of  this  work  were  put  together  for  so  obvious 
and  useful  a  purpose  as  the  fire-engine,  although 
the  book  was  tolerably  well  known  to  the  mathe- 
maticians of  the  period ;  and  when  they  were  put 
together,  it  was  i)robably  done  by  a  practical  man, 
who  had  never  heard  of  the  name  of  Hero. 

The  more  recently  constructed  fire-engines  include 
contrivances  for  preventing  the  entrance  of  mud  and 
gravel,  and  for  getting  readily  at  the  valves  in  case 
of  their  being  out  of  order,  while  the  cistern  is 
dispensed  with,  a  hose  being  carried  directly  to  th« 
water-supply.  They  are  usually  drawn  by  two  or 
four  horses,  though  smaller  engines  are  made  to  be 
drawn  by  hand  or  by  one  horse.  The  hose  is  of 
leather,  fastened  by  metal  rivets,  instead  of  the 
sewing  formerly  used.  In  the  United  States,  cotton 
is  woven  into  a  tube  by  machinery  constructed  for 
the  purpose.  Two  such  tubes  are  fitted  one  within 
the  other,  and  held  together  by  a  solution  of  India- 
rubber,  which,  on  consolidating,  forms  a  water-tight 
layer. 

The  fire-engines  of  the  London  Fire  Brigade 
establishment  have  usually  7-inch  barrels  with 
8-inch  stroke,  and  throw  about  90  gallons  of  water 
per  minute.  Their  weight,  with  implements,  fire- 
men, and  driver,  is  about  30  cwt.  These  are  found 
more  convenient  for  general  purposes  than  larger 
engines,  as  they  can  be  drawn  at  a  gallop  by  two 
horses  for  a  distance  under  six  miles.  Four  horses 
are  used  for  greater  distances.  When  a  large  engine 
is  required,  two  of  these  may  be  joined  together, 
and  throw  180  gallons  per  minute.  The  pumps  are 
worked  by  levers,  with  long  horizontal  bars  attached, 
to  enable  a  number  of  men  to  work  together  upon 
the  same  pumps.  Many  larger  engines  than  these 
have  been  constructed,  and  steam  has  been  success- 
fully applied.  The  first  application  of  the  steam 
fire-engine  was  made  when  the  Argyle  Rooms  in 
London  were  burned  in  1830.  Several  floating 
fire-engines  for  conflagrations  near  the  Thames 
have  been  constructed  and  worked  by  steam ;  one 
of  these  is  capable  of  throwing  1400  gallons  per 
minute.  A  floating  engine  was  used  with  consider- 
able effect  when  the  Houses  of  Parliament  were 
burned ;  b\it  at  the  fire  of  the  warehouses  near 
London  Bridge  (1861),  the  fiuy  of  the  combustion, 
when  at  its  maximum  height,  was  so  gi-eat,  that 
the  combined  eff"orts  of  all  the  London  engines, 
whether  worked  by  steam  or  by  hand,  had  no 
perceptible  effect  in  subduing  it.  For  all  ordinary 
fires,  the  hand-engines  above  referred  to  are  the 
most  useful,  as  they  can  be  brought  to  the  spot 
and  set  in  action  immediatelj^  whereas  some  time 
must  always  be  lost  in  getting  up  the  steam,  and 
in  bringing  to  the  locality  of  the  fire  the  larger 
steam  fire-engine.  The  saving  of  a  few  minutes  ia 
often  of  more  importance  than  doubling  the  quantity 
of  water.  These  more  powerful  engines  are  there« 
fore  only  likely  to  be  used  for  great  fires,  where  the 
smaller  engines,  after  working  for  some  time,  are 
found  to  be  insufficient. 

It  has  been  questioned  whether,  in  cases  of  very 
intense  combustion,  a  comparatively  small  stream  of 
water  has  any  subduing  effect  at  all — some  assert 
that  it  may  even  increase  the  conflagration.  It 
appears  that  carbon,  in  a  state  of  intense  incandes- 
cence, is  capable  of  decomposing  water  by  combining 
with  its  oxygen  to  form  carbonic  oxide;  this  gaa, 

8ii 


FIRE-ENGINE— FmE-E;]CAPES. 


Bs  well  as  the  hydrogen  liberated  from  the  water,  is 
itself  combustible;  and  it  is  asserted  that  the  heat 
generated  by  the  combination  of  these  two  gases  ex- 
ceeds that  Avhicli  is  lost  in  decomposing  the  water, 
and  expanding  it  to  the  gaseous  form.  This,  how- 
ever, is  doubtful,  for  the  subject  has  not  yet  received 
a  sufficient  amount  of  exact  investigation  to  Avarrant 
any  decided  conclusion  either  way. 

For  working  fire-engines,  an  organised  body  of 
iirermn  are  required.  In  London,  the  fire  insur- 
ance companies  fomierly  had  separate  establish- 
lueuts  of  fire-engines  and  firemen ;  \mt  in  1825 
some  of  them  united,  and  by  1833  all  the  important 
companies  combined,  and  the  London  Fire-brigade 
was  formed,  under  the  management  of  the  late 
Mr  Braidwood,  whose  death  in  the  discharge  of 
his  duties  at  the  great  fire  just  referred  to  was 
justly  deplored  throughout  the  country  as  a  national 
loss.  The  men  of  the  brigade  wear  a  uniform, 
with  strong  helmets  and  metal  epaulets,  to  protect 
them  from  the  blows  of  falling  beams,  &c.  They 
Lave  about  twenty  stations  in  the  metropolis, 
with  from  one  to  four  engines,  and  a  pro2)oi-tionate 
staff  of  men  at  each.  The  courage  and  skill  of 
the  men  in  making  their  way  through  and  about 
burning  buildings,  for  the  purposes  of  directing 
the  stream  from  the  hose,  or  for  saving  life  and 
property,  and  the  general  efficiency  of  the  whole 
organisation,  are  worthy  of  the  highest  praise. 
Most  of  our  pro\dncial  towns  now  have  a  fire- 
brigade  upon  the  same  model  as  that  of  London. 
The  fact  that  Paris  has  seven  times  as  many 
firemen  as  London,  is  a  tolerable  proof  of  the  amount 
of  work  the  London  firemen  are  called  ujion  to 
perform.  At  Paris,  as  on  the  continent  generally, 
the  fire-engines  and  firemen  are  under  government 
control ;  and  the  sapeiirs  pompiers,  or  firemen,  are 
empowered  to  enforce  the  assistance  of  any  people 
they  can  find  in  the  streets.  As  the  insurance 
companies  in  England  pay  a  fee  to  the  first  person  who 
gives  notice  of  a  fire  at  the  engine  station,  there  is 
always  a  su])ply  of  volunteers  from  among  cabmen 
and  people  in  the  streets,  besides  policemen,  to  per- 
form this  important  service  ;  and  in  like  manner 
the  pumji-bars  of  the  fire-engines  are  always  fully 
manned. 

In  many  continental  towns,  fire-watchmen  are 
stationed  in  commanding  situations,  such  as  church- 
towers  ;  and  their  duty  is  to  ring  a  fire-bell,  or 
otherwise  give  the  alarm,  immediately  upon  observ- 
ing a  conflagration.  In  the  cities  of  the  United  States, 
very  efficient  fire  companies  exist.  These  were  for- 
merly volunteer  associations  of  citizens,  and  are  still 
in  many  places  chiefly  sustained  by  a  class  of  men 
who  regard  the  excitement  and  adventure  sufficient 
reward  for  their  toil.  But  the  excesses  of  many  of 
the  more  rude  members  have  induced  the  establish- 
ment of  responsible  paid  fire-departments,  with  steam 
fire-engines,  in  several  of  the  larger  cities  of  the 
Union,  which  have  proved  highly  advantageous. 

In  Constantinople,  there  are  two  fire-towers,  one 
cn  each  side  of  the  Golden  Horn,  with  watchmen 
«>ontinually  stationed  there.  A  large  wicker-ball  is 
Siaulsd  up  to  the  side  of  the  tower  as  a  signal,  and 
the  cry  of  *  There  is  a  fire  at  Scutari,  Tojjhane,'  or 
whatever  be  the  qviarter  of  the  city  in  which  it 
occurs,  is  raised  and  taken  up  by  the  patrol,  who 
strike  the  pavement  with  their  iron-bound  staves  as 
they  repeat  the  cry.  In  a  few  minutes,  the  alarm 
is  thus  spread  throughout  the  whole  city.  Even 
though  the  fire  be  at  Scutari,  on  the  oi)posite  side 
of  the  Bosporus,  the  whole  of  Constantinople  is 
roused  in  this  manner.  The  patrol  compel  the 
inhabitants  to  assist  in  extinguishing  the  fire  ;  and 
the  method  usually  adopted  is  to  pull  down  the 
houses  to  the  leeward,  and  thereby  isolate  the 


conflagration.  According  to  the  old  custom,  if  tlie 
fire  lasted  above  an  hour,  and  was  three  times 
proclaimed,  the  sultan  had  to  appear  in  person,  to 
encourage  the  firemen  and  people  in  the  work. 
This  custom  is  said  to  have  been  sometimes  the 
cause  of  fires,  the  people  taking  this  method  of  mak- 
ing their  grievances  known  to  the  sultan  himself.  At 
present  the  pasha  of  the  district  is  summoned  in  such 
cases. 

FIRE-ESCA'PES.  An  immense  number  of 
contrivances  have  been  at  different  times  proposed 
for  enabling  people  to  escape  by  windows  and 
house-tops  from  burning  buildings.  They  are  of 
two  distinct  kinds — one  for  affording  aid  from 
outside,  and  the  other  for  enabling  those  Avithin  tlie 
house  to  effect  their  own  escape.  Of  the  latter,  tho 
simplest  is  a  cord  that  should  be  firmly  attached 
to  the  windoAV-sill  of  every  sleeping- apartment, 
and  coiled  up  either  in  a  box  on  the  floor,  or 
under  a  dressing-table,  or  other  suitable  place.  A 
rope  one-quarter  or  three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick, 
and  knotted  at  intervals  of  about  a  foot,  is  well 
adapted  for  the  purpose.  A  good  quarter-inch 
sash-cord  Avill  support  from  three  to  four  cwt.  or 
more  if  new,  and  will  cost  from  6d.  to  2,?.,  according 
to  the  height  of  the  room.  A  man  with  tolerable 
nerve  may  let  himself  doAvn  by  means  of  such  a 
cord,  either  by  placing  his  feet  against  the  wall  and 
bringing  '  hand  over  hand'  doAvn  upon  the  knots,  or 
by  clinging  Avith  his  feet  and  knees  to  the  rope  as 
well  as  with  his  hands.  A  man  may  let  down  a 
woman  or  child  by  means  of  a  sack  at  the  end  of  tho 
rope,  or  simply  by  fastening  them  to  the  end,  and 
letting  the  rope  pass  through  his  hands,  aided  if 
necessary  by  the  friction  of  the  AvindoAV-sill,  if  it  be 
alloAved  to  bend  over  it.  A  rope  coiled  upon  a  drum 
inside  a  dressing-table,  Avith  a  Avinch-handle  to  uncoil 
it,  is  another  form.  A  pulley  fixed  to  tlie  window- 
sill,  over  AA'hich  nms  a  rope  Avith  a  chair  or  simple 
board  to  sit  on,  is  a  Avell-known  contriA^ance. 

Some  means  of  escape  from  every  sleeping-room 
should  be  provided,  and  the  inmates  shc?iJd  be 
thoroughly  prepared  by  knowing  beforehand  how  to 
act  in  case  of  a  fire  cutting  off  communication  with 
the  usual  means  of  outlet.  In  a  roAV  of  houses 
Avith  projecting  balconies,  a  board  of  sufiicient 
length  to  reach  from  the  balcony  of  one  house  to  the 
next  may  be  kept  in  each  room,  or  even  a  rope 
might  be  thrown  across  with  the  aid  of  a  stone  or 
limip  of  coal,  &c.,  tied  to  one  end.  An  exit  by  the 
roof  or  from  the  AvindoAA'  on  to  the  parapet  affords 
a  ready  means  of  escape  from  a  top-story,  and 
shoidd  ahvays  be  proA-ided  in  tall  houses.  In  case 
of  emergency,  when  no  provision  has  been  made,  the 
cord  holding  the  sacking  of  the  bedstead  may 
be  undone,  or  the  bedclothes  and  curtains  tied 
together  to  form  a  rope;  or  as  a  last  resource,  the 
bedding  may  be  throAvn  out  of  windoAV  to  form  a 
cushion  to  alight  upon  in  case  of  the  cord  or  bed- 
clothes being  too  short  to  reach  the  ground;  or 
if  there  be  no  time  to  extemporise  such  cordage 
and  it  shovdd  be  necessary  to  drop  directly  from 
the  window,  in  this  case,  it  would  be  better  to 
hang  by  the  hands  from  the  window-sill  and  then 
drop,  than  to  jump  direct,  as  the  height  of  the  fall 
would  be  somewhat  diminished  thereby.  In  all 
such  cases,  presence  of  mind  and  coolness  is  of  the 
utmost  importance,  and  may  render  very  simple 
and  slender  means  of  escape  more  effectual  than 
the  most  complete  and  elaborate  would  be  Avithout 
these  qualities ;  and  presence  of  mind  may  be  to  a 
great  extent  acquired  chiefly  by  being  mentally 
l)repared,  and,  if  possible,  by  rehearsals  of  what 
should  be  done  in  case  of  danger. 

Fire-escajies,  to  be  used  from  without,  consist 
either  of  simple  ladders  kept  m  churches, -oolice-  office^ 


rmEFLY— FIIIET.0  CK. 


or  other  convenient  stations,  or  a  series  of  lad- 
ders that  can  be  jointed  together ;  of  poles  with 
bask(  ts  attached ;  of  ropes  ^\^th  weights  at  one  end, 
that  they  may  be  thrown  or  shot  into  windows ;  of 
combinations  of  ladders,  ropes,  bags,  baskets,  nets, 
The  fire-escape  now  generally  adopted  by  the 
Society  for  the  Protection  of  Life  from  Fire  is  a  light 
carriage  or  framework  on  wheels,  to  which  a  series 
of  ladders,  &c.,  are  attached.  It  is  thus  described  by 
the  society :  '  The  main  ladder  reaches  from  30 
to  35  feet,  and  can  instantly  be  applied  to  most 
second-floor  windows  by  means  of  the  carriage-lever.' 
This  projects  on  the  opposite  side  to  the  ladder  like 
the  shafts  of  an  ordinary  carriage,  and  works  upon 
the  axle  of  the  wheels  as  a  fulcrum.  '  The  upi)er 
ladder  folds  over  the  main  ladder,  and  is  raised 
into  position  by  a  rope  attached  to  its  lever-irons  on 
either  side  of  the  main  ladder ;  or,  as  recently 
adopted  in  one  or  two  of  the  escapes,  by  an  arrange- 
ment of  pulleys  in  lieu  of  the  lever-irons.  The  short 
ladder  for  first-floors  fits  in  under  the  carriage,  and 
ig  of  the  greatest  service.  Under  the  whole  length 
of  the  main  ladder  is  a  canvas  trough  or  bagging 
made  of  stout  sail-cloth  protected  by  an  outer 
trough  of  copper- wire  net,  leaving  sufiicient  room 
between  for  the  yielding  of  the  canvas  in  a  person's 
descent.  The  addition  of  the  copper-wire  is  a 
great  improvement,  as,  although  not  afl"ording  an 
entire  protection  against  the  canvas  failing,  it  in 
most  cases  avails,  and  prevents  the  possibility  of 
any  one  falling  through.  The  soaking  of  the  canvas 
in  alum  and  other  solutions  is  also  attended  to  ; 
but  this,  while  preventing  its  flaming,  cannot  remove 
the  risk  of  accident  from  the  fire  charring  the  canvas. 
The  available  height  of  these  escajies  is  about  45 
feet ;  but  some  of  them  carry  a  short  supplementary 
ladder,  which  can  be  readily  fixed  at  the  top,  and 
which  increases  the  length  to  50  feet.' 

This  society  has  upwards  of  70  of  these  fire- 
escapes  stationed  in  difi"erent  parts  of  London. 
They  stand  in  the  roadway,  and  are  each  under  the 
charge  of  a  conductor  during  the  night.  Almost 
every  house  in  London  is  within  two  or  three 
minutes'  run  of  one  of  these.  Since  1836,  when 
the  operations  of  the  society  first  commenced,  they 
have  saved  upwards  of  500  lives.  At  one  fire,  nine 
lives  were  saved  by  one  man  and  fire-escape.  Fire- 
escapes  of  similar  construction  are  now  stationed  in 
some  of  our  provincial  towns.  When  required, 
they  are  run  to  the  burning  house,  the  main 
ladder  standing  nearly  upright  all  the  while.  It  is 
then  directed  to  the  required  window  at  a  consider- 
able inclination,  and  the  attendant  ascends  the 
ladder,  and  helps  the  inmates  either  to  descend  by 
it,  or  if  they  are  unable  to  do  this,  he  lets  them 
down  by  the  canvas  trough,  which  forms  an 
inclined  plane,  along  which  they  may  easily  and 
safely  descend  with  the  aid  he  is  enabled  to  afi"ord 
them. 

FIREFLY,  a   name  common   to    all  winged 
luminous  insects,  at  least  to  all  that  possess  much 
luminosity.    Except  the 
lantern -fly  (q.  v.),  they 
are  all  coleopterous,  and 
belong  to  two  nearly 
allied    tribes,  Lampy- 
rides,    to    which  the 
glowworm  (q.  v.)  also 
belongs,  and  Elaterides, 
to   which    belong  our 
ski])jack  beetles,  and  of 
wliich  the  larvae  are  too 
Firefly  (Lampyris  Italica).  well-known  to  farmers 
as    wire-worms.  The 
male  glowworm,  which  alone  is  winged,  has  too  little 
'umuiosity  ever  to  receive  the  name  of  F.,  but  the 


fireflies  of  the  south  ol  Europe  {Lampyrin  Itnliray^ 
and  of  Canada  {L.  cormca),  are  nearly  allied  to  it, 
See  Glowworm.  Fireflies,  vulgarly  known  as  light- 
ning-bugs, abound  in  the  United  States,  and  in 
almost  all  the  warmer  parts  of  the  world,  and  the 
brilliancy  of  the  spectacle  presented  l)y  them  when 
glancing  about  in  numbers  amidst  the  darkness  of 
night,  has  been  often  described  with  enthusiastic 
admiration.  Mr  Gosse  says  of  the  Canadian  F.  : 
'  The  light  is  of  a  yellow  colour,  very  ditlerent  from 
the  blue  gleam  of  the  English  glowworm  :  from  thi» 
circumstance  I  at  first  took  them  for  candles  in  the 
woods,  and  though  told  what  they  were,  at  every 
one  that  appeared,  the  same  idea  would  come  acrosa 
my  mind.  .  .  .  They  more  frequently  give  out  the 
light  while  flying,  than  when  crawling  or  resting, 
though  we  may  often  observe  the  intermittent  gleam 
as  one  crawls  up  a  stalk  of  grass,  or  rests  on  the 
leaf  of  a  tree.  They  fly  slowly,  and  as  they  fly, 
emit  and  conceal  their  light  with  great  regidarity  at 
intervals  of  two  or  three  seconds  ;  making  inter- 
rupted lines  of  light  through  the  air,  gleaming  slowly 
along  for  about  a  yard,  then  suddenly  quenched,  and 
appearing  again  at  the  same  distance  ahead.  The 
msect  is  a  pretty  beetle,  with  soft  elytra,  of  a  light- 
brown  colour,  marked  with  red,  and  handsomely 
striped  ;  the  light  i)roceeds  from  the  last  three  seg- 
ments of  the  abdomen,  which  are  of  a  delicate  cream 
colour  by  day.  At  night,  these  three  segments  are 
bright  at  all  times ;  but  at  the  regidar  intervals  I 
have  mentioned,  they  flash  out  with  dazzling 
sj)lendour.  If  this  part  be  plucked  off  and  crushed, 
many  patches  of  brilliance  occur  for  a  few  momenta 
among  the  flesh,  but  they  gradually  die  away.'  He 
further  describes  these  fireflies  as  appearing  in  great 
numbers  in  summer  evenings,  over  wet  and  marshy 
ground,  millions  of  them  above  a  river,  or  over  the 
surface  of  a  large  field,  like  stars  on  a  clear  winter 
night,  but  flashing  and  disappearing,  and  moving 
about  in  mazy  evolutions. — But  still  more  brilliant 
are  the  fireflies  of  more 
tropical  regions,  belonging 
to  the  tribe  Materides, 
as  the  F.  of  the  West 
Indies  {Elater  noctilucus), 
which  gives  out  its  light 
chiefly  from  two  eye-like 
tubercles  on  the  thorax. 
The  light  is  so  powerful, 
that  the  smallest  print 
may  be  read  by  it ;  and 
this  becomes  quite  easy  if 
a  few  of  the  insects  are 
enclosed  in  a  small  glass 
vessel.  They  are  not  mifre- 
quently  employed — parti- 
cularly' in  St  Domingo — to  give  light  for  household 
purposes ;  and  they  are  used  for  purposes  of  decora- 
tion on  festival-days  by  women,  who  attach  them 
to  their  dress  or  to  their  hair.  One  which  had 
been  accidentally  brought  alive  to  Paris,  once 
astonished  and  alarmed  the  Faubourg  St  Antoine. 
These  insects  are  caught  in  some  parts  of  the  West 
Indies — a  torch  being  used  to  attract  them— and 
brought  into  houses  to  destroy  mosquitoes,  which 
they  eagerly  pursue  and  devour.  See  Luminosity 
OF  Organic  Beings. 

FI'RELOCK,  the  name  applied  on  its  introduc- 
tion, in  1690,  to  the  old  musket,  which  produced  fire 
by  the  concussion  of  flint  and  steel,  to  distinguish  it 
from  the  matchlock  previously  in  use,  which  haa 
been  fired  by  the  insertion  of  a  lighted  match  at  tha 
powder-pan.  Writers  of  the  earlier  part  of  tha 
18th  c.  called  firelocks  'asnaphans ; '  a  word  obviously 
corrupted  from  the  Dutch  snapliaan,  and  leading  to 
the  inference  that  they  were  brought  to  England  bj 

343 


Firefly  [Elater  noctilucne). 


FIRENZUOLA— FIRE-PROOF  SAFES  AND  REPOSITORIES. 


William  TIL  and  his  Dutch  auxiliaries.  Their  first 
inventioa  is,  howev^er,  involved  in  obscurity.  The 
weapon  was  superseded  before  1830  by  the  percus- 
sion musket ;  which,  in  its  turn,  has  now  yielded  to 
the  rifle  (q.  v.). 

FIRENZUOLA,  Angelo,  an  author  distinguished 
for  the  Attic  choiceness  of  his  language,  was  born  at 
Florence  in  1493.  Having  completed  at  Perugia 
the  studies  which  he  commenced  in  Florence,  he 

f)roceeded  to  Rome  in  anticipation  of  a  brilliant 
egal  career,  but  shortly  abandoned  the  eternal  city, 
disappointed  in  hope  and  shattered  in  health.  It 
seems  well  authenticated,  that  he  finally  enrolled 
himself  among  the  monkish  brotherhood  of  Vallora- 
brosa,  and  rose  to  considerable  influence,  in  spite 
of  the  extreme  licence  of  morals,  and  hcentiousness 
of  writing  for  which  he  was  noted.  The  date  of 
his  death  is  doubtful,  but  it  is  generally  placed 
between  1542  and  1544.  His  chief  works  are  a 
spirited  paraphrase  of  the  Golden  Afis  of  Apuleius 
—in  which  he  is  generally  considered  by  his  coun- 
trymen to  have  far  excelled  the  original  in  nerve 
and  beauty  of  language  ;  I  Discorsi  degli  Anirnall 
— containing  some  soun(l  lessons  of  just  legislation 
to  the  riding  powers,  the  censure  being  skilfully 
veiled  by  means  of  his  animal  orators  ;  /  licu/iona- 
menti,  a  work  in  close  imitation  of  the  Decameron 
both  as  regards  the  impurity  of  sentiment,  and 
classic  j)urity  of  language  ;  //  Traltato  della  hellezza 
delle  donne,  an  eulogistic  discussion  concerning  the 
charms  of  the  gentle  sex,  to  whom  he  was  inordi- 
nately devoted.  His  works  were  published  in 
Florence  after  his  death.  The  best  edition  is  that 
of  Florence  (1763,  3  vols.). 

FIRE-POLICY.    See  Insurance. 

FIRE  PROOF  BUILDINGS.    The  problem  of 

constructing  warehouses,  dwelling-houses,  Sec,  that 
Bhall  be  proof  against  all  risk  of  conflagration,  has 
not  yet  been  solved.  The  liability  to  conflagration 
n^ay  be  greatly  diminished  by  the  construction  of 
a  building,  but  cannot  be  entirely  averted  ;  and 
therefore,  in  all  'fire-proof  buildings  containing 
furniture  or  other  combustible  materials  of  any 
kind,  the  ordinary  precautions  against  fire  shoidd 
be  strictly  observed.  It  is  well  to  state  this  at  the 
outset,  as,  unless  it  be  understood,  a  so-called  fire- 
proof building  may  be  more  dangerous  than  an 
ordinary  one,  especially  in  warehouses,  &c.,  intrusted 
to  the  care  of  watchmen  and  others,  who,  relying 
upon  the  supposed  immunity  the  name  expresses, 
are  Kable  to  neglect  many  precautions  they  would 
not  fail  to  observe  in  a  building  believed  to  be 
dangerous.  The  most  destructive  fire  that  has 
occurred  in  London  since  1666  was  the  recent  one 
at  Cotton's  Wharf,  the  \»  arehouses  of  which  were 
what  is  called  'fire- proof.'  The  great  fury  of  this 
conflagration  depended  on  the  nature  of  the  goods 
that  were  stored.  It  is  scarcely  possible  to  beheve 
that  such  combustibles  as  tallow,  turpentine, 
&c.,  could  have  been  stored  in  the  vicinity  of 
saltpetre,  unless  there  had  existed  some  faith  in 
their  practir^al  isolation  from  each  other  by  the 
fire-proof  divisions  of  the  building,  as  it  is  so  well 
understood  that  saltpetre,  though  incombustible 
of  itself,  intensifies  to  an  immense  extent  the  com- 
bustibility of  all  combustibles,  by  supplying  them 
with  undiluted  oxygon  when  heated  in  contact  or 
within  a  moderate  distance  of  them. 
^  The  nearest  approximation  to  fire -proof  construc- 
tion may  be  obtained  as  follows :  the  walls  should 
be  of  stone  or  brick,  and  any  ties,  lintels,  &c., 
required  in  the  construction  should  be  of  iron.  The 
staircases  should  be  of  iron  or  stone,  and  the  floors 
or  landings  of  tiles,  concrete,  or  stone.  Wherever 
w  jod  is  inevitably  used,  it  should  be  prepared  with 


silicate  of  soda  (see  Fire-proofing).  Instead  of 
wooden  joists  to  support  the  floors  of  each  story, 
arched  stone  or  brickwork  should  be  used,  and 
this  should  be  put  together  with  sufficient  care  to 
be  independent  of  the  mortar.  The  roof  should 
be  constructed  in  like  manner,  wooden  rafters 
being  entirely  excluded.  The  doors  should  he  of 
iron,  and  the  security  would  be  much  increased 
if  the  doors  between  any  two  apartments  con- 
taining combustible  materials  were  double,  with  a 
space  between  them  equal  to  the  thickness  of  tlie 
walls.  Of  course,  it  is  not  practicable  to  carry  oat 
all  these  precautions  in  a  dwelling-house,  but  the 
danger  from  fire  may  be  considerably  diminished 
by  attending  to  some  of  them.  Wooden  staircaseo 
are  especially  dangerous.  The  most  imj)ortant 
conditions  for  a  w^arehouse  are,  that  each  apartment 
shall  be  separated  from  the  next  by  stout  walla 
of  non-conducting  materials,  and  more  especially, 
that  each  shall  be  as  nearly  as  possible  air-tight ; 
and  whenever,  from  the  nature  of  the  goodj, 
ventilation  is  required,  it  should  be  obtained  l)y 
periodically  opening  the  doors  and  windows.  If 
this  latter  condition  is  fulfilled,  any  fire  woiUl 
extinguish  itself,  unless  there  be  along  with  tlie 
combustible  goods  some  oxygen-giving  substance, 
such  as  saltpetre,  chlorate  of  potass,  or  other 
nitrates  or  chlorates. 

At  first  sight,  it  may  appear  that  a  warehouse 
built  entirely  of  iron,  would  he  eff"ectaally  fire-proof, 
but  this  is  far  from  being  the  case.  In  the  first 
place,  iron  conducts  heat  more  readily  than  any 
other  material  used  in  building  ;  secondly,  cast-iron 
is  liable  to  crack  and  split  when  suddenly  heated  or 
cooled.  Iron  supports  may,  under  some  circum- 
stances, be  even  more  objectionable  than  wood,  for 
if  the  water  from  a  fire-engine  were  to  play  upon  a 
heated  cast-iron  girder,  it  would  probably  give  way 
immediately,  w^hile  a  stout  wooden  beam  might  be 
extinguished  before  being  burned  through.  When 
buildings  supported  l)y  iron  girders  are  burning, 
they  are  far  more  dangerous  to  firemen  than  those 
with  wood,  as  the  experienced  fireman  can  form  a 
pretty  accurate  judgment  of  the  time  that  burning 
wooden  beams  will  stand,  and  may  move  about 
in  their  vicinity  to  direct  the  stream  of  water  to 
where  it  is  most  needed,  but  iron  girders  split  and 
fall  without  visible  notice.  It  is  on  this  account 
that  floors  of  arched  masonry  are  recommended 
above.  In  great  fires,  the  heat  is  sufficient  to 
fuse  iron. 

Without  going  to  the  expense  of  making  ware- 
houses and  manufactories  absolutely  fire-proof, 
certain  precautions  not  of  a  costly  nature  might  be 
usefully  adopted,  for  the  purpose  of  merely  checking 
the  progress  of  conflagration  untd  the  arrival  of 
fire-engines.  Among  these  simple  measures,  may 
be  included  iron  doors  hinged  on  stone  between 
diff"erent  departments ;  a  sufiicient  deaffening  not 
easily  destructible  between  the  ceiling  of  one 
story  and  the  floor  of  that  above ;  and  stone  stairs. 
For  rendering  timber  difficult  of  combustion,  see 
Fire-proofing. 

FIRE-PROOF  SAFES  AND  REPO'SITORIES 
are  used  as  receptacles  for  deeds,  paper-money, 
account-books,  and  other  valuables.  They  are  now 
regular  articles  of  commerce,  and  are  to  be  found 
in  almost  every  counting-house,  lawyer's  ofiice, 
jeweller's  or  watchmaker's  shop  or  warehouse,  and 
are  indispensable  to  banking  and  such-like  establish  • 
ments.  Our  forefathers  used  oaken  chests  secured 
with  iron  straps  and  studs  for  similar  purposes. 
That  which  formerly  contained  the  crown  jewels  of 
Scotland,  and  is  still  exhibited  in  Edinbui'gh  Castle, 
is  a  good  example.  Subsequently,  iron  chests  made 
simply  of  stout  cast  or  wrought  iron  were  used 


FIKE-PROOFING- 


^— FIRE-RAISING. 


liiTj  modem  safe  has  double  walls  and  doors  of 
BV.  it  iron  plates,  and  the  space  between  the  plates 
is  lilled  with  some  substance  that  shall  resist  the 
transmission  of  the  heat  which  would  be  readily 
coi»ducted  through  solid  iron.  The  materials  used 
for  these  linings  are  very  various — sand,  dried  clay, 
charcoal,  ashes,  bone-dust,  alum,  gypsum,  &c.  The 
safes  of  Messrs  S.  Mordan  &  Co.,  which  are  largely 
used  by  bankers,  are  lined  with  a  mixture  of  equal 
parts  of  saw-dust  and  ahmi.  Some  makers  include 
small  vessels  containing  liquids,  the  vessels  burst 
when  heated,  and  the  hquids  exert  some  cooling 
effect.  Alvmi  acts  in  nearly  the  same  manner.  It 
contains  24  equivalents  of  water,  or  nearly  haK  its 
weight.  At  212',  ten  equivalents  are  driven  off  in 
vapour ;  at  248°,  ten  more ;  and  at  392°,  the  four 
remaining  equivalents  are  volatilised.  It  is  a  mistake, 
however,  to  suppose  that  any  of  these  linings  can 
render  such  a  safe  really  fire-proof ;  and  this  is 
admitted  by  the  more  scrupulous  manufacturers, 
who  carefully  abstain  from  using  the  designation 
of  *  fire-proof.'  In  a  series  of  experiments,  conducted 
at  enormously  high  temperature — that  of  an  ii'on  fur- 
nace— the  contents  of  several  small  safes,  lined  re- 
spectively with  cement  as  generally  prepared,  with 
oi-dinary  plaster  of  Paris,  and  with  alum,  were  de- 
stroyed ;  while  in  a  safe  lined  with  plaster  and  gela- 
tine, thereby  holding  a  much  larger  proportion  of 
water,  the  contents  Avere  found  uninjured,  the  heat 
within  not  having  attained  even  to  that  of  boiling 
water.  It  is  evident  from  these  experiments  that  pro- 
tection against  fire  is  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of 
water  that  may  be  parted  with,  unrestrained  by  chemi- 
cal affinities,  and  not  to  the  non-co^iducting  quality  of 
the  lining.  Papier-mache  has,  however,  very  recently 
been  much  commended  as  an  improved  non-conducting 
medium  for  lining  safes.  A  steam  fire-proof  safe,  in 
the  air-chambers  of  which  are  placed  metallic  vessels 
of  water,  closed  by  simple  steam  valves  which  will 
allow  the  escape  of  steam,  has  proved  valuable.  See 
Annual  of  Scientific  Diacovery  for  1864.   See  LOCKS. 

FIRE-PROOFIXG.  Attempts  have  continually 
been  made  to  render  cotton,  linen,  and  other  textile 
fabrics,  timber,  &c.,  incombustible ;  but  at  present 
they  have  been  but  partially  successful.  There  are 
many  means  by  which  fabrics  may  be  prevented 
from  flaming,  their  combustion  being  reduced  to  a 
Blow  smouldering ;  and  the  many  recent  cases  of 
fatal  results  from  the  present  extravagant  dimensions 
of  ladies'  dresses  have  rendered  the  adoption  of  some 
such  protection  against  fire  very  desirable.  By 
moistening  the  fabric  with  a  solution  of  any  saline 
substance,  which,  upon  drying  will  leave  minute 
crystals  deposited  in  or  between  the  fibres,  its 
inflammability  will  be  greatly  diminished,  but  the 
salt  imparts  a  degree  of  harshness  to  the  fabric,  and 
in  many  cases  weakens  the  fibres.  Alum,  sulphate 
of  zinc,  and  sulphate  of  soda  have  been  used,  and 
are  effectual  to  prevent  flaming,  but  they  weaken 
he  filire.  Common  salt  does  the  same.  Phosphate 
and  sidphate  of  ammonia  are  less  objectionable  on 
this  account,  but  the  former  decomposes  by  contact 
with  the  hot  iron  in  ironing.  Tungstate  of  soda  has 
been  proposed,  and  is  said  to  have  no  injurious  effect 
on  the  filire.  Sulphate  of  ammonia,  chloride  of 
Ammonium  (sal  ammoniac),  and  borax,  are  among  the 
best  fitted  for  domestic  use,  though  they  are  not 
nnobjectionable.  For  made-up  clothing,  borax  is, 
perhaps,  the  best,  as  it  is  most  effectual  in  its 
action,  and  is  the  least  injurious  to  the  appearance 
of  the  article,  though  it  is  stated  to  have  some 
weakening  effect  on  the  fibre;  this,  however,  is  only 
perceptible  in  case  of  a  tearing  strain,  and  wiU  not 
perceptibly  damage  such  articles  as  ladies'  under- 
clothing^, or  anything  else  onl}'-  subject  to  ordinary 
wrear.    Word  has  been  treated  in  a  similar  manner. 


Milk  of  lime,  alum,  sal  ammoniac,  sulj)hate  o\ 
ammonia,  chloride  and  sulphate  of  zinc,  su][jhuret  of 
lime  and  baryta,  &c.,  have  been  used,  and  its  injlam- 
wahiUty,  but  not  its  comihvMibil'dy,  is  destroyed.  Like 
the  fabrics,  when  similarly  treated,  wood  smoulders 
slowly.  The  most  efficient  protection  to  wood  ia 
silicate  of  soda.  If  planks  of  moderate  thickness  be 
brushed  three  or  four  times  over,  on  each  side  with 
a  strong  solution,  they  are  rendered  almost  incom- 
bustible ;  they  will  only  burn  when  very  intenselj* 
heated.  The  silicate  fuses  and  forms  a  glass  which 
envelopes  the  surface,  and  even  the  internal  fibrec 
of  the  wood,  if  it  be  sufficiently  saturated,  ind  thus 
seals  it  from  the  oxygen  of  the  air. 

FIRE-RAISING,  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  is  the 
equivalent  term  for  Arson  (q.  v.)  in  England.  If 
any  part  of  a  tenement,  however  small,  has  been 
set  fire  to  wilfully,  this  crime  has  been  committed. 
It  is  quite  indifferent  where  the  fire  has  com- 
menced, and  the  offence  is  frb^^uently  perpetrated 
by  setting  fire  to  furniture,  or  to  other  objects  either 
within  or  without  a  house  ;  but  it  is  not  regarded 
as  completed,  and  is  punished  as  a  separate  crime, 
of  which  we  shall  speak  afterwards,  unless  the  fire 
has  communicated  itself  to  some  part  of  a  build- 
ing. If  the  fire  originated  in  carelessness,  how- 
ever gross,  it  is  not  wilful  fire-raising,  but  a  minor 
offence,  punishable  with  fine  and  imprisonment. 
But  if  the  intention  was  to  injiu'e  the  proprietor 
of  a  tenement  by  burning,  not  his  house,  but  an 
object  in  its  neighbourhood — e.  g.,  a  haystack — 
and  the  fire  was  accidentally  communicated  to  the 
house,  the  offence  is  the  same  as  if  the  fire  had  been 
ap2)lied  to  the  house  directly.  The  infliction  of  capital 
punishment  for  the  offence  of  fire-raising  is  now  in 
desuetude.  Where  a  man  burns  his  own  house 
without  endangering  the  life  of  any  one,  he  has  not 
committed  the  crime  of  fire-raising,  hwt  he  may 
be  punished  criminally,  if  the  act  was  done  for  the 
purpose  of  defrauding  the  insurers.  Till  recently,  it 
was  the  rule  in  Scotland,  that  where  fire  was  the 
result  of  inevitable  accident,  it  freed  a  carrier  or 
innkeeper  from  responsibility  for  any  goods  that 
were  destroyed  in  his  custody,  unless  where  fraud  or 
collusion  could  be  shewn  ;  but  the  law  in  this  respect 
has  been  altered  by  the  Mercantile  Law  Amendment 
Act,  19  and  20  Vict.  c.  60,  which  provides,  s.  17, 
that  after  the  passing  of  the  act  (1850),  'AH  carriers 
for  hire,  of  goods  within  Scotland,  shall  be  liable  to 
make  good  to  the  owner  of  such  goods  all  losses 
arising  from  accidental  fire  while  such  goods  were 
in  the  possession  or  custody  of  such  carriers' — 
thus  equalising  the  law  of  S'^.otland  with  that  of 
England. 

Attempting  to  set  fire  to  hoiises,  crops,  &c., 
is  a  distinct  crime  from  Arson  (q.  v.),  or  the  actual 
destruction  of  property  by  fire.  By  9  and  10 
Vict.  c.  5,  it  is  enacted,  that  if  any  one  shaU  attempt 
to  set  fire  to  a  house,  &c.,  with  such  intent  that  the 
offence,  if  committed,  would  be  felony,  and  liable  to 
be  transported  for  life,  he  may  be  transported  for 
fifteen  years  (now  penal  servitude),  or  imprisoned 
for  two  years.  The  attempt  to  burn  gi-owiug  crops 
of  corn,  &c.,  is  a  felony  by  7  and  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  30$ 
and  punishable  by  transportation  for  seven  years,  or 
by  imprisonment.  These  offences  are  also  misde- 
meanours at  common  law.  By  24  and  25  ^'ict.  c 
97,  s.  8,  the  attempt  to  set  buildings  on  fire  is 
punishable  by  penal  servitude  for  fourteen  years, 
or  imprisonment  for  two  years ;  if  a  male  imde» 
sixteen,  to  be  whipped. 

In  Scotland,  an  attempt  to  commit  A^nlful  fire« 
raising  (q.  v.)  is  an  offence  at  common  law.  It  ia 
not  necessary  to  constitute  this  offence  that  the  fire 
should  have  consumed  any  part  of  the  building, 
&c.    Furniture— as  a  mattress— partly  con  sum  so, 

345 


FIRE-SHIP— FmiVIAMEN  T. 


a  lighted  peat  thrust  under  a  stack  without  igniting 
it,  are  sufficient  to  warrant  a  conviction.  Inciting 
others  to  commit  fire-raising  is  an  indictable  offence  ; 
and,  in  some  old  cases,  persons  have  been  punished 
for  the  mere  threats  to  commit  the  offence,  without 
being  guilty  of  any  overt  act. 

The  English  Act  9  and  10  Vict.  c.  25,  declares  that 
whoever  shall  maliciously,  by  the  explosion  of  gun- 
powder or  other  explosive  substance,  destroy  or 
damage  any  dwelling-house  in  which  there  is  any 
person  at  the  time,  is  guilty  of  felony,  and  shall  be 
subjected  to  transportation  for  life,  or  not  less  than 
fifteen  years,  or  to  an  imprisonment  not  exceeding 
three  years.  Blowing  up  a  building  with  intent  to 
murder,  and  thereby  endangering  life,  or  casting 
upon  any  person  any  explosive  or  corrosive  fluul 
whereby  grievous  bodily  harm  is  occasioned  him, 
and  similar  offences,  are  declared  subject  to  the 
eame  punishment.  Attempting  any  of  these  offences 
subjects  the  perpetrator  to  a  minor  punishment. 
The  manufacturing  or  having  in.  possession  any 
explosive  substance,  or  dangerous  or  noxious  thing, 
or  any  machine  or  iusti'ument  for  the  purpose 
of  committing  any  of  the  above  offences,  is  a 
misdemeanour,  liable  to  imprisonment  not  exceed- 
ing two  years.  Male  offenders  imder  eighteen 
years  of  age,  convicted  under  the  act,  may  be 
whipped. 

FIRE-SHIP,  a  vessel,  usually  an  old  one,  filled 
with  combustibles,  sent  in  among  a  hostile  squadron, 
and  there  fired,  in  the  hope  of  destroying  some  of 
the  ships,  or  at  least  of  producing  great  confusion. 
Livy  mentions  the  use  of  such  by  the  Khodians, 
B.C.  190;  but  among  the  first  occasions  in  modern 
times  when  they  are  known  to  have  been  employed, 
were  by  the  Dutch  in  the  Scheldt  during  the  War 


Fire-Ship. 


of  Independence  in  the  Netherlands,  and,  shortly 
after,  by  the  Enslish  in  1588,  against  the  Spanish 
Armada.  The  Chinese  tried  them  against  the 
British  fleet  before  Canton  in  1857,  but  uns access- 
fully.  The  service  of  navigating  one  of  these  ships 
into  the  midst  of  an  enemy,  there  firing  it,  and 
then  attempting  to  escape,  is  always  fraught  with 
great  risk  of  failure  and  disaster. 

FIREWORKS.    See  Pyrotechny. 

FIRE-WORSHIPPERS.    See  Guebees. 

FIRISHTA,  Mohammad  Kasim  Hindu  Shah, 
a  celebrated  Persian  historian,  born  towards  the  end 
ot  the  IGth  c.  (1570?),  at  Astrabad,  on  the  Caspian 
816 


Sea.  At  a  very  early  age,  he  went  with  his  father 
(Gholam  Ali  Hindu  Shah)  to  India,  where  we  find 
him,  when  twelve  years  old,  at  Ahmednng^ur,  in 
the  Deccan,  sharing  the  instruction  whi(3i  the 
latter  gave  to  Prince  Miran  Hussein  Nizam  Shah, 
He  afterwards  became  captain  in  the  body-guard 
of  Murteza  Nizam  Shah ;  and  when  this  king  was 
deposed  by  his  own  son,  F.'s  former  fellow-student 
— who,  in  his  own  turn,  was  deposed  and  murdered 
in  less  than  a  twelvemonth  afterwards — F.  went 
to  Bijapore  (998  h.,  1589  A.D.),  where  Ibrahim  Adil 
Shah  II.,  the  reigning  monarch,  received  him  with 
great  honour.  He  also  appears  to  have  conferred 
a  military  rank  upon  him,  as,  soon  after  hia 
arrival,  F.  is  mentioned  as  taking  part  in  an  action 
against  Jumal  Khan,  in  which  he  was  wounded 
and  taken  prisoner,  but  ere  long  he  made  his 
escape.  His  death  is  supposed  to  have  taken  place 
shortly  after  the  year  1612.  His  great  work  is  the 
Tarikhi  Firishta,  or  History  of  the  Mohammedan 
Power  in  India,  which  he  finished  in  1018  h.  (1609 
A.D.).  Twenty  years  were  spent  in  its  prepara- 
tion, and  the  number  of  books  used  for,  and 
partly  embodied  in  it — special  histories  of  certain 
periods  and  provinces — amounts,  according  to  F. 
himself  (Introduction),  to  thirty-five  ;  but  twenty 
others  besides  these  are  quoted  in  the  coiu'se 
of  the  work.  It  consists — besides  a  preamble  or 
introduction  on  the  Progress  of  Mohammedanism 
in  India,  and  a  final  treatise  on  the  geography 
and  the  climate  of  India — of  12  divisions,  treating 
of  the  kings  of  Ghizni  and  Lahore,  Delhi,  the 
Deccan,  Guzerat,  Malwah,  Candeish,  Bengal  and 
Behar,  Mooltan,  Sinde,  Cashmere,  Malabar,  and 
of  the  saints  of  India.  Written  with  an  impar- 
tiality, simplicity,  and  clearness  rare  in  an  Eastern 
work,  this  history  has  become  a  standard  work  on 
the  subject,  into  which  it  was  the  first  to  enter  at 
length.  Single  portions  of  it  have  been  translated 
by  Dow,  Scott,  Stewart,  Anderson,  &c. ;  but  the 
whole  work,  edited  first  by  J.  Briggs  (Bombay,  1831, 
fol.  2  vols.),  was  also  translated  by  him  (London, 
1832,  8vo,  4  vols.).  A  fuller  account  of  F.'s  Hfe 
and  writings,  by  the  same,  will  be  fomid  in  the 
second  volume  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Asiatic 
Society. 

FI'RKIN  (dim.  from  four,  the  fourth  part  of  a 
barrel),  an  old  measure  of  capacity  containing  nino 
gallons  (old  ale  and  beer  measure).  But  previous 
to  the  year  1803  it  had  two  values,  being  estimated 
at  eight  gallons  in  old  ale  measure,  and  at  nine  in 
old  beer  measure.  The  firkin  is  equivalent  to  9| 
imperial  gallons.    See  Gallon. 

FI'RLOT  (according  to  Jamieson,  from  Ang.- 
Sax.  feorth  and  lot,  the  foiu'th  part),  an  old  Scotch 
dry  measure,  of  which  there  were  four  in  a  Boll 
(q.  v.).  Though  differing  in  value  for  different  sub- 
stances and  places,  its  relation  to  the  boU  remained 
invariable.    See  Peck. 

FIRM.   See  Pajitnership. 

FI'RMAMENT,  a  word  in  use  of  old  to  signify 
the  vault  of  heaven.  The  term  found  its  way  into 
English  from  the  Vulgate,  which  renders  the  Sep- 
tuagint  Stereoma,  and  the  Hebrew  Eakia,  by  the 
Latin  Firmamentum  (Gen.  i.  6).  Rakia  (from  the 
verb  ralca,  to  beat  or  strike  out)  signifies  whatever 
is  expanded  or  stretched  out,  and  was  specially 
employed  by  the  Hebrews  to  denote  the  hemisphere 
above  the  earth,  compared  (Exod.  xxiv.  10)  to  a 
splendid  and  pellucid  sapphire.  Els- -where  (Ez.  i. 
22-26)  it  is  spoken  of  as  the  'floor'  on  which  the 
throne  of  the  Most  High  is  placed.  Hence  it  foUowa 
that  the  notions  of  solidity  and  expansion  were 
both  contained  in  the  Hebrew  conception  of  the 


FIRMAN— FIKST-FRUI TS. 


Srniaiaent.  The  blue  ethereal  sky  was  regarded  as  a 
solid  crystal  sphere,  to  which  the  stars  were  fixed 
(compare  the  ccelo  affixa  sidera  of  Pliuy,  ii.  39 
and  xviii.  57),  and  which  was  constantly  revolving, 
carrying  them  with  it.  This  sphere  or  firmament 
divided  '  the  waters  which  were  under  the  fir- 
mament from  the  waters  which  were  above  the 
firmament ; '  and  the  theory  of  the  phenomena  of  rain, 
&c.,  was,  that  there  were  'windows  in  heaven' — 
L  e.,  in  the  firmament,  through  which,  when  opened, 
the  waters  that  were  above  the  firmament  descended. 
•The  same  day  were  all  the  fountains  of  the  great 
deep  broken  uj),  and  the  windows  of  heaven  were 
opened,'  Gen.  vii.  11.  The  view  entertained  by  the 
Greeks,  and  other  early  nations,  was  essentially  the 
same.  In  the  progress  of  astronomical  obsen'-ations, 
it  was  found  that  many  of  the  heavenly  bodies  had 
independent  motions,  inconsistent  with  the  notion 
of  their  being  fixed  to  one  sphere  or  firmament. 
Then  the  number  of  crystalline  spheres  were  inde- 
finitely increased,  each  body  that  was  clearly  inde- 
pendent of  the  rest  having  one  assigned  to  it,  till  a 
complex  system  was  introduced,  capable  of  being 
fuUy  understood  only  by  the  philosophers  who 
formed  it.  See  Ptolemaic  System.  It  was  long 
before  men  formed  the  idea  of  the  possibility  of  a 
body  being  maintained  in  motion  in  space  without 
a  fixed  suj^port,  and  considering  the  number  of 
phenomena  of  which  the  hypothesis  of  a  crystalline 
firmament  offered  an  apparent  explanation,  we  must 
regard  it  as  ha\dng  been  in  its  day  a  curious  and 
ingenious  sj)eculation. 

FI'E.MAN',  a  word  of  Persian  origin,  signifies  an 
Order,  and  is  used  by  the  Turks  to  denote  any 
official  decree  emanating  from  the  Ottoman  Porte. 
The  "right  of  signing  any  firman  relating  to  affairs 
connected  with  his  special  department  is  exercised 
by  every  minister  and  member  of  the  divan,  but 
the  office  of  placing  at  the  head  of  the  firman  the 
thocjrai — a  cipher  containing  the  name  of  the  sultan 
in  interlaced  letters,  and  which  alone  gives  effect  to 
the  decree — is  committed  to  the  hands  of  a  special 
minister,  who  is  called  nichandji-effendi.  The  name 
applied  to  such  decrees  as  have  been  signed  by  the 
sultan  himself  is  hatti-sherif.  The  name  firman 
may  also  signify  a  more  formal  kind  of  Turkish 
passport,  which  can  only  be  granted  by  the  sultan 
or  by  a  pasha. — A  written  permission  to  trade  is 
called  in  India  a  firman. 

FIRST-BORN"  (Heb.  Bekm\  Gr.  prototohos,  Lat. 
'primogenitus),  in  scriptural  use,  signifies  the  first 
male  offspring,  whether  of  man  or  of  other  animals. 
By  a  principle  of  the  Mosaic  law,  and  indeed  of  the 
common  law  of  nature,  it  was  established  that  the 
firstlings  of  all  the  produce  of  creatures,  whether 
animate  or  inanimate,  were  in  some  sense  due  to 
the  Creator  as  a  recognition  of  His  supreme 
dominion.  See  First-Fruits.  Under  the  title 
aiising  from  this  recognition  are  to  be  classed  many 
observances  regarding  the  first-born  of  animate 
beings,  whether  rational  or  irrational,  which  pre- 
vailetl  among  eastern  nations  generally,  or  which 
are  si)eciully  established  by  the  Mosaic  law  :  1.  The 
first-bom  male,  whether  of  men  or  of  animals,  was 
devoted  from  the  time  of  birth  to  God.  In  the 
case  of  first-born  male  children,  the  law  required 
that,  within  one  month  after  birth,  they  should  be 
red^yamed  by  an  offering  not  exceeding  in  value  five 
shekels  of  silver  (Exod.  xiii.  13).  If  the  child  died 
before  the  expiration  of  thirty  days,  the  obligation  of 
redem])tion  ceased ;  but  if  that  term  were  completed, 
the  obligation  was  not  extinguished  by  the  subse- 
'jueut  death  of  the  infant.  This  redemption  took 
place  according  to  a  fixed  ceremonial.  The  first- 
born male  of  animals  also,  whether  clean  or  imclean, 


I  was  equally  regarded  as  devoted  to  God.  The  first- 
born of  cleiin  animals,  if  free  from  blemish,  was  to 
he  delivered  to  the  ])riests  within  twelve  months 
after  birth,  to  he  sacrificed  to  the  Lord  (Dcut.  xv.  21) ; 
nor  was  it  permitted  to  any  but  the  j)riests  to 
partake  of  the  flesh  of  such  victims  (Nu>n.  xviii.  18). 
If  the  animal  were  blemished,  it  was  not  to  he  sacri- 
ficed, but  to  be  eaten  at  home  (Deut.  xv.  22).  The 
first-born  of  unclean  animals,  not  being  a  fit  subject 
for  saci'ifice,  was  either  to  be  put  to  death,  or  to  bo 
redeemed  with  the  addition  of  one-  fifth  of  its  value 
(Lev.  xxvii.  27  •  Num.  xviii.  15).  If  not  redeemed, 
it  was  to  he  sold,  and  the  price  given  to  the  i)rie.sts. 
2.  Primogeniture,  both  by  the  patriarchal  and  l)y  the 
Mosaic  law,  had  certain  privileges  attached  to  it, 
the  chief  of  which  were  the  headship  of  the  family, 
and  a  double  portion  of  the  inheritance.  Before  the 
time  of  Moses,  however,  it  was  in  the  power  of  the 
father  to  decide  which  among  all  his  sons  should  he 
considered  the  first-horn.  Moses  ordained  that  the 
right  should  invariably  belong  to  the  first-born  in 
point  of  time. 

Among  other  nations,  considerable  variety  existed 
as  to  the  succession  of  children  to  the  inherit- 
ance of  their  parent.  The  Greeks,  especially  the 
Athenians,  excluded  the  females  of  a  family  so 
rigorously  from  the  inheritance,  that  in  the  event  of 
a  father  dying  intestate  and  without  heirs-niale  of 
his  body,  the  nearest  male  kinsman  succeeded  to  the 
estate.  The  later  Romans,  on  the  contrary,  placed 
daughters  on  the  same  footing  with  sons  as  to  the 
division  of  intestate  property.  The  Mohammedans 
gave  the  daughters  a  certain  share  of  the  father's 
estate,  but  only  one-half  of  that  assigned  to  the 
sons.  All  the  nations  of  Germanic  descent  restricted 
the  succession,  especially  in  land,  to  heirs-male. 
But  the  Visigoths  in  Spain  admitted  females,  except 
in  certain  contingencies. 

The  rights  of  the  first-born  in  English  and  Scotch 
law  are  noticed  under  Succession,  Primogeisituiie, 
&c.  In  France,  the  law  of  primogeniture  fell  at 
the  Revolution,  in  common  with  many  other  relica 
of  the  feudal  system.  How  far  the  results  of  the 
change  have  been  beneficial,  is  still  a  moot- ques- 
tion among  political  economists.  In  t]\e  state  of 
Virginia,  also,  after  the  American  rei''olution,  a 
similar  change  took  place ;  and  that  the  change 
has  beeu  in  accordance  with  public  opinion  in 
that  state  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact,  that  a 
I)arent  now  commonly  makes,  by  mil,  the  same 
disposition  of  his  property  as  that  which  would  be 
])rovided  by  the  law  itself  in  the  case  of  Vus  dying 
intestate. 

FIRST-FRUITS  (Heb.  resliith,  Gr.  protogenne- 
mata  and  aparchai,  Lat.  prhnit'm),  that  poHion  of 
the  fruits  of  the  earth  and  other  natural  produce, 
which,  by  the  usage  of  the  Jews  and  other  ancient 
nations,  was  offered  to  God,  as  an  acknowledg- 
ment of  His  supreme  dominion,  and  a  thanksgi\^ng 
for  His  bounty.  Among  the  Jews,  the  institution 
of  first-fruits  comprised  both  public  and  private 
offerings. 

Of  the  former  class,  there  were  three  principal 
offerings  :  the  first  was  at  the  opening  of  the  corn- 
harvest.  On  the  tlay  after  the  Passover  Sabbath, 
the  16th  of  the  month  Nisan,  a  sheaf  of  new  corn, 
which  was  cut  and  gathered  with  much  solemnit}^ 
was  carried  to  the  Holy  Place,  and  tliere  waved 
before  the  altar  (Lev.  xxiii.  5  and  foil.)  ;  nor  was  it 
permitted  to  commence  the  harvest-work  till  after 
this  solemn  acknowledgment  of  the  gift  of  fruitful- 
ness.  Again,  at  the  Feast  of  Pentecost,  two  loavea 
of  leavened  bread,  made  from  the  flour  of  the  new 
harvest,  were  waved,  with  a  similar  form  of  worship, 
before  the  altar  (Ex.  xxxiv.  22).  Thirdly,  at  the 
Feast  of  Tabernacles,  in  the  7th  month,  was  held 

111 


PIKTH-FISCHART. 


ti»e  great  feast  of  the  gathered-in  harvest,  the  final 
aokiiowledgraeiit  of  the  bounty  of  God  in  the  fruits 
of  the  year  (xxiii,  16). 

Besides  these  public  offerings  of  first-fruits  on  the 
part  of  the  entire  people,  individual  Jews  were 
bound  to  private  offerings,  each  upon  his  own  behalf. 
1.  A  cake  of  the  first  dough  of  the  year  was  to  be 
offered  to  the  Lord  (Num.  xv.  21).  2.  The  '  first  of 
all  the  fruits '  were  to  be  placed  in  a  basket,  and 
carried  to  the  appointed  place,  where  the  basket 
was  to  be  offered  with  a  prescribed  form  of  words, 
commemorative  of  the  sojourn  of  Israel  in  Egypt, 
and  of  his  deliverance  by  the  strong  hand  (Deut. 
xxvi.  2  and  foil.).  All  these  offerings  were  divided 
into  two  classes — the  first,  which  were  called  Bkurim, 
comprised  the  various  kinds  of  raw  produce,  of 
which,  although  the  law  seems  to  contemplate  all 
miits,  seven  sorts  only  were  considered  by  the 
Jewish  doctors  to  fall  under  the  obligation  of  first- 
fruit  offering — viz.,  wheat,  barley,  grapes,  figs,  pome- 
granates, olives,  and  dates.  The  law  lays  down  no 
rule  as  to  the  quantity  of  the  first-fruit  offering ; 
and  it  would  be  tedious  to  enter  into  the  many 
questions  regarding  it  which  have  been  raised  by  the 
commentators.  It  was  customary  for  the  offerers  to 
make  their  oblations  in  companies  of  twenty-four, 
and  with  a  singidarly  striking  and  effective  cere- 
monial. 

The  second  class  of  first-fruit  offerings  were 
called  Terumoth,  and  comprised  the  produce  of  the 
year  in  the  various  forms  in  which  it  is  prepared  for 
human  use,  as  wine,  wool,  bread,  oil,  date- honey, 
dried  onions,  and  cucumbers.  As  to  the  quantity  of 
these  offerings,  and  the  persons  on  whom  the  obliga- 
tion fell,  there  are  many  discussions,  for  which  we 
must  refer  to  the  biblical  authorities. 

Under  the  kings,  and  again  after  the  captivity, 
much  laxity  crept  into  the  observance  of  this 
practice,  which  Nehemiah  laboured  to  revive  in 
its  primitive  exactness.  Offerings  analogous  to  the 
Jewish  first-fruits  became  usual  very  early  in  the 
Christian  Church,  as  is  clear  from  a  passage  in 
Irenaeus  [Adv.  Hcer.,  b.  iv.  c.  17  and  34) ;  but  the 
extent  to  which  it  prevailed,  and  the  amount  and 
general  character  of  the  oblation,  are  exceedingly 
uncertain.  It  appears  to  have  been  merged  in  the 
legal  provision  established  by  the  emperors. 

The  medieval  ecclesiastical  impost  known  under 
the  name  of  priinitice,  or  first-fruits,  and  some- 
times of  annates  or  annalia,  was  entirely  different. 
By  the  word,  in  its  medieval  and  modern  sense,  is 
meant  a  tax  imposed  by  the  popes  on  persons 
presented  directly  by  the  pope  to  those  benefices 
which,  by  the  canonical  rules,  or  in  virtue  of 
privileges  claimed  by  them,  fall  within  the  papal 
patronage.  Persons  so  presented  were  required 
to  contribute  to  the  Roman  see  the  first-fruits 
(that  is,  the  income  of  the  first  year)  of  their 
benefice.  During  the  residence  of  the  popes  at 
Avignon,  when  the  papal  necessities  compelled  the 
use  of  every  means  for  eking  out  a  precarious 
revenue,  the  impost  was  sought  to  be  extended  to 
every  benefice  ;  and  this  claim  was  the  subject  of 
many  contests,  especially  in  Germany  and  in  Eng- 
land, where  the  claim,  so  fur  as  regarded  direct 
papal  presentation,  had  existed  from  the  reign  of 
King  John.  Henry  VIIL,  by  two  successive 
statutes  (25  Henry  VIIL  c.  20,  and  26  Henry  VIIL 
0.  3),  withdrew  the  right  of  first-fruits  from  the 
pope,  in  order  to  transfer  it  to  the  king ;  and  he 
established  a  special  court  for  the  administration 
of  first-fiuits,  which,  however,  was  soon  disused. 
In  the  reign  of  Anne,  the  revenues  arising  fi'om 
this  impost  in  England  were  vested  in  a  Board,  to 
bo  applied  for  th3  purpose  of  supplementing  the 
incomes  of  small  benefices  (2  Anne,  c  11).  A 

.S4.S 


similar  change  was  introduced  in  Ireland  by  the 
2  Geo.  I.  c.  15 ;  but  in  the  latter  kingdom  the 
payment  was  entirely  abolished  by  the  3  and  4 
Will.  IV.  c.  27.  In  France,  this  tax  was  abolished 
by  the  'Pragmatic  Sanction'  enacted  at  Boiirges 
in  1438,  and  subsequently  by  the  Concordat  of 
Leo  X.  with  Francis  1.  in  1512.  In  Spain,  it 
ceased  partially  in  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella,  and  finally  under  Charles  V.  In  Germany, 
it  formed  one  of  the  first  among  the  Centum  Grava- 
mina presented  to  the  emi)eror  in  1521,  and  tbd 
claim  ceased  altogether  from  that  period. 

FIRTH.    See  Frith. 

FISCHART,  John,  a  very  extraordinary  Gennan 
author,  was  born  either  at  Mainz  or  Strasburg, 
probably  about  the  year  1545.  Regarding  his  life, 
we  know  very  little.  He  was  by  profession  a  jurist, 
but  his  writings  exhibit  an  immense  learning  and 
reading  in  all  the  dejiartments  of  human  knowledge. 
About  1570,  he  made  a  journey  to  England.  Towards 
1580,  he  was  living  at  Strasburg  in  terms  of  close 
friendship  with  the  eminent  book-printer,  Bernhard 
Jobin.  During  1581  and  1582,  he  was  advocate 
to  the  Imperial  Chamber  at  Speier,  and  in  1585 
became  bailiff  of  Forbach,  where  he  probably  died 
about  1590.  Of  the  very  numerous  writings  which 
appeared  1570 — 1590,  j^artly  under  his  own,  and 
pai-tly  under  various  hctitious  names,  about  fifty 
have  been  proved  to  be  on  the  whole  genuine, 
though  disfigured  by  interpolations.  In  respect  to 
others,  however,  the  authorship  is  doubtful.  The 
original  editions  of  almost  all  F.'s  works  are 
extremely  rare,  but  new  ones  have  recently  been 
published.  His  most  celebrated  works  are  based 
on  foreign  models,  particularly  Rabelais,  but  there 
is  no  sei-vile  imitation  manifested:  a  free  creative 
genius  works  plastically  on  the  materials.  To  this 
class  belong  his  AUer  Prahtlk  GrossmuUer  (1573), 
A ssen then rlich  Naiipengehorlich e  Geschichtklitteru n g 
von  U.  S.  W.  (1575).  Podagrammisch  Trostbiich- 
lein  (1577),  Bbienkorh  des  Heyl.  Bomischen  Imen- 
schwarms  (1579),  and  Der  Ileiiig  Brotkorh  (1580). 
These  -writings  are  wholly  satirical.  With  the 
most  inexhaustible  humour,  he  lashes,  now  the 
corruptions  of  the  clergy,  now  the  astrological 
fancies,  the  dull  pedantry,  or  other  follies,  public  and 
private,  of  the  time.  Next  to  these  stands  the 
outrageously  comic  work  of  F,'s — quite  original  in 
its  conception — entitled  Flohatz,  Weihertratz  (1574). 
Essentially  different  in  its  homely  and  simple  tone 
is  his  Das  glilckhafft  Sckiff  von  Zurich,  written  in 
verse,  and  published  in  1576  (new  edition  by  Hailing, 
1829).  Similar  in  point  of  style  a'-e  his  Psalmen 
und  Geisdkhe  Lieder  (1576;  new  edit.  Berlin,  1849). 
The  rest  of  F.'s  niunerous  writings,  partly  in  prose, 
partly  in  verse,  are  of  unequal  merit,  singularly 
varied  in  style  and  contents ;  the  prose  works 
being  in  general  more  complete  than  the  poetic 
What  gives  so  high  a  value  to  F.'s  satirical  humour, 
is  the  warm  and  genuine  feeling  which  he  exhibito 
for  the  moral  foundations  of  all  public  and  private 
life — viz.,  religion,  *  fatherland,'  and  the  family,  a 
feeling  which  betrays  itself  in  his  wildest  mirth. 
His  works  are,  moreover,  one  of  the  richsst  sourcea 
from  whence  to  draw  information  with  regard  to 
the  manners  of  his  time.  But  perhaps  the  most 
extraordinary  thing  about  F.  is  his  treatment  of 
the  language.  No  German  author  can  be  compared 
with  him,  not  even  Jean  Paul  Richter  himself.  He 
coins  new  words  and  turns  of  expression,  without 
any  regard  to  analogy,  but  nevertheless  displays 
the  greatest  fancy,  wit,  and  erudition  in  his  most 
arbitrary  formations.  The  fullest  collection  of  his 
writings  is  in  the  royal  library  at  Berlin.  Fof 
a  critical  account  of  the  investigations  concerning 


FISH— FISHERIES. 


F.  and  his  works,  see  Volmar  in  Ersch  and  Graber'a 
E'ncydopoedie  (s.  1,  vol.  5). 

FISH,  a  naval  term  of  various  application.  The 
f^h  is  an  apparatus  of  pulleys  employed  in  dragging 
the  flukes  of  the  anchor  towards  the  bow  after  it 
has  been  hoisted  to  the  cat-head. — Fish-front,  or 
paunch,  is  a  long  piece  of  oak,  or  fir,  convex  without, 
concave  within,  securely  fastened  on  the  injured 
portion  of  a  sprung  mast  or  yard,  to  which  it 
imparts  rigidity.  Side-Jishes  are  long  pieces  of 
timber  dove-tailed  on  the  opposite  sides  of  a  made 
mast,  to  give  it  a  circular  form  and  the  requisite 
diameter. 

FISHER,  John,  Bishop  of  Rochester,  was  born 
in  1456  at  Beverley,  in  'if  orkshire,  educated  at 
Michael  House  College  (now  incorporated  "v^ith 
Trinity  College),  Cambridge,  where  he  took  his 
degree  in  1491,  and  of  which  he  became  master  in 
1495.  Margaret,  Countess  of  Richmond,  mother  of 
Henry  VIL,  charmed  by  the  report  of  his  virtues 
and  learning,  next  appointed  him  her  chaplain  and 
confessor.  In  1501,  he  was  elected  chancellor  of 
the  university;  and  in  1502,  became  first  Margaret 
Professor  of  Divinity.  Two  years  later,  he  obtained 
the  bishopric  of  Rochester.  For  many  years  after 
this  appointment,  he  laboured  diligently  for  the 
welfare  of  the  church  and  the  universities.  The 
Reformation  of  Luther  found  in  him — as  might 
have  been  expected  from  his  devout  ecclesiasticism 
— a  strenuous,  if  not  an  able  opponent.  In  1527, 
a  rupture  took  place  between  him  and  Henry  in 
regard  to  the  divorce  of  Queen  Catharine.  F. 
refused  to  declare  the  marriage  unlawful.  From 
this  period,  he  figures  in  the  politico-religious  strifes 
of  his  time  as  a  stanch  adherent  of  the  papacy.  He 
opposed  the  suppression  of  the  lesser  monasteries  in 
1529,  and  the  acknowledgment  of  Henry  as  head 
of  the  church  in  1531,  and  thereby  excited  the  dis- 
like of  the  party  of  progress  in  the  English  nation. 
His  credulity — many  would  apply  a  harsher  term — 
in  reference  to  Elizabeth  Barton  (q.  v.),  the  'Holy 
Maid  of  Kent,'  involved  him  in  a  still  more  perilous 
antagonism  to  the  king.  He  was  imprisoned;  and 
on  refusing  to  take  the  oath  affirming  the  legality 
of  Henry's  marriage  with  Anne  Boleyn,  he  was 
committed  to  the  Tower,  April  26,  1534,  where  he 
was  treated  with  great  barbarity.  A  kind  but 
inconsiderate  act  of  Pope  Paul  III.  now  hastened 
the  destruction  of  the  old  man.  His  Holiness,  as  a 
reward  of  his  faithful  services,  sent  him  a  cardinal's 
hat  in  May  1535.  When  Henry  was  informed  of 
this,  he  exclaimed :  '  Mother  of  God,  he  shall  wear 
it  on  his  shoulders,  then ;  for  I  will  leave  him 
nevei  a  head  to  set  it  on.'  His  ruin  was  now 
certain.  He  was  accused  of  high  treason,  and  after 
a  brief  trial,  was  condemned,  and  executed,  22d 
June  1535.  F.  was  one  of  those  unfortunate  per- 
sons who,  with  abundance  of  personal  virtues,  find 
themselves  opposed  to  the  overwhelming  tendencies 
of  the  times  in  which  they  live. 

FISHERIES.  The  capture  of  various  kinds  of 
fish  for  the  purpose  of  trade  has  always  been  exten- 
SiTely  carried  on  in  maritime  coimtries,  and  in  those 
which  are  watered  by  large  rivers ;  and  has  been 
the  means  in  many  instances  of  adding  greatly  to 
their  prosperity.  In  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
especially,  this  purs\iit  affords  remunerative  employ- 
ment to  a  large  proportion  of  the  population,  and 
forms  an  unequalled  nursery  for  sailors  to  recruit  the 
royal  navy. 

The  art  of  capturing  fish,  like  other  arts,  has  been 
brought  only  by  degrees  to  its  present  perfection. 
In  remote  ages,  fish  were  caught  in  the  rudest 
manner  by  men  who  lay  on  the  rocks,  ready  to 
shoot  them  with  arrows,  or  transfix  them  with 


spears.  Even  yet,  in  places  which  are  only  partly 
civilised,  fish  are  taken  with  blankets  or  sliocp- 
skms ;  and  a  roughly  made  sjiear,  known  as  a 
leister,  is  still  used  in  the  country  districts  of 
the  United  Kingdom  in  the  illegal  ^pture  of 
salmon.  Advancing  intelligence,  however,  and  the 
use  of  fish  as  an  article  of  barter  for  other  kinds 
of  food,  soon  led  to  more  effective  modes  of 
capture.  Persons  who  dwelt  on  the  sea- coast  began 
to  exchange  fish  for  animal  food  killed  by  the 
inland  hunters,  and  in  this  way  initiated  a  com- 
merce which  is  now  represented  by  a  vast  amount 
of  capital  and  enterprise. 

The  importance  of  fisheries,  as  bearing  on  the 
food-supplies  of  nations,  inland  as  well  as  maritime, 
and  as  forming  a  remunerative  outlet  for  labour,  can 
scarcely  be  overestimated,  more  especially  as  fish 
lias  ever  been  in  the  greatest  demand  by  all  classes 
of  the  people,  and  has  been  in  use  for  human  food 
from  the  most  remote  periods.  Previous  to  the 
Reformation,  it  was  in  universal  demand  in  Britain, 
being  the  prescribed  diet  during  the  fasts  apj)ointed 
by  the  church. 

One  great  peculiarity  of  this  source  of  wealth 
is  that,  with  slight  exceptions,  the  sea-liar\'est  (if 
we  may  so  call  it)  is  ripened,  without  trouble  or 
expense  for  the  fisher,  who  only  requires  to  provide 
the  means  of  gathering  it ;  and  that,  under  certain 
regulations,  it  is  free  to  all  comers.  River  fisheries, 
except  in  the  case  of  salmon,  are,  so  far  as  commerce 
is  concerned,  comparatively  unproductive  in  Great 
Britain ;  and  Locldeven  is  the  only  British  fresh- 
water lake  the  produce  of  which  is  worth  men- 
tioning. But  the  great  continental  rivers  abound 
in  excellent  fish,  which  in  the  aggregate  are  of  very 
considerable  value. 

The  principal  fisheries  of  Great  Britain  are  those 
connected  with  the  capture  of  salmon,  herring,  shell- 
fish, cod,  soles,  turbot,  mackerel,  &c.  Immense 
quantities  of  these  fish  are  in  constant  demand,  and 
the  various  lines  of  railway,  that  Ijranch  inland  from 
the  coast,  afford  a  rapid  means  of  transit,  and  have 
in  consequence  considerably  enhanced  the  value  of 
sea-produce,  which  in  former  years  was  lost  for 
want  of  a  sufficiently  rapid  conveyance  to  those 
seats  of  population  where  it  would  have  found  a 
ready  sale.  In  fact,  it  is  affirmed  by  those  who  have 
studied  the  subject,  that  the  increased  demand 
for  fish,  consequent  upon  the  increased  facilities 
for  its  transit,  has  so  affected  the  fisheries  as  to 
render  them  less  productive  than  formerly,  when 
the  demand  was  more  limited. 

It  is  difficult  to  obtain  reliable  statistics  of  the 
diff"erent  fisheries,  as,  excepting  the  government 
Board  for  Scotland,  there  is  no  recognised  authority 
on  the  subject.  The  following  fig-ures,  bearing  on 
the  herring-fisheries  of  Scotland,  which  are  the  most 
important  of  the  fisheries  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
are  taken  from  official  returns  made  by  the  commis- 
sioners for  the  fishing  of  1860.  The  total  quantity 
of  herrings  cured  dimng  that  year  was  681,193| 
barrels ;  the  total  quantity  branded,  231,9134  barrels ; 
and  the  total  quantity  exported,  377,970n  barrels ; 
being  an  increase  over  the  preceding  year  of  189,706 
barrels  in  the  quantity  cured,  of  73,2374  iii  the 
quantity  branded,  and  of  104,991  in  the  qitantity 
exported.  From  the  fishery  statistic  accounts,  we 
find  that,  in  the  year  1860,  12,721  boats,  manned 
by  42,430  fishermen  and  boys,  were  engaged  in  the 
herring,  cod,  and  ling  fisheries  of  Scotland  and  the 
Isle  of  Man ;  and  that  the  total  estimated  valuf* 
of  the  boats,  nets,  and  hues  employed  in  these 
fisheries  during  the  same  period  was  £750,196. 
The  greater  portion  of  the  herrings  are  salted  or 
cured,  and  in  this  state  they  are  sold  in  very 
large   quantities,  not  only  in   Great  Britain,  but 


FISHEKIES. 


In  her  colonies  and  in  other  foreign  countries. 
At  Hamburg  and  oflier  continental  seaports,  there 
are  merchants  who  deal  largely  in  cured  herrings, 
and  employ  agents  to  visit  the  various  British 
ports,  in  order  to  secure  a  supply.  Accurate 
statistics  of  the  quantity  of  herrings  which  is 
annually  cured  in  Scotland  may  be  consulted  in 
the  various  returns  of  the  Fishery  Board.  The 
following  figures  represent  the  number  of  barrels 
cured  annually  for  the  last  ten  years  :  1852,  498,788 ; 
1853,  710,344  ;  1854,  036,532  ;  1855,  7GG,703  ;  1856, 
580,000;  1857,  550,000;  1858,  630,000;  1859, 
500,000;  1860,637,000;  1861  (supposed),  680,000. 

The  principal  seats  of  the  herring-fishery  in  Great 
Britain  are  at  Wick,  in  Caithncss-shire,  Scotland, 
and  at  Yarmouth,  in  England ;  but  it  is  also  can-ied 
on  in  many  ])laces  along  the  coast.  The  annual 
consumption  of  herrings  in  London  will  give  a 
good  idea  of  the  total  quantity  of  that  fish  required 
for  general  consumption  throughout  the  kingdom. 
Upwards  of  300,000  barrels  of  fresh  herrings,  of 
700  fish  to  each  barrel,  are  annually  used  in  the 
great  metropolis,  265,000  baskets  of  bloaters,  of 
150  fish  per  basket,  and  not  less  than  60,000,000 
of  red  herrings.  Large  quantities  of  the  pilchard 
and  of  the  sprat  are  also  consumed,  the  annual 
value  of  the  latter  being  estimated  at  upwards  of 
£100,000. 

A  visit  to  Billingsgate  affords  the  best  means  of 
obtaining  a  proper  notion  of  the  food-wealth  of 
the  sea.  Here  tons  upon  tons  of  all  kinds  of  fish 
are  daily  distributed.  The  average  quantities  per 
annum  of  white  fish  estimated  to  have  passed 
through  Billingsgate  in  the  course  of  the  last  five 
years  are  as  follows :  Haddocks,  3,000,000 ;  whitings, 
18,500,000 ;  soles,  100,000,000  ;  cod,  500,000 ;  plaice, 
35,500,000 ;  mackerel,  25,000,000.  So  great  is  the 
demand  for  white  fish  throughout  the  kingdom,  that 
many  fishermen  run  as  far  north  as  the  Orkneys 
to  obtain  them ;  and  welled  vessels  in  1861  tried 
the  experiment  of  carrying  live  cod  all  the  way 
from  Rockall,  a  very  distant  fishery  (situated  in 
lat.  57'  35'  N.,  and  long.  13"  40'  W.),  where  there  is 
an  abundant  supply  of  large  fish,  such  as  cod, 
but  hitherto  with  little  success.  One  vessel  took 
on  board  forty  score  of  live  cod  at  this  depot,  but 
on  arriving  at  Great  Grimsby  only  three  score  of 
these  were  foimd  to  be  alive,  for  which  a  sum  of 
£24  was  obtained.  Most  of  the  cod- smacks  carry 
their  cargo  alive  as  far  as  Gravesend ;  but  they 
dare  not  venture  further  up  the  Thames,  as  the 
fish  would  not  live  in  its  fold  waters.  The  Irish 
Beas  are  famed  for  the  fine  quality  of  their  white 
fish ;  the  haddocks  of  Dublin,  in  particular,  have 
a  great  reputation.  In  Scotland,  a  vast  proportion 
of  the  haddocks  are  slightly  smoked,  and  sold  as 
'  Finnans,'  which  form  a  well-known  breakfast  deli- 
cacy in  all  parts  of  the  comitry.  Large  quantities 
of  cod  and  ling  are  caught,  split  up,  and  sold  in  a 
dried  state. 

The  most  valuable  white  fish,  individually  con- 
sidered, is  the  aldermanic  turbot,  which  brings  a 
high  price.  Eels  are  also  caught  in  large  quantities 
at  all  seasons,  and  fetch  a  remunerative  price  jln 
the  London  fish-markets.  With  reference  to  cod 
and  ling,  the  annual  returns  published  by  the 
Board  of  Fisheries  in  Scotland  shew  that,  in  the 
year  1860,  115,688  cwt.  were  cured  dried,  and 
4339^  barrels  cured  in  pickle ;  and  that  the  total 
quantity  exported  was  32,221  cwt.  cured  dried. 

As  regards  crustaceans  and  shell-fish,  Mr  Mayhew, 
in  one  of  his  elaborate  works  on  London,  states  their 
annual  consumption  as  follows :  Oysters,  495,896,000 ; 
lobsters  (averaging  1  lb.  each),  1,200,000 ;  crabs 
(averaging  1  lb.  each),  600,000 ;  shrimps  (324  to 
»  pint),  498,428,648 ;  whelks  (227  to  half-bushel), 


4,943,200 ;  mussels  (1000  to  half -bushel),  50,400,000; 
cockles  (2000  to  half-bushel),  67,392,000 ;  periwinkle$ 
(4000  to  half-bushel),  304,000,000.  These  numbera 
are  applicable  to  a  bygone  time,  and  would  roquu-e 
to  be  considerably  augmented  to  represent  the 
present  consumption  of  these  delicacies  in  London. 
This  branch  of  the  trade  represents,  according  to 
some  economists,  an  annual  sum  of  about  £300,000. 
The  lobster,  being  by  far  the  most  valuable  of  the 
crustacean  kind,  is  most  assiduously  nursed  in  ponds, 
so  as  always  to  be  ready  for  market.  Mr  Scovell  of 
Hamble,  near  Southampton,  keeps  f  thousand  or  two 
always  on  hand,  and  steam- vessels  are  employed  to 
bring  them  alive  from  the  most  distant  parts  of  tho 
coast :  these  boats  are  built  exclusively  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  have  immense  wells  in  thi^m  to  hold  the 
living  freight.  The  lobsters  are  not  once  brought 
to  London,  but  are  kept  ready  in  perforated  boxes, 
on  the  Essex  side  of  the  Thames,  to  answer  the 
demand  as  it  arises.  Norway  supplies  at  least  two- 
thirds  of  our  lobsters.  Mr  Saunders,  the  extensive 
lobster  salesman  of  Lower  Thames  Street,  used  to 
estimate  the  daily  consumption  of  lobfters  in  Great 
Britain  at  40,000.  There  is  also  an  enormous  demand . 
for  oysters,  and  a  considerable  proportion  of  our 
maritime  population  earn  a  comfortable  livelihood 
by  breeding  and  dredging  them.  At  Whitstable, 
in  Kent,  and  at  various  jilaces  in  Essex,  there  are 
depots  for  breeding  and  storing  oysters.  The  '  spat ' 
is  procured  and  grown  in  the  course  of  four  years 
into  a  marketable  commodity  of  much  value.  The 
^Vhitstable  Oyster  Company  received  for  oysters, 
in  1859,  the  sum  of  £62,000 ;  £50,000  of  this  sum 
being  for  native,  and  £12,000  for  other  kinds  of 
oysters.  The  oyster  is  found  in  great  abundance 
on  the  British  coasts,  there  being  famous  fisheries 
for  it  both  in  Scotland  and  Ireland.  In  America, 
and  other  countries  also,  it  is  a  common  mollusc. 
See  Oyster. 

Whilst  sea-fisheries  are  open  to  all  who  have 
the  means  of  working  them,  salmon-rivers  are  for 
the  most  part  private  property.  The  owners  of 
particidar  streams  usually  form  themselves  into 
an  association  chiefly  for  the  protection  of  the  fish 
during  the  spa\vning  season.  The  usual  method 
is  for  the  *  lairds '  to  let  their  fishings  to  tenants, 
who  are  called  *  tacksmen,'  and  whose  interest 
it  is  to  capture  and  sell  all  the  fish  they  can  find. 
The  rents  obtained  are,  in  some  instances,  very 
large,  and  form  a  handsome  addition  to  the  land- 
revenues  of  the  proprietors.  Before  the  invention 
of  packing  in  ice,  and  previous  to  the  introduc- 
tion of  steam-boats  and  railways,  salmon  used 
to  be  sold  in  the  markets  at  the  price  of  two- 
pence per  pound.  When  the  increased  demand 
for  it,  created  by  these  facilities  of  conveyance, 
caused  it  to  attain  its  present  price,  tacksmen 
were  tempted  to  overfish  their  streams,  and  the 
consequence  has  been  the  exhaustion  of  particular 
rivers.  An  elaborate  report  on  the  state  of  the 
English  salmon-fisheries,  presented  to  parliament  in 
1861,  contains  ample  proofs  of  the  universal  falling 
off  in  the  rivers  of  England  and  Wales.  It  is 
intended,  however,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
commissioners  of  the  English  salmon-fisheries,  to 
take  active  steps  to  have  them  re-peopled  with 
fish.  The  Scotch  and  Irish  salmon-fisheries  have 
also  sufi'ered  from  the  efiects  of  overfishing,  and 
various  legislative  measures  and  other  means  have 
of  late  years  been  tried  with  a  view  to  avert  the 
extermination  of  this  valuable  fish.  See  Salmon, 
Pisciculture. 

The  following  statement  of  the  number  of  boxes 
of  salmon  received  in  London  for  the  ten  years 
ending  in  1860,  will  afford  an  index  to  the  value  ol 
the  British  salmon-fisheries.    Each  box  contained 


FISHERIES. 


112  lb.  The  Englisli  rivers  are  included  in  tlie 
Welsh : 


Scotch. 

IrUb. 

Dutch. 

Norwegian. 

Welih. 

1850 

13,940 

2,135 

105 

54 

72 

1851 

11 ',593 

4,141 

203 

212 

40 

1852 

13,044 

3,6il2 

176 

3(6 

20 

1853 

19,485 

5,052 

401 

1208 

20 

1854 

23,194 

6,333 

345 

None. 

128 

1855 

18,197 

4,101 

227 

None. 

59 

1856 

15,438 

6,568 

63 

5 

500 

1857 

18,fi54 

4,904 

622 

None. 

220 

1858 

21,564 

6,429 

973 

19 

499 

1859 

15.630 

4,855 

922 

None. 

260 

1S60 

15,870 

3,803 

849 

40 

438 

Total 

186,609 

51,923 

4891 

1844 

1956 

It  is  impossible,  from  the  paucity  of  reliable 
information,  to  do  more  than  roughly  estimate  the 
imount  of  capital  employed  in  the  British  fisheries. 
Their  annual  value  is,  however,  believed  to  be  not 
less  than  £5,000,000.  That  of  the  sea-coast  and  lake 
and  river  fisheries  of  the  United  States  is  estimated  at 
about  $100,000,000. 

The  food-fisheries  of  France  are  now  becoming 
co-extensive  with  those  of  Britain,  so  far  as  the 
capture  of  sea-fish  and  crustaceans  are  concerned ; 
and  in  the  cidtivation  of  those  less  important  fishes 
which  thrive  best  in  lakes,  canals,  and  rivers, 
they  excel  us,  for  while  we  only  cultivate  these  for 
purposes  of  amusement  (see  Angling),  the  French 
people  make  them  an  article  of  commerce,  and 
derive  large  sums  of  money  from  their  sale.  At 
one  time,  the  whole  fresh-water  fisheries  belonging 
to  France  were  not  of  so  much  value  as  one  of 
our  salmon  streams;  but  by  means  of  artificial 
cidtivation  and  careful  nursing,  they  have  been 
much  incre.ased  in  value,  and,  by  the  care  of  the 
governmt'."  V.  are  being  yearly  extended.  The  fresh- 
water fisheries  of  France  are  of  great  extent, 
Bome  of  the  fishponds  in  that  country  extending 
to  upwards  of  thirty  thousand  acres.  According 
to  an  official  summary  of  the  value  of  the  fresh- 
water fisheries  of  France,  dated  1860,  the  state 
exercises  the  right  of  fishing  over  8135  miles  of 
canals  and  water-courses ;  and  individual  proprie- 
tors exercise  similar  rights  over  930  miles  of  canals 
and  rivers,  114,889  miles  of  small  water-courses,  and 
493,750  acres  of  lakes  and  ponds.  In  Paris,  the 
annual  consumption  of  fish  gives  for  each  individual 
a  mean  estimate  of  27  lb.  of  sea-fish,  and  I  lb.  of 
fresh- Vv'ater  fish. 

Among  the  other  foreign  fisheries  most  worthy 
of  notice  are  the  river-fisheries  of  Germany,  where 
the  culture  of  the  Danube  salmon  and  other 
fresh-water  fish  is  assiduously  carried  on.  In  the 
Mediterranean,  various  kinds  of  fish  are  taken,  the 
jne  ot  greatest  value  being  the  tuimy.  The  anchovy 
and  sardine  are  also  taken  in  large  quantities. 
An  account  of  the  great  eel-fishery  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Po,  on  the  Adriatic,  has  already  been  given 
in.  this  work.  See  Comacchio.  The  Dutch  are  as 
industrious  upon  the  sea  as  they  were  at  the  time 
when  they  founded  Amsterdam,  and  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  popiilation  of  Holland  are  engaged  in 
their  fisheries,  which  are  still  a  source  of  wealth 
to  that  kingdom,  particularly  the  herring-fishery, 
which  engages  about  twenty  thousand  people. 
The  Norwegian  fisheries  afford  large  quantities  of 
lobsters  and  turbots,  and  in  1866,  25,7.56  persons  were 
employed  in  capturing  about  40,000,000  cod.  The 
Newfoundland  fisheries,  which  are  principally  for 
cod,  have  existed  for  upwards  of  three  centuries. 
Sir  Francis  Drake  was  the  first  person  who  fished 
there  on  behalf  of  England,  and  the  fish  he  sent 
home  soon  excited  a  spirit  of  enterprise  in  the 


country,  which  led  to  the  dispatch  of  a  larjre 
number  of  ships  and  the  extension  of  the  fishery. 
The  island  is  surrounded  by  the  cod- banks,  and 
the  capture  and  cure  of  this  fish  form  the  staple 
occupation  of  the  peoi)le.    See  Newfoundland. 

The  oil-fisheries  are  not  now  so  important  as 
they  were  at  one  time,  the  invention  of  gas  and 
the  discovery  of  other  lubricants  having  rendered 
us  independent  of  whale  oil.  The  success  of  the 
whale-fisheries  has  also  fluctuated  so  much  as  to 
prevent  modem  capitalists  from  embarking  very 
largely  in  the  trade.  The  only  novelties  thafe 
distinguish  the  whale-fishery  of  the  present  day  are 
the  introduction  of  steam-whalers,  and,  in  some 
instances,  of  vessels  wintering  in  Greenland  ;  but, 
with  all  these  advantages,  our  whalers  barely  pay 
their  expenses,  and  the  fishery,  as  compared  with 
former  yeai'S,  exhibits  a  considerable  falling-off.  In 
the  year  1814,  the  total  catch  of  the  British  ships 
engaged  in  the  fishery,  143  in  munber,  was  20,000 
tuns,  and  in  the  following  year,  the  Hidl  ships  alone 
had  7987  tuns,  exclusive  of  black  oil.  The  series 
of  years  from  1813  to  1830  were  remarkably  pros- 
perous, there  being  scarcely  a  broken  season  in  the 
whole  of  that  period.  Formerly,  London  sent  out 
a  whaling  fleet  of  twenty  ships,  and  the  Hull 
squadron  in  1807  amounted  to  sixty-three  vessels. 
The  total  whaling  fleet  numbered  at  one  time  159 
ships,  but  to-day  it  barely  amounts  to  a  tenth 
of  that  number.  The  seal  is  now  largely  captured 
for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  its  oil.  See  Whale, 
Cacholot,  Seal,  Geeeni,and,  &c.  The  South-Sea 
or  sperm-whale  fishery  is  principally  in  the  hands 
of  the  Americans,  who  pursue  this  branch  of  com- 
merce most  successfully.  The  quantity  of  sperm- oil 
yielded  by  the  fishing  of  1861  was  68,932  barrels, 
or  nearly  7000  tuns. 

FISHERIES,  Laws  regardtng.  As  it  is  quite 
impossible,  within  the  limits  of  the  present  w^ork,  to 
give  any  detailed  account  of  the  provisions  which 
the  legislature  have  introduced  for  the  purpose  of 
promoting  and  protecting  our  fisheries,  we  shall 
content  ourselves  with  pointing  out  the  principal 
objects  which  our  policy  has  had  in  view  with 
reference  to  tiiis  very  important  subject. 

1.  From  a  very  early  time,  statutes  have  been 
passed  both  in  England  and  Scotland,  for  the  puq^ose 
of  protecting  the  breeding  of  fish,  and  preventing 
the  destruction  of  the  spawn  or  fry.  Of  these  the 
first  in  the  statute  book  is  13  Edw.  1.  s.  1.  c.  47,  and 
the  latest,  14  and  15  Vict.  c.  26.  _ 

2.  A  feeling  of  the  interest  which  the  whole  com- 
munity has  in  the  development  of  the  fisheries,  has 
led  to  a  system  of  advancing  public  moneys  for  their 
encom-agement ;  for  this  purpose,  commissioners 
have  been  appointed,  through  whom  money  is 
advanced  on  loan.  The  last  act  having  this  object 
in  view  is  19  and  20  Vict.  c.  17. 

3.  Bounties  were  formerly  paid  upon  the  taking 
and  curing  of  fish  of  various  descriptions,  and  on 
the  vessels  employed  in  various  branches  of  the 
fisheries ;  but  this  method  of  encouraging  the 
fisheries  has  been  abandoned.  The  last  statute 
relating  to  this  subject  is  7  Geo.  IV.  c.  34. 

4.  A  treaty  was  entered  into  in  1839  between 
her  Majesty  and  the  late  Xing  of  the  French,  and 
carried  iato  effect  by  act  of  parUameut  (6  and 
7  Vict.  c.  79,  amended  by  18  and  19  Vict,  c- 
101),  concerning  the  fisheries  in  the  seas  between 
the  British  Islands  and  France,  By  this  conven- 
tion, the  limits  within  which  the  general  right  of 
fishing  is  exclusively  reserved  to  the  subjects  of 
the  two  kingdoms  respectively,  are  fixed  at  three 
miles'  distance  from  low- water  mark.  With  respect 
to  bays,  the  mouths  of  which  do  not  exceed  tem 
miles  iu  width,  the  three-mile  distance  is  measured 


FISHES. 


from  a  straight  line  dra"WTi  from  headland  to  head- 
laud. 

5.  In  1854,  a  similar  treaty  was  conclnded  between 
her  Majesty  and  the  United  States  of  America, 
relating,  inter  alia,  to  the  rights  of  fishery  between 
the  British  colonies  in  North  America  and  the 
United  States.  This  treaty  was  carried  into  effect 
by  18  and  19  Vict.  c.  3. 

C.  The  trade  in  fish,  as  regards  the  cities  of  London 
and  Westminster,  is  regulated  by  acts  of  j)arlj  anient, 
the  chief  objects  of  which  are  to  secure  a  supi)ly  of 
fresh  fish,  and  to  prevent  forestalling  of  the  same. 
The  first  of  these  acts  is  22  Geo.  II.  c.  49,  and  the 
last  4  and  5  Will.  IV.  c.  20. 

7.  Fresh  fish  of  British  taking,  imported  in  British 
bottoms,  may  be  lauded  without  report  or  entry, 
nnder  IG  and  17  Vict.  c.  107,  s.  49. 

8.  Persons  employed  in  the  fisheries,  in  such 
manner  and  under  such  circumstances  as  are  laid 
down  in  50  Geo.  III.  c.  108,  are  exempted  from 
impressment. 

9.  The  fisheries  of  Ireland  are  regulated  by  recent 
acts,  of  which  the  earliest  is  6  and  7  Vict.  c.  108, 
and  the  latest  1.3  and  14  Vict.  c.  88. 

10.  By  tlie  Scotch  Act  21  and  22  Vict.  c.  69,  fees 
are  imposed  on  the  branding  of  barrels  under  the 
acts  concerniug  the  herring-fisheries.  See  Herrings, 
Salmon,  &c. 

FISHES,  EoYAL — i.e.,  those  which  at  com- 
mon law  are  the  property  of  the  crown — are  the 
whale  and  the  sturgeon,  when  either  thrown  on 
shore,  or  caught  near  the  coast.  The  ground  of  the 
privilege  is  said  to  have  been  the  superior  value 
of  these  fishes.  They  were  considered  too  precious 
for  a  subject,  just  as  the  Swan  (q.  v.),  which  was  a 
royal  bird,  was  too  good  for  any  table  but  the  king's. 
*  Our  ancestors,'  says  Blackstone,  '  seem  to  have 
entertained  a  very  high  notion  of  the  importance  of 
this  right,  it  being  the  prerogative  of  the  kings  of 
Denmark  and  .the  dukes  of  Normandy ;  and  from 
one  of  these  it  was  probably  derived  to  our  princes. 
It  is  expressly  claimed  and  allowed  in  the  statute 
J)e  Frcerogativa  Begis  (17  Edw.  II.  c.  11),  and  the 
most  ancient  treatises  of  law  now  extant  make 
m<intion  of  it.' — Stephen's  Com.  ii.  p.  547.  Strictly, 
it  \\'as  the  head  only  of  the  whale  which  belonged 
to  the  king,  the  tail  being  a  perquisite  of  the  queen- 
consort  [Ih.  p.  457).  In  Scotland,  whales  throwTi 
on  shore  above  six  horse-power  draught,  belong  to 
the  queen  or  her  donatary,  the  admiral.  Smaller 
whales  have  been  claimed  both  by  the  landlord 
and  the  tenant  on  whose  ground  they  are  cast,  but 
they  are  usually  given  to  the  catcher.  In  Shetland, 
where  the  washing  of  whales  on  shore  is  an  occur- 
rence of  sufficient  frequency  to  have  given  rise  to 
a  local  custom,  they  are  equally  divided  between 
the  proprietor  of  the  soil  and  those  concerned  in 
catching  them.    See  Salmon. 

FISHES  (Pisces),  the  fourth — or,  according  to 
Milne-Edwards  and  some  other  naturalists  (see 
Amphibia),  the  fifth — class  of  vertebrated  animals  ; 
consisting  of  creatures  which  live  in  water,  and 
accordingly  breathe  by  gills  {hrancliice),  and  not, 
at  any  stage  of  their  existence,  by  lungs.  In  number 
— both  of  individuals  and  of  different  kinds — 
they  are  supposed  to  exceed  all  the  other  classes  of 
vertebrate  animals  put  together.  Even  the  water 
of  hot  springs  and  the  pools  of  caverns  have  their 
peculiar  fishes,  and  some  of  these  are  only  known 
as  thrown  out  with  torrents  of  muddy  water  by 
volcanoes. 

The  form  of  fishes  is  generally  adapted  to  easy 
and  rapid  progression  through  water,  being  more 
or  less  nearly  that  of  a  spindle,  swelling  in  the 
middle,  and  tapering  towards  the  extremities ;  the 
362 


outline  unangular,  and  the  surface  smooth.  Bui 
exceptions  to  this  rule  are  numerous ;  and  some, 
provided  with  other  means  of  seeking  their  food, 
or  of  preservation  from  their  enemies,  exhibit  the 
greatest  possible  departures  from  the  ordinary  shape  : 
some  are  globe-shaped,  some  have  a  most  irregular 
and  angular  outline,  many  are  much  elongated,  as 
eels ;  and  others  are  compressed  and  flattened,  as* 
flounders. 

The  bones  of  fishes  diff"er  much  in  their  structure 
from  those  of  other  vertebrate  animals  :  they  are 
less  dense  and  compact,  and  when  their  ossifica- 
tion is  perfect,  remain  separate,  as  in  the  early 
embryotic  state  of  the  Mammalia.  The  bones  of 
the  sub-class  of  Cartilaginous  Fishec  (q.  v.),  how- 
ever, never  become  i)roperly  ossified  The  bones 
of  fishes  generally  contain  a  smaUo't  proportion 


Skeleton  of  Perch. 

of  earthy  matter  than  those  of  other  vrrtebrat* 
animals,  and  their  cartilaginous  basis  contains  no 
gelatine  strictly  so  called.  The  tj-jncal  character 
of  the  vertebrate  skeleton  is,  however,  maintained, 
although  modified ;  and  many  of  the  bones — a 
great  majority,  for  example,  of  those  of  the  bead 
— are  evidently  homologous  with  those  of  quad- 
rupeds and  of  man.  There  is  no  neck,  and  the 
vertebrae  are  distinguishable  only  into  abdominal 
and  caudal.  The  vertebrae  are  concave  at  each  end, 
and  pierced  in  the  middle,  the  hollow  space  being 
occupied  with  a  gelatinous  substance.  Spinous 
processes,  sometimes  short,  sometimes  long,  extend 
upwards  and  downwards  from  the  vertebrae  to 
support  the  muscles.  Fishes  also  generally  have 
ribs,  connected  vnth  the  abdominal  vertebrae;  and 
in  many,  an  additional  set  of  small  bones  [epipleural 
spines)  connected  with  the  ribs,  and  arising  from 
near  the  base  of  the  ribs,  extends  outwards  and  back- 
wards through  the  lateral  muscles.  The  four  limbs 
which  belong  to  the  typical  structure  of  vertebrate 
animals,  assume  in  fishes  the  form  of  Fins  (q.  ) 
and  are  generally,  although  not  always,  all  ijreser^  ', 
the  first  pair  being  the  pectoral,  the  second  pair  the 
ventral  fins.  In  some  fishes,  the  ventral  fins,  answer- 
ing to  the  hind-feet  of  quadrupeds,  are  actually 
further  forward  than  the  pectoral  fins,  and  are  then 
called  jugular  fins.  In  some,  as  the  common  eel, 
the  ventral  fins  are  wanting  ;  in  some,  as  the  Muraina^ 
there  are  neither  pectoral  nor  ventral  fins.  Con- 
nected with  these  fins  are  bones,  which  shew  that 
they  represent  the  limbs  of  other  vertebrate  animals. 
Fishes  have,  however,  also  other  fins  not  so  closely 
connected  as  these  with  the  internal  [endo-)  skeleton, 
and  not  placed  like  them  in  pairs  towards  the  side.«5, 
but  vertically  on  the  middle  {mesial)  line;  one  or 
more  {dorsal)  on  the  back ;  one  or  more  {anal)  on  the 
opposite  or  ventral  aspect,  behind  the  anus ;  and  one 
{caudal)  at  the  extremity  of  the  tail.  The  caudal  fin 
is  in  general  the  principal  organ  of  locomotion,  and 
most  of  the  muscles  of  the  body  combine  to  give  gi-eat 
energy  to  its  strokes,  great  part  of  the  body  moving 
with  it,  and  the  vertebrae  with  their  processes  being 
so  framed  as  to  admit  great  freedom  of  lateral,  and 
scarcely  any  vertical  motion.     The  pectoral  and 


FISHES. 


rt'Dtral  fins  seem  to  serve  chiefly  for  balancing  the 
body,  and  guiding  and  staying  its  motion  ;  the  dorsal 
and  anal  fins,  like  the  keel  of  a  ship,  for  keeping 
it  in  its  proper  position.  All  the  vertical  fins  are 
supported  by  bones  which  do  not  join  those  of  the 
internal  skeleton,  but  are  thickest  at  the  skin,  from 
^'hich  they  penetrate  towards  the  vertebrae,  being 
interposed  between  the  spinous  processes  of  the 
vertebral  coliunu.  Several  of  the  last  caudal 
vertebrae  are  generally  very  short  and  combined,  and 
the  interposed  spines  which  support  the  caudal  fin 
converge  towards  them.  The  rays  of  fins  are  either 
pointed  bones  (spines) — sometimes  prolonged  beyond 
the  membrane,  and  forming  defensive  weapons — or 
they  aie  cartilaginous  and  jointed,  in  which  case 
they  often  also  branch  near  their  summit.  The 
caudal  fin  never  has  any  other  than  these  soft  rays, 
and  many  fishes  have  no  other  in  any  of  their  fins. 
A  few  fishes,  belonging  to  different  families,  have 
the  pectoral  fins  develo])ed  to  an  unusual  degree,  so 
as  to  make  them  capable  of  supporting  short  flights 
in  the  air  (see  Flying  Fish  and  Flying  Gurnard)  ; 
and  a  few  are  capable  of  employing  their  fins  as 
organs  of  locomotion  in  a  very  different  way,  creeping 
£vlong  the  ground,  or  hopping  among  the  weeds  and 
utones  of  the  shore. 

The  heart  of  fishes  consists  only  of  one  auricle  and 
one  ventricle,  receiving  venous  blood  only,  and  sending 
it  to  the  gills,  where,  being  oxygenated,  it  passes 
into  the  greater  or  systemio  circulation  by  the  dorsal 
vessel.  See  Circulation.  In  most  fishes,  there  is, 
close  to  the  heart,  a  thick  bulb  or  muscular  swelling 
of  the  great  artery  which  conveys  the  blood  from  the 
heart  to  the  gills,  and  wiiich  assists  in  propelling 
the  blood,  being  furnished  with  valves  to  prevent 
its  regurgitation  into  the  heart ;  and  this  bulb  and 
its  valves  exhibit  varieties  admiralily  characteristic 
of  different  natural  groups,  much  founded  upon  in 
the  system  of  MuUer  and  Owen.  The  blood  of 
fishes  is  red ;  its  corpuscles  are  oval  and  of  consider- 
able size,  but  in  general  not  very  numerous.  Fishes 


Cheironectes  Caudimaculatus. 

oousnvie  little  oxygen  in  respiration,  and  are  cold- 
blooded animals,  having  in  general  a  temperature 
little  elevated  above  that  of  the  water  in  which 
they  live ;  although  there  are  some  singular  excep- 
tions to  this  ■  rule,  as  the  tunny,  sword-fish,  &c., 
which,  having  a  comparatively  high  temperature, 
have  also  redder  blood  with  more  numerous  cor- 
puscles. The  oxygen  appropriated  by  means  of  the 
{[ills  in  respiration  is  not  obtained  by  decomposition 
of  water,  but  from  the  air  which  is  mixed  in  it, 
ftnd  hence  the  necessity  of  aerating  an  aquarium ; 

179 


hence  also  we  perceive  one  of  the  benefits  resulting 
from  the  agitation  of  the  ocean  and  of  Ir-kes  by 
winds.  Some  fishes  require  a  greater  supply  of  air 
than  they  can  easily  obtain  from  the  water,  and 
frequently  come  to  the  surface  to  breathe.  Fishea 
taken  out  of  the  water  die  from  want  of  breath, 
in  consequence  of  the  drying  up  of  the  fine  fringes 
of  the  gills  ;  and  those  which  are  capable  of  subsist 
ing  longer  out  of  water  than  others,  have  generally 
small  gill  openings,  not  so  freely  admitting  the 
air  to  dry  the  gills,  whilst  a  few  are  provided  with 
receptacles  for  water  to  keep  them  moist.  See 
Anabasid^. 

The  gills  of  fishes  are  situated  at  the  back  part 
of  the  sides  of  the  head,  and  consist  of  a  midtitude 
of  very  vascular  membranous  plates,  which  aro 
generally  in  double  fringe-like  rows  fixed  by  the  base 
only,  and  simple,  although  in  a  few  fishes  they  are 
feathery,  and  in  the  greater  number  of  Cartilar/inoua 
Fishes  (q.  v.),  they  are  fixed  both  by  their  external 
and  their  internal  edges,  or  consist  of  mere  folds  of 
membrane  attached  to  the  surface  of  the  gill- cavities. 
In  general,  there  are  four  gills  on  each  side  ;  the 
number  is  greater  in  some  of  the  Cartilaginous 
Fishes.  In  Osseous  Fishes,  the  gill-plates  are  attached 
to  the  external  edge  of  the  branchial  arches,  bony 
arches  connected  with  the  hyoid  bone  or  bone  of  the 
tongTxe — which  is  unusually  developed  in  fishes- 
and  with  the  base  of  the  skull,  the  connection  at 
both  ends  being  effected  by  intervening  small  bones,, 
and  the  whole  forming  a  complicated  system ; 
whilst  the  cavity  containing  the  gills,  on  each  side 
of  the  head,  is  covered  by  a  bony  plat'>,  the  gill-hd, 
gill-cover,  or  operculum,  with  two  subordinate  pieces, 
called  the  sub-operculum  and  inter-operculum,  articu- 
lated on  the  temporal  bone,  and  j)laying  ou  the 
pre-operculum,  a  bony  plate  placed  befo*'e  them  in 
the  head.  It  is  by  the  motion  of  these  b^ny  plates 
that  the  water  is  expelled  which  is  taken  in  by  the 
mouth,  and  which,  after  passing  amongst  tho  gills, 
and  supplying  them  with  air,  passes  out  by  the 
gill-orifices  at  the  back  of  the  head.  Besides  these 
opercidar  plates  or  bones,  a  series  of  flattened  rays, 
connecting  them  with  the  bone  of  the  tongue,  and 
called  the  branchiostegal  rays,  aid  in  forming  the 
gill  ca^^ties.  In  the  branchiostegal  rays,  distinctive 
characters  of  fishes  are  often  found. 

The  brain  of  fishes  differs  very  considerably 
from  that  of  other  vertebrate  animals.  See  Braln. 
In  general,  they  possess  the  nerves  and  organs  of  all 
the  senses,  although  the  senses  of  touch  and  taste 
are  commonly  supposed  to  be  more  dull  than  in 
many  other  animals  ;  and  a  few  fishes,  liAdng  chiefly 
in  mud,  or  in  the  waters  of  caverns,  are  destitute 
of  eyes,  and  consequently  of  sight,  although  even 
they  possess  oj^tic  nerves,  and  seem  sensitive  to 
light.  But  in  most  of  them,  the  eyes  are  large,  and 
vision  is  evidently  very  acute  ;  and  some  have  cirri 
or  barbules  near  the  mouth,  filaments  proceeding 
from  some  of  the  fin-rays,  &c.,  Vvdiich  are  regarded 
as  delicate  organs  of  touch,  adapted  to  the  wants 
and  habits  of  the  particular  species.  The  eyes  are 
covered  by  the  skin,  modified  in  its  character,  and 
have  no  eyelids  ,nor  nictitating  membrane.  They 
are  very  variously  placed  in  different  kinds.  There 
is  no  external  ear. 

The  mouth  is  the  only  organ  of  prehension.  It  is 
very  different  in  different  kinds — sometimes  very 
small,  sometimes  extremely  large,  sometimes  forming 
a  sucker  by  which  the  fish  can  both  fix  itself  and 
pump  up  the  fluids  of  the  animal  on  which  it  preys. 
The  snout  is  aiso  abbreviated,  prolonged,  or  other- 
wise modified  in  very  various  ways.  The  teeth  are 
far  more  various  in  form,  number,  position,  and 
structiu-e,  than  in  any  other  class  of  animals.  They 
never  have  any  roots,  but  are  fixed  to  the  bone* 

353 


FISHES. 


which  support  them;  they  fall  off,  however,  and 
are  replaced.  Some  fishes  have  no  teeth ;  some 
have  very  small  teeth  ;  some  have  teeth  in  gi*eat 
number,  but  so  fine  as  to  resemble  the  hairs  of  a 
brush ;  some  have  short  thick  teeth ;  some  have 
long  shaq)  teeth,  either  straight  or  crooked ;  some 
have  teeth  so  flat  and  closely  set  that  they 
resem])le  a  regular  and  beautifid  pavement ;  and 
the  teeth  of  fishes  are  sometimes  situated  not  only 
on  the  jawbones,  but  on  the  vomer  or  bone 
extending  along  the  middle  of  the  roof  of  the 
mouth,  and  indeed,  also,  on  other  parts  of  the 
palate  to  tne  very  throat,  and  very  commonly  on 
the  tongue.  The  food  of  fishes  is  various  :  a  few 
subsist  ou  vegetable  food  of  different  kinds,  but  most 
of  them  on  animal  food,  of  which  there  is  no  kind 
that  docs  not  seem  to  be  particularly  agreeable  to 
some  of  them,  from  the  mere  animalcule  or  the  most 
minute  crustacean  to  the  flesh  of  the  mammalia. 
In  general,  they  are  excessively  voracious,  and  seem 
to  spend  most  of  their  lives  in  seeking  food.  Many 
of  them  prey  on  other  fishes,  and  many  seem  equally 
willing  to  devour  otlier  species  or  the  younger  and 
weaker  of  their  own.  Some  of  them  swallow  their 
food  almost  or  absolutely  alive  ;  others  subject  it  to 
processes  of  comminution,  trituration,  and  masti- 
cation in  the  mouth.  Salivary  glands  are  not  found 
in  fishes,  although  they  exist  in  some  of  the  verte- 
brate animals.  The  digestive  process  seems  to  be 
performed  very  rapidl3^  The  stomach  and  intestines 
vary  very  much  in  different  kinds.  The  kidneys 
are  in  general  extremely  large,  extending  thi'ough 
the  whole  length  of  the  abdomen. 

The  air-bladder  is  found  in  many  fishes,  but  not 
in  all ;  and  is  present  or  absent  in  different  fishes 
even  of  the  same  genus  or  family.  See  Air-bladder. 
Its  uses,  and  its  connection  with  the  habits  of 
particular  species,  have  as  yet  been  but  partially 
ascertained. 

Fishes  are  oviparous  (egg-producing)  ;  a  few  are 
ovo^dviparous  (eggs  hatched  within  the  body,  and 
young  produced  alive).  The  chief  reproductive 
organs  are  generally  two  elongated  lobes  of  a  fatty 
Bubstance,  milt,  in  the  males,  and  of  rudimentary 
eggs,  roe,  in  the  females.  Impregnation  usually 
takes  place  after  the  roe  or  spawn  is  deposited,  the 
male  accompanying  the  female  to  the  place  of 
8i>awning.  In  some  Cartilaginous  Fishes,  it  takes 
place  before  the  deposition  of  the  eggs ;  and  male 
sharks  and  rays  are  furnished  with  organs  called 
claspers,  the  use  of  which  is  well  indicated  by  the 
name.  The  fecimdity  of  fishes  is  generally  very 
great,  and  their  eggs  very  small  in  proportion  to 
the  size  which  they  ultimately  attain,  although 
this  is  not  so  much  the  case  in  the  Cartilaginous 
Fishes  already  mentioned.  Some  of  the  fishes 
most  valuable  to  man,  as  the  salmon,  herring, 
and  cod,  are  remarkable  for  their  fecundity.  Nine 
millions  of  eggs  have,  according  to  Leuwenhoek, 
been  ascertained  to  exist  in  the  roe  of  a  single 
cod ;  and  provision  is  thus  made  both  for  the 
preservation  of  the  species  amidst  all  the  dangers 
to  which  the  spawn  and  the  young  are  exposed, 
and  for  the  wants  of  man.  The  spawn  of  fishes  is 
deposited  in  very  different  situations,  according  to 
the  different  kinds — as  by  some  on  aquatic  plants, 
by  some  on  beds  of  sand  or  gravel ;  but  many 
species  leave  the  depths  of  the  ocean  in  order  to 
deposit  it  in  shallower  waters,  and  some,  usually 
marine,  ascend  rivers  for  this  purpose.  Very  few 
fishes  take  any  care  of  their  eggs  or  young ;  but 
there  are  remarkable  exceptions  to  this  rule,  and 
some  of  the  gobies  and  sticklebacks  are  known  to 
fcerd  their  young  with  great  care.  Sticldebacks  also 
construct  nests.  See  Stickleback.  It  is  not  long 
since  this  curious  {act  w^as  discovered,  although 
351 


these  little  fishes  have  been  so  long  familiarly 
known ;  and  it  is  therefore  not  improbable  that 
many  other  fishes  may  have  the  same  habit. 

The  growth  of  fishes  is  very  rapid  when  supplies 
of  food  are  abundant,  but  becomes  slow  in  less 
favourable  circumstances,  or  is  arrested  for  a  long 
time,  in  a  manner  to  which  there  seems  i.>  be 
nothing  similar  among  other  vertebrate  animals. 

The  skin  of  fishes  is  generally  covered  with  Scales 
(q.  v.),  which,  however,  are  sometimes  minute  and 
imbedded  in  the  skin,  and  sometimes  altogether 
wanting.  The  scales  are  either  homy  or  bony,  and 
are  generally  imbricated,  like  the  slates  of  a  roof, 
their  free  ends  backwards ;  but  sometimes  form 
bony  plates,  fixed  by  the  whole  of  their  lower 
surface.  They  usually  exhibit  beautiful  symmetrical 
markings  and  inequalities  of  surface  of  various 
kinds,  and  in  some  are  covered  with  a  thick  coat  of 
enamel.  The  differences  of  character  in  the  scales 
have  been  made  the  foundation  of  a  classification  of 
fishes  l)y  Agassiz,  by  whom  all  fishes  are  distributed 
into  the  four  orders  of  Cycloid,  Ctenoid,  Placoid,  and 
Ganoid  Fishes  (see  these  heads),  having  respec- 
tively jycloid,  ctenoid,  placoid,  and  ganoid  scales  ;  a 
classification  which  has  been  found  particularly 
convenient  with  reference  to  fossil  fishes,  although 
other  systems  maintain  their  ground  against  it  as 
preferable  for  recent  species.  It  is  not,  however, 
wholly  artificial,  for  a  relation  can  be  very  generally 
traced  between  the  character  of  the  scales  and  the 
general  structure  and  economy  of  a  fish. 

The  scales  of  a  row  extending  from  the  head 
to  or  towards  the  tail  on  each  side  of  the  body 
of  Osseous  fishes  in  a  somewhat  waved  line,  called 
the  lateral  line,  are  pierced  for  the  transmission 
of  a  slimy  matter,  with  which  the  whole  body  is 
lubricated. 

The  colours  of  fishes  depend  upon  a  substance  . 
consisting  of  smaU  polished  laminae,  secreted  by  the 
skin. 

As  fishes  need  no  covering,  like  fur  or  feathers,  to 
prevent  the  dissipation  of  their  animal  heat  in  the 
surrounding  medium,  their  scales  must  be  regarded 
chiefly  as  defensive  armour.  Some  of  them  are  also 
defended  by  large  bony  plates,  which  are  either  on 
the  head  alone  or  also  on  the  body,  and  some  by 
spines  connected  with  the  fins,  gill-covers,  &c.  Few 
have  any  other  offensive  weapons  than  their  teeth, 
but  the  spine  attached  to  the  tail  of  some  rays  is  a 
remarkable  exception,  as  is  also  the  elongated  snout 
or  beak  of  the  sword-fish,  saw-fish,  and  a  few  others. 
But  a  much  more  remarkable  kind  of  armour — 
probably  both  offensive  and  defensive — is  possessed 
by  a  few  fishes,  in  an  electrical  apparatus,  by  w  iiich 
they  can  give  severe  shocks.  It  is  also  an  inte- 
resting fact,  that  the  electrical  apparatus  is  quite 
different  in  different  fishes  possessing  it,  the  Gj^m- 
notus  or  Electric  Eel,  the  Torpedo,  and  the  Electric 
Silurus  or  Malapterurus.  See  Electricity,  Animal. 

Many  fishes  are  gregarious,  swimming  in  shoals, 
which  in  some  species  consist  of  immense  mul- 
titudes. Some  also  make  periodic  migrations  ; 
salmon,  for  example,  ascending  our  rivers,  and 
herrings  and  pilchards  visiting  our  coasts,  but  the 
long  migration  formerly  ascribed  to  these  fishes  is 
now  doubted  or  disbelieved.  The  occasional,  over- 
land migrations  of  eels,  and  tlie  more  frequ'Jiit 
overland  migrations  of  some  tropical  fishes,  cannot 
but  be  regarded  with  peculiar  interest ;  and  the 
instinct  is  very  wonderful  by  which,  when  fleeiiij? 
from  a  pool  that  is  about  to  be  dried  up,  they  direct 
their  course  towards  a  place  where  water  is  more 
abundant.  This  faculty  is,  however,  rare,  although 
possessed  by  tropical  fishes  both  of  the  eastern  and 
western  hemispheres  ;  but  more  generally  the  fishes 
1  destined  to  iniliabit  tropical  ponds  which  are  b'abla 


FISHES— FISH-H0OK& 


to  be  dried  up,  are  capable  of  living  dormant, 
imbedded  in  the  mud,  tiU  they  are  liberated  again 
by  the  rains,  when  they  reappear  in  their  former 
multitudes. 

Of  the  uses  of  fishes  to  man,  by  far  the  most 
imjwrtant  is  that  of  supplying  him  with  food. 
Fishes  form  an  article  of  food  in  almost  all  coun- 
tries, and  in  some  a  principal  part  of  the  food  of 
the  inhabitants.  Many  fishes  are  highly  esteemed 
for  the  table,  which  are  not  procured  in  sufficient 
abundance  to  be  a  principal  part  of  food  in  any 
country.  Some  fishes,  on  the  contrary,  are  impala- 
table ;  and  some,  mostly  tropical,  are  poisonous, 
whilst  others  are  poisonous  only  at  particular  sea- 
sons.— The  skin  of  some  Cartilaginous  Fishes  yields 
SH4.GREEN  (q.  V.),  and  the  au'-bladder  of  some  fishes 
yields  Isinglass  (q.  v.).  The  minute  laminas  which 
give  brilliancy  of  colour  to  some,  and  the  similar 
substance  found  in  the  air-bladder  of  others,  afford 
the  materials  of  which  artificial  pearls  are  made. 
• — Oil  useful  for  lamps  is  obtained  from  a  number 
of  fishes,  and  the  medicinal  value  of  cod-liver  oil 
is  now  well  known. 

The  classification  of  fishes  most  generally  adopted 
is  that  of  Cuvier,  who  divides  them  into  Osseous 
Fishes  (having  true  bones),  and  Cartilaginous 
Fishes  (q.  v.) ;  and  divides  Osseous  Fishes  into 
Acauthopterous  Fishes  {Acanthopterygii,  q.  v.),  and 
Malacopterous  Fishes  {Malacoplerygii,  q.  v.).  The 
system  of  Agassiz  has  already  been  noticed.  That 
of  MuUer  and  Owen  difiers  from  both. 

Fossil  Fishes. — The  medivim  in  which  fishes  live, 
and  the  hard  and  almost  indestructible  natui-e  of 
some  portions  of  their  skeletons— as  their  teeth, 
spines,  and  scales — would  lead  us  to  anticipate  their 
frequent  occurrence  in  the  Sedimentary  rocks  ;  but 
inasmuch  as  the  soft  parts  of  the  animal  are  liable 
to  speedy  decomposition,  the  remains  of  fish  must 
often  exist  in  a  fragmentary  and  scattered  con- 
dition. Thus,  the  teeth  in  the  shai'k,  the  spine 
defence  in  the  sting  ray,  and  the  scales  in  the  bony 
pike,  would  survive  the  total  destruction  of  the 
cartilaginous  skeleton  as  well  as  the  soft  portions 
of  these  fish,  and  would  alone  remain  to  testify  to 
their  existence. 

The  earliest  ichthyc  remains  are  of  this  frag- 
mentary character.  They  have  been  obtained  from 
the  '  Ludlow  rock,'  a  member  of  the  Upper  Silurian 
eeries,  and  consist  of  spines  and  portions  of  skin, 
that  have  been  thickly  covered  with  hard  tubercles 
and  prickles,  like  the  shagreen  of  the  shark's  skin. 
The  spines  most  nearly  resemble  the  d*  )-sal  spine 
of  the  dogfish ;  they  are  small,  flattened,  and 
elightly  curved.  Along  with  other  similar  frag- 
mentary remains,  they  have  been  placed  under  tlie 
BomeA'hat  indefinite  generic  title  Onchus. 

The  minute,  compressed,  conical,  and  glistening 
bodies,  called  Conodonts,  obtained  in  great  numbers 
from  the  Lower  Silurian  measures  in  Eussia,  and 
considered  by  their  describer.  Pander,  to  have  been 
the  teeth  of  fishes,  belong  certainly  to  veiy  different 
animals.  Their  small  size  and  peculiar  forms,  and 
the  entire  margin  of  the  hollow  base  by  which 
they  were  attached,  shew  them  to  have  been  the 
denticles  from  the  lingual  ribbon  of  shell-less 
molluscs,  which  have  left  no  other  traces  of  their 
existence  than  these  remarkable  Conodonts. 

The  Ludlow  bone-bed  contains  the  earliest  noticed 
fish  lemains.  No  idea  of  the  nuznerical  importance 
of  jisliea  at  this  early  period  can  be  satisfactorily 
formed  ;  yet  these  remains  being  confined  to  a  single 
tliiu  bed,  and  occurring  rarely  even  in  that,  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  tho  Silurian  seas  were  but 
thinly  tenanted  by  these  earliest  sharks. 

In  the  immediately  succeeding  Devonian  rocks, 
th^ir   uumhers  largely  iucreasetL     The  ichthyo- 


dondites,  or  fossil  spines  of  this  period,  have  been 

referred  to  fourteen  different  genera.  Numerous 
species  of  true  ganoids  have  been  determined  from 
their  well-preserved  enamel  scale.n,  which  occur 
singly  or  in  confused  groups,  and  frequently  also 
associated  with  the  head,  fins,  and  tail,  so  as  to 
present  a  faitliful  'nature-print'  of  the  fish  upon 
the  rock.  See  Dipterus,  Dipl acanthus,  &c.  But 
the  most  remarkable  and  characteristic  fossils  of 
tliis  period  are  the  Buckler-fishes,  whose  head 
and  part  of  their  body  were  covered  v/ith  bony 
l)lates,  giving  them  so  singular  and  anomalous  an 
ai)pearance,  that  some  of  them  were  originally 
considered  crustacean.  They  are  almost  confined 
to  the  Old  E,ed  Sandstone  series,  a  single  species 
(found  in  Permian  strata)  being  the  only  cepha- 
laspid  that  is  known  later.  See  Cepiialaspis» 
CoccosTEUS,  Pterichthys,  &c. 

Fish  remains  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the 
Coal-measures.  Upwards  of  twenty  species  of 
plagiostomous  fishes  have  been  determined  from  the 
spine  defences,  some  of  which  are  very  large  and 
powerful.  The  frequency  with  which  the  peculiar 
teeth  of  the  cestracionts  are  met,  shew  that  they 
must  have  been  common  in  the  carboniferous  seas. 
Ganoids  were  also  abundant.  See  Pal^oniscus, 
Holoptyciiius,  &c. 

In  the  Permian  period,  the  forms  are  similar  to 
what  exist  in  the  older  strata.  Up  to  the  last 
Permian  deposit,  the  fish  have  all  possessed  hetero- 
cercal  tails ;  but  with  the  Secondary  rocks,  the 
homocercal  tail  not  only  aj)pears,  but  becomes  the 
more  frequent  form. 

Numerous  species  and  many  new  forms  appear 
in  the  Trias  and  Oolite.  Sharks  are  remarkably 
abundant  in  the  Cretaceous  strata  ;  but  the  Chalk  is 
specially  remarkable  from  containing  the  earliest 
discovered  remains  of  the  true  bone-fishes — those 
covered  with  ctenoid  and  cycloid  scales. 

In  the  Tertiaiy  strata,  the  character  and  pro- 
portion of  ichthyc  remains  exhibit  a  condition  iu 
the  inhabitants  of  the  water  very  similar  to  what 
at  present  prevails.  The  cartilaginous  orders 
decrease,  and  are  replaced  by  osseous  fishes,  such  as 
the  salmon,  cod,  turbot,  and  herring— fishes  which 
ai'e  of  much  greater  value  to  man  than  those  they 
superseded. 

FISH-HOOKS.  A  considerable  amount  of  skill 
is  required  for  the  successful  manufacture  of  these 
simple  articles.  There  are  two  kinds  in  the  market, 
the  English  and  the  Limerick  fish-hooks,  the  latter 
are  in  the  highest  repute  among  anglers.  The 
English  fish-hooks  are  made  chiefly  at  Red  ditch, 
in  Worcestershire.  Steel-wire  is  cut  into  the 
reqidred  lengths,  and  softened ;  then  the  ends  of 
three  of  these  are  inserted  into  shcJlow  holes  of  a 
sort  of  rest  or  standard,  and  thus  supported,  the 
barbs  of  all  three  together  are  cut  up  by  the  skilful 
pressure  of  a  stout  knife  ;  they  are  then  pointed, 
and  turned  by  pressing  them  agamst  a  little  ridge  of 
sheet-brass  let  into  a  block  of  wood,  and  having 
the  requisite  curvature.  The  other  end  is  next 
flattened  oxit,  by  laying  it  on  a  small  anvil,  aiid 
striking  a  blow  with  a  hammer.  This  is  done  to 
])revent  the  silk  ligature  from  slipping  over  the  er.d- 
The  finer  worm-hooks  have  the  shanks  filed,  in  order 
that  the  silk  dressing  may  not  enlarge  the  shank  so 
much  as  to  prevent  the  slip])ing  of  the  worm  over 
it.  They  are  then  hardened,  tempered,  and  bluetL 
The  Limerick  hooks  are  made  by  cutting  the 
steel,  which  is  made  from  the  best  malleable  iron, 
into  lengths  for  two  hooks.  The  ends  are  then 
forged  out  to  the  shape  of  barb  and  point,  and  the 
barb  is  undercut  with  a  file  from  the  solid  forged 
end,  instead  of  being  cut  and  turned  iq)  with 
a  knife.     This  constitutes  the  chief  sujtcriority 


FISH-LOUSE-FISTULA. 


of  the  Limerick  hooks.  They  are  shaped  to  the  re- 
quired curve  by  grasping  them  in  circular  pliers,  and 
bending  the  wire  with  a  turn  of  the  wrist. 

FISH-LOUSE,  or  SEA-LOUSE,  names  com- 
monly given  to  the  entomostracous  crustaceans  of 
the  order  Siphonostovia.  All  the  creatures  of  this 
order  are  of  small  size,  and  parasitic  on  fishes, 
aquatic  batrachians,  &c.,  on  the  juices  of  which 
they  live,  although  they  have  also  the  power  of 
swimming  freely  in  the  water,  some  of  their  legs 
being  adapted  to  this  purpose,  and,  indeed,  they 
can  swim  with  extreme  rapidity,  making  use  of  this 
power  to  gain  that  place  where  they  may  obtain 
food  at  the  expense  of  other  creatures.  They  do 
not  begin  life  as  parasites,  the  females  depositing 
their  numerous  eggs  on  stones,  plants,  &c.  They 
are  animals  of  singular  form  and  appearance.  The 
genera  Argulus  and  Caligus  are  now  regarded  as  the 


Rsh-Louse : 

1,  Oaliffus  (female) ;  2,  Argulus,  natural  size ;  8,  Argviui, 

magnified. 

types  of  two  families.  In  the  former,  there  is  a 
curious  sucking  disc  on  each  side  of  the  beak  or 
proboscis,  although  there  are  also  jointed  members 
terminated  by  prehensile  hooks.  In  the  latter,  the 
hooks  of  the  anterior  pairs  of  feet  are  the  principal 
organs  of  adhesion  to  the  slippery  bodies  of  the 
fishes  from  which  food  is  to  be  drawn;  and  the 
abdomen  of  the  female  is  furnished  with  two 
remarkably  long  tubes,  the  functions  of  which  are 
not  perfectly  ascertained.  The  bodies  of  all  of 
them  are  transparent,  or  nearly  so.  Some  of  the 
Caligidce  are  common  on  many  of  the  British  sea- 
fishes  ;  Argulus  foliaceus  on  fresh- water  fishes,  and 
even  on  tadpoles.  Sickly  fishes  often  become  the 
victims  of  multitudes  of  these  creatures. 

The  name  fish-louse  is  sometimes  given  also  to  the 
Lernceidce,  but  they  are  very  difi'erent. 

FISHIKG-FROG.    See  Angler. 

FISHING-TACKLE.    See  Angling. 

FISHPONDS.    See  Pisciculture. 

FISK,  or  rise,  a  term  often  to  be  found  in 
Scottish  law-books.  It  is  derived  from  the  Latin 
iiscua^  literally,  a  wicker-basket,  which  came  ulti- 
mately to  signify  the  privy  purse  of  the  emperor, 
as  distinguished  from  the  public  treasury,  which 
was  called  cerarium.  In  Scotland,  it  signifies  gene- 
rally the  crown's  revenues,  to  which  the  movable 
estate  oJ  a  person  denounced  rebel  was  formerly 

36G 


forfeited.  It  still  gives  his  name  to  a  very  import- 
ant ofiicer,  the  Procurator  Fiscal  (q.  v.),  or  jmblio 
prosecutor  in  the  first  instance,  by  whom  all  crimes 
are  prosecuted  before  sheriffs  and  other  inferior 
judges,  and  whose  duty  it  is  to  report  to  crown 
counsel — i.  e.,  to  the  Lord  Advocate,  or  his  deputes — 
all  cases  which,  from  their  aggravated  character, 
require  to  be  tried  by  a  higher  court.  See  PuBUO 
Prosecutor. 

FISSIRO'STRES  (Lat.  split-beaked),  a  tribe  of 
birds,  one  of  the  tribes  into  which  the  great  order 
Imessorea  is  divided.  It  is  characterised  by  peculiar 
width  of  gape,  and  the  bill  is  depressed  or  horizon- 
tally flattened,  short,  and  often  furnished  wath  strong 
bristles  at  the  angles ;  the  birds  of  this  tribe  being 
insectivorous,  and  generally  subsisting  by  catching 
insects  on  the  Aving,  to  which  this  structure  of  bill 
is  beautifully  adapted.  The  powers  of  flight  are 
generally  great,  but  the  legs  are  short  and  weak. 
Swallows  and  goat-suckers  are  familiar  examples 
of  this  order. 

FISSURE  LLIDiE,  a  family  of  gasteropodoua 
molluscs,  of  the  order  Scutibranchiata.  The  shell 
much  resembles  that  of  the  limpet  family  {Pat el- 
lidce),  but  has  either  a  hole  at  the  apex,  or  a  slit 
at  the  front  margin.  The  hole  at  the  apex  charac- 
terises the  genus  Fismrella  (Keyhole  Limpets),  and 


Fissnrella : 

1,  the  animal ;  2,  the  shell. 


the  slit  appears  in  the  genus  Emarglnula,  Thesa 
openings  of  the  shell  are  subservient  both  to  the 
passage  of  the  water  requisite  for  respiration,  and 
the  discharge  of  the  excrements.  The  fissurellidaj 
resemble  limpets  in  their  habits,  and  are  found 
either  on  the  sea-shore  or  at  no  very  great  depth. 
They  are  widely  distributed  over  the  world.  Several 
species  are  British. 

FI'STULA,  in  former  times,  was  applied,  in  its 
etymological  meaning  of  a  -pipe,  to  such  Abscesses 
(q.  V.)  as  had  contracted  to  narrow,  hard,  open 
passages  in  the  soft  texture  of  the  body  {^ee 
Tissue),  lined  by  a  kind  of  false  membrane,  giving 
rise  to  a  thin  discharge.  At  the  present  time, 
however,  the  term  fistula  is  generally  limited  to 
the  opening  of  such  a  passage  when  in  close  contact 
with  a  mucous  membrane.  Thus  it  is  common  to 
speak  of  salivary,  urinary  fistula,  &c. ;  and  the  most 
common  and  troublesome  kind  of  all  is  the  fistula 
in  ano,  in  connection  with  the  lower  bowel,  or 
Rectum  (q.  v.).  The  treatment  of  fistula  should 
only  be  intrusted  to  experienced  surgeons  ;  but 
there  are  always  quacks  in  abundance  willing  to 
undertake  it,  and  hold  out  flattering  hopes  of  ua 
early  cure  without  proper  surgical  procedure. 

For  the  cure  of  salivary  or  urinary  fistula,  all 
that  is  generally  necessary  is  to  restore  the  patency 
of  the  ducts,  which  is  done  by  passing  instrumenca 
along  them.  Should  a  fistula,  however,  be  situated 
where  it  is  surrounded  by  muscular  fibres,  as  at  the 


FISTUL  ARID^E— FIVES. 


orifice  of  the  lower  bowel,  it  is  necessary  to  divide 
these  muscidar  iibres,  so  as  to  leave  the  part  at  rest 
while  nature  repairs  it.  As  the  sinus,  which  is 
the  continuation  inwards  of  the  fistula,  is  lined 
with  imperfectly  organised  lymph,  it  is -generally 
necessary  to  stimulate  the  part  .by  the  introduction 
of  lint,  either  alone  or  saturated  with  some  irritant, 
such  as  the  sulphate  of  zinc,  which,  when  mixed  in 
the  proportion  of  1 — 3  grains  to  each  ounce  of 
water,  and  coloured  with  lavender,  makes  the 
famous  red  lotion  of  the  shops. 

At  times,  however,  fistulae  require  more  elaborate 
treatment,  and  are  extremely  difficult  to  close, 
especially  those  which  result  from  loss  of  tissue 
between  two  adjacent  mucous  canals  ;  fortunately, 
however,  modern  surgery  is  able  to  remedy  these 
alio.  It  is  necessary  to  make  the  edges  of  the  orifice 
once  more  raw,  and  to  bring  them  in  contact,  but 
formerly  the  wound  used  rarely  to  unite,  as  the 
stitches  produced  such  an  amount  of  irritation. 
Now,  however,  by  the  use  of  silver  or  iron  wire, 
according  to  the  taste  of  the  surgeon,  the  parts  can 
be  kept  together  long  enough  to  insure  union ; 
and  thus,  by  the  ingenuity  of  American  surgeons, 
especially  Marion  Sims  of  New  York,  and  others 
in  this  country,  certain  diseases  of  women,  arising 
from  protracted  labours,  and  formerly  rendering  the 
unfortunate  subjects  of  them  miserable  and  unfitted 
for  any  of  the  duties  of  life,  may  be  now  remedied 
by  a  skilfully  performed,  but  almost  painless  pro- 
ceeding. 

FISTULA'RID^,  AULOSTO'MID^,  or 

PLUTEMOUTHS,  a  famdy  of  acanthopterous 
fishes,  remarkable  for  the  conformation  of  the 
head ;  the  skull  being  elongated  into  a  tube,  at  the 
extremity  of  which  are  the  mouth  and  jaws.  The 
ipecies  are  all  marine ;  they  are  widely  distributed ; 


Snipe  or  Trumpet  Fish  [Centriscus  scolopax). 


only  one,  the  Snipe-fish,  Sea-snipe,  or  Trumpet-fish 
{Ceiihiscus  scolopax),  is  found,  and  that  very  rarely, 
in  the  British  seas.  These  fishes  are  not  to  be 
confounded  with  the  Pipe-fishes,  which  have  a 
similar  elongation  of  snout,  but  are  otherwise  very 
difierent 

FISTULI'NA,  a  genus  of  fungi  allied  to  Boletus 
(q.  V.)  ;  the  under  surface  {hymmium)  at  first  covered 
with  minute  warts,  which  ultimately  form  tubes. 
F.  hepatica  is  common  in  Britain  and  throughout 
Europe  on  old  oak,  walnut,  and  chestnut  trees ; 
it  occurs  also  on  ash  and  beech.  It  is  semicircular, 
of  very  regular  outline,  with  a  lateral  stem,  or 
none ;  its  colour  red  ;  its  substance  fibroiis  arid 
fieshy,  much  resembling  beet-root.  When  old  and 
beginning  to  decay,  it  looks  like  a  mass  of  liver. 
It  sometimes  attains  a  great  size.  Dr  Badham 
describes  a  specimen  nearly  five  feet  roimd,  and 
weighing  eight  pounds.  Mr  Berkeley  mentions  one 
which  grew  on  an  ash  pollard,  and  weighed  nearly 
thirty  pounds.  This  fungus  is  much  esteemed  in 
some  parts  of  Europe  as  an  esculent ;  it  is  whole- 
Som«»  and  nutritious  ;  and  the  abundance  in  which 
It  may  often  be  procured,  makes  it  the  more  worthy 
of  regard ;  whilst  there  is  almost  no  possibility  of 


confounding  it  with  any  dangerous  fungus.  Ita 
taste  resembles  that  of  the  common  musluroom  but 


Fistulina  Hepatica. 


is  rather  more  acid.  *  When  grilled,  it  is  scarcely  to 
be  distinguished  from  broiled  meat.'  It  furnishes 
itself  with  abundance  of  sauce. 

FITCHET.   See  Polecat. 

FITCHY,  or  FITCHE.  Crosses  are  said,  in 
Heraldry,  to  be  fitchy  when  the  lower  branch  enda 
in  a  sharp  point.  Crosses  are  supj^osed  to  have  been 
so  sharpened  to  enable  the  primitive  Christians  to 
stick  them  into  the  gromid  for  devotional  purposes. 

FITS,  a  name  popularly  applied  to  Convulsions 
(q.  v.),  or,  indeed,  to  any  sudden  seizure  of  disease 
implying  loss  of  consciousness,  or  any  considerable 
change  in  the  condition  of  the  mind. 

FITZ  is  an  old  Norman  word  signifying  'son,* 
evidently  from  the  Lat.  Jilius  (Fr.  Jils).  Like  the 
Scotch  Mac,  the  Irish  0\  and  the  Oriental  Ben,  it  is 
prefixed  to  proper  names  to  signify  descent,  as  in 
the  Norman  names  Fitzwilliam,  Fitzwalter,  Fitz- 
gerald. A  later  application  of  it  has  been  to  denote 
the  natural  sons  of  royalty,  as  in  Fitzroy,  Fitzjamea, 
and  Fitzclarence.  The  Russian  termination  witch  ia 
a  disguised  form  of  the  same  word. 

FIU'ME  (in  the  Illyrian  language,  ReJca  or  Riha  ; 
Latin,  Fanum  St  Viti  ad  Jiumen),  an  important 
seaport  of  Austria,  is  situated  at  the  efflux  of  the 
Fiumara  into  the  Gulf  of  Quarnero,  in  the  Adriatic, 
40  miles  south-east  of  Trieste,  across  the  Istrian 
peninsula,  in  lat.  45°  20'  N.,  and  long.  14°  26'  K 
F.  has  quite  the  character  of  a  German  town,  is 
adorned  with  many  handsome  buildings,  and 
consists  of  an  old  and  new  tovcn,  which  together 
contain  about  14,000  inhabitants.  It  has  manu- 
factures of  tobacco,  rosoglio,  wax,  paper,  chemicals, 
and  a  flourishing  trade  in  ship-building.  F.  has  a 
fine  freestone  quay,  with  a  light-house,  but  has 
little  commerce.  It  has  becin  a  free  port  since  1722; 
and  in  1849  was  severed  from  Hungary  with  the 
territory  to  which  it  belongs  and  made  a  portion  of 
the  Austrian  crownland  of  Croatia. 

FIVES,  a  popular  game  in  England,  and  ono 
especially  enjoyed  by  school-boys,  and  in  certain 
ban\acks  where  there  is  a  '  court,'  by  soldiers.  The 
game  existed  at  a  very  early  period — 14th  c. — both 
in  France  and  England,  being  termed  'palm-play* 
in  the  former,  and  'hand-tennis'  in  the  latter;  its 
present  name  is  derived  from  its  being  played 
usually  by  five  on  each  side.  The  method  of  playing 
the  game  is  very  simple  :  a  good  roomy  court  ia 
requisite,  bounded  by  a  high  wall  at  one  end,  and 
against  this  wall  a  ball  is  propelled  by  striking  it 
with  the  open  hand.  The  players  arrange  themselves 
either  five  against  five,  as  is  usually  the  case,  or  in 
fewer  nimibers,  and  begin  the  game  by  one  meml>ei 
striking  the  ball  against  the  wall,  and  causing 
it  to  rebound  anywhere  beyond  the  floor- score. 


FIXED  AIR-FIXTURES. 


which  is  about  two  yards  from  the  wall ;  one 
or  the  opposite  party  then  strikes  the  ball  as  it 
rebounds,  and  if  it  does  not  touch  the  wall  higher 
than  three  feet  from  the  ground,  his  stroke  goes  for 
nothing,  and  the  opposite  ])arty  score  one.  The  ball 
may  be  struck  either  from  a  direct  rebound  before 
it  reaches  the  ground,  or  after  it  has  '  dap])ed '  or 
hopped  from  the  ground  once.    Fifteen  is  usually 

fame.  When  the  i)layers  are  skilful,  the  ball  is 
ept  going  by  the  alternate  strikers  for  many 
laintites  at  a  time,  and  the  game  is  thus  rendered 
exciting  both  for  players  and  onlookers. 

FIXED  AIR  was  the  name  given  to  Carbonic 
Acid  (q.  V.)  by  Dr  Black,  who  was  the  first  to 
cbserve  that  the  solid  substance,  carbonate  of 
magnesium  (Mg^CM  )3),  could,  when  heated,  evolve  car- 
bonic anhydride  (COa),  proving  that  the  latter  was  a 
fixed  air  while  in  union  with  tlie  magnesia. 

FIXED  BODIES  is  a  term  applied  in  chemis- 
try to  those  sul)stances  wliich  remain  fixed,  and 
are  not  volatilised  at  moderately  high  temperatures. 

FIXED  OILS  are  those  oils  which,  on  tlie 
application  of  heat,  do  not  volatilise  without 
decomposition.    See  Oils. 

FIXED  STARS.    See  Stars. 

FIXING,  in  Photography.  \Mien  a  picture  has 
been  obtained  through  the  agency  of  light,  by  the 
exposure  of  a  sensitive  surface  suitably  prepared, 
and  the  subsequent  development  of  the  latent  image, 
there  remains  in  the  deei)est  shadows  of  the  picture 
a  portion  of  the  sensitive  material,  unacted  u])on 
by  light.  The  removal  of  this  unaltered  sensitive 
material  by  an  appropriate  solvent,  is  termed  fixing, 
tho\igh  the  term  clearing  would  jierhajjs  be  prefer- 
able, fixing  being  more  strictly  accurate  in  the  case  of 
the  Daguerreotype  process  (q.  v.),  where  the  picture 
is  literally  to  the  silver-plate  by  the  deposition 
of  a  him  of  metallic  gold,  of  extreme  tenuity,  from  a 
boiling  hot  solution  of  Sel  D'or  (q.  v.). 

For  particulars  of  failures  arising  from  imperfect 
fixation  or  clearing,  see  Photography. 

FI'XTURES,  in  the  Law  of  England,  are  those 
personal  chattels  (q.  v.)  which  are  let  into  the  soil, 
or  otherwise  actually  affixed  to  the  freehold ;  a 
definition  which  is  sufficiently  accurate  to  aflford 
a  principle  for  the  solution  of  the  questions  which 
arise  between  landlord  and  tenant  as  to  the  right 
of  the  former  to  retain,  or  of  the  latter  to  remove — 
but  a  principle,  the  application  of  which  is  attended 
with  many  practical  difficulties.  If  the  chattels  be 
entirely  clear  of  the  soil,  they  are  not  fixtures  at  all, 
and  may  be  carried  oft"  at  pleasure  like  any  other 
species  of  personal  property.  The  general  rule  as  to 
what  constitutes  a  fixture  legally  immovable  is,  that 
it  must  be  either  let  into  the  earth,  or  cemented 
or  otherwise  united  to  some  erection  previously 
attached  to  the  ground,  so  that  it  would  be  waste 
to  remove  it  afterwai-ds  (Woodfall,  pp.  466,  467). 
But  it  must  be  remarked,  that  a  tenant  may  in  all 
cases  construct  any  erection  he  may  make  in  such  a 
manner  as  that  it  shall  not  become  a  fixture.  Thus, 
if  he  evcu  erect  buildings — as  barns,  granaries,  sheds, 
*nd  mills — upon  blocks,  rollers,  pattens,  pillars,  or 
plates,  resting  on  brickwork,  they  may  be  removed, 
although  they  have  sunk  into  the  ground  by  their 
own  weight  (Ik  467).  To  this  rule  various  excep- 
tions have  been  made  in  favour  of  what  have  been 
called  trade-fixtures,  or  fixtures  put  up  for  the 
purjwse  of  carrying  on  a  trade ;  and  the  statute  men- 
tioned below  has  greatly  modified  the  law  as  to  those 
erected  for  agricultural  purposes.  It  is  difficult  to 
state  the  limits  of  the  exception  with  reference  to 
trade-fixtures  with  any  approach  to  accuracy.  The 
following  is  perhaps  as  near  an  approach  as  the 


varying  circumstances  of  each  individual  case  will 
admit  of.  '  Whenever  the  following  circumstances 
occur,  it  may  be  confidently  pronounced  that  there 
the  tenant  may  safely  remove  the  article.  Thus, 
things  which  the  tenant  has  fixed  to  the  freehold 
for  the  })ur})oses  of  trade  or  manufacture,  may  be 
taken  away  })y  him  whenever  the  removal  is  lu'^ 
contrary  to  any  prevailing  practice  ;  where  the 
articles  can  be  removed  without  causing  material 
injury  to  the  estate,  and  where  of  themselves  they 
were  of  a  perfect  chattel  nature  before  they  were 
put  up,  or  at  least  have  in  substance  that  character 
indej)eudently  of  their  union  with  the  soil— or,  ia 
other  words,  where  they  may  be  removed  without 
being  entirely  demolished,  or  losing  their  essential 
character  or  value '  [lb.  p.  468) ;  see  also  the  case 
of  Ilellawell  v.  Eastwood,  0  Excheq.  Rep.  812. 
Nurserymen  have  been  allowed  to  remove  trees 
and  shrubs  which  they  have  ])lanted  expressly  for 
purposes  of  sale,  but  not  to  plough  np  straw- 
berry-beds, out  of  the  ordinary  course  of  manage- 
ment of  the  nursery -groimd.  Neither  can  they 
remove  hot-houses,  green-houses,  forcing-i)its,  or 
other  erections  of  that  description  ;  and  in  no  case 
can  i)rivatc  ])crsons  sell  or  remove  fruit-trees, 
though  planted  by  themselves  (Amos  and  Ferand 
on  Fix/ures,  .34.'],  2d  edition).  The  provision  of 
the  common  lav/  of  England  with  reference  to  agri- 
cultural fixtures  has  been  modified  by  14  and  15 
Vict.  c.  25,  s.  3,  which  provides,  that  if  any  tenant 
of  a  farm  or  land  shall,  with  the  consent  in  ^mting 
of  the  landlord  for  the  time  being,  at  his  own  cost, 
erect  any  farm-buildings,  either  detached  or  other- 
wise, or  put  up  any  other  building,  engine,  or 
machinery,  either  for  agricultural  purposes  or  for 
the  purposes  of  trade  and  agriculture  (which  shall 
not  have  been  put  up  in  pursuance  of  some  obli- 
gation in  that  behalf),  then  all  such  building, 
engines,  and  machinery  shall  be  the  proi)erty  of 
the  tenant,  and  shall  be  removable  by  him,  not- 
withstanding the  same  may  consist  of  separate 
buildings,  or  that  the  same,  or  any  part  tliereof, 
may  be  built  in  or  permanently  fixed  to  the  soil, 
so  as  the  tenant  making  such  removal  do  not  in 
anyAvise  injure  the  land  or  buildings  belonging  to 
the  landlord,  or  otherwise  do  put  the  same  in  like 
plight  and  condition  as  tlie  same  were  in  before  the 
erection  of  anything  so  removed,  p)ovided  that  no 
tenant  shall  be  entitled  to  remove  any  such  matter 
or  thing  without  giving  to  the  landlord  or  his 
agent  one  month's  previous  notice  in  viriting  of  his 
intention  so  to  do ;  and  thereujion  it  shall  be  lawful 
for  the  landlord,  or  his  agent,  on  his  authority,  to 
elect  to  purchase  the  matters  and  things  ])roposed 
to  be  removed  ;  and  the  right  to  remove  the  same 
shall  thereby  cease,  and  the  same  shall  belong  to 
the  landlord  ;  and  the  value  thereof  shall  be  ascer- 
tained by  two  referees,  one  to  be  chosen  by  each 
party,  or  by  an  iimpire  to  be  named  by  such  referees, 
and  shall  be  paid  or  allowed  in  account  by  the  land- 
lord who  shall  have  so  elected  to  purchase.'  This 
act  is  confined  to  England ;  but  in  questions  of 
fixtures,  as  JNIr  Hunter  observes,  the  common  law  of 
England  having  been  deemed  practically  authori- 
tative in  Scotland,  the  clause  affords  valuable  matter 
for  consideration,  as  shewing  what  has  been  held 
advisable  in  England  {Landlord  and  Tenant,  p.  290, 
3d  edition).  In  Scotland,  it  has  been  customary,  in 
agricultural  leases  more  particularly,  to  determine 
the  respective  rights  of  landlord  and  tenant  by 
positive  stipulation,  and,  for  this  reason,  fewer 
j)oints  have  been  decided  by  the  courts  than  in 
England. 

As  regards  urban  tenements,  the  rule  seems  to  be, 
that  the  tenant  may  remove  whatever  he  has  fixed 
up  for  ornament  or  domestic  use — e.  g.,  han^jiuga. 


*LACCUS— FLAG  OF  T  PROPHET. 


wainscot,  stoves,  &c.,  but  not  such  erections  as  have 
become  part  of  the  tenement,  and  constitute  per- 
manent imj»rovements.  Thus,  he  cannot  remove  a 
conservatory  fixed  to  and  coTnmimicating  with 
rooms  in  a  dwelling-hoube  by  windows  and  doors. 

FLA'CCUS,  C.  Valerius,  a  Roman  poet,  who 
flourished  in  the  1st  c,  and  is  supposed  to  have  died 
88  A.  D.  Absolutely  nothing  is  known  regarding 
his  hfe.  He  is  the  author  of  an  epic  poem  on  tiie 
Argonautic  expedition,  which  in  its  extant  form  is 
incom.plete.  Some  modern  critics,  Wagner  among 
others,  praise  it  extravagantly,  and  place  the  author 
next  to  Virgil ;  but  the  more  general  opinion  of 
sound  scholars  is,  that  the  work  is  rather  a  specimen 
of  learned  mediocrity  than  of  genuine  inspiration. 
The  editio  prbiceps  of  the  Argouautica  appeared  in 
1472,  Of  modern  editions,  may  be  mentioned  those 
of  Wagner  (Gott,  1805)  and  Lemaire  (Paris,  1824). 
An  English  metrical  translation  was  published  by 
one  Nicholas  Whyte  as  eai'ly  as  1565.  Similar 
translations  exist  in  French,  Itahan,  and  German. 

FLACOURTIA'CE^,  a  natural  order  of  exo- 
genous jilants,  allied  to  Passion-tiowers,  consisting 
of  shrubs  and  small  trees,  almost  exclusively  con- 
fined to  the  warmest  parts  of  the  globe.  Many  of 
the  species,  particularly  of  the  genus  Flacourtia, 
produce  pleasant,  sweet,  or  subacid  fruits.  Fla- 
courtia inermis  is  much  esteemed  and  cultivated 
in  the  Moluccas.  Arnotto  (q.  v.)  is  produced  by  a 
tree  of  this  order. 

FLAG,  a  popular  name  for  many  endogenous 
plants  with  sword-shaped  leaves,  mostly  growing  in 
moist  situations.  It  is  sometimes  particularly  appry- 
priated  to  the  species  of  Iris  (q.  v.),  or  Flower- 
de-luce  ;  but  is  given  also  very  indiscriminately 
to  other  jilants  of  similar  foliage,  as  the  Acorus 
calamus  (see  AcoRUS),  which  is  called  Sweet  Flag. 

FLAG  (common  to  the  Teutonic  languages,  and 
derived  from  a  root  signifying  to  fly),  a  cloth  of 
bght  material,  capable  of  being  extended  by  the 
wind,  and  designed  to  make  known  some  fact  or 
want  to  spectators.  In  the  army,  a  flag  is  the 
ensign  carried  as  its  distinguishing  mark  by  each 
regiment  ;^  and  also  a  small  banner,  with  which  the 
ground  to  be  occupied  is  marked  out.  In  the  navy, 
the  flag  is  of  more  importance,  often  constituting 
the  only  means  vessels  have  of  communicating 
with  each  other,  or  with  the  shore.  For  this 
purpose,  devices  of  conspicuous  colours  (usually 
black,  white,  red,  yellow,  or  blue)  are  hoisted  at 
the  mast-head  or  at  the  gaff.  The  flags  having 
three  forms—viz. 


1,  tho  Squara  Flag ;  2,  the  Pennant ;  3,  tho  Burgee. 

A  vsry  few  patterns  in  each  shape  give  sufficient 
Conl)inations  of  three  or  four  flags  to  express  any 
letter  or  word  in  the  language.  The  flag  is  also  a 
iign  of  the  rank  of  the  i)rincipal  person  on  board  a 
Vijssel,  as  the  'Royal  Standard,'  containing  the 
urms  of  the  United  Kingdom,  which  is  only  hoisted 
wlien  a  member  of  the  royal  family  is  on  board ; 
the  Anchor  of  Hope,  on  a  red  ground,  denoting 
the  Admiralty ;  the  pennant,  which  specifies  the 
admiral  s  squa<iron  to  which  the  ship  belongs  (see 
Flao-officek)  ;  and  the  ensign,  which  denotes 
the  nation. 

The  ensigna  borne  by  ships-of-wa"  of  the  leading 


states  of  tlic  world  are  shown  below  (in  tficse  diai* 
grams,  the  direction  of  the  lines  shows  the  colour  ai 
in  heraldry),  viz. : 


WHITE      BLACK        RED        BLUE      YElLOW  9REIH 

izin  Eia  iiii  mm 


Flags  of  the  Principal  Maritime  Nations : 

1,  Britain,  red  ensign;  2,  F>rit:.in,  white  enpipn  ;  3,  Bfitaia, 
blue  ensign;  4,  Prance;  5,  Paissia;  6,  Frussiii  ;  7,  Italy; 
8,  Helgium  ;  9,  Holland;  10,  Austria;  11,  United  States; 
12,  Spain;  13,  Portugal;  14,  Greeee;  15,  Tuikey;  16,  Den 
mark;  17,  Brazil;  18,  Sweden. 

A  white  flag  is  accepted  throughout  the  world  as  a 
token  of  peace;  a  red  flag,  as  defiance;  and  a  black 
flag  denotes  a  pirate  ;  a  flag  of  i^lain  yellow  usually 
signifies  that  the  vessel  bearing  it  is  in  q\iarantine. 
See  also  Union  Jack. 

FLAG  OF  THE  PROPHET  (Sanjak-Sherii) 
is  the  sacred  banner  of  the  Mohammedans.  It  was 
originally  of  a  white  colour,  and  was  composed  of 
the  turban  of  the  Koreish,  captured  by  Mohammed. 
A  black  flag  was,  however,  soon  substituted  in  its 
place,  consisting  of  the  curtain  that  hung  before  the 
door  of  Ayeshah,  one  of  the  Prophet's  wives.  This 
flag,  regarded  by  the  Mohammedans  as  their  most 
sacred  relic,  first  came  into  the  possession  of  the 
followers  of  Omar  at  Damascus ;  it  afterwards  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Abbasi ;  then  passed  mto 
those  of  the  califs  of  Bagdad  and  Kahira  ;  and,  at  a 
later  period,  was  brought  into  Europe  by  Amurath 
III.  It  w!is  covered  with  forty-two  wrappings  of 
silk,  deposited  in  a  costly  casket,  and  preserved  in  a 
chapel  in  the  interior  of  the  seraglio,  where  it  in 
guarded  by  several  emirs,  with  constant  prayer^. 


FLAG-CAPTAIN— FLAGEOLET-TONES. 


The  banner  unfolded  at  the  commencement  of  a  war, 
and  likewise  carefully  preserved,  is  not  the  same,  al- 
ttiough  it  is  believed  by  the  people  to  be  so. 

FLAG-CAPTAIN,  in  the  Navy,  is  tlie  captain  of 
the  axlmiral's  ship  in  any  squadrou,  and  is  ordinaiily 
his  nominee. 

I'LAG-LIEUTE'NANT  is  an  officer  who,  in  the 
navy,  performs  such  duties  for  an  admiral  as  would 
devolve  upon  an  aide-de-camp  in  the  army.  He 
communicates  the  admiral's  orders  to  the  various 
Bhi]>s,  either  personally  or  by  signal. 

FLAG-OFFICER,  in  the  British  Navy,  is  an 
a^lniiral,  vice-admiral,  or  rear-admiral.  He  is  so 
called  from  his  right  to  cany,  at  the  mast-head  of 
the  ship  in  which  he  sails,  a  hag  denoting  his  rank. 
For  an  admiral,  the  flag  is  borne  at  the  main ;  for  a 
vice-admiral,  at  the  fore ;  and  for  a  rear-admiral, 
at  the  mizzen :  the  flag  being,  in  either  case,  red, 
white,  or  blue,  according  to  the  squadron  to  which 
the  officer  belongs. 

FLAG-SHIP,  the  ship  in  a  fleet  which  bears  the 
achniral's  flag,  and  therefore  forms  a  sort  of  centre 
to  which  all  other  vessels  must  look  for  orders.  It 
is  usually  the  largest  vessel  in  the  fleet. 

FLA'GELLANTS,  the  name  given  to  certain 
bodies  of  fanatical  enthusiasts,  who,  at  various 
intervals  from  the  J  0th  to  the  16th  c,  made  their 
ai)pearance  in  the  different  countries  of  Europe, 
proclaiming  the  <vrath  of  God  against  the  corrup- 
tion of  the  ti'ues,  inviting  sinners  to  atone  for  sin 
by  self-infl' ited  scourgings  or  flagellations,  and 
themselvp-5  publicly  enforcing  this  exhortation  by 
volunta'  y  scourging  of  themselves,  and  by  other 
form.-;  of  self-castigation.  In  large  and  disorderly 
l)a''.ds — frequently  headed  by  priests,  and  by  fan- 
atics in  the  costume  of  priests  and  monks,  bear- 
ing banners  and  crucilixes  aloft,  their  breast  and 
shoulders  bare,  and  their  face  concealed  by  a  hood 
or  mask,  each  armed  with  a  heavy  knotted  scourge, 
loaded  with  lead  or  iron — they  marched  from  town 
to  towai,  chanting  hymns  full  of  denunciations  of 
vengeance  and  of  woe.  In  the  most  public  place  of 
each  town  which  they  entered,  they  threw  them- 
selves upon  the  earth,  with  their  arms  extended 
in  the  fonn  of  a  cross,  and  there  inflicted  upon 
themselves  the  discipline  of  scourging,  frequently 
to  blood,  and  even  to  mutilation.  Each  member 
enrolled  himself  for  33  days,  in  honour  of  the  33 
years  of  the  life  of  our  Lord  on  earth ;  and  all 
for  the  time  professed  entire  poverty,  subsisting 
only  on  alms  or  voluittary  offerings.  These  fanatical 
movements,  resembling,  in  some  respects,  at  least, 
the  religious  re\dvals  of  our  own  time,  recurred  at 
frequent  intervals.  The  most  remarkable,  how- 
ever, are  three  in  number.  The  first  originated  at 
Perugia  in  1260,  at  a  time  when  society  in  Italy 
was  greatly  disorganised  by  the  long  continued 
struggles  of  the  Guelph  and  Ghibellme  factions. 
The  very  disord(  rs  of  the  time  prepared  the  way 
for  this  religiousi  reaction.  Numbers  crowded  to 
follow  the  new  cry,  until  at  last  the  body  became 
BO  formidable  as  to  draw  upon  itself  the  suspicions 
of  Manfred,  the  son  of  Frederic  II.,  by  whom  it 
was  vigorously  suppressed.  Later  offshoots  of  the 
party  made  their  appearance  in  Bavaria,  Austiia, 
Moravia,  Bohemia,  Poland,  and  France  ;  when  to 
their  extravagant  practices,  they  added  still  greater 
extravagances  of  doctrine.  In  Adrtue  of  a  pre- 
tended revelation,  they  asserted  that  the  blood 
ehed  in  self-flagellation  had  a  share  with  the  blood 
of  our  Lord  in  atoning  for  sin  ;  they  mutually 
confessed  and  absolved  each  other,  and  declared 
their  voluntary  j^enances  to  be  a  substitute  for  all 
the  sacraments  of  the  church,  and  for  all  the  minis- 
trations of  the  clergy.    The  J ews  were  to  them  an 


object  of  special  abhorrence;  and  this  unfortunate 

race,  exposed  at  all  times  to  every  caprice  of  the 
popular  will,  suffered  dreadfully  from  the  fury  of 
the  FlageDants  in  many  of  the  towns  of  Germany 
and  the  Netherlands.  In  the  second  outbreak  of 
Flagellantism  about  1349,  the  outrages  against 
public  decency  were  much  more  flagrant  than  at 
its  flrst  appeai-ance.  Men  and  women  indiscrimi- 
nately now  appeared  in  public  half  naked,  and 
ostentatiously  underwent  these  self-inflicted  scourg- 
ings. The  immediate  occasion  of  this  new  outburst 
of  fanaticism,  was  the  terror  which  pervaded  society 
during  the  dreadful  ;plague  known  as  the  Black 
Death,  which  Hecker,  m  his  Epidemics  of  the  Middle 
A'jes,  describes  with  terrible  fidelity.  The  same 
extravagances  were  again  repeated  in  Ui)per  Ger- 
many, the  provinces  of  the  Rhine,  the  Netherlands, 
Switzerland,  Sweden,  and  even  England.  Although 
rigorously  excluded  from  France,  these  fanatics 
effected  an  entrance  into  Avignon,  then  the  resi- 
dence of  the  popes,  when  they  were  condemned 
by  a  bidl  of  Clement  VI.  The  mania  gradually 
subsided,  nor  do  we  again  find  any  permanent  trace 
of  it  till  the  beginning  of  the  next  century.  In  the 
year  1414,  a  new  troop  of  Flagellants,  locally  called 
Fle(]ler,  made  their  appearance  in  Thuringia  and 
Lower  Saxony,  reue\ving  and  even  exaggerating  the 
wdldest  extravagances  of  their  predecessors.  These 
new  fanatics  appear  to  have  rejected  all  the 
received  religious  usages,  and  indeed  all  external 
worship,  placing  their  entire  reliance  on  faith  and 
'  flagellation.'  Their  leader  w'as  called  Conrad 
Schmidt.  They  rejected  not  only  the  doctrines  of 
the  church  upon  the  sacraments,  but  also  purga- 
tory and  prayers  for  the  dead.  Schmidt  pretended 
a  divine  mission ;  and  proclaimed  that  the  blood  of 
flagellation  was  the  true  wedding-garment  of  the 
gospel ;  that  it  was  more  precious  than  the  blood 
of  the  martyrs,  and  a  sure  passport  to  eternal 
life.  The  violence  of  these  fanatics  drew  upon 
them  the  severest  i)unishnient3  of  the  Inquisition. 
Many  of  them  were  capitally  condemned,  and 
Schmidt  himself  was  burned  at  Sangerhausen  in 
1414.  Their  doctrines,  comprised  in  fifty  articles, 
were  condemned  in  the  Council  of  Constance. 

These  strange  extravagances  are  reprobated  by 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  common  with  all 
other  Christian  communities  ;  but  Roman  Catholics 
(relying  on  1  Cor.  ix.  27,  Coloss.  iii.  5)  hold  the 
lawfulness,  and  even  the  meritorious  character, 
of  voluntary  self-chastisement,  if  imdertaken  M'ith 
due  dispositions,  jjractised  without  ostentation  or 
fanaticism,  and  animated  by  a  lively  faith  and  a 
firm  hope  in  the  merits  of  Christ.  This  is  the 
self-castigation  known  imder  the  name  of  *the 
Discipline  ' — a  form  of  mortification  not  unfrequent 
in  the  monastic  state,  and  even  practised  by  lay 
persons,  and  these  sometimes  of  the  highest  rank, 
both  in  ancient  and  in  modern  times.  Compare 
Forstemann's  Die  Chrisdichen  G'eisslayjesellschaf/en, 
Wadding's  Annates  Minor  am  Fratriun,  Raynaldi'a 
Continuation  of  Baronius,  Mosheim's  Clmrch  Jli'd'jp 
(Soames'  ed,),  Gieseler's  Kirchengeschichte,  Milman'a 
Latin  Christianity,  and  Wetsir's  Kirchen- L€.:icoa. 

FLAGEOLET,  a  vnnd  instrument  with  a  mc  nth- 
piece  like  the  common  whistle.  It  is  made  of  box- 
wood or  ivory,  in  several  pieces,  and  has  holes  for 
the  fingers,  like  the  flute.  According  to  Buruey, 
the  flageolet  v/as  invented  by  Sieur  Juvigny  in  1580. 

FLAGEOLET-TONES  is  the  name  given  to  thft 
harmonic  notes  of  the  violin,  violoncello,  and  other 
stringed  instruments,  which  notes  are  produced  by 
the  finger  lightly  touching  the  string  on  the  exact 
part  Avhi'-'i  generates  the  harmony,  and  not  by  press- 
ing the  string  down  to  the  finger-board.    The  string 


FLAGSTOKB-FLAME. 


vibrates  on  both  sides  of  the  finger,  the  long  side 
dividing  itself  into  parts  of  the  same  length  as  the 
Bbort  side.  See  Harmonics.  The  inventor  of  the 
manner  of  playing  flageolet-tones  is  said  to  have 
been  Domenico  Ferrari  The  best  work  on  the 
subject  is  by  CoUinet. 

FLA'GSTONE,  a  rock  which  splits  into  tabular 
masses,  or  flags  of  various  size  and  thickness,  in  the 
original  plains  of  stratification.  Flagstones  are 
generally  sandstones,  combined  with  more  or  less 
argillaceous  or  calcareous  matter ;  some,  however, 
are  indurated  clays,  and  others  thin-bedded  lime- 
stones. They  are  used  for  paving,  cisterns,  &c. 
The  most  famous  are  those  of  Festiniog  (North 
VVal  js),  remarkable  for  their  large  size,  even  grain, 
and  great  beauty ;  those  of  Yorkshire,  also  of  large 
size,  and  of  great  hardness  and  toughness ;  and 
those  of  Caithness,  which  are  extremely  tough  and 
durable.  The  Caithness  flags  belong  to  the  Old 
Red  Sandstone ;  the  Yorkshire  are  taken  from  the 
millstone  grit  division  of  the  Coal  Measures. 

FLA'MBOROUGH  HEAD  (Saxon,  Fleam- 
fnm/h),  a  promontory  of  the  Yorkshire  coast,  and 
forming  the  northern  boundary  of  Bridlington 
Bay.  It  terminates  a  range  of  white  perpen- 
dicular chalk  cliffs,  6  miles  long,  and  300  to  450 
feet  high.  Its  rugged  sides  contain  many  caverns, 
and  in  the  sea  near  are  picturesque  chalk  rocks, 
which  swarm  with  sea-birds.  The  chalk  contains 
fossil  sponges,  crinoids,  &c.  On  the  Head  is  a  light- 
house, 214  feet  high,  seen  19  miles  ofl",  and  in  lat. 
54°  7'  N.,  and  long.  0°  5'  E.  Across  the  peninsula, 
ending  in  the  Head,  runs  a  ditch,  with  two  lines  of 
defeuce  and  breast  works,  called  Dane's  Dyke,  but 
really  an  ancient  British  work. 

FLAMBOY'ANT,  the  latest  style  of  Gothic 
architecture  which  prevailed  in  France.  It  prevailed 
there  during  the  15th  and  i)art  of  the  16th  cen- 
turies, and  corresponds  to  the  Perpendicular  (q.  v.) 
in  England.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  flame- 
like forms  of  the  tracery  of  the  windows,  panels, 
ki.  (fig.  1).    The  characteristics  of  this  style  are 


Fig.  L — ^Window,  Harfieur. 

minate  and  elaborate  ornament,  combined  with 
general  bareness  of  surface.  The  crockets,  for 
instance,  are  generally  cut  iito  a  great  number  of 
small  leaves,  while  they  are  ph'.ced  far  apart;  the 
nioiUdiiigs  are  divided  uito  laige  empty  hollows, 


-NX 


and  small  thin  fillets  and  beads;  the  finiala  have* 
crockets  minutely  carved,  set  upon  bare  i)yra- 
midal  terminals ;  the  arch-mouldings  are  divided 
into  a  great  number  of  small  x>arts,  and  want  tka 
boldness  and  decision 
of  the  earlier  styles. 
These  mouldings  are 
frequently  abutted  on 
the  pillars,  or  conti- 
nued down  them  with- 
out any  caps ;  and 
when  there  are  caps, 
they  are  small  and 
without  effect.  See 
fig.  2.  When  mould- 
ings join,  they  are  fre- 
quently run  through 
one  another,  so  as  to 
appear  to  interlace. 
The  efi'ect  is  intricate 
rather  than  beautiful, 
suggestive,  like  the 
rest  of  the  style,  of 
ingenuity  in  stone- 
cutting  rather  than 
art.  The  doorways 
and  windows  are 
sometimes  large  and 
fine  (as  in  fig.  1) ;  but  whil  these  are  highly  enriched, 
the  general  surface  of  the  building  is  left  too 
plain.  There  are  many  large  buildings  in  France 
executed  in  this  style,  but  it  is  usually  portions 
only  which  are  fine,  not  tlie  general  eftect.  Some 
of  the  spires  of  this  period  are  also  very  beautiful. 
The  north  spire  of  Chartres  Cathedral,  for  example, 
is  considered  one  of  the  finest  in  France. 

FLAME  is  a  particular  form  of  Combustion  (q.  v.) 
or  burning.  Ordinary  combustion  consists  in  the 
oxygen  of  the  atmosphere  combining  with  some 
combustible  substance  so  rapidly  as  to  give  out  light 
and  heat.  When  the  combustible  is  either  originally 
a  gas,  or  becomes  so  by  the  heat,  the  combustion 
takes  the  form  of  flame.  Flame,  then,  is  the 
burning  of  a  gas.  In  most  cases,  the  gas  of  flame  is 
a  com2)ound  of  hydrogen  and  carbon,  with  minute 
particles  of  solid  carbon  suspended  in  it,  and  is 
formed  from  the  fuel  (coal,  tallow,  &c.)  being  decom- 
posed by  the  heat.  The  heat  and  light  of  flame 
vary  with  the  gas  :  hydrogen  produces  great  heat, 
but  little  light.  The  lighting  power  of  a  gaa 
depends  upon  the  jiroportion  of  carbon  it  contains, 
the  j)articles  of  which  become  glowing  hot  before 
being  consumed. 

The  flame  of  a  lamp  or  candle, 
or  simple  gas-jet,  consists  of  a 
hollow  cone,  in  the  centre  of 
which  there  is  no  combustion. 
The  central  space  appears 
dark  only  by  contrast  with  the 
luminous  cone  which  surrounds 
it.  It  consists,  in  reality,  of 
transparent  invisible  compounds 
of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  which 
are  constantly  rising  in  vapour 
from  the  wick.  If  a  glass  tnhe, 
open  at  both  ends,  be  held 
obliquely  in  the  flame  of  a 
candle,  with  its  lower  extremity 
in  the  dark  central  space  above 
the  wick,  it  will  conduct  away 
a  poi-tion  of  the  combustible  vapour,  which  may  be 
kindled  like  a  gas-jet  at  its  upper  end.  as  repre- 
sented in  fig.  1.  This  dark  portion  of  the  flame  may 
be  called  the  area  of  no  conbuMion. 

The  lumuious  cone  which  envelops  the  dark 
space  is  the  area  of  partial  combust  ioju    Tha  oxygen 


FLAMENS— FLAMDOAN  WAY. 


Fig.  2. 

a,  area  of  no  com- 
bustion ;  6,  area  of 
partial  combustion  ; 
e,  area  of  complete 
combustion. 


of  the  atmosphere  penetrates  to  this  depth,  but  not 
in  sufficient  quantity  to  oxidize  or  burn  both  the 
carbon  and  the  hj'drogen ;  it  therefore  unites  with 
tike  hydrogen,  for  which  it  has  the  stronger  attrac- 
tion, and  leaves  the  carbon 
free.  The  outer  cone  is  named 
the  area  of  complete  combustion, 
because  there  the  carbon  meets 
with  sufiioient  oxygen  to  burn  it 
entirely.  The  light  is  produced 
in  the  area  of  partial  combustion, 
where  the  carbon  is  set  free  from 
the  hydrogen  in  the  form  of  solid 
particles,  and  is  heated  to  white- 
ness by  the  combustion  of  the 
hydrogen.  The  combustion  of 
the  carbon  in  the  outer  cone,  by 
which  it  is  converted  into  car- 
bonic acid  gas,  produces  heat,  but 
so  little  light  as  to  be  barely 
traceable. 

That  cai'bon  exists  in  a  solid 
state  in  the  white  part  of  a  flame,  is  readily  shewn 
by  holding  a  piece  of  white  earthen -ware  into  it, 
which  becomes  coated  witli  carbon  in  tlie  form  of 
Boot.  No  soot  is  deposited  in  the  dark  or  no-com- 
bustion area  of  the  iiame,  because  there  the  carbon 
is  in  chemical  combination  with  hydrogen,  forming 
a  gas.  The  carbon  becomes  solid  only  when  the 
hydrogen  deserts  it,  as  it  were,  to  unite  with  oxygen. 

The  highly  illuminating  power  of  compounds  of 
hydi'ogen  and  carbon  is  thus  traced  to  the  fact,  that 
t/ieir  hydrof/en  and  carbon  do  not  burn  sinmltaneouslt/, 
but  siicccss'weli/,  and  in  such  a  ivoy  that  tlie  one  lieats 
the  oOver  white  hot.  It  is  quite  possible  to  make  them 
burn  simultaneously ;  but  when  they  do,  the  light 
evolved  is  very  feeble.  This  takes  place  in  the 
*Eunsen  ljurner,'  in  which  air  is  allowed  to  mix 
with  the  gas  before  combustion. 

FLA'MENS  were  priests  in  ancient  Rome  devoted 
each  to  some  special  deity.  There  were  fifteen  in 
all.  The  chief  of  these  {Flamines  Majores)  were  the 
flamens  of  Jupiter,  of  Mars,  and  of  Quirinus,  who 
were  always  patricians ;  the  remaining  twelve  {Fla- 
mines  Minores)  were  chosen  from  the  plebeians.  The 
flamens  were  elected  at  first  by  the  Comitia  Curiata, 
but  afterwards  by  the  Comitia  Tributa,  and  were 
installed  into  their  ofiice  by  the  supreme  dignitary 
of  the  Roman  pagan  religion,  the  Pontifex  Maximus. 
The  flamen  of  Jupiter  was  a  privileged  person  ;  he 
was  not  required  to  take  an  oath,  was  attended  by 
a  lictor,  his  house  was  an  asylum,  and  he  had  a  seat 
in  the  senate.  But  all  this  was  attended  by  numer- 
ous superstitious  restrictions :  he  might  not  have  a 
knot  on  any  part  of  his  attire,  nor  touch  flour,  or 
leaven,  or  leavened  bread ;  he  might  not  touch  or 
name  a  dog,  or  mount  a  horse,  or  be  a  night  out  of 
the  city,  &c.  His  wife,  called  Flaminica,  was 
Bubjected  to  similar  restrictions,  and  when  she  died, 
the  flamen  was  obliged  to  resign.  The  majority  of 
Roman  writers  attribute  the  institution  of  flamens 
to  Numa. 

FLAMI'NGO  {Phoenicopterus),  a  genus  of  birds 
which  until  recently  was  placed  by  all  naturalists 
among  the  Grallatores  (Waders),  but  is  now  gener- 
ally ranked  among  the  Palmipedes,  and  even  referred 
to  th'i  family  of  Anatidie.  The  bill  is  large,  deeper 
than  broad,  and  suddenly  curved  downwards  near 
the  middle,  so  tha';,  as  the  bird  wades  and  seeks  its 
food,  effcher  in  th«  water  or  in  the  mud,  it  makes 
iifie  of  the  bill  in  a  reversed  position,  the  upper 
mandible  being  lowest.  The  edges  of  both  man- 
dibles are  furnisned  with  small  and  very  fine 
transverse  laminae,  which  serve,  like  those  in  tlie 
bills  of  the  ordinary  Anatidce,  to  prevent  the  escape 

8SJ 


of  the  small  crustaceans,  mollusca,  worms,  small 
fishes,  seeds,  &c.,  which  are  the  F.'s  food,  and 
to  separate  them  from  the  mud  with  which  they 
may  be  mingled.  The  upi)er  surface  of  the  tongue 
is  also  furnished  on  both  sides  and  at  the  base  with 
numerous  small  flexible  liorny  spines,  directed  back- 
wards. Unlike  the  ordinary  Anatidce,  flamingoea 
have  great  part  of  the  tibia,  as  well  as  the  taraus, 
naked,  in  this  resembling  all  the  Waders.    They  lire 

birds    of  powerfid   

wing,  and  uy  either 
in  strings  or  in 
wedge-shaped  flocks 
like  geese,  a  single 
bird  leading  the  way 
for  the  flock.  Th<=-y 
seldom  make  use  of 
their  webbed  feet  for 
swimming,  to  which 
the  length  of  their 
legs  is  not  well 
adapted,  the  use  of 
the  membrane  being 
rather  to  su])port 
them  on  soft  muddy 
bottoms.  When  feed- 
ing, they  keep  their 
feet  in  almost  con- 
stant motion,  as  if 

lo  stir  the  mud.  Flamingo  {Phoenicopterus  ruber). 
Hundreds  may  some- 
times be  seen  feeding  together  in  the  shallow 
waters  or  salt  marshes  of  tropical  coasts,  chiefly 
of  Asia  and  Africa,  or  on  the  banks  of  rivers  or 
inland  lakes,  and  by  their  large  size  and  rich  colours 
making  a  brilliant  spectacle.  They  make  their 
nests  in  marshes,  scraping  together  a  heap  of  mud, 
on  the  top  of  which  is  the  nest;  and  it  is  said 
that  the  long  legs  of  the  female  F.  often  hang  do^vn 
into  the  water  during  the  incubation,  not  beint' 
easily  disposed  of  otherwise. — There  are  several 
species  of  F.,  but  very  similar  to  each  other,  both  in 
appearance  and  habits.  One  species  only  visits  the 
south  of  Europe,  the  Common  F.  {P.  ruber),  a  bird 
measiu-ing  fully  four  feet  from  the  tip  of  the  bill 
to  that  of  the  tail,  and  six  feet  from  the  tip  of  the 
bill  to  the  claws  ;  the  male,  when  in  full  phimage, 
is  of  a  rose-red  colour,  with  deep  purple  wings; 
the  female,  and  the  young  for  several  years,  are  less 
brilliant,  the  yoimg  at  first  being  whitish,  and  the 
red  first  appearing  on  the  wings. — The  American 
F.  {P.  Americanus  or  Chllensis)  is  of  a  more  orange 
tint,  and  is  abundant  on  many  parts  both  of  the 
eastern  and  western  coasts  of  America. 

FLAMI'NIAN  WAY  {Via  Flaminia),  the  great 
northern  road  of  ancient  Italy,  leading  from  Rome 
to  Ariminum  {Rimini)  on  the  Adriatic.  It  was 
constructed  by  C.  Flaminius  during  his  rensorship 
(220  B.  c),  and  was  designed  to  secure  a  free  com- 
munication with  the  recently  conquered  Gaidish 
territory.  The  F.  W.  was  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated and  most  frequented  roads  of  Italy  both 
during  the  period  of  the  Republic  and  of  the 
Empire.  Its  importance  may  be  estimated  from 
the  fact,  that  when  Augustus  (27  B.  c.)  appointed 
persons  of  consular  dignity  road- surveyors  for  the 
other  highways  of  his  dominions,  he  reserved  the 
care  of  the  F.  W.  for  himself,  and  renewed  it 
throughout  its  whole  length.  Its  genei  al  direction 
was  northerly.  Leaving  Rome,  it  kept  for  the  most 
part  at  no  great  distance  from  the  Tiber  till  it 
reached  Narnia  {Narni),  where  it  struck  off  in  a 
north-easterly  direction,  passing  Interamna  (Terni) 
and  Spoletium  {Spoleto),  and  reaching  the  foot  of 
the  Apennines  at  Forum  Flaminii.  Crossing  the 
central  ridge  of  the  Apennines,  at  Ad  ICnsom  (L» 


FLAMSTEED— FLANDERS. 


Schieggia  ?),  it  again  proceeded  in  a  northerly  direc- 
tion, pursuing  much  the  same  line  of  route  as  the 
modern  road  from  Foligno  to  Fano,  and  reached  the 
Adriatic  at  Fanum  Fortunaj  (Fano),  whence  it 
wound  along  the  coast  to  Ariminum  (Rimini),  where 
it  ended,  or  rather  where  the  name  ceased  ;  for  the 
Via  Emilia  (see  Emilian  Peovinces)  was  just  a 
continuation  of  it.  The  whole  length  of  the  road 
from  Rome  to  Ariminimi  was  (according  to  the 
Jerasalem  Itinerary),  222  miles,  and  according  to  the 
Antonine,  210  miles.  Remains  of  it  still  exist  at 
various  places,  and  assist  the  antiquary  in  tracing  its 
direction. 

FLAMSTEED,  John,  the  first  astronomer-royal 
of  England,  for  whose  use  the  Royal  Observatory 
at  Greenwich  (called  Flamsteed  House)  was  built, 
was  born  near  Derby,  19th  August  1646,  and  early 
devoted  himself  to  mathematical  and  astronomical 


pursuits.  While  yet  a  youth,  he  mastered  the  theory 
of  the  calculation  of  eclipses ;  and  his  calculations 
of  some  remarkable  eclipses  of  the  moon  were 
the  means  of  introducing  him  to  the  notice  of  the 
eminent  scientific  men  of  his  time,  among  others  to 
Sir  Jonas  Moore,  then  Surveyor-general  of  the  Ord- 
nance, through  whom,  and  in  connection  with  whose 
department,  he  was  appointed  astronomer  to  the 
king  in  1675.  The  year  following,  the  Observatory 
at  Greenwich  was  built,  and  F.  began  that  series  of 
observations  that  constitute  the  commencement  of 
modern  practical  astronomy.  He  formed  the  first 
trustworthy  catalogue  of  the  fixed  stars,  and  fur- 
nished those  lunar  observations  on  which  Newton 
depended  for  the  verification  of  his  lunar  theory. 
Extracts  from  the  papers  of  F.,  found  in  the  Obser- 
vatory by  Mr  Francis  Baily,  and  published  by 
authority  of  the  Admiralty  in  18.35,  brought  to  light 
a  very  sharp  quarrel  that  had  taken  place  between 
F.  and  Newton  and  Halley  with  regard  to  the  piibli- 
cation  of  the  results  of  F.'s  labours.  The  Ilistoria 
Goelestis  Britannica,  his  great  work,  in  three  vols., 
giving  an  accoimt  of  the  methods  and  residts  of 
astronomical  observation  up  to  his  time,  was  begun 
to  be  printed  before  his  death  in  1710,  but  was  not 
published  till  1725.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  F., 
while  following  his  scientific  pursuits,  qualified 
himself  for  holy  orders,  and  in  1684:  was  presented  to 
the  living  of  Burslow,  in  Surrey,  which  he  held  till 
his  death. 

FLANCHES,  or  FLANQUES,  in  Heraldry,  are 
composed  of  arched  lines  drawn  from  the  up})er 
angles  of  the  escutcheon  to  the  base  points.  The 
arches  of  the  flanches  almost  meet  in  the  centre  of 
the  shield.  The  Flanches  are  an  ordinary  little  used 
in  Scotch  heraldry. 

FLANCONNADE,  a  thrust  in  Fencing  (q.  v.). 

FLA'NDERS  was  formerly  the  name  of  an 
extensive  and  almost  independent  territory  niled 
by  'counts,'  and  embracing,  besides  the  present 
Belgian  pro\ances  of  the  same  name,  the  southern 
portion  of  the  province  of  Zealand  in  Holland,  and 
Bome  of  the  departments  in  the  north-east  of 
Ji'rance.  Ciesar  found  this  district  inhabited  by  the 
Morini,  the  Menapii,  and  the  Nervii,  and  having 
conquered  these  tribes,  he  annexed  the  country. 
Under  the  rule  of  the  Franks,  the  river  Scheldt, 
which  flowed  through  the  district,  formed  the  boun- 
daiy  line  between  Neustria  and  Austrastia,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  the  northern  and  south-western 
part  of  the  territory  comi)rised  under  the  term 
r.,  although  ite  population  was  decidedly  Germanic, 
came  to  belong  to  France,  while  the  south-east, 
although  to  a  large  extent  non- Germanic,  was  after 
1007  included  in  the  German  Empire.  F.  obtained 
its  name  from  the  Vldnderfjau  (pa(/iis  Flandren^is. 
the  district  around  Bruges  and  Sluis),  whose  counts 


had  l)ecn  made  wardens  cf  the  nortli-eastem  coasts 
of  France  at  the  period  of  the  incursions  of  the 
Normans,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  9th  century,  and 
wlio  extended  the  name  of  their  hereditary  ])osse»- 
sions  to  the  whole  district  which  they  governed. 
The  first  count  or  markgraf  of  the  country  is  said 
to  have  been  Baldwin,  surnamed  Bras  de  Fer  (Iion- 
Arm),  who  married  Judith,  the  daugliter  of  Kin^ 
Charles  the  Bald  of  France,  and  widow  of  Ethel wult, 
king  of  England,  and  afterwards  received  the  newly 
created  '  mark '  or  county,  in  864,  as  a  hereditary 
fief  from  his  father-in-law.  He  extended  his  terri- 
tories by  the  addition  of  Artois,  which  was  held 
by  his  successors  until  Philippe  Auguste  reunited 
it  to  France.  He  died  in  879,  but  not  until  he  had 
inaugurated  the  industrial  greatness  of  F.  hy  intro- 
ducing into  it  a  great  number  of  workmen  skilled 
in  the  manufacture  of  woollen  and  other  goods. 
Baldwin  IV.,  or  the  Bearded,  one  of  the  successors 
of  Baldwin  Bras  de  Fer,  received  in  fief  from  the 
Emperor  Henry  II.  the  burgraviate  of  Glient,  Wal- 
chei  en,  and  the  islands  of  Zealand,  and  thus  became 
a  prince  of  the  German  empire.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Baldwin  V.,  or  the  Pious  (10.%— 1067), 
who  increased  his  possessions  by  the  addition  of 
the  German  territory  between  the  Scheldt  and  the 
Dender,  belonging  to  the  duchy  of  Lower  Lorraine. 
To  this  he  added  Tournay,  the  supremacy  over  the 
bishopric  of  Cambray  (to  wliich,  till  the  erection 
of  the  new  bishopric  of  Arras,  the  county  of 
Flanders  had  been  ecclesiastically  subordinate),  and 
the  (iounty  of  Hainault.  During  the  Middle  Ages, 
F.  figured  prominently  in  the  political  affairs  of 
Europe — the  counts  of  F.  being  more  powerful 
and  wealthy  than  many  European  kings.  Baldwin 
IX.,  the  founder  of  the  Latin  kingdom  at  Constan- 
tinople, died  in  1206,  leaving  two  daughters,  one  of 
whom  died  without  children  ;  the  other  bequeathed 
HainaiUt  to  John  of  Avenues,  her  son  by  her 
first  marriage ;  and  F.  to  Guy  Dampierre,  her  son 
by  a  second  marriage.  Meanwhile,  the  industrial 
prosperity  of  the  cities  of  F.  had  become  so  great, 
that  the  citizens  began  to  feel  their  own  j^ower,  and 
to  claim  independence.  They  formed  republican 
communities  like  the  free  cities  of  Germany,  with 
this  difference,  that  they  admitted  the  nominal 
suzerainty  of  the  counts.  But  they  were  not  afraid 
to  take  up  arms  in  defence  of  their  liberties  against 
their  nominal  masters.  Witness  the  insurrection 
headed  by  Jakob  van  Artevelde  (q.  v.)  against  the 
cruel  government  of  Count  Louis  I.  On  the  marriage 
of  Marguerite,  the  daughter  and  heiress  of  Louis  IL, 
Count  of  Flanders,  to  Philip  the  Bold  of  Burgundy, 
the  country  was  united  to  the  Burgundian  terri- 
tories in  1384,  and  afterwards  shared  the  fortunes 
of  that  duchy.  The  dukes  of  Burgundy  brcught 
great  part  of  the  former  duchy  of  Lower  Lorraine 
under  their  dominion,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation 
for  the  subsequent  imion  of  the  states  of  the  Nether- 
lands, in  which  F.  continued  to  form  one  main 
component  part.  On  the  death  of  Charles  the  Bold, 
these  territories  passed,  in  1477,  to  the  House  of 
Hapsburg,  by  the  marriage  of  his  daughter  ]Mary 
to  tlie  Archduke  Maximilian.  After  Burgundy  had 
passed  with  King  Philip  II.  to  the  Spanish  lino 
of  the  House  of  Hapsbnrg,  the  territory  of  F.  \s'a3 
considerably  diminished,  as  not  only  was  the  ])ortion 
called  Dutch  Flanders  transferred  to  the  Estates- 
general  by  the  peace  of  West})halia,  but,  in  the 
time  of  Louis  XIV.,  France  seized  ui)on  ancthei 
l)ortion  of  F,  as  also  a  part  of  Hamault,  Cambray, 
and  Artois,  and  was  contirmed  in  her  possession  by 
the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  of  Nimeguen,  and  of 
Utrecht.  By  the  last,  and  by  the  treaty  of  }»eace 
concluded  at  Rastadt,  the  remains  of  the  Spanish 
Netherlands  again  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  House 

363 


rLAm)ERS— FLATTERY. 


of  Austria.  In  1794,  F.,  like  the  other  provinces  of 
Belgium,  was  incorporated  with  the  French  Kei)ubiic, 
and  afterwards  with  the  Empire,  and  formed  the 
departments  of  Lys  and  Escaut ;  the  Congress  of 
Vienna,  however,  conferred  these  portions  on  the 
new  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  with  which  they 
remained  united  till  the  formation  of  the  kingdom 
of  Belgium  (q.  v.).  The  Belgian  portion  of  F.  is 
now  divided  into  the  provinces  of  East  and  West 
Flanders  (q.  v.). — Compare  Praet,  Histoire  dea  Comtes 
de  Flandrcs,  et  de  VOrvjine  das  Communes  Fhmandes 
(Brussels,  1828)  ;  Le  Clay,  llvitoire  des  Comtes  de 
Flamlres  jusquW  VAvmement  des  Dues  de  Bour- 
gogne  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1843) ;  Kervyn  van  l^etten- 
Loven,  Histoire  de  Flandres  (6  vols.,  Brussels,  1847 
—1851),  &c. 

FLANDERS,  East,  a  province  in  the  north-west 

of  Bel^uium,  is  bounded  on  the  E.  by  the  provinces 
of  Antwerp  and  Brabant,  on  the  S.  by  that  of 
Hainault,  on  the  W.  by  that  of  West  Flanders,  and 
on  the  N.  by  the  Dutch  province  of  Zealand.  It 
hns  nn  area  of  1146  scpiare  miles,  and  ii  population 
which  amounted  in  1870  to  837,726,  or  731  to  the 
square  mile.  East  F.  is  the  most  populous  i)rovince 
of  the  most  populous  country  in  Europe.  See 
Belgium.  It  is  watered  mainly  by  the  Scheldt, 
and  by  its  affluents  the  Lys  and  the  Dender.  The 
surface  is  low  and  level.  The  soil  has  been  rendered 
extremely  fertile  by  means  of  spade  cidtivation  and 
an  excellent  manuring  system.  Besides  the  oi'di- 
nary  varieties  of  grain,  potatoes,  llax,  hemp,  and 
hops  are  produced  in  great  quantity.  The  district 
in  the  north-east  of  the  jirovince,  between  the  towns 
of  Antwerp  and  Ghent,  is  celebrated  as  a  flax- 
growing  quarter.  The  manufactures  are  chiefly 
lace,  damasks,  linens,  woollens,  bobbin-net,  silk, 
and  cordage  ;  sugar-refining,  brewing,  and  distilling 
are  also  carried  on.  Chief  towns,  Ghent,  Alost,  and 
Dendermonde. 

FLANDERS,  West,  the  most  western  province 
of  Belgium,  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  North  Sea, 
and  on  the  W.  and  S.  by  France.  Its  area  is  1237 
square  miles,  and  its  population  in  1870  amounted 
to  668,976.  Its  chief  rivers  are  the  Lys  and  the 
Iser;  but  it  is  watered  by  numerous  smaller 
streams,  and  is  intersected  by  many  impoi'tant 
canals.  Its  surface  is  flat,  with  sandy  hills  in 
the  south  and  along  the  coast ;  and  its  soil  sandy, 
but  well  cultivated  and  productive.  It  has  fewer 
products  and  manufactures  than  East  Flanders. 
Chief  towns,  Bruges,  Courtrai,  and  Ostend. 

FLANGE,  a  rim  or  projection  upon  a  tube  or 
cylinder  of  metal  or  other  material,  to  serve  as  a 
bearing,  or  aflbrd  means  of  fixing  it ;  for  example, 
the  projecting  rim  on  the  tires  of  the  wheels  of 
railway-carriages  is  called  a  flange. 

FLANK  (the  side),  a  word  used  in  many  senses  in 
military  matters.  Flanks  of  an  army  are  the  wings, 
or  bodies  of  men  on  the  right  and  left  exti-emities, 
prepared  to  close  in  upon  an  enemy  who  shall  attack 
the  centre.  Flank  Jiles  are  the  soldiers  marching  on 
the  extreme  right  and  left  of  a  company  or  any 
other  body  of  troops.    Flank  company  is  the  com- 

f)any  on  the  right  or  left  when  a  battalion  is  in 
ine  ;  the  grenadier  and  light  infantry  companies 
usually  occupy  these  positions,  and  are  known  as 
flank  companies,  whether  with  the  remainder  of  the 
regiment  or  not.  A  flanking  party  is  a  body  of  horse 
or  foot  employed  in  hanging  upon  and  harassing  the 
flank  of  an  enemy's  force. — Flank,  as  applied  in  For- 
tification, will  be  best  described  under  that  article 
(q.  v.).  The  flanks  of  a  frontier  are  certain  salient 
points  in  a  national  boundary,  strong  by  nature  and 
art,  and  ordinarih'^  projecting  somewhat  beyond  the 
general  line.  The  3ffect  of  these  flanks  is  to  protect 

'o6i 


the  whole  frontier  against  an  enemy,  as  he  dare 
not  penetrate  between  them,  with  the  risk  of  their 
garrisons,  reinforced  from  their  own  territories, 
attacking  his  rear,  and  cutting  off  communication 
between  him  and  his  base.  Silistria  and  Widin 
were  flanks  of  the  Turkish  frontier  during  Omar 
Pasha's  campaign  in  1863  and  1854.  Similarly, 
in  the  event  of  an  invasion  of  England  from  the 
coast  of  Sussex  or  Kent,  Portsmouth  and  Chatham 
would  be  formidable  flanking  garrisons,  which 
would  almost  necessarily  have  to  be  subdued  before 
the  invader  could  march  on  London. 

In  evolutions,  '  to  flank '  is  to  take  such  a  posi- 
tion with  troops  as  either  to  aid  one's  own  army  in 
an  attack  on  the  enemy,  by  leading  the  latter  to 
suppose  that  his  flanks  are  in  danger  in  his  present 
position,  or  to  prevent  him  from  advancing  on  one's 
comrades  by  thi'catening  his  flanks  if  he  should  do 
so.  To  ontflank  is  to  succeed  by  manoeuvi'es  in  com- 
manding the  flank  of  an  enemy  who  has  been,  on  hia 
part,  endeavouring  to  flank  one's  own  force. 

FLANNEL  (Welsh,  givlanen,  from  gwlan,  wool, 
allied  to  Lat.  lana),  a  woollen  fabric,  differing  from 
broadcloth  and  most  other  woollen  fabrics  in  being 
woven  of  yarn  more  loosely  twisted,  and  having  less 
dressing.  The  best  flannel  is  made  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Welshpool  and  Newtown,  in  Wales, 
from  the  wool  of  the  Welsh  mountain-sheep,  and 
is  commercially  known  as  Welsh  flannel.  Large 
quantities  are  also  made  in  West  Lancashire,  West 
Yorkshire,  and  the  neighbourhood  of  Leeds.  A 
more  closely  spun  and  woven  flannel,  used  for 
cricketing  and  rowing  shirts,  &c,,  and  dyed  and 
printed  with  various  colours  and  patterns,  is  made 
in  the  west  of  England  cloth-making  district,  in  the 
vicinity  of  Stroud,  in  Gloucestershire.  Fine  light 
flannel  of  this  kind  is  made  in  France  and  Belgium ; 
some  of  this  is  twilled,  and  approaches  nearly  in 
quality  to  French  merinoes,  but  is  much  softer. 
The  demand  for  this  sort  of  fancy-shirting  flannel 
has  of  late  become  considerable,  and  has  led  to  the 
production  of  many  varieties,  which,  though  bearing 
the  name  of  flannel,  vary  so  materially  from  the 
original  Welsh  flannel,  that  they  can  scarcely  be 
included  with  them  under  any  general  definition. 
Coarse  flannel,  called  Galways,  is  made  in  Ireland, 
and  is  chiefly  used  by  the  peasantry  of  the  coimtry. 

FLAT,  a  musical  character,  shaped  thus  b,  which, 
w^hen  placed  before  a  note,  lowers  that  note  half  a 
tone.  When  placed  at  the  beginning  of  a  piece  of 
music,  it  denotes  that  all  the  notes  on  the  line  or 
sjiace  on  which  it  is  placed,  with  their  octaves  above 
and  below,  are  to  be  played  flat. 

FLAT-FISH,  a  popidar  name  of  the  fishes  of  the 
family  Pleuronectidce  (q.  v.),  as  the  flounder,  plaice, 
sole,  turbot,  halibut,  &c. ;  v/hich  have  the  body 
much  compressed,  and  the  sides  unsymuietrical, 
swimming  on  one  side.  It  is  sometimes  extended  in 
its  signification  so  as  to  include  ska.tes  and  other 
fishes  of  the  Ray  (q.  v.)  family,  which  are  very 
different,  being  cartilaginous  fishes,  quite  symme- 
trical, and  swimming  on  the  belly,  although,  like 
the  Pleuronectidce,  generally  keeping  close  to  the 
bottom.  It  is  never  applied  to  the  much  compressed 
symmetrical  fishes,  such  as  the  dory,  which  swim 
in  the  ordinary  posture  of  fishes,  the  dorsal  edge 
ujjwards,  the  ventral  downwards. 

FLA'TTERY,  Cape,  a  hcacUand  of  Washington 
territory,  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States, 
marks  the  south  side  of  the  entrance  of  the  Strait 
of  Juan  de  Fuca.  It  is  in  lat.  48°  24'  N.,  and  in 
long.  124°  40'  W.~ Another  headland  of  the  same 
name  is  found  on  the  east  coast  of  Australia,  in  lat. 
14°  52'  S.,  and  long.  145°  20'  E.  It  is  about  30  miles 
to  the  north  of  Endeavour  Bay. 


FLATULENCE— FLAX. 


FLA'TULENCE,  distention  of  the  stomach  or 
bowels  by  the  gases  formed  during  digestion.  8ee 

INDIGESTION. 

FLAVINE,  or  FLAVIN",  is  a  yellow  colouring 
matter  employed  in  dyeing,  and  imported  in  the 
condition  of  extract.  It  is  understood  to  be  the 
colouring  matter  of  bark  (quercitron  bark),  and  is 
used  in  place  of  quercitron  bark.  When  treated 
with  hot  water,  flavine  yields  a  yellow  turbid  solu- 
tion, which,  on  settling,  deposits  a  yellow-brown 
powder.  When  employed  in  dyeing,  the  cloth  is  first 
treated  with  an  aluminous  mordant  (see  Calico- 
PEInting)  ;  and  on  subsequent  immersion  in  the 
solution  of  flavine,  a  fine  yeUow  colour  is  fixed  on 
the  cloth.  The  colouring  power  of  the  extract 
flavine  as  imported  is  so  gi'eat  that  one  ounce  is 
equal  in  dyeing  qualities  to  one  poimd  of  quercitron 
bark. 

FLAX  {Linum),  a  genus  of  plants  comprising  the 
greater  part  of  the  natural  order  Linacece ;  an 
exogenous  order  allied  to  Geraniacece  and  Oxalidece, 
and  consisting  of  aimual  and  perennial  herbaceous 
plants,  with  a  few  small  shrubs.  There  are  about 
ninety  known  species  of  this  order  scattered  over 
the  globe,  but  most  abundant  in  Europe  and  the 
north  of  Africa.  Their  leaves  are  simple,  entire, 
without  stipules,  and  generally  alternate.  The 
Common  Flax  or  Linjc  {^L.  usitatissimum)  is  an 


Common  Flax  [Linum  usitatissimum). 


annual ;  a  native  of  Egypt,  of  some  parts  of  Asia, 
and  of  the  south  of  Euroi)e,  not  truly  indigenous  in 
Britain,  although  now  naturalised,  and  often  occur- 
riug  in  cornfields,  which  is  the  case  also  in  many 
parts  of  the  world.  The  most  common  variety  of 
khe  fiax  plant  has  a  very  slender  erect  stem,  two  or 
three  feet  high,  branching  only  near  the  top,  so  as 
to  form  a  loose  corymb  of  flowers.  The  leaves  are 
small,  distant,  and  lanceolate ;  the  flowers  of  a 
beautiful  blue,  rarely  white,  rather  broader  than  a 
■ixpence;  the  petals  slightly  notched  along  the 
margin ;  the  sepals  ovate,  3-nerved,  ciliated,  desti- 
tute of  glands  ;  the  capsules  scarcely  longer  than 
the  calyx,  not  bursting  open  elastically,  but  firmly 
retaining  their  seeds,  which  are  dark  brown,  glossy, 
oval-oblong,  flattened,  with  acute  edges,  pointed  at 
one  end,  and  about  a  line  in  length.  Another  variety, 
however,  is  cultivated  to  some  extent  in  many 
parts  of  Europe,  so  difiFerent,  that  some  botanists 
account  it  a  distinct  species  [L.  humile  or  L.  crepi- 
t<ww),  which  is  less  tall,  is  more  inclined  to  branch, 
am'  is  particularly  distinguished  by  its  capstJes, 
fcwioe  as  long  as  the  calyx,  and  bursting  open 


elasticaUy  when  ripe.  The  seeds  are  also  larger 
and  paler.  This  variety  is  called  Sprlrujlain  and 
Klamjkin  by  the  Germans,  the  one  name  referring 
to  the  elastic  bursting  of  tte  capsules,  the  other  to 
the  sound  which  accompanies  it.  The  former 
variety  is  known  to  them  as  Winterlnn,  being  often 
sovra  in  the  end  of  autiunn  in  elevated  districts  where 
the  summer  is  too  short  for  spring-sown  flax,  and 
also  as  Scldieszlein  and  Dreschlein^  from  its  close 
capsules  and  the  thrashing  needed  to  separate  the 
seed.  The  Spri^iglein  jiroduces  a  finer,  whiter,  and 
softer  fibre  than  the  other,  but  shorter,  and  it  ia 
therefore  not  so  extensively  cultivated.  There  aro 
many  sub-varieties,  to  which  and  their  diflerent 
qualities  no  such  attention  has  been  paid,  in  Britain 
at  least,  as  to  those  of  other  important  cultivated 
plants. 

This  plant  is  highly  valuable  both  for  the  fibres 
of  its  inner  bark  and  for  its  seeds.  The  fibres  of 
the  inner  bark,  when  separated  both  from  the  bark 
and  from  the  inner  woody  portion  of  the  stem,  are 
Flax  or  Lint,  the  well-known  material  of  which 
Linen  thread  and  cloth  are  made,  and  used  equally 
for  the  finest  and  for  the  coarsest  fabrics,  for  the 
most  delicate  cambric  or  exquisite  lace,  and  for  the 
strongest  sail-cloth.  The  seeds  yield  by  expression 
the  drying  fixed  oil  called  Linseed  Oil,  so  much 
used  for  mixing  paints,  making  varnishes,  &c. ; 
whilst  the  remaining  crushed  mass  is  the  Linseed 
Cake,  or  Oil-cake,  greatly  esteemed  for  feeding 
cattle,  and  when  ground  to  a  fine  powder,  becomes 
the  Linseed  Meal  so  usefid  for  poidtices.  Linseed 
is  sometimes  used  in  medicine,  as  an  emollient  and 
demulcent  in  irritations  of  the  pulmonary  and  of 
the  urinary  organs,  and  of  the  mucous  membranes 
generally,  deriving  its  value  for  this  purpose  from 
a  mucilage  which  it  contains,  and  which  is  extracted 
by  hot  water,  making  Unseed  tea.  The  fi)>re  of 
flax  is  the  ultimate  material  from  which  paper  ia 
made,  and  linseed  oil  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
j)rinters'  ink.  No  i)lant  not  yielding  food  is  more 
useful  to  man  than  the  flax  plant. 

It  has  been  cultivated  from  the  earliest  historic 
times.  It  is  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Genesis  as 
one  of  the  productions  of  Egypt  in  the  time  of  the 
Pharaohs ;  and  it  has  been  recently  ascertained  by 
microscopic  examination,  that  the  cloth  in  which 
the  mummies  of  Egypt  are  enveloped  is  linen. 
Solomon  purchased  linen  yarn  in  Egypt.  Herodotus 
speaks  of  the  great  flax  trade  of  Egypt.  Great 
quantities  of  flax  are  gro^\^l  in  that  country  at  the 
present  day ;  its  cultivation  is  also  very  extensively 
carried  on  in  some  parts  of  Europe  and  of  North 
America.  The  proportion  of  flax  to  other  crops  in 
Britain  is  probably  smaller  at  present  than  it  was 
at  a  former  period,  but  an  increase  of  its  cultivation 
has  been  strongly  recommended  by  persons  whose 
opinion  is  entitled  to  great  regard,  and  particularly 
in  Ireland,  where,  however,  it  is  more  extensively 
cidtivated  than  either  in  England  or  Scotland,  It 
has  the  advantage  of  gi^^ng  emplojonent  not  only 
to  an  agricultural  but  to  a  manufacturing  j^opula- 
tion.  Flax  is  more  extensively  and  more  succcbs- 
fully  cidtivated  in  Belgium  than  in  any  other 
Eiu-opean  country,  particularly  in  Southern  Brabant, 
Hainaidt,  and  West  and  East  Flandei-s,  in  which 
the  most  beautiful  flax  in  Europe  is  produced, 
employed  for  the  manufacture  of  the  famous 
Brussels  lace,  and  sold  for  this  piu-pose  at  abou'' 
£100  to  £180  per  ton,  the  crop  when  prepared  foi 
the  market  sometimes  exceeding  in  value  the  lane 
on  which  it  w^as  produced.  The  village  of  Bebeque 
is  distinguished  for  the  production  of  this  precious 
flax.  The  greatest  care  is  bestowed  on  its  cidti* 
vation,  and  to  this  its  excellence  is  probably  in  a 
great  measure  to  be  ascribed.    Not  a  weed  is  to  b« 


FLAX— FLAX-DRESSING. 


Been,  and  the  care  and  labour  are  equal  to  those 
of  gardening.  Flax  is  extensively  grown  in  the 
countries  on  the  southern  shores  of  the  Baltic,  and 
both  the  fibre  and  seed  are  largely  imported  from 
them  into  Britain.  Besides  the  flax  raised  at  home, 
Great  Britain  annually  imports  from  80,000  to 
90,000  tons  of  this  material. 

Flax  has  been  cultivated  from  time  immemorial, 
as  a  winter  crop,  in  India,  but  onlj  for  its  seed,  and 
not  at  all  for  its  fibre.  This  remarkable  circumstance 
is  supposed  by  Dr  Iloyle  to  be  owing  to  the  exist- 
ence of  tlie  cotton  plant  in  that  country,  the  fibre 
of  which  more  readily  offers  itself  to  view  on  the 
bursting  of  the  pod.  But  Dr  Royle  also  states  his 
opinion,  that  the  climate  of  the  greater  part  of 
India  is  unsuitable  for  the  production  of  the  fibre 
of  flax;  and  the  variety  cultivated  in  India  is  only 
about  a  foot  or  eighteen  inches  in  height,  much 
branched,  and  yielding  a  very  worthless  fibre, 
whilst  it  is  loaded  with  capsules,  and  the  seeds 
yield  a  larger  proportion  of  oil  than  those  of  flax 
grown  in  Europe.  It  is  sometimes  sown  as  an 
edging  around  fields. 

Much  depends  on  the  thickness  of  sowing.  Flax 
must  be  so\vn  thick  to  yield  a  fine  fibre  ;  but  when 
intended  to  produce  a  fibre  for  coarser  purposes,  the 
plants  ought  to  have  more  room.  For  the  liuest 
fibre,  also,  they  must  be  pulled  before  the  seed  is 
ripe ;  but  a  coarser  fibre  and  a  crop  of  linseed  are 
often  much  to  be  preferred  by  the  farmer.  The 
crop  is  silwixya  jmlled  up  by  the  roots. 

The  diminished  cultivation  of  flax  in  Britain, 
after  agriculture  began  to  improve,  is  to  be  ascribed 
in  part  to  the  prevalence  of  the  opinion,  that  it  is  a 
very  exhausting  crop  for  the  land.  This  has  been 
said  to  be  particularly  the  case  when  the  seed  is 
ripened.  But  the  introduction  of  new  maniu'es  has 
rendered  this  objection  less  important  than  it 
formerly  was ;  and  it  has  been  found  that  the  refuse 
of  flax  itself  is  not  a  bad  manure,  and  that  the 
water  in  which  it  has  been  steeped  is  a  good  liquid 
manure.  The  water  of  flax-steeping  pits  or  ponds 
is  often  strong  enough  to  kill  the  fish  of  rivers  into 
which  it  is  allowed  to  flow. 

The  capsules  {bolls)  of  flax  are  torn  off,  after  it  is 
pulled,  by  a  sort  of  combing  called  riopiuig  (see 
Flax-dressing),  Great  care  is  requisite  to  dry 
them,  and  to  keep  them  perfectly  dry.  For  the 
subsequent  processes,  see  Linseed. 

Besides  the  common  flax,  several  other  species  are 
occasionally  cultivated  for  their  fibi-e,  but  are  com- 
paratively of  very  little  value. 

The  Linacece  are,  in  general,  plants  of  elegant 
appearance  and  with  nowers  of  miich  beauty; 
Bome  cf  them  have  flowers  larger  than  common 
flax,  and  some  are  not  unfrequent  ornaments  of 
our  green-houses.  Radiola  viillegrana.  All-seed, 
is  one  of  the  smallest  of  British  phanerogamous 
plants. 

Purging  Flax  {Linum  catharticum)  is  a  graceful 
little  annual  with  branching  stem,  opposite  leaves, 
and  small  white  flowers,  common  in  fields  and 
meadows  throughout  Britain  and  most  parts  of 
Europe.    It  possesses  purgative  and  diuretic  pro- 

Eerties,  owing  to  the  presence  of  a  substance  which 
as  been  called  linin.  As  a  domestic  medicine,  a 
handful  of  the  fresh  herb  is  often  administered, 
infused  in  whey ;  and  it  has  a  po2)ular  reputation  in 
rheumatism. 

FLAX,  New  Zealand,  a  valuable  fibre  quite 
different  from  common  flax,  and  obtained  from  the 
leaf  of  an  endogenous,  instead  of  the  stem  of  an 
exogenous  plant.  The  plant  yielding  it  is  Phormium 
tenax,  often  called  New  Zealand  Flax,  and  sometimes 
Flax  Lily  and  Flax  Bush.  It  belongs  to  the  natural 
order  Liliacece,  and  ia  a  perennial  plant,  a  native 
368 


of  New  Zealand  and  Norfolk  Island;  its  leaves 
resemble  those  of  an  Iris,  are  from  two  to  six  feefc 
long  and  one  to  two  or  three  inches  broad.  The 
flowers  are  produced  in  a  tall  branched  j)anicle  ; 
are  numerous,  brownish  yellow,  not  very  beautiful ; 
the  fruit  is  a  three-cornered  capsule  with  numerous 
compressed  jet-black  seeds.  The  fibre  of  the  leavea 
is  both  very  fine  and  very  strong,  and  was  used 
by  the  New  Zealanders,  before  their  country  was 
discovered  by  Europeans,  for  making  dresses,  rojjes, 
twine,  mats,  cloth,  &c.     New  Zealand  Flar  ui 


New  Zealand  Flax  {Phormium  tenax). 


imported  into  Britain  for  making  twine  and  ropes ; 
and  the  plant  is  cultivated  in  its  native  country. 
Its  cultivation  has  also  been  attempted  in  some 
parts  of  Europe ;  but  the  winters  of  Europe, 
except  in  the  south,  are  too  cold  for  it.  To 
(obtain  the  fibre,  the  leaves  are  cut  when  they  have 
attained  their  full  size,  and  usually  macerate<l 
for  a  few  days  in  water.  But  the  New  Zealanders? 
procure  the  fibre  in  its  greatest  perfection,  very 
long  and  slender,  shining  like  silk,  by  a  mora 
laborious  process,  and  without  maceration,  remov- 
ing the  epidermis  from  the  leaf  when  newly  cut, 
separating  the  fibres  by  the  thumb-nails,  and  then 
more  perfectly  by  a  comb. 

The  roots  are  purgative,  diuretic,  sudorific,  and 
expectorant ;  a  good  substitute  for  sarsaparilla. — 
The  leaves,  when  cut  near  the  root,  exude  a  viscid 
juice,  which  becomes  an  edible  gum. — The  New 
Zealanders  prei)are  a  sweet  beverage  from  the 
fiowers. 

FLAX-DRESSING.  Wlien  the  seeds  ai^ 
beginning  to  change  from  a  green  to  a  pale 
brown,  is  the  best  time  for  fulling  flax.  "Where 
the  crop  grows  of  different  lengths,  these  lejigtha 
should  be  pulled  and  kept  separately,  unifonnity 
in  this  respect  being  of  great  value  in  tlie  after- 
processes. 

The  process  first  gone  through  after  puULng  is 
rippling — which  consists  in  teaimg  off  the  bolls  by 


FLAX-DFwESSINQ— FLAXMAiT. 


pulling  the  stalks  through  a  series  of  iron  teeth  18 
mches  long,  j)]acecl  within  a  distance  of  half  an 
inch  of  each  other.  These  are  fastened  in  a  block 
of  wood,  which  is  placed  at  the  end  of  a  plank  or 
long  stool  OKI  which  the  operator  sits. 

The  next  process  is  to  obtain  the  flaxen  fibre  or 
lint  free  from  the  woody  core,  or  boon,  of  the  stem. 
This  is  effected  by  steeping  the  bundles  in  water 
till  the  boon  begins  to  rot,  in  which  state  it  is 
readily  separated  from  the  fibre.  The  operation  is 
called  rotting  or  retting,  and  requires  to  be  managed 
with  great  care,  as  by  continuing  it  too  long,  decom- 
position might  extend  to  the  fibre,  and  render  it 
useless  ;  while  by  discontinuing  it  too  soon,  the 
separation  could  not  be  eflected  with  sufficient  ease. 
The  time  is  generally  determined  by  the  nature 
and  temperature  of  the  water,  and  the  ripeness  of 
the  flax — decomposition  taking  place  more  rapidly 
in  soft  stagnant  water  than  in  running  streams,  in 
which  the  retting  is  sometimes  conducted.  After 
being  sufliciently  steeped,  the  flax  is  spread  out  on 
the  grass,  to  rectify  any  defect  in  the  retting,  and 
ultimately  to  dry  it  for  the  breaking.  In  some 
districts,  it  is  the  practice  to  conduct  the  retting 
entirely  on  the  grass— a  process  known  as  dew- 
retting,  in  contradistinction  to  water-retting.  This 
is  a  safer  and  less  offensive  method,  but  it  requires 
much  longer  time,  and  in  a  country  where  laud  is 
valuable,  would  become  very  expensive.  On  the 
whole,  the  mixed  method  of  retting  is  preferable — 
that  is,  to  steep  till  decomi)Osition  of  the  boon  is 
well  advanced,  and  then  to  complete  the  process  on 
the  gi'ass.  It  has  been  attempted  to  separate  the 
fibre  by  machinery,  without  subjecting  the  flax  to 
retting  ;  but  the  article  so  produced  has  hitherto 
been  rejected  as  inferior  in  quality. 

To  avoid  the  delays  and  uncertainty  dependent 
upon  the  old  processes  of  retting  or  watering,  plans 
have  been  recently  introduced,  bringing  the  opera- 
tion more  under  control,  like  the  other  processes  of 
our  manufactures.  The  methods  which  have  been 
adopted,  and  are  now  working  with  success,  are 
knowm  as  Schenk's  and  Watt's.  By  the  first  of 
these,  the  flax  is  placed  in  vats,  in  which  is 
kept  down  by  means  of  strong  fi-amework.  "Water 
is  allowed  to  pass  into  the  vats,  to  become  absorbed 
by  the  flax  ;  steam  is  next  admitted,  till  the  tem- 
perature of  the  water  is  raised  to,  and  maintained 
at,  aljout  90°.  Acetous  fermentation  ensues  in  a 
few  hours ;  and  after  being  maintained  for  about 
Bixty  hours,  the  decomposition  of  the  gummy  or 
resinous  matter  in  the  stalk  is  completed.  The 
mucilage  water  is  next  withdrawn  from  the  vat,  and 
the  flax  taken  out,  separated  and  dried  either  in 
the  open  air  or  in  desiccating  rooms,  according  to 
circumstances.  In  Watt's  process,  the  flax  is  placed 
in  a  chamber  provided  with  a  perforated  false 
bottom ;  the  top  is  double,  and  filled  with  water  to  act 
as  a  condenser.  Steam  being  admitted  to  the  case, 
the  first  result  is  the  freeing  of  the  flax  from  certain 
volatile  oils.  The  steam  rising  to  the  top  of  the 
chamber  is  condensed  by  contact  with  it,  and  falls 
in  showers  on  the  flax  beneath — a  decoction  of  the 
extracted  matter  is  thus  obtained.  In  36  hours, 
the  process  is  completed ;  and  the  flax  taken  out,  is 
passed  between  rollers  in  the  direction  of  its  length, 
which  ])rcsses  out  the  water  and  decomposed  gum, 
and  si)lits  and  flattens  the  straw.  By  this  process, 
all  that  the  plant  takes  from  the  land  is  saved — the 
seeds  being  available  as  food  for  animals;  and  the 
chaff  and  refuse  water  as  manure. 

Pre])ared  by  either  of  the  plans,  the  flax  is  now 
really  to  be  freed  completely  of  its  woody  particles. 
Tiiis  is  effected  by  scutching.  Previous  to  this, 
however,  the  flax  is  passed  through  a.  brake  or 
level viug  rollers,  in  order  thorougldy      crack  the 


boon.  The  brake,  worked  by  manual  labour, 
consists  of  a  frame,  in  the  upper  side  of  which  are  « 
number  of  grooves ;  a  movable  piece  is  hinged  at 
one  end,  and  provided  with  a  similar  grooved  piece 
on  its  lower  side,  but  so  i)laced  that  the  projec- 
tions pass  into  the  hoUows  of  the  lower.  The  flax, 
placed  between  these,  and  struck  by  bringing  down 
the  hinged  part,  is  broken,  but  the  fibre  remains 
uninjured. 

In  the  flax-breaking  machine,  the  flax  is  passed 
through  a  series  of  horizontal  fluted  rollers ;  the  fiute> 
do  not  touch,  thus  preserving  the  fibre  while  break- 
ing the  boon.  In  continental  countries,  scutclung 
is  almost  invariably  performed  by  hand,  the  flax 
being  held  in  a  groove  made  in  an  upright  stand, 
and  struck  by  a  flat  blade.  Machine-scutching  ia 
much  more  certain  and  expeditious  than  Land- 
scutching,  and  is,  in  consequence,  fast  superseding 
it  in  this  country.  After  passing  through  the 
breaking-machine,  the  flax  is  subjected  to  the  action 
of  a  series  of  knives,  attached  to  the  arms  of  a 
vertical  wheel ;  these  knives  strike  the  flax  in  the 
direction  of  its  length.  The  process  is  gone  through 
three  times  before  the  flax  is  ready  for  the  market. 
Although  machine-scutcliing  is  expeditious,  it  is 
not  capable  of  that  j^liant  adaptation  to  the  varying 
nature  of  the  flax  to  be  operated  upon,  which  is 
obtained  in  hand-scutching.  The  efi"ect  of  machine- 
scutching  is  to  produce  fineness  by  reducing  and 
impairing,  rather  than  sustaining,  the  character 
of  the  fibre — namely,  the  length  and  fineness  of  its 
'  staple  '  or  fibre.  To  remedy  these  defects,  scutching 
by  means  of  revolving  brushes  has  been  introduced. 
This  divides  the  fibre  without  tearing  it.  The  sub- 
sequent nmnufacturing  operations  will  be  noticed 
under  Linen  and  Linen  Manufacture. 

FLAXMAN,  John,  the  greatest  of  Enghsh  sculp- 
tors, was  born  at  York,  6th  July  1755.  At  the  age 
of  15,  he  became  a  student  in  the  Boyal  Academy, 
but  never  worked  in  the  studio  of  any  master.  In 
1782,  he  married  Miss  Ann  Denman,  a  lady  of  supe- 
rior gifts  and  graces,  who  soon  began  to  exercise  a 
beneficial  influence  u])on  his  studies.  Accompanied 
by  her,  he  went  in  1787  to  Italy,  where,  by  degrees, 
he  attracted  the  attention  of  all  lovers  of  art.  This 
was  still  more  the  case  after  his  retiirn  to  London 
in  1794.  He  was  elected  an  Associate  of  the  Royal 
Academy  in  1797  ;  Royal  Academician  in  1800;  and, 
in  1810,  was  ai)pointed  Professor  of  Sculpture  to  that 
institution^  After  the  death  of  his  wife  in  1820,  he 
withdrew  from  society,  and  died  7th  December  1826. 
F.'s  most  celebrated  works  are  his  '  Outlines  to 
Homer's  Odyssey'  (Rome,  1793),  and  'The  Iliad' 
(Lond.  1795),  and  his  illustrations  of  Dante  and 
^schylus.  Many  of  his  works  display  wonderful 
grandeur  of  composition,  and  a  pure  and  noble 
style.  He  was  one  of  the  first  of  those  who, 
following  the  example  of  Winckelmann,  strove  to 
penetrate  to  the  true  spirit  of  antique  art,  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  false  taste  of  the  time.  The  study  of 
vase-paintings,  and  of  the  Pompeian  miu-al  jDictures, 
then  just  re\aved,  led  him  to  abandon  the  sickly 
mannerism  of  his  predecessors  for  the  severe 
simplicity  of  the  antique,  and  he  may  with  justice 
be  styled  the  author  of  modem  rilievo  (see  Altc- 
RiLiEVO).  His  works  are  not,  however,  all  of  equal 
value,  and,  in  general,  it  may  be  said  that  his  skdl 
in  modelling  was  not  equal  to  his  inventive  genius. 
The  poetry  of  his  conceptions  is  of  a  high  order, 
F.  contributed  much  towards  bringing  the  outline 
style,  now  so  popular,  into  general  use.  Of  hia 
sculptures,  the  best  known  in  England  are  his  bas- 
relief  mommient  to  the  poet  Collins  at  Chichester, 
the  monument  to  Lord  ^tansfield,  and  that  to  the 
Baring  family  at  JMicheldeau  Church,  in  Hampshire. 
His  model  for  the  shield  of  Achilles,  taken  frota 

367 


yLEA— FLECKNOE. 


the  18th  book  of  the  Iliad,  is  particularly  worthy 
of  admiration.  F.'s  private  collection  is  now  in 
University  College,  London,  in  the  gallery  known  as 
Flaxman  Hall. 

FLEA  {Pulex),  a  Linnaean  genus  of  apterous 
insects,  now  commonly  regarded  by  entomologists 
OS  constituting  a  distinct  order,  Suctoria,  Sip/ion- 
aptera,  or  Aphaniptera.  The  species  are  not  numer- 
ous, and  little  subdivision  of  the  genus  has  been 
attempted.  It  has  been  suggested  as  probable, 
that  further  investigation  may  lead  to  a  recognition 
of  the  fleas  as  belonging  to  some  of  the  larger  orders, 
with  parts  modified  to  suit  their  parasitical  life. 
All  the  species  are  very  similar  to  the  Common 
Flea.  {P.  irritam),  which  is  plentiful  in  all  parts 


Common  Flea  [Pulcx  irritans),  magnified. 

of  the  world,  living  by  sucking  the  blood  of  man, 
and  of  some  species  of  quadrupeds  and  birds.  It 
abounds  partirvilarly  in  the  nests  of  poultry,  pigeons, 
and  swallows,  and  wherever  sand  and  dust  accu- 
mulate in  the  chinks  of  floors,  &c ;  it  is  to  l>e 
found  also  plentifully  in  beds,  wherever  cleanliness 
is  neglected.     The  abundance  of  fleas  in  some 
countries  is  an  intolerable  nuisance  to  travellers, 
and  also  to  residents.  Such  is  said  to  be  particularly 
the  case  in  many  parts  of  Australia,  where  the 
general  dryness  and  warmth  encourage  their  growth 
to  an  extent   against  which  the  precautionary 
measures  of  housewives  are  almost  entirely  una- 
vailing.   The  female  flea  is  rather  larger  than  the 
male,  but  the  sexes  are  otherwise  very  similar.  The 
head  is  small,  very  compressed,  rounded  above,  and 
has  on  each  side  a  small  round  eye.    The  mouth  | 
has  two  lancet-likf,  mandibles,  the  maxillae  being  | 
represented  by  two  conical  scales,  the  mandibles  and  | 
maxillae  forming  a  suctorial  beak,  with  a  slender  j 
bristle-like  tongue,  the  whole  enclosed  between  two 
three -jointed  plates.    The  thorax  consists  of  three  i 
segments,  the  second  and  third  of  which  bear  a  j 
scale  on  each  side ;  the  scales  are  regarded  as  | 
rudimentary  wings.    There  is  no  marked  diA-ision  | 
between  the  thorax  and  the  abdomen,  which  con-  j 
gists  of  nine  segments,  much  larger  than  those  of  I 
the  thorax,  but  much  compressed.     The  whole  i 
bxiy  is  covered  with  a  tough  integument.    The  j 
activity  of  the  flea,  its  power  of  leaping,  and  | 
its  extraordinary  strength,  are  well  known.  Its 
strength  has  sometimes  been  applied  to  the  draw- 
ing of  miniature  carriages,  cannon,   &c.,  which 
the  public  have  been  invited  to  witness  through 
a  magnifying-glass,  as  an  amusing  spectacle.  Fleas 
undergo  a  complete  metam(^rphosis.     The  female 
lays  about  a  dozen  eggs  of  a  white  colour,  and 
slightly  viscous.    The  larva  is  a  Uvely  little  worm, 
at  first  white,  afterwards  reddish,  and  destitute 
of  feet.    When  about  to  change  into  a  pupa,  it 
encloses  itself  in  a  little  silk  cocoon,  from  which 
emerges  the  perfect  flea.    Cleanliness  and  careful 
attention  are  the  principal  means  of  keeping  beds 
and  houses  free  of  fleas ;   but  where  these  are 
foimd  insufficient,  as  is  apt  to  be  the  case  in  some 
climates,  and  in  cottages  where  there  is  much 
868 


wood- work  with  gaping  joints,  certain  strongly 
aromatic  plants  are  employed,  of  which  the  odouns 
appear  to  be  detestable  to  them,  as  the  difiereut 
Compositce  known  by  the  name  of  fleabane,  and 
also  wormwood,  the  merits  of  which  last  are  thus 
extolled  by  Tusser : 

*  While  wonnwood  hath  seed,  get  a  handful!  or  twaine, 
To  save  against  March,  to  make  flea  to  refraiiie ; 
"Where  chamber  is  sweeped,  and  wonnwood  is  strown, 
No  flea  for  his  life  dare  abide  to  be  known.' 

Other  species  of  fleas  infest  particular  animals,  aa 
the  dog,  fox,  mole,  &c. — The  Chigoe  (q.  v.),  or  Jigger 
of  the  West  Indies,  nearly  allied  to  the  true  fleas,  ia 
far  more  troublesome  than  any  of  them. 

FLEA'BANE  (PuUcaria),  a  genus  of  plants  oi 
the  natural  order  ComposltcB,  sub-order  Coryinhiferce^ 
having  hemispherical  imbricated  involucres  and 
yellow  flowers  ;  the  whole  plant  emitting  a  peculiar 
aromatic  smell,  sometimes  compared  to  that  of  soap, 
wliich  is  said  to  be  eflicacious  in  driving  away  fleaa. 


Fleabane  {Pulicaria  dy»enterica)  i 

a,  root;  h,  top  of  stem,  with  leaves  and  flowers;  e,  acnntu^ 
with  pnppu-i;  d,  pistil ;  e,  a  floret  of  the  disc  ;  /,  a  etanaen* 
g,  a  floret  of  the  ray. 

Two  species  are  foimd  in  England,  one  of  which 
(P.  dysenterica),  common  in  moist  places,  with 
oblong  leaves,  stem  12 — 15  inches  high,  cottony, 
and  bearing  panicled  flowers,  has  a  considerable 
reputation  in  diarrhoea  and  dysentery.  The  Kussian 
soldiers,  in  the  expedition  to  Persia  under  General 
Keith,  were  much  troubled  with  dysentery,  which 
was  cured  by  this  plant. — Conyza  squarrosa,  also 
called  fleabane,  belongs  to  a  nearly  alhed  genius. 

FLECHE,  La,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Sarthe,  is  agreeably  situated  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Loir,  24  miles  south-south-west  of  Le 
Mans.  It  is  a  well-built  town,  and  has  three  prin- 
cipal streets,  which  are  wide  and  well  paved.  It* 
principal  building  is  the  military  school,  with  a 
library  of  15,000  volumes,  destined  for  the  education 
of  the  sons  of  poor  officers,  or  of  soldiers  who  have 
highly  distinguished  themselves.  The  building  now 
occupied  by  the  school  was  once  a  royal  palace,  and 
was  built  by  Henry  IV.  It  was  subsequently  given 
by  him  to  the  Jesuits,  and  used  by  them  as  a 
Jesuit  college.  Here  Prince  Eugene,  Descartes,  and 
Picard  the  astronomer,  were  educated.  F.  has  some 
trade  in  com,  hay,  and  wine,  also  manufactures  of 
linen,  hosiery,  and  gloves.    Pop.  (1876)  7468, 

FLE'CKNOE,  Richard,  the  date  of  whose  birth 
is  unknown,  is  said  to  have  been  an  Irish  Roman 


FLEET— FLEET  PRISON. 


Catholic  priest.  He  came  to  London,  mingled  in 
the  wars  of  the  wits,  and  wrote  several  plays,  all 
of  which  are  now  forgotten.  He  died  in  1G78.  F. 
came  under  the  lash  of  Dryden,  whose  satire, 
entitled  Mac  Flecnoe,  is  partly  the  model  of  Pope's 
Dunclad  (q.  v.),  and  will  be  remembered  as  long  as 
the  great  satirist  is  remembered.  From  those  who 
are  acquainted  with  our  extinct  literature,  we  have 
the  assurance  that  F.  has  been  hardly  dealt  with  ; 
that  though  he  did  not  rise  to  the  rank  of  Dryden 
as  a  poet,  he  was  the  author  of  several  fugitive 
pieces,  not  without  grace,  fancy,  and  happy  turns 
of  expression.  Among  his  dramatic  pieces  are 
Ermina,  or  the  Chaste  Lady;  Lovers  Dominion 
(printed  in  1C54,  and  dedicated  to  Cromwell's 
favourite  daughter,  Mrs  Claypole) ;  and  The  Mar- 
riage of  Oceanus  and  Britannia.  His  Miscellanea, 
or  Poems  of  all  Sorts,  appeared  in  1653. 

FLEET  (that  which  floats),  a  collection  of  ships, 
whether  of  war  or  commerce,  for  one  object  or  for  one 
destination.  The  diminutives  of  fleet  are  'division' 
and  '  squadron.'  In  the  royal  navy,  a  fleet  is  ordi- 
narily the  command  of  an  admiral  or  vice-admiral. 

FLEET  MARRIAGES.  The  practice  of  con- 
tracting clandestine  marriages  was  very  prevalent 
in  England  before  the  passing  of  the  flrst  mar- 
riage act  (see  Marriage).  The  chapels  at  the 
8avoy  and  at  May  Fair,  in  London,  were  long 
famous  for  the  performance  of  these  marriages  ; 
hnt  no  other  place  was  equal  in  notoriety  for 
this  infamous  traffic  to  the  Fleet  Prison.  It 
must  be  observed,  that  before  the  passing  of  the 
26  Geo.  II.  c.  33,  there  was  no  necessity  in  Eng- 
land for  any  religious  ceremonial  in  the  perform- 
ance of  marriage,  which  m.ight  be  contracted  by 
mere  verbal  consent.  Hence  it  was  not  in  virtue 
of  any  special  privilege  existing  within  the  liberty 
of  the  Fleet  that  marriages  at  that  place  became  so 
common ;  but  rather  from  the  fact,  that  the  persons 
by  whom  they  were  performed,  having  nothing  to 
lose  either  in  money  or  character,  were  able  to  set 
at  defiance  the  penalties  enacted  from  time  to  time 
with  a  view  to  restrain  this  public  nuisance.  The 
period  during  which  these  marriages  were  in  greatest 
repute  was  from  1674  to  1754.  The  first  notice  of  a 
Fleet  marriage  is  in  1613,  in  a  letter  from  Alderman 
Lowe  to  Lady  Hickes,  and  the  first  entry  in  a  register 
is  in  1674.  Up  to  this  time,  it  does  not  appear 
that  the  marriages  contracted  at  the  Fleet  were 
clandestine  ;  but  in  the  latter  year,  an  order  having 
been  issued  by  the  ecclesiastical  commissioners 
against  the  performance  of  clandestine  m^arriages  in 
the  Savoy  and  May  Fair,  the  Fleet  at  once  became 
the  favourite  resort  for  those  who  desired  to  effect 
a  secret  marriage.  At  first,  the  ceremony  was 
performed  in  the  chapel  in  the  Fleet ;  but  the 
applications  became  so  frequent,  that  a  regular  trade 
speedily  sprung  up.  By  10  Anne,  c.  19,  s.  176, 
marriages  in  chapels  without  bann.i  were  prohibited 
under  certain  penalties,  and  from  this  time,  rooms 
were  fitted  up  in  the  taverns  and  the  hovises  of 
the  Fleet  parsons,  for  the  purpose  of  performing 
the  ceremony.  The  persons  who  celebrated  these 
marriages  ■were  clergymen  of  the  Church  of  England, 
who  had  been  consigned  for  debt  to  the  prison  of 
the  Fleet,  These  men,  having  lost  all  sense  of  their 
holy  calling,  employed  touters  to  bring  to  them 
such  persons  as  required  their  ofiice.  The  sums 
paid  for  a  marriage  varied  according  to  the  rank  of 
the  parties,  from  half-a-crown  to  a  large  fee  where 
the  liberality  and  the  purse  combined  to  afford  a 
large  reward.  During  the  time  that  this  iniquitous 
traffic  was  at  its  height,  every  species  of  enormity 
was  practised.  Young  ladies  were  compelled  to 
marry  against  their  will ;  young  men  were  decoyed 
180 


into  a  union  with  the  most  infamous  characters  i 

and  persons  in  shoals  resorted  to  the  parsons  to  be 
united  in  bonds  which  they  had  no  intention  should 
bind  them,  and  which  were  speedily  broken  to  1)6 
contracted  with  some  new  favourite.  The  sailors 
from  the  neighbouring  docks  were  steady  j>atrons  of 
this  mode  :  it  was  stated  by  the  keeper  of  one  of 
the  taverns,  that  often,  when  the  fleet  was  in,  two 
or  three  hundred  marriages  were  contracted  in  a 
week.  Persons  of  a  more  respectable  character  also 
at  times  resorted  to  the  Fleet.  Thus  the  Hon. 
Henry  Fox  .was  here  married  to  Georgina  Caroline, 
daughter  of  the  second  Duke  of  EicJimond.  Pennant 
thus  describes  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Fleet  in  his 
time  :  '  In  walking  along  the  street  in  my  youth, 
on  the  side  next  the  prison,  I  have  often  been 
tempted  by  the  question  :  "  Sir,  will  you  be  pleased 
to  walk  in  and  be  married  ? "  Along  this  most 
lawless  space  was  hung  up  the  frequent  sign  of  a 
male  and  female  hand  conjoined,  with  "  maniagea 
performed  within  "  written  beneath.  A  dirty  fellow 
invited  you  in.  The  parson  was  seen  walking  before 
his  shop,  a  squalid,  dirty  figure,  clad  in  a  tattered 
plaid  night-gown,  -with  a  fiery  face,  and  ready  to 
couple  you  for  a  dram  of  gin  or  a  pipe  of  tobacco.' 
— London,  p.  193.  Registers  of  these  marriages 
were  kept  by  the  various  parties  who  officiated.  A 
collection  of  theoe  books,  purchased  by  government 
in  1821,  and  deposited  in  the  Consistory  Court  of 
London,  amounted  to  the  inci'cdible  number  oi 
between  two  and  three  hundred  large  registers,  and 
upwards  of  one  thousand  smaller  books,  called 
pocket-books.  These  registers  were  not  received  as 
evidence  in  a  court  of  law  [Doe  d  Davks  v.  Gatacre^ 
8  Carr.  and  P.  578),  not  because  the  marriage  was 
invalid,  but  because  the  parties  engaged  in  the  cere- 
mony were  so  worthless  that  they  wero  deemed 
undeserving  of  credit.  Various  attempts  were  made 
to  stop  this  practice  by  acts  of  parliament.  By  6 
and  7  Will.  HI.  c.  52,  and  again  by  7  and  8  Will. 
III.  c.  35,  penalties  were  imposed  on  clergymen  cele- 
brating any  marriage  without  banns ;  but  these 
provisions  were  without  effect  upon  men  who  had 
nothing  to  lose.  At  length,  the  nuisance  became 
intolerable,  for,  owing  to  the  difficidty  of  proving 
these  marriages,  respectable  parties,  who  in  folly 
had  entered  into  them,  found  it  often  impossible  to 
establish  their  marriage,  and  the  greatest  confusion 
was  in  consequence  produced.  The  act  of  the  26th 
Geo.  II.  c.  S3,  was  therefore  passed,  which  struck  at 
the  root  of  the  matter  by  declaring  that  all  mar- 
riages, except  in  Scotland,  solemnised  otherwiso 
than  in  a  church  or  public  chapel,  where  banna 
have  been  published,  unless  by  special  licence, 
shoidd  be  utterly  void.  This  act  met  with  strenuous 
opposition  in  the  House  of  Commons,  especially 
by  Mr  Fox,  who  had  been  himself  married  in  the 
Fleet,  but  ultimately  it  was  passed  into  a  law.  The 
public,  however,  were  unwilling  to  surrender  theix' 
privilege,  and  on  the  26th  March  1754,  the  day  before 
the  act  came  into  operation,  there  were  no  less  than 
217  marriages  entered  in  one  register  alone.  See 
Bum's  History  of  Fleet  Marriages,  to  which  we  are 
indebted  for  many  of  the  above  particulars, 

FLEET  PRISON,  a  celebrated  London  jail, 
which  stood  on  the  east  side  of  Farrin^don  Street, 
on  what  was  formerly  called  Fleet  Market.  The 
keeper  of  it  was  called  the  Warden  of  the  Fleet. 
It  derived  its  name  from  the  Fleet  rivulet,  so  named 
from  its  rapidity,  which  flowed  into  tlie  Thames. 
By  the  Act  5  and  6  Victoria,  the  Fleet  Prison  and 
the  Marshalsea  were  abolished,  and  tlieir  functions 
transferred  to  the  Queen's  Bench,  under  the  new 
name  of  the  Queen's  Prison.  The  Fleet  was  the 
I  king's  prison  so  far  back  as  the  12th  c,  and  a  recep- 
!  tacle  for  debtors  since  about  the  same  period.  The 


FLEETWOOD— FLEMISH  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 


followers  of  Watt  Tyler  burned  it  in  the  reign  of 
I\ich:ir(l  11.  In  the  16th  and  17th  centuries,  it 
acquired  a  high  historical  interest  from  its  having 
been  the  prison  of  the  religious  martyrs  of  the 
reigns  of  5iary  and  Elizabeth,  and  of  the  political 
victims  of  the  Courts  of  the  Star  Chamber  and  High 
Commission  in  that  of  Charles  I.  On  the  abolition 
of  the  Star  Chamber  in  1641,  it  became  a  place  of 
confinement  for  debtors  and  persons  committed  for 
contempt  from  the  Courts  of  Chancery,  Exchequer, 
and  Common  Pleas.  During  the  18th  c,  it  was  the 
Bcene  of  every  kind  of  atrocity  and  brutality,  from 
the  extortion  of  the  keepers  and  the  custom  of  the 
■warden  underletting  it.  The  Fleet  was  several 
times  rebuilt ;  the  last  building  was  erected  after 
the  burning  of  the  older  one  in  the  Gordon  riots  of 
1780,  tlie  predecessor  of  which  had  been  destroyed 
in  the  great  tire  of  London  in  1G66.  Latterly,  it 
usually  contained  250  prisoners,  and  kept  ward  of 
about  GO  outdoor  detenus  for  debt,  privileged  to 
live  within  the  rides. 

FLEETWOOD,  or  FLEETWOOD-ON-WYRE, 
a  small  but  thriving  town,  seaport,  and  military 
station  of  England,  in  the  county  of  Lancashire,  is 
situated  on  a  promontory  at  the  mouth  of  the 
estuary  of  the  Wyre,  about  20  miles  south-west 
from  Lancaster.  It  is  a  modern  town,  and  owes 
its  origin  and  importance  to  its  facilities  for  railway 
and  steam-vessel  communication.  It  is  handsomely 
laid  out,  has  an  excellent  harbour,  and  is  a  favourite 
resort  for  sea-bathing.  A  government  school  of 
musketry,  which  promises  to  be  for  the  north 
of  England  what  Hythe  and  Aldershott  are  for 
the  south,  is  now  in  full  operation  here.  It  has 
a  staff  of  instructors,  and  quai-ters  for  300  men 
and  GO  officers;  besides  a  substantial  hut-encamj)- 
nieut,  about  a  mile  from  the  town,  for  200  men  and 
14  officers,  where  there  are  quarters  for  married 
soldiers,  hospital,  lecture-rooms,  &c.,  and  a  large 
tract  of  hind  for  rifle  practice.  In  1872,  707  vessels, 
of  186,991  tons,  entered,  and  636,  of  185,038  tons, 
cleared  the  port.    Pop.  (1871)  4428. 

FLEMISH  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERA- 
TURE. The  Vlaemisch  or  Flemish  is  a  form  of 
Low  German  still  spoken  in  the  Belgian  provinces 
of  East  and  West  Flanders,  Limburg,  Antwerp, 
North  Brabant,  and  in  some  parts  of  Holland  and 
the  Walloon  provinces  of  Belgium.  So  little  change 
has  taken  place  in  this  dialect,  that  the  form  of 
speech  in  which  the  Council  of  Liptines  drew  up  (in 
742)  the  creed,  in  which  pagans  were  made  to  express 
their  renunciation  of  idolatry  on  being  converted  to 
Christianity,  requires  only  the  alteration  of  a  few 
letters  to  make  it  intelligible  to  a  modern  Fleming. 
Flemish  has  much  affinity  with  the  Frisian,  and 
constitutes,  together  with  modern  Dutch  (which  was 
originally  identical  with  it,  and  now  only  differs 
from  it  in  a  few  orthographical  and  otherwise 
unessential  particulars),  the  national  tongue  of  the 
whole  of  the  Low  Countries.  The  most  ancient 
record  of  Flemish,  is  a  fragment  of  a  translation  in 
prose  of  the  Psalms  a  thousand  j^ears  old.  In  the 
13th  c,  public  deeds  began  to  be  drawn  up  in  the 
vernacular,  which  are  perfectly  intelligible  in  the 
present  day  (as  the  Ordinance  of  Henry  I.  of  Brabant, 
1229,  in  the  Brussels  Booh  of  Privileges).  In 
the  same  century,  J.  van  Maerlant,  the  '  father  of 
B'lemish  poets,'  author  of  The  Historical  Mirror, 
Wapen  Martin,  BymbilJ,  Sec,  and  W.  van  Uten- 
liove  composed  numerous  poems,  and  translated 
from  the  French  and  German,  and  very  probably 
from  the  Latin.  Willems  and  other  critics  believe 
that  to  the  Flemish  must  be  ascribed  the  honour 
ef  the  original  and  entire  poem  of  Reinairt  Vos, 
iho  first  \}OiXt  of  which  they  refer  to  the  middle  of 
970 


the  12th  c,  while  the  second  part  is  attributed 
to  W.  van  Utenhove,  and  sujtposed  to  have  been 
written  about  1250.    The  14th  c.  was  remarkable 
for  the  numbers  and  excellence  of  the  Flemish 
Sj:>rekkers,   Ztgijers,    and    Vinders,    or  wandering 
poets,  some  of  whose  works  liave  been  published 
by  Blommaert ;  and  for  the  origin  of  the  Chambers 
of  Rhetoric,  which  exerted  a  marked  influence  on 
the  progress  of  literature  during  succeeding  ages, 
and  became  the  arbiters  of  literary  and  dran)atio 
fame  through  the  Netherlands  generally.    In  the 
16th  c,  the  French  element  gained  ascendency, 
and  the  old  Flemish  lost  much  of  its  original 
terseness  and  purity.    Numerous  translations  of 
the  Scriptures  appeared;  among  the  most  remark- 
able of  which  are  the  Psalms  by  Dathenus  (1556), 
and  by  Marnix  (1580),  the  author  of  the  Roomsche 
Biekorf  (1569).      The  translation   of   the  entire 
Bible  was  not  effected  tiU  1618,  when  the  General 
Synod  of  Dort  decided  to  employ  learned  men 
capable  of  giving  a  correct  version  from  the  Hebrew 
and  Greek  texts ;  and  this  great  work  was  finally 
completed  by  two  Flemings,  Baudaert  and  Walona 
and  two   Dutchmen,   Bogermann  and  Hommius. 
Strenuous  efforts  were  also  made,  at  this  period, 
to  give  greater  freedom  to  the  Flemish  language ; 
and  hence  this  original  Flemish  version  of  the  Bible 
has  become  a  standard  in  regard  to  the  construction 
and  orthography  of  the  language.    Hooft,  Vondel, 
and  Cats  are  the  three  men  whose  names  stand 
foremost  among  the  Flemish  writers  of  the  17th 
century.    Hooft  was  a  poet,  but  he  is  best  known 
by  his  History  of  the  Netherlands,  which  is  held 
in  high  esteem  by  his  countrymen.    Vondel,  who 
was  one  of  the  leading  men  of  his  day,  made  hia 
tragedies  the  vehicles  of  hurling  the  most  cutting 
satire  on  every  obnoxious  measure  of  the  govern- 
ment ;  and  his  works  still  maintain  their  groimd. 
He  had  great  versatility  of  powers  ;  and  in  his  latter 
years,  his  talents  were  directed  to  the  exaltation  of 
Catholicism,  to  which  he  had  been  converted.  Cats 
was  essentially  the  poet  of  the  people ;  and  for  200 
years,  liis  works,  popularly  known  as  the  Household 
Bible,  have  been  cherished  alike  among  the  poor  and 
wealthy.    Although  Cats  was  a  skiljful  lawyer,  an 
active  statesman,  and  a  profound  scholar,  he  found 
time  to  compose  a  great  number  of  works,  as  the 
ZorgvUet;  Trouvxring  (the  Wedding  Ring);  HoU' 
welyck  (Marriage),  which  exhibit  the  most  intimate 
acquaintance  with  the  everyday-life  of  his  country- 
men.    His  Moral  EmUevis  have  recently  (1859) 
been  translated  into  English,  and  published  by 
Messrs  Longman  &  Co.    The  18th  c.  was  barren  of 
poetic  genius  in  the  Low  Countries,  but  it  produced 
several  good  philologists,  as  Stevens,  Huydecoper, 
and  Ten  Kate,  the  latter  of  whom  is  the  author  of 
a  work  on  the  Flemish  language,  which  has  served 
as  a  fundamental  authority  for  modern  writers. 
The  arbitrary  measures  of  the  French  government, 
under  Napoleon,  against  the  official  use  of  Flemish, 
had  the  effect  of  crushing  for  a  time  the  very  spirit 
of   nationalism,   while  it  completely  annihilated 
native  literature ;   and  it  was  not  till  dfter  the 
revolution  of   IS-'iO,  that  the   Flemish  language 
regained  its  footing  in  the  Belgian  provinces.  Tiiig 
revival  of  the  national  form  of  speech  is  mainly 
due  to  the  unremitting  efforts  of  such  waiters  aa 
Willems,  Bilderdijk,  Cornelissen,  Blommaert,  Con- 
science, Delecourt,  Ledeganck,  &c.,  whose  works 
have  imparted  fresh  vigour,  and  greater  granunatical 
precision  to  the  Flemish.    In  1841,  on  the  occasion 
of  a  linguistic  congress  held  at  Ghent,  the  members 
of  the  government  for  the  first  time  publicly  recog- 
nised the  existence  of  the  Flemish  element  in  the 
people,  and  addressed  the  meeting  in  the  national 
dialect.    The  last  thirty  years  have  confirmed  this 


FLEMMING— FLESH-FLY. 


«oovenient ;  and  while  the  best  foreign  works  have 
Oiien  rendered  into  Flemish,  the  writings  of  Blom- 
maert,  Conscience  (q.  v.),  and  other  native  authors 
have  been  translated  into  many  of  the  European 
tongues.  See  Sleecx  on  the  History  of  the  Flemish, 
and  its  Relation  to  other  Languages ;  Willems  (1819 
— 1824),  Verhandl.  ov.  d.  Nederduyt. ;  0.  Delepierre, 
History  of  Flemish  Literature  (18G0). 

FLE  MMING,  Paul,  one  of  the  best  German 
poets  of  the  17th  c,  was  born  October  15,  1609,  at 
Hartenstein,  in  the  principality  of  Schonburg,  where 
bis  father  was  minister.  He  studied  medicine  at 
Leipsic,  but  was  induced  by  the  distractions  of  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  to  retire  to  Holstein  in  1633. 
In  the  same  year  he  accompanied  the  embassy 
sent  by  the  Duke  of  Holstein  to  Russia,  and  in 
1635,  was  attached  to  the  more  splendid  embassy 
sent  out  to  Persia.  He  returned  in  1639,  married, 
and  resolved  to  settle  as  a  physician  in  Hamburg, 
but  died  there  2d  April  1640.  F.  stands  at  the 
head  of  the  German  lyi-ic  poets  of  the  17th  c.  His 
Geistliche  und  weltliche  Poemaia  (Jena,  1642)  contain 
many  exquisite  love  songs,  which,  for  more  than  a 
century,  remained  unequalled  in  finish  and  sweetness. 
Others  are  distinguished  for  enthusiasm  of  feeling, 
ardent  patriotism,  andmanly  vigour,  while  his  sonnets 
are  marked  by  strength  and  thorough  originality. 
F.'s  longer  poems  describe  the  adventures  of  his 
joarney,  occasionally  at  least  with  great  spirit, 
though  they  are  not  free  from  the  weaknesses  of  his 
time.  His  beautiful  hymn.  In  alien  meinen  Thaten, 
composed  before  his  journey  to  Persia,  proves  his 
genius  as  a  writer  of  sacred  songs.  His  life,  with  his 
select  poems,  was  published  by  Schwab  (Stuttgard, 
1820).  Compare  Knapp,  Lvangelischer  Liederschatz 
(Stuttg.  1837),  and  Mliller  in  the  Bibliotheic  Deutscher 
Didder  des  17  Jahrhundert  (3  vols.,  Leipsic,  1822) ; 
and  Varnliagen  von  Ense,  in  the  4th  voL  of  the 
Biographische  Denkmale. 

FLE'NSBORG,  the  most  populous  and  consider- 
able town  in  the  duchy  of  Slesvig,  at  the  extremity 
of  the  Flensborg  Fjord,  an  inlet  of  the  Baltic,  and  19 
miles  north  of  the  town  of  Slesvig.  Pop.  21,325.  It 
is  the  capital  of  a  bailiwick  of  the  same  name,  which 
included  the  north  part  of  the  district  supposed  to 
have  been  the  country  of  the  Angels,  or  Angli.  F. 
is  said  to  have  been  founded  in  the  12th  c,  and 
named  from  its  founder,  the  Knight  Flenes.  In 
1284  it  received  municipal  rights  from  King  Val- 
demar.  F.  is  pleasantly  situated,  and  has  a  good 
harbour.  It  has  sugar  refineries  and  distilleries, 
and  manufactures  of  cloth,  paper,  soap,  and  tiles  of 
superior  quality.  The  trade  is  considerable.  F. 
owns  between  200  and  300  ships,  many  of  which  are 
built  in  its  own  yards.  A  railway,  43  miles  long, 
connects  F.  with  Tonuingen  on  the  Eyder. 

FLERS,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
Ome,  north  of  France,  35  miles  west-north-west  of 
Alencon.  It  has  an  old  castle,  which  was  burned 
down  in  the  Chouan  war,  but  which  has  been  recently 
restored.  F.  has  considerable  manufactures  of  linen, 
fustian,  and  especially  'of  ticking.    Pop.  (1872)  7983. 

FLESH  is  the  ordinary  terra  for  muscular  tissue. 
After  the  removal  of  the  blood-vessels,  nerves,  con- 
nective (or  cellular)  tissue,  &c.,  the  flesh  is  found 
to  consist  of  various  textural  elements,  which  are 
described  in  the  aiticle  Muscle  (q.  v.).  Numerous 
analyses  have  been  made  of  the  miiscular  sub- 
stance of  various  animals.  In  Dr  Day's  translation 
of  Siinon's  Animal  Chemistry,  published  by  the 
Bydenhcim  Society,  there  are  analyses  of  the  flesh  of 
mail,  the  ox,  calf,  i»ig,  roe,  pigeon,  fowl,  caqs  and 
tro'it.  The  following  ta])le  gives  tlie  determinations 
of  the  individual  constituents  of  the  flesh  of  oxen,  or, 
in  ordjiia?.y  language,  of  beef  freed,  as  far  as  possible, 


from  blood-vessels,  etc.,  and  may  be  regaided  as  fairly 
representing  the  composition  of  flesh  generally : 


I'er  cent    Per  rent. 


Witter 

varies 

from  74-0  to 

800 

Solid  constituents 

vary 

If     2G  0  H 

20-0 

1000 

The  latter  beinpr  made  up  of 

Muscular  fibre  which 

varies  from  16-40  » 

17-70 

Gelatigenuus  aubstance 

II    0  GO  «t 

1  90 

Albumen 

II    2-20  „ 

300 

Creatine 

If 

II    0  07  II 

0  14 

Creatinine 

undetermined. 

Inosic  acid 

do. 

Fat 

II 

If    1-50  to 

2  80 

Lactic  acid  (CsHsOs.HO) 

II 

II    OGO  1, 

0  68 

Pli()>«phoric  acid 

It 

II    C  CG  „ 

0-70 

Potash 

II 

II    0  50  „ 

064 

Soda 

II    0  07  II 

009 

Chloride  of  sodium 

II 

II    0  04  II 

0  09 

Lime 

II 

ti    0  02  II 

0  03 

Magnesia 

II    O  Oi  II 

0-08 

Long  as  the  above  list  of  substances  is,  it  does 
not  include  all  the  ingi-edients  of  flesh.  In  the 
freshly  expressed  muscular  juice,  which  exhibits 
a  strong  acid  reaction  (from  free  lactic  acid,  and 
from  acid  plios})hates  of  the  alkalies),  we  also  find 
small  quantities  of  Sarcine  or  Hypoxanthine  (q.  v.), 
and  of  formic,  butyric,  and  acetic  acids — which  may, 
however,  be  mere  products  of  decomposition;  very 
minute  quantities  of  m-ic  acid,  and  sometimes  a 
trace  of  urea,  which,  however,  occurs  in  very  appre- 
ciable quantity  in  the  muscles  of  persons  who  have 
died  of  cholera,  and  in  very  considerable  quantity 
in  the  flesh  of  the  plagiostomous  fishes,  while  in 
outlier  fishes  not  a  trace  of  it  can  be  detected — an 
apparent  anomaly  to  which  at  present  we  see  no 
clue ;  and  in  the  juice  of  the  heart  of  mammals,  and 
in  smaller  quantity  in  their  other  muscles,  a  kind 
of  sugar  termed  Inosite  (q.  v.).  Bernard  has  recently 
discovered  Glycogen  (q.  v.)  in  the  muscles  of  the 
embryos  of  various  animals. 

In  regard  to  the  inorganic  constituents  of  the 
juice  of  flesh,  Liebig  directs  especial  attention  to 
the  fact,  that  this  fluid  '  in  all  animals  is  i)articu- 
larly  rich  in  potash,  and  that  it  also  contains 
chloride  of  potassiiun,  with  only  traces  of  chloride 
of  sodium  ;  while  in  the  blood  only  proportionally 
small  quantities  of  the  salts  of  potash  and  prepon- 
derating quantities  of  the  salts  of  soda  and  of 
common  salt,  are  present.'  He  further  notices  the 
constant  excess  of  the  phosphates  over  the  clilorides, 
and  of  the  phosphate  of  lime  over  that  of  magnesia 
in  the  former  fluid,  as  points  of  physiological  im- 
portance. The  value  of  these  investigations  will 
be  shewn  in  the  article  Metajmorphosis  of  Tissue 
(q.  v.). 

It  is  worthy  of  notice,  in  connection  both  with 
physiology  and  dietetics,  that  the  dried  flesh  of 
the  ox  is  identical  in  its  idtimate  composition  with 
dried  blood,  as  is  shewn  by  the  follo\ving  analywa^ 
which  were  made  by  Professor  Jjyon  Playfair : 

Beet  Ox-bIoo<L 

Carbon,             .          .          51-83  61  95 

Hydrogen,  .         .                7-57  7-17 

Nitrogen,          .         .          1501  15  07 

Oxvgen,      .         .          .     21-37  21-39 

Ashes,     .          .          ,           4  23  4  42 

This  analysis  singularly  confirms  the  statement 
made  previously  by  an  eminent  French  physif. le- 
gist, that  in  so  far  as  ultimate  organic  conqtosition 
is  concerned,  '  the  blood  is  liquid  flesh.' — For  further 
information  on  the  subject,  we  may  refer  to  Liebig's 
Researches  on  t/ie  Cheynistry  of  Food,  translated  by 
Gregory,  and  Lehmann's  Physiological  C/ieinistryt 
vol.  iii. 

FLESH-FLY,  or  BLUE-BOTTLE-FLY  (Musca 

vomitoria),  an  insect  of  the  same  genus  with  the 
common  House-fly  (q.  v.),  which  it  much  exceeds 
in  size,  although  it  is  not  equal  in  size  to  tht 


FLETA— FLETCHER. 


Blow-fly  (q.  <.).  The  forehead  is  rust-coloured,  the 
thorax  grayish,  the  abdomen  blue  with  three  black 
bands.  The  expanse  of  wings  is  nearly  one  inch.  It  is 
abundant  throughout  Britain  and  Europe  generally, 
and  deposits  its  eggs  on  flesh,  for  which  purpose  it 
often  enters  houses,  having  a  remaikably  delicate 
sense  of  smelling.  The  maggots  are  of  very  frequent 
occurrence  on  meat  in  summer,  notwithstanding  all 
care  that  can  be  taken, — A  nearly  allied  species 
{M.  Coisar)  is  distinguished  by  its  golden  green 
colour,  and  is  also  common  in  Britain.  It  is  found 
in  houses  from  the  beginning  of  spring  to  the  end  of 
autumn.  Another  (31.  lardaria),  with  silky  tawny 
face,  a  black  stripe  on  the  crown,  thorax  glittering 
white  with  four  black  stripes,  and  abdomen  bluish- 
gray,  tesselated  with  black,  is  most  common  in  the 
end  of  autumn,  frequenting  bushes  of  ivy  and  late 
flowers,  and  is  also  a  pest  of  the  larder. 

FLE'TA,  the  title  of  a  valuable  treatise  on  the 
law  of  England.  It  is  not  known  by  whom  this 
treatise,  which  is  one  of  the  earliest  authorities  on 
English  law,  was  written,  and  it  derives  its  title 
from  the  circumstance  that  it  was  written  in  the 
Fleet  prison.  Lord  Campbell  remarks — Lives  of  the 
Chancellors,  i.  166  and  note  :  *  I  shall  rejoice  if  I 
do  tardy  justice  to  the  memory  of  Robert  Burnel, 
decidedly  the  first  in  this  class,  and  if  I  attract 
notice  to  his  successors,  who  walked  in  his  footsteps. 
To  them,  too,  we  are  probably  indebted  for  the 
treatises  entitled  Fleta  and  Britton,  M-hich  are  said 
to  have  been  ^vl•itten  at  the  request  of  the  king,  and 
which,  though  in  ferior  in  style  and  arrangement  ko 
Bracton,  are  wonderful  performances  for  such  an  age. 
Fleta  must  have  been  written  after  the  13th  year  of 
the  king  (Edward  I.), and  not  much  later;  for  it  fre- 
quently quotes  the  statute  of  Westminster  the  second, 
without  referring  to  the  later  statutes  of  the  reign. 

FLETCHER,  Andrew,  of  Salton,  a  celebrated 
Gcottish  patriot  and  politician,  was  the  son  of  Sir 
Robert  Fletcher  and  Catherine  Bruce,  daughter  of 
Sir  Henry  Bruce  of  Clackmannan.  He  was  born  in 
1653.  Notwithstanding  the  strong  anti-English 
feelings  which  characterised  him  through  life,  F. 
was  of  English  descent  by  the  father's  side ;  his 
father  being  the  fifth  in  the  direct  line  from  Sir 
Bernard  Fletcher  of  the  county  of  York.  But  his 
mother  was  of  the  royal  House  of  Scotland,  the 
first  of  the  Clackmannan  family  having  been  the 
third  son  of  the  Lord  of  Annandale,  Robert  de 
Bruce,  who  was  the  grandfather  of  the  great  King 
Robert.  F.'s  father  who  died  in  his  childhood, 
consigned  him  to  the  care  of  Gilbert  Biirnet,  then 
minister  of  Salton,  afterwards  the  well-known 
Bishop  of  Salisbury  ;  by  whom  he  was  instructed 
not  only  in  literature  and  religion,  but  in  those 
principles  of  free  government  oi  which  he  afterwards 
became  so  zealous  an  advocate.  So  early  as  1681, 
when  he  sat  in  parliament  for  the  first  time  as  com- 
missioner for  East  Lothian,  F.  offered  so  determined 
an  opposition  to  the  measures  of  the  Duke  of  York 
(afterwards  James  II.),  then  acting  as  the  Royal 
Commissioner  in  Scotland,  that  he  found  it  neces- 
sary to  retire,  first  into  England,  and  then  into 
Holland.  He  there  entered  into  close  alliance  with 
the  Enghsh  refugees,  who  had  assembled  in  consi- 
derable numbers ;  and  on  his  return  to  England  in 
1683,  he  shared  the  counsels  of  the  party  of  which 
Russell,  Essex,  Howard,  Algernon  Sydney,  and 
John  Hampden  (the  grandson  of  the  still  more 
famous  patriot  of  the  same  name)  were  the  leaders. 
Though  usually  regarded  as  a  republican,  F.'s  poli- 
tical creed,  like  that  of  Algernon  Sydney,  approached 
far  nearer  to  aristocracy  than  to  democracy  in 
the  modern  sense;  for  though  he  was  disposed  to 
restrict  the  monarchical  element  of  the  constitution 
373 


within  the  narrowest  limits,  if  not  to  abolish  it 
altogether,  he  was  so  far  from  being  an  advocate  for 
a  universal  participation  in  political  rights,  that  one 
of  his  favourite  schemes  for  the  reformation  of  the 
hosts  of  vagrants  and  paupers  by  whom  Scotland 
was  infested  in  his  day,  consisted  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  slavery  in  the  form  in  which  it  had 
existed  in  the  classical  nations  of  antiquity.  On 
the  discovery  of  the  Rye  House  plot,  F.  returned 
to  Holland.  His  next  visit  to  England  was  as  a 
volunteer  under  the  unfortunate  Duke  of  Monmouth 
in  1685 ;  but  he  was  compelled  to  leave  the 
insurgent  army,  at  the  beginning  of  the  enterprise, 
in  consequence  of  his  having  shot  the  mayor  of 
Lynn,  with  whom  he  had  had  a  personal  quanvl 
about  a  horse.  The  next  hiding-place  which  F. 
selected  was  Spain ;  but  he  had  no  sooner  arrived, 
than  he  was  thrown  into  prison  at  the  instance 
of  the  English  ambassador,  and  would  have  been 
transmitted  to  England,  to  share  the  fate  of  hia 
fellow-patriots,  had  he  not  been  mysteriously  deli- 
vered from  prison  by  an  unknown  friend.  From 
Spain  he  proceeded  to  Hungary,  where  he  entered 
the  army  as  a  volunteer,  and  greatly  distinguished 
himself.  He  returned  to  England  at  the  Revolution* 
A  few  years  later,  he  met  in  London,  accidentally, 
it  slioidd  seem,  the  famous  William  Paterson,  the 
founder  of  the  Bank  of  England,  and  the  projector 
of  the  Darien  Expedition  in  London  ;  and  it  was  at 
F.'s  solicitation  that  Paterson  came  to  Scotland, 
and  offered,  to  the  acceptance  of  his  country- 
men, a  project  which  he  had  originally  intended 
should  be  carried  out  by  the  far  greater  resources 
either  of  the  trading  communities  of  the  Hanse 
towns,  or  of  the  princes  of  the  German  empire. 
The  bitterness  caused  by  the  treatment  which  the 
Darien  colonists  received  at  the  hands  of  King 
William's  government,  tended  to  confirm  F.  and 
his  friends  in  their  opposition  to  the  Union  with 
England,  and  led  to  his  delivering  in  parliament 
those  spirited  harangues  in  favour  of  an  exclusive 
Scottish  nationality,  which  still  stir  the  blood  of 
his  countrymen.  After  the  Union,  he  retired  in 
disgust  from  public  life,  and  died  in  London  in 
1716.  F.'s  writings  originally  appeared  in  the 
form  of  tracts,  and  anonymously  ;  they  were,  how* 
ever,  collected  and  rei^rinted  at  London  in  1737, 
under  the  title  of  TJie  Political  Works  of  Andreio 
Fletcher,  Esquire. 

FLETCHER,  Giles  and  Phineas,  were  the  sons 
of  Dr  Giles  Fletcher,  Queen  Elizabeth's  ambassador 
to  the  court  of  Russia,  and  cousins  to  Fletcher  the 
dramatist. 

Giles,  the  elder,  was  bom  about  1580 ;  he  was 
educated  at  Cambridge,  and  died  at  his  living  at 
Aldei-ton  in  1623.  His  chief  poetical  work  is  a 
sacred  poem,  entitled  Christ's  Victory  and  Triumph^ 
which  appeared  at  Cambridge  in  1610.  This  poem, 
although  once  admired,  is  now  unknown  to  general 
readers,  and  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  having,  to 
some  extent,  moidded  the  majestic  muse  of  Milton. 

PniNEAS,  the  younger  brother  of  Giles,  was  bom 
about  1584,  educated  at  Eton  and  Cambridge,  and 
became  rector  of  Hilgay,  in  Norfolk,  in  1621,  and 
died  there  in  1660.  His  most  important  poem,  the 
Purple  Island,  or  the  Isle  of  Man,  was  published  in 
1633.  It  contains  an  elaborate  description  of  the 
human  body  and  mind — the  former  being  given  with 
great  anatomical  minuteness.  The  mind  is  repre- 
sented as  being  beleaguered  with  the  vices,  and 
likely  to  be  subdued,  when  an  angel  comes  to  the 
rescue— the  angel  being  James  I.  Although  to  a 
large  extent  formal  and  pedantic,  the  Purple  Island 
abounds  in  fine  passages,  in  which  the  lusciousnes? 
of  Spenser  and  the  gravity  of  Milton  are  curiously 
mingled. 


J?\LETCHEE^FLEXURE. 


FLETCHER,    John.     See    Beaumont  and 

FJ- ETCHER. 

FLEUR-DE-LIS.  Authorities  are  divided  as  to 
9,  nether  this  celebrated  emblem  is  derived  from  the 
wnite  lily  of  the  garden,  or  from  the  flag  or  iris, 
which,  as  generally  represented,  it 
more  resembles  both  in  form  and 
colour.  'Ancient  heralds,'  says  Newton 
{Display,  p.  145),  'tell  us  that  the 
Franks  of  old  had  a  custom,  at  the 
proclamation  of  their  king,  to  elevate 
him  upon  a  shield  or  target,  and  place 
Fleur-de-Lis.  in  his  hand  a  reed  or  flag  in  blossom, 
instead  of  a  sceptre  ;  and  from  thence 
the  kings  of  the  first  and  second  race  in  France 
are  ixpresented  with  sceptres  in  their  hands  like 
the  flag  with  its  flower,  and  which  flowers  became 
the  armorial  figvires  of  France.'  However  this 
may  be,  or  whatever  may  be  the  value  of  the 
other  legendary  tales,  such  as  that  a  bli;e  banner, 
embroidered  with  golden  fleurs-de-lis,  came  down 
from  heaven ;  that  an  angel  gave  it  to  King 
Clovus  at  his  baptism,  and  the  like ;  there  can 
be  little  doubt  that,  from  Clovis  downwards,  the 
kings  of  France  bore  as  their  arms  first  an  inde- 
finite number,  and  latterly  three  golden  liUes  on  a 
blue  field,  or,  as  heralds  would  say,  azure,  three 
fleurs-de-lis,  Or — It  was  Charles  VI.  who  reduced 
what  had  hitherto  been  the  indefinite  number  of 
fleurs-de-lis  to  three,  disjjosed  two  and  one ;  '  some 
conjecture  upon  account  of  the  Trinity,  others 
Bay,  to  represent  the  three  difFei'ent  races  of  the 
kings  of  France.' — Nisbet,  i.  383.  Many  English 
and  Scotch  families  bear  the  fleur-de-lis  in  some 
portion  of  their  shield,  and  generally  with  some 
reference  to  France. 

FLEURUS,  a  small  town  of  Belgium,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Hainault,  is  situated  north  of  the  left  bank 
of  the  Sambre,  and  15  miles  west  of  Namur  :  pop. 
about  2200.  It  has  been  the  scene  of  several  con- 
tests, the  last  and  most  imjiortant,  however,  being 
the  battle  of  F.,  fought  here  26th  June  1794,  between 
the  az'my  of  the  French  Republic,  consisting  of 
89,000  troops,  under  Jourdan,  and  the  allies,  who 
were  inferior  in  numerical  strength,  under  the 
Prince  of  Saxe-Coburg.  The  latter  leader  gave 
orders  for  a  retreat  at  the  very  moment  when  a 
resolute  advance  might  have  decided  the  victory 
in  his  favour,  and  the  result  was,  that  Jourdan 
was  enabled  to  unite  his  army  with  those  of  the 
Moselle,  the  Ardennes,  and  the  North,  and  that  the 
allied  forces  were  compelled  for  a  time  to  evacuate 
Flanders. 

FLEURY,  FLORY,  FLOWRY,  FLEURETTE, 
&c.,  in  heraldry,  signifies  that  the  object  is  adorned 
with  fleurs-de-lis  ;  a  cross-fleury,  for  example,  is  a 
cross,  the  ends  of  which  are  in  the  form  of  fleurs- 
de-lis.  There  are  several  varieties  in  the  modes 
of  representing  these  crosses,  which  has  led  to 
distinctions  being  made  between  them  by  heralds 
too  triviaJ  to  be  mentioned  :  but  they  are  all  dis- 
tinguishable from  the  cross-potance,  or  potancee, 
incorrectly  spelled  patonce  by  English  heralds. 
{Mackenzie's  Science  of  Heraldry,  p.  44).  In  the 
latter,  the  limbs  are  in  the  form  of  the  segments  of 
a  circle,  and  the  foliation  is  a  mere  bud ;  whereas  the 
cross-flemy  hius  the  lim'os  straight  and  the  termin- 
atioua  distinctly  floriated.    Thus — 


CroM-potance.  Cross-fleui^r. 


Perhaps,  the  most  celebrated  instance  of  this  bear- 
ing, is  in  the  case  of  the  double  prei)uce  flowery 
and  counter-flowery  gules  which  suiTounds  the  red 
lion  in  the  royal  arms  of  Scotland,  and  which 
Charlemagne  is  said  to  have  conferred  on  Achaius, 
king  of  Scotland,  for  assistance  in  his  wars.  The 
object,  according  to  Nisbet  (ii.  101),  was  to  shew 
that,  as  the  lion  had  defended  the  lilies  of  France, 
these  '  hereafter  shall  continue  a  defence  for  the 
Scots  Hon,  and  as  a  badge  of  friendship,  vihich 
has  still  continued.'  That  the  lilies  were  assumed 
in  consequence  of  the  intimate  relation  which  pre- 
vailed between  France  and  Scotland  for  so  many 
generations,  will  not  be  doubted;  but  the  special 
occasion  of  the  assumption  may  not  be  admitted 
in  our  day  to  be  quite  beyond  the  reach  of  scep- 
ticism, notwithstanding  Nisbet's  assertion  that  it  is 
so  fully  instructed  by  ancient  and  modern  writers 
that  he  need  not  trouble  his  readers  with  a  long 
catalogue  of  them. 

FLEURY,  CiAUDE,  a  French  church  historian, 
was  born  at  Paris,  6th  December  1640,  and  was 
educated  at  first  for  the  law,  but  preferring  an 
ecclesiastical  career,  subsequently  took  priest's  orders. 
In  1672,  he  became  tutor  to  the  young  Prince  de 
Conti,  who  was  brought  up  along  with  the  dauphin, 
and  at  a  later  period,  to  the  Comte  de  Vermandois, 
natural  son  of  Louis  XIV.  After  the  death  of  the 
Comte  in  1683,  the  French  monarch  appointed  him, 
under  Fenelon,  tutor  to  the  Princes  of  Burgundy, 
Anjou  and  Berri,  and  also  abbot  of  the  Cistercian 
monastery  of  Loc-Dieu.  When  the  princes  had 
comijleted  their  education,  F.  was  rewarded  with 
the  priorate  of  Argenteuil.  The  Didce  of  Orleans 
selected  him  for  confessor  to  the  young  king,  Louis 
XV.,  giving  as  his  reason  for  so  doing,  that  F.  was 
neither  Jansenist,  nor  Molinist,  nor  Ultramoutanist, 
but  Catholic.  F.  held  this  office  till  1722,  when 
the  infirmities  of  age  compelled  him  to  resign  it. 
He  died  14th  July  1723.  F.  was  as  learned  as 
he  was  modest,  and  as  mild  and  kind-hearted 
as  he  was  simple  in  his  manners,  and  upright  in 
his  conduct.  Among  his  numerous  works  may  be 
mentioned,  Moiurs  des  Israelites  (Paris,  1681); 
M(£urs  des  Chretiens  (Paris,  1662) ;  Traite  da  Choix 
et  de  la  Methode  des  Etudes  (Paris,  1686) ;  Institution 
an  Droit  Ecdesiastique  (1687);  and,  above  all,  the 
Histoire  Ecdesiastique  (20  vols.,  Paris,  1691—1720). 
On  this  work,  F.  laboured  tliirty  years.  It  is  marked 
by  great  learning,  and,  on  the  whole,  by  a  judiciously 
critical  spirit.  What  may  be  called  his  professional 
sympathies,  are  held  in  check  by  a  noble  desire  to 
be  impartial,  which  might  well  put  to  the  blush 
the  unveracious  partisanship  of  many  Protestant 
^vriters.  Semler  (q.  v.),  an  eminent  German  theo- 
logical professor,  avowed  that  his  lectures  were  at 
first  mainly  extracts  from  the  Histoire  Ecclesiastioiie. 
Even  Voltaire  praised  it.  'The  history  of  1^.* 
says  he,  '  is  the  best  that  has  ever  been  execiited,* 
D'Alembert,  and  many  others,  recommend  F.'g 
style  as  a  model  of  elegant  simplicity.  The  so- 
called  Ahrege  de  r histoire  Ecdesiastique  de  Fleury^ 
published  at  Berne  in  1776,  is  ascribed  to  Frederic 
the  Great.  A  posthumous  work  of  F.'s,  entitled 
Discours  sur  les  liberies  de  UEylise  GaJUcane,  has 
always  been  very  popular. 

FLE'XURE,  or  FLEXION,  is  the  bending  or 
curving  of  a  line  or  figure  (see  Curvature).  A 
curve  is  said  to  have  a  point  of  contrary  flexure  at 
the  point  where  it  changes  its  character  of  concavity 
or  convexity  towards  a  given  line.  In  the  art  of 
building,  flexure  denotes  the  bending  of  loaded 
beams.  If  a  beam,  supported  at  its  two  ends,  be 
loaded,  it  bends,  its  lower  surface  becoming  convex, 
and  its  upper  concave.  In  this  bending  the  particloa 


FLIES— FLINT. 


ID  the  lower  surface  are  drawn  away  from  each  other, 
and  those  in  the  upper  are  more  closely  packed 
to<^ethei ,  while  between  tlie  snrl'accs  there  is  a  line 
called  the  line  of  no  disturbance,  wherein  the  par- 
ticles are  neither  drawn  asunder  nor  compressed,  and 
from  which  the  mathematical  theory  of  the  flexure 
of  beams  starts.  Experiments  show  that  the  flexure 
of  solid  beams,  sup])orted  at  tlieir  ends,  and  loaded, 
varies — (1)  directly  as  the  load;  (2)  inversely  as  the 
product  of  their  breadths,  and  the  cube  of  their 
depths;  and  (3)  directly  as  the  cube  of  the  distance 
between  the  supports,  while  the  flexure,  if  the  load 
be  uniformly  distributed  over  the  beam,  is  five-eighths 
cf  the  amount  ])roduced  by  the  load  placed  on  its  cen- 
tre. See  Stkength  of  Materials. 
FLIES,  Spanish  or  Bllsterino.  See  Cantiiaris. 

FLINDERS,  Matthew,  an  adventurous  English 
navigator,  to  -whom  we  are  indebted  for  a  correct 
knowledge  of  a  great  portion  of  the  Australian 
coasts,  was  born  at  Donington,  in  Lincolnshire, 
17(30.  He  entered  the  merchant  service  at  an  early 
age,  and  subsequently  the  royal  navy.  In  1795, 
the  vessel  in  which  he  was  midshi[)man  conveyed 
the  govt^rnor  of  New  Holland  to  Botany  Bay ;  and 
while  there,  F.  determined  to  investigate  the  coast 
south  of  Port  Jackson,  about  250  leagues  of  which 
were  laid  down  in  the  charts  as  'unknown.'  With 
an  equally  daring  and  ambitious  young  surgeon  in 
his  ship,  called  Bass,  he  departed  on  the  enterprise 
in  a  small  decked  vessel,  with  a  crew  of  only  six 
men.  Their  chief  discovery  was  the  straits  between 
Van  Diemen's  Land  (now  Tasmania)  and  the  main- 
land of  Australia,  which  were  named  after  Bass. 
In  1801,  F.  obtamed  from  the  British  government 
the  command  of  a  scientific  expedition  for  the 
investigation  of  the  Australian  coasts  and  their 
products.  Commencing  his  examination  at  Cape 
Leuwin,  F.,  in  the  course  of  two  years,  gradually 
explored  the  coast  to  Bass's  Straits,  thence  north- 
wards—laying down  carefully  the  Great  Barrier 
.Reefs — to  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  which  he 
Jioroughly  surveyed  across  to  Timur,  then  back  to 
Cape  Leuwin,  and  round  the  south  coast  to  Port 
Jackson.  In  1810  he  was  liberated  from  a  six  years' 
imprisonment  by  the  French  in  the  Isle  of  France, 
returned  to  England,  and  gave  the  world  the  result 
of  his  researches  in  a  w^ork,  entitled  A  Voyage  to 
Tei~ra  Australia.  He  died  in  July  1814,  the  day 
on  which  his  book  was  published. 

FLINDERS  LAND,  now  South  Aiistralia  (q.v.). 

FLINDE'RSIA,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Cedndaceoi,  one  s])ecies  of  which,  F.  australis, 
yields  timber  little  inferior  to  mahogany.  It  is  much 
used  in  Australia,  and  is  there  called  Callcedra 
Wood. 

FLINT,  a  mineral  which  may  be  regarded  as 
a  variety  of  quartz,  or  as  intermediate  between 
quartz  and  opal,  consisting  almost  entirely  of  silica, 
with  a  very  little  lime,  oxide  of  iron,  water,  car- 
bon, and  sometimes  even  traces  of  organic  matter. 
It  has  a  flat  shell-like  fracture,  is  translucent  or 
tenii-transparent,  and  varies  in  colour  from  a  very 
dark  brown,  or  almost  black,  to  light  brown,  red, 
yellow,  and  grayish  white,  and  is  sometimes  veined, 
clouded,  marbled,  or  spotted.  Dark-coloured  flints 
are  most  common  in  the  chalk,  in  which  prin- 
cipally F.  occurs  imbedded,  forming  nodules  of 
Various  sizes,  sometimes  large  nodular  masses,  of 
ii'regular  and  often  grotesque  shape;  but  gravel 
formed  of  light-colom-ed  flints  is  very  common,  and 
it  is  disi)uted  whether  or  not  a  change  of  colour  has 
taken  place  by  exposure  to  atmospheric  and  other 
chemical  agencies.  F.  is  sometimes  found  in  beds 
or  veins.  It  is  very  abundant  wherever  the  chalk 
formation  extends,  in  England  and  other  countries  ; 


rolled  F.  nodules  are  also  ofien  found  in  com- 
pound rocks,  and  in  alluvial  :'!oil8;  vast  alluvial 
tracts  beinw  sometimes  fuU  of  them.  F.  geodes 
often  coutam  crystals  of  quartz.  F.  nodules  are 
usually  moist  in  the  interior  if  broken  when  newly 
taken  from  their  beds. 

F.  is  sometimes  harder  than  quartz,  sufficiently  so 
to  scratch  it.  The  readiness  with  which  it  strikes 
Are  with  steel  is  well  known,  and  it  would  seem 
that  the  sparks  are  not  all  merely  incandescent 
particles,  heated  by  the  friction,  but  that  in  soma 
of  them  a  chemical  combination  of  silica  and  iron 
takes  place,  causing  great  increase  of  heat.  The 
use  of  the  F.  and  steel  for  igniting  tinder,  once  so 
common,  has  been  almost  superseded  by  that  of 
lucifer-matches,  and  gim-flints  have  given  i)lace 
to  percussion-caps.  According  to  Pliny,  Clias  waa 
the  first  who  struck  fire  with  flint ;  or  more  pro^ 
bably,  he  was  the  first  to  shew  its  apjdication  to 
useful  purposes  ;  and  he  therefore  received  tlie  name 
Pyrodes.  The  most  ancient  use  of  F.  was  probably 
for  sharp  weapons  and  cutting  instruments ;  and  F. 
knives,  axes,  arrow-heads,  &c.,  are  among  the  most 
mteresting  relics  of  rude  antiqxiity. 

At  i^resent,  a  principal  use  of  F.  is  in  the 
manufacture  of  fine  earthenware,  into  the  com- 
position of  which  it  enters,  being  for  this  ]>urpose 
first  calcined,  then  thrown  into  cold  water,  and 
afterwards  powdered. 

The  origin  of  F.  is  a  subject  of  considerable 
difficulty.  Silicious  deposits  are  sometimes  a  purely 
chemical  operation,  as  in  the  case  of  the  silicious 
sinter  formed  round  the  geysers  of  Iceland,  from 
the  evaporation  of  water  largely  charged  with  silex. 
But  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  as  no  evaporation 
could  take  i)lace,  some  other  agent  than  springs  of 
water  saturated  with  silex  must  have  su]ij)lied  the 
materials.  It  is  a  fact  of  considerable  im])ortance 
in  this  inquiry,  that  almost  all  large  masses  of 
limestone  have  thin  silicious  concretions,  or  flints. 
Thus,  chert  is  found  in  carboniferous  and  other 
limestones,  and  menilite  in  the  tertiary  limestones 
of  the  Paris  basin.  The  conditions  necessaiy  for 
the  deposition  of  calcareous  strata  seem  to  be  those 
required  for  the  formation  of  silicious  concretions. 
The  materials  of  both  exist  in  solution  in  sea- water, 
and  as  it  needed  the  foraminifer,  the  coral,  and  the 
mollusc  to  fix  the  carbonate  of  lime  which  formed 
the  chalk  deposits,  so  the  silex  was  secreted  by 
innumerable  diatoms  and  sponges,  and  their  remains 
most  probably  supplied  the  material  of  the  flint. 
The  discovery  by  Dr  Bowerbank  and  other  micro- 
scojiists  of  the  S])icules  of  sponges  and  the  frustules 
of  diatoms  in  almost  every  specimen  of  F.,  has 
clearly  shewn  that  F.  to  a  large  extent,  if  not 
entirely,  owes  its  origin  to  these  minute  organisms. 
It  is,  however,  difficult  to  account  for  the  changes 
that  have  taken  place  in  these  materials  subsequent 
to  their  deposition. 

FLINT,  a  parliamentary  boroiigh  and  seaport 
in  the  east  of  Flintshire,  North  Wales,  formerly  the 
capital  of  the  county,  on  the  left  side  of  the  estuary 
of  the  Dee,  191  miles  north-west  of  London  by  rail, 
and  124  miles  north-west  of  Chester.  It  foi-ma 
a  rectangle  like  a  Roman  camp,  and  is  surroinided 
by  now  nearly  obliterated  ramparts  and  intrench 
ments.  The  Dee  estuary  is  some  miles  wide  here, 
but  is  shallow  and  narrow  at  low  water.  A^esscls 
of  300  tons  reach  the  town.  The  principal  exports 
are  coal  and  lead  from  mines  in  the  vicinity, 
which  afford  the  chief  employment.  Pop.  (IS?!) 
4269.  It  unites  with  seven  other  places  m  sending 
one  member  to  parliament.  Roman  reliu^  and  traces 
of  Roman  lead  smelting  Avorks  have  been  found 
here.  On  a  low  freestone  rock  in  a  tidul  niarsh  are 
the  remains  of  a  castle,  built  by  Heuij  II..  imd 


FLINT— FLINT  IMPLEMENTS  AND  WEAPONS 


dismantled  in  1G47.  The  (loul>le  tower  or  keep  is  40 
feet  in  diameter,  and  includes  two  concenti  ic  walls, 
each  6  feet  thick,  witli  .m  intervening  gallery  8  feet 
broad  ;  within,  is  a  circle  20  feet  in  diameter,  with 
four  entrances.  Deterioration  of  the  channel  of  the 
Dee  has  made  F.  in  a  great  degree  a  port  of  Chester, 
and  here  larger  vessels,  especially  with  timber,  are 
discharged,  and  the  cargoes  floated  up  the  Dee  in 
smaller  vessels,  the  timljcr  in  rafts. 

FLINT,  a  river  of  Georgia,  one  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  unitcis  ou  its  right  with  the 
Chattahoochee,  at  the  south-west  angle  of  the  state, 
to  foi-m  the  Aij^ialachicola,  which,  after  a  course 
of  100  miles,  enters  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The 
F.  itself  is  about  '.i()0  miles  long,  being  practicable 
for  steam-boats  u[)  to  Albany,  about  250  miles 
distant  from  the  sea. 

FUNT,  Timothy,  Rev.,  an  American  clergyman 
and  author,  was  born,  in  1780,  at  Kcading,  Massa- 
chusetts, and  graduated  at  Harvard  College.  In  1802 
he  became  minister  of  the  Congregational  Church  j 
in  Lunenburg,  county  of  Worcester  in  that  state,  I 
where  he  remained  till  1814.    In  the  following  year,  I 
he  became  a  missionary  for  the  valley  of  the  Missis-  i 
sippi,  where  he  was  engaged  in  itinerant  preach- 
ing and  teaching  a  school.    In  1825,  he  returned 
to  the  northern  states;  and  in  182G,  published  his 
Becol lectio)) s  of  Ten  Years  jmssed  in  the  Valley  of  the 
Mississippi  (Boston,  Svo).    The  same  year  api)eared  j 
from  his  pen  a  novel,  entitled  Francis  Berrian,  or  j 
the  Mexica)i  Patriot,  purporting  to  be  the  autobio- 
graphy of  a  New  England  adventurer  who  acted  a  I 
consjticuous  part  in  the  first  Mexican  revolution,  ' 
and  in  the  overthrow  of  Iturbide.    In  1828,  he 
issued  two  works :   A  Co))densed  Geography  and 
Histo)-y  of  the   Western  States  in  the  Mississippi 
Valley  (Cincinnati,  2  vols.  Svo) ;  and  Arthur  Clen- 
nin(f,  a  novel  (Philadelphia,  2  vols.  Svo).  Another 
novel,  George  Mason,  or  The  Backwoodsman,  and  a 
romance  in  2  vols.,  Tlte  Shoshonee  Valley,  appeared  at 
Cincinnati  in  1830.     In  1833,  he  edited  several  i 
numbers  of  the  Knickerbocker  Magazhie,  and  was  j 
subsequently  editor  for  three  years  of  The  Westei'n  \ 
Monthly  Magazi)ie.    His  other  works  are :  hidian  \ 
Yiars  in  the  West  (1833, 12mo) ;  Lectures  on  Natural  - 
History,  Geology,  Chenilstry,  a)id  the  Arts  (Boston,  j 
1833,   12mo) ;  translation  of  Droy's  V Art  d'etre  ' 
lleureusc,  with  additions  by  translator;  and  Bio-  \ 
graphical  Memoir  of  Da)ilel  Boone,  tlte  first  Settler  \ 
of  Kentztcky  (Cincinnati,  1834,  ISmo).    In  183"),  he  ' 
contributed  to  the  London  Athenamm  a  series  of  i 
Sketches  of  the  Literature  of  the  United  States. 
He  died  at   Salem,  August  16,  1840. — His  son, 
MicAii  P.  Flint,  published  a  volume  of  poetry, 
entitled  The  Hunter  and  other  Boons. 

FLINT  GLASS.    See  Glass. 

FLINT   IMPLEMENTS  AND  WEAPONS, 
believed  to  have  been  used  by  the  primitive  inhabit- 
iints,  have  from  time  to  time,  in  more  or  less  munber, 
been  turntxl  up  by  the  plough  and  the  spade,  dug 
cut  fiom  ancient  graves,  fortifications,  and  dwelling- 
places,  or  fished  up  from  the  beds  of  lakes  and 
livers,  in  almost  every  country  of  Europe.  They 
do  not  differ,  in  any  material  respect,  from  the  flint 
implements  and  weapons  still  in  use  among  uncivil- 
ised tribes  in  Asia,  Africa,  America,  and  the  islands  j 
of  the  Pacific  Ocean.     The  weapons  of  most  fre- 
q\ient  occurrence  are  arrow-heads  (see  Elf- arrows),  I 
spear-points,  dagger- blades,  and  axe-heads  or  Celts  j 
|q.  v.).    The  more  common  implements  are  knives,  j 
chisels,  rasps,  wedges,  and  thin  curved  or  semi- 
circular plates,  to  which  the  name  of  'scrapers'  has  ! 
been  given.    There  is  great  variety,  as  well  in  the  ; 
eize  as  m  the  shape,  even  of  articles  of  the  same 
kind.    7'here  ia  equal  variety  in  the  amount  of  skill  | 


or  labour  expended  in  their  manufacture.  In  somo 
instances,  tlie  llint  has  been  roughly  fashioned  into 
something  like  the  rctpurcd  form  by  two  or  three 
blows;  in  others,  it  has  been  laboriously  cliii»i>ed 
into  the  wishod-for  shape,  which  ia  (jfteu  one  of 
no  little  elegance.  In  yet  auotlier  class  of  cases, 
the  llint,  after  being  duly  shaped,  has  been  ground 
smooth,  or  has  even  received  as  high  a  polish  aa 
could  be  given  by  a,  modern  lapidary.  Exami)lea 
of  all  the  varieties  of  flint  weapons  and  imjjhjnients 
will  be  found  in  the  British  Museum,  in  tlie  Museum 
of  the  lioyal  Irish  Academy  at  Dulilin,  in  the 
Museum  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  Scotland 
at  Edinburgh,  and  above  all,  in  the  M  useum  of  the 
Iloyal  Society  of  Antiquaries  at  Copenhagen,  which 
is  e8i)ecially  rich  in  this  class  of  remains,  Kepre- 
sentations  of  interesting  or  characteristic  typea 
may  be  seen  in  the  Catalogue  of  the  A  nltaological 
Museum  at  Edinburgh  in  1856  (lidin.  1859)  ;  iii  Ml 
Wilde's  Catalogue  of  tlte  Antiquities  in  the  Mu^seum 
of  the  Boyal  Irish  Academy  (Dubl.  1857—1861); 
in  Worsaae's  Nordiske  Oldsager  i  det  Kongellgt 
Museum  i  Kjobenhavn  (Copen.  1S59) ;  and  in  M. 
Frederic  Troyon's  Habitations  Lacustres  (Lausanne, 
1860). 

Geological  discoveries  have  recently  invested  flint 
implements  with  a  new  interest.  At  Abbeville,  ai 
Amiens,  at  Paris,  and  elsewhere  on  the  continent, 
flint  weapons,  fashioned  by  the  hand  of  man,  have 
been  found  along  with  remains  of  extinct  species 
of  the  elephant,  the  rhinoceros,  and  other  mam- 
mals, in  undisturbed  beds  of  those  deposits  of  sand, 
gravel,  and  clay  to  which  geologists  have  given 
the  name  of  '  the  drift.'  They  so  far  resemble  the 
flint  implements  and  weapons  found  on  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  but  are  generally  of  a  larger  size, 
of  ruder  worlunanship,  and  less  varied  in  shape. 
They  have  been  divided  into  three  classes — round- 
pointed,  as  in  fig.  1 ;  and  sharp -pointed,  as  in  fig.  2, 
both  being  chipped  to  a  sharp  edge,  so  as  to  cut  or 
pierce  only  at  the  pointed  end  ;  and  oval-shaped,  as 
in  fig.  3,  with  a  cutting  edge  all  round.  The  first 
and  second  classes  vaiy  in  length  from  about  four 
inches  to  eight  or  nme  inches ;  the  third  class  is 
generally  about  four  or  five  inches  long,  but  examples 
have  been  found  of  no  more  than  two  inches,  and  of 
as  much  as  eight  or  nine  inches.  In  no  instance  has 
any  fliiit  implement  discovered  in  the  drift  been 
found  either  polished  or  ground.  The  French  anti- 
quary, M.  Boucher  de  Perthes,  was  the  first  to 
call  attention  to  these  very  interesting  remainSj 
in  his  Antl/piites  Celtiques  et  Antediluvioines  (Paris, 
1847 — 1857).  But  it  has  since  been  remembered 
that  imj)lements  of  the  same  kind  were  found  in  a 
similar  position  at  Hoxne,  in  Suffolk,  along  \\ith 
remains  of  some  gigantic  animal,  in  17G7,  and  at 
Gray's  Imi  Lane,  in  London,  along  with  remains  of 
an  elephant,  in  1715.  Both  these  English  examples 
are  still  preserved — the  first  in  the  Museum  of  the 
Society  of  Antiquaries  at  London,  the  second  in  the 
British  Museum,  and  they  are  precisely  similar  in 
every  respect  to  the  examples  more  recently  foimd 
in  France. 

To  what  age  these  remains  should  be  assigned, 
is  a  question  on  wdiich  geology  seems  scarcely 
yet  prepared  to  speak  with  authority.  But,  in 
the  words  of  Mr  John  Evans,  in  his  essay  on  '  Flint 
Implements  in  the  Drift,'  in  the  A7-cha'ologia, 
vol.  xxxviii.  (Lond.  1860),  'thus  much  appears  to 
be  established  beyond  a  doubt,  that  in  a  period 
of  antiquity  remote  beyond  any  of  wliich  we  have 
hitherto  found  traces,  this  portion  of  the  globe 
was  peopled  by  man  ;  and  that  manlcind  has  here 
witnessed  some  of  those  geological  changes  by 
which  the  so-called  diluvial  beds  were  deposited. 
Whether  these  were  the  result  of  some  \ioIeut  rush 

176 


FLINTSHIRE— FLOATING  BATTERY. 


of  waters,  such  i\s  may  have  taken  place  when 
"  the  fonntuins  of  the  great  deep  were  broken 
np,  and  the  windows  of  heaven  were  opened," 
or  whether  of  a  more  gradual  action,  similar  in 
»,iiaracter  to  some  of  those  now  in  operation  along 


the  course  of  our  brooks,  streams,  and  rivers,  may 
be  matter  of  dispute.  Under  any  circumstances, 
this  great  fact  remains  indisputable,  that  at  Amiens, 
laud  which  is  now  160  feet  above  the  sea,  and  90 
feet  above  the  Somme,  l\as,  since  the  existence  of 


Rint  Implements  from  the  Valley  of  the  Somme — Eednood. 


k^in,  been  submerged  nnder  fresh  water,  and  an 
u«ineous  deposit  from  20  to  30  feet  in  thickness,  a 
)[)ortion  of  which,  at  all  events,  must  have  subsided 
from  tranquil  w\ater,  has  been  formed  upon  it ;  and 
this,  too,  has  taken  j)lace  in  a  country  the  level  of 
which  is  now  stationary,  and  the  face  of  which  has 
been  little  altered  since  the  days  when  the  Gauls 
and  the  Romans  constructed  their  sepulchres  in  the 
soil  overlying  the  drift  which  contains  these  relics 
of  a  far  earlier  race  of  men.' 

FLI'NTSHIRE,  a  maritime  county  of  North 
Wales,  bounded  on  the  E.  by  Cheshire  and  the  river 
Dee,  on  the  S.  and  W.  by  Denbighshire,  and  on  the 
N.  by  the  Irish  Sea.  The  main  portion  of  the  county 
is  25  miles  long  by  10  broad,  and  the  larger  of 
the  two  outhang  portions,  which  lies  toward  the 
Bouth-east  of  "the  main  part,  is  10  miles  by  5.  F.  is 
the  smallest  of  tlie  Welsh  counties,  its  area  being 
only  184,905  acres,  of  which  yth  is  arable.  The 
coast,  20  miles  long,  is  low  and  sandy,  but  on  the 
Dee  estuary  fertile.  A  hill-range,  parallel  to  the 
Dee,  runs  through  the  length  of  the  county,  and  rises 
in  Garreg  to  825  feet.  Another  range  along  the  south- 
west border  of  the  county  rises  in  Moel  Famma, 
1845  feet.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Dee,  Alyn,  and 
Clvvyd.  The  chief  strata  are  Permian,  Carboniferous, 
and  Devonian.  Coal,  and  ores  of  iron,  lead,  silver, 
ropper,  and  zinc  are  the  chief  mineral  jiroducts  and 
exports.  F.  supplies  a  fourth  of  the  )ead  produced 
in  Britain.    The  soil  is  fertile  in  tlie  plains  and 

Z7C 


vales,  and  the  staple  produce  is  wheat,  oats,  T)arley, 
potatoes,  cattle,  cheese,  and  butter.  Cotton  is  the 
main  manufacture.  The  London,  Chester,  and  Holy- 
head Railway  skirts  the  east  and  north  shores.  F. 
contiuns  5  hundreds  and  32  parishes.  Pop.  (1871) 
76,245.  About  21 5  places  of  worship  (1 10  Methodist, 
41  Episcopal).  F.  sends  two  members  to  parliament. 
The  chief  towns  are  Flint,  formerly  the  county 
town ;  Mold,  St  Asaph,  Holy^vell,  Rhyddlan,  and 
Hawarden.  F.  has  traces  of  Roman  lead-mines,  is 
traversed  by  Wat  and  OfFa's  Dykes,  and  has  some 
ancient  castle  and  ecclesiastical  ruins.  In  F.,  in  the 
7th  c,  Saxon  invaders  massacred  1200  Christian 
monks  of  the  monastery  of  Bangor.  In  79G,  the 
Saxons  defeated  the  Welsh  here  with  dreadful 
slaughter,  which  event  gave  rise  to  the  still  jKJpular 
plaintive  air  of  Mor/a  Rhyddlan. 

FLINTY  SLATE,  of  which  there  are  beds  in 
some  parts  of  Scotland,  and  in  many  other  countries^, 
is  an  impure  quartz,  assuming  a  slaty  structure.  It 
contains  about  75  per  cent,  of  silica,  the  remainder 
being  lime,  magnesia,  oxide  of  iron,  &c.  Its  frac- 
ture is  rather  splintery  than  shell-like.  It  is  more 
or  less  translucent.  It  passes  by  insensible  grada- 
tions into  clay-slate,  with  w'hich  it  is  often  in  most 
intimate  geological  connection.  Lydian  Stone  (q.  v.) 
is  a  variety  of  tlinty  slate. 

FLOATING  BATTERY  is  a  hulk,  hea-nly 
armed,  and  made  as  invulnerable  as  possible,  used 


FLOATING  BATTERY— FLOATING  ISLANDS. 


In  defending  harbours,  or  in  attacks  on  marine 
fortresses.  The  most  remarkable  instance  of  their 
em]»loynient  was  by  the  French  and  S^ianiards 
against  Gibraltar,  in  the  memorable  siege  which 
lasted  from  July  1779  to  February  1783,  when  ten 
of  these  vessels,  carrying  212  large  gnns,  were 
brought  to  bear  on  the  fortress ;  they  had  sides  of 


Floating  Battery  used  in  the  Russian  "War,  1854 — 1855. 

great  thickness,  and  were  covered  with  sloping  roofs, 
to  cause  the  shot  striking  them  to  glance  off  inno- 
cuously. But  their  solidity  and  strength  were 
unavailing  against  the  courage  and  adroitness  of  the 
defenders,  under  the  gallant  General  Elliot,  who 
succeeded  in  destroying  them  with  red-hot  cannon- 
balls.  Steam  floating  batteries  of  iron  were  con- 
Btructed  for  the  war  with  Russia  in  1854,  both  by 
the  Biitish  and  French  governments  ;  but,  notwith- 
Btanding  that  they  rendered  good  ser\ace  before 
Kinburn,  they  have  since  been  generally  discarded 
for  other  than  purely  defensive  purposes,  as  too 
cumbrous  for  navigation,  and  too  suffocating  from 
the  smoke  that  collected  between  their  de^ks  during 
action. — The  iron-plated  frigates  now  (1876)  made 
(such  as  the  Warrior)  can  scarcely  be  regarded  as 
floating  l)attci-ies,  being  rather  fx'igates  of  splendid 
build,  rendered  almost  impenetrable  by  sheets  of 
U'on  overlying  their  sides. 

FLOATING  ISLANDS  exist  in  some  lakes, 
and  more  rarely  in  slow  and  placid  rivers.  Not 
unfrequently,  they  are  formed  by  the  detachment  of 

Jiortions  of  tlie  bank  ;  the  interlaced  roots  of  plants 
orming  a  fal>ric  sufficiently  strong  to  endure  the 
occasional  buffeting  of  waves,  and  to  support  soil 
for  herbage  or  even  trees  to  grow  in.  Floating 
islands  aro  often  formed  by  aggregation  of  drift- 
wood in  the  creeks  and  bays  of  tropical  rivers,  and 
being  wafted  into  the  channel  of  the  river  when  it 
is  Hooded  or  by  the  wind,  are  carried  down  to  the 
8ea,  with  the  soil  that  has  accumulated,  and  the 
vegetation  that  has  established  itself  upon  them. 
They  are  sometimes  seen  at  a  distance  of  50  or  100 
miles  from  the  mcmth  of  the  Ganges,  with  living 
trees  standing  erect  upon  th'-m.  Portions  of  the 
alluvial  soil  from  the  deltas  of  rivers,  held  together 
by  the  joots  of  mangroves  and  other  trees,  are 
Bomctimes  also  carried  out  to  sea  after  typhoons 
or  hurricanes,  and  ships  have,  in  consequence, 
becu  involved  in  unexpected  dangers,  as  amongst 


the  icebergs  of  colder  latitudes.  Imagination  has 
always  invested  with  a  peculiar  interest  the 

Straggling  plots,  which  to  and  froe  doe  rome 
In  the  wide  waters ; 

and  ancient  legend  did  not  fail  to  notice  the  floating 
islets  of  the  sacred  Vandimonian  Lake,  which  were 
large  enough  to  bear  away  cattle  that  were  tempted 
upon  them  by  their  fresh  green  grass ;  and  the  island 
of  the  Cutulian  waters,  which  carried  on  its  surface  a 
dark  and  gloomy  grove,  and  was  constantly  changing 
its  place.  A  small  lake  in  Artois,  near  St  Omer,  vi 
remarkable  for  the  number  of  its  floating  islands,  aa 
are  also  the  marshy  lakes  of  Comacchio  near  the  Gidf 
of  Venice.  Among  the  largest  in  the  world  .are  those 
of  the  Lake  of  Gerdau,  in  Prussia,  which  furnish  pas- 
turage for  100  head  of  cattle ;  and  that  of  the  Lake 
of  Kolk,  in  Osnabruck,  which  is  covered  with  beau- 
tifid  elms.  Loch  Lomond  was  long  celebrated  for 
its  floating  island ;  it,  however,  can  no  longer  boast 
of  one,  as  it  has  long  since  subsided  and  become 
stationary.  Floating  islands  are  found  in  some  lakes 
of  Scotland,  and  also  in  Ireland,  and  consist  for  the 
most  part  of  large  floating  masses  of  peat.  Pennant 
gives  a  description  of  one  which  he  saw  in  Breadal- 
bane,  the  surface  of  which  exhibited  plenty  of  coarse 
grass,  small  willows,  and  even  a  little  birch  tree. 
More  interesting  to  the  scientific  inquirer,  as  pre- 
senting a  phenomenon  not  so  easily  explained,  are 
those  floating  islands  which  from  time  to  time 
appear  and  disappear  in  the  same  spot,  of  wliich 
there  is  one  in  the  Lake  of  Derwentwater  in  Cum- 
berland, one  in  the  Lake  Ralaug  in  the  province  of 
Smalande  in  Sweden,  and  one  in  Ostrogothia.  That 
in  Derwentwater  is  opposite  to  the  mouth  of  a 
stream  called  the  Catgill ;  and  the  most  probable  of 
the  many  theories  which  have  been  proposed  to 
account  for  it  is  that  which  ascribes  it  to  the  waters 
of  the  stream,  when  flooded  by  rains,  getting  beneath 
the  interlaced  and  matted  roots  of  the  aquatic  i>lant3 
which  there  form  a  close  turf  on  the  bottom  of  the 
lake.  This  floating  island,  when  it  rises  above  the 
water,  is  most  elevated  in  the  centre,  and  on  its 
being  pierced  with  a  fishing-rod,  water  has  spouted 
up  to  the  height  of  two  feet. 

The  marshy  ground  of  the  vale  of  Cashmere,  and 
particularly  around  the  city  of  Cashmere,  containing 
many  lakes,  and  liable  to  inundations,  exhibits  a 
peculiar  form  of  human  industry  in  its  numerous 
Floating  Gardens,  em2)loyed  chiefly  for  the  culti- 
vation of  cucumbers,  melons,  and  water-melons. 
These  floating  gardens  may  be  described  as  })ortiona 
of  the  marshy  ground  artificially  n)ade  to  float,  by 
cutting  through  the  roots  of  the  reeds,  sedges,  and 
other  plants  about  two  feet  below  the  surface,  upon 
which  mud  is  then  spread.  The  floating  of  the 
garden  secures  the  soil  and  crop  from  destruction 
by  inundations. 

Floating  gardens  existed  on  the  Lake  of  Mexico 
before  the  conquest  of  JNIexico  by  the  Spaniard*. 
The  Mexicans  had  made  great  i)rogTess  m  the  art 
of  gardening,  and  particularly  in  the  cultivation  ol 
flowers,  which  were  much  used  both  in  their  festi- 
vities and  in  their  worship.  How  they  were  induced 
to  attempt  the  formation  of  floating  gardens,  and  at 
what  period  it  was  first  done,  are  mere  matters  of 
conjecture.  The  shallowness  of  gieat  j)art  of  the 
lake  was  favourable  to  the  success  of  the  attempt, 
and  perhaps  the  gr?xlual  receding  of  its  watei-s  may 
be  reckoned  among  the  reasons  of  the  gradual 
diminution  of  the  number  of  the  floating  gardens, 
which  have  almost  ceased  to  be  reckoned  among 
the  wonders  of  the  world.  The  Abb6  Clavigero,  in 
his  History  of  Mexico,  describes  them  as  lonned 
of  wicker-work,  water-plants,  and  mud  ;  as  some- 
times  more  than  20  poles  in  extewt;  the  largest 

ri 


FLOATSTONE— ] 


FLOOR-CLOTH. 


unes  commonly  having  a  small  ti'ce  in  the  centre, 
and  sometimes  a  hut  for  the  cultivator ;  and  as 
employed  for  the  cultivation  both  of  flowers  and 
culinary  plants.  Humboldt  confirms  this  descrip- 
tion, but  states  that  the  real  floating  gardens, 
or  chinampas,  are  ra})idly  diminishing  in  number. 
The  existing  chinampas  are  in  general  not  floating 
gardens,  but  plots  of  ground  with  very  wide  ditches 
between  them,  formed  by  heaping  up  earth  from 
the  ditches  in  the  swamps  or  shallows  at  the  side 
of  the  lake. 

Great  part  of  Bangkok,  the  capital  of  Siam,  con- 
Bists  of  floating  houses.    See  Bangkok. 

FLOA'TSTONE,  a  variety  of  quartz,  consisting 
of  fibres— delicate  crystals — aggregated  so  that  the 
whole  mass  is  sponge-like,  and  so  light,  owing  to 
the  air  confined  in  the  interstices,  as  to  float  for  a 
while  on  water.  It  is  found  in  a  limestone  of  the 
chalk  formation  near  Paris,  in  imbedded  masses,  or 
incrusting  flint  nodules. 

FLOBE'CQ,  a  small  town  of  Belgium,  in  the 
province  of  Hainaiilt,  20  miles  north-east  of  Tournai. 
It  has  extensive  manufactures  of  linens,  has 
breweries,  salt-works,  oil  and  flour  mills,  and  has 
iwo  fairs  annually.    Pop.  5258. 

FLO'DDEN,  Battle  of.  On  the  24th  January 
1502,  a  '  perpetual  peace '  was  concluded  between 
England  and  Scotland.  In  the  course  of  a  few 
years,  however,  a  series  of  petty  quarrels  had  done 
much  to  bring  this  peaceable  arrangement  to  a  ter- 
mination ;  and  in  1513,  on  the  invasion  of  France, 
Scotland's  ancient  ally,  by  Henry  of  England,  a 
war  broke  out  between  the  two  countries.  James 
IV.,  the  chivalrous  but  rash  king  of  Scotland, 
summoned  the  whole  array  of  his  kingdom  to  meet 
on  the  Borough  or  Common  Moor  of  Edinburgh, 
which  extended  from  the  southern  walls  of  the  city 
to  the  foot  of  the  Braid  Hills,  and  which  was  then 
*  a  field  sj^acious,  and  delightful  by  the  shade  of 
many  stately  and  aged  oaks.'  Here  an  army,  it  is 
said,  of  100,000  men  assembled.  With  this  force 
James  crossed  the  border  on  the  22d  August  1513  ; 
but  instead  of  advancing  at  once,  and  achieving 
a  decisive  success,  he  lingered  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  Tweed  until  his  army  had  become 
reduced  by  desertion  to  about  30,000  men.  On 
the  6th  September,  James  took  up  his  position  on 
Flodden  Hill,  the  last  and  lowest  eminence  of  the 
Cheviots  toward  tlie  north-east.  On  the  morning 
of  the  9th,  the  Earl  of  Surrey,  lieutenant-general 
of  the  northern  counties  of  England,  at  the  head 
of  au  army  of  about  32,000  men,  advanced  from 
the  south-east,  crossed  the  Till  by  a  skilful  and 
unexpected  movement,  and  thus  cut  off  all  communi- 
cation between  King  James  and  Scotland.  While 
the  English  were  crossing  the  Till,  the  Scots  might 
have  attacked  them  with  every  chance  of  success, 
and  their  not  taking  advantage  of  this' opportunity 
was  the  first  great  mistake  of  the  battle.  Observing 
that  the  English  were  aiming  at  a  strong  posi- 
tion to  the  north-west  of  Flodden  Hill,  and  desirous 
of  preventing  this,  James,  having  ordered  his 
tents  to  be  set  on  fire,  advanced  against  them  in 
battle-array.  The  two  armies  were  drawn  up  in 
similar  order,  each  consisting  of  a  centre,  a  right 
and  left  wing,  and  a  reserve  placed  behind  the 
centre.  At  about  four  o'clock  on  Friday,  9th  Sep- 
tember the  battle  commenced  with  cannonading  on 
both  sides.  The  Earls  of  Huntly  and  Home,  who 
commanded  the  left  wing  of  the  Scottish  army, 
charged  the  English  right,  which  was  led  by  Sir 
Ednuind  Howard,  anrl  entirely  defeated  it.  Instead, 
however,  of  following  up  their  success,  Home's 
borderers  commenced  pillaging  the  baggage  of  both 
trmiefj;  and  Huntly,  after  his  first  charge,  is  said 


to  have  left  the  field.  On  the  Scottish  right,  the 
clansmen  under  Lennox  and  Argyle,  goaded  to 
fury  by  the  English  archers,  rushed  forward,  heed- 
less of  order,  and  fell  with  the  greatest  violence 
upon  their  opponents,  who,  however,  received  them 
with  wonderful  intrepidity  and  coolness,  and  at 
length  put  them  to  flight  with  great  slaughter. 
Meantime,  a  desperate  resistance  was  being  made 
by  the  Scottish  centre,  where  the  king  fought  on 
foot  among  his  nobles.  Scottish  history  presents 
no  instance  in  which  the  national  valour  burned 
with  a  purer  flame  than  in  this.  Hemmed  in  by 
outnumbering  enemies,  the  king  among  his  slender 
group  of  lords  fought  manfully  until,  when  the 
night  was  closing  on  Flodden,  he  fell  pierc<^  by 
an  arrow,  and  mortally  wounded  in  the  head.  The 
hill  was  held  during  the  night  by  the  Scots  ;  but  at 
dawn,  learning  the  state  of  matters,  they  abandoned 
their  position.  Their  loss  amounted  to  from  8000  to 
10,000  men.  '  Scarce  a  Scottish  family  of  eminence,' 
says  Scott,  '  but  had  an  ancestor  killed  at  Flodden.* 
Besides  the  king,  the  Archbishop  of  St  Andrews  and 
twelve  earls  were  among  the  slain.  The  English 
loss  amounted  to  about  GOOO  or  7000  ;  but  Surrey's 
victory  was  so  nearly  a  defeat  that  he  was  unable 
to  prosecute  the  war  with  any  vigour.  The  sixth 
canto  of  Sir  Walter  Scott's  poem  of  Marmlon  con» 
tains  a  magnificent,  and  in  the  main  an  accurate, 
descrii^tion  of  the  battle. 

FLOGGING,  Army  and  Navy.  Corpora) 
punishment  has  existed  from  time  immemorial  in 
the  British  army  and  navy ;  formerly  haWng  been 
inflicted  upon  slight  occasion,  and  often  with  bar- 
barons  severity.  In  deference,  however,  to  public 
02nnion,  it  has  been  much  less  resorted  to  during 
recent  years,  and  promises  almost  to  disa])pear 
under  a  regulation  of  18G0.  A  man  must  now  be 
convicted  of  one  disgracefid  offence  against  discip- 
line before  he  can  be  liable  to  flogging  for  the  next 
such  offence  ;  and  even  after  one  such  degradation, 
he  may  be  restored  to  the  non-liable  class  by  a 
year's  good  conduct.  The  punishment  of  flogging, 
w^liich  is  generally  administered  vnth.  a  whip  or  '  cat  * 
of  nine  tails  on  the  bare  back,  cannot,  imder  existing 
rules,  exceed  fifty  lashes. 

Corporal  punishment  is  not  recognised  in  the 
French  army  ;  but  then  the  soldiers  in  that  country 
are  dra^-n  by  conscription  from  all  ranks  of  society, 
and  have,  on  an  average,  a  higher  moral  tone  than 
the  British  recruits,  who,  attracted  by  a  bounty, 
volunteer  usually  from  the  lowest  orders.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  discipline  in  the  French  army,  and 
especially  during  war  on  a  foreign  soil,  is  universally 
admitted  to  be  inferior  to  the  strict  rule  preserved 
among  British  troops.  Soldiers  and  sailors  being 
men  unaccustomed  to  control  their  passions,  and 
any  bi'each  of  insubordination  being  fatal  to  the 
esprit  of  a  force,  unless  summarily  repressed,  it  is 
considered  necessary  to  retain  the  power — how- 
ever rarely  exercised — of  inflicting  the  ])ainful  and 
humiliating  punishment  of  flogging.  The  French 
soldier,  though  escaping  the  ignominy  of  personal 
chastisement,  is  governed  by  a  code  harsher  than  our 
articles  of  war  as  actually  administered  ;  and  the 
punishment  of  death,  scarcely  known  in  the  British 
service  during  ])eace,  is  not  unfrequently  visited  in 
France  upon  offenders  against  discipline. 

FLOOR-CLOTH,  a  coarse  canvas  coated  on 
both  sides,  and  partly  saturated  with  thick  oil-i)aint, 
one  side  having  usually  a  coloured  pattern  printed 
ujion  it  in  oil-paint.  The  canvas  basis  for  floor- 
cloth is  chiefly  manufactured  in  Dundee.  As  it  ia 
required  to  be  without  seam,  and  of  sufficient  Avidth 
to  cover  considerable  spaces  of  flooring,  special 
looms  are   required  for  weaving  it.    It  is  made 


FLOOR-CLOTH— FLOORS. 


from  18  to  24  feet  in  width,  and  in  lengths  from  100 
to  113  yards. 

The  first  step  towards  converting  this  canvas 
into  floor-cloth  consists  in  stretching  it  on  a  frame. 
This  is  a  work  of  some  difficulty,  on  account  of  the 
great  size  of  the  pieces.  Some  of  the  frames  are  as 
much  as  100  feet  in  length  by  24  feet  in  height, 
and  the  canvas  must  be  stretched  over  it  as  tight  as 
a  drum.  The  back  or  plain  side  of  the  cloth  is 
fiist  operated  upon,  by  priming  it  with  a  solution 
of  size,  and  scouring  it  with  pumice.  The  object 
of  this  is  to  i)revent  too  much  of  the  paint  from 
penetrating  the  canvas,  and  rendering  it  brittle,  and 
to  make  an  even  surface  to  receive  the  paint,  which 
is  mixed  with  linseed  oil,  with  very  little  or  no 
turpentine,  and  is  consequently  thicker  than  com- 
mon paint.  This  is  thrown  or  splashed  upon  the 
Biu-face  with  a  brush ;  and  then  with  a  long  steel 
trowel  the  workman  spreads  the  dabs  of  paint,  and 
produces  a  tolerably  smooth  surface.  This  troicel- 
colour  is  left  for  12  or  14  days  to  dry,  and  then 
another  coat  is  laid  on  in  a  similar  manuer ;  and  this 
completes  the  back  or  imder  side  of  the  floor-cloth. 

While  the  first  coat  of  the  back  is  drying,  the 
front  is  prhded  and  pumiced,  and  a  coat  of  trowel- 
colour  laid  on.  As  more  care  is  required  on  this 
side,  this  coat  of  colour  is  scoured  quite  smooth  with 
pumice,  and  two  more  trowel-colours  are  added,  and 
each  scoured  like  the  first.  Another  coat  is  now 
carefully  laid  on  with  a  brnsh,  and  is  called  a  brush- 
colour.  This  forms  the  ground  upon  which  the 
pattern  is  to  be  printed. 

The  printing  is  done  by  means  of  wood-blocks. 
The  pattern  is  first  drawn  and  painted,  in  its 
complete  form  and  colours,  upon  a  piece  of  })aper ; 
another  piece  of  paper  is  now  laid  under  this,  and 
the  outlines  of  that  portion  of  the  pattern  included 
in  one  colour  are  pricked  througli  to  the  lower 
paper.  In  like  manner,  pricked  outlines  of  each 
of  the  other  colours  are  prepared.  Each  of  these 
pricked  sheets  is  laid  upon  a  block  of  pear-tree 
wood,  and  dusted  over  with  powdered  charcoal  or 
lampblack,  aud  thus  the  pattern  is  drawn  in  dots 
upon  the  wood ;  the  carver  cuts  away  the  wood 
surroundmg  the  pattern,  and  leaves  it  standing  in 
relief. 

The  pear-tree  blocks  are  backed  by  gluing  them 
to  a  piece  of  deal,  and  this  piece  again  to  another, 
with  the  fibres  at  right  angles,  to  prevent  warping. 

The  colours  are  spread  by  boys  upon  padded 
cushions  covered  with  floor-cloth,  and  each  printer 
dabs  his  block  upon  that  containing  the  required 
colour,  aud  then  places  it  u])on  the  floor-cloth, 
and  striking  it  with  the  handle  of  a  short  heavy 
hammer,  prints  his  portion  of  the  pattern.  He 
then  proceeds  with  a  repetition  of  this,  and  as  he 
advances,  he  is  followed  in  order  by  the  printers 
of  the  other  colours,  who  place  their  blocks  accur- 
ately over  the  pattern  the  first  has  commenced. 
The  first  printer's  chief  care  is  to  keep  the  repeti- 
tions of  tlie  pattern  accurately  in  line. 

The  quality  of  floor-cloth  de])ends  mainly  upon 
the  number  of  coats  of  paint,  the  kind  of  medium 
used  for  the  colour,  and  the  time  given  to  drying. 
For  the  best  qualities,  a  fortnight  must  elapse  be- 
tween the  laying  on  of  each  coat,  and  finally,  several 
months'  exj)osure  in  the  drying-room  is  necessary. 
As  the  rental  of  the  space  thus  occupied,  and  the 
interest  of  the  capital  left  stagnant  during  this  time, 
amount  to  a  considerable  sum,  there  is  a  strong 
inducement  to  manufacturers  to  hasten  the  pro- 
cesses, which  may  easily  be  done  by  using  gold  size 
or  boiled  linseed  oil,  or  other  rai)id  'dryers,'  instead 
of  raw  linseed  oil  ;  but  just  in  proi>ortion  as  the 
drying  is  hastened  by  these  means,  the  durability 
ftnd  flexibility  of  the  floor-cloth  are  deteriorated.  In 


order  to  secure  the  maximum  of  durability,  floor- 
cloth should  still  be  kept  three  or  four  years  after  it 
has  left  the  drying-room  of  the  manufacturer,  and 
purchasers  should  always  select  those  pieces  which 
they  have  reason  to  believe  have  been  the  longest 
in  stock.  Narrow  floor-cloth,  for  stair-carj)cting, 
passages,  etc.,  is  made  as  above,  and  then  cut  into 
tlie  required  widths  and  printed.  It  usually  has  a 
'arge  pattern  in  the  middle,  and  a  border  of  a  smaller 
lesign. 

The  laying  of  lobbies  and  passages  with  encaustic 
tiles  has  lately  led  to  the  superseding  of  floor-cloth 
in  such  situations,  while  for  some  other  purposes, 
such  as  covering  the  floors  of  churches,  reading- 
rooms,  and  waiting-rooms  at  railway-stations,  it  is 
superseded  by  the  ncAvly  invented  material  called 
kamptulicon,  or  vulcanised  India-rubber  cloth,  which 
is  im[)ervious  to  wet,  soft  and  quiet  to  the  tread, 
and  warm  to  the  feet.  Tliis  new  material  is  made 
plain  or  figured  to  resemble  painted  floor-cloth. 

FLOORS,  FLOORING,  the  horizontal  partitiona 
between  the  stories  of  a  building,  the  uppei  part  of 
which  forms  the  floor  of  the  apartments  abuve,  and 
the  lower  portion  the  ceiling  of  those  below. 

Floors  are  variously  constructed,  according  to 
their  dimensions,  and  to  the  weight  they  have  to 
sustain,  Single-joisted  floors  are  the  simplest  and 
most  cheaply  constructed,  and  are  used  for  ordinary 
buildings,  where  the  distance  between  the  bearinga 
does  not  exceed  20,  or  at  most  24  feet. 

The  annexed  figure  represents  a  section  of  a  single- 
joisted  floor,  in  the  line  of  the  flooring-boards,  and 
across  the  joists.    These  joists  are  beams  laid  edge 


h 

3 

M 

a. 

h 

c 

fl,  ft,  c,  rf,  the  Joists ;  t,  /,  the  flooring-boards ;  eg  and  dhy 
herring-bone  strutting. 

upw'ards,  ahd  resting  at  their  ends  upon  wall-platca 
l)uilt  into  the  walls.  Their  width  should  not  be 
less  than  two  inches,  for  if  narrower,  they  Avould  l)e 
liable  to  split  with  the  nailing  of  the  flooring-boards. 
They  are  placed  edge  upwards,  in  order  to  economise 
timber,  as  the  strength  of  a  beam  to  bear  a  trans 
verse  strain  varies  simply  with  the  breadth  and 
with  the  square  of  the  depth.  See  Strength  of 
Materials.  When  a  deep  and  long  joist  is  iised, 
there  is  danger  of  its  twisting  or  turning  over ;  this 
is  prevented  by  strutting,  that  is,  nailing  cross 
pieces  of  wood  between  them,  as  shewn  between  the 
joists  c  and  d  of  the  figure,  or  less  effectually,  by 
driving  pieces  of  planking  between  them.  Strutting 
is  required  when  the  length  of  the  joists  exceeds 
eight  feet.  The  laths  for  the  ceiling  of  the  room 
below  are  nailed  to  the  bottom  of  the  joists.  In 
good  substantial  work,  the  distance  between  the 
joists  from  centre  to  centre  is  about  12  inclic.s,  but 
this  is  often  exceeded  in  cheaply  built  houses. 

Don ble-joi sled  floors  are  constructed  by  laying 
strong  timbers,  called  hinding-jolsls,  from  wall  to  wall, 
at  a  distance  of  about  six  feet  apart ;  and  a  double 
set  of  joists,  one  above  for  the  flooi-,  and  one  below 
for  the  ceiling,  are  laid  across  these,  and  notched 
down  upon  them.  These  latter,  when  thus  placed, 
are  called  bridging-joists,  as  they  bridge  (ivcr  the 
interval  bet-ween  the  larger  binding-joists.  This  is 
adoi)ted  when  a  more  jierfect  ceiling,  free  from 
cracks,  produced  by  the  yielding  of  the  floor,  is 
required,  or  where  there  is  a  diflicnlty  in  obtaining 
a  .snlKcient  amount  of  long  timber  for  single  joistuig 
the  wliole  of  the  floor. 

The  framed  floor  is  one  iegree  more  complei 

a7» 


FLORA— FLORENCE 


than  tlie  double-joisted.  Binding  and  biidging 
joists  are  used  in  the  framed  floor,  but  the  binding- 
joists  cease  to  be  the  primary  support,  as  for  this 
purpope  strong  balks  of  timbers,  called  girders,  are 
used.  They  are  laid  across,  at  distances  of  from 
eight  to  ten  feet,  and  the  binding- joists  are  framed 
into  them  by  a  tusk-tenon  joint.  See  Carpentry. 
The  bridging- joists  are  notched  to  these  in  the  same 
manner  as  for  double-joisted  floors.  A  hay  is 
the  general  name  for  the  si)ace  between  girders : 
if  between  a  girder  and  wall,  it  is  called  a  tail  hay  ; 
or  between  two  girders,  a  case  hay ;  and  the  work 
between  is  described  as  a  hay  of  jolsting. 

When  the  space  to  be  spanned  is  too  great  for 
a  simple  wood-girder,  trussed  or  built  up  wooden 
girders  or  ii  on  girders  are  used  :  the  latter  have  of 
late  come  into  extensive  use,  even  where  simple 
wood-girders  are  applicable.    See  Girder, 

With  a  given  quantity  of  timber,  and  a  moderate 
Bj)ace,  the  single-joisted  floor  is  the  strongest  of 
any.  One  of  its  disadvantages  is  the  free  com- 
munication of  sound  to  the  apartment  below,  unless 
some  additional  means  of  obstructing  the  sound  be 
adopted. 

When  first  laid,  the  floor  should  be  rather  high 
in  the  centre,  to  allow  for  settling  at  the  joints; 
and  wlien  settled,  it  shoidd  be  perfectly  level,  for 
if  it  rises  in  the  middle,  it  will  exert  an  outward 
tkrust  ujwn  the  walls,  and  if  hollow,  it  will  pull 
inwards;  but  if  level,  its  whole  strain  is  perpen- 
dicular. 

The  flooring-boards  are  usually  nailed  to  the 
joists,  and  vary  from  1  to  li  inch  in  thickness; 
for  common  floors  they  are  from  7  to  9  inches  wide, 
but  for  better  floors  a  width  of  only  3  to  5  inches 
is  used.  The  advantage  of  the  narrow  boards  is, 
that  the  shrinkage  and  warping  have  not  so  much 
efiect  on  the  spaces  between.  This  refers  to 
the  ordinary  deal-flooring  used  in  modern  British 
domestic  buildings.  The  facing  of  the  floor  in 
many  old  mansions  is  formed  of  small  pieces  of  oak 
carefully  inlaid.  (See  Parquetry.)  For  other 
kinds  of  inhiid  fancy  floors,  see  MOSAIC,  Ekcaustic 
Tiles,  and  Concrete.  In  France,  and  most  of  the 
Bouthern  continental  countries,  where  cari)ets  are 
rarely  used,  the  flooring-boards  of  the  better  class  of 
houses  are  made  of  hard  wood,  carefully  and  closely 
jointed,  and  these  floors  are  commonly  rubbed  with 
bees-wax,  and  polished.  In  humbler  dwellings,  even 
the  bedrooms  are  paved  with  tiles,  or  strong 
plaster,  or  concrete  ;  and  considering  the  prevalence 
of  fleas,  &c.,  in  such  places,  they  are  certainly 
better  adapted  for  them  than  our  deal-boards  and 
carpets.  They  may  be  freely  sprinkled,  and  even 
Bwilled  with  water  in  hot  weather. 

For  warehouses  where  heavy  goods  are  stored,  for 
ball-rooms,  &c.,  special  construction  is  required  to 
fcdapt  the  floor  to  the  strain  put  upon  it. 

FLO'RA,  among  the  Romans,  was  the  name  of 
the  goddess  of  flowers  and  of  the  spring,  and  was 
latterly  identified  with  the  Greek  Chloris.  Her 
temple  was  situated  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Circus 
Maxtmus,  The  worship  of  F.  was  one  of  the  oldest 
manifestations  of  the  Roman  religious  feeling,  and 
is  alSrmed  to  have  been  introduced  by  Numa.  The 
Floralla,  or  festivals  in  honour  of  the  goddess,  were 
fir?.t  instituted  2.38  b.  c,  and  were  celebrated  from 
the  23th  of  April  to  the  1st  of  May,  Avith  much 
licentious  merriment,  prostitutes  playing  an  import- 
ant part  on  such  occasions.  On  coins,  F.  is  repre- 
Ben<xd  with  a  crown  of  flowers. — In  Botany,  the 
term  Flora  is  a  collective  name  for  plants,  and  is 
used  with  regard  to  the  vegetable  kingdom  in  the 
0ame  way  as  the  term  Fauna  with  regard  to  the 
animal-  It  is  common  to  speak  of  tlie  Flora  of  a 
country  or  distri(!tj  and  a  work  devoted  to  the 


botany  of  a  country  or  district  is  often  entitled  a 
Flora  of  that  region. 

FLO'RENCE  (Ital.  Firenze),  n  city  of  Italy,  cap- 
ital  of  the  former  duchy  of  Tuscany,  is  situated  in 
the  valley  of  the  Arno,  in  lat.  43^  46'  N.,  and  long. 
11"^  15'  E.  It  is  about  123  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea,  60  miles  from  leghorn,  45  from  Lucca, 
40  from  Siena,  and  44  from  Arezza.  Pop.  167.093. 
The  Arno,  spanned  by  four  fine  bridges,  divides, 
the  city  into  two  unequal  i)arts,  the  chief  of  which 
stands  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  river.  In 
shape,  an  irregular  pentagon,  F.  is  enclosed  b^ 
walls  of  about  C  miles  in  extent,  and  communi- 
cates with  the  exterior  by  means  of  eight  gates, 
which  conduct  to  thickly  peopled  suburbs,  and 
a  lovely,  fertile,  and  salubrious  neighbourhood, 
encircled  by  sloping  hills,  and  studded  with  pic- 
turesque villas  and  fruitful  vineyards  and  gardens. 
F.  and  her  environs,  viewed  from  the  heights  of 
Fiesole,  appear  but  one  vast  city.  ^Many  causes 
render  this  city  a  most  attractive  place  of  resi- 
dence to  foreigners — a  lovely  country  and  healthfiu 
climate,  cheap  living,  and  the  universal  courteous 
intelligence  of  the  people,  united  to  the  immense 
sources  of  interest  possessed  by  the  city  in  her 
grand  historical  monuments  and  collections  of  art. 
The  massive  and  austere  forms  of  Florentine  archi- 
tecture impai-t  an  air  of  gloomy  grandeur  to  the 
streets,  for  the  most  part  regular  and  well  kept ;  but 
in  the  many  feuds  and  civil  con\nilsions  of  the  city, 
these  domestic  fortresses  were  subjected  to  severe 
regular  sieges  and  attacks,  which  lighter  and  more 
elegant  structures  coidd  have  ill  withstood.  The 
chief  monuments  of  the  city  are  II  Duomo,  or  the 
Cathedral,  the  foundations  of  which  were  laid  with 
great  solemnity  in  1298.  The  Florentines  having 
ambitiously  resolved  on  erecting  a  monument  which 
for  architectural  splendour  and  proportions  should 
outvie  all  preceding  structures,  the  honour  of  i)re- 
paring  the  design  was  intrusted  to  Arnolfo  de 
Cambio  da  Colle.  On  his  death,  Giotto  superin- 
tended the  works;  and  many  eminent  architects 
were  employed  before  this  splendid  edifice  was  com  • 
pleted — Brunelleschi,  the  last,  conceived  and  erected 
the  grand  cupola,  so  much  admired  by  Michael 
Angelo  as  to  have  served  him  as  model  for  that  of 
St  Peter's.  At  the  side  of  the  cathedral  springs  up 
the  light  and  elegant  bell-tower,  detached,  according 
to  the  custom  of  the  times.  In  front  is  the  Baptis- 
tery of  San  Giovanni,  in  f oim  an  octagon,  supporting 
a  cupola  and  lantern  ;  all  three  edifices  being  entirely 
coated  with  a  varied  musaic  of  black  and  white 
marble.  Three  bronze  gates  in  basso-rilievo  are  a 
great  additional  adorament  of  the  Baptistery;  the 
two  by  Ghiberti  have  been  immortalised  by  Michael 
Angelo  with  the  name  of  Gates  of  Paradise.  See 
Sgrilli's  description.  The  church  of  the  Santa 
Croce,  the  Pantheon  of  F.  (built  in  1294— architect, 
Arnolfo),  contains  monuments  to  Galileo,  Dante, 
Machiavelli,  Michael  Angelo,  Alfieri,  &c.  The 
church  of  San  Lorenzo  was  consecrated  as  early 
as  393  by  St  Ambrose,  and  rebuilt  by  Bninel- 
leschi  in  1425,  by  command  of  Giovanni  and  Cosmo 
de'  Medici.  It  contains  an  interesting  monument.'il 
memorial  of  Cosmo  il  Vecchio,  bearing  inscribed 
the  title  Pater  Patrice,  which  had  been  conferred 
on  his  memory  by  public  sufl"rage  the  year  follow- 
ing his  death.  In  the  Nuova  Sagrestia,  or  New 
Sacristry,  are  the  two  famous  monuments  ol 
Michael  Angelo  to  Jidian  and  Lorenzo  de'  Medici. 
The  figures  of  these  two  statues  are  marvels  of 
deep  and  living  expression,  and  unsurpassable 
in  their  mute  and  eloquent  beauty.  The  Mcdi- 
cean  chapel,  gorgeous  with  the  rarest  marbles  and 
most  costly  stones,  agate,  lapis  lazuli,  chalcedony, 
&c.,  sstands   behind  the  choir,  and  contains  th 


FLORENCE. 


tombs  of  the  Medici  family,  and  those  of  the 
grand  dukes  their  successors.  Annexed  to  the 
cliurch  is  the  Laurentian  Library,  with  its  inex- 
haustible store  of  rare  MSS.,  founded  by  Giulio  de' 
Medici.  Bandini  has  published  the  catalogue  of  the 
Greek,  Latin,  and  Italian  MSS. ;  and  Biscioni  and 
Assemani  those  of  the  Hebrew  and  Oriental  ones. 
Amongst  the  numerous  palaces,  II  Bargello,  now 
converted  into  a  priso/i,  is  one  of  the  most  ancient, 
and  was  formerly  the  abode  of  the  republican 
magistrate,  the  PodestS,.  In  1841,  some  interesting 
portraits  were  brought  to  light  by  the  removal  of 
a  coating  of  whitewash  from  the  revered  features 
of  Dante,  Bnmetto  Latini,  Corso  Donati,  &c.,  in 
the  chapel  of  the  palace.  The  Palazzo  Vecchio, 
the  seat  of  the  republican  government  from  its 
estabhshment  till  1530,  when  it  was  abolished,  is  an 
imposing  mass  of  building,  surmounted  by  a  lofty 
tower  2(30  feet  high,  the  great  bell  of  which  used  to 
warn  the  citizens  of  danger,  or  summon  them  to 
defence.  Adjoining  the  palace  is  the  Piazza  del 
Palazzo  Vecchio,  a  square  containing  a  fine  collection 
of  statues,  and  a  noble  arcade,  the  Loggia  de'  Lanzi, 
under  the  porticos  of  which  are  magnificent  groups 
of  sculpture  (see  Rastelli's  Jllustrazione  Storica  del 
Palazzo  della  Signoria  detto  Palazzo  Vecchio)  ;  Gli 
UfFizi,  a  handsome  building  between  the  Palazzo 
Vecchio  and  the  Arno,  founded  by  Cosmo  I.,  in  the 
first  floor  of  which  are  deposited  the  archives  of  the 
court  of  justice  and  other  public  offices,  also  the 
Magliabechi  Library  of  150,000  volumes,  and  12,000 
MSS.  On  the  second  floor,  in  a  circular  suite  of 
2.*?  rooms,  is  contained  the  famous  Florentine  gallery 
of  art ;  rich  in  paintings,  engravings,  sculpture, 
bronzes,  coins,  gems,  and  mosaics.  A  splendid 
apartment,  known  as  the  Tribuna,  contains  the 
rarest  treasures  of  the  collection,  and  is  in  itself  a 
wonder  of  art,  with  its  cupola  inlaid  with  mother 
of  pea,rl,  and  its  rich  marble  pavement.  The  Palazzo 
Pitti,  the  modern  grand  ducal  residence,  boasts  of  a 
superb  gallery  of  paintings,  and  of  a  collection  of 
70,000  rare  volumes,  and  1500  MSS. 

The  Palazzo  Riccardi,  now  public  property,  is 
much  frequented  for  its  fine  library.  The  Palazzo 
Strozzi  is  a  fine  type  of  Tuscan  architecture. 
Florence  abounds  in  other  public  edifices  and 
monuments  well  meriting  notice,  but  our  limits 
oblige  us  to  omit  all  mention  of  them.  The 
practical  and  philanthropical  institutions  are  also 
nmnerous  and  excellently  organised-  The  hospita? 
of  Santa  Maria  Nuova  contains  a  ^ollege  of  medi- 
cine and  surgery,  which  enjoys  a  European  fame. 
The  Academy  of  the  Fine  Arts  and  the  Museum  of 
Natural  History  afibrd  unlimited  resom-ces  to  the 
public  interested  in  their  collections.  There  are 
tliree  hospitals,  one  limatic  asylum,  nine  theatres. 
5 'he  Academy  della  Crusca,  is  intrusted  with  the 
care  of  s:5tii7g  and  preserving  uncorrupted  the 
Itahar  lang  iige.  The  Academy  dei  Georgofili  was 
established  in  the  intei-ests  of  agriculture,  the  pro- 
gress and  needs  of  which  it  reports  quarterly  in  the 
Giornale  Agrario  Toscano.  For  a  detailed  descrip- 
tion of  F.,  see  Guida  della  CUtd  di  Firenze,  1822. 
The  chief  industrial  occupations  of  the  Florentmes 
are  the  fabrication  of  silk  and  woollen  textures, 
and  of  straw-plaiting  for  hats,  &c.,  jewellery,  and 
exquisite  mosaics  in  rare  stones.  Education  is 
more  diffused  in  Tuscany  than  in  any  other  Italian 
state  ;  and  the  Florentines  are  famous  for  their 
caustic  wit,  and  natural  gifts  of  eloquence,  as  well 
as  for  their  shrewd  thriftiness  and  unflagging 
labour.  In  their  moral  superiority  to  other  states 
may  be  recognised  the  effects  of  a  better  and  more 
upright  government  than  those  which  existed  in 
most  of  the  other  divisions  of  the  peninsula  previous 
to  the  late  union  of  Italy. 


History  of  Florence. — The  city  of  F.  sprang" 
originally  from  Fiesole  (q.  v.),  at  the  foot  of  which  it 
lies  extended.  The  inconvenient  and  hilly  site  of  the 
Etruscan  Fiesole,  perched  on  the  crest  of  an  irre« 
gular  height,  rendered  the  town  so  difficult  of  access 
to  the  traders  who  resorted  to  its  market-j)lacea 
with  their  varied  merchandise,  that  it  was  at  length 
decreed  they  should  assemble  at  the  base  of  the  hill, 
in  the  fertile  plain  traversed  by  the  Amo.  The 
few  rough  shelters  erected  for  the  accommodation  of 
these  traders  may  be  considered  the  original  nucleui 
of  the  important  and  splendid  city  of  Florenca 
Such  at  least  is  the  traditionary  history  of  its  origin 
generally  accepted  by  the  Florentine  historians.  It 
would  seem  that  as  early  as  the  time  of  Sulla  there 
had  been  a  Roman  colony  here ;  another  was  sent 
after  the  death  of  Julius  Csesar,  and  it  soon  became 
a  thriving  town.  The  Florentini  are  mentioned  by 
Tacitus,  16  A.  D.,  as  sending  delegates  to  Rome,  but 
it  was  not  till  the  time  of  Charlemagne  that  F.  began 
to  rise  out  of  obscurity.  It  was  now  governed  by  a 
political  head  with  the  title  of  Duke,  assisted  by 
various  subordinate  officers,  who  were  elected  by 
the  united  suffrages  of  the  duke  and  citizens.  In 
the  11th  c,  F.,  and  a  great  part  of  Tiiscany,  were 
bequeathed  to  Pope  Gregory  VII.,  by  his  friend  and 
partisan  the  Countess  Matilda,  who  inherited  from  her 
mother,  the  Countess  Beatrix,  her  jurisdiction  over 
the  city.  Under  the  protection  of  Rome,  F.  speedily 
adopted  the  forms  and  institutions  of  a  free  city ; 
and  the  republican  spirit  which  then  arose  amongst 
the  people  imparted  an  impulse  to  national  and  indi- 
vidual life,  and  awoke  a  sj)irit  of  ardent  patriotism 
and  splendid  enterprise.  As  early  as  the  11th  c., 
the  Florentines  were  European  traders,  and  the  pos- 
sessors of  grand  commercial  depots  in  the  seaports 
and  cities  of  France  and  England,  and  their  skill  as 
workers  in  gold  and  jewels  had  grown  proverbiaL 
In  proportion  as  papal  preponderance  increased  in 
F.,  that  of  the  empire  sank ;  and  in  1113  the  citizen 
forces  routed  the  troops,  and  slew  the  delegate  of 
the  emperor  at  Monte  Cascioli,  near  Florence.  Dur- 
ing the  bitter  wars  between  pope  and  empire,  F.  and 
all  Tuscany  seemed  to  have  been  saved  from  the 
civil  feuds  which  raged  throughout  Italy  between 
the  contending  factions  of  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines ; 
the  former,  adherents  of  the  pope ;  the  latter,  of  the 
empire.  But  in  1215,  F.  became  involved  in  the 
great  party  struggle,  owing  to  a  private  feud  break- 
ing out  between  two  noble  families,  chiefs  of  the 
contending  principles.  A  Guelph  noble,  Buondel- 
monti,  mortally  incensed  the  Ghibelliue  familv  of  the 
Amidei,  by  breaking  off  his  alliance  with  a  daughter 
of  their  house,  and  contracting  marriage  with  a 
member  of  a  Guelph  family.  To  avenge  this  insult, 
the  Amidei  appealed  to  their  powerful  kinsmen, 
the  Uberti,  and,  in  fact,  to  all  the  GhibeUine  party  of 
Florence.  Buondelmonti  was  stabbed  to  death  as 
he  crossed  the  bridge  of  the  Ponte  Vecchio,  and  was 
speedily  avenged  by  the  Guelphs  in  the  blood  of  his 
enemies.  Thus  for  33  j'^ears  was  F.  distracted  by 
the  deeds  of  bloodshed  and  violence  of  these  two 
rival  factions,  who  assumed  the  names,  and  adopted 
the  respective  causes  of  Guelph  and  Ghibelline.  See 
Guelph  and  Ghibelline.  In  1250,  the  animosity 
of  these  parties  seemed  somewhat  bhmted,  and 
public  attention  was  directed  to  wise  internal  reforms. 
Twelve  magistrates,  or  anziani,  were  appointed  in 
place  of  the  consuls,  each  of  the  six  sections  into 
which  the  city  was  divided  being  intrusted  to  two 
of  these  magistrates,  whose  teniu-e  of  office  was 
annual.  To  .avoid  all  local  dissensions,  two  other 
magistrates,  strangers  by  birth,  were  elected:  the 
one,  invested  with  supreme  authority  in  ciWl  and 
criminal  cases,  was  called  the  podestfl;  the  other, 
with  the  title  of  captain  of  the  people,  had  the  chief 

SSI 


FLORES— FLORICULTURE. 


eommand  of  tae  militia  in  which  were  enrolled 
all  the  youth  of  the  state,  who  were  bound,  at 
the  call  of  this  magistrate,  to  join  their  company 
fully  equipped  for  fight :  20  companies  defended 
the  town,  96  the  country.  After  the  death  of  the 
Empe-or  Frederick  II.,  the  great  protector  of  the 
Ghibellines,  the  Guelph  or  paj)al  party  gradually 
rose  in  power  in  F.,  and  during  ten  years  of 
their  predominance,  the  city  ascended  in  grandeur 
and  prosperity,  until  it  stood  not  only  the  first  in 
Tuscany,  but  one  of  the  first  of  all  Italy.  In 
1254,  the  Florentines  first  coined  their  noble  golden 
florin,  luiequalled  at  the  time  for  beauty  :  in  weight, 
a  drachm,  it  bore  on  one  side  the  national  emblem, 
a  lily ;  and  on  the  reverse,  the  eliigy  of  the  popular 
patron,  St  John  the  Baptist.  It  commemorated 
a  period  of  great  success  in  the  annals  of  F.,  whose 
orces  had  successively  humbled  the  adjoining 
towns  of  Siena,  Arezzo,  Pisa,  and  Pistoja  in  1252, 
and  in  1254  captured  Volterra.  In  12G0,  the 
standard  of  ci\al  war  was  again  raised  by  the 
Ghibellines  of  F.,  who,  in  league  with  Manfred  of 
Naples,  attacked  the  Guelphs,  and  cut  their  forces 
to  pieces  in  the  sanguinary  battle  of  Monte  Aperto. 
The  conquerors  entered  F.  forthwith  in  the  name 
of  Manfred,  abolished  all  trace  of  the  popular 
institutions,  establishing  an  exclusively  aristocratic 
executive,  and  even  strongly  advocated  tlie  entire 
destruction  of  the  city,  the  hotbed  of  Giielphism. 
This  barbarous  scheme  was  indignantly  repudiated 
by  their  own  famous  leader,  Farinata  degli  Uberti, 
immortalised  by  Dante  for  his  patriotism.  He 
declared  his  intention  of  heading  the  Guelphs,  were 
such  a  sacrilege  perpetrated  by  his  own  i)arty. 
Pope  Urban  IV.,  French  by  birth,  summoned  against 
the  Ghibelline  Manfred  a  French  army,  led  by 
Charles  of  Valois,  to  whom  he  offered  the  pro- 
spective kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  Manfred  was 
defeated  and  slain  in  the  famous  battle  of  Benevento, 
and  Gueli>h  ascendency  was  restored  anew  through- 
out Italy  and  Florence.  Charles  fully  restored  to  the 
Florentines  their  internal  institutions,  and  received 
their  offered  allegiance  for  ten  years,  126G.  In  12S2, 
the  Priori,  a  new  executive  power,  was  established 
in  F. ;  and  in  129.3,  by  the  consent  of  the  Priori,  a 
higher  chief  than  tlieir  own  order  was  elected,  with 
the  title  of  Gonfalon  lere.  In  130(1,  Dante  became 
one  of  the  Priori,  and  the  former  feud  was  recom- 
menced with  new  vigour  between  two  factions, 
who  bore  the  names  of  Bianclii  (Whites)  and  Neri 
(Blacks).  Their  dissensions  were,  however,  inter- 
rupted by  the  appearance  of  Charles  of  Valois,  sent 
by  Boniface  VIII.  to  restore  tranquillity,  1301. 
Charles  espoused  the  part  of  the  Gueljjhs  or  Neri, 
and  sanctioned  every  outrage  on  the  Bianchi,  who 
were  plundered  and  murdered  bai'barously,  the 
Kurvivors  being  exiled  and  beggared ;  among  these 
were  Dante,  and  Petracco  dell'  Ancisa,  the  father 
oi  Petrarca.  In  1306,  Pistoja  was  besieged,  and 
taken  by  famine  with  great  barbarity.  In  1315, 
ttie  Florentines  met  with  a  severe  check  from  the 
Ghibellines  of  Pisa,  under  the  command  of  Uguc- 
cione  della  Faggiula  ;  and  in  1325,  were  completely 
defeated  by  Uguccione's  successor  in  command, 
the  valiant  Castruccio  Castracani,  in  the  battle  of 
Altopascio.  F.,  weakened  by  long  dissensions,  and 
ftlanned  by  Castruccio' s  threat  of  marching  on  the 
city,  appealed  to  the  king  of  Naples  for  aid.  They 
received  joyfully  an  officer  of  the  king,  entitled 
the  Duke  of  Athens,  sent  as  royal  vicar ;  and  such 
was  the  public  demoralisation  of  the  moment,  they 
proclaimed  him  dictator  of  the  republic,  unanimously 
Buppresaing  the  oflices  of  priori  and  gonfaloniere. 
The  intrigues  of  this  ignoble  schemer  to  overturn 
the  republic  being  discovered,  he  was  iguominiously 
expelled  by  a  general  pox)ular  rising,  and  narrowly 


preserved  his  life.  An  attempt  to  admit  a  propor 
tion  of  the  nobles  into  the  government  signally 
failed  at  this  time,  and  only  led  to  rejiewed  ani- 
mosity between  them  and  the  citizens.  This  was 
the  last  effort  of  the  nobles  to  secure  power.  See 
Macliiavelli,  book  ii.  A  terrible  pest  decimated 
F.  in  1.348,  sweeping  off  100,000  of  her  inliabitauts. 
See  Boccaccio,  Decameron.  The  chief  power  of  F. 
about  this  time  seems  to  have  been  alternately 
wielded  by  the  democratic  families,  the  Alberti  and 
the  Ricci,  and  by  their  patrician  rivals,  the  Albizzi, 
who,  for  the  s])ace  of  53  years,  guided  the  republic 
in  the  [latli  of  independence  and  progress.  In  1406, 
the  ancient  and  illustrious  republic  of  Pisa  (q.  v.) 
fell  under  the  sway  of  F.,  after  a  most  heroic  resist- 
ance. From  1434,  the  history  of  F.  is  intimatelj 
bound  up  %vith  the  House  of  Medici,  whose  inliuence 
supplanted  that  of  the  Albizzi.  See  Medicl  Tho 
Medici  were  repeatedly  banished  from  F,,  in  conse- 
quence of  their  aiming  at  sovereign  power ;  and  to 
their  intrigues  F.  owes  her  final  loss  of  republican 
rights  and  institutions.  Pope  Clement  VII.,  of  the 
House  of  Medici,  formed  a  league  with  the  Emperor 
Charles  V.,  by  which  the  liberties  of  F.  were  to  be 
extinguished,  and  the  sovereign  power  to  be  invested 
in  the  pope's  bastard  son,  Alexander  de'  Medici.  In 
Sei)tember  1529,  an  army  of  imperialists,  under  the 
Duke  of  Orange,  entered  Tuscany ;  and  on  the  8th  of 
Auguft  1530,  the  siege  of  F.  terminated,  after  a 
defence  of  unexampled  devotion  and  bravery  on  the 
part  of  the  citizens.  Thus  fell  the  name  and  form 
of  the  republic  of  F.,  quenched  in  the  best  blood 
of  the  city,  a  sacrifice  to  a  renegade  pope,  who 
employed  both  foreign  robbers  and  internal  traitors 
to  destroy  and  humiliate  the  city  of  his  birth. 
From  this  period,  F.  loses  her  distinctive  history, 
and  is  only  known  as  capital  of  the  gi-and  duchy 
of  Tuscany,  Pope  Clement  having  conferred  on 
Cosmo  de'  Medici  the  ducal  dignity.  Some  idea  of 
the  splendour  and  prosperity  of  F.  as  a  republic 
may  be  had  from  tjie  fact,  that  her  capitalists  were 
so  enormously  wealthy,  they  supjilied  the  chief 
sovereigns  of  Europe  Avith  funds  ;  her  manufactures 
of  wool,  sUk,  and  gold  brocade  were  exported 
throughout  the  world  ;  and  besides  home  centres 
of  commerce,  she  possessed  great  commercial  estab- 
lishments in  all  the  countries  of  Europe.  Florence  re- 
mained the  capital  of  Tuscany  till  1860,  and  w;is  after- 
ward for  a  time  the  capital  of  tlie  kingdom  of  Italy, 
but  in  1871  had  to  yield  tlie  honour  to  Rome. — The 
province  of  F.,  or  Firenze,  has  an  area  of  2260  square 
n)iles,  and  a  population  of  (1871)  766,321. 

FLO'RES,  as  the  name  of  various  islands,  occurs 
in  Asia,  North  America,  South  America,  and  the 
Azores. — 1.  In  the  Malayan  Archipelago,  about  half 
way  between  Java  and  the  eastern  exti-emity  of 
the  chain.  It  lies  due  south  from  Celebes,  stretch- 
ing in  S.  lat.  from  8°  to  9°,  and  in  E.  long,  from 
120°  to  12.3°.  Like  most  members  of  the  group,  it 
is  of  an  oblong  shape,  measuring  200  miles  in  length 
by  an  average  breadth  of  35.  In  common  with  the 
rest  of  the  cluster,  the  island  is  of  hilly  character 
and  volcanic  origin.  It  produces  cotton,  sandal- 
wood, and  bees-wax  ;  and  its  piinciiial  trade  is  with 
Singapore. — 2.  The  most  westerly  of  the  Azores, 
with  a  population  of  about  10,000— lat.  39  25'  N., 
and  long.  31°  12'  W.— 3.  In  the  Pacific  Ocean,  a 
little  to  the  west  of  Vancouver  Island — lat.  49°  20' 
N.,  and  long.  126°  W.— 4.  In  the  Plata,  about 
20  miles  below  Monte  Video,  in  the  republic  of 
Uruguay,  in  lat.  34°  56'  S.,  and  long.  55°  55'  W. 

FLO'RET.    See  Flower. 

FLORICULTURE,  or  CULTIVATION 
OF  FLOWERS.  From  the  earliest  times,  and 
wherever  any  considerable  progress  has  been  mada 


FLORICULTURE— FLORIDA. 


in  civil  sation,  plants  have  been  cnltivated  for  the 
Bake  of  kheir  beautiful  or  fragrant  flowers.  Flowers 
have  been  very  generally  employed  not  only  to 
afford  gratification,  and  for  the  adornment  of  the 
peison  and  of  lionses,  pai"ticularly  on  festive  occa- 
sions, but  in  many  countries  also  in  connection  with 
religious  rites.  Flower-markets  existed  in  ancient 
Athens,  as  in  the  richest  capitals  of  the  modern 
World.  India,  China,  and  Mexico  have  been  famous 
for  the  cultivation  of  flowers,  from  the  earliest 
periods  to  which  their  history  can  be  accurately 
traced.  Artificial  means  have  been  employed  for 
the  protection  and  cultivation  of  delicate  exotics, 
prized  only  on  account  of  their  flowers,  far  more 
generally  and  assiduously  than  for  the  cultivation 
of  any  fruit-bearing,  cidinary,  or  otherwise  useful 
plants.  Those  who  cannot  afford  more  than  a 
very  small  gi-een-house,  almost  always  devote  it  to 
flowers  ;  and  those  who  cannot  attain  even  this, 
have  a  few  favoured  plants  under  a  frame,  or  at 
least  in  a  window. 

Flowers  are  either  cultivated  in  borders  of  a 
garden  mainly  appropriated  to  fruit-trees  and 
culinary  vegetables,  or  a  separate  flower-garden  is 
formed,  consisting  generally  of  parterres  cut  out 
of  a  lawn.  Of  late  years,  the  separate  flower-garden 
has  become  much  more  connnon  than  fomierly. 
There  is  much  room  for  the  display  of  taste  in  the 
form  and  grouping  of  its  parterres,  and  both  in 
it  and  in  the  humbler  flower-border,  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  flowers  themselves.  A  common  rule 
has  alv/ays  been  to  place  the  plants  of  tallest 
gro\\i;h  generally  at  the  greatest  distance  from  the 
walks  or  alleys  from  which  they  are  to  be  viewed, 
and  those  which  scarcely  rise  above  the  ground, 
nearest  to  the  spectator :  it  is  also  of  evadent 
importance,  except  in  extensive  gardens,  that  every 
border  or  parteiTe  should  be  gay  with  flowers 
during  all  the  spring,  summer,  and  autunm,  on 
which  account  attention  must  be  paid  to  the 
intermixing  of  plants  that  flower  at  different 
seasons,  and  for  this  purpose  annuals  are  often 
sown  amongst  perennial  plants  and  shrubs  ;  whilst 
it  is  always  necessary  to  take  care  that  the  com- 
bination of  colours  be  such  as  to  please  and  not 
ofi"end  the  eye,  in  order  to  which  complementarii 
colours  are  brought  together — red  and  green,  blue 
and  orange,  yellow  and  violet — whilst  a  judicious 
mixture  of  white  blends  and  harmonizes  those  which 
would  otherwise  appear  unpleasantly  contrasted.  This 
rule  is  equally  applicable  to  the  grouping  of  flowers 
in  one  border,  or  of  parterres  in  which  masses  of 
the  same  colour  are  exhibited,  often  produced  by 
an  extensive  i)lanting  of  the  same  flower,  a  prac- 
tice which  has  recently  become  common,  and  by 
which  the  greatest  splendour  of  general  effect  is 
produced. 

The  flower-garden  requires  the  same  attention  to 
the  habits  of  particular  species,  and  the  same  assi- 
duity in  digging,  cleaning,  &c.,  which  are  requisite 
in  other  dei)artments  of  horticidture.  Perennial 
herbaceous  plants  generally  require  to  be  not  unfre- 
quently  renewed  by  parting  of  the  roots  or  other- 
wise, as  the  tuft  extends  and  the  floM^ering  stems 
become  more  numerous,  but  weaker  and  less  pro- 
ductive. Many  plants  are  placed  in  the  flower- 
garden  in  summer,  which  require  the  protection  of 
the  frame  or  green-house  in  winter. 

In  no  department  of  horticulture  have  greater 
changes  been  eftected  by  cultivation.  Even  the 
practised  eye  has  often  some  difficulty  in  recog- 
nising tha  splendid  varieties  which  the  florist  has 
produced,  as  the  progeny  of  the  unpromising 
original  form.  One  of  the  most  common  effects  of 
eultivation  is  the  production  of  double  flowers,  in 
ivhich  the  stamens  have  been  converted  into  petals, 


as  in  roses,  so  that  if  the  flower  is  perfectly  doubl« 
it  can  produce  no  seed  by  itself ;  or,  in  the  case  of 
composite  flowers,  the  florets  of  the  disc  assume  the 
same  form  with  the  florets  of  the  ray,  as  in  dahlias, 
asters,  &c.  Much  improvement  has  been  effected 
by  crossing,  not  so  frequently  by  the  real  hybridi- 
sation of  diflerent  species,  as  by  the  intermixture 
of  artificial  varieties  already  obtained  ;  and  many 
of  the  finest  varieties  are  the  mere  result  of  the 
careful  selection  and  cultivation  of  individual  plants 
of  superior  beauty,  and  of  their  progeny. 

The  green-house,  conservatory,  stove,  &c.,  in  which 
exotic  flowers  are  cidtivated,  are  noticed  in  se2>arate 
articles.  But  perhaps  this  article  would  not  be 
complete  without  some  notice  of  window- gar deninrf, 
by  which  a  charm  is  added  even  to  the  abodes  of 
the  wealthy,  particularly  in  cities,  and  by  which 
even  the  poor  have  the  delight  of  tending  a  choice 
exotic  or  two,  and  becoming  familiar  with  the 
beauty  of  their  flowers.  The  care  requisite  in 
window-gardening  is  the  same  as  for  plants  kept 
in  flower-pots  in  the  green-house  ;  there  must  be 
the  same  re-potting,  piiming  of  the  roots,  &c.,  from 
time  to  time,  and  at  least  as  much  attention  in 
giving  water  and  air.  Of  the  foimer,  the  most 
common  mistake  is  to  give  too  much,  and  of  the 
latter  too  little.  It  is  a  good  rule,  that  except 
immediately  after  water  is  given,  it  should  never 
be  seen-  in  the  saucer;  nor  should  the  earth 
appear  very  moist.  The  situation,  however,  being 
in  many  respects  less  favourable,  many  plants,  as 
heaths,  which  are  frequent  in  green-houses,  cannot 
be  successfully  ciiltivated  in  the  ^\dndows  of  apart- 
ments. The  common  notion  that  the  burning  of 
gas  in  apartments  injures  window-plants,  does  not 
aj)pear  to  be  well  founded.  Wardian  Cases,  by 
means  of  which  many  delicate  plants  are  i)roduced 
in  the  greatest  perfection  in  the  windows  of 
apartments,  are  noticed  in  a  separate  article. 

Horticultural  Societies  (q.  v.)  have  of  late  donti 
much  for  the  encouragement  of  the  cidtivation  of 
flowers,  and  particularly  among  the  humbler  classes 
of  society,  with  evident  increase  of  amenity  witliin 
and  around  their  abodes,  and  an  unqitestionable 
tendency  to  refinement  of  habits  and  feelings. 

FLO'RIDA,  the  name  of  the  most  southerly 
member  of  the  United  States,  and  the  twenty- 
seventh  in  order  of  admission.  Including  its 
adjacent  islands  and  its  reef-like  chain  of  keys  on 
the  south-west,  it  stretches  in  N.  lat.  between 
25°  and  31°,  and  in  W.  long,  between  80°  and 
87°  44'.  The  greater  portion  of  it  forms  a  peninsula 
stretching  south-south-east  towards  the  Bahamas, 
having  the  Atlantic  on  the  one  side,  and  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  on  the  other.  It  adjoins,  on  the  north, 
the  states  of  Georgia  and  Alabama.  Its  greatest 
breadth,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  river  Perdido,  is 
360  miles  ;  its  greatest  length  about  400  miles  ;  the 
average  breadth  of  the  peninsular  poition  upwards 
of  120  miles ;  area,  60,000  square  miles.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  St  John's,  running  north- 
east through  the  peninsula,  and  entering  the  sea 
near  Jacksonville  after  a  course  of  300  miles ;  the 
Siiwanee,  flowing  soiith  from  Georgia  into  the 
Mexican  Gulf  at  Vacassar  Bay ;  the  Appalachicola, 
the  Choctawhatchee,  Escambia,  and  I^'rdido.  The 
principal  towns  are  Tallahassee,  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment, situated  near  the  middle  of  the  northern 
boimdary ;  St  Mark's  on  the  Gidf ;  St  Augustine  on 
the  Atlantic,  the  Spanish  capital,  and  the  oldest 
settlement  in  Anglo-Saxon  America  ;  and  Pensacola, 
a  port  near  the  Perdido,  in  the  extreme  west  of 
the  state,  recently  rendered  so  conspicuous  in  the 
war  of  secession. 

In  physical  character,  the  state,  generally  speak- 
ing, is  part  of  the  sandy  and  marshy  belt  whicl 

383 


FLOEIBA— FLORISTS'  FLOWERS. 


7orms  the  immediate  seaboai-d  from  tlie  Potomac  to 
the  Mississippi.  Nay,  far  beyond  the  average  of 
the  contiguous  shores  in  either  direction,  it  may, 
almost  without  a  metaphor,  be  described  as  amphi- 
bious. To  say  nothing  of  inlets,  which  carry  the 
tide  within  fifty  miles  of  every  point,  the  interior 
may  literally  be  said  to  teem  with  fresh  water,  here 
and  there  welling  up  into  considcraljle  streams  from 
springs  ranging  to  250  fathoms  in  depth.  This  is 
more  emphatically  true  of  the  south,  where  an 
immense  district,  known  as  Everglades,  exliibits,  as 
its  normal  condition,  the  ordinary  phenomena  of  a 
casual  inundation.  Though  the  surface  is  thus 
better  adapted  to  pasturage  than  to  tillage,  yet,  in 
favourable  localities,  the  soil,  rather  through  the 
abundance  of  heat  and  moisture  than  from  any 
inherent  fertility,  largely  yields  such  productions  as 
sugar,  cotton,  and  rice.  Considering  that  the  state 
shares  with  the  Bahamas  the  dominion  of  that 
^rand  highway  of  commerce,  the  Gulf  Stream  (q.  v.), 
its  inexhaustible  growth  of  timber  for  ship-building 
is  peculiarly  valuable.  Its  coasts  and  rivers  swarm 
with  shoals  of  fish ;  while  its  dependent  keys, 
periodically  crusted  with  salt  of  the  sim's  making, 
furnish  the  means  of  curing  them. — Florida,  so 
called  because  of  its  exuberant  vegetation,  was  first 
made  known  to  Eiu-opcans  by  Ponce  de  Leon,  who 
landed  near  St  Augustine  in  1512.  In  15.39  it  was 
explored  by  Fernando  de  Soto.  Originally,  the 
term  F.  vaguely  indicated  among  the  Spaniards 
the  eastern  side  of  the  new  continent  to  the  north 
of  Mexico,  just  as  the  term  California  received  a 
similarly  loose  interpretation  on  the  western  coast. 
Gradually,  however,  it  came  to  be  circumscribed  by 
the  encroachments  of  rival  powers — its  first  definite 
boundaries  being  established  with  reference  to  the 
claims  of  English  Georgia  and  French  Louisiana. 
Even  within  these  limits,  it  embraced,  in  addition  to 
the  F.  of  the  present  day,  the  maiitime  borders  of 
Alabama  and  Mississippi.  Thus  fixed  in  position 
and  extent,  the  colony  was  ceded  to  England  in  1763, 
and  recovered  by  Spain  in  1781.  In  1803,  however, 
Louisiana  having  been  bought  by  the  United  States 
fr^jm  France,  F'  became  to  the  former  country  a 
commercial  and  political  necessity ;  and  accordingly, 
in  1821,  it  wa*  annexed  to  the  great  republic  by  a 
mixture  of  fr^vce  and  negotiation. 

The  samn  physical  character  of  F.  which  impairs 
its  econoi'-tical  worth,  has  added  materially  to  the 
expense  -^i  its  occupation.  From  about  1836  to 
1842,  the  Seminole  Indians,  protected  by  their 
swamps  against  every  civilised  appliance  but  the 
blood- hound,  tasked  the  resources  of  the  American 
Union  more  than  any  other  domain  of  equal  size 
ever  tasked  them.  Notwithstanding  every  draw- 
back, the  country,  possessing  as  it  does,  a  com- 
paratively salubrious  climate,  has  made  a  reason- 
able progress  in  wealth  and  population.  In  1870, 
2,373,541  acres  were  under  cultivation;  and  the 
nssessable  capital  wj)s  32,480,843  dollars,  $20,197,691 
being  in  real  estate,  $12,283,152  in  personal  property. 
The  true  value  of  the  real  and  personal  estate  in 
1870  was  44,163,655  doHars.  It  is  only  recently 
that  railways  have  been  introduced  into  Florida. 
A  system  of  about  700  miles  has  been  projected,  and 
in  1873  there  were  434  miles  completed.  According 
to  the  national  census  of  1860,  the  inhabitants  num- 
bered 78,686  free,  and  41,753  slaves.  The  latter  be- 
came free  January  1,  1863.  A  state  convention  was 
proposed  and  approved  by  the  people  in  May,  1868. 
The  new  state  legislature  adopted  the  '  14th  amend- 
ment' of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  and 
F.  was  recognized  as  a  state,  and  her  representatives 
admitted  to  seats  in  Congress,  notwithstanding  the 
veto  of  the  President.  In  1869,  an  act  to  establi'-,n 
public  schools  was  passed,  and  200  schools  established. 
384 


In  1870,  the  public  debt  was  $2,185,838.  Populatiou 
(1870),  187,748. 

FLORIDA  BLANCA,  Don  Josefo  Monino, 
Count  of,  prime  minister  under  Charles  III.  of 
Spain,  was  born  in  1728  at  Murcia,  where  his 
father  was  a  notary.  Having  studied  at  Sala- 
manca, he  gained  soon  after  such  distinction  that 
he  was  appointed  Spanish  ambassador  to  Clement 
XIV.  of  Rome.  In  that  office,  he  (hsi)layed  great 
ability,  especially  in  the  abolition  of  the  order  of 
Jesuits  and  the  election  of  Pius  VI.  Grimaldi, 
Spanish  minister  of  Foreign  Aff"airs,  on  being  dis- 
missed, was  asked  by  the  king  to  nominate  a  suc- 
cessor, and  accordingly  proposed  Monino.  Charles 
followed  his  advice,  created  Monino  Count  of 
Florida  Blanca,  and  intrusted  to  him,  besides,  the 
department  of  matters  of  justice  and  mercy,  as 
well  as  the  superintendence  of  posts,  highways,  and 
public  magazines.  F.  used  this  extensive  authority 
in  introducing  post-coaches  and  good  post  roads, 
in  improving  the  capital,  and  attending  to  other 
important  departments  of  general  police,  as  likewise 
in  actively  promoting  the  arts  and  sciences.  Hia 
effort  to  confirm  the  good  \inderstanding  between 
Spain  and  Portugal  by  a  double  m.arriage,  which 
would  have  secured  the  Portuguese  throne  to  a 
Spanish  prince,  was  unsuccessful.  His  military 
undertakings  also,  the  attack  upon  Algiers  in  1777, 
and  the  siege  of  Gibraltar  in  1782,  issued  unfcrtu- 
nately.  Before  the  king's  death  in  October  1788, 
F.  presented  a  defence  of  his  administration,  with 
a  request  for  leave  to  resign.  The  defence  was 
accepted,  but  the  request  refused.  However,  under 
Charles  IV.  in  1792,  F.'s  enemies  obtained  hia 
disgrace.  Imprisoned  at  first  in  the  citad»  1  of 
Panipeluna,  he  was  afterwards  released,  and  ban)  ihed 
to  his  estates.  He  appeared  again  at  the  meeti  iig  of 
the  Cortes  in  1808,  but  died  November  20  o'  tha 
same  j^ear. 

FLORIDE^.    See  Ceramiace^. 

FLORIN  was  the  name  of  a  gold  coin  first  st"ucK 
in  Florence  (q.  v.)  in  the  13th  century.  It  was  the 
size  of  a  ducat,  and  had  on  one  side  a  lily,  and  or  the 
other  the  head  of  John  the  Baptist.  Some  de  ive 
the  name  from  the  city,  and  others  from  the  flower. 
These  coins  were  soon  imitated  all  over  Europe. 
It  was  out  of  them  that  the  German  gold  guldens 
of  the  middle  ages  and  the  modern  giddens  arose. 
These  last  are  still  marked  by  the  letters  FL  The 
gulden  or  florin  is  the  unit  of  account  in  Austria 
and  the  south  of  Germany.  Its  value  in  Austria  is 
25.  English ;  in  the  other  states,  \s.  8d.  The  name 
has  been  recently  apj)lied  to  the  English  two- 
shilling  piece. 

FLORI'NIANS,  a  -Gnostic  sect  of  the  2d  c,  so 
called  from  a  Roman  priest,  Florinus,  who,  with 
his  fellow-presbyter,  Blastus,  introduced  doctrines 
resembling  those  of  Valentimis,  into  Rome,  in  the 

f)ontificate  of  Eleutherius  (176),  and  was  excluded 
rom  commimion  by  that  pontiff.  See  Gnosticism, 
Valentinians. 

FLO'RISTS'  FLOWERS  are  those  kinds  of 
flowers  which  have  been  cultivated  -with  peculiar 
care,  and  of  which,  consequently,  there  exist  nume- 
rous varieties,  diff"ering  very  much  in  appearance 
from  each  other  and  from  the  original  flower.  Such 
are  tulips,  hyacinths,  roses,  auriculas,  carnations, 
anemones,  ranunciduses,  dahlias,  &c.  The  special 
cultivation  of  particular  flowers  was  first  prosecuted 
to  a  remarkable  degree  in  Europe  by  the  Dutch  in 
t'-ie  beginning  of  the  17th  c.,  and  from  the  Nether- 
lands a  passion  for  it  extended  to  other  countries, 
particularly  to  England  and  Scotland,  when  the 
religious  persecutions  drove  many  refugees  to  the 
British  shores ;  and  to  this  day  it  prevails  most  of 


FLORUS-FLOURENS. 


aJl  where  the  branches  of  manufacture  intrcxluced 
by  the  refugees  are  carried  on.  In  the  little  gardens 
of  operatives  in  some  of  the  manufacturing  towns 
ipay  be  seen  many  of  the  finest  tulips  and  carna- 
tions in  Britain.  It  is  still,  however,  in  Holland, 
and  particularly  at  Haarlem,  that  this  branch  of 
gardening  is  carried  on  to  the  greatest  extent,  and  it 
IS  from  that  quarter  that  the  market  of  the  world 
is  chiefly  supplied  with  bulbs,  seeds,  &c.  Between 
Alemsei  and  Leyden  are  more  than  twenty  acres 
appropriated  to  hyacinths  alone,  which  succeed  best 
in  a  loose  sandy  soil.  The  cultivation  of  roses  at 
Noordwyll,  in  South  Holland,  is  carried  on  in  con- 
Biderable  fields  situated  in  the  dunes,  and  affords 
support  to  many  families.  Berlin  has  of  late  years 
become  the  seat  of  a  fiower-trade,  which  partially 
rivals  that  of  Holland.  Some  flowers,  as  dahlias 
and  hollyhocks,  are  produced  in  greatest  perfection 
by  British  cidtivators.  The  Chinese  have  had  their 
florists'  flowers,  camellias,  hydrangeas,  tree  peonies, 
&c.,  from  time  immemorial. 

In  the  years  1636  and  1637,  an  extraordinary 
flx3wer-mania  prevailed  in  Holland,  chiefly  with 
reference  to  tulips,  in  which  men  speculated  as 
we  have  recently  seen  them  do  in  railway  shares. 
Bulbs  were  sold  for  enormous  sums.  For  a  single 
Semper  Augustus  (a  tulip),  13,000  florins  were  once 
paid,  and  for  three  such  together,  30,000  florins. 
The  ownership  of  a  bidb  was  often  divided  into 
shares.  Men  sold  bulbs,  which  they  did  not  possess, 
on  condition  of  delivering  them  to  the  buyers  within 
a  stipulated  time  ;  and  of  some  varieties,  far  more 
bulbs  were  sold  than  actually  existed.  But  these 
extravagances  soon  ceased,  although  not  till  they 
had  involved  many  persons  in  ruin. — It  was  not 
till  about  the  year  1776  that  the  real  flower-trade 
of  Holland  reached  its  greatest  importance ;  from 
which  time  it  has  rather  declined.  New  varieties  of 
tulips  and  hyacinths  are  sometimes  marked  in  the 
Haarlem  catalogues  at  prices  from  25  to  150  florins. 

FLO'RUS,  generally,  but  on  insufiicient  evidence, 
called  L.  Annaeus  F.,  was  a  Roman  historian  who 
flourished  in  the  reign  of  Trajan  or  Hadrian.  Of 
his  life  we  know  absolutely  nothing.  He  wrote 
an  epitome  of  Roman  history  {Epitome  de  Gestis 
Romanorum),  from  the  foundation  of  the  city  to 
the  time  of  Augustus.  This  work,  which  is  still 
extant,  is  carefully  and  intelligently  composed,  but 
is  disfigured  by  an  inflated  and  metaphorical  style. 
Since  the  editio  princeps—\i,  indeed,  it  be  such — 
printed  at  the  Sorbonne  in  1471,  F.'s  epitome  has 
been  published  times  without  number.  The  best 
modern  edition  is  that  of  Dukerus  (Lug.  Bat.  1722, 
1744;  Leip.  1832). 

FLOTANT  (Fr.),  used  in  Heraldry  to  express 
that  the  object  is  flying  in  the  air,  as  a  banner- 
flotant. 

FLO'TSAM.  Wreck,  in  the  legal  acceptation  of 
the  word,  is  goods  which,  having  been  scattered  by 
a  shipwreck,  have  floated  to  land.  From  goods  in 
the  position  of  wreck  are  distinguished  those  known 
to  the  law  of  England  by  the  uncouth  expressions 
flotsam^  jetsam,  and  ligan.  The  first  is  where  the 
goods  continue  floating  on  the  surface  of  the  waves  ; 
the  sucond  is  where,  being  oast  into  the  sea,  they 
sink  and  remain  under  water;  the  third  is  where 
they  are  sunk  in  the  sea,  but  are  tied  to  a  cork, 
bladder,  or  buoy,  in  order  that  they  may  be 
recovered.  If  no  owner  appears  to  claim  them, 
goods  in  these  various  positions  go  to  the  crown,  so 
that  by  a  royal  grant  to  a  man  of  v)recks,  things 
flotsam,  jetsam,  or  ligan  will  not  pass.  See  Jet- 
BAM,  and  Jettiso.-^,  an  important  term  in  the  law- 
merchant,  from  which  jetsam  must  be  carefully 
diiitinguished. 
l»l 


FLOTZ  (Ger.  level),  the  name  given  by  Werner 
to  the  secondary  rocks  of  Lehmann,  because,  in  tht* 
district  in  which  he  examined  them,  they  were  hori- 
zontal. He  arranged  the  rocks  which  forin  the  solid 
crust  of  the  eartli  into  four  classes.  1.  The  primi- 
tive beds  withoiit  organic  remains,  such  as  granite 
and  gneiss  ;  2.  The  transition  strata,  which,  from 
their  more  or  less  metamorphic  condition,  were 
related  to  the  primitive  rocks  on  the  one  si(le,  and 
from  their  few  contained  organisms,  to  the  flotz 
on  the  other ;  3.  The  flotz  containing  all  the  sedi- 
mentary rocks,  from  the  coal-measures  up  to  and 
including  the  chalk ;  and  4.  The  newer  strata, 
which  he  called  the  'overflowed  land'  or  alluvium. 
When  the  followers  of  Werner  found  that  the 
horizontal  position  of  the  flotz  was  a  local  accident, 
they  abandoned  the  term,  and  restored  Lehmanu'a 
title  of  Secondary. 

FLOUNDER  [Platessa),  a  genus  of  fishes,  of  th^ 
Flatfish  family  {Plei/ronectida),  having  one  row  of 
cutting  teeth  in  each  jaw,  and  generally  pavement- 
like teeth  on  the  pharynx  ;  the  dorsal  and  anal  iins 
extending  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  body,  the 
dorsal  not  coming  further  forward  than  the  centre 
of  the  upper  eye  ;  the  tail-fin  distinctly  separated 
both  from  the  dorsal  and  the  anal.  To  this  genus 
belong  the  Plaice,  Flounder,  Dab,  &c.,  of  the  British 
shores.  The  species  generally  known  as  the  F. 
(P.  Flesus),  is  very  common,  not  only  on  the  British 
shores,  but  on  those  of  most  jmrts  of  Eiu-ope.  Its 
Swedish  name  is  Flundra.  Its  Scottish  name  is 
FleuTc  or  Fluke,  a  name  which,  with  additions,  is 
extended  to  many  other  kinds  of  flat-fish.  The 
F.  is  often  a  foot  or  more  in  length.  Its  greatest 
breadth,  without  the  fins,  is  about  one-third  of  the 
whole  length,  rather  less  than  that  of  the  plaice. 
It  is  easily  distinguished  from  the  plaice  by  a  row  of 
small  tubercles  on  each  side  of  the  lateral  line.  The 
colour  varies  according  to  the  ground  from  which 
the  fish  is  taken.  The  F.  is  found  chiefly  in  rather 
shallow  water,  with  sandy  or  muddy  bottom,  and 
equally  in  the  most  perfectly  salt  water  and  in  the 
brackish  water  of  estuaries.  It  ascends  still  rivers 
into  perfectly  fresh  water,  and  may  l>e  kept  in  fresh- 
water i)onds.  It  lives  long  out  of  water,  and  is 
easily  transferred  to  ponds. — The  F.,  like  the  other 
fishes  of  this  genus,  generally  SM'ims  on  the  left 
side,  and  has  the  eyes  on  the  right  side ;  but 
reversed"  specimens  are  of  frequent  occurrence. 

FLOUR  is  a  popular  name  given  to  the  finer 
jX)rtions  of  meal  or  pulverised  grain.  Thus,  flour ^ 
or  wheat- flour,  is  the  fine  jmrt  of  ground  wheat ; 
pea  flour,  of  pease,  &c.    See  Bread. 

FLOUR,  St,  a  small  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Cautal,  is  finely  situated  on  a  steep 
basaltic  jtlateau  at  an  elevation  of  3000  feet,  34  miles 
east-north-east  of  Aurillac.  It  is  entirely  built  of 
lava  and  basalt.  Its  streets  are  narrow,  and  its 
houses  in  general  have  a  miserable,  dark,  and  dirty 
appearance.  The  principal  building  is  the  cathe- 
dral. A  suburb  lies  at  the  foot  of  the  rock,  and 
communicates  with  the  town  by  a  winding  road 
cut  in  the  rock.  F.  has  manufactures  of  hollow 
ironware,  cloth,  and  table-linen.    Pop.  (1872)  4046. 

FLOURENS,  Marie  Jean  Pierre,  a  cele- 
brated living  French  physiologist,  born  in  1794  at 
Maureilhan,  H§rault.  After  having  obtained  his 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Medicine  at  Montpellier,  at 
the  early  age  of  19,  he  prc>ceeded  to  Paris,  where  he 
soon  became  acquainted  with  the  CuWers,  Geoffi-cy 
St  Hilaire,  and  other  eminent  naturalists.  For  tlio 
last  forty  years,  F.  has  been  a  voluminous  wi-iter  i)a 
human  and  comparative  anatomy  and  physiology',  on 
natural  history,  and  on  various  special  departmenta 
of  the  history  of  the  natural  and  physical  sciences. 


FLOUKENS— FLOWEPv. 


Among  his  most  important  works  we  may  mention 

his  Recherche^  Experimentalcs  sur  les  Pro]prif.tes  et  les 
Fonciions  du  Sijsteme  Nerveux  dans  les  Anirnaux 
Verttbres  (1824) ;  Avith  a  supplementary  volume, 
entitled  Experiences  sur  le  Systenie  Nei-veux  (1825); 
Recherclies  sur  le  Developpement  dcs  Os  et  des  Dents 
(1842) ;  Anatomie  Gencralc dela  Peauetdes Memhranea 
Muquettses  (1843) — a  work  tending  to  demonstrate 
the  unity  of  the  human  race,  by  shewing  that  there 
are  no  essential  differences  between  the  structure 
of  the  skin  i)i  the  negro  and  the  European — and 
his  Theorie  Experimentcde  de  la  Formation  des  Os 
(1847),  perhaps  the  most  celebrated  of  his  works. 
Among  his  smaller  and  popular  works,  are  his 
Analyse  Raisonnee  des  Travaux  de  Georges  Ciwier 

(1841)  ;  Biiffon,  Histoire  de  ses  Idees  et  de  ses 
Travaux  (1844)  ;  De  V Instinct  et  de  V Intelligence 
des  Anlmaux  (1841);   Examen  de  la  Phrenologie 

(1842)  ;  Histoire  de  la.  Decouverte  de  la  Circulation 
du  Sang  (1851) ;  De  la  Longevite  Ilumaine,  et  de 
la  Quantitc  de  Vie  sur  le  Globe  (1854) ;  and  his 
Eloges  Ilistoriques — a  beautifully  written  series  of 
ecieutific  biographies. 

As  early  as  1821,  F.  delivered  a  course  of  lectures 
on  '  The  Physiological  Theory  of  Sensations,'  and 
presented  some  of  his  first  scientific  contributions  to 
the  Academy  of  Sciences,  into  which  body  he  was 
admitted  as  a  member  in  1828.  About  this  date,  he 
was  a])])ointed  assistant  to  Cuvier ;  and  in  1832,  he 
succeeded  to  the  full  duties  of  the  professorship  of 
natural  history  in  the  Jardin  du  lloi.  In  1833,  he 
succeeded  Dulong  as  Perj)etual  Secretary  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences — an  office  which  he  still 
continues  to  discharge;  and  in  1840,  the  French 
Academy  elected  him  a  member.  He  was  made  a 
peer  of  France  by  Louis  Philippe  in  184G,  and  was 
appointed  professor  in  the  College  de  France  in  1855. 
He  was  unquestionably  the  most  popular  French 
scientilic  writer  of  his  day.    He  died  5th  Dec.  18G7. 

FLOWER,  or  BLOSSOM,  that  part  of  a  phaner- 
ogamous plant  in  which  the  organs  of  reproduction 
(stainens  and  pidils)  are  situated,  and  which  consists 
essentially  of  a  single  groxxp  of  these,  generally  sur- 
rounded by  Jloral  envelopes  (the  calyx  and  corolla). 
Both  the  organs  of  reproduction  and  the  floral 
■envelopes  are  metamorphosed  leaves,  and  arise  in 
successive  whorls  from  a  much  shortened  axis, 
called  the  thalamus  (Gr.  a  nuptial-bed),  or  torus 
(Lat.  a  couch).  Flowers  are  sometimes  closely 
attached  to  the  stem  or  branch  from  which  tliey 
groAv-,  and  are  then  said  to  be  sessile  (Lat.  sitting)  ; 
but  sometimes  there  intervenes  a  flower-stalk  or 
peduncle,  either  simple  or  l^ranched.  The  whole 
assemblage  of  flowers  of  a  plant  is  called  its  Inflor- 
escence (q.  v.),  and  the  different  kinds  of  inflor- 
escence, or  modes  in  which  the  flowers  are  pro- 
duced and  grouped,  are  often  as  characteristic  as 
the  diversities  in  the  flowers  themselves,  although 
the  latter  are  in  general  more  important  with  refer- 
ence to  botanical  affinities. 

In  the  very  large  natural  order  Compositce,  many 
small  flowers  are  congregated  on  a  common  receptacle, 
and  surrounded  with  bracts  in  the  form  of  an 
involucre,  as  a  single  flower  is  surrounded  by  its 
calyx.  The  head  of  flowers  is  in  this  case  popularly 
called  a  flower ;  and  the  individual  flowers  of 
which  it  is  composed  are  by  botanists  styled 
florets.  This  term  is  also  applied  to  the  individual 
flowers  in  the  spikelets  of  the  Grasses  (q.  v.),  of  which 
the  glumes  are  a  common  involucre. 

The  order  of  the  whorls  in  flowers  is  invariable ; 
the  Calyx  (q.  v.)  is  always  exterior  to  the  Corolla 
(q.  v.) ;  within  the  corolla  are  the  Stamens  (q.  v.), 
or  male  organs  of  reproduction,  and  in  the  centre  of 
all  is  the  Pistil  (q.  v.),  the  female  organ  of  repro- 
duction. An  outer  calyx,  or  whorl  of  metamorphosed 


leaves,  exterior  to  the  calyx,  and  usually  smaller, 
is  found  in  some  flowers,  as  mallows,  and  is  called 
the  epicalyx.  Within  the  corolla,  there  is  some- 
times an  additional  or  supplementary  corolla,  called 
the  Corona  {q.  v.),  coronet^  or  crown.    When  tha 


Illustration  of  some  of  the  Principal  Parts  of  a  Flowoi 
(from  Balfour's  Botany)  : 

1,  Section  of  the  flower  of  Ranunculus,  shewing  sepals,  petals, 
numerous  stamens,  with  adnate  anthers,  placed  below  the 
carpels.  2,  Anatr<ipal  seed  of  Aconite,  cut  verticallj',  shew- 
ing abundant  homogeneous  albumen  and  a  small  cmbrj-o. 
3,  Diafiram  of  the  flower  of  llanunculus,  with  five  sepals, 
five  i)f  tals,  numerous  stamens,  and  carpels.  4,  Ripe  follicle 
of  Columbine.  5,  Ripe  acliene  of  Ranunculus.  6,  Numerous 
sinffle  seeded  carpels  of  Ranunculus.  7,  Spurred  petal  of 
Columbine. 

calyx  and  coroUa  are  not  easily  distinguishable,  the 
term  Perianth  (q,  v.),  or  perigone,  is  employed,  as  in 
the  lily,  crocus,  iris,  and  the  greater  number  of 
endogenous  ])lants,  although  even  in  these  there 
are  really  two  whorls  closely  united.  In  some 
flowers,  there  arc  several  whorls  of  leaves  forming 
one  or  each  of  the  floral  envelopes  ;  and  in  like 
manner,  some  have  several  whorls  of  stamens,  and 
sometimes  there  are  several  whorls  of  the  carpels 
which  form  the  pistil.  In  some  flowers,  certain 
whorls  are  entirely  wanting;  and  thus  not  a  few 
exogenous  plants  are  destitute  of  the  corolla,  which 
is  sometimes  the  case  with  plants — exceptional 
apetalous  species — very  nearly  allied  to  others  that 
have  it.  It  is  hy  a  similar  abortion  of  a  whorl  that 
flowers  become  iniisexual.  Both  stamens  and  pistils 
are  generally  present  in  the  same  flower,  which  is 
called  a  hernutphrodite  or  perfect  flower  ;  but  many 
flowers  contain  only  the  male  organs  of  reproduction, 
and  many  contain  only  the  female  organs,  and  such 
flowers  are  described  as  ludsexucd,  Diclinous  (q.  v.), 
or  imperfect ;  and  respectively,  as  male  or  staminifer- 
ous,  and  female  or  pAstilliferous  flov/ers.  Male  flowers 
are  also  called  barren  or  sterile,  and  female  flowers 
fertile,  although  their  fertility  depends  on  the  com- 
munication of  pollen  from  the  staininiferous  flowers. 
When  both  male  and  female  flowers  are  produced 
on  one  plant,  the  species  is  said  to  be  'noiuvciom 
(Gr.,  having  one  house)  ;  but  when  they  are  on 
separate  plants,  it  is  dicecious  (Gr.,  having  two 
houses)  ;  those  which  produce  male,  female,  and 
hermaplirodite  flowers  are  called  polygamous.  Sumc- 
times  both  stamens  and  pistils  are  wanting,  and  the 
flower  is  then  said  to  be  neuter  or  ewpty,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  florets  of  the  ray  in  many  composite 
flowers.  Sometimes,  on  the  contrary,  both  calyx 
and  corolla  are  wanting,  and  then  the  flower  is  said 
to  be  naked  or  achlamydcous  (Gr.,  without  coverin^^), 
as  flowers  having  only  one  floral  envelope  are  called 
monochlamydeous,  and  flowers  having  both  calyx 
and  corolla  are  called  dichlamydeou^.  Achlamydeoiis 
flowers  are  often  grouped  in  some  peculiai  manner, 
and  protected  by  bracts  or  by  a  spathe. 


J 


FLO  WEE, 


Flowers  are  always  regular  in  their  ruclimental 
state — whorls  of  elevated  points  or  papilla'. ;  some  of 
these,  however,  are  not  unfreqixently  abortive,  whilst 
more  frequently,  some  acquire  a  greater  develop- 
ment than  others  of  the  same  whorl,  making  the 
whorl  and  the  flower  irregular ;  and  greater  varie- 
ties of  form  are  common  in  the  metamorphosed 
leaves  which  compose  the  flower,  than  in  true  leaves 
themselves.  The  internodes,  or  portions  of  the  axis 
between  the  whorls,  are  sometimes  also  peculiarly 
developed  into  Dine  (q.  v.),  Gynophore  (q.  v.),  &c. 
The  different  whorls  often  differ  in  their  ^Estivation 
(q.  v.).  But  a  beautiful  symmetry  may  generally  be 
traced  in  the  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  flowers, 
the  whorls  consisting  of  the  same  number  of  parts, 
and  the  parts  of  each  whorl  being  placed  opposite 
to  the  spaces  of  the  whorl  exterior  to  it ;  and 
this  symmetrical  plan  of  the  flower  remains  mani- 
fest even  when  there  is  abortion  or  extraordinary 
development  of  particular  parts.  The  number  of 
parts  in  the  pistil  is,  however,  often  smaller  than  in 
the  exterior  whorls ;  and  sometimes  particular  parts 
ai)pear  to  be  divided,  and  so  apparent^  multiplied, 
as  the  long  stamens  of  the  Crucifera;,  each  pair  of 
which  is  to  be  regarded  as  one  stamen  split  into 
two,  and  has  its  place  accordingly  among  the  parts 
of  the  flower.  The  symmetry  of  flowers  may  be 
illustrated  by  the  following  diagrams  : 


niostration  of  the  Symmetry  of  Flowers  (from  Balfour's 

Botany) : 

a,  Diagram  of  the  flower  of  Heath  (Erica),  havin?  four  sepals, 
four  divisions  of  the  corolla,  eight  stamens  in  two  rows,  and 
four  divisions  of  the  pistil.  The  flower  is  tetramerous,  com- 
plete, symmetrical,  and  regular,  b,  Diagramatic  section  of 
a  symmetrical  pentamcrous  flower  of  Stone-crop  (Sedum), 
consisting  of  five  sepals  externally,  five  petals  alternating 
with  the  sepals,  ten  stamens  in  two  rows,  and  five  carpels 
containing  seeds.  The  lines  on  the  outside  of  the  carpels  are 
glands,  c.  Diagram  of  the  trimerous  symmetrical  flower  of 
Iris.  There  are  three  alternating  divisions  of  each  whorl. 
d,  Diagram  of  the  flower  of  Flax.  (Linum),  consisting  of  five 
sepals,  five  petals,  five  stamens,  and  five  carpels,  each  of 
•which  is  partially  divided  into  two.  It  ia  pentamerous, 
complete,  symmetrical,  and  regular. 

The  development  of  flowers  in  most  cases  follows 
the  complete  formation  of  the  stem-leaves,  more 
rarely  precedes  or  accompanies  it.  The  unfolding  of 
the  parts  of  a  flower  is  called  its  flowering  or  Uos- 
sorning,  and  when  their  functions  are  performed,  it 
fades ;  the  floral  envelopes,  the  stamens,  and  even 
the  styles,  sometimes  falling  off  early,  and  some  of 
them  sometimes  remaining  in  a  withered  state  until 
the  ripening  of  the  fruit;  the  calyx  not  unfrequently 
undergoing  such  moditications  as  to  convert  it  into  a 
part  of  the  fruit  itself. 

In  the  greater  number  of  plants,  flowering  takes 
place  during  the  flowering  season  indiscriminately, 
at  all  hours  of   the  day ;   and   the  flowers  once 


opened,  remain  open,  even  during  night,  till  they 
fade.  In  many  plants,  however,  a  sleep  of  flowers 
takes  place ;  they  open  and  close  with  the  returns 
of  day  and  night.  Thus,  sunflowers  open  in  the 
morning,  and  close  at  evening  ;  whilst  there  are 
other  flowers  which  open  in  the  evening,  and  close 
in  the  morning.  Others  also  open  and  close  at 
certain  hours  of  the  day ;  thus  the  flowers  of  the 
common  purslane  open  about  11  o'clock  a.m.,  and 
close  soon  after  midday  ;  Antherkum  pomer'idiaimm 
opens  its  flowers  about  2  P.  M.,  and  closes  them 
before  night ;  the  large  fragrant  blossoms  of  Cereu« 
grandiflorus  open  between  7  and  8  P.M.,  and  its 
sleep  commences  soon  after  midnight.  In  a  few 
plants,  the  sleeping  and  waking  of  the  flowers  are 
regulated  by  the  conditions  of  the  weather.  The 
waking  and  sleeping  of  flowers  either  continues  for 
several  days  in  succession,  as  in  some  species  of 
Mesemhryanthemu7n ;  or  the  brief  life  of  the  flower 
ends  when  it  first  sleeps,  as  in  the  Tiger-flower. 

The  odours  of  flowers,  extremely  various,  often 
delightful,  and  sometimes  very  offensive,  are  in 
some  cases  equally  powerful  as  long  as  the  flower  is 
open ;  in  others,  they  vary  in  strength  at  different 
times  of  the  dixy.  Some  flowers,  as  those  of  Hesperis 
tristis  and  Pelargonium  triate,  altliough  remaining 
ojien  during  the  day,  diffuse  their  fragrance  (Uily 
when  night  comes  on.  The  Oriental  Hyacinth,  so 
commonly  cultivated  in  windows,  is  at  all  times 
perceptibly  fragrant,  but  fills  the  atmosphere  of  the 
apartment  with  its  pei-fume  about  eleven  o'clock  at 
night. 

The  colours  of  the  different  parts  of  flowers,  the 
variety  and  beauty  of  which  render  many  of  them 
so  attractive,  generally  remain  unchanged,  but  some- 
times undergo  changes  during  the  life  of  the  flower. 
The  flowers  of  Myosotis  versicolor — a  small  species  of 
Forget-me-not,  very  common  as  a  weed  in  gardens — 
are  sxdphur-yellow  when  they  first  open,  and  after- 
wards change  to  blue.  The  petals  of  Cheiranthus 
mutabilis,  when  they  first  expand,  are  yellow,  and 
afterwards  pass  to  orange,  red,  and  finally  purple. 
In  Hydrangea  liortensis,  familiar  as  a  window-plant, 
the  flowers  are  at  first  green,  then  rose-colour,  pur- 
plish red  intermixed  with  green,  and  finally,  when 
about  to  fade,  they  are  of  a  sickly  green.  Some 
flowers  undergo  remarkable  changes  of  colour  during 
the  day,  as  those  of  the  common  pink  P/ilox,  which, 
early  in  the  morning,  are  light  blue,  and  become 
bright  pink  as  the  day  advances  ;  and  those  of 
Hibiscus  variabilis,  which  are  white  in  the  morning, 
pink  at  noon,  and  bright  red  at  sunset. 

The  colours  and  odours  of  flowers  are  subjects 
in  the  investigation  of  which  physiologists  have 
not  yet  been  able  to  go  far.  The  chemical  products 
on  which  they  immediately  depend  are  partially 
known ;  but  how  the  chemical  changes  are  wrought, 
and  what  various  ptirposes  they  all  serve  as  to 
the  plant  itself,  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have  even 
begun  to  \Je  ascertained.  Both  colours  and  edoura 
are  more  or  less  owing  to  the  action  of  the  sun'a 
rays.  They  are  also  sometimes  modified  by  soil; 
and  diversities  of  colour  have  been  obtained  in 
cultivated  flowers  by  changing  the  soil  in  which 
they  grow. 

A  few  flowers  are  edible,  although  none  are  of  ai^y 
importance  on  this  account.  Some,  or  parts  of  them, 
are  used  in  dyeing ;  but  notwithstanding  the  beauty 
and  variety  of  the  colours  of  flowers,  a  very  smalS 
proportion  of  vegetable  dye-stuffs  is  obtained  from 
them ;  and  a  similar  remark  is  applicable  to  their 
medicinal  use.  For  dyeing  and  painting,  the  colours 
of  flowers  can  seldom  be  obtained  in  considerable 
quantity,  except  at  too  great  expense,  and  seldom  of 
brilliancy  at  aU  corresponding  with  that  which  they 
exhibit  in  the  flower  itself.   They  are  also  in  general 


FLOWER-DE-LUCE— FLOWERS. 


fixed  with  great  difficulty,  some  yellow  colours  being 
the  only  notable  exceptions. 

Flowers  being  subser^^ent  to  the  reproduction  of 
the  si^ecies,  are,  in  ail  not  unfavourable  circum- 
stances, followed  by  Fruit  (q.  v.).  This,  of  course, 
in  monoecious  and  dioecious  plants,  is  the  case  only 
with  the  female  flowers,  the  male  flowers  soon 
withering  away  when  they  have  dispersed  their 
pollen.  See  Fecundation  and  Stamen.  But  even 
after  the  fecundation  of  the  germen,  and  when,  in 
fche  language  of  gardeners,  the  fruit  is  set,  unfavour- 
able circumstances,  such  as  excessive  heat  or  cold, 
drought  or  moisture,  want  of  due  nutriment  to  the 
plant,  or  through  excessive  number  of  fruits  set  at 
once,  to  the  individual  fruit  itself — often  cause  it  to 
fall  ofi"  early,  long  before  it  has  attained  its  full  size. 
See  Fruit. 

FLOWER-DE-LUCE.    See  Iris. 

FLOWER-POTS  are  generally  made  of  burnt 
clay,  un^lazed,  tajjering  a  little  towards  the  bottom, 
and  having  the  bottom  perforated  with  one  or  more 
holes.  Those  of  smallest  size  {thumb-pots)  are  only 
about  two  inclies  deep,  and  are  used  chiefly  for 
seedlings  to  be  soon  again  transplanted.  For  ])lants 
which  require  a  pot  of  more  than  12  inches  deep  and 
18  inches  wide,  wooden  boxes  or  tubs  are  generally 
provided.  The  flower-pot  is  usually  placed  in  a 
saucer  of  the  same  material,  when  used  in  apart- 
ments or  on  the  shelves  of  a  green-house  ;  but  when 
p)ants  grooving  in  flower-pots  are  placed  in  the 
garden,  the  saucer  is  dispensed  with.  For  orna- 
mental use,  flower-})ots  are  sometimes  glazed,  or 
made  in  the  shape  of  vases,  &c. — In  fllling  flower- 
pots, small  stones  or  bits  of  broken  potteiy  are 
placed  in  the  bottom,  to  prevent  water  from  lodging 
there,  and  souring  the  soil  in  which  the  plant  is  to 
grow.  The  roots  of  plants  growing  in  pots  are 
generally  examined  once  or  twice  a  year,  by  turning 
them  out  of  the  pot  with  the  whole  ball  of  earth 
attached,  when  the  roots,  which  have  often  become 
matted  roi.nd  the  outside  of  the  ball  of  earth,  are 
pruned,  and  the  })lant  is  either  restored  to  the  same 
pot  or  transferred  to  a  larger  one.  The  change  of 
soil  made  at  this  time  is,  according  to  circumstances, 
either  complete  or  partial. 

FLOWERS,  Artificial.  This  elegant  branch  of 
manufacture,  though  not  usually  ranked  among  the 
fine  arts,  may  be  fairly  regarded  as  holding  an  inter- 
mediate place  between  them  and  the  mechanical  arts. 
The  Italians  Avere  the  first  to  bring  it  to  a  high  state  of 
perfection,  and  it  is  now  successfully  carried  out  both  in 
England  and  France.  The  value  of  artificial  flowers  an- 
nually exported  from  France  exceeds  £40,000.  $300,- 
000  worth  were  imported  into  the  U.  States  in  1868. 

The  materials  used  are  very  various.  Feathers 
have  long  been  used  by  the  South  American  Indians. 
In  Italy,  the  cocoons  of  silk- worms  are  dyed,  and 
extensively  used.  Beautiful  imitations  of  flowers 
are  made  from  shells,  either  in  their  natliral  colours 
or  tinted.  Paper,  ribbons,  velvet,  thin  laminse  of 
whalebone,  &c.,  are  also  used.  The  materials  of 
which  the  artificial  flowers  commonly  in  use  are 
made  are  French  cambric,  Scotch  cambric,  jaconet, 
and  fine  calico,  besides  muslin,  crape,  and  gauze  for 
particular  flowers,  and  satin  and  velvet  for  thick 
petals,  &c.  Wax-flower-making  is  quite  a  distinct 
branch,  and  those  who  follow  it  claim  wdth  justice 
the  title  of  artist.  It  will  be  treated  under  the  head 
of  Wax- FLOWERS. 

The  petals  and  sepals  of  the  flowers,  as  well  as 
the  leaves  of  the  plant,  are  stamped  out  by  i)unches, 
or  '  irons,'  as  they  are  technically  termed.  A  large 
stock  of  these  irons  is  necessary,  as  special  forms 
and  sizes  are  required  for  each  flower.  The  next 
process  in  shaping  is  that  of  '  gofiering,'  or  '  gauffer- 


ing,'  by  means  of  which  the  hollow  form  is  given 
to  petals,  and  the  midrib  and  veins  of  leaves 
imitated.  For  hollowmg  petals,  the  goffering- iron 
is  simply  a  polished  iron  ball  mounted  on  an  iron 
wire  in  a  handle.  It  is  slightly  warmed,  and  the 
petal  is  placed  on  a  cushion,  and  the  iron  pressed 
against  it.  A  variety  of  other  forms  of  goff'ering- 
irons  are  used,  such  as  prismatic  rods,  l^ent  wires, 
&c.  The  venation  of  leaves  is  efl'edted  by  dies 
made  of  iron  or  copper,  which  are  nevertheless 
called  goff'ering-irons. 

The  tinting  of  petals  of  the  best  flowers  requires 
some  amoimt  of  delicacy  and  skill.  In  nature, 
however,  the  tint  of  each  petal  of  a  flower  is  rarely 
uniform  ;  and  the  best  artificial  flowers  represent 
the  natural  variations  with  great  accuracy.  The 
petals  of  a  rose,  for  example,  are  dyed  by  holding 
each  separately  by  pincers,  and  then  dipping  it  in 
a  bath  of  carmine,  and  afterwards  into  pure  w^ater, 

I  to  give  delicacy  of  tint ;  but  as  the  colour  is  usually 
deepest  in  the  centrt^,  a  little  more  dye  is  added 
there  while  the  petal  is  still  moist,  and  this  diff'usea 
itself  outwards  in  diminishing  intensity.  The  white- 

:  ness  at  the  msertion  of  the  i)etal  is  produced  by 
touching  that  part  with  pure  water  after  the  rest  is 

j  dyed. 

Leaves  are  cut  and  stamped  in  like  manner  from 
green  tafleta,  cambric,  calico,  &c.    The  glossy  upper 
I  surface  is  represented  ])y  coating  the  tafleta,  &c., 
from  which  they  are  stami)ed,  with  gum-arabic  ; 
and  the  soft  tone  of  the  under  side  is  obtained 
by  means  of  starch  coloured  to  the  requisite  shade, 
and  brushed  on  when  of  the  nght  consistence  to 
j  dry  vdth.  the  proper  efiect.     A  velvety  texture 
;  is  given  by  dusting  the  powdered  nap  of  cloth, 
'  which  has  l)een  i)reviously  dyed  of  the  required 
[  colour,  over  the  gummed  leaf,  the  gum  having 
;  been  allowed  to  partly  dry  till  it  has  become 
'taccy.'    The  superfluous  portion  of  nap  is  then 
shaken  off.    Buds  are  made  of  tafleta,  tinted,  and 
stiffened,  and  stuffed  with  cotton.     Stamens  are 
made  of  short  pieces  of  sewing  silk  stiftened  with 
gelatine,  and  when  dry,  the  ends  are  moistened  with 
gum,  and  dipped  in  floiu-,  coloured  yellow,  to  repre* 
sent  the  pollen.    Fine  wii'e  is  sometimes  used  for 
the  filament  of  the  stamen. 

The  flower  is  built  up  from  the  centre ;  the  pistil 
and  stamens  are  tied  in  a  bunch  to  a  piece  of  wire ; 
i  the  petals  are  arranged  in  order,  and  pasted ;  then 
1  the  sepals  of  the  calyx  are  pasted  outside  of  these, 
i  and  further  secured  by  winding  fine  thread  or  silk 
round  the  lower  parts.     Other  wires  are  enclosed 
with  this  thread,  and  form  the  stalk,  which  is  bound 
round  with  green  tissue  paper  ;  and  at  proper  intei  - 
vals  the  leaves  are  inserted  by  means  of  fine  wires, 
to  which  they  are  bound,  the  ends  of  these  wires 
being  bound  in  and  incorporated  with  the  stalk,  and 
concealed  by  the  green  paper. 

Besides  the  flowers  copied  from  nature,  there  is  a 
considerable  demand  for  what  are  called  '  fancy 
flowers,'  most  of  which  are  invented  by  the  manu- 
facturer to  use  up  waste  and  spoiled  fragments 
originally  designed  for  better  purposes. 

Flowers  suitable  for  mourning  are  prepared  by 
coating  leaves,  flowers,  &c.,  with  strong  gum,  and 
then  dusting  upon  them  powdered  galena.  This 
substance,  a  sulphuret  of  lead,  is  formed  naturally 
in  lustrous  cubic  crystals  of  a  dark-gray  colour,  and 
however  finely  it  is  powdered,  the  fragments  still 
tend  to  retain  the  same  shape  and  surface,  and  thus 
present  a  number  of  flat,  glittering  facets.  It  is  used 
in  like  manner  for  cheap  jewelry. 

FLOWERS,  in  Chemistry,  is  a  term  originally 
given  by  the  alchemists  to  the  sublimates  which 
rose,  or  appeared  to  grow  from  certain  bodies  cafable 
of  undergoing  volatilization  when  subjected  to  heat 


FLOX  ^RIS— : 


FLUOR  SPAR. 


T'hiis^  flowers  of  antimony,  flowers  of  arsenic,  flowers 
of  benjamin  or  benzoin,  flowers  of  sulphur,  flowers 
oj  zinc,  &c. 

FLOX  iERIS  is  a  term  applied  to  the  suboxide 
or  red  oxide  of  copper. 
FLUE.    See  Chimney. 

FLUID.  The  mathematical  definition  of  a  fluid 
is,  that  it  is  a  collection  of  material  particles  which 
can  be  moved  among  each  other  by  an  indefinitely 
small  force.  No  fluid  in  nature  strictly  fulfils  this 
definition,  though  very  many  do  so  sufficiently 
nearly  to  make  the  conclusions  founded  on  the 
definition  practically  correct.  Fluids  are  distin- 
guished into  elastic  and  inelastic — the  former  being 
those  the  volume  of  which  is  diminished  by  pressure, 
and  increases  when  pressure  is  removed ;  the  latter 
being  those  which  have  not  this  property,  e.  g., 
water  and  all  those  fluids  termed  Liquids  (q.  v.). 
Elastic  fluids  are  also  spoken  of  as  compressible  ; 
and  inelastic  as  incompressible — which,  strictly 
speaking,  no  known  fluid  is,  although  all  ordinary 
liquids  are  sufficiently  nearly  so  to  enable  us  to 
regard  them  as  such  without  sensible  error.  See 
Vapoues,  Elasticity  and  Heat,  Cohesion  and 
Capillary  Action. 

FLUKE,  the  pointed  triangular  termination  to 
each  arm  of  an  Anchor  (q.  v.). 

FLUKE,  or  FLUKE-WORM  (Distoma  hepati- 
cum),  an  entozoon  common  in  the  liver  and  biliary 
ducts  of  ruminants,  particularly  of  sheep,  in  which 
_  it  produces  the  disease  called  Bot, 

often  causing  great  mortality  in 
flocks  during  wet  seasons  and  on 
ill-drained  lands.  It  receives  its 
common  name  from  its  resem- 
blance in  form  to  the  flounder, 
of  which  fluke  is  a  Scotch  and 
old  English  name.  For  a  similar 
reason,  it  is  sometimes  called 
Plaice.  It  is  a  Trematode  (q.  v.) 
worm,  higher  in  organisation  than 
the  cestoid  worms,  but  not  so  high 
as  the  Ccelehnintha.  It  is  gener- 
ally not  quite  an  inch  in  length, 
often  much  less,  but  sometimes 
more  ;  of  an  oval  form,  its 
breadth  about  half  its  length ; 
flat,  in  colour  not  very  different 
from  the  liver  in  which  it  exists  : 
ft  has  no  eyed  nor  other  known  organs  of  special 
sense ;  it  is  hermaphrodite,  and  the  organs  of 
reproduction  occupy  a  great  part  of  its  body,  the 
ovaries  heiiig  ranged  along  the  margin  ;  its  anterior 
extremity  is  furnished  with  a  sucker,  and  another  is 
situated  at  a  small  distance  on  the  ventral  surface, 
whence  the  name  Distoma  (Gr.  two-mouthed),  but 
the  terminal  sucker  alone  is  perforated,  and  serves 
us  a  mouth,  by  which  bile — the  food  of  the  creature 
—is  imhibed ;  the  tube  which  proceeds  from  it  not, 
however,  becoming  a  proper  intestinal  canal,  but 
soon  dividing  into  two  large  branches,  and  ending 
in  minute  ramifications  in  all  parts  of  the  body. 
Prodigious  numbers  of  flukes  are  sometimes  found 
in  the  liver  of  a  single  sheep,  and  of  very  different 
eizes,  but  they  are  now  believed  not  to  multiply 
there  as  was  formerly  supposed.  Their  eggs,  in- 
deed, ^>ire  produced  there  in  great  quantity,  but 
find  their  way  into  the  outer  world  to  begin 
a  series  of  transformations  not  yet  very  accur- 
ately traced  -with  regard  to  this  particular  species, 
but  of  which  the  general  nature  is  known.  See 
Cercaria,  Trematode  Worms,  and  Generation, 
Alterkation  of.  It  seems  that  the  young  flukes, 
Uanii^  entered  as  Cercarice  into  the  bodies  of 


Fluko-wona  {Dis- 
toma hepatic«>,m). 


molluscs  or  of  aquatic  insect  larvae,  are  conveyed 
into  the  stomachs  of  ruminants  feeding  on  herbage 
to  which  these  are  attached,  and  finding  their  way 
to  the  liver,  there  attain  their  full  development, 
See  Rot. 

Instances  have  occurred  of  the  presence  of  Distoma 
hepatlcum  in  the  human  liver  and  vena  pottoi :  as 
well  as  of  a  similar  species,  D.  lanceolatum  ;  a  small 
species  of  the  same  genus,  D.  heterophyeji,  has  been 
found  in  great  numbers  in  the  human  intestines  ia 
Egypt,  but  its  influence  on  the  system  is  unknown ; 
a  species  of  much  elongated  form,  D.  hcematobiumf 
is  very  common  in  Egyj^t,  infesting  the  vena  porta: 
of  man,  and  the  walls  of  the  urinary  bladder,  and 
producing  local,  and  afterwards  general  disease  ;  a 
small  species,  I),  ophthalmobium,  has  been  found  in 
the  human  eye,  but  probably  through  some  such 
accident  as  in  another  case  has  led  to  the  occurrence 
of  the  common  fluke  under  the  skin  of  the  foot, 
where  it  caused  a  sore.  Of  all  the  known  species, 
the  Egyptian,  D.  hoimalobiu'm,  is  by  far  the  most 
hurtful,  as  infesting  the  human  body.  This  species 
is  also  remarkably  different  from  the  others,  in  not 
being  hermaphrodite,  and  in  the  extreme  dissimi- 
larity of  the  male  and  female;  the  female  being  a 
thread-like  worm,  for  which  a  lodgment  is  provided 
in  a  furrow  {r/yn<ecophorus)  on  the  ventral  surface 
of  the  male. 

The  genus  Distoma  or  Fluke  contains  a  great 
number  of  species,  infesting,  in  their  mature  state, 
diff"erent  kinds  of  animals,  and  finding  their  ai)pro- 
priate  place  in  very  different  parts  of  the  animal 
frame.  The  wrinkled  membrane  around  the  eyes  of 
birds  is  the  place  of  some. 

FLUOR  SPAR,  a  mineral  which  has  been  often 
described  as  chemically  Fluate  of  Lime,  a  compound 
of  fluoric  (hydrofluoric)  acid  and  lime,  but  which  is 
in  reality  Fluoride  of  Calcium  (CaF),  consisting  of 
48'14  fluorine  and  51*86  calcium  (the  base  of  lime). 
It  occurs  both  crystallised  and  massive  ;  the  massive 
varieties  exhibiting  a  crystalline  structure ;  the 
crystals  usually  in  groups,  sometimes  of  the  primary 
form,  Avhich  is  a  cube,  but  often  of  secondary  forms, 
of  which  there  is  great  variety,  as  the  octahedron, 
rhombic  dodecahedron,  &c.  F.  S.  is  sometimes 
colourless,  but  often  green,  blue,  yellowy  or  red,  more 
rarely  gray,  or  even  black  ;  different  shades  of  colour 
frequently  appearing  m  the  same  specimen,  and  in 
the  massive  varieties  beautifully  intermixed.  Its 
colours  often  rival  those  of  the  most  beautiful  gems  ; 
but  it  is  of  very  inferior  hardness,  being  scratched 
even  by  quartz.  Its  specific  gra\'ity  is  3"14.  It 
generally  becomes  i)liosphorescent  when  heated, 
although  this  is  more  remarkably  the  case  with 
some  varieties  than  with  others ;  it  is  decomposed 
by  heated  sulphuric  acid,  with  evolution  of  hydro- 
fluoric acid  as  a  pungent  gas,  which,  having  the- 
property  of  acting  upon  and  corroding  glass,  F.  S.  is 
used  with  sidphuric  acid  for  etching  on  glass.  F.  S. 
is  also  used  for  ornamental  i)urposes,  being  wi'ought 
into  vases,  &c.,  for  wliich  it  was  in  high  esteem 
among  the  ancients.  But  the  greater  abundance  in 
which  it  is  now^  obtained  has  diminished  the  value 
of  ornaments  made  of  it.  It  is  very  commonly 
associated  with  ores  of  tin,  silver,  lead,  and  copper, 
occurring  chiefly  in  veins,  but  is  also  found  by  itsnlf 
in  drusy  cavities  in  granite,  greenstone,  &c.  It  is 
found  only  in  a  few  places  in  Scotland,  and  in 
insignificant  quantity,  but  is  nowhere  more  abund- 
ant than  in  England,  particularly  in  Derbyshire 
and  in  Cornwall.  In  Cornwall,  it  is  used  as  a  flux 
for  reducing  copper  ore.  In  Derbyshire,  the  blue 
massive  variety  is  known  to  the  miners  as  Blm 
John.  The  manufacture  of  ornaments  of  F.  S.  is 
carried  on  to  some  extent  in  Derbyshire.  F.  S.  ia 
often  called  Derbyshire  Spae, 


FLUORESCENCE— FLUSTEA. 


FLUORE'SCENCE  is  the  term  applied  to  a 
peculiar  blue  appearance  exhibited  by  certain  sub- 
stances exposed  to  suuliyht,  and  especially  ob- 
servable in  a  dilute  solution  of  sulphate  of  qui- 
nine. 

FLU'ORINE  is  an  elementary  substance,  allied 
to  chlorine.  Its  priiK'i])al  natural  source  is  the 
mineral,  lluor  s\mY  (CaF),  although  it  is  also  found 
in  minate  quantities  in  the  igneous  rocks,  natural 
waters,  plants,  the  bones  and  teeth  of  animals,  as 
also  in  milk,  blood,  etc.  Many  attemjits  have  been 
made  to  isolate  fluorine,  but  these  have  all  failed, 
owing  to  the  extremely  energetic  nature  of  the 
substance,  which  causes  it  to  unite  with  substances 
the  moment  it  is  liberated  from  a  i)revious  state 
of  combi  lation.  Thus,  if  fluorine  is  evolved  in 
glass,  gold,  platinum,  or  other  metallic  vessels,  it 
immediately^  acts  ui)on  and  unites  with  the  mate- 
rial of  the  vessel,  and  ceases  to  ho  free  and  pure. 
It  would  appear,  however,  to  be  a  gaseous  sub- 
stance, having  the  equivalent  niimber  19,  and  with 
properties  similar  to  chlorine,  though  ditFcring  in 
energy  of  action.  The  compounds  of  fluorine  are 
not  numerous,  but  are  important.  Jfydrojiuoric 
acid,  or  jUioric  acid  (HF),  is  generally  prepared 
by  heating  gently  in  a  lead  still  a  mixture  of  one 
part  of  fluor  spar  (CaF)  with  two  parts  of  sulphuric 
acid  (H2SO4),  when  tlie  vapours  of  hydrofluoric  acid 
(HF)  are  evolved,  whilst  sidphate  of  lime  (Ca-iSO*) 
is  left  in  the  still.  The  dense  acid  vapours  are 
conducted  through  a  lead  jupe  into  a  lead  receiver 
or  bottle,  surrounded  by  a  freezing  mixture  of  ice 
and  common  salt.  The  a' id  is  generally  mixed 
with  water  when  desired  to  be  kept  for  some  tune. 
When  the  most  concentrated  hydrofluoric  acid  is 
required,  the  still  and  receiving  vessel  must  be 
made  of  platinum.  The  other  metals  are  not  suit- 
able for  such  apparatus,  as  they  are  rapidly  cor- 
roded by  the  acid.  When  prepared  in  its  strongest 
form,  hydrofluoric  acid  has  the  density  of  1060 
(water  =  1000),  and  is  a  colourless,  fuming  liquid 
of  great  volatility,  which  boils  at  60°  F.,  and  does 
not  freeze  at  —  4'  F.  Not  only  does  hydrofluoric  acid 
corrode  and  dissolve  the  ordinary  metals  (excepting 
lead  and  platinum),  but  when  i)laced  on  the  skin, 
it  produces  a  severe  burn,  owing  to  its  caustic 
nature.  The  most  importaiit  property  which  hydro- 
fluoric acid  possesses  is  its  power  of  eating  into 
and  dissoUdng  glass,  which  admits  of  its  applica-  < 
tion  in  the  etching  of  characters  upon  glass,  as  in 
thermometer  tubes,  and  for  eating  away  greater 
or  less  thicknesses  of  plates  or  sheets  of  coloured 
glass,  so  as  to  produce  a  variety  of  shades.  See 
Glass  and  Glass-staining. 

FLUO'ROTYPE,  a  process  in  which  salts  of 
fluoric  acid  are  employed  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
ducing ])ictures  by  the  agency  of  light.  It  was 
suggested  by  Robert  Hunt  in  1844.  Two  solutions 
are  prejjared  :  one  containing  20  grains  of  bromide 
of  potassium  to  an  oimce  of  water ;  and  the  other, 
5  grains  of  fluoride  of  sodium  to  an  ounce  of  water. 
These  aie  mixed  together  just  previous  to  using, 
and  applied  uniformly  over  the  whole  sm-face  of 
good  paper,  which  is  then  allowed  to  dry,  and 
uftorvvards  rendered  sensitive  by  brushing  over  it 
a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  sixty  grains  to  an 
ounce  of  water.  Papers  so  prepared  may  be  used 
for  the  production  of  pictures  in  the  camera  or 
printing  frame  ;  they  require,  however,  to  be  inten- 
sified by  development  with  protosulphate  of  iron, 
the  reducing  action  of  which  shoiild  be  regulated 
by  the  addition  of  acetic  acid  to  the  solution.  The 
seiKsibility  of  the  pai)ers  for  camera-work  may  be 
much  increased  by  brushing  over  them  a  weak 
Eolation  of  jn-otochloride  of  tin  previous  to  exposure. 

3ttrt 


FLUSH,  a  term  used  in  the  navy  in  reference  to 
decks,  which  are  said  to  be  flush  when  ^tending 
without  break  on  one  level  from  the  bow  to  the 
stern.  Frigates  and  all  smaller  vessels  of  war 
(excej)ting  a  few  steamers)  are  now  constructed 
with  flush  upper-decks ;  but  what  are  technically 
termed  '  flush-decked  ships,'  are  such  as  have  all 
their  guns  on  the  upper-deck,  as  corvettes,  sloops, 
brigs,  and  smaller  vessels. 

FLU' SHIN G  (Dutch,  Vliessinf/en),  a  strong  fort- 
ress and  seaport  of  the  Netherlands,  in  the  province  o£ 
Zealand,  is  situated  on  the  south  coast  of  the  island 
of  Walcheren,  on  the  northern  shore  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Western  Scheldt,  in  lat.  51°  26'  N.,  and  long. 
3°  36'  E.  It  is  the  most  important  naval  station  of 
the  Netherlands,  is  well  built,  and  has  extensive 
docky'ards.  Its  harbour  is  j)rotected  by  two  moles 
from  the  violence  of  the  sea,  with  which,  however, 
two  canals  within  the  town,  sufficiently  large  and 
deep  to  allow  of  the  largest  merchant- vessels  un- 
loading at  the  quays,  communicate.  F.,  with  the 
forts  of  Rammekens  and  Breskens  in  the  vicinity, 
commands  the  entrance  of  the  Scheldt.  It  i? 
strongly  fortified,  and  has  important  wharfs  and 
arsenals.  It  also  carries  on  a  considerable  commerce 
with  India,  England,  and  other  countries.  Pop. 
10,799.  F.  is  the  birthplace  of  Admiral  de  Ruyter. 
It  was  stormed  and  taken  by  the  English  in  the 
Walcheren  expedition  under  Lord  Chatham,  in  1809. 

FLU'STRA,  a  genus  of  zoophytes,  of  the  class 
Polijzoa  (or  Bryozoa),  and  order  I n/utidibulata,  some 
of  the  species  of  which  are  very  common  on  the 
British  shores.  The  name  is  said  to  have  been 
derived  by  Linnaeus  from  the  Saxon  Jlustrian,  to 


Portion  of  Flustra  Truncata  (from  Johnston's 

Zoophytes) : 
a,  a  few  cells  magnified. 


weave,  because  of  the  mat-like  structure  of  the 
polypidoms,  which  in  this  genus  are  extremely  plant- 
like, and  by  unscientific  observers  are  generally 
regarded  as  belonging  to  the  vegetable  and  not 
to  the  animal  kingdom.  In  some  species,  the 
polypidom  assumes  the  appearance  of  a  branch- 
ing frond,  with  polype  cells  either  on  one  side 
only,  or  on  both  sides ;  in  others,  it  extends  as  an 
incrustation  on  rocks,  shells,  sea-weeds,  etc.  The 
pol}pe  cells  are  arranged  quincuncially,  and  are 
in  juxtaposition,  more  or  less  quadrangular,  flat, 
and  with  a  distinct  bordei',  which  is  sometimes 
fui-nished  with  teeth  or  short  spines.  The  polvpes 
have  the  po\^•er  of  moving  either  the  whole  head« 


FLUT&-FLUXIONS. 


ttt  once,  or  the  tentacles  separately,  and  sliew  no 
little  activity,  so  that  a  living  F.,  seen  through 
a  maguifying-glass,  is  a  most  beautiful  and  inte- 
lesting  object.  One  of  the  most  common  British 
species  is  F.  follacea,  which  grows  on  hard  ground 
in  a  few  fathoms'  water,  and  is  contiuually  to  be 
found  torn  ui)  by  the  waves,  and  scattered  on  the 
shore.  It  is  an  interesting  fact,  that  the  same 
species  occurs  in  the  Pacific  Ocean. — A  single  square 
inch  of  F.  carbasea,  another  common  British  species, 
has  been  found  to  contam  1800  cells  ;  and  as  there 
are  about  ten  square  inches  in  an  average  polypidom, 
a  single  specimen  may  ordinarily  contain  about 
16,000  polyi^e  heads. 

FliUTE,  one  of  the  oldest  wind  instruments, 
well  known  to  the  ancient  Greeks,  has  a  soft  and 
pleasant  quality  of  tone,  is  an  important  instru- 
ment in  orchestral  music,  and,  in  consequence  of 
its  easy  treatment,  is,  in  modern  times,  much  in 
favour  with  amateurs.  The  flute  is  commonly  made 
of  boxwood  or  ebony,  but  sometimes  of  ivory  or 
silver.  Its  form  is  that  of  a  taper  tube,  made  in 
four  pieces,  with  six  holes  for  the  fingers,  and  with 
from  one  to  foiirteen  keys,  which  cover  or  open 
other  holes.  The  soimd  is  produced  by  blowing 
from  the  mouth  into  the  embouchiu-e,  an  oval  kind 
of  hole  at  one  side  of  the  thick  end,  which  is  done 
by  the  li\)S  covering  a  part  of  the  hole,  so  that  the 
air  in  its  passage  from  the  mouth  is  broken  against 
the  opposite  edge  of  the  hole,  which  caxises  the 
column  of  air  inside  the  tube  to  vibrate.  The  notes 
of  the  gamut  are  produced  by  the  opening  or  shut- 
ting of  the  holes  by  the  fingers  of  both  hands.  The 
compass  of  the  flute  is  from  D  to  A  sharp,  nineteen 
diatonic  intervals.  For  solo-playing,  a  flute  with  a 
compass  from  G  to  C  is  sometunes  used.  For  orches- 
tral puiposes,  there  are  also  the  tierce  flute,  the 
octave  flute,  the  E  flat  and  F  piccolo  flute  ;  and  the 
highest  of  all,  the  C  piccolo.  Improvements  on  the 
flute  have  been  made  from  time  to  time  by  Quantz, 
Kibock,  Trommlitz,  and  especially  by  Bohm  in 
Germany,  and  by  liudell  and  E.ose  in  London. 

FLUTE- WORK,  the  name  given  to  a  particular 
class  of  stops  in  organ-l^uilding,  in  contradistinction 
to  reed-work.  There  are  also  numerous  stops  in 
German  organs,  specially  designated  with  the  names 
of  flutes  of  difierent  kinds,  of  eight  feet  and  four  feet 
pitch,  some  of  which  have  lately  been  introduced 
into  English  organs. 

FLU'TING,  the  mouldings  in  the  form  of  hollov/s 
or  channels  cut  vertically  on  the  surface  of  columns. 
These  were  adopted  by  the  Greeks  as  ornaments  to 
their  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian  coluimis,  and  were 
retained  by  the  Romans  in  their  architecture.  Tlie 
Tuscan  is  the  only  style  without  flutes.  In  Doric 
(fig.  1),  there  are  20  flutes  on  the  cii-cvunfereuce,  and 


Fig.  1.  Fig.  2. 


the  curves  meet  with  a  sharp  edge.  These  curves 
are  8upj)Osed,  in  Greek  Doric,  to  be  elHi)tical,  and 
they  are  carried  up  across  the  necking  to  the  ])ase  of 
th«  cap.  In  the  other  styles,  there  are  24  flutes  on 
the  circumference  (fig.  2).     Tliese  are  semicircular. 


and  are  separated  by  a  small  fillet;  and,  befcii* 

reaching  the  necking  and  the  base,  are  terminated 
with  semicircular  top  and  bottom. 

Flutes  are  said  to  be  cabled  when  they  are  filled 
in  to  about  l  of  their  height  from  the  base  with 
a  convex  bead.  This  is  done  to  strengthen  the 
column  and  protect  the  flutes.  In  countries  wheru 
Roman  remains  were  abundant,  as  in  the  south 
of  France,  fluting  was  sometimes  adopted  by  the 
early  medieval  architects,  as  at  Aries  and  Autun. 
In  Italy  also,  traces  of  this  decoration  are  visible 
during  the  middle  ages  ;  but  the  flutes  soon  ceased 
to  be  vertical,  c^ad,  in  Romanesque  Architecture 
(q.  v.),  assumed  many  varieties  of  forms,  such  aa 
curves,  zigzags,  &c.,  twisting  round  the  shafts. 

FLUX  {fluo,  I  flow)  is  the  term  given  to  tho 
substances  employed  in  the  arts  M'hicli  cause  or 
facilitate  the  reduction  of  a  metallic  ore  and  the 
fusion  of  the  metal  JVhite  flux  is  an  intimate 
mixture  of  ten  jiarts  of  dry  carbonate  of  soda  and 
thirteen  parts  of  dry  jarbonate  of  i)otash,  and  is 
mainly  instrumental  in  withdrawing  the  silica  or 
combined  sand  from  mineral  substances  ;  black  flux 
is  prepared  by  heating  in  close  vessels  ordinary 
cream  of  tartar  (bitartrate  of  potash),  when  an 
intimate  mixture  of  finely  divided  charcoal  and 
carbonate  of  potash  is  obtained.  The  latter  flux, 
when  mixed  with  finely  divided  metallic  ores,  and 
the  whole  raised  to  a  high  temperature  in  a  furnace, 
is  not  only  useful  in  removing  the  silica,  which  the 
carbonate  of  potash  it  contains  enables  it  to  do,  but 
the  charcoal  withdraws  the  oxygen  from  the  metallic 
oxide,  and  causes  the  separation  of  the  pure  metal. 
Limestone  is  employed  as  the  flux  in  the  smelting  of 
iron  ores.  The  other  fluxes  are  fiuor  spar,  borax, 
protoxide  of  lead,  &c.    See  IrOoST,  Copper,  &c. 

FLUX  {Lsit.  fluxus,  from  fluo,  I  flow),  a  discharge, 
generally  from  a  mucous  membrane.  The  term  ia 
applied  more  or  less  frequently  to  all  preternatural 
fluid  evacuations  from  the  body,  but  especially  to 
those  from  the  bowels,  and  from  the  uterine  organs. 
Dysentery  (q.  v.)  was  long  termed  the  bloody  flux, 
to  distinguish  it  from  simple  diarrhoea.  Another 
scientific  term  for  flux  is  Profluvium,  which  gives 
the  name  to  a  large  order  of  diseases  in  Cullen's 
Nosology.  See  also  CArARRii,  Menstruation,  and, 
vntlx  respect  to  etymology  only,  RHEUMi^.TiSM. 

FLUXIONS,  in  Mathematics.  The  method  of 
fluxions  invented  by  Newton  was  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  notion  of  velocity  uniform  and 
variable ;  and  extended  that  notion,  derived  from  the 
consideration  of  a  moving  point,  to  every  species  of 
magnitude  and  qiiantity.  It  proposed  to  determine, 
in  all  cases,  the  rate  of  increase  or  decrease  of  a 
magnitude  or  qiumtity  whose  value  depends  on  that 
of  another,  which  itself  varies  in  value  at  a  uniform 
and  given  rate.  If  x  and  y  re})resent  two  such 
quantities,  and  y  =  F(a;)  represent  the  law  of  their 
dependence,  and  if  x  be  supi^osed  to  be  the  velocity 
with  which  x  increases,  and  y  that  with  which  y 
changes  value.  Newton  undertook  by  his  method 
to  exi)ress  y  in  terms  of  x  and  of  x,  or  to  find  y 
=  Fi  [x) .  X.  The  quantities  x  and  y,  whi  ;h  in  modern 
langiiage  we  call  the  variables,  he  called  flowing 
quantities  or  fluents,  and  x,  y,  which  we  shoxild  repre- 
sent by  dx  and  dy,  and  call  differentials,  he  called 
the  fluxions  of  x  and  y.  See  Calculus.  To  illus- 
trate his  notation  :  suppose  y  =  x",  it  may  be  shewn 
that  y  =  nx^'^x.  Regarding  now  ?/  as  a  quantity 
depending  on  x  and  x,  and  supposing  x  to  increase 

uniformly,  in  which  case  x  is  constant,  and  [x)  iw 
fluxion  zero,  we  observe  that  y  may  have  a  fluxion, 


FLY— FLYING. 


it  def  ends  on  the  value  assumed  by  nx"  ^  .  wlien 
X  fiu'tlier  changes.  We  find  (?/)  =  w .       1) .  x""'* .  {xf. 

Thus,  second  fluxion  or  velocity  of  y,  or  (?/),  Newton 
wrote  y.  If  x  had  a  second  fluxion,  or  did  not 
change  iiniformlj'-,  then  that  fluxion  he  wrote  x. 

The  third  fluxion  of  y  he  wrote  y  ;  and  so  on,  point- 
ing as  many  points  over  the  fluent  as  there  are 
units  in  the  order  of  the  fluxion.  For  the  fluent,  he 
had  no  special  symbol.  Instead  of  /'nx^'^dx  —  a:"> 
according  to  the  modern  notation,  he  wTote  |  wx""i .  x  |, 
putting  the  exi)ression  in  an  enclosure.  For  the 
principles  on  which  Leibnitz  founded  his  calculus 
and  its  notation,  see  Calculus. 

FLY,  a  popular  name  often  given  to  insects  of  the 
order  Diptera  (q.  v.)  generally,  sometimes  extended 
to  insects  of  other  orders,  and  sometimes  limited  to 
the  Muficides  (q.  v.).  It  is  often  used  with  a  prefix, 
as  house-fly,  blow-fly,  &c.,  to  designate  particular 
kinds  of  insects. 

FLY-CATCHER  {Musckapa),  a  genus  of  birds 
of  the  order  Inseufsores,  tribe  Dentb-ostres,  and  family 
Muscicapidcp,  having  a  moderately  long  angular  bill, 
))roa(l  and  depressed  at  the  base,  compressed  and 
olightly  curved  at  the  point ;  the  base  surrounded 
with  hairs  or  bristles  directed  forwards,  and  which 
help  to  secure  insect  prey.  The  legs  and  feet  are 
small ;  the  outer  toe  the  longest,  and  attached  to  the 
middle  one  as  far  as  the  first  joint.  The  wings  are 
not  long  ;  their  first  quill-feather  is  very  short ;  the 
third  is  the  longest.  The  birds  of  this  genus,  as 
now  restricted,  are  exclusively  confined  to  the  Old 
World,  and  mostly  to  the  warmer  parts  of  it.  Of 
the  numerous  North  American  birds  often  called 
fly-catchers,  some  belong  to  nearly  allied  genera,  and 
others  to  genera  not  now  raidced  even  in  the  same 
family.    The  true  fly- catchers  all  have  the  habit — 


Spotted  and  Pied  Fly-catchers  {Muscicapa  grisola  and 
M.  atricapilla). 

isharacteristic  of  many  of  the  Muscicapidoe  besides 
this  genus — of  remaining  perched  for  a  long  time  in 
the  same  spot,  only  leaving  it  to  make  a  sudden 
dart  at  a  passing  insect,  which  is  seized  with  a  snap 
of  the  bill,  and  then  returning.  They  are  almost 
never  to  be  seen  running  on  the  ground,  or  even  on 
the  branches  of  trees,  and  do  not  chase  insects  in 
the  air  hke  swallows.  Only  four  species  are  Euro- 
pean, two  of  which  are  British— the  Spotted  F.  (if 
392 


grisola)  and  the  Pied  F.  {M.  ati-icapUla  or  liictuosa) ; 
biids  about  the  size  of  a  sparrow,  the  former  of 
which  is  common  in  most  parts  of  England,  as  a 
summer  bird  of  passage,  but  rare  in  Scotland ;  the 
latter  is  rare  in  Britain,  although  abundant  in  the 
south  of  Europe.  The  spotted  F.  is  brownish  gray 
above,  white  beneath,  the  head  and  breast  marked 
with  dusky  spots.  Its  voice  is  a  mere  chirp.  It  is 
remarkable  for  the  choice  it  makes  of  situations  for 
its  nest,  often  on  a  beam  in  an  outhouse,  on  the  side 
of  a  fagot-stack,  on  the  branch  of  a  tree  trained 
against  a  building,  and  sometimes  even  on  a  lamp- 
post in  a  street.  Mr  Durham  Weir  of  Boghoad» 
who  was  a  diligent  observer  of  the  habits  of  birds^ 
mentions  that  he  witnessed  a  single  pair  of  spotted 
fly-catchers  feed  their  young  no  fewer  than  five 
hundred  and  thirty-seven  tunes  in  one  day,  and 
that  their  motions  were  so  rajud  that  he  could  not 
keep  his  eye  off  the  nest  for  a  moment. 

The  name  F.  is  often  extended  to  other  genera, 
and  is  sometimes  used  as  co- extensive  in  significa- 
tion with  that  of  the  family  Muacicapidce. 

FLY-POWDER  is  the  name  given  to  a  com- 
pound of  metallic  arsenic  and  arsenious  acid, 
obtained  by  the  partial  oxidation  of  the  metal,  on 
exposure  to  air,  and  which  is  sold  in  the  United 
States  for  the  ])urpose  of  killing  flies. 

FLY-TRAP.    See  Dion^. 

FLYING,  or  FLIGHT,  is  the  locomotion  of  an 
animal  in  the  air,  by  means  of  wings,  organs  specially 
adapted  to  that  purpose.  By  means  of  these  organs, 
the  animal  raises  itself  from  the  ground  and  sus- 
tains itself  in  the  air,  as  well  as  moves  forward  in 
any  direction  it  desires.  Birds  and  bats  are  the  only 
existing  vertebrate  animals  possessing  the  power 
of  true  flight  ;  the  lateral  membranes  of  Flying 
Squirrels,  Flying  Lemurs,  Flying  Phalangers,  and 
Flying  Dragons,  and  probably  even  the  great  pec- 
toral fins  of  Flying  Fishes,  serving  only  to  sustain 
them  in  the  air  after  the  manner  of  a  parachute,  or 
at  most  to  aid,  on  the  principle  of  a  boy's  kite,  in  an 
oblique  ascent.  The  extinct  re})tiles  called  Ptero- 
dactyles  (q.  v.)  possessed,  however,  the  poM'er  of 
true  flight,  as  their  remains  sufficiently  testify  ;  and 
their  wings  were  constructed  on  a  plan  as  different 
from  those  Ijoth  of  birds  and  of  bats  as  these  (see 
Birds  and  Bats)  are  from  each  other.  The  wings  in 
all  vertebrate  animals  are  the  anterior  hmbs,  and  are 
thus  homologous  to  the  arms  of  man  and  the  fore- 
legs of  ordinary  quadrupeds  ;  in  birds,  the  bones 
answering  to  those  of  the  hand  are  much  abbre\4ated 
and  consolidated;  in  bats,  they  are  prodigiously 
elongated ;  in  jiterodactyles,  there  was  an  elongation 
of  a  single  finger.  Among  birds,  although  the 
power  of  flight  is  general,  there  are  excejjtions  to 
the  rule,  the  wings  of  some  being  merely  rudiment- 
ary, and  at  most  only  helpful  to  them  in  running, 
those  of  others  being  adajjted  to  swimming,  not  on 
the  surface  of,  but  under  water. — The  only  inver- 
tebrate animals  possessing  the  power  of  flight  are 
insects  ;  to  the  greater  part  of  which  vastly  numer- 
ous class  it  belongs  in  their  perfect  state,  although 
there  are  also  many  insects  which  are  quite  desti- 
tute of  it,  and  this  is  sometimes  the  case  with 
species  very  closely  allied  to  others  which  possesa 
it,  nay,  sometimes  this  great  diflerence  exists  between 
the  sexes  of  the  same  species.  The  wings  of  iusecta 
are  not  at  all  homologous  to  those  of  the  flying 
vertebrata,  although  applied  to  the  same  use,  and  in 
structure  are  widely  different  from  them  all.  See 
Insects. 

In  flying,  the  wings  are  made  to  beat  or  strike  the 
air.  The  stroke  in  the  one  direction,  however,  must 
be  very  different  from  that  in  the  other,  or  rather 
from  that  movement  by  which  the  wing  ia  br<iugbt 


FLYING. 


oack  to  its  place  for  another  stroke.    This  diflference 
is  secured  partly  by  greater  force  of  muscular  action,  , 
and  consequent  rapidity ;  the  resistance  of  the  air  | 
varying  as  the  square  of  the  velocity  with  which  the  I 
wing  moves  in  giving  the  stroke.    But  it  is  also 
secured  partly  by  the  conformation  of  the  wing 
itself,  the  quill  leathers  of  birds  being  so  placed  that 
they  strike  the  air  with  their  greatest  extent  of  sur-  j 
face  in  the  proper  stroke  of  the  wing,  and  obliquely 
as  it  returns  to  its  place.  An  imitation  of  this  is  made 
in  the  rowing  of  a  boat,  and  is  called  fcatlier'mg  the 
oar.    The  wings  of  bats,  consisting  of  a  membrane 
extended  upon  jointed  bones,  are  probably  in  part  ; 
folded  up  in  order  to  the  return  from  every  stroke ; 
and  this  is  jDerliaps  the  case  also  with  the  wings  of 
some  insects,  although  those  of  others — as  the  Com-  j 
mon  Fly  and  the  Bee — are  certainly  incapable  of  it ; 
yet  it  is  possible  that  even  these  may  have  a  greater  \ 
degree  of  rigidity  communicated  to  them  by  the  i 
inflation  of  their  air-tubes  during  the  stroke  than  ' 
they  have  during  the  return.  I 

Flying  is  analogous  to  swimming  ;  but  the  differ-  } 
ence  of  medium  is  very  great,  fresh  water  being 
about  800  times  heavier  than  air,  and  the  density  | 
of  sea- water  still  greater.     The  bodies  of  animals  ' 
intended  for  flight  are  therefore  sometimes  adapted  j 
to  it  partly  by  means  which  tend  to  diminish  their  . 
proportionate  weight,  as  the  air-cavities  in  birds  and  ' 
insects ;  which,  however,  are  still  more  important  j 
in  relation  to  the  increase  of  nuiscular  power  ;  and  j 
it  is  chiefly  by  the  increase  of  muscular  power  that  ; 
the  power  of  flying  is  imparted.    The  exercise  of 
strength  requisite  for  swimming  is  comparatively 
small,  about  j^t^  part  only  of  that  which  is  requi- 
site for  flying.    How  wonderful,  then,  the  muscular 
power  of  birds  capable  of  long-sustained  flight,  far  j 
exceeding  in  rapidity  the  si)eed  of  the  swiftest 
locomotive  engine  ever  constructed  by  man  !  or  of 
bisects,  which  in  respect  at  least  of  rapidity,  is  in 
some  species  not  inferior  to  that  of  the  swiftest  birds ! 
The  muscular  power  exerted   in  fljing  evidently 
differs  very  much  both  among  birds  and  among 
insects.    The  large  wings  of  some  require  alfeo  much 
less  frequent  muscular  action,  either  to  sustain  the 
body  in  the  air,  to  elevate  it,  or  to  move  it  forward, 
than  the  comparatively  small  wings  of  others.  The 
motion  of  the  wings  of  hxmiming-birds  and  of 
insects  is  too  rapid  for  the  eye  to  foUow. 

It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  projects  bf  loco- 
motion through  the  air  have  been  much  entertained 
by  men,  nor  that,  whilst  the  force  of  the  ol)jections 
already  stated  was  unknown,  artiflcial  wings,  and 
an  imitation  of  the  flight  of  birds,  occupied  the 
ingenuity  of  inventors.  Grecian  fable  ascribes 
success  to  the  mythic  Dajdalus  (q.  v.),  who  is  said  to 
have  p£issed  safely  over  the  ^gean  Sea  on  wings 
which  he  himself  had  made.  More  modern  stories 
of  similar  success,  although  in  far  shorter  flights,  are 
numerous,  but  often  resolve  themselves,  when  care- 
fully examined,  into  exaggerated  accounts  of  feats 
performed  on  ropes,  wings  having  been  perhaps 
employed  to  render  the  exhibition  more  attractive, 
perhaps  also  to  render  the  performance  more  easy 
Dy  their  extent  of  surface  and  resistance  to  the  air. 
Other  instances  are  on  record  of  persons  who,  appa- 
rently by  some  parachute-like  contrivance,  descended 
obliquely  from  high  towers  to  a  considerable  distance ; 
OS,  iu  the  1.3th  or  14th  c,  Elmerus,  a  monk,  is  said  to 
have  flown  more  than  a  furlong  from  the  top  of  a 
tower  in  S])ain,  but  the  distance  is  probably  much 
exaggerated ;  and  in  the  17th  c,  Besnier,  a  lock- 
smith of  Sable,  in  France,  who  prudently  began  from 
windows  one  story  high,  ventured  at  last  and  safely 
to  If  ap  from  very  elevated  positions,  and  so  passed 
over  houses  or  over  rivers  of  considerable  breadth. 
All  these,  however,  were  mere  feats  destitute  of 


utility,  although  they  encouraged  the  expectation  of 
better  residts,  which  was  cherished  by  some  of  the 
most  scientiflc  men  of  that  period.  Bishop  Wilkins, 
in  particidar,  devoted  much  attention  to  this  subject. 
Perceiving  the  inadequacy  of  the  human  arm  and 
the  muscles  which  move  it  to  give  sufficiently  rapid 
motion  to  wings  of  sufficient  size,  he  suggests  that 
'  it  were  therefore  worth  the  inquiry  to  consider 
whether  this  might  not  be  more  probably  eflecte4 
by  the  labour  of  the  feet,  which  are  naturally  more 
strong  and  indefatigable.'  So  confident  was  he  of 
success,  that  he  anticipated  the  time  when  a  mam 
should  as  readily  call  for  his  wings  to  make  a  journey, 
as  he  then  did  for  his  boots  and  his  horse.  More 
recently,  in  the  end  of  the  18th  and  beginning  of 
the  lOtli  c.  Sir  George  Cay  ley  occupied  himself 
with  specidations  and  experiments  on  this  subject. 
Acknowledging  the  difficulty  which  arises  from  the 
want  of  muscular  strength  in  man,  he  says  :  '  It  is 
only  necessary  to  have  a  first  mover,  which  will 
generate  more  power  in  proportion  to  its  weight, 
than  the  animal  system  of  muscles.'  But  this  first 
mover  has  not  hitherto  been  found.  The  employ- 
ment of  steam  for  this  purpose  has  been  frequently 
proposed.  Attempts  of  this  kind,  however,  have 
rather  for  their  object  aerial  navigation  than  arti- 
ficial flying,  properly  so  called  ;  although  the  inven- 
tions have  been  variously  designated  aerial  ships, 
flying  machines,  &c.  A  great  difficulty  has  been 
found  in  the  weight  of  the  steam-engine  and  its  fuel ; 
and  experiments  which  have  cost  no  small  sums,  and 
have  excited  not  a  little  of  public  attention,  have 
signally  failed  through  miscalculation  on  this  essen- 
tial point.  Not  unfrequently,  attempts  have  been 
made  to  combine  some  modification  of  the  baUoon 
with  the  steam-engine  or  other  means  of  propulsion. 
In  no  instance,  hitherto,  has  there  been  the  least 
approach  to  success,  although  a  European  Aeron- 
autical Society  was  formed,  and  issued  its  advertise- 
ments in  1835  ;  and  about  eight  years  afterwards,  an 
Aerial  Transit  Company  not  only  amused  the  public 


Flying  Machine,  invented  by  Mr  Henson,  1843. 

for  a  considerable  time,  but  obtained  the  assent  of 
the  British  House  of  Commons  to  a  bill  for  its  con- 
stitution. Models  have  sometimes  been  exhibited 
of  aerial  machines  capable  of  being  guided  at  the 
pleasure  of  the  aeronaut,  in  a  perfectly  still  atmo- 
sphere, but  nothing  has  yet  been  invented  capable 
of  serving  any  practical  or  useful  purpose.  There 
is,  however,  nothing  evidently  contrary  to  science  or 
sound  philosophy  in  proposals  for  aerial  na^^igation, 
which,  in  this  respect,  differs  widely  from  numan  or 
artificial  flying. 

Perhaps  the  aeronautic  fsh,  on  whi(h  Marshal 
Ney  is  said  to  have  spent  100,000  francs,  and  which 
for  a  considerable  time  occupied  the  attention  of 
some  of  the  most  ingenious  and  scientific  men  in 
France,  deserves  particidar  notice.  It  was  a  large 
balloon,  of  a  long  fish-like  figure,  intended  to  swim 
in  the  air,  as  a  fisli  in  water,  and  to  be  propelled 
by  vings  or  fins  working  by  cranks;  an  oblique 


FLYING  BRIDGE— FLYING  GURNARD. 


upward  direction  was  to  be  given  to  its  motion,  by 
a  weight  placed  near  the  tail ;  a  downward  direc- 
tion by  tlie  same  weight  liaulcd  forward  to  near 
the  head.  But  when  hmnched,  although  it  floated 
and  moved  forward  a  little,  it  turned  on  one  side, 
and  this  tendency  could  not  be  corrected,  so  that  the 
experiment  proved  a  complete  failure.  For  further 
information,  see  Chambers's  E.  Jour.^  No.  227.  N.  S. 

FLYING  BRIDGE.    See  Ferry. 

FLYING  DRAGON,  or  FLYING  LIZARD 
{Draco),  a  genus  of  saurian  reptiles,  allied  to 
iguanas  and  stt. lions,  but  remarkably  distinguished 
from  them,  and  indeed  from  all  other  reptiles  now 
existing,  by  lateral  meml)ranes  which  suj^port  them 
in  a  parachute-like  manner  in  the  air,  and  enal)le 
them  to  ]>ass  from  tree  to  tree,  even  to  considerable 
distances.  These  membranes  are  sxipjiorted  on  the 
first  six  false  ribs,  which,  instead  of  encircling  the 
abdomen,  stand  out  at  right  angles  from  the  body 
fortius  purpose.  They  are  incapable  cf  the  move- 
ments requisite  for  true  flying ;  when  not  in  use, 
they  are  folded  close  to  the  l^ody.  There  is  also  in 
the  flying  dragons  an  inflatable  pouch  under  the 
chin,  sustained  partly  by  the  hyoid  bone  and  partly 
by  two  small  bones.  The  tail  is  long.  The  scales 
are  small  and  imbricated  ;  those  of  the  tail  and 
limbs  are  keeled.  The  tongue  is  extensile,  but  not 
greatly  so.  All  the  species  are  of  small  size,  live 
among  the  brandies  of  trees,  and  feed  on  insects. 
They  are  natives  of  the  East  Indies.  The  genus  is 
subdivided  by  some  naturalists.  One  of  the  species 
is  figured  in  the  article  Dragon. 

FLYING  FISH,  a  name  given  to  all  those  fishes 
which  have  the  pectoral  fins  so  very  large  that  by 
means  of  them  they  are  sustained  in  short  seeming 
flights  in  the  air.  These  fishes  belong  to  two  very 
difl"erent  families — Scomberesocidce  and  Sclerogenidoi ; 
but  the  name  F.  F.  is  sometimes  limited  to  those  of 
the  former  family,  the  genus  Exocadus ;  those  of  the 
latter  being  known  as  Flying  Gurnards.  The  genus 
Exocoetus  has  the  pectoral  fins  nearly  as  long  as 
the  body,  the  dorsal  fin  placed  over  the  anal, 
the  tail  forked,  and  its  lower  division  considerably 
larger  than  the  upper.  It  is  subdivided  by  some 
naturalists  into  several  genera,  characterised  by  the 
presence  or  absence  of  barbels,  &c.  Two  species 
have  occasionally  been  seen  near  the  British  shores, 
one  of  which  {E.  voUtajis)  is  very  abundant  in  the 
warmer  parts  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  the  other 
{E.  ex'diens)  is  common  in  the  Mediterranean.  In 
the  former,  the  ventral  fins  are  situated  far  forward, 
and  are  short ;  in  the  latter,  they  are  situated  far 
back,  and  are  considerably  elongated.  More  than 
thirty  species  are  known,  all  inhabiting  the  seas  of 
the  warmer  parts  of  the  world,  and  having  their 
respective  geographical  limits  pretty  exactly  defined. 

They  swim  in  shoals  ;  and  whole  shoals — varying 
in  number  from  a  dozen  to  one  hundred  or  more — 
often  leave  the  water  at  once,  darting  in  the  same 
direction  th  'ough  the  air,  and  after  descending  into 
the  water  at  a  distance  of  two  hundred  yards,  or 
even  more,  from  the  place  where  they  arose,  quickly 
rerawing  their  flight.  These  flights  of  flying-fishes 
Conn  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  pleasing 
Bpectacles  which  relieve  the  monotony  of  a  voyage 
in  the  tropical  seas.  Sometimes,  the  coryphene 
(dolphin)  may  be  seen  in  rapid  pursuit,  taking  great 
leaps  out  of  the  water,  and  gaining  upon  his  prey, 
which  take  shorter  and  shorter  flights,  vainly  try  to 
escape  by  doul^ling  like  the  hare,  and  sink  at  last 
exhausted :  sometimes  the  larger  sea-birds  catch 
flying-fishes  whilst  they  are  in  the  air ;  but  it  does 
not  seem  to  be  at  all  trae  that  these  fishes  leave  the 
water,  as  has  been  very  generally  imagined,  merely 
to  escape  from  danger,  nor  is  there  any  good  reason 
994 


for  that  sentimental  pity  which  has  been  often 
expressed  with  regard  to  them,  as  creatures  harassed 
and  persecuted  more  than  others,  and  peculiarly 


Flying  Fish  {Exocoetus  volitans). 


exposed  to  dangers  both  in  the  sea  and  in  the  air. 
They  seem  rather  to  exercise  their  powers,  like 
other  creatures,  very  often  merely  from  the  delight 
which  tliey  take  in  the  exercise  of  them,  and  from 
the  exuberance  of  their  hapi)iness. — The  question, 
whether  or  not  the  flying  fishes  use  their  pectoral 
fins  at  alias  wings,  cannot  yet  perhaps  be  considered 
as  completely  decided;  some  observers,  well  entitled 
to  respect,  maintain  that  they  do,  although,  of 
course,  their  power  of  flight  is  limited  to  the  time 
that  the  fins  remain  quite  moist ;  but  a  great  pre- 
ponderance of  testimony  is  in  favour  of  the  opposite 
opinion,  which  regards  the  fins  as  acting  merely 
after  the  manner  of  a  parachute  or  of  a  kite. 
Flying  fishes  sometimes  rise  to  a  height  of  twenty 
feet  above  the  water,  although  they  more  frequently 
skim  along  nearer  to  its  surface.  They  often  fall 
on  the  decks  of  ships.  They  are  good  food,  and 
the  natives  of  the  South  Sea  Islands  take  them  by 
means  of  small  nets  attached  to  light  poles,  like 
those  in  which  anglers  catch  minnows  for  bait.  For 
this  purpose,  they  go  out  at  night  in  canoes,  to  tl^e 
outer  edge  of  the  coral  reefs,  with  a  torch,  whi^  h 
enables  them  to  see  the  fishes,  and  perhaps  both 
attracts  and  dazzles  them. 

FLYING  FOX.    See  Kalong. 

FLYING  GURNARD  [Dactylopterus),  a  genvi 
of  fishes  of  the  family  Sclerogenid(je  or  Mailed 
Cheeks,  nearly  allied  to  the  Gurnards  [Trigla),  hxS 
remarkably  distinguished  by  the  great  size  of  tbi 


Flying  Gurnard  [Dactylopterus  volitans). 


pectoral  fins,  which  they  use  for  the  same  purpc^^u 
and  in  the  same  way  as  the  Exocoeti.  See  FlyIiNQ 
Fish.  The  pectoral  fins  are,  however,  of  a  very 
different  appearance  from  those  of  the  Exocoeti^ 
widening  almost  to  the  end,  which  is  rounded,  and 
the  tips  of  the  rays  extending  considerably  beyond 


FLYING  LEMUR-FLYING  SQUIRREL. 


the  membrane.  A  very  long  spine  rises  from  the 
back  of  the  head.  One  species  [D.  volitans)  is  com- 
mon in  the  Mediterranean,  and  is  sometimes  fifteen 
inches  in  length.  Its  flight  is  said  not  to  extend  to 
more  than  about  forty  yards,  but  it  sometimes  rises 
high  enough  to  fall  on  the  decks  of  large  shij^a. 
•At  particular  times,  especially  on  the  approach  of 
rough  weather,  in  the  night,  numbers  of  them  may 
be  seen,  by  the  phosphoric  light  which  they  emit, 
making  their  arched  passages  in  apparent  streams 
of  tire.' — Another  species  inhaliits  the  Indian  seas. 
— Some  species  of  Apisies,  belonging  to  the  same 
family,  have  similarly  large  pectorals,  and  make 
Ejnilar  flights. 

FLYING  LEMUR,  or  COLUGO  {Galeopithecus), 
sometimes  also  called  Flying  Cat  and  Flying  Fox, 
a  genus  of  mammalia,  generally  regarded  as  con- 
stituting a  distinct  family,  Galeopithecidce,  which, 
by  some  naturalists  is  placed,  as  by  Cuvier,  among 
the  Cheiroptera  (see  Bat),  although  it  is  now  more 
commonly  associated  with  the  Lemurs  (q.  v.),  as  by 
Lirmseus.  There  are,  indeed,  evident  affinities  both 
to  lemurs  and  bats,  but  chiefly  to  the  former,  with 
which  the  osteological  and  other  anatomical  char- 
acters generally  agree.  Along  the  sides  extends 
an  ample  membrane  or  fold  of  the  skin,  beginning 
behind  the  throat,  and  including  both  the  fore  and 
hind  legs  as  far  as  the  toes,  but  leaving  them  free, 
and  further  stretched  along  both  sides  of  the  tail  to 
the  tip.  In  the  last  particular,  it  differs  from  the 
lateral  membrane  of  the  flying  sqiiirrels  and  flying 
phalangers,  and  more  resembles  that  of  bats ;  but 
it  widely  difl"ers  from  that  of  bats  in  being  compara- 
tively thick,  and  covered  on  both  sides  with  short 
thick  hair;  and  still  more  in  leaving  the  fore-feet 
free,  and  not  being  stretched  on  lengthened  finger- 
bones.  Nor  can  it  be  used  for  true  flight,  but  only 
to  suppoi-t  the  animal  in  the  air  like  a  parachute, 
enabling  it  to  take  enormous  leaps  of  one  hundred 
yards  or  thereby  in  an  inclined  plane.  It  is  not  yet 
satisfactorily  determined  whether  the  differences  to 
be  observed  between  the  specimens  of  flying  lemurs 
in  collections,  are  to  be  regarded  as  differences  of 
species  or  of  variety.  Attempts  have  been  made 
to  distinguish  several  si)ecies,  but  it  is  difficult  on 
account  of  their  great  similarity.  They  are  from 
twenty  inches  to  two  feet  in  total  length,  are  natives 
of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  inhabiting  lofty  trees  in 
dense  forests,  and  feeding  on  small  birds'  eggs  and 
fruits,  as  well  as  on  insects.  They  are  nocturnal 
in  their  habits.  They  are  very  inoffensive,  and 
scarcely  attempt  to  bite  even  when  seized.  Their 
voice  resembles  the  low  cackling  of  a  goose.  They 
produce  generally  two  young  ones  at  a  birth.  The 
Felew  islanders  greatly  esteem  them  as  food,  but 
they  have  a  rank  unpleasant  smell. 

FLYING  PHALA'NGER,  or  FLYING  OPO'S- 

SUM  {Petauriis),  a  genus  of  marsupial  quadrupeds, 
containing  several  species,  natiyes  of  New  Guinea 
and  of  Australia,  where  they  are  generally  called 
Squirrels  or  Flying  Squirrels.  They  are  nearly  allied 
to  the  Phalangers  (q.  v.),  which  they  particularly 
resemble  in  dentition,  but  have  not  the  tail  so  long 
and  prehensile,  whilst  they  are  distinguished  by  a 
hairy  membrane  or  fold  of  the  skin  extending 
along  the  flanks,  and  used  as  a  parachute  to  enable 
them  to  leap  to  great  distances.  This  membrane 
extends  along  both  fore  and  hind  legs  almost  to 
the  toes,  but  does  not  appear  behind  the  hind 
legs,  nor  include  the  tail,  which  is  pretty  long  and 
bushy,  but  which  in  some  of  them  has  a  distichous 
character,  the  hair  spreading  out  to  the  sides,  and 
BO  rendering  it  useful  in  supporting  as  well  as  in 
guiding  the  Ijody  in  the  air.  They  are  capable  of 
modifying  their  course  in  the  air,  although  not 


of  tnie  flight;  and  their  aerial  evolutions  are  ver» 
graceful.  They  repose  during  the  day,  aad  become 
active  in  the  evening.    They  feed  on  fi-uits,  leafes>, 


1,  Flying  Phalanger  {Petaurus  Taguavoides) ;  2,  Flying 
Mouse  [Petaurus  Pi/gmceus). 

insects,  &c.  A  New  Guinea  species  is  about 
as  large  as  a  flying  lemiir ;  one  of  the  Austialiao 
species  is  scarcely  larger  than  a  mouse.  Tbe  fur  of 
some  of  them  is  rich  and  beautiful. — Petaurist 
has  been  i)roposed  as  an  English  name  for  this 
genus  ;  but  is  not  much  used. 

FLYING  SQUID  [OmmastrepJies),  a  genus  of. 
cephalopodous  molluscs,  allied  to  the  Calamariea 
(q.  V.)  or  squids,  but  differing  from  them  in  having 
the  eyes  exposed  and  not  covered  with  skin,  the 
fins  vmited  into  one  as  a  tail,  and  the  gladius  or 
bone  furnished  with  three  diverging  ribs  and  a 
hollow  conical  appendage.  The  tail  is  large,  and 
the  power  of  locomotion  great,  so  that  these  mollusca 
not  only  pass  rapidly  through  the  water,  btit  leap 
out  of  it,  and  high  enough  sometimes  to  fall  upon 
the  decks  of  ships.  They  form  a  principal  part  oi 
the  food  of  many  of  the  Cetacea,  and  are  often  the 
prey  of  albatrosses,  petrels,  and  other  marine  birds. 
They  are  used  as  bait  for  cod  in  the  Newfoundland 
fisheries. 

FLYING  SQUIRREL  [Pteromys),  the  name 
given  to  a  considerable  number  of  species  of  the 
Squirrel  family  {Sciuridce),  which  have  a  fold  of 
the  skin  of  the  flanks  extended  between  the  fore 
and  hind  legs,  and  partly  supported  by  bony  pro- 
cesses of  the  feet,  by  means  of  which  they  are 
enabled  to  take  extraordinary  leaps,  gliding  for  a 
great  distance  through  the  air.  The  tail  also  aida 
to  support  them  in  the  ali,  as  well  as  to  direct  their 
motion,  its  hairs  extending  laterally  'in  a  sort  of 
feathery  expansion.'  The  dentition  is  similar  to 
that  of  true  squirrels,  wath  which  also  the  habita 
generally  correspond.  One  species  (P.  Sibiricus)  is 
found  in  the  north  of  Europe  and  of  Asia ;  several 
species  are  natives  of  North  America,  and  othera 
inhabit  the  south-east  of  Asia  and  the  Indian 
Archipelago.  The  European  species  is  about  the 
size  of  a  rat,  grayish -ash  colour  aT)Ove,  white  below, 
the  tad  only  half  the  length  of  the  body  ;  it  Uvea 
j  solitarily  in  the  forests.  Its  fur  is  of  little  value, 
j  but  skins  are  sometimes  mixed  with  those  of  the 
!  gray  squirrel,  to  impose  on  the  purchaser.  The  most 
common  North  American  species  {P.  volucella), 
j  abundant  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  Upper  Canadai 


FLY- WHEEL-FODDER. 


Flying  Squirrel  {Ptcri 


volucella). 


the  orLit  of  eacli  eye.  All  the  species  inhabit 
woods,  and  the  night  is  their  time  of  activity.  They 
feed  not  only  on  nnts  and  young  shoots  of  trees, 
but  also  on  small  birds.  They  are  extremely  easy 
of  domestication. 

In  gliding  from  tree  to  tree,  the  common  American 
flying  squirrel  descends  obliquely  and  with  very 
rapid  motion,  until  near  the  tree  which  it  seeks  to 
reach,  when  it  wheels  upwards,  and  alights  at 
about  a  third  of  the  height  which  it  was  from 
the  ground  on  the  tree  which  it  left,  the  distance 
between  the  trees  being  perhaps  fifty  feet. 

FLY-WHEEL,  a  large  heavy  wheel  applied  to  a 
Bteam-engiiie  or  other  machinery  in  order  to  equalise 
the  effect  of  the  mo^dng  power.  Its  action  depends 
upon  the  principle,  that  a  body  once  set  m  motion 
retains  a  certain  amount  of  moving  force  or  momen- 
tum. This  increases  with  the  weight  of  the  body 
and  the  velocity  of  its  motion,  and  may  be  expressed 
relatively  by  multiplying  the  weight  by  the  velocity ; 
or  stated  otherwise,  the  force  required  to  destroy 
the  motion  of  a  body  is  equal  to  that  which  set  it  in 
motion.  Thus,  a  heavy  wheel  becomes  a  sort  of 
reservoir  of  force,  when  set  in  motion. 

There  are  two  principal  cases  in  which  the  fly- 
wheel is  commonly  applied  :  first,  when  the  motive 
power  is  intermittent  or  irregular ;  and  second,  when 
the  resistance  or  work  to  be  done  is  intermittent 
or  irregular.  The  crank  is  a  good  example  of  the 
first  case.  If  the  force  be  api)lied  only  downwards, 
as  in  the  common  foot-lathe,  it  wall  be  intermit- 
tent, and  the  crank  must  rise  independently  of 
the  prime  mover.  This  is  effected  by  appljdng  a 
fly-wheel,  A^hich  is  set  in  motion  by  the  descending 
pressure  of  the  foot  acting  upon  it  through  the 
crank ;  and  the  momentum  it  has  thus  acquired 
lifts  the  crank  again  to  the  point  where  it  can  be 
ftcted  Vi]>oii  l)y  the  foot.  It  also  carries  the  crank 
over  the  dead  points  (see  Crank),  where  even  a 
double  action  of  pulling  and  pressing  would  be  inef- 
fective. The  case  of  a  steam-engine  turning  a  long 
shaft  which  passes  through  several  workshops,  and 
by  means  of  bands  drives  a  number  of  lathes,  punch- 
ing, drilling,  planing  machines,  &c.,  is  a  common 
example  cf  the  second  case,  the  resistance  or  work 
to  be  don  3  being  very  variable  from  one  moment  td 
another.    In  such  work  as  that  of  a  punchuif* 


fully  fire  inches  long,  with  a  tail  of  five  inches  |  machine,  the  engine  need  not  be  nearly  of  sufficient 
Additional,  fur  included.  It  is  of  a  brownish-gray  |  power  to  directly  force  the  punch  through  the  metal, 
colour-  above,  white  beneath ;  a  black  line  surrouiM^  and  yet  by  the  aid  of  the  fly-wheel  it  may  do  it;  for 

while  the  punch  is  rising,  the  engine  is  communi- 
cating momentum  to  the  fly-wheel ;  and  when  the 
descending  punch  meets  with  the  resistance  it  has 
to  overcome,  this  reserved  momentum  is  added  to 
the  direct  power  of  the  engine,  the  jiunch  is  forced 
through,  and  the  speed  of  the  fly-wheel  slackened,  in 
proi)ortion  to  the  resistance. 

The  principle  of  the  fly-wheel  is  sometimea 
applied  in  other  forms  than  that  of  a  wheel,  as  in 
the  hand-coining  press,  where  a  heavy  ball  is  fixed 
at  each  end  of  a  long  lever,  which  is  made  to  swing 
round  with  considerable  velocity,  and  the  accumu- 
lated momentum  is  concentrated  upon  the  blow. 

FO.    See  Buddha. 

FO'CHABERS  (of  old,  Fochohyr,  and  still  locally 
styled  Focliaher),  a  small,  neat  village  and  burgh  of 
barony  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Spey,  in  Moray- 
shire. Pop.  about  1145.  The  parish  church  stood 
formerly  at  Bellie,  in  Banffshire,  about  two  miles 
nearer  Speymouth,  and  in  the  immediate  neighbour- 
hood of  an  old  encampment,  which  has  been  sup- 
posed to  be  the  Tuessis  of  Ptolemy.  Gordon  Castle, 
the  old  '  Bog  of  Gight,'  formerly  the  seat  of  the 
Dulce  of  Gordon,  now  of  the  Duke  of  Richmond, 
stands  between  F.  and  a  bridge  across  the  Spey, 
built  about  the  year  1803,  partly  destroyed  by  the 
flood  of  1820,  and  since  partly  rebuilt  in  wood. 
The  site  of  F.  is  peculiarly  fine,  lying  as  it  does  at 
the  mouth  of  a  picturesque  ravine,  watered  by  a 
mere  rill  falling  into  the  rapid  Spey,  but  swelling 
in  times  of  flood  into  a  wider  stream  than  that 
which  it  feeds. 

j     FOCI'METER.  See  Claudet's  Focimeter. 

'  FOCUS.  Certain  points  in  the  ellipse,  hyperbola, 
and  parabola  are  called  foci.  See  Ellipse,  Hyper- 
I  BOLA,  and  Parabola.  Focus,  in  Optics,  is  a  point 
in  which  several  rays  meet  and  are  collected  after 
being  reflected  or  refracted,  whde  a  virtual  focugi 
is  a  j)oint  from  which  rays  tend  after  reflection  or 
refraction.  The  principal  focus  is  the  focus  of 
parallel  rays  after  reflection  or  refraction.  See 
Lens,  Mirror,  and  Catoptrics  and  Dioptrics. 

FODDER  (Ger.  futter,  Anglo-Sax.  foddor),  the 
food  collected  by  man  for  the  use  of  the  domestic 
herbivorous  quadrupeds.    In  English,  the  term  is 
commonly  restricted  to  hay,  straw,  stalks  of  maize, 
etc. ;  but  in  other  languages  it  is  more  compre- 
[  hensive,  and  includes  all  the  food  of  cattle,  except 
I  what  they  gather  for  themselves  in  the  field, 
i     The  principal  part  of  the  food  of  all  the  domestic 
herbivora  is  furnished  by  grasses,  almost  all  of  which 
are  eaten  by  them  when  fresh  and  green.  Besides 
!  the  supplies  which  they  receive  of  all  the  kinds  of 
'  corn  cultivated  for  human  food,  they  are  also,  to  a 
considerable  extent^  dependent  on  the  straw  or  dried 
herbage  of  the  corn-plants  for  their  winter  proven- 
der ;  and  that  of  many  other  grasses,  cultivated  on 
this  account  alone,  is  converted  into  hay  for  their 
1  use.    Hay,  being  cut  and  rapidly  dried  whilst  the 
plant  is  still  full  of  sap,  contains  more  nutritioua 
,  matter  than  the  ripened  straw  of  the  cereals.  The 
\  most  inqiortant  fodder  grass  of  Britain  is  Rye  Grass, 
\  next  to  which  must  be  ranked  Timothy  Grass  ; 
1  but  all  the  meadow  grasses  and  larger  pasture 
,  grasses  also  contribute  to  the  supply  of  hay. 
I     Next  to  the  grasses  must  be  ranked  different 
kinds  of  Leguminosa.^  affording  food  for  cattle  in 
!  their  seeds — as  beans,  pease,  lentils,  lupines,  &c. — ■ 
\  and  in  their  herbage,  on  account  of  which  many  of 
j  them  are  cultivated,  as  clover,  medick,  mehlot 
vetch,  tare,  sainfoin,  &c.,  of  some  of  which  tliero 


FODDER— FCETUS. 


are  numeroua  species.  Some  of  these  also  often 
enter  ]»retty  largely  into  the  composition  of  hay, 
being  cut  and  dried  with  the  grasses  along  with 
which  they  have  been  sown  ;  which  is  tlie  case  also 
with  some  plants  of  other  orders,  as  the  Ribwort 
Plantain,  &c.  Some  of  the  Cruciferce  are  cultivated 
to  a  considerable  extent  as  forage-plants,  cattle 
being  fed  on  their  green  herbage,  although  they 
are  not  suitable  for  drying  as  fodder.  Amoug 
these  are  kale  and  cabbage,  rape,  &c. 

In  some  parts  of  the  world,  cattle  are  not  unfre- 
quently  fed  on  the  leaves  of  trees,  as  in  the  Hima- 
laya, where  the  leaves  of  different  species  of  Aralia, 
Grewia,  Elm,  and  Oak,  are  chiefly  employed  for  this 
purpose,  and  are  collected,  dried,  and  stacked  for 
winter  f'^dder. 

Roots,  although  not  fodder  in  the  English  sense, 
must  here  also  be  mentioned  as  constituting  a  large 
part  of  the  food  provided  for  cattle,  particularly 
those  of  the  potato,  turnip,  mangold,  and  carrot, 
and  to  some  extent  also  those  of  the  parsnip  and 
Jerusalem  artichoke. 

FODDER,  in  Law.  It  is  generally  considered  to 
be  implied  in  the  rules  of  good  husbandry  that  the 
hay  and  straw  pi'oduced  by  the  farm  shall  be  con- 
sumed on  it.  In  England,  *  in  the  absence  of  any 
agreement  respecting  the  removal  of  hay  and  straw, 
tiie  right  to  do  so  is  regidated  by  the  custom  of 
the  country.' — Woodfall,  p.  537.  The  custom  differs 
not  only  in  different  counties,  but  in  different  parts 
of  the  same  county.  In  the  narrower  sense  of 
fodder,  in  which  it  is  used  to  signify  hay  or  straw 
that  has  been  already  used  for  bedding  cattle,  or  the 
like  pm-pose,  there  seems  to  be  no  question  that  it 
must  l)e  retained  on  the  farm.  '  Wliatever  (piestion 
there  may  be  with  respect  to  hay  and  straw,  as 
before  noticed,  all  the  litter,  fodder,  dung,  manui'e, 
and  compost,  must  invariably  be  consumed  on  the 
lauds  ;  indeed,  if  this  is  not  expressly  provided  for 
by  the  terms  of  the  contract,  it  is  always  implied, 
as  a  removal  would  clearly  be  a  breach  of  good  hus- 
bandry.'— Ih.  Where  the  outgoing  tenant  leaves 
fodder  on  the  premises,  he  is  entitled  to  no  compen- 
sation, except  under  an  express  stipulation.  In 
Scotlaiid,  where  the  rules  of  good  husbandry  are 
more  strictly  attended  to,  the  tenant  must  consume 
the  whole  of  the  fodder  produced  by  his  lands, 
except  the  hay  and  straw  of  his  outgoing  crop,  aud 
the  same  rule  is  applicable  to  assignees  and  sub- 
tenants. In  the  United  States,  where  the  termination 
of  the  tenant's  lease  depends  upon  some  uncertain 
event,  as,  his  death,  or  the  life  of  another,  the  tenant 
or  his  personal  representative  would  be  entitled  to 
what,  in  land,  is  called  the  emblements.  This  term 
applies  only  to  the  products  of  the  earth  which  are  an- 
nual, and  raised  by  expense  and  labour  of  the  tenant, 
and  includes  grain,  roots,  and  the  like ;  but  not  grass, 
fruit,  etc.,  which  are  not  the  annual  production  of  the 
soil  and  labour.  Where  the  termination  of  the  lease 
is  known  and  fixed  by  the  tenant's  own  action,  he  is 
not  entitled  to  the  emblements,  for  it  was  the  tenant's 
folly  in  planting  and  sowing  when  he  knew  that  his 
tenancy  was  about  to  expire,  and  would  expire  by  his 
own  wrong.    See  Steelbow. 

FCE'TUS,  the  term  applied  in  Medicine  to  the 
mammalian  embryo,  especially  in  its  more  advanced 
stages.  In  the  human  subject  we  usually  speak  of 
the  embryo  at  and  after  the  end  of  the  fourth  month 
as  a  fcetus. 

There  are  several  points  in  relation  to  the  f(ctus 
which  are  of  great  interest,  both  to  the  i)hysiologist 
and  to  the  medical  jurist.  It  is  frequently  of  great 
importance  in  medico-legal  incjuiries  to  be  al)le  to 
ascertain  the  age  of  the  foetus ;  and  to  facilitate 
ixivh  determination,  the  physical  characters  which  it 


presents  at  different  ages  have  been  carefullv  noted 
and  described. 

In  the  foetus  of  nine  months — the  full  terra — the 
length  is  from  17  to  21  inches  ;  weight  from  5  to  9 
lb.,  the  average  being  about  64  lb.  Even  at  birth^ 
the  average  length  and  weight  of  the  male  infant 
slightly  exceeds  that  of  the  female.  From  numeroua 
observations  made  by  Quetelet,  it  appears  that 
there  is  an  average  excess  of  length  of  4*8  lines, 
and  of  weight  of  twelve  ounces,  in  the  male  infant. 

The  average  weight  of  infants,  without  regard  to 
sex,  was  found  by  a  French  observer,  Chaussier  (who 
noted  the  weight  in  more  than  20,000  cases),  to  be 
about  6"7  lb. — the  maximum  being  11 -.3,  and  the 
minimum  3  2  lb.  From  the  inquiries  of  Dr  Joseph 
Clark  {Philosophiad  Transactions,  vol.  70),  which 
were  made  on  60  males  and  60  females,  the  average 
in  this  country  seems  rather  higher,  the  weight  of 
males  being  7  lb.  6  oz.,  and  that  of  the  females  being 
nearly  6  lb.  12  oz.  ;  and  Professor  Simpson  haq 
ari'ived  afc  very  nearly  the  same  result.  Claffc 
observes  that  if,  at  the  full  time,  the  weight  of  the 
infant  is  less  than  5  lb.,  it  rarely  thrives.  Various 
instances  are  recorded  of  infants  in  M'hich  the  weight 
at  birth  has  exceeded  twice  the  average  weight. 
Thus  a  case  is  recorded  by  Mr  Owen,  in  the  Lancet 
for  1838,  in  w^hich  the  child  at  delivery  weighed 

17  lb.  12  oz.,  and  was  24  inches  in  length ;  and  in  the 
Medico-Chir.  Review,  October  1841,  there  is  the 
mention  of  a  case  in  M'hich  the  weight  was  nearly 

18  lb. 

There  are  certain  points  in  which  the  foetus 
the  full  period  differs  anatomically  from  the  child 
shortly  after  birth.  The  bony  skeleton  is  very 
incomiilete,  cartilage  occurring  in  the  place  of  many 
bones.  Indeed,  complete  ossification  (viz.,  of  the 
vertebrte)  is  not  finished  until  about  the  25th  year, 
and  the  only  bones  completely  ossified  at  birth 
are  the  minute  ossicles  of  the  ear.  The  difference 
between  the  ft^etus  and  the  child  in  this  respect  is, 
however,  only  one  of  degree. 

During  pregnancy,  a  temporary  organ,  termed  the 
placenta  (}>opidarly  known  as  the  after-birth,  from 
its  being  thrown  off  shortly  after  the  buth  of  the 
child),  is  developed  on  the  inner  wall  of  the  uterus 
(see  h  in  the  figure).  This  organ  is  mainly  com- 
posed of  vessels,  and  there  proceeds  from  it  the 
structure  known  as  the  umbilical  cord,  a,  in  which 
lie  the  imibilical  vein,  which  conveys  arterial  blood 
to  the  fcetus,  aud  the  two  umbilical  arteries,  which 
return  the  blood  to  the  placenta.  This  iimbilical 
cord  conveys  these  •  vessels  to  the  umbilicus,  or 
navel.  Before  tracing  the  course  of  the  blood 
through  the  foetus,  we  must  notice  the  chief 
anatomical  peculiarities  presented  by  the  vascular 
or  circulating  system  before  birth. 

1.  In  the  heart,  we  find  a  communication  between 
the  two  auricles  by  means  of  an  opening  termed 
the  foramen  ovale.  2.  In  the  arterial  system,  we 
have  to  notice  first,  the  ductus  arteriosus  (see  r  in 
the  figure),  which  is  a  large  communicating  trunk 
between  the  pulmonary  artery  and  the  descending 
aorta ;  and,  secondly,  the  branches  given  oiT  by 
the  internal  iliac  arteries,  which  go  under  the  name 
of  hy^iogastric  as  long  as  they  are  within  the  body 
of  the  foetus,  and  of  umbilical  when  they  enter  into 
the  structure  of  the  cord,  are  continued  from  the 
foetus  to  the  placenta,  to  which  they  retrrn  the 
blood  which  has  circidated  in  the  foetal  system. 
3.  In  the  venous  system  there  is  a  communication 
between  the  umbilical  vein  and  the  inferior  vena 
cava,  called  the  ducttis  venosns. 

Pure  blood  is  brought  from  the  placenta  by  the 
umbilical  vein,  which  ])asses  through  the  uml)i liens, 
and  enters  the  liver,  where  it  divides  into  several 
branches,   d,  d,  which    are  distributed  to  that 

aa- 


rCETUS. 


viscus,  the  main  trunk  or  ductus  veiiosus,  e,  passing 
ilirectly  backwards,  and  entering  the  inferior  vena 
cava,  /.  The  pure  blood  hei-e  becomes  mixed  with 
the  imi)ure  bhjod  which  is  returned  from  the  lo\\er 
extremities  and  abdominal  viscera,  and  is  carried 
hito  the  right  auricle,  h,  and  from  thence,  guided  by 
the  Eustachian  valve  (which  is  situated  between 
the  anterior  margin  of  the  inferior  cava,  and  the 


The  Fcetal  Ckculation  (from  "Wilson's  Anatomises 
Vade  Mecum) : 
«,  the  nnibilical  cord  proceeding  from  h,  the  placenta ;  c,  the 
umbilical  vein  ;  d,  d,  its  branches  going  to  the  liver  ;  e,  tlie 
ductus  venosus ;  f,  the  inferior  vena  cava ;  g,  the  portal 
vein;  h,  the  right  auricle.  The  uppermost  arrow  indicates 
the  course  of  the  blood  through  the  foramen  oi:ale.  i,  the 
left  auiicle;  A,  the  left  ventricle.  The  arrow  commencing 
in  the  left  ventricle,  and  with  its  head  on  the  ascending 
aorta,  indicates  the  course  of  the  blood  to  he  distributed  to 
the  head  and  extremities ;  /,  the  arch  of  the  aorta.  The 
arrows  m  and  n  represent  the  return  of  the  blood  from  the 
head  and  upper  extremities,  through  the  jugular  and  sub- 
clavian veins,  to  the  superior  vena  cava,  o,  to  the  right 
auricle,  p,  and,  a.s  shewn  by  the  arrow,  through  the  right 
ventricle,  k,  to  the  pulmonary  artery,  q ;  r,  the  ductus 
arteriosus ;  s,  s,  the  descending  aorta  •  t,  the  hypogastric 
or  umbilical  arteries  ;  u,  u,  the  external  iliac  arteries. 

auriculo-ventricular  orifice,  and  is  of  relatively  large 
size  in  the  foetus),  passes  throiigh  the  foramen  ovale, 
into  the  left  auricle,  i.  From  the  left  auricle,  it 
passes  into  the  left  ventricle,  and  into  the  aorta, 
whence  it  is  distributed  by  the  carotid  and  sub- 
clavian arteries  principally  to  the  head  and  upper 
extremities,  which  thiis  receive  comparatively  pure 
blood.  From  the  head  and  arms,  the  impure  blood 
is  returned  by  the  superior  vena  cava  to  the  right 
auricle  ;  from  the  right  auricle,  it  is  propelled,  as  in 
the  adult,  into  the  right  ventricle  ;  and  from  the 
right  ventricle,  into  the  pulmonary  artery.  In  the 
adult,  it  wotdd  now  pass  through  the  lungs,  and  be 
oxygenised  ;  but  in  the  foetus,  it  passes  through  the 
ductus  arteriosus  into  the  commencement  of  the 
descending  aorta,  where  it  mixes  with  that  port;ion 
of  the  pure  blood  which  is  not  sent  through  the 
carotid  and  subclavian  arteries.  Some  of  this  mixed 
blood  is  distributed  by  the  external  iliac  arteries, 
u,  u,  to  the  lower  extremities,  while  the  remainder 
(probably  the  larger  portion)  is  conveyed  by  the 
hyjwgastric  or  umbilical  arteries,  i,  to  the  placenta. 

From  the  above  description  we  perceive — 1.  That 
a  considerable  quantity  of  the  i)ure  blood  from  the 
placenta  is  at  once  distributed  to  the  liver,  which 
accounts  for  its  large  size  at  birth  as  compared 
with  the  other  viscera.  2.  That  a  double  current 
meets  in  the  right  auricle,  one  stream,  guided  by 
the  FiUstachian  valve,  passing  thi-ough  the  foramen 


ovale  into  the  left  auricle,  the  other  through  the 
auriculo-ventricular  opening  into  the  right  ventricle. 
3.  That  the  comparatively  pure  blood  sent  to  the 
head  and  arms,  as  contrasted  with  the  impure  blood 
sent  to  the  lower  extremities,  causes  the  relatively 
greater  develoi)ment  of  the  former  organs,  ana 
prepares  them  for  the  functions  they  are  called 
upon  to  })erform ;  the  development  of  the  legs  at 
birth  being  slight  as  compared  with  that  of  the  head 
or  arms. 

Almost  immediately  after  birth,  the  foramen  ovaufi 
becomes  closed  by  a  membranous  layer,  and  the 
ductus  arteriosus  and  ductus  venosus  degenerate  into 
impervious  fibrous  cords. 

The  lungs,  previously  to  the  act  of  inspiration, 
are  dense  and  solid  in  structure,  and  of  a  deei)-red 
colour,  and  lie  far  back  in  the  chest.  Their  specifii 
gravity  is  greater  than  water,  in  which  they  (oi 
portions  of  them)  consecjucntly  sink,  whereas  liinga, 
or  portions  of  lungs,  that  have  respired,  float  in 
that  Huid. 

In  the  preceding  remarks,  we  mentioned  nine 
months  as  the  full  period  of  foetal  existence.  The 
period  of  gestation  is,  however,  only  constant 
between  certain  limits,  and  it  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  in  reference  to  questions  of  chastity  and 
legitin)acy  to  determine  these  limits. 

The  average  duration  of  gestation  in  the  human 
female  is  comprised  between  the  38th  and  40th 
weeks  after  concej)tion.  It  is  comparatively  seldom 
that  the  actual  date  of  conception  can  be  fixed  with 
positive  certainty ;  but  amongst  the  few  cases  of 
this  kind  on  record,  Higby  mentions  one  in  which 
natural  labour  came  on  in  260  days,  and  Reid 
mentions  another  in  which  it  did  not  commence 
until  the  lapse  of  293  days.  Here,  then,  we  have 
an  uuquestionalile  range  of  33  days ;  and  many 
apparently  authentic  cases  are  on  record  in  which 
a  longer  period  of  gestation  than  in  Keid's  case 
has  been  observed. 

Another  important  question  in  connection  with 
this  subject,  is — What  is  the  earliest  period  at  which 
a  child  can  be  born,  to  enable  it  to  live,  and  to 
continue  in  life  after  its  birth  ?  There  is  no  doubt 
that  children  born  at  the  seventh  month  of  gestation 
are  capable  of  living,  although  they  usually  require 
much  care  ;  and  children  may  be  born  alive  at  any 
l)eriod  between  the  sixth  and  seventh  months,  or 
even  in  some  instartces  earlier  than  the  sixth ;  but 
this  is  rare,  and  if  born  living,  they  commonly  die 
soon  after  birth.  Various  cases  of  this  nature  are 
collected  by  Dr  Taylor  in  his  Medical  Jurisprudence ; 
amongst  others,  he  mentions  a  case  reported  by  Dr 
Barker  of  Dumfries,  in  which  a  child  was  born  at 
the  158th  day  of  gestation,  and  (though  small)  grew 
up.  In  the  celebrated  Kinghorn  case,  the  child  was 
born  174  days,  or  nearly  six  calendar  months  after 
marriage,  and  lived  for  more  than  eight  mouths; 
and  the  majority  of  the  medical  w^itnesses  who  gave 
evidence  on  that  occasion  were  strongly  in  favour 
of  the  view  that  the  period  of  the  gestation  was 
circumscribed  by  the  period  of  wedlock. 

Again,  questions  connected  with  prolonged  gesta- 
tion have  given  rise  to  nmch  discussion  in  legal 
medicine.  No  period  has  been  fixed  by  law  beyond 
which  a  child  if  born  in  wedlock  is  to  be  declared 
illegitimate.  In  the  case  of  Anderton  v.  Gibbs,  1834, 
the  vice-chancellor  decided  that  a  child  born  ten 
months  or  about  forty-two  weeks  after  intercoiu-se 
with  the  husband,  was  legitimate.  In  the  Gardner 
Peerage  case,  which  came  before  the  House  of  T^orda 
in  1825,  the  question  was,  whether  a  child  born  311 
days  (or  44  weeks  and  3  days)  after  intercoxirse 
could  be  legitimate.  Lord  and  Lady  Gardner  sepai- 
ated  on  the  30th  of  January  1802,  and  did  not  again 
meet  till  the  11th  of  July.    A  full-sized  child  waa 


FOG— FOG-SIGNALS. 


born  on  tlie  8th  of  December  of  that  year.  The 
principal  obstetric  practitioners  in  the  kingdom  were 
exanimed  on  this  point,  and  a  large  majority  con- 
curred in  the  opinion  that  natural  gestation  might 
be  protracted  to  such  a  period.  The  decision,  which 
was  against  the  legitimacy,  seems  to  have  been 
mainly  if  not  entirely  based  on  the  moral  grounds 
that  Lady  Gardner,  after  sei)arating  from  her  hus- 
band, was  living  in  open  adultery.  In  the  case  of 
Commonwealth  v.  Porter  (see  American  Journal  of 
Medical  Science,  1845),  it  was  recently  decided  in 
the  United  States  that  a  chDd  born  317  days  (or 
foi-f-.y-five  weeks  and  two  days)  after  conception  w^as 
legitimate.  In  the  case  of  Cotterall  v.  Cotterall, 
decided  in  the  Consistory  Court  in  1847,  the  hus- 
band had  proceeded  against  his  mfe  for  a  divorce 
on  the  ground  of  adultery.  In  this  case,  if  it  were 
the  child  of  the  husband,  it  must  have  been  born 
after  twelve  months'  gestation.  Dr  Lushington, 
without  entering  into  the  question  of  protracted 
gestation,  at  once  pronounced  for  the  divorce,  such 
a  duration  of  pregnancy  not  being  supported  by  any 
known  facts. 

This  article  would  be  imperfect  ^vithout  a  notice 
of  the  question — What  constiflites  live-birth?  This 
is  a  point  on  which  the  most  distinguished  obstetric 
authorities  have  differed :  some  holding  that  where 
there  is  muscular  movement,  there  is  life;  while 
others  maintain  that  where  res})iration  has  not 
been  proved  to  have  taken  place,  the  child  was 
BtiU-born.  Amongst  the  most  celebi-ated  lawsuits 
bearing  on  this  point,  we  may  mention  that  of  Fish 
V.  Palmer,  tried  in  1806,  and  that  of  Brook  i\ 
Kellock,  tried  in  1861.  In  the  last-named  case  it 
iras  decided  by  the  Vice-Chanceilor,  Sir  J.  Stuart, 
fchat  a  child  may  live  for  some  time  after  birth,  and 
not  breathe,  the  absence  of  signs  of  breathing  being 
held  to  be  no  proof  of  its  being  born  dead.  It  was 
given  in  evidence  that  there  Avas  pulsation  of  the 
funis  after  separation  of  the  cord,  and  the  beating 
of  the  heart  was  regarded  as  proof  of  live-birth. 
Hence  we  may  regard  it  as  now  established  in 
English  law,  that  respiration  is  not  required  to 
establish  live-birth.  Nor  do  the  laws  of  France 
or  the  United  States  require  that  the  child  shall 
have  Ijreathed.  In  Scotland,  the  law  requires  not 
only  that  the  child  shall  have  breathed,  but  that  it 
shall  have  cried ;  and  in  conformity  with  this  law, 
a  child  which  lived,  breathed,  and  died  in  convul- 
sions at  the  end  of  half  an  hour,  was  declared  to 
have  been  born  dead  (Dyer's  Rejiorts,  25). 

FOG,  or  MIST,  is  the  visible  watery  vapour 
sometimes  hanging  near  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
and  caused,  as  clouds  are,  by  the  precipitation  of 
the  moisture  of  the  atmosphere.  This  takes  place 
when  a  stratum  of  atmosphere  comes  in  contact 
with  a  colder  stratum,  or  with  a  portion  of  the 
earth's  surface,  as  a  hill,  by  which  it  is  cooled,  so 
that  it  can  no  longer  hold  in  solution  as  much 
moisture  as  before.  It  takes  place  also  when  a  cold 
Btratum  of  atmosphere  comes  above  a  moist  warm 
portion  of  the  earth's  surface,  the  exhalations  from 
which  are  precipitated  and  become  visible  as  they 
ascend  into  it.  Thus,  fogs  are  formed  over  lakes, 
rivers,  and  marshes  in  the  evening,  because  the 
water  is  then  warmer  than  the  atmosphere  above 
it.  The  fogs  seen  in  the  morning  very  often  dis- 
ap])ear  by  being  dissolved  in  the  atmosphere  as  the 
temperature  increases. 

FOGARASY,  Janos  (John),  a  Hungarian  philolo- 
^t  and  jurisconsult,  was  born  in  1801  at  Kiismark, 
in  the  county  of  Abanj.  F.  went  through  the  study 
of  philosopliy  and  law  at  the  Calvinistic  college 
of  Sarospataiv,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1829. 
(Jpou  entering  the  judicial  career,  F.  div-ided  his 


exertions  between  law  and  the  national  or  Magyar 
language,  with  such  success  that  be  was  elected 
Fellow  of  the  Hungarian  Acadeny  in  18.'J8.  F.'a 
several  publications  in  the  fields  of  Hungarian  juris- 
prudence and  philology  are  reckoned  to  Ije  standard 
works,  bearing  the  stamj)  of  deep  original  research, 
and  of  great  systematic  powers.  The  following  list 
of  works,  all  published  at  Pesth,  in  the  Hungarian  or 
Magyar  tongue,  may  shew  the  fertility  of  F.'s  pen : 
Latin-Mauyar  Lexicon  for  Lefidation  and  Govern- 
ment (2d  ed.  1835) ;  The  Mttajjhydcs  of  tiie  Magyar 
Tongue  (1834) ;  Magyar-German  Dictionary  (1836) ; 
Elements  of  Hungarian  Statute  Law  (1839),  with  a 
valuable  Appendix  published  at  a  later  date ;  Th€. 
Commercial  Law  of  Hungary  (1840) ;  Hungarian 
Bank  (1848)  ;  and  Commercial  Dictionary.  F.  has 
also  contributed  much,  by  his  EssaijH  on  tlie  Spirit  of 
the  Hungarian  Language  (1845),  towards  its  ra]  id 
development.  He  is  at  present  busily  engaged 
(together  with  Czuczor)  in  preparing  the  great 
dictionary  of  the  Himgarian  Academy. 

FO'GGIA,  an  important  town  of  Italy,  capital  of 
the  province  of  Capitanata,  in  Southern  Italy,  ia 
situated  between  the  rivers  Cervaro  and  Celone,  in 
a  district  abounding  in  i)lantations  of  olives,  vines, 
and  other  fruit  trees,  80  miles  east-north-east  of 
Naples.  It  is  a  handsome,  well-built  town,  -with 
spacious  streets,  good  hovises,  and  large  shops. 
Among  the  chief  buildings  are  the  catliedi'al,  a 
Gothic  edifice  originally,  but  partially  destroyed  by 
an  earthquake  in  1731,  and  afterwards  rebuilt  in  a 
different  style;  numerous  churches,  some  of  them 
antique;  tlie  custom-house,  a  beautiful  building; 
and  the  theatre.  It  is  the  centre  of  all  the  trade  of 
the  province,  and  has  many  large  corn  magazines. 
Poo.  (1872)  .38.138. 

F.,  supposed  to  have  been  built  from  the  ruins 
of  the  ancient  Arpi,  was  a  favourite  residence  of 
the  Emperor  Frederick  II.,  and  here  died  his  wife. 
Isabella,  daughter  of  the  English  king,  John.  It 
was  also  for  some  time  the  residence  of  Ferdinand  I. 
and  his  court,  when  it  ranked  as  the  second  city  in 
the  kingdom. 

FOG-SIGNALS,  audible  warnings  used  on  board 
ships,  on  the  sea-coast,  or  on  railways,  during  fogs 
and  mists,  or  at  any  other  time  wlien  lights  or 
ordinary  daylight-signals  are  not  available. 

The  commonest  fog- signal  on  shipboard  is  the 
continuous  ringmg  of  the  ordinary  time-bell,  or 
striking  the  anchor  with  a  hammer,  together  with 
the  occasional  discharge  of  musketry  and  heavy 
guns.  These  are  adopted,  to  prevent  collisions, 
when  ships  are  overtaken  by  a  fog  in  the  British 
Channel,  or  other  i)laces  where  shipping  is  abundant. 
The  blowing  of  a  horn,  the  beating  of  a  drum,  an 
empty  cask,  a  gong,  and  various  other  unusual 
somids,  are  also  adopted.  Steam-vessels  generally 
blow  a  whistle  under  these  circumstances.  These 
sounds,  however,  only  indicate  rudely  the  position 
of  the  ship,  and  not  the  direction  in  which  she  is 
sailing.  Many  plans  have  been  devised  for  a  code 
of  signals,  by  which  the  directions  north,  south, 
&c.,  might  be  indicated  by  the  varying  length  of 
each  sound,  or  the  intervals  between  the  sounds  oi 
a  fog-hom  or  whistle. 

It  is  very  deshable  that  some  general  code  of 
signals  of  this  kind  should  be  adopted  for  the 
merchant  ser\4ce  as  well  as  the  n-ixvy  ;  and  that  its 
recognition  by  the  marine  of  all  other  nations 
should  be  proc\ired.  The  Admiralty  have  such  a 
code  for  the  direction  of  a  fleet  of  ships  of  war  in 
thick  Aveather,  but  their  application  i?  limited  to 
the  navy.  Some  further  remarks  on  ^og-signals 
will  appear  under  SiGXAi^  (q.  v.). 

Fog-signals  from  the  shore  are  very  desirable, 

399 


FOHI— FOIX. 


especially  on  a  dangerous  coast.  The  ringing  of 
church-bells,  and  of  bells  at  the  coast-guard  stations, 
has  been  suggested ;  but  tliere  is  one  serious  diffi- 
culty here,  viz.,  that  when  most  needed,  that  is, 
when  a  strong  wind  is  blowing  in  towards  the 
shore,  such  sounds  would  be  heard  only  at  a  very 
little  distance  out  at  sea. 

The  fog- signals  used  on  railways  are  small  cases 
charged  with  detonating  powder,  and  laid  upon  the 
rails.  They  explode  loudly  when  the  wheel  of  an 
advancing  train  comes  upon  them.  They  are  not 
merely  used  in  fogs,  but  in  all  cases  of  danger,  from 
obstruction  of  the  line,  or  in  other  cases  of  urgency 
when  a  train  has  to  be  stopped  without  delay. 
Station-masters  and  railway  police  are  furnished 
with  them  for  the  purpose  of  thus  stopping  a  train 
at  any  place. 

FOHI.    See  Fun-HE. 

rOHR,  one  of  the  greater  Danish  islands  in  the 
North  Sea,  on  the  western  coast  of  the  province  of 
Slesvig  ;  its  central  point  is  in  lat.  54"  42'  N.,  and  in 
long.  8°  30'  E.  It  has  an  area  of  about  28  square 
miles,  has  upwards  of  50U0  inhabitants,  is  divided 
into  WesterlandJ'ohr,  which  belongs  to  the  province 
of  Jutland,  and  Oderlandfohr,  which  belongs  to  that 
of  Slesvig.  The  inha]>itants  are  mostly  Frisians, 
who  live  by  taking  tish  and  wild  fowl,  and  by  the 
manufacture  of  cheese  and  stocking- ware.  The 
chief  place  is  a  bathing-place,  called  Wyk,  wdth  a 
population  of  700. 

FOIL,  a  thin  bar  of  elastic  steel,  mounted  as  a 
Rapier  (q.  v.),  but  without  a  point,  and  additionally 
blunted  at  the  end  by  the  presence  of  a  button 
covered  with  leather.    It  is  used  in  Fencing  (q.  v.). 

FOIL  (from  fol'mm.,  a  leaf),  a  general  name  for 
thin  metal  intermediate  in  thickness  between  lextf- 
metal,  such  as  gold,  silver,  and  copper  leaf,  and  sheet- 
metal. 

There  are  two  distinct  kinds  of  foil  in  common 
use— the  tin-foil  used  for  sdvering  looking-glasses, 
lining  tea-caddies,  and  other  similar  purposes,  and 
for  the  conducting  coatings  of  electrical  apparatus  ; 
and  the  bright  foils  employed  by  the  jewellers  for 
backing  real  or  artificial  gems,  and  thereby  increasing 
their  lustre  or  modifying  their  colour. 

The  former  is  made  by  rolling  out  tin,  or  more 
recently,  by  the  method  of  Mr  Wimshurst,  who 
casts  a  cylinder  of  the  metal,  and  then,  by  means 
of  a  knife  or  cutter,  shaves  it  into  a  sheet  as  the 
cylinder  rolls  to  the  knife,  which  is  gradually 
moved  inwards  towards  the  axis  of  the  cylinder 
at  a  rate  proportionate  to  the  required  thickness  of 
the  sheet. 

The  bright  foil  used  by  jewellers  and  for  theatrical 
and  other  ornaments  under  the  name  of  '  tinsel,'  is 
made  of  copper,  tin,  turned  copper,  or  sdvered 
copper.  The  last  is  now  chiefly  used  by  jewellers. 
The  metal  is  rolled  in  a  flatting  mill,  and  the 
requisite  brilliancy  of  surface  is  produced  by  finish- 
ing betw^een  burnished  rollers  and  polishing.  The 
various  colours  are  produced  by  coating  the  white 
metal  with  transparent  colours  mixed  in  isinglass 
oize.  A  similar  varnish  without  colour  is  laid  over 
the  white  foil,  to  prevent  tarnishing.  The  socket  or 
setting  in  which  the  stone  or  paste  is  mounted  is 
lined  with  the  foil,  and  by  reflecting  from  the  inter- 
nal facets  the  light  which  passes  through  the  stone, 
adds  considerably  to  its  brilliancy.  The  natural 
colours  of  real  stones  are  sometimes  heightened  or 
modified  by  coloured  foil,  and  factitious  colours  are 
thus  given  to  the  glass  or  '  paste,'  as  it  is  called,  of 
which  sjmrious  gems  are  made. 

There  are  two  other  methods  of  foiling  gems, 
distinct  from  the  above  :  one  of  them  is  to  line  the 
socket  of  the  setting  with  tin-foil,  then  fill  it  whilst 
400 


warm  with  mercury ;  after  a  few  n\inntcs  the  fluid 
mercury  is  poured  out,  and  there  remains  an  amalgam 
of  tin,  precisely  the  same  as  is  used  for  backing  com- 
mon mirrors ;  the  gem  is  fitted  into  this,  and  thus  its 
back  has  a  mirror  surface.  The  other  method  is  to 
precipitate  a  film  of  pure  metallic  silver  upon  the 
l)ack  of  the  stone,  by  submitting  a  solution  of  the 
ammonia  nitrate  of  silver  in  contact  with  the  stone  to 
the  reducing  action  of  the  oils  of  cassia  and  cloves. 
The  silvering  of  looking  glasses  being  the  chief  use 
to  which  the  ordinary  tin-foil  is  applied,  its  ])urity 
is  a  matter  of  great  consideration  ;  its  employment 
also  by  chemists,  as  a  ready  means  of  forming  son  e 
of  the  tin  compounds,  renders  this  absolutely  neces- 
sary. 

Nevertheless,  the  spirit  of  adulteration  has  extended 
to  the  tin-foil  makers,  and  lead  has  been  extensively 
alloyed  with  the  tin.  In  some  analyses  recently  made, 
it  has  been  shown  that  as  nmch  as  85  per  cent,  of  the 
adulterant  metal  has  been  used,  the  eflfect  of  which,  in 
the  process  of  silvering  mirrors,  is  most  injurious  to 
the  brilliancy  of  the  amalgam,  which  should  consist  of 
perfectly  pure  tin  and  quicksilver.  For  chemical  ])ur- 
poses,  it  is  now  absolutely  necessary  to  test  for  lead 
before  using  tin-foil. 

The  foils  used  by  jewellers  for  backing  gems, 
consisting  of  small  sheets  of  silvered  co])per  rolled 
very  thin,  are  coloured  with  the  following  prepara- 
tions to  suit  the  different  gems  under  which  they 
are  to  be  ))laced,  or  for  use  as  tinsel  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  theatrical  ornaments,  toys,  etc.  Lake  and 
Prussian  blue  and  pale  drying-oil,  finely  ground  with 
a  slab  and  mullar — for  amethyst  colour,  Prussian 
blue,  similarly  prepared — for  sapphire  colour.  Dra- 
gons' blood,  dissolved  in  pure  alcohol — for  (jarnet 
colour.  Scsquiferrocyanide  of  iron  and  bichromate 
of  potash,  e(|ual  parts,  very  finely  ground  and  sifted, 
then  ground  with  a  quantity  of  gum-mastic  equal  to 
the  other  two  ingredients,  until  the  whole  forms  an 
impalpable  powder ;  gradually  form  this  into  a  thin 
paste  with  pure  wood-spirit  (pyroxylic)  and  pre- 
serve in  stoppered  bottle ;  when  used,  a  portion  is 
diluted  with  wood-spirit  to  the  necessary  thinness — 
for  emerald  colour.  Various  shades  of  yellowish  or 
bluish  green  can  be  produced  by  varying  the p)ropor- 
tions  of  the  two  colouring  materials.  Lake  or  car- 
mine, ground  in  solution  of  isinglass — for  ruby  colour. 
A  weak  solution  of  orange  shellac,  sometimes  tinted 
with  saffron,  turmeric,  or  aloes — for  topaz  colour. 
Several  other  colour- varnishes  are  made  by  similar 
methods  for  various  shades  of  tinsel  and  gem  foils- 
See  Silvering. 

FOIX,  a  small  and  unimportant  town  of  France, 
in  the  department  of  Ariege,  and  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  river  of  that  name,  44  miles  south-south-east  of 
Toulouse.  It  has  a  picturesque  old  castle,  with  three 
well-preserved  towers  of  whitish  marble,  all  of  differ- 
ent ages,  and  all  dating  from  before  the  5th  century. 
It  has  some  trade  in  iron,  and  in  the  vicinity  are  nu- 
merous iron  works.  Pop.  4865.  F.  was  capital  of 
the  old  county  of  Foix. 

FOIX,  an  old  French  family,  which  took  the 
title  of  count  from  the  district  of  Foix  (now  the 
department  of  Ariege),  in  the  south  of  France.  The 
first  who  bore  the  title  was  Roger,  Comte  de  Foix, 
who  flourished  iu  the  middle  of  the  11th  century. 
Raymond,  Comte  de  Foix,  figures  as  one  of  the 
knights  who  accompanied  King  Philippe  Auguste 
to  Palestine  ;  afterwards,  being  accused  of  heresy, 
his  estates  were  seized  by  Comte  de  Montfort.  He 
died  in  1223.  Several  members  of  the  family  sub- 
sequently distinguished  themselves  in  the  wars 
against  England.  Gaston  III.,  Comte  de  Foix,  born 
1331,  and  called,  on  account  of  the  beauty  of  his 
person,  Phoebus,  was  noted  for  his  knightly  love  of 


FOLCLAND^FOLTGNO. 


splendour  and  military  prowess.  For  his  services 
to  the  king,  he  was  made  governor  of  Langnedoc 
and  Gascony.  When  only  18,  he  married  Agnes, 
daughter  of  Philip  III.,  king  of  Navarre.  In  1358, 
during  the  insuirection  known  as  the  Jacquerie 
(q.  v.),  he  delivered  the  royal  family  from  the 
power  of  the  rebels.  When  Charles  VI.  wished  to 
deprive  him  of  the  government  of  Langxiedoc,  he 
maintained  his  position  by  force  of  arms,  and 
defeated  the  Due  de  Berri  in  the  plain  of  Ilevel.  He 
was  inordinately  attached  to  the  chase,  and  is  said 
to  have  kept  1600  dogs.  He  also  wrote  a  work  on 
the  subject,  entitled  Miroir  de  Phebus  des  deduitz 
de  la  C/iasse  des  Bestes  sauvaiges  et  des  Oyseaulx  de 
Proye,  which  went  through  several  editions  in  the 
1 6th  and  17th  centuries,  and  whose  bombastic  style 
(faire  du  Phebus)  became  a  byword.  Froissart 
owed  some  of  the  choicest  incidents  in  his  history 
to  having  lived  for  some  time  in  the  castle  of 
Orthes,  Gaston's  principal  residence.  After  his 
death,  in  1391,  the  estates  and  title  went  to  a 
collateral  branch  of  the  family.  Gaston  IV.,  Comte 
de  Foix,  rendered  good  service  to  the  king  in  the 
wars  against  England.  In  1455,  his  father-in-law, 
Tohn  II.,  king  of  Navarre,  named  him  his  successor. 
In  addition  to  this,  Charles  VII.  created  him  a 
peer  of  France,  and  ceded  to  him  his  claims  upon 
Roussillon  and  Cerdagne.  He  died  in  1472,  when 
the  family  possessions  were  again  divided.  The 
last,  his  grandson,  Gaston  de  Foix,  was  probably 
the  most  heroic  member  of  the  family.  Son  of 
Jean  de  Foix,  Comte  d'Estamx)es,  and  Marie 
d'Orleans,  sister  of  Louis  XII.  of  France,  he  was 
born  in  1489,  and  in  1507  received  from  his  imcle, 
the  French  king,  the  title  of  Due  de  Nemours.  In 
the  Italian  wars  carried  on  by  Louis,  Gaston  dis- 
played the  most  brilliant  and  precocious  genius. 
He  twice  overthrew  the  Swiss,  at  Como  and  Milan ; 
chased  Pope  Julius  II.  from  Bologna ;  seized  Brescia 
out  of  the  hands  of  the  Venetians ;  and,  to  crown  a 
series  of  splendid  triumphs,  which  obtained  for  him 
the  title  of  the  Thunderbolt  of  Italy,  won  the  great 
battle  of  Ravenna  over  the  Spaniards,  11th  April 
1512,  in  which,  however,  he  fell,  at  the  early  age 
of  twenty-three.  On  his  death,  the  estates  and 
title  of  the  House  of  Foix  went  to  Henri,  king  of 
Navarre,  whose  daughter,  Jeanne  d'Albret,  married 
Antoine  de  Bourbon,  Due  de  Vendome,  and  became 
the  mother  of  the  great  Henri  Quatre,  who  thus 
attached  the  coimty  of  Foix  to  the  French  crown. 

FO'LCLAND,  or  FOLKLAND,  the  land  of  the 
folk  or  people  in  England  in  Anglo-Saxon  times. 
The  folcland,  according  to  Turner,  was  that  portion 
of  the  kingdom  which  was  retained  in  behalf  of  the 
public,  and  with  a  view  to  increasing  population  and 
the  gro-wing  wants  of  the  community,  and  not  per- 
mitted to  become  allodial  estate  or  absolute  private 
]»roperty.  Of  this  land,  the  usufruct  or  dominium 
utile  was  enjoyed  by  the  freemen,  for  which  certain 
rents  were  paid  to  the  state,  and  which  did  not 
become  hereditary.  On  the  contrary,  the  rights 
which  were  held  in  it  by  individuals  reverted  to 
the  community  at  the  expiry  of  a  particidar  term, 
when  it  was  again  given  out  by  the  folcgemot  or 
court  of  the  district,  either  in  commonty  or  in 
severalty.  Certain  services  to  the  public  were 
commonly  imposed  on  the  holders  of  folcland,  such 
as  the  reparation  of  the  royal  vills  and  other  public 
works ;  the  exercise  of  hospitality  to  the  king,  and 
to  other  personages  of  distinction  in  their  progresses 
through  the  country,  by  furnishing  them  and  their 
messengers,  huntsmen,  hounds,  hawks,  and  horses 
with  food,  and  providing  them,  when  necessary, 
with  means  of  transport.  It  does  not  seem  that 
the  folcland  was  held  exclusively  by  the  common 
people,  but  rather  that  it  was  open  tc  freemen 
1&2 


of  all  ranks  and  conditions,  and  that  the  posses- 
sion of  it  was  much  coveted  even  by  those  who 
held  great  estates  on  the  hereditary  title  which 
was  known  as  Bockland  (q.  v.).  Folcland  was  often 
given  out  as  bockland  to  those  who  had  performed 
great  public  services,  just  as  Horatius  was  rewarded 
by  a  grant  of  the  Roman  a<jer  publicus — 

*  They  gave  him  of  the  corn-land 
That  was  of  public  right, 
As  much  as  two  strong  oxen 
Could  plough  from  mom  till  night ! ' 

It  was  also  frequently  given  to  the  church,  for  the 
purpose  of  founding  monasteries  and  the  like,  a 
practice  of  which  Bede  complains  in  his  celebrated 
letter  to  Archbishop  Egbert.  '  It  is  disgracef  id  to 
say,  persons  who  have  not  the  least  claim  to  the 
monastic  character,  as  you  yourself  best  know, 
have  got  so  many  of  these  spots  into  their  power, 
under  the  name  of  monasteries,  that  there  is  really 
now  no  place  at  all  where  the  sons  of  nobles  or 
veteran  soldiers  can  receive  a  gi'ant.' — Kemble'a 
Saxons,  p.  291.  Kemble  gives  examples  of  the 
dues  paid  by  monasteries  for  the  folcland  which 
they  held,  which  afford  curious  information  as  to 
the  products  of  industry  and  modes  of  living  of 
those  times.  In  883,  a  monastery  is  freed  from  all 
dues  which  the  monks  were  still  bound  to  pay  to 
the  king's  hand,  including  bright  ale,  beer,  honey, 
oxen,  swine,  and  sheep.  The  dues  of  the  monastery 
at  Taunton  were — a  feorm  (or  entertainment)  of 
one  night  to  the  king,  and  eight  dogs  and  one 
dog-keej)er  ;  and  nine  nights'  keep  for  the  king's 
falconers,  and  carriage,  with  wagons  and  horses,  for 
whatever  he  would  have  taken  to  Curry  or  Wilton ; 
and  if  strangers  came  from  other  parts,  they  were 
to  have  guidance  to  the  nearest  royal  vill  upon  their 
road.—//;.  295,  296. 

FOLDVAR,  a  town  of  Hungary,  in  the  county 
of  Tolna,  is  situated  on  the  crest  and  slope  of  a 
hill  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  48  miles 
south  of  Pesth.  It  has  a  Roman  Catholic  high 
school,  is  a  steam-boat  station,  has  an  important 
sturgeon-fishery,  and  considerable  trade  in  wines 
and  agricultural  produce.    Pop.  11,800. 

FO  LIA  MALABA'THrvI,  i.  e.,  Malabar  Leaves, 
formerly  in  much  repute  as  a  medicine ;  an  aromatic 
tonic;  the  dried  leaves  of  Cinnamomum  nitidum, 
and  partly  of  C.  Tamala,  species  of  cinnamon,  small 
Indian  trees  or  shrubs. 

FOLIA'TION,  a  term  restricted  by  Mr  Darwin, 
and  subsequently  by  geologists,  to  the  alternatino 
layers  or  plates  of  different  mineralogical  nature,  of 
which  gneiss  and  some  other  metamorphic  schists 
are  composed.  It  differs  from  cleavage,  which  is 
applied  to  the  divisional  planes  that  render  a  rock 
fissile,  although  it  may  appear  to  the  eye  quite  or 
nearly  homogeneous;  and  from  lamination,  which 
is  the  easy  splitting  of  a  rock  into  its  original  layers 
of  deposition.  It  is  difficult  to  determine  the  cause 
of  foliation.  Some  hold  that  as  gneiss  is  composed 
of  the  disintegrated  ingredients  of  granite,  the  layers 
are  identical  with  the  original  laminse,  having  been 
arranged  according  to  their  various  densities.  But 
it  can  scarcely  be  conceived  that  water  woidd  be 
able  to  deposit  such  materials  in  the  same  order 
over  areas  so  immense  as  those  occupied  by  gneiss 
strata.  It  seems  more  probable  that  the  arrange- 
ment is  owing  to  some  widespread  metamorphio 
and  segregating  force,  which  operated  subsequently 
to  the  deposition  of  the  beds. 

FOLI'GNO,  a  town  of  Central  Italy,  in  the 
province  of  Perugia,  in  the  fruitful  valley  of  the 
Topino,  18  miles  north  of  Spoleto.  It  was  formerly 
surrounded  by  walls,  which,  however,  have  }>eei> 

401 


rOLKES-FONBLANQUE. 


converted  into  promenades.  It  has  regular  streets, 
and  some  important  buildings,  including  the  beautiful 
cathedral,  the  theatre,  the  Palazzo  Communale,  the 
hospital,  and  several  churches.  Raphael'?  Madonna 
di  Foligno,  now  in  the  Vatican,  formerly  hung  in 
a  convent  here.  The  manufactures  are  woollens, 
paper,  and  wax-candles.    Pop.  12,930. 

r.,  the  ancient  Umbrian  Fulginium,  was  called  in 
the  middle  ages  Fuliguum.  In  1832  it  suffered 
severely  from  an  earthquake. 

FOLKES,  Martin,  LL.D.,  an  eminent  English 
scholar  and  antiquary,  bom  at  Westminster  in 
1690,  was  educated  at  Clare  Hall,  Cambridge.  In 
1713,  he  was  chosen  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  London  ;  and  in  17*1  he  succeeded  Sir  Hans 
Sloane  as  president  of  that  learned  body.  He  was 
also  a  member  of  the  Antiquarian  Society,  and  of 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Paris.  He  died 
in  1754.  F.  was  the  author  of  A  Table  of  English 
Gold  Coins  from  the  I8th  Edward  I/f.,  when  Gold 
was  first  coined  in  England  (Lond.  1736,  4to),  with 
A  Table  of  English  Silver  Coins,  from  the  Norman 
Conquest;  to  which  is  added  an  Aj>pendix,  answering 
the  Coins  minted  in  Scotland  since  the  Union  of  the  two 
Croxons  (Lond.  1745,  folio),  published  under  the  care 
of  the  Antiquarian  Society,  su]ierintended  by  Dr 
GifFard  (1763,  2  vols.).  Besides  these  works,  F.  con- 
tributed a  number  of  papers  to  the  Philosophical 
Transactions. 

FOLK-LORE,  a  term  recently  introduced  into 
English  from  the  German,  as  applical)le  to  what 
may  be  called  a  department  of  antiquities  or  archte- 
ology — viz.,  that  which  relates  to  ancient  observ- 
ances and  customs,  and  also  ideas,  prejudices,  and 
Buperstitions  among  the  common  people.  In  England, 
the  literatiu'e  of  this  subject  may  be  said  to  have 
commenced  with  the  Miscelkinies  of  John  Aubrey, 
published  in  1696,  in  which  we  find  chapters  on 
Day  Fatality,  Omens,  Dreams,  Corpse  Candles, 
Secoud  Sight,  ar,d  kindred  matters,  to  which  that 
learned  but  credulous  author — an  early  member  of 
the  Royal  Society — had  given  his  attention.  Here, 
however,  the  superstitions,  rather  than  the  ordinary 
observances  and  customs  of  the  people,  were  detailed. 
The  first  book  addressed  to  the  general  subject  of 
folk-lore  was  an  octavo  volume  by  the  Rev.  Henry 
Bourne,  pul^lished  at  Xewcastle  in  1725,  under  the 
title  of  Antiquitates  Vulgares,  or  the  Antiquities  of 
*he  Common  People.  It  mainly  consists  of  an  account 
of  the  i)opuIar  customs  in  connection  with  the  feasts 
of  the  church.  Fifty  years  after  its  publication, 
John  Brand,  M.A.,  a  native  of  Newcastle,  busied 
himself  in  extending  the  collections  which  originated 
with  Bourne,  and  in  1777  he  published  at  that  city 
the  first  edition  of  his  Observations  on  the  Popular 
Antiquities  of  Great  Britain,  a  work  which  was 
subsequently  enlarged  by  himself,  partly  from  the 
stores  of  folk-lore  presented  in  the  Statistical  Account 
of  Scotland  (edited  by  Sinclair,  1791—1795),  but 
was  left  to  be  re-issued,  under  a  thoroughly  revised 
form,  in  1813  (2  vols.  4to),  by  Henry  Ellis  of  the 
British  Museum.  This  work,  in  which  Bourne's 
was  incorporated,  has  since  been  twice  reprinted, 
with  additions,  and  might  have  been  regarded  as 
an  exhaustive  work  on  the  subject,  if  it  had  not  been 
shewn  l)y  Hone's  Every  Day  Booh  and  Year  Book, 
and  the  useful  little  periodical  entitled  Notes  and 
Queries,  that,  after  all,  many  curious  particulars  of 
English  folk-lore  remained  to  be  gleaned.  Through 
all  these  various  channels,  we  now  have  tolerably 
ample  information  on  popular  festivals  of  every  kina, 
both  those  which  appear  to  have  originated  in  pagan 
times,  and  those  instituted  by  the  Chi'istian  Church, 
on  all  observances  connected  with  the  im})ortant 
movements  of  domestic  life,  as  marriages,  sepulture, 


&c. ;  on  fireside  amusements,  on  superstitions  and 
vidgar  errors.  What  may  be  called  a  sub-section 
of  folk-lore  has  at  the  same  time  been  am])ly  illus- 
trated in  the  Nursery  Rhymes,  edited  by  J.  0.  Halli- 
well,  and  the  Popular  Phymes  of  Scotland,  editcKi  by 
Robert  Chambers.  It  is  to  be  observed  that,  whiie 
folk-lore  has  thus  been  engai^in^  the  attention  of 
literary  men,  and  put  beyond  risk  of  oblivion  by 
taking  its  place  in  solid  books,  it  is  everywhere 
declining  among  the  people  themselves.  To  this 
effect,  the  diffusion  of  scientific  ideas,  the  dis- 
favour of  the  clergy  for  everything  connected  with 
the  supernatural  except  religion  itself,  and  the  gi-eat 
industrial  changes  and  improvements  of  the  last 
fifty  years,  including  a  greatly  increased  shifting 
of  the  people  from  one  district  to  another,  have  all 
conduced.  In  the  British  Islands,  no  effort  has  been 
made  to  generalise  folk-lore  for  any  purjiose  con- 
nected with  anthropology,  ethnology,  or  any  otlier 
science ;  but  in  Germany,  as  is  well  known,  tho 
learned  brothers.  Jacob  and  Wilhelm  Grinnn,  have 
turned  the  ancient  simple  usages  and  traditions 
of  the  peasant's  fireside  to  excellent  account  in 
illustrating  remote  periods  of  the  national  history. 

FOLKMOTE  (a  meeting  or  assembly  of  the 
'  folk '  or  people)  was  the  term  ai)plied  l)y  the 
Saxons  to  district  meetings  generally,  though 
Kemble  is  of  opinion  that  originally  it  was  the 
great  meeting  of  the  nation,  which  was  afterwards 
converted  into  the  Witenagemote,  or  meeting  of 
the  councillors  or  representatives  of  the  nation 
(Kemble's  Saxons  in  England,  ii.  p.  194). 

FOLKRIGHT,  mentioned  in  the  laws  of  King 
Edward  the  Elder,  is  nearly  synonymous  with  the 
common  law,  or  rather  with  the  rights  which  the 
common  law  confers  on  the  people  of  England. 

FO'LKSTONE,  a  rising  town  of  England  on  the 
south-east  coast  of  Kent,  is  a  municipal  borough, 
seaport,  and  bathing-place,  and  is  situated  83  miles 
east-south-east  of  London  by  rail,  and  five  miles 
west-south-west  of  Dover.  It  stands  on  uneven 
ground  at  the  foot  of  a  range  of  hills.  The  oldest 
part  lies  in  a  narrow  valley,  crossed  by  a  magni- 
ficent railway  viaduct.  It  has  i-apidly  extende<l 
and  im})roved  since  the  opening  of  the  South- 
eastern Railway,  and  the  establishment  of  steam- 
packets  from  this  town  to  Boulogne,  30  miles  to 
the  south-east.  Between  the  two  places  is  a 
submarine  diain  of  rocks  only  14  fathoms  under 
low  water.  Pop.  (1871)  12,694. '  F.  unites  with  Hythe 
in  returning  one  member  to  parliament.  The  har- 
bour is  much  used  by  boats  employed  in  the  herring 
and  mackerel  fisheries.  The  view  from  the  pier  extends 
from  Shakspeare  Cliff,  at  Dover,  to  Fairlight  Head, 
at  Hastings  ;  the  Boulogne  heights  are  also  seen. 
On  a  hill  in  the  ^'^cinity  are  the  remains  of  Roman 
intrenchments.  Here  Harvey,  the  discoverer  of  the 
circulation  of  the  blood,  was  born. 

FOMENTATION  (Lat.  fompntatio  ;  also  fotus, 
from  f'weo,  I  bathe),  an  application  of  warmth  and 
moistv..rf>.  to  a  part,  by  means  of  cloths  Wj-\ng  out 
of  hot  water,  sometimes  medicated  with  vegetable 
infusions  of  substances  calculated  to  relieve  pain 
or  stimulate  the  smface.  Thus,  opium,  belladonna, 
chamomile,  turpentine,  &c.,  are  used  in  various  forma 
in  connection  with  fomentations,  which  are  of  very 
great  service  in  the  treatment  of  almost  aU  painful 
local  disorders. 

FONBLANQUE,  Albany,  journalist,  born  in 
1797,  Avas  intended  for  the  bar,  and  became  a 
puj)il  of  Chatty,  the  eminent  special  pleader.  Castle- 
reagh's  Six  Acts  made  him  a  political  writer.  As 
editor  of  the  Examiner,  the  then  leading  Liberal 
weekly  journal,  F.  exhibited  a  singular  keenness  both 
of  wit  and  intellect,  and  exercised  no  inconsiderable 


FOND  DU  LAC— FONT. 


influoace  ou  public  opiuion  between  the  years 
1826  and  1836.  Leigh  Hunt,  who  was  his  pre- 
decessor in  the  editorship  of  the  Examiner,  says  of 
him  in  his  Autobiography,  '  He  was  the  genuine 
successor  not  of  me,  but  of  the  Swifts  and  Addisons 
themselves  ;  profuse  of  wit  even  beyond  them,  and 
superior  in  political  knowledge.'  The  characteristics 
of  his  political  writings  may  be  gathered  from  his 
wuik,  entitled  England  under  Seven  Administrations 
(1837),  which  is  simply  a  reprint  of  the  more 
historical  leading  articles  published  in  the  Examiner 
from  the  period  of  the  Canning  and  Goderich 
ministries,  to  the  return  of  the  Melbourne  ministry. 
F.'s  services  to  the  Whigs  were  rewarded  by  his 
appointment  to  the  office  of  secretary  to  the 
Statistical  Department  of  the  Board  of  Trade  in 
1852.  He  afterwards  became  head  of  the  same  de- 
partment under  the  presidency  of  the  Hon.  Jolm 
Bright,  which  office  he  held  till  his  death,  October 
14,  1872. 

FOND  DU  LAC  is  a  name  of  various  application 
in  that  portion  of  the  United  States  which  originally 
belonged  to  French  Canada.  Primarily  denoting  the 
inner  extremity  of  any  great  body  of  fresh  water, 
it  has,  secondarily,  been  made  to  indicate  adjacent 
localities  of  different  kinds,  chiefly  in  connection 
with  Lake  Superior,  the  grand  reservoir  of  the  St 
Lawrence,  and  Lake  Winnebago,  which  empties  itself 
from  the  westward  into  Lake  Michigan. — 1.  The 
Fond  du  Lac  of  Lake  Superior  has  lent  its  appella- 
tion to  a  village  in  Minnesota,  situated  at  a  distance 
of  about  20  miles,  on  its  navigable  tributary,  the 
St  Louis.— 2.  The  Fond  du  Lac  of  Lake  Winnebago 
designates  both  a  county  and  town  of  Wisconsin. 
The  latter  has  sprung  up  mainly  since  1845,  has  a 
pleasant  situation  on  a  wooded  slope  above  the 
lake,  an  important  trade  in  grain,  provisions,  and 
timber,  a  great  number  of  Artesian  wells,  and  a  popu- 
lation (1870)  of  12,970. 

FO'NDI  (anciently.  Fundi),  a  small  town  of 
Italy,  in  the  north-west  of  the  province  of  Terra 
di  Lavoro,  is  situated  six  miles  from  the  coast,  on 
the  Appian  Way,  which  now  forms  its  principal 
street,  56  miles  north-west  of  Naples.  It  is  an 
ill-built,  dirty,  and  miserable  town,  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  a  pestiferous  lake  (the  ancient  Lacus 
Fundanus) ;  the  surrounding  plain,  however  (the 
ancient  Coicuhus  Ager,  which  produced  the  famous 
Csecuban  wine  of  classic  times),  is  very  fruitful.  F. 
is  surrounded  in  part  by  walls  of  cyclopean  struc- 
tuie,  and  has  a  population  of  6212,  who  are  said 
to  be  in  the  highest  degree  wild  and  lawless. 

FONSE'CA,  a  bay  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  Central 
America,  lies  between  the  two  states  San  Salvador 
and  Nicaragua.  It  claims  notice  princix^ally  as  the 
proposed  terminus  of  an  interoceanic  railway  from 
the  Puerto  Caballos  in  Honduras.  The  inter- 
vening country  has  been  surveyed,  and  reported  as 
favourable. 

FONT  {Fons  Baptismalis),  the  vessel  used  in 
churches  as  the  repository  of  the  baptismal  water. 
In  the  early  period,  while  immersion  continued 
to  be  the  ordinary  rite  of  the  administration  of 
the  sacrament  of  baptism,  the  baptistery  (see 
Baptistery),  or  other  place  set  apart  for  the 
ceremony,  was  furnished  with  a  basin  sufficiently 
capacious  to  admit  of  the  administration  of  the 
rite  according  to  the  then  prevailing  form.  But 
when  it  became  customary  to  baptize  by  affusion — 
that  is,  by  pouring  the  water  on  the  head  of  the 
person  to  be  baptized — the  size  of  the  basin  was 
naturally  diminished,  and  eventually  it  assumed 
the  dimensions  and  the  form  which  are  now 
lamiUar  to  us  in  most  of  the  medieval  chiu'ches 
in  Great  Britain  and  upon  the  continent.  The 


baptismal  font,  in  its  normal  form,  con.sistB  ol 
a  basin  or  cup,  more  or  less  capacioiis,  hollowed 
out  of  a  solid  block,  and  supported  upon  a  stem 
or  pedestal.  It  is  ordinarily  of  stone,  but  fs  )me 
ancient  examples  of  leaden  fonts  also  occur,  and 
a  few  of  copper  or  of  bronze.  In  general,  how- 
ever, it  may  he  said  that  the  font,  in  its  external 
form  and  character,  followed  the  prevailing  style 
of  ecclesiastical  architecture  and  ornamentation. 
From  its  connection  with  one  of  the  most  solemn 
rites  of  religion,  it  became  very  early  a  favouiite 
subject  for  the  exercise  of  the  decorative  skill  of  the 
artist,  and  there  are  still  preserved  in  different 
churches  fonts  which  exhibit  characteristics  of  each 
and  all  the  successive  fashions  through  which  chun  h 
architecture  has  passed  since  the  introduction  of 
the  font  in  its  present  form.  There  is  some  doubt 
as  to  whether  any  existing  specimen  in  England 
really  belongs  to  the  Saxon  period,  but  examples 
are  found  of  all  the  later  styles,  from  the  Early 
Norman  down  to  the  latest  revival  of  Gothic  archi- 
tecture in  our  own  day ;  the  Early  English,  the 
Decorated,  of  which  a  beautiful  example  occurs  in 
the  church  of  All  Saints,  Norwich;  and  the  Per- 
pendicular, which  is  seen  in  its  highest  perfection  at 
East  Dereham  in  the  same  county  of  Norfolk.  The 
annexed  engraving  exhibits  a  highly  characteristic 


specimen  of  the  fonts  of  the  beginning  of  the  14th 
c,  which  stands  in  the  church  of  Swaton,  Lincoln- 
shire, erected  about  1310. 

The  external  figure  of  the  basin  seems  to  have 
been  originally  circular  or  elliptical ;  but  most  of 
the  later  fonts  are  hexagonal,  or  even  ei^jht-sided. 
The  basin  was  commonly  supported  on  a  single 
pillar  or  stem.  Many  cases,  however,  occur  in 
which  it  rests  on  three,  four,  or  five  pillars,  or,  as  in 
the  engraving,  on  a  group  of  pillars  or  pilasters 
united  into  a  solid  stem.  Tlie  exterior,  as  well  of 
the  basin  as  of  the  pedestal,  was  often  highly 
decorated,  ordinarily  with,  sculpture,  but  occasionally 
also  in  gold  and  colours  ;  the  designs  on  the  basin 
commonly  representing  subjects  connected  with 
baptism,  or  its  types  and  symbols.  We  frequently 
meet  around  the  pedestal  figures  of  the  apostles, 
sometimes  only  eleven  in  number,  Judas  being 
omitted. 

In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  service  of 
Easter  Saturday  contains  a  solemn  form  for  the 
blessing  of  the  baptismal  font.  After  a  long  series 
of  prayers,  and  amid  a  very  imposing  ceremonial,  the 
'  chrism,'  or  consecrated  oil  blessed  by  the  bishop, 
and  also  the  so-called  'oil  of  catechumens,'  are 

40} 


FONTAINEBLEAU— FONTANES. 


mingled  with  the  bajitismal  venter,  which  is  reserved 
for  subsequent  use.  With  a,  view  to  the  preservation 
of  the  wa'ter  thus  reserved,  the  font,  especially  when 
it  is  of  porous  stone,  is  sometimes  lined  with  lead ; 
and  from  an  early  date,  it  is  furnished  with  a  lid, 
•which  is  secured  by  a  lock,  and  is  often  of  a  highly 
ornameutal  character. 

The  ordinary  place  of  the  font  is  at  the  western 
end  of  the  nave,  near  the  entrance  of  the  church,  but 
in  many  cases  it  stands  in  a  separate  chapel  or 
baptister3%  or  at  least  in  a  compartment  scri-ened 
off  for  the  purpose.  Even  when  it  stands  in  the  open 
nave,  it  is  properly  enclosed  by  a  rail. 

The  baptismal  font  is  not  to  be  confounded  with 
the  'holy- water  fount,'  which  usually  stands  near 
the  entrance  of  Roman  Catholic  churches,  and  from 
which  persons  entering  sprinkle  their  forehead,  in 
recognition  of  the  inward  purity  Math  which  we 
ought  to  enter  the  house  of  God ;  nor  with  the 
piscina  or  mcrarium,  which  is  found  in  the  chancel 
or  the  sacristy  of  ancient  churches,  and  which  was 
intended  to  receive  and  carry  away  the  water  used 
in  cleansing  the  sacred  vessels,  the  altardinens,  and 
the  other  fumitiire  used  in  the  administration  of  the 
eucharist.  See  Paley's  Illustrations  of  Baptismal 
Fonts ;  Simpson's  Series  of  Baptianinl  Fonts;  Wetser's 
Kirchen- Lexicon  ;  Binterim's  Denkicilrdi'jkeiten. 

FONTAINEBLEAU,  a  town  in  France,  in  the 
department  of  Seiue-et-Marne,  is  beautifully  situated 
in  the  midst  of  an  extensive  forest,  near  the  left 
bank  of  the  Seine,  35  miles  south- e-ast  of  Paris,  with 
which  it  is  connected  both  by  steamers  on  the  Seine, 
and  by  railway.  There  are  several  fine  public 
buildings,  among  others,  two  hospitals — one  erected 
by  Anne  of  Austria,  the  other  by  Madame  de  Mon- 
tespan.  It  furnishes  a  great  deal  of  wine  and  fruit 
for  the  capital,  and  has  manufactures  of  porcelain. 
Its  grapes  are  famed  as  V/iasaelas  de  Forttaiiieblcau. 
Population  (1872)  8952. 

F.  is  chiefly  famous  for  its  chS-teau,  or  pleasure- 
palace  of  the  kings  of  France,  and  the  forest 
that  surrounds  it.  The  forest  covers  an  extent  of 
04  sqiiare  miles,  and  presents  much  fine  scenery. 
The  chateau  is  said  to  have  originally  been  founded 
by  E.obert  the  Pious  toward  the  end  of  the  10th 
century.  It  was  rebuilt  in  the  12th  c.  by  Louis 
VII.,  of  whom,  and  of  Philippe  Auguste,  it  was  a 
favourite  residence,  and  was  enlarged  l)y  Louis  IX. 
and  his  successors.  After  being  allowed  to  fall  into 
decay,  it  was  repaired  and  embellished  by  Francis  I., 
who  here  received  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  with 
lavish  s])lendour,  in  1539.  Almost  every  succeeding 
king  added  something  in  the  way  of  enlargement  or 
embellishment,  so  that  it  bears  the  character  and 
style  of  almost  every  century. 

In  the  17th  c,  it  was  the  residence  of  Christina  of 
Sweden  after  her  abdication,  and  in  the  Galerie  des 
Cerfs  she  caused  her  secretary  Monaldeschi  to  be 
executed.  Under  Louis  XIV.  it  was  occupied  by 
Madame  id  ^(lontespan,  and  under  Louis  XV.  by 
I)u  Barry ;  and  here  Pope  Pius  VII.  was  detained 
a  prisoner  for  nearly  two  years  by  Napoleon.  Many 
ntate  transactions  and  treaties  are  dated  from  F. ; 
among  others,  the  act  of  ab<Iication  of  Napoleon  in 
]8I4.  Under  Napoleon  III.  the  palace  was  still  more 
eidarged,  and  became  the  scene  of  luxurious  annual 
fetes,  rivalling  those  of  Louis  XIV. 

FONTA'NA,  Do  MEXICO,  an  eminent  engineer 
a  ad  architect,  born  in  1543  at  Mili,  in  the  vicinity 
of  Lake  Como.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  joined 
his  brother,  also  an  architect  in  Rome,  and  in  a  brief 
period  achieved  a  reputation  sufficiently  brilliant  to 
attract  the  notice  of  the  magnificent  Cardinal  Mon- 
talto,  to  whom  he  was  apj)ointed  private  architect. 
The  pomp  of  this  cardinal  seems  to  have  given 
4ti4 


umbrage  to  Pope  Gregory  XII.,  who,  in  consequencoi 
discontinued  the  cardinal's  private  pensions,  and 
thus  disabled  him  from  completing  the  splendid 
works  he  had  intrusted  to  F. — viz.,  the  Sistina 
Cha})el  in  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  and  an  adjoining 
palace.  In  this  emergency,  the  spirited  architect, 
out  of  his  own  funds,  carried  on  the  noble  designs 
of  his  patron,  on  the  same  scale  of  magnificence 
in  which  they  were  commenced,  and  for  his  dis- 
interested devotion  received  later  ample  reward, 
when  the  cardinal,  under  the  name  of  Sixtus  V.,  was 
called  to  the  pa[)al  chair.  F.,  as  papal  architect,  was 
employed  in  a  variety  of  important  works,  amongst 
which  stands  conspicuously  the  wonderful  removal 
and  re-erection  of  the  cohjssal  Egyj)tian  obelisk, 
to  be  seen  now  in  the  piazza  of  St  Peter's.  He 
afterwards  erected  several  other  obelisks,  and  was 
intnisted  by  Sixtus  with  the  construction  of  the 
Lateran  Palace,  and  of  the  famous  Vatican  Library. 
The  restoration  of  the  columns  of  Trajan  and  Anto- 
ninus, and  the  construction  of  the  aqueduct  known 
as  the  Aqua  Felice,  deserve  mention  amongst  the 
many  works  of  utility  executed  by  Fontana.  On 
the  death  of  his  friend  and  patron.  Pope  Sixtus, 
F.,  through  tlie  intrigues  of  invidious  enemies,  was 
stripjied  of  his  post  as  papal  architect  in  1592,  but 
was  immediately  proffered  a  similar  appointment  in 
the  name  of  the  king  of  Naples.  During  his  sojourn 
in  Nai)les,  he  executed  many  imposing  designs  ;  the 
royal  palace,  and  a  noble  promenade  along  the  bay, 
being  amongst  the  chief.  His  conception  of  a  grander 
harl)()ur  was  carried  into  eff"ect  by  others,  his  death, 
in  1G07,  at  Naples,  preventing  his  personal  super- 
intendence benefiting  the  undertaking.  F.'s  son, 
Giuglio  Cesare,  heir  to  his  father's  great  wealth,  and 
some  of  his  genius,  was  appointed  royal  architect  on 
his  decease. 

FONTA'NA,  Felice,  a  celebrated  physiologist, 
born  at  Pomarolo,  in  the  Italian  Tyrol,  in  1730.  At 
the  termination  of  an  elaborate  course  of  study, 
carried  on  in  the  several  universities  of  Verona, 
Parma,  Padua,  and  Bologna,  he  was  presented  to 
the  chair  of  ])liilosophy  in  the  imiversity  of  Pisa  by 
Francis  I.,  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany.  Leopold,  on 
succeeding  his  father,  appointed  F.  court  jjliysiolo- 
gist,  and  charged  him  with  the  organisation  of  a 
museum  of  natural  history  and  physiology,  which 
to  this  day  is  one  of  the  scientific  marvels  of 
Florence.  "-It  comprises  a  superb  collection  of  the 
phenomena  of  the  animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral 
kingdoms,  besides  an  exquisitely  elaborate  series  of 
wax  models,  reiiresenting  the  human  body  as  a 
whole,  and  each  minute  separate  organ.  A  similar 
collection  was  executed  by  ]'\  for  the  museum  of 
Vienna,  ])y  order  of  the  Emperor  Joseph  II.  He 
died  9th  March  1803.  F.'s  chief  writings  consist  of 
scientific  considerations  on  the  various  phenomena  of 
p.^'^'sical  irritability,  BicJierche  Filosofiche  sopra  la 
]'*}ica  Anirnale  (Florence,  1781),  and  Dei  Moti  deW 
Iride  (Lucca,  17G5). 

FONTANES,  Louis,  Marquis  de,  was  bom  6th 
March  1757,  at  Niort,  and  was  sprung  from  an  old 
Protestant  family  of  Languedoc.  After  the  com- 
pletion of  his  studies,  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he 
acquired  a  repixtation  by  his  poems,  Le  Cri  de  man 
Coeur  (Paris,  1778),  and  Le  Verger  (Paris,  1778),  as 
also  by  his  metrical  translation  of  Pope's  Essay  on 
Man,  and  his  imitation  of  Gray's  Elegy  written  in  a 
Country  Churchyard.  During  the  Revolution,  F. 
conducted  various  journals  in  the  popular  interest. 
In  1802  he  was  made  a  member,  and  in  1804 
president,  of  the  legislative  body.  His  admiration 
of  Napoleon  was  great;  and  his  splendid  oratorical 
talents  were  often  employed  in  eulogizing  the 
emperor's  acts.     Even  when  Napoleon  was  only 


FONTENAY-LE-COMTE-FONTINALIS. 


CoQSiil,  F.  had  irritated  tlie  republican  party  by 
speaking  of  the  French  people  as  sujets  (subjects). 
En  1810,  he  entered  the  senate.  After  the  fall 
of  Napoleon,  he  passed  into  the  service  of  the 
restored  Bourbons,  and  was  raised  to  the  peerage 
by  Louis  XVIII.  He  died  17th  March  1821.  His 
various  writings,  prose  and  poetic,  have  been 
collected  and  edited  by  Sainte-Beuve  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1837),  and  are  regarded  as  models  of  elegance  and 
correctness. 

FONTENAY-LE-COMTE,  or  FONTENAY- 
VENDEE,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  Vendee,  is  situated  in  a  pleasant  valley  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Vendue,  27  miles  north-east  of 
La  Rochelle.  The  streets  of  the  older  portion 
of  the  town  are  narrow  and  tortuous.  Its  chief 
buildings  are  the  beautiful  Gothic  church  of  .Notre 
Dame,  with  a  spire  311  feet  high  ;  the  college,  the 
theatre,  and  the  fountain  from  which  the  town  is 
said  to  have  derived  its  name.  F.  has  hnen  manu- 
factures, tanneries,  and  a  trade  in  timber,  and  is  an 
entrepot  for  the  victuals  and  commodities  of  the  south. 
Pop.  (1S72)  6129. 

FONTENELLE,  Bernard  le  Bovier  de,  an 
eminent  French  author,  was  born  at  Rouen,  11th 
February  1657.  His  father  was  an  advocate,  and  his 
mother  a  sister  of  the  great  Corneille.  He  began 
his  studies  in  the  college  of  the  Jesuits  at  Rouen, 
and  at  the  age  of  13,  obtained  the  prize  for  a  Latin 
poem.  During  the  next  three  years  he  professed 
to  study  law,  but  in  reality  busied  himself  with  the 
more  interesting  subjects  of  history,  poetry,  and 
pliilosophy.  After  passing  as  an  advocate,  he  com- 
menced to  practise,  but  lost  the  first  cause  which 
he  conducted,  and  in  consequence  renounced  the 
bar  for  ever.  In  1674,  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he 
entered  upon  a  literary  career,  and  soon  attained  to 
celebrity  and  independence.  He  was  a  member  of 
several  learned  societies  ;  and  from  1699  to  1741, 
held  the  office  of  Secretary  of  the  Academic  des 
Sciences,  but  declined  the  post  of  president.  F. 
died  at  Paris  9th  January  1757,  having  nearly 
finished  his  100th  year,  wittily  remarking  to  his 
friends,  as  he  expired :  '  Je  De  souffre  pas,  mes  amis ; 
mais  je  sens  une  certaine  difficulte  d'etre  '  ('  I  don't 
suffer,  my  friends  ;  but  I  feel  a  sort  of  difficulty  in 
living  any  longer').  The  greater  part  of  his  nume- 
rous poetical,  historical,  oratorical,  philosophical, 
and  scientific  writings,  though  much  admired  at  the 
time  of  their  publication,  have  now  fallen  into 
oblivion.  He  possessed,  however,  along  with  great 
skill  in  representation,  a  poetical  turn  of  mind,  and 
an  acute  intellect.  He  wrote  a  few  operas,  among 
others,  Psyche,  Bellerophan ;  a  musical  and  dramatic 
pastoral  entitled  Endymion ;  several  tragedies — 
Brutus,  Aspar,  Idalie ;  comedies,  fables,  fugitive 
pieces,  epigrams,  &c.  Of  his  prose  writings,  we  may 
mention  the  Lettres  du  Chevalier  cCHer,  the  Dia- 
logues des  Marts,  in  the  manner  of  Lucian ;  his 
Entretiens  sur  la  Pluralite  des  Mondes,  which, 
althougli  much  read  once,  has  now  become  obsolete, 
in  consequence  of  the  advancement  of  science  ;  and 
his  treatises  Sur  V Existence  de  Dieu,  Sur  le  Bonheur, 
Sur  VOrlgine  des  Fables;  and  his  Histoire  du  Theatre 
Fran^iis  jusqu''d  Pierre  Corneille,  which  is  still  con- 
Bulteci  F.  was  particularly  celebrated  for  his  bon- 
mots;  and  for  the  manner  in  which  he  edited  the 
Memoires  de  V Academie  des  Sciences,  and  executed 
his  Elofjes.  It  is  also  perhaps  worth  mentioning, 
that  at  the  age  of  92  he  still  wrote  madrigals ! 
His  G'Juvres  Completes  have  been  republished  several 
times.  The  most  complete  edition  is  that  published 
ai  Paris  (3  vols.  1818). 

FONTENOY,  a  village  of  Belgium,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Hiinaut,  5  miles  south-west  of  Toumay, 


with  a  population  of  about  800,  deserves  mention  as 
the  scene  of  the  battle  of  Fontenoy,  one  of  the  most 
famous  contests  in  the  war  of  tlie  Austrian  hucces- 
sion.  The  battle  was  fought  Ilth  May,  1745,  tlio 
opi)Osing  forces  being  the  Frcncli,  60,000  strong, 
under  Marshal  Saxe,  and  the  allies  (English,  l^utch, 
and  Austrians),  in  nearly  equal  force,  under  the  Duko 
of  Cumberland.  After  a  hard-fought  battle,  the  allies 
were  forced  to  i-etreat.  The  loss  on  both  sides  woa 
stated  at  about  7000  men. 

FONTEVIIAULT  {Pons  Ebraldi),  a  small  ioynx 
of  France,  in  the  department  of  Maine-et- Loire, 
8  miles  south-east  of  Sauraur,  with  a  population 
(1872)  of  696,  owes  its  origin  to  a  wealthy  and 
celebrated  abbey,  now  converted  into  a  prison  for 
eleven  departments.  This  abbey  was  founded  by 
Robert  d'Arlirissel,  a  Breton  monk,  in  1099,  as 
the  residence  of  a  monastic  society  composed  of 
penitents  of  both  sexes.  This  society  took  the 
name  of  the  Order  of  Fontevraidt.  It  followed 
the  austere  rule  of  Benedict,  but  had  this  pecu- 
liarity, that  the  monks  were  rided  by  an  abbess, 
and  not  by  an  abbot.  The  order  of  F.  soon  spread 
through  France,  and  into  Spain,  and  in  the  former 
countr}''  especially  acquired  great  riches.  The 
abbesses  of  F.  belonged,  for  the  most  part,  to 
illustrious  families,  and  were  subject  only  to  the 
popes.  At  a  later  period,  the  strictness  of  the 
monastic  discipline  was  relaxed  in  favour  of  the 
nuns,  whence,  however,  in  the  14th  c,  sprung  great 
disorders.  Gradually,  the  order  of  F.  fell  into 
disrespect,  but  even  at  the  outbreak  of  the  French 
Revolution  it  possessed  57  priories  in  France,  which, 
however,  were  then  abolished  along  with  the  other 
monasteries.  The  town  is  of  pecuUar  interest  to 
Englishmen,  from  the  fact  that  it  contains  the 
cemetery  of  several  of  the  Plantagenet  kings  of 
England  and  of  the  comits  of  Anjou.  Of  these, 
however,  only  the  tombs 
of  Henry  11. ,  of  his  queen 
Eleanor  of  Guienne,  of 
Creur-de-Lion,  and  of 
Isabelle,  the  queen  of 
John,  have  been  pre- 
served. The  old  monastic 
buildings  and  court- 
yards, surrounded  by 
walls,  and  covering  from 
forty  to  fifty  acres,  now 
form  one  of  the  larger 
prisons  of  France,  in 
which  about  2000  con- 
victs of  both  sexes  are 
confined,  and  kept  at 
industrial  occupations. 
See  an  account  of  this 
prison  in  Chambers's 
Edinburgh  Journal,  2d 
series,  vol.  L  p.  104. 

FONTINA'LIS,  a 

genus  of  Mosses,  allied 
to  Hypnum,  but  having 
the  fruit  in  the  bosom 
of    the   leaves,  almost 
without  stalk.  Several 
species  are  British ;  one 
of  which,   the    Greater  Greater  "Water-Mo^s  [Fontv- 
Water-moss    [F.    anti-        nalis  antipyreticct) : 
pyretica),    growing   upon  «,   spore-case   or  capsule,  di- 
rocks  and  roots  of  trees    ^T^'''}  of  calyptra  and  lid, 
i       I  ,  J        shewinar  the   peristome  ;  b, 

m    brooks    and    ponds,     spore-case,  with  its  involucre 
is   remarkable   for   the    of  leaf-Uke  scales, 
difficulty  with  which  it 

burns,  even  when  comi)letely  dried ;  on  which 
accoimt  it  is  used  in  some  parts  of  the  north  of 


FOOD  AND  DRINK. 


Europe  for  lining  chimneys,  to  protect  the  adjacent 
Avootl-work  from  fire.  Its  shoots  are  a  foot  or 
more  in  length,  and  branched  ;  they  float  in  the 
water.  The  fruit  is  on  the  sides  of  the  stems  or 
branches. 

FOOD  AND  DRINK.  Although  nearly  sixty 
elementary  substances  are  known  to  chemists,  only 
a  comparatively  small  number  of  these  take  part  in 
the  formation  of  man  and  other  animals ;  and  it  is 
only  this  small  number  of  constituents  which  are 
essential  elements  of  our  food  These  elements  are 
carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  oxygen,  phosphorus, 
sulphur,  chlorine,  sodium,  potassium,  calcium,  mag- 
nesium, iron,  and  fluorine. 

Carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  oxygen  are 
supplied  to  the  system  by  the  albuminous  group  of 
alimentary  principles  (see  Diet)— \dz.,  albumen, 
librine,  and  caseine,  which  occur  both  in  the  animal 
and  vegetable  kingdoms,  and  the  gluten  contained 
in  vegetables.  Animal  flesh,  eggs,  milk,  corn,  and 
many  other  vegetable  products,  contain  one  or  more 
of  these  principles.  The  gelatinous  group  also  intro- 
duces the  same  elements  into  the  system,  when 
such  substances  as  preparations  of  isinglass,  calves' 
feet,  &c.,  are  taken  as  food.  Carbon,  hydrogen,  and 
oxygen  are  abundantly  introduced  into  the  system 
in  the  form  of  sugar,  starch  (which  occurs  in  large 
quantity  in  the  cereal  gi-ains,  leguminous  seeds, 
roots,  tubers,  &c.,  used  as  food),  and  organic  acids 
(which,  as  citric,  malic,  tartaric  acid,  &c.,  occur  in 
numerous  vegetables  employed  as  food).  Carbon 
with  a  little  hydrogen  and  oxygen  occurs  al)undantly 
in  the  oleaginous  group  of  alimentary  principles,  as, 
for  instance,  in  all  the  fat,  suet,  butter,  and  oil  that  we 
eat ;  in  the  oily  seeds,  as  nuts,  walnuts,  cocoa-nuts, 
&c. ;  and  in  fatty  foods,  as  liver,  brain,  &c.  Phos- 
phorus is  supplied  to  us  by  the  flesh,  blood,  and 
bones  used  as  food  (the  flesh  of  fishes  is  especially 
rich  in  phosphoric  matter),  and  in  the  form  of 
various  phosphates,  it  is  a  constituent  of  many  of 
the  vegetables  used  as  food.  The  system  derives  its 
sulphur  from  the  fibrine  of  flesh,  the  albumen  of 
eggs,  and  the  caseine  of  milk,  from  the  vegetable 
fibrine  of  corn,  &c.,  from  the  vegetable  albiunen  of 
turnips,  cauliflowers,  asparagus,  &c.,  and  from  the 
vegetable  caseine  of  pease  and  beans.  Most  of  the 
cidinary  vegetables  contain  it,  especially  the  Cruci- 
fercB.  Chlorine  and  sodium,  in  the  form  of  chloride 
of  sodium,  are  more  or  less  abundantly  contained  in 
all  varieties  of  animal  food,  and  are  taken  separately 
as  common  salt.  Potassiiun  is  a  constituent  of  both 
animal  and  vegetable  food  :  it  occiurs  in  considerable 
quantity  in  milk,  and  in  the  juice  that  permeates 
animal  flesh ;  and  most  inland  plants  contain  it.  We 
derive  the  calcium  of  our  system  from  flesh,  bones, 
eggs,  milk,  &c.  (all  of  which  contain  salts  of  lime)  ; 
most  vegetables  also  contain  lime-salts ;  and  another 
source  of  our  calcium  is  common  water,  which 
usually  contains  both  bicarbonate  and  sulphate  of 
lime.  Magnesium  in  small  quantity  is  generally 
found  in  those  foods  that  contain  calcium.  Iron  is 
a  constituent  of  the  blood  found  in  meat ;  and  it 
occurs  in  smaller  quantity  in  milk,  in  the  yoke  of 
egg,  ar.d  in  traces  in  most  vegetable  foods.  Fluorine 
occurs  in  minute  quantity  in  the  bones  and  teeth. 
This  small  quantity  is  accounted  for  by  the  traces 
of  fluorine  found  by  Dr  George  Wilson  in  milk, 
blood,  &c. 

These  simple  bodies  are  not,  however,  capable  of 
being  assimilated  and  converted  into  tissue  ;  they 
must  be  previously  combined,  and  this  combination 
is  primarily  conducted  by  the  vegetable  kingdom. 
The  number  of  combined  elements  varies :  thus 
water  contains  only  two  ;  sugar,  starch,  fat,  and  many 
organic  acids,  contain  three ;  caseine  contains  five ; 
and  librine  and  albumen  contain  six. 
4oe 


It  would  be  impossible,  and  it  is  quite  unnecessary, 
to  mention  in  this  article  the  difierent  animals  and 
I)lant3  that  are  used  as  food  by  different  nations. 
The  subject  is,  however,  an  interesting  one,  and 
those  who  wish  to  study  it  may  be  referred  to 
Moleschott's  Phjsiologie  der  Nahrungsmittel,  1850, 
and  especially  to  Reich's  Nahrungs-  und  Oenussmit- 
telkunde  (1860 — 1861),  which  is  the  most  learned 
and  elaborate  work  on  the  subject  in  any  language. 

Drinks  are  merely  liquid  foods.  They  all  pertain 
to  the  aqueous  group  noticed  in  the  article  Diet. 
They  are  arranged  by  Pereira  in  his  Treatise  on  Food 
and  Diet  in  the  six  following  orders  : 

1.  Mucilaginous,  farinaceous,  or  saccharine  drinks 
— as  toast-water,  barley-water,  gruel,  &c.  They 
are  very  slightly  nutritive,  and  differ  but  little 
from  common  water. 

2.  Aromatic  or  astringent  drinks — as  tea,  coffee, 
chocolate,  and  cocoa.  The  action  of  the  first 
two  is  noticed  in  the  article  Diet.  The  last  two 
drinks  contain  a  considerable  quantity  of  oil  and 
starch. 

3.  Acidulous  drinks — as  lemonade,  ginger-beer, 
raspl)erry- vinegar  water,  &c.  They  allay  thirst  both 
by  the  acid  which  they  contain  and  the  water,  and 
form  cooling  antiscorbutic  drinks. 

4.  Drinks  containing  gelatine  and  osmazome — the 
broths  and  soups.  These,  if  properly  prepared, 
sjioidd  contain  all  the  soluble  constituents  of  their 
ingredients. 

5.  Emidsive  or  milky  drinks — as  animal  milk,  the 
milk  of  the  cocoa-nut,  and  almond  milk,  a  drink 
prepared  from  sweet  almonds.  Animal  milk  con- 
tains all  the  essential  ingredients  of  food;  the 
others  are  slightly  nutritive. 

6.  Alcoholic  and  other  intoxicating  drinks — 
including  malt  liquor  or  beer  in  its  various  forma 
of  ale,  stout,  and  porter ;  wines ;  spirits  in  their 
various  forms  of  brandy,  rum,  gin,  whisky,  &c. 

'  Considered  dietetically,'  says  Pereira,  '  beer  pos- 
sesses a  threefold  property :  it  quenches  thirst ;  it 
stimulates,  cheers,  and,  if  taken  in  sufficient  quantity, 
intoxicates  ;  and  lastly,  it  nourishes  or  strengthens. 
The  power  of  appeasing  thirst  depends  on  the 
aqueous  ingredient  which  it  contains,  assisted  some- 
what by  its  acidulous  constituents  (carbonic  and 
acetic  acid)  ;  its  stimulating,  cheering,  or  intoxicat- 
ing power  is  derived  either  wholly  or  principally 
from  the  alcohol  which  it  contains  (from  2  to  3  per 
cent.) ;  lastly,  its  nutritive  or  strengthenin,^  quality 
is  derived  from  the  sugar,  dextrine,  and  similar 
substances  contained  in  it ;  moreover,  the  bitter 
principle  of  hops  confers  on  beer  tonic  properties. 
From  these  combined  qualities,  beer  proves  a  refresh- 
ing and  salubrious  drink  (if  taken  in  modera- 
tion), and  an  agreeable  and  valuable  stimulus  and 
support  to  those  who  have  to  xmdergo  much  bodily 
fatigue.' 

Wine  is  our  most  valuable  restorative  when  the 
powers  of  the  body  and  mind  have  been  overtaxed ; 
but  as  the  most  perfect  health  is  compatible  with 
total  abstinence  from  it,  no  possible  benefit  can 
accrue  to  a  healthy  person  from  commencing  its 
use.  The  uses  of  wine  as  a  tonic  during  convales- 
cence after  lingering  diseases,  and  of  either  wine  or 
spirits  in  some  acute  diseases  (fevers,  &c.),  are  too 
well  known  to  require  notice. 

The  action  of  spirituous  drinks  has  been  noticed 
in  the  article  Diet,  and  will  be  further  discussed 
in  the  article  Temperanck 

We  shaU  conclude  this  part  of  the  subject  with 
a  word  or  two  on  the  condiments  or  seasoning 
agents  which  are  taken  with  foods  for  the-  purpose 
o^f  improving  their  flavour  Excluding  salt,  which 
must  be  considered  as  a  saline  alimentary  principle, 
the  most  common  condiments,  such  as  mustard 


FOOD  AND  DRINK. 


capsicum  (Cayenne  pepper),  pepper,  the  various 
«pices,  &c.,  owe  their  action  to  the  presence  of  a 
volatile  oil.  Sauces  are  usually  fluid  mixtures  of 
these  condiments  with  alimentary  substances.  In 
a  healthy  state,  condiments  and  sauces  afford  little 
or  no  nutrition ;  and  although  for  a  time  they  may 
stimulate  a  debilitated  stomach  to  increased  action, 
their  continual  use  never  fails  to  induce  a  suljse- 
qiient  increased  weakness  of  that  oro;an.  .  Salt  and 
vinegar  are  the  only  exceptions.  When  used  in 
moderation,  they  assist  in  digestion;  vinegar,  by 
rendering  muscular  fibre  more  fluid;  and  botlx 
together,  by  producing,  as  Dr  Beaumont  believes, 
a  fluid  having  some  analogy  to  the  gastric'  juice 
(Experiments  and  Observations  on  the  Gastric  Juice 
and  the  Physiology  of  Digestion,  p.  40,  Edin.  1838). 

The  cookery  of  foods,  although  partially  noticed 
in  the  articles  Boiling,  Bkoiling,  Cookery,  Diet, 
&c.,  requires  some  general  consideration  in  the 
present  place. 

All  foods  possessing  an  organised  structure,  as 
animal  flesh  and  amylaceous  substances,  require  to 
be  cooked  before  being  eaten,  the  only  exceptions 
being  the  oyster  and  some  ripe  fruits.  The  processes 
of  salting,  pickling,  and  smoking  harden  the  animal 
textures,  and,  as  we  shaU  presently  see  (at  all  events 
in  the  case  of  salting),  induce  chemical  changes 
which  render  the  meat  less  nutritious. 

The  ordinary  operations  of  cookery  are  boiling, 
roasting,  broiling,  baking,  and  frying. 

In  the  case  of  vegetables,  boiling  effects  the 
solution  of  gummy  and  saccharine  matters,  the 
rupture  and  partial  solution  of  starch  grains,  the 
coagulation  of  albuminous  liquids,  and  the  more  or 
less  complete  expulsion  of  volatile  oil.  In  the  boiling 
of  flesh,  there  takes  place  a  more  or  less  perfect 
separation  of  the  soluble  from  the  insoluble  con- 
stituents, according  to  the  duration  of  the  boiling, 
the  amount  of  water  employed,  and  its  temperature 
at  the  commencement  of  the  operation.  If  we 
wish  the  boiled  meat  to  contain  the  largest  amount 
of  nourishing  matter,  and  disregard  the  soup  or 
broth  that  is  simultaneously  formed,  we  introduce 
it  into  tlie  boiler  when  the  water  is  in  a  state  of 
brisk  ebuUition.  We  keep  np  this  boiling  for  a  few 
minutes,  in  onler  to  coagulate  the  albumen  near  the 
surface,  and  thus  to  convert  it  into  a  crust  or  shell, 
v/liich  equally  prevents  the  entrance  of  water  into 
the  interior,  and  the  escape  of  the  juice  and  soluble 
constituents  of  the  flesh  into  the  water.  If  cold 
water  is  then  added,  so  as  to  reduce  the  tempera- 
ture to  about  160°,  and  this  temperature  is  kept  up 
for  the  necessary  time — for  which,  in  reference  to 
the  weight  of  the  meat,  see  the  article  Boiling — 
all  the  conditions  are,  according  to  Liebig,  united 
which  give  to  the  flesh  the  quality  best  adapted  to 
its  use  as  food. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  wish  to  obtain  good 
BOup  frojn  meat,  we  should  place  it  in  cold  water, 
and  bring  this  very  gradually  to  the  boiling-point. 
The  interchange  between  the  juices  of  the  flesh  and 
the  external  Avater,  w^hich  was  prevented  by  the 
form<;r  j>rocess,  here  takes  place  without  hindrance. 
*  The  soluble  and  sapid  constituents  of  the  flesh  are 
dissolved  in  the  water,  and  the  water  penetrates 
into  the  intei-ior  of  the  mass,  which  it  extracts  more 
or  less  completely.  The  flesh  loses,  while  the  soup 
gains,  in  sapid  matters ;  and  by  the  separation  of 
albumen,  which  is  commonly  removed  by  skimming, 
as  it  rises  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  when 
coagidated,  the  meat  loses  its  tenderness,  and 
becomes  tough  and  hard;  and  if  eaten  without 
the  SOU]),  it  not  only  loses  much  of  its  nutritive 
propertu;s,  but  also  of  its  digestibility.' — Liebig's 
liesearches  on  the  Chemistry  of  Food,  p.  128. 

Roasting  is  appHed  much  more  to  meat  than 


to  vegetables.  Both  in  roasting  and  broiling  nual, 
the  first  application  of  heat  should  be  considerable 
and  rapid,  so  as  to  form  an  outer  coating  of  coagu- 
lated albumen  (just  as  iti  boiling),  which  retains 
the  nutritive  matters  within  the  cooked  meat.  In 
roasted  meat,  nothing  is  removed  but  some  of  the 
superficial  fat  and  the  gravy,  which  is  itself  an 
article  of  food.  The  effect  of  roasting  on  such 
vegetables  as  apples  and  potatoes  is  to  render  them 
more  niitritive  and  digestible  than  they  would  be 
in  the  raw  state,  by  splitting  their  starch  grains, 
and  rendering  them  more  soluble. 

Baking  (q.  v.)  acts  in  the  same  manner  as  roast- 
ing, but  meat  thus  co'.'ked  is  less  wholesome,  in 
consequence  of  its  being  more  impregnated  with 
em])yreumatic  oil. 

Frying  is  the  most  objectionable  of  all  kinds  of 
cookery.  In  this  operation,  heat  is  usually  applied 
by  the  intermedium  of  boiling  fat  or  oil.  Vs.riou3 
products  of  the  decomposition  of  the  fat  are  set 
free,  which  are  very  obnoxious  to  the  stomachs  of 
invalids. 

Liebig  has  shewn  that  salted  meat  is,  in  so  far  as 
nutrition  is  concerned,  in  much  the  same  state  as 
meat  from  which  good  soup  has  been  made.  After 
flesh  has  been  rubbed  and  sprinkled  with  dry  salt, 
a  brine  is  formed  amounting  in  bulk  to  one-thii'd  of 
the  fluid  contained  in  the  raw  flesh.  This  brine  ia 
found  to  contain  a  large  quantity  of  albumen, 
soluble  phosphates,  lactic  acid,  potash,  creatine,  and 
creatinine — substances  which  are  essential  to  the 
constitution  of  the  flesh,  which  therefore  loses  in 
nutritive  value  in  proportion  to  their  abstraction. 

The  preservation  of  food  requires  some  notice. 
Three  methods— viz.,  preservation  by  cold,  preser- 
vation by  the  exclusion  of  air,  and  preservation  by 
salting — are  noticed  in  the  article  Antiseptics.  Tho 
flrst  is  only  of  comparatively  limited  aj^plication  : 
the  second,  known  as  Appert's  method,  has  been 
successfully  used  in  the  English  navy  for  many 
years ;  the  chief  objection  to  it  is  its  expense  :  the 
third  method  injures,  as  we  have  already  seen,  the 
character  of  the  meat,  and  renders  it  both  deficient 
in  nutritive  materials,  and  actually  injurious  if  it 
forms  a  principal  and  continuous  article  of  diet. 
To  these  methods  we  must  add  preservation  by 
smoking,  preservation  with  sugar,  and  with  \^negar, 
and  preservation  by  drying.  It  is  well  known 
that  meat  suspended  in  smoke  loses  its  tendency 
to  putrefy,  the  substance  from  which  the  smoke 
derives  its  antiseptic  property  being  creasote,  or 
some  allied  body.  Smoked  meat  acquires  a  peculiar 
taste,  a  dark  colour,  and  a  somewhat  hard  consist- 
ence ;  but  it  retains  all  its  nutritive  constituents, 
and  is  thus  preferable  to  salted  meat.  Sugar  and 
vinegar  are  chiefly  employed  in  the  preservation  of 
vegetable  prodiicts.  The  most  important  mode  of 
preserving  articles  of  food,  whether  animal  or  vege- 
table, is  by  direct  drying.  Meat  is  cut  up  into 
small  slices  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  and 
vegetables  into  smaller  pieces ;  they  are  steamed 
at  a  high  temperature,  so  as  to  coagulate  the 
albumen ;  and  they  are  then  completely  desiccated 
by  exposure  to  a  current  of  very  hot  dry  air.  At 
the  conclusion  of  the  process,  the  slices  of  meat  are 
quite  hard,  and  present  a  shrivelled  appearance. 
Dr  Marcet  [On  the  Composition  of  Food,  18oG, 
p.  174)  speaks  in  high  terms  of  this  method,  which 
he  has  himself  seen  in  operation  in  Paris.  '  Food 
thus  preserved,'  he  says,  '  whether  it  be  animal 
or  vegetable,  has  the  advantage  (1)  of  remaining 
in  a  fresh  condition,  though  freely  exposed  to  the 
atmosphere  for  a  great  number  of  years,  and  (2) 
of  being  reduced  to  one-fifth  of  its  original  bulk 
from  its  having  lost  all  its  water.'  He  adds,  that 
the  preserved  vegetables  resume  their  bulk  whtn 

*07 


FOOL— FOOLS,  FEAST  OP. 


ooiled  in  water,  and  that  they  so  completely  retain 
their  aroma,  that  it  is  jften  difficult  to  distinguish  be- 
tween soups  made  v  ith  them,  and  others  prepared 
with  fresh  vegetables. 

Tlie  adulteration  of  food  of  almost  every  kind  is 
unfortunately  so  conunon  a  custom  that  our  limited 
space  will  merely  allow  of  our  noticing  a  few  of  the 
leading  points  in  regard  to  it. 

Wheat-Jlour  is  not  unfrequently  adulterated  with 
one  or  more  of  the  following  substances — flour  of 
beans,  Indian  corn,  rye,  or  rice,  potato-starch,  alum, 
chalk,  carbonate  of  magnesia,  bone-dust,  plaster  of 
Paris,  sand,  clay,  &c.  The  organic  matters — the 
inferior  flours  and  starch  —do  little  or  no  serious 
harm ;  most  of  the  inorganic  matters  are  positively 
injurious,  and  of  these,  alum  (one  of  the  commonest 
adulterations)  is  the  worst.  The  beneficial  action  of 
wheat-flour  on  the  system  is  in  i)art  due  to  the  large 
quantity  of  soluble  pliosphates  which  it  contains. 
When  alum  is  added,  these  phosj)hates  are  decom- 
posed in  the  process  of  making  bread,  the  i)hosphoric 
acid  of  the  phosphates  uniting  with  the  alumina  of 
the  alum,  and  forming  an  insoluble  compound  ;  the 
beneficial  effect  of  the  soluble  phosphates  is  thus 
lost. 

Arrow-root  is  adulterated  with  potato-flour,  sago, 
starch,  &c.  Out  of  50  samples  examined  by  Dr 
Hassall,  22  were  adulterated,  and  in  10  of  the 
eamjjles  there  was  scarcely  a  particle  of  the  genuine 
article. 

Sugar  of  the  inferior  kinds  is  occasionally  adulter- 
ated v/ith  flour,  gum,  starch-sugar,  &c.  It  is  oftener, 
however,  impure  than  intentionally  adulterated. 

Pepper  is  adulterated  with  linseed,  mustard-seed, 
(vheat-flour,  &c. 

Caijenne  Pepper  is  adulterated  with  red  lead, 
irermilion,  red  ochre,  brick-dust,  common  salt, 
turmeric,  &c. 

Mustard  is  largely  adulterated  with  ordinary  and 
pea  flour,  linseed  meal,  and  turmeric  ;  and  a  little 
chromate  of  lead  is  sometimes  added  to  improve 
the  colour.  Dr  Hassall  submitted  42  specimens 
of  mustard  to  examination  ;  the  whole  of  them 
contained  wheat-flour  and  turmeric. 

Ginger  is  frequently  adulterated.  Out  of  21 
samples,  Dr  Hassall  found  that  15  contained  various 
kinds  of  flour,  ground  rice,  Cayenne  pepper,  mustard 
husks,  and  turmeric,  which  in  most  cases  formed 
most  of  the  so-called  ginger. 

Out  of  26  samples  of  mixed  spices,  16  were  foxmd 
by  Dr  Hassall  to  contain  sago-meal,  gi-ound  rice, 
u  heat -flour,  &c. 

Curry  povKler  (q.  v.)  was  found  by  Dr  Hassall  to 
be  very  commonly  adulterated,  only  7  Sj)ecimen3 
out  of  26  being  genuine.  In  8  of  the  samples 
red  lead  was  detected.  The  frequent  use  of  curries 
may  thus  often  give  rise  to  the  disease  known  as 
lead-palsy. 

The  adulterations  of  tea,  both  by  the  Chinese 
and  in  this  country,  are  too  numerous  for  us  to 
mention.  See  Hassali's  Adulterations  Detected,  jip. 
C5— 104 

Coffee,  in  its  powdered  form,  is  not  merely  largely 
adulterated  with  chicory,  but  additionally  with 
roasted  grain,  roots,  fvcorns,  saw-dust,  exhausted  tan 
(termed  Croats),  cofTma  (the  seeds  of  a  Turkish 
plant),  burnt  sugar,  and  (worst  of  all)  baked  horses' 
and  bullocks'  liver.  In  the  Quarterly  Journal  of 
tlie  Chemical  Society  for  April  1856,  there  is  an 
excellent  Ileport  by  Messrs  Graham,  Stenhouse, 
and  Campbell  on  the  mode  of  det'^cting  vegetable 
substances  mixed  "w^th  coffee.  Even  whole  roasted 
coffe<j  is  not  safe  from  adulteration,  a  patent  having 
been  actually  taken  out  to  mould  chicory  into  the 
(t>nn  of  coffee-berries. 

Cocoa  and  Chocolate  are  adulterated  with  flour, 
4C8 


potato-starch,  sugar,  clarified  mutton-suet,  and 
various  mineral  substances,  such  as  chalk,  plaster  of 
Paris,  red  earth,  red  ochre,  and  Veuetial  caiih, 
the  last  three  being  Used  as  colouring  matters. 

The  adulterations  of  Oeer,  wine,  and  spirits  are 
noticed  in  the  articles  devoted  to  those  subjects. 

Vinegar  is  adulterated  with  water  sulphuric  acid, 
burnt  sugar,  and  sometimes  with  chillies,  grains  of 
paradise,  and  pyroligneous  acid.  The  English  law 
allows  one  part  of  sulphuric  acid  to  1000  of  vinegar, 
with  the  view  of  preserving  it  from  decomposition, 
but  Dr.  Hassall  found  that  in  many  cases  three  or 
four  times  the  legal  amount  was  present.  It  ajjpeai  s, 
from  evidence  taken  before  the  parliamentary  com- 
mittee on  adulterations,  that  arseuic  and  corrosive 
sublimate  are  no  uncommon  ingr«-dients  in  vinegar 
In  connection  with  vinegar  we  may  place  Picklca. 
Dr  Hassall  analysed  16  different  pickles  for  copper, 
and  discovered  that  poisonous  metal  more  or  less 
abundantly  in  all  of  them ;  *  iu  three,  in  a  very 
considerable  quantity ;  in  one,  in  highly  deleterious 
amount;  and  in  two,  in  poisonous  amount.'  Pre- 
served fruits  and  vegetables  (especially  gooseberries, 
rhubarb,  greengages,  and  olives)  are  often  also  con- 
taminated largely  with  copper.  In  these  cases,  the 
copper,  if  in  considerable  quantity,  may  be  easily 
detected  by  placing  a  piece  of  polished  iron  or  steel 
in  the  suspected  liquid  for  24  hours,  to  which  we 
previously  add  a  few  drops  of  nitric  acid.  The 
copper  wdll  be  deposited  on  the  iron.  Or  ammonia 
may  be  added  to  the  fluid  in  which  the  pickles  or 
fruit  were  lying,  when,  if  copper  is  present,  a  blue 
tint  is  developed.  We  should  be  suspicious  of  all 
pickles,  olives,  preserved  gooseberries,  kf^ ,  with  a 
particularly  bright  green  tint. 

Milk  is  usually  believed  to  be  liable  to  numer- 
ous adulterations,  such  as  flour,  chalk,  mashed 
brains,  &c.  It  appears,  however,  from  Dr  Hassali's 
researches  on  London  milk,  that,  as  a  general  rule, 
water  is  the  only  adidteration.  The  results  of  the 
examinations  of  28  samples  were,  that  12  were 
genuine,  and  that  14  were  adulterated,  the  adul- 
teration consisting  principally  in  the  addition  of 
water,  the  percentages  of  which  varied  from  10  to  50 
per  cent.,  or  one-half  water.  In  the  article  Milk 
we  shall  describe  the  means  of  testing  the  purity  of 
this  fluid. 

If  space  permitted,  we  might  extend  the  list  of 
alimentary  substances  liable  to  adulteration  to  a 
much  greater  length.  In  conclusion,  we  may 
remark,  that,  as  a  general  rule,  adulterations  of 
an  organic  nature,  such  as  flours  and  starches  of 
various  kinds,  are  best  detected  by  the  microscope  ; 
while  chemical  analysis  is  usually  necessary  for  the 
detection  of  mineral  adulterations.  Dr  Hassali's 
Adulterations  Detected  is  a  perfect  cyclopiedia  on 
this  subject. 

FOOL.    See  Couet-fool. 

FOOLS,  Feast  of.     The  Romans  kept  the 

festival  of  Saturn,  in  December,  as  a  time  of  general 
licence  and  revelry.  During  the  brief  season  of  the 
Saturnalia  (q.  v.),  the  slave  reclined  on  his  master's 
seat  at  table,  the  master  waited  upon  his  slave,  and 
society,  for  the  moment,  seemed  to  be  turned  upside 
dow^n.  The  grotesque  masquerade  survived  the 
pagan  creed  which  gave  it  birth,  and  not  only  kept 
its  place  among  the  Christians,  b\it,  in  the  face  of 
solemn  anathemas  of  fathers  and  councils,  found  its 
way  into  the  ceremonial  of  the  Christian  Church, 
It  was  called,  at  different  times  and  places,  by 
many  difterent  names,  but  has  latterly  come  to  be 
best  known  as  the  Feast  of  Fools  (Festum  FatiLorain, 
Festum  StuLtorum). 

The  circumstances  of  the  observance  were  almost 
infinitely  vm-ied,  but  it  was  everywhere  marked  by 


FOOL'S  PAESLEY— FOOT. 


the  same  spirit  of  broad,  boisterous  drollery,  and 
coarse  but  not  ill-natured  caricature.  The  donkey 
played  such  a  frequent  part  in  the  })ageaut  that  it 
was  often  called  the  Feast  of  Asses  {Festam  Asino- 
rum)  In  some  places,  the  ass  of  Balaam  was  figured; 
in  others,  the  ass  which  stood  beside  the  manger 
in  w  hich  the  mfant  Saviour  was  laid ;  elsewhere,  the 
ass  on  which  tlie  Virgin  and  Child  fled  to  Egypt, 
or  the  ass  on  which  Jesus  rode  into  Jerusalem.  In 
every  instance,  there  was  more  or  less  attempt  at 
dramatic  representation,  the  theatre  being  generally 
the  chief  church  of  the  place,  and  the  words  and 
action  of  the  drama  being  often  ordered  by  its  book 
of  ceremonies.  Several  rituals  of  this  sort  are  stiU 
preserved.  That  which  was  in  use  at  Beauvais,  in 
France,  has  a  rubric  ordering  the  priest  when  lie 
dismisses  the  congregation  to  bray  tliree  times,  and 
ordering  the  people  to  bray  three  times  in  answer. 
As  the  ass  was  led  towards  the  altar,  he  was  greeted 
with  a  hymn  of  nine  stanzas,  of  which  the  first  runs 
thus : 

Orientis  partibus, 
Adventavit  Asinus, 
Pulcher  et  fortissimus, 
Sarcinis  aptissimus. 
He,  sire  Ane,  he  I 

[From  the  regions  of  the  East — 
Blessings  on  the  bonny  beast ! — 
Came  the  Donkey,  stout  and  strong, 
"With  our  packs  to  pace  along. 
Bray^  Sir  Donkey,  Bray  /] 

Where  the  ass  did  not  come  upon  the  stage,  the 
chief  point  of  the  farce  lay  in  the  election  of  a  mock 
pope,  patriarch,  cardinal,  archbishop,  bishop,  or 
abbot.    These  mimic  dignitaries  took  such  titles  as 

•  Pope  of  Fools,'  '  Archbishop  of  Dolts,'  '  Cardinal 
of  Numskulls,'  '  Boy  Bishop,'  '  Patriarch  of  Sots,' 

*  Abbot  of  Unreason,'  and  the  like.  On  the  day  of 
their  election,  they  often  took  possession  of  the 
churches,  and  even  occasion^^lly  travestied  the  per- 
formance of  the  church's  highest  office,  the  mass, 
in  the  church's  holiest  place,  the  altar.  In  some 
convents,  the  nuns  disguised  themselves  in  men's 
clothes,  chanted  mock  services,  and  elected  a  '  little 
abbess,'  who  for  that  day  took  the  place  of  the  real 
abbess. 

The  Feast  of  Fools  maintained  itself  in  many 
places  till  the  Preformation  in  the  16th  century.  At 
Antibes,  in  the  south  of  France,  it  survived  till  the 
year  1644,  when  we  have  it  described  by  an  eye- 
witness in  a  letter  to  the  philosopher  Gassendi. 
The  scene  was,  as  usual,  a  church  ;  and  the  actors, 
dressing  themselves  in  priests'  robes  turned  inside 
out,  read  j)rayers  from  books  turned  upside  down, 
through  spectacles  of  orange-i)eel,  using  coal  or 
flour  for  incense,  amid  a  babblement  of  confused 
cries,  and  the  mimic  bellowings  of  cattle,  and 
gnmting  of  pigs. 

The  history  of  the  Feast  of  Fools  has  been  treated 
in  several  works  ;  the  best  is  the  Jifemoire  poui 
iervir  d  VHutoire  de  la  Fete  des  Foils,  by  Du  Tilliot, 
published  at  Lausanne  in  1741  ;  reprinted  at  Paris  in 
1751,  and  again  in  the  liecue  'd  des  Ceremonies  et  Cotu- 
turncs  Meligieuses  de  Tous  les  Peuples,  tome  viii.  (edit. 
Prudhomme,  1809). 

FOOL'S  PARSLEY  {Aethusa  Cynapium)^  an 
umbelliferous  plant,  very  common  as  a  weed  in 
gardens  and  fields  in  Britain,  and  in  most  parts  of 
Europe,  somewhat  resembling-  parsley  in  its  foliage 
and  genera),  appearance,  so  that  serious  accidents 
have  occurred  from  its  being  mistaken  for  that  herb, 
It  being  a  poisonous  plant,  somewhat  resembling 
hendock  in  its  properties.  With  the  curled  variety 
of  parsley  it  cannot  easily  be  confounded,  which  is 
even  on  other  accounts  to  be  preferred ;  and  when 


in  flower  it  is  readily  known  from  every  other  plant 
in  British  gardens  by  its  umbels  wanting  goneral 


1,  Fool's  Parsley,  general  umbel;  2,  Common  Parsley, 

leaf  and  general  umbel : 
c,  partial  umbel  of  fool's  parslej' ;  6,  fruit  of  common  parsley ; 
c,  flower  of  common  parsley. 

involucres,  and  having  partial  involucres  of  three 
slender  leaves  hanging  down  on  one  aide. 

FOOT  is  the  most  common  unit  of  lineal  measure 
all  over  the  world.  It  has  been  evidently  taken 
originally  from  the  length  of  the  human  foot,  and  as 
that  varies  in  length,  so  does  the  measure;  each 
country,  and  at  one  time  each  town,  having  a  foot  of 
its  own.  The  three  foot-measures  that  occur  most 
frequently  are  the  Paris  foot,  or  -pled  de,  rot,  the 
(German)  Ehenisli  foot,  and  the  English.  Compared 
with  the  French  metre  (=  3-28090  feet  Eng.),  they 
stand  thus  : 

Metre.  Inchei  English. 

Paris  foot  =  12  78912 
Rhenish  m      =      12  35652 


En<rlish  foot  =  0  30479 
Paris  „  =  0  3-'4s4 
Khenish  .*       =  0-31385 


In  roimd  numbers,  46  French  feet  ^  49  English 
feet,  34  Rhen.  or  Germ,  feet  =  35  English,  and  57 
French  feet  =  59  llhen.  The  Eiissian  foot  is  equal 
to  the  English.  Almost  every  German  state  has  a 
different  foot.  The  Rhenish  foot  is  that  used  in 
Prussia.  One  English  foot  is  equal  to  0.99994197 
American  foot.  See  Compariso7i  of  Measures  in 
Smithsonian  Tables.  The  foot  has  almost  uniformly 
been  divided  into  12  inches  ;  the  inch  into  12  lines, 
often  into  tenths.  The  French  2)icd  usicel  is  the  third 
part  of  the  metre.    See  Yard,  Metre. 

FOOT,  in  Verse.    See  Metre,  Verse. 

FOOT,  Structure  of  the.  In  describing  the 
structure  of  the  foot,  it  is  expedient  to  com 
mence  with  a  brief  notice  of  the  bones  which 
occur  in  it.  In  man,  these  are  26  in  number, 
and  are  arranged  in  three  natural  groups — viz., 
the  tarsal  bones,  which  are  the  hindermost ;  the 
metatarsal  bones,  which  occupy  the  middle  portion  ; 
and  the  phalanges  of  the  toes  anteriorly.  The 
tarsal  bones,  seven  in  number,  are  short  and  thick, 
and  form  the  heel  and  the  hinder  part  of  the 
instep.  The  uppermost  (see  fig.  1)  is  called  the 
astragnlus,  from  its  supposed  resemldance  to  the 
dice  used  by  the  Romans.  Al)ove,  it  is  articulated 
or  is  jointed  with  the  two  bones  of  the  leg,  the 
tibia  and  fibula,  and  through  these  bones  the  whole 
weiiiht  of   thp  body  is  thro^^^l  upon  the  two 

409 


FOOT. 


astragxli.  Behind,  it  is  connected  with  and  rests 
upon  the  os  calcis,  or  heel-bone,  whicli  is  the  largest 
bone  of  the  foot  Immediately  in  front  of  it,  and 
supporting  it  in  this  direction,  is  the  scaphoid  or 
boat-like  bone.  In  front  of  the  scaphoid  bone  are 
the  three  cuneiform  or  wedge  bones ;  and  on  the 
outer  side  of  the  cuneiform  bones,  and  in  front  of 
the  03  caicis,  is  the  cuboid  bone.  We  see  from  the 
figure  that  the  front  row  of  tarsal  bones  is  com- 
posed of  the  three  cuneiform  bones  on  the  inner  side 


Fig.  1. 

The  dorsal  surface  of  the  left  foot. 
I,  the  astragalus,  Its  upper  articular  surface;  2,  its  anterior 
eztromity,  ■which  articulates  with  (4)  the  scaphoid  bone; 
3,  the  OS  caicis,  or  heel-bone ;  4,  the  scaphoid  bone  ;  5,  the 
internal  cuncilorni  bone;  6,  the  middle  cuneiform  bone; 
7,  the  external  cuneiform  bone;  8,  the  cuboid  bone;  9,  the 
metatarsal  bones  of  the  first  and  ser-ond  toes;  10,  11,  ttie 
first  and  second  phalanges  of  the  great  toe;  12,  13,  14,  the 
first,  second,  and  third  phalanges  of  the  second  toe. 

of  the  foot,  and  of  the  cuboid  bone  externally.  There 
are  five  metatarsal  bones  passing  forward,  one  for 
each  toe.  Each  cuneiform  bone  is  connected  with 
one,  and  the  cuboid  bone  with  two,  of  these  meta- 
tarsal bones.  Behind,  they  are  close  together,  but 
as  they  nm  forwards,  they  diverge  slightly  from 
one  another,  and  their  anterior  ends  rest  upon  the 
ground,  and  form  the  halls  of  the  toes.  They  con- 
stitute the  forepart  of  the  instep.  The  remaining 
bones  are  those  of  the  toes,  and  are  named  the 
phalanges,  each  toe  having  three  of  these  bones, 
excepting  the  great  toe,  which  has  only  two.  (A 
similar  law  holds  for  the  bones  of  the  hand,  each 
fingsr  having  three  phalanges,  but  the  thumb  only 
two). 

The  instep  is  composed  of  the  seven  tarsal  and 
the  five  metatarsal  bones,  which  are  so  arranged  and 
connected  (see  fig.  2)  as  to  form  an  arch  from  the 
extremity  of  the  heel-bone  to  the  balls  of  the  toes. 
This  is  called  the  plantar  arch,  from  planta^  the 
sole  of  the  foot.  The  astragalus  forms  the 
summit  or  keystone  of  this  arch,  and  transmits  the 
weight  which  it  receives  posteriorly  to  the  heel, 
and  anteriorly  to  the  balls  of  the  toes.  This  figure 
exhibits  the  arrangement  of  the  fibres  and  laminae 
in  the  interior  of  the  bones,  and  shews  that  the 
greater  number  of  them,  in  each  bone,  follow  the 
directions  of  the  two  pillars  of  the  arch,  and  thus 
give  the  ^eatest  strength  to  the  bones  in  the 
directions  jn  which  it  is  most  required. 
ilO 


The  bones,  where  they  articulate  with  one  another, 
are  covered  with  a  tolerably  thick  layer  of  highl> 
elastic  cartilage,  and  by  this  means,  together  wita 
the  very  slight  movements  of  which  each  bone  is 


Fig.  2.* 

This  figure  represents  a  section  through  the  lower  end  of  the 
tibia,  and  through  the  astragalus  I),  the  heel-bone  F,  the 
eraphoid  bone  E,  the  internal  cuneiform  bone,  and  the  bone« 
of  the  great  toe;  A  repiescnts  the  plantar  ligament,  and  B 
the  interior  calcaneo-scaphoid  ligament  passing  from  the 
heel-bone,  F,  to  the  scaphoid,  E  ;  C  is  one  of  two  small  hones 
called  sesamoid  bones,  usually  found  at  the  ball  of  the 
great  toe.  The  lines  shew  the  disposition  of  the  laminfe  or 
plates  of  which  the  various  bones  are  composed.  The  clear 
line  along  the  contiguous  edges  of  the  bones  represents  the 
cartilage. 

capable,  a  degree  of  elasticity  is  given  to  the  foot, 
and  consequently  to  the  step,  which  would  be  alto- 
gether wanting  if  the  plantar  arch  were  composed 
of  one  single  mass  of  bone.  This  elasticity  is  far 
greater  in  the  anterior  pillar  of  the  arch,  which  is 
composed  of  five  comparatively  long  bones  sloping 
gradually  to  the  ground,  than  in  the  posterior  piJlar, 
which  is  short,  narrow^  and  composed  of  a  sinole 
bone,  whicii  descends  almost  vertically  from  the 
ankle  to  the  ground.  Hence,  in  jumping  from  a 
height,  we  always  endeavour  to  alight  upon  the  l)alla 
of  the  toes,  and  thus  break  the  shock  which  we 
should  feel  if,  by  accident,  we  descended  uj)on  the 
heels. 

A  reference  to  any  standard  work  on  anatomy 
(see,  for  example,  Gray's  Anatomy,  ])p.  178 — 184) 
will  shew  that  the  ligaments  which  itnite  these 
bones  to  one  another,  and  by  which  the  movements 
of  each  bone  upon  the  others  are  limited,  are  very 
numerous.  We  shall  merely  notice  two  of  these 
ligaments,  selecting  those  M'hose  action  is  especially 
obvious  m  maintaining  the  shape  of  the  ])lantar 
arch.  One,  the  plantar  ligament  (A,  fig.  2),  of  great 
strength,  passes  from  the  under  surface  of  the 
heel-bone,  near  its  extremity,  forwards  to  the  ends 
of  the  metatarsal  bones,  according  to  Dr  Humphry 
(Tlie  Human  Foot  and  the  Human  Hand,  18G1,  p. 
25).  Most  anatomists  do  not  trace  it  quite  so  far 
forwards.  'In  other  words'  (we  quote  from  Dr 
Humphry's  volume),  '  it  extends  between  the  lowest 
points  of  the  two  pillars  of  the  arch,  girding  or 
holding  them  in  their  places,  and  preventing  their 
being  thrust  asTinder  when  pressure  is  made  upon 
the  key-bone  (D),  just  as  the  "tie-beam"  of  a  roof 
resists  the  tendency  to  outward  yielding  of  the 
sides  when  weight  is  laid  upon  the  summit.  The 
ligament,  however,  has  an  advantage  which  no  tie- 
beam  can  ever  possess,  inasmuch  as  a  quantity  of 
muscular  fibres  are  attached  along  the  hinder  part 
of  its  up])er  surface.  These  instantly  resj^ond  to  any 
demand  that  is  made  upon  them,  being  thrown  into 
contraction  directly  the  foot  touches  the  ground ; 
and  the  force  of  their  contraction  is  proportionata 

*"This,  and  several  of  the  following  diagrams,  have 
been  copied,  with  Dr.  Humphry's  permission,  from  Tht 
Human  Foot  ana  the  Human  Hand. 


FOOT. 


to  the  degree  of  pressure  which  is  made  upon  the 
foot.  In  addition  to  its  office  of  binding  the  bones  in 
their  places,  the  ligament  serves  the  further  purpose 
of  protecting  from  pressure  the  tender  structures 
— the  blood-vessels,  nerves,  and  muscles— that  lie 
above  it  in  the  hollow  of  the  foot.  Another  very 
strong  ligament  (B,  in  the  figure)  passes  from  the 
under  and  fore  part  of  the  heel-bone  (F)  to  the 
undar  parts  of  the  scaphoid  bone  (E).  It  underlies 
and  supports  the  round  head  of  the  astragalus,  and 
has  to  bear  a  great  deal  of  the  weight  which  is 
transmitted  to  that  bone  from  the  leg.  It  possesses 
a  quality  which  the  ligament  just  described,  and 
most  hgaments  have  not — viz.,  elasticity.  Tlais  is 
very  important,  for  it  allows  the  head  of  the  key- 
bone  (D)  to  descend  a  little,  when  pressure  is  made 
u  pon  it,  and  forces  it  up  again  when  the  pressure  is 
removed,  and  so  gives  very  material  assistance  to 
the  other  provisions  for  preventing  jars,  and  for 
giving  ease  and  elasticity  to  the  step.' — Himaphry, 
op.  ciL,  pp.  25,  26. 

The  spot  over  which  the  ligament  B  extends  is 
the  weakest  in  the  foot,  the  astragalus  being  there 
unsupported  by  any  bones ;  additional  sujjport  is, 
however,  afforded  when  it  is  most  required  by  the 
tendon  of  a  strong  muscle,  the  posterioi-  tibial  (fig.  3, 
B),  which  passes  from  the  back  of  the  tibia  (the 
chief  bone  of  the  leg)  round  the  inner  ankle,  to  be 
inserted  into  the  lower  part  of  the  inner  surface  of 
the  scaphoid  bone.  It  not  unfrequently  happens 
that  the  astragalus,  being  either  insufficiently  sup- 
ported, or  from  its  being  overweighted,  descends 
slightly  below  its  proper  level,  causing  a  lowering 
of  the  arch,  and  a  flattening  of  the  sole  of  the 
foot.  The  defect,  when  slight,  is  known  as  '  weak 
ankle ; '  when  more  decided,  it  is  termed  '  flat- 
foot  ; '  and  in  extreme  cases,  the  bone  may  descend 
to  such  an  extent  as  even  to  render  the  inner  side 
of  the  foot  convex,  when  it  naturally  should  be 
concave. 

The  deformity  of  which  we  are  speaking  is  of  such 
great  practical  importance,  that  we  shall  add  a  few 
words  about  its  most  common  causes. 

There  are  two  periods  of  life  at  which  flat-foot  is 
especially  Uable  to  occur :  1  st,  in  infancy,  if  the 
child  be  put  upon  its  feet  before  the  bones  and 
ligaments— especially  the  latter — are  strong  enough 
to  bear  its  weight ;  and  2dly,  about  the  age  of 
fourteen — a  period  at  which  growth  is  very  quick, 
and  the  body  consequently  attains  a  considerable 
and  rapid  augmentation  of  weight.  If  young 
persons  of  this  age  are  obliged  to  be  a  great  deal 
on  their  feet,  and  perhaps  additionally  to  cany 
weights  (as,  for  example,  butchers'  and  bakers'  boys, 
and  young  nursemaids),  the  chances  that  flat-foot 
will  occur  are  increased. 

We  now  come  to  the  movements  of  the  foot  u])on 
the  leg.  We  see  here  a  striking  combination  of 
variety  of  movement  with  general  security.  This 
combination  is  effected  by  the  harmonious  action 
of  three  joints,  each  of  which  acts  in  a  direction 
different  from  the  others. 

The  first  of  these  joints  is  the  ankle-joint,  which 
is  formed  by  the  bones  of  the  leg — the  tibia  and 
fibula — above,  and  the  astragalus  below.  By  this 
joint,  the  foot  is  bent  or  straightened  on  the  leg. 
TTie  second  joint  is  between  the  astragalus  and  the 
heel-bone,  and  it  permits  the  foot  to  be  rolled 
inwards  or  outwards ;  while  the  third  joint  is 
between  the  first  and  second  row  of  tarsal  bones 
—namely,  between  the  astragalus  and  heel-bone 
behind,  and  the  scaphoid  and  cuboid  bones  in  front, 
and  allows  the  degree  of  curvature  of  the  plantar 
arch  to  be  increased  or  diminished  within  certain 
limits.  The  following  is  the  order  in  whicli  the 
movements  of  these  three  joints  occur  :  the  raising 


of  the  Jieel  (by  the  first  joint)  is  accompanied  bv  a 
rolling  of  the  foot  i/nvards  (by  the  second  joint), 
and  by  an  increased  flexure  of  the  ])laTitar  arch 
(by  the  third  joint) ;  and  the  raising  of  the  toes  is 
accompanied  by  a  rolling  of  the  foot  o/<«wards  and 
a  straightening  of  the  sole.  See  Humphrv,  op.  cit., 
p.  42. 

The  joints,  however,  merely  allow  of  movements, 
they  do  not  effect  them— this  is  the  special  function 
of  the  muscles  J  and  each  of  the  three  movements 


Fig.  3. 

This  figure  represents  some  of  the  muscles  and  tendons  seen  on 
the  inner  side  of  the  leg  and  foot. 

A,  the  gastrocnemius  and  soleus  muscles,  forming  the  muscles 
of  the  calf;  a,  the  Tendo  Achillis :  B,  the  posterior  tibial 
muscle;  b,  its  tendon:  D,  the  inner  anltle :  F,  the  anterior 
tibial  muscle,  attached  above  to  the  front  of  the  tibia,  below 
to  the  internal  cuneiform  bone;  k,  the  flexor  tendon  of  the 
great  toe. 

we  have  indicated  is  effected  by  special  groups  of 
muscles.  The  first  series  of  movements  is  mainly 
effected  by  three  muscles  :  viz.,  (1)  the  muscles  of  tlit 
calf  (fig.  3,  A),  attached  above  to  the  bones  of  the 
thigh  and  leg,  and  below  by  the  Tendo  Achillis  to 
the  heel-bone ;  (2)  the  posterior  tibial  (fig.  3,  B), 
attached  above  to  the  tibia,  and  below  by  its 
tendon  to  the  scaphoid  bon**,  and  (3)  the  short 


6       ^  C 

Fig.  4. 


This  figure  represents  some  of  the  muscles  and  tendons  on  de 
outer  side  of  the  leg  and  foot. 

E,  lower  end  of  fibula,  forming  the  outer  ankle;  C,  the  sh'^rt 
fibular  muscle,  attached  above  to  the  fibula,  and  below  by 
its  tendon  (c)  to  the  outer  metatarsal  bone;  I,  the  long 
fibular  muscle,  its  tendon  (/)  running  behind  the  outer  ankle 
and  under  the  instep  to  the  metatarsal  bone  of  the  great 
toe;  G,  the  anterior  or  third  fibular  muscle,  attached  above 
to  the  fibula  and  below  by  its  tendon  (g)  to  the  outer 
metatarsal  bone ;  h,  the  extensor  tendons  of  the  toes. 

fibular  (fig.  4,  C),  attached  above  to  the  fibula,  and 
below  by  its  tendon  to  the  outer  metatarsal  bone. 
The  calf-muscles,  whose  tendon  is  inserted  into 
the  heel-bone,  are  large  and  vtry  powerful,  for  in 
raising  the  heel,  they  have  to  raise  the  weight  of 
the  body.     The  other  two  muscles,  the  posterior 


FOOT. 


tibial  and  the  short  fibular,  turn  round  the  inner 
and  the  outer  ankle  respectively,  and  are  inserted 
into  the  inner  and  the  outer  edges  of  the  instep ; 
the  former  being  attached  to  the  scaphoid,  and  the 
latter  to  the  outer  metatarsal  bone.  They  not  only 
assist  to  raise  the  ankle,  but  support  it  laterally. 
The  muscle  whose  tendon  is  on  the  inner  side  of 
the  foot  (the  posterior  tibial),  effects  the  two  move- 
ments which  are  associated  with  the  raising  of  the 
heel-bone,  namely,  the  turning  of  the  foot  inwards, 
and  the  increased  llexure  of  the  arch. 

The  second  series  of  movements — the  raising  of 
the  toes,  the  turning  of  the  foot  outwards,  and 
the  straightening  of  the  sole — are  effected  by  two 
muscles,  the  anterior  tibial  (fig.  3,  F)  and  the  third 
fibular  (fig.  4,  G),  whose  tendons  pass,  one  in  front 
of  the  inner  ankle,  and  the  other  in  front  of  the 
outer  ankle,  to  the  corresponding  edges  of  the 
instep,  and  are  inserted  into  the  internal  cuneiform 
and  the  outer  metatarsal  bones.  These  muscles 
are  direct  flexors  of  the  tarsus  upon  the  leg  ;  the 
former  raising  the  inner,  and  the  latter  the  outer 
border  of  the  foot. 

Another  point  in  the  anatomy  of  the  foot  that 
requires  notice,  is  the  mode  of  union  of  the  metatarsal 
with  the  tarsal  bones.  In  these  joints  in  the  fourth 
and  fifth  toes  a  slight  revolving  motion  can  take 
place,  which  probably  enables  the  outer  metatarsals 
to  adapt  themselves  to  inequalities  of  the  gro\ind, 
and  to  equalise  the  distribution  of  the  weight  which 
is  thrown  upon  the  foot ;  while,  in  the  corresponding 
joints  of  the  three  inner  toes,  scarcely  any  mixtion 
can  occur — a  pro\'ision  by  which  additional  strength 
is  given  to  the  inner  side  of  the  foot  upon  which 
the  weight  of  the  body  most  directly  falls. 

The  skin  of  the  sole  is  very  tough  and  strong ; 
and  interv'ening  between  it  and  the  bones  and  long 
plantar  ligament  is  a  thick  pad  of  fat,  which  acts 
the  part  of  an  air  or  water  cushion  in  defending 
the  adjacent  parts  from  injurious  pressure,  and  in 
deadening  the  jars  and  shocks  that  woidd  otherwise 
be  felt  in  leaping,  &g. 

A  few  remarks  on  the  subject  of  shoes  may  here 
be  added.  The  shape  of  the  sole  of  the  natural  foot 
is  shewn  in  fig.  5,  while  the  shape  after  the  prolonged 
Dfie  of  a  badly  made  shoe  is  given  in  fig.  G.    In  the 


Pig.  5.  Fig.  a 


foot  in  its  normal  state,  the  great  toe  is  seen  to  be 
free  from  the  others,  and  the  line  of  its  axis  pro- 
longed backwards,  passes  through  the  centre  of  tlie 
heel ;  while  in  the  foot  distorted  by  the  use  of  the 
shoe,  the  line  of  the  great  toe  is  quite  altered,  and 
the  toes  generally — not  being  able  to  find  room  side 
by  side — overlap  each  other,  and  lose  their  separate 
and  individual  actions ;  corns,  bunions,  and  ingrow- 
412 


ing  toe-nails  being  the  natural  consequence  of  this 
maltreatment.  Professor  Meyer,  of  Zurich,  has  drawc 
attention  to  the  bad  treatment  which  the  foot 
receives  from  ordinary  shoemakers,  in  a  pamphlet, 
translated  by  Mr  Craig,  and  entitled  Why  the  Shoe 
Pinche.s ;  a  Contribution  to  Aj^plied  Anatomy.  He 
especially  points  out  that  the  great  toe  shoidd  be 
allowed  to  have  its  normal  position,  and  this  can  be 
done  by  making  the  inner  edge  of  the  sole  incline 
i/iwards,  instead  of  outwards,  from  the  balls  of  the 
toes.  The  accompanying  figure  (7)  gives  the  out- 
line of  a  shoe  designed  under  Dr  Meyer's  super- 
intendence, and  shews  the  difference  betM^een  it 
and  the  usual  shape ;  the  latter  being  indicated 
by  the  dotted  outline.  Dr  Humphry,  from  whose 
admiraljle  work  we  have  drawn  much  of  this  article, 
while  fully  according  in  Meyer's  views,  addition- 
ally protests  against  high  heel-pieces,  as  tending  to 
make  the  step  less  steady  and  secure,  to  shorten 
it,  and  to  impair  the  action  of  the  calf-muscles ; 
a  hi^h  heel-piece,  mor.;over,  places  the  forepart  of 
the  foot  at  a  lower  level  than  the  heel ;  the  weight 
is  thus  tlirown  too  much  in  the  direction  of  the 
toes,  and  they  are  tlirust  forwards  and  cramped 
against  the  upper  leather  of  the  shoe. 

The  subjects  of  Walking,  Running,  and  Jumping 
are  noticed  in  the  article  Gymnastics. 

If  we  compare  the  human  foot  with  the  feet  of 
other  mammals,  we  find  that  it  presents  certain 


Pig.  7.  Fig.  8. 

A  shoe  designrvl  by  Dr  Meyer,  Foot  of  Gorilla, 

the  dotted  outline  being  the 
usual  shape. 

peculiarities,  all  of  which  have  reference  to  man  s 
erect  posture.  The  chief  peculiarities  are — 1.  The 
greater  relative  size  of  the  tarsal  bones,  as  compared 
with  the  other  bones  of  the  foot,  and  the  more  per- 
fect formation  of  the  jjlantar  arch,  which  is  higher 
and  stronger  than  in  any  of  the  lower  animals. 
Strength  and  elasticity  are  thus  combined  in  the 
human  foot  in  the  highest  degree.  2.  The  great 
toe  is  remarkable  in  man  for  its  size  and  strength, 
and  for  the  firm  manner  in  which  its  metatarsal 
bone  is  joined  to  the  other  bones,  so  as  to  render  it 
the  main  support  to  the  foot.  3.  If  we  compare 
the  human  foot  with  that  of  the  gorilla  or  any  other 
anthropomorphous  ape,  we  see  that  the  toes  are 
short  and  small  in  man  in  relation  to  the  other 
parts  of  the  foot,  while  in  the  gorilla  the  toes  form 
the  greater  part  of  the  foot.  Indeed,  a  i-eference  to 
fig.  8  shows  that  this  animal  (and  the  same  is  the 
case  in  all  the  genera  of  apes  and  monkeys)  the  organ 
in  question  is  rather  a  ha^id  than  a  foot,  and  hence 
the  term  quadrurnanoics,  as  applied  to  this  class 
of  animals.    There  is  scarcely  any  plantar  arch,  and 


FOOT-rOOTBALL. 


the  weiglit  of  the  body  bears  cbietly  on  the  outer 
edge  of  the  foot ;  the  digits  are  long  and  strong, 
and  the  inner  one  diverges  so  as  to  form  a  thumb 
rather  than  a  great  toe. 

It  remains  to  notice  some  of  the  most  marked 
varieties  of  form  which  the  bones  of  the  foot 
present  in  mammals.  In  the  following  group  of 
n^ires,  the  same  letters  are  attached  to  the  same 


Rg.  9.— Horse.  Fig.  10.— Ox. 


Fig.  11.  Fig.  12.  Fig.  13. 

Khinoceros.      Hippopotamus.  Elephant. 


bones.  Thus,  a  marks  the  astragalus ;  d,  the 
calcaneum  or  heel-bone  (the  posterior  projection 
of  which  forms  the  hock  of  the  horse)  ;  s,  the 
scaphoid ;  h,  the  cuboid ;  ce,  the  ecto-,  or  outer, 
cm,  the  meso-,  or  middle,  and  ci,  the  ento-,  or 
internal  cuneiform.  Now,  as  a  general  rule  in  all 
mammalia,  the  ecto-cuneiform  supports  the  third  or 
middle  of  the  five  toes  when  they  are  all  present, 
the  meso-cuneiform  the  second,  and  the  cuboid  the 
fourth  and  fifth.  Bearing  in  mind  this  law,  we 
see  that  the  large  bone  in  the  horse,  known  as 
the  cannon-bone,  which  is  articulated  to  the  ecto- 
cuneifcrm,  ce,  is  the  metatarsal  of  the  third  toe,  to 
which  are  ai-ticulated  the  three  phalanges  of  that 
toe,  the  last  phalanx,  3,  being  expanded  to  form 
the  hoof.  The  small  bone,*  jiopularly  known  as  the 
splint-bone,  and  articidated  to  the  meso-cuneiform, 
is  the  rudimentary  or  stunted  metatarsal  of  the 
second  toe,  2  ;  and  the  outer  splint-bone,  articulated 
to  the  cuboid,  is  the  rudimentary  metatarsal  of  the 
fourth  toe,  4 ;  so  that  in  the  horse  we  have  only  one 
toe,  the  third,  sufficiently  developed  to  reach  the 
ground,  with  mere  traces  of  a  second  and  fourth 
Loe  on  cither  side. 
In  the  foot  of  the  ox,  the  cuboid,  h,  is  .relatively 

*  The  bone  is  not  shewn  in  the  figure. 


larger  than  in  the  horse,  and  is  equal  in  size  to  the 
ecto-cuneiform,  ce.  The  cannon-bone  articulatea 
with  both  these  tarsal  bones,  and  hence  answers  to 
the  metatarsal  bones  of  both  the  thii'd  and  fourth 
digits ;  it  is  accordingly  found  to  consist  of  two 
distinct  bones  in  the  foetus ;  and  in  the  adult  it 
is  divided  internally  into  two  cavities,  and  its 
original  separation  is  marked  out  by  an  external 
elongated  ridge.  At  the  lower  end  are  two  dis- 
tinct joints  for  the  phalanges  of  the  third  and 
fourth  toes.  While  in  the  horse  we  had  the  rudi- 
ments of  the  upper  parts  of  two  toes  (the  second 
and  fourth),  in  the  ox  we  have  the  rudiments  ol 
the  lower  parts  or  phalanges  of  two  toes  (the 
second  and  fifth),  forming  the  '  spurious  hoofs,* 
and  marked  2  and  5  in  the  figure.  In  the  rhino- 
ceros there  is  one  principal  toe  (the  third),  as  in 
the  horse,  with  the  second  and  fourth  toes  in  a 
less  developed  state ;  while  in  the  hippopotamus 
there  are  two  principal  toes  (the  third  and  fourth), 
as  in  the  ox,  with  the  second  and  fifth  toes 
not  fully  developed.  In  the  elephant,  there  is  a 
fifth  digit  added,  answering  to  our  great  toe,  and 
articulating  with  an  ento-cuneiform  bone,  so  that 
in  the  foot  of  this  animal  we  have  all  the  bones 
occurring  in  the  human  foot. 

Professor  Owen,  to  whose  works  we  are  indebted 
for  these  remarks,  concludes  from  these  and  similar 
observations  that  the  course  of  the  simplification  of 
the  five-toed  foot  is,  first,  a  diminution  and  removal 
of  the  innermost  toe  ;  next,  of  the  outermost ;  then, 
of  the  second  ;  and  lastly,  of  the  fourth ;  the  third 
or  middle  toe  being  the  most  constant  and  (in  the 
lower  animals)  the  most  important  of  the  five. 

FOOT,  in  Music,  is  a  term  made  use  of  in  the  same 
way  as  in  poetry,  denoting  a  short  melodic  figure  of 
notes  with  only  one  accent.  Foot  is  also  now  begin- 
ning to  be  used  in  speaking  of  the  pitc^h  of  sounds. 
The  Germans  have  always  used  the  word  Fusston  in 
representing  the  pitch  of  the  different  stops  of  an 
organ,  such  as  Principal  16  F.,  8  F.,  or  4  F,  &c., 
which  practice  is  now  being  introduced  into  English 
organs,  and  is  found  very  useful  to  organists.  The 
pitch  of  the  stop  is  fixed  according  to  the  length 
of  the  lowest  C  pipe.    See  Organ. 

FOOTA-BONDOU.    See  Bondou. 

FOOTBALL.  This  game  has  long  been  a 
favourite  throughout  the  British  Isles;  and  as  a 
winter  game  in  certain  places,  such  as  Eugby,  Eton, 
Winchester,  and  the  university  of  Glasgow,  it  is 
more  popular  than  any  other.  A  large  park  or  com- 
mon is  best  suited  for  the  game,  one  of  the  most 
attractive  features  of  which  is,  that  it  may  be 
simultaneously  enjoyed  by  great  numbers  of  players 
irrespective  of  age  or  size.  Two  '  goals ' — consisting 
each  of  a  couple  of  upright  poles,  ten,  twelve,  or 
even  eighteen  feet  high,  and  a  cross-bar  on  top — are 
erected  opposite  each  other,  at  any  distance  that  may 
be  agreed  ui)on,  the  game  being  carried  on  in  the 
intervening  space.  Two  side-lines,  called  goal-lines, 
are  drawn  from  each  of  the  goals.  The  players  are 
chosen  by  two  captains,  who  arrange  their  men  in 
the  field,  and  keep  them  to  their  respective  sides, 
and  whose  duty  it  is  besides  to  see  that  fair 
play  is  carried  on.  After  each  captain  has  jjosted 
a  trustworthy  member  of  his  side  at  the  goal 
as  '  keeper,'  the  plaj^ers  on  each  side  are  duly 
placed,  and  the  game  is  6egim,  by  the  baU  being 
kicked  towards  one  of  the  goals  from  a  point  mid- 
way between  each.  Whichever  side  contrives  to 
kick  the  ball  through  the  adversaries'  goal,  reckons 
either  *  game '  or  one  towards  it,  though,  where 
the  players  are  equally  matched,  and  the  goals 
well  defended,  the  play  may  last  many  hours  with- 
out a  single  score  being  made.     After  each  goa. 


FOUTE— FOOT-ROT. 


has  been  made,  the  players  usnully  change  ends,  so 
that  no  undue  advantage  be  derived  by  one  side  from 
sloping  ground,  favouring  Avind,  etc. 

The  ball  generally  used  is  made  of  an  ox  bladder, 
covered  Avith  strong  leather ;  India  rubber  balls  are 
considered  inferior. 

With  poi)u]ar  games,  such  as  cricket,  &c.,  the 
rules  laid  down  are  for  the  most  part  binding  all 
over  the  country ;  the  same  remark,  however,  does 
not  ap})ly  to  football,  as  each  district  seems  to 
have  rules  of  its  own.  Thus,  those  of  Rugby,  Win- 
chester, Eton,  &c.,  all  differ  materially,  though  the 
general  methods  of  playing  the  game  are  the  same. 

The  following,  which  we  borrow  from  Every  Boifs 
Magazine,  No.  1  (London,  Routledge),  in  which 
there  is  an  excellent  treatise  on  the  game,  are 
Bufficient  for  general  purjjoses.  1.  The  game  being 
essentially  ybo^-ball,  no  player  may  take  up  the  ball 
from  the  ground.  2.  If  a  player  can  catch  the  ball 
in  the  air,  he  may  take  a  hand-kick  without  the 
other  side  being  permitted  to  interfere.  (A  hand- 
kick  consists  in  dropping  the  ball  from  the  hands, 
and  kicking  it  on  its  fall.)  3.  If  such  player  shall 
drop  the  ball  accidentally,  or  in  any  Avay  touch 
the  ground  with  it,  the  opposite  side  may  attack  it. 
4.  If  the  ball  pass  outside  or  over  the  goal,  and 
beyond  the  goal-line,  the  junior  player  of  the  side 
which  drove  it  over  shall  fetch  the  ball,  stand 
twelve  paces  to  the  right  of  the  centre  point  (mid- 
way between  the  goals),  and  throw  it  gently  to  the 
centre  mthout  favour  to  either  side.  This  rule  is 
used  because  it  sometimes  happens  that  irritable 
players,  landing  the  enemy's  goal  too  well  defended, 
wilfully  kick  the  ball  far  beyond  it,  hoping  to 
exhaust  their  opponents,  and  thus  needlessly  pro- 
long the  game.  It  is  a  mark  of  bad  play,  as  well  as 
unmanliness,  to  drive  a  ball  where  it  can  be  of  no 
use,  and  the  penalty  deprives  the  offending  side  of 
the  junior  player  while  he  throws  in  the  ball,  and 
thus  has  the  effect  of  deteri'ing  them  from  repeat- 
ing the  error.  5.  Any  kicking,  except  at  the  ball, 
is  prohibited.  6.  The  ball  must  be  kicked  through 
the  goal,  not  struck  or  thrown,  or  touch  any  part  of 
any  player  of  the  same  side,  except  the  foot  of  him 
who  kicks  it ;  otherwise,  the  ball  is  fetched  back, 
as  in  rule  4 

FOOTE,  Samuel,  actor  and  wi-iter  of  comedy, 
was  born  of  a  good  family  at  Truro,  in  Cornwall, 
1720.  He  was  educated  at  Worcester  College, 
Oxford,  and  about  1740  entered  the  Temple ;  but 
after  a  career  of  'pleasure'  extending  over  four 
years,  in  the  course  of  which  he  managed  to  dissi- 
pate a  couple  of  fortunes  which  had  been  left  him, 
he  turned  his  attention  to  the  stage  as  a  means  of 
support,  and  in  1744  made  an  unsuccessful  debut 
in  the  character  of  Othello.  In  1747,  he  opened  the 
Haymarket  Theatre — where  he  was  at  once  director, 
actor,  and  dramatic  author — with  a  piece  entitled 
Diversions  of  the  Alorninrj.  In  this  and  other  pieces, 
he  introduced  well-known  living  characters,  and, 
by  his  admirable  powers  of  mimicry^,  succeeded  in 
drawing  large  audiences,  till  the  theatre  was  closed 
by  order  of  the  magistrates.  After  1752,  he  con- 
tinued to  perform  alternately  in  London  and  Dublin. 
In  1766,  he  broke  his  leg  by  a  fall  from  his  horse, 
and  amputation  was  found  necessary.  He,  how- 
ever, recovered  his  health  and  spirits,  and  even 
turned  the  incident  to  account  on  the  stage,  com- 
posing parts  expressly  adapted  to  his  own  state. 
He  died  at  Dover,  21st  October  1777.  A  variety  of 
comic  anecdotes  respecting  F.  are  given  in  Cooke's 
Memoirs  of  Samuel  Foote  (London,  1805).  His  con- 
versation must  have  been  inimitably  comical.  Dr 
Johnson,  who  had  a  power  of  refusing  to  be  pleased 
against  his  will  greater  than  most  men,  met  F.  for 
tlie  first  time  at  Fitzherbert's,  and  assumed  Lis 
414 


most  ursine  manner ;  but  it  was  no  usJj  :  •  I  waa 
obliged,'  he  says,  '  to  lay  down  my  knife  and  fork, 
throw  myself  back  in  my  chair,  and  fairly  laugh  it 
out.  Sir,  he  was  irresistible.'  His  dramatic  works, 
of  which  the  best  are  An  Auction  of  Pictures,  Tht 
Minor,  The  Englishman  liettirned  from  Paris,  The 
Bankrupt,  The  Liar,  and  The  Mayor  of  Garratt, 
have  been  frequently  published,  but  never  in  a 
complete  form.  Compare  Forster's  essay  in  the 
Quarterly  Review,  1854. 

FOOT-GUARDS,  the  flower  of  the  British 
infantry,  and  the  garrison  ordinarily  of  the  metro- 
polis, comprise  three  regiments,  the  Grenadier,  Cold- 
stream, and  Scots  Fusilier  Guards,  in  all  seven 
battalions,  and  6307  officers  and  men  of  all  ranks. 
For  their  history  and  a  more  particular  descn])tiou, 
see  the  general  article  Guards. 

FOOT-POUND  is  the  imit  by  which  the  w(yrk 
done  by  a  force  is  estimated  ;  thus  (taking  1  lb.  and 
1  foot  as  the  units  of  weight  and  distance),  if  1  lb. 
be  raised  through  1  foot,  the  work  done  is  equal  to 
1  foot-pound  ;  if  10  lb.  be  raised  9  feet,  the  work 
done  is  90  foot-pounds ;  and  generally,  if  W 
represent  the  work  done,  P  the  weight  in  poioidSy 
and  h  the  height  in  feet,  then  W  (in  foot-pounds) 
=  P/i. 

FOOT-PRINTS.    See  IcnNOLOGY. 

FOO'T-ROT  amongst  sheep  is  of  two  varieties, 
the  commoner  consisting  of  an  inordinate  growth 
of  hoof,  which,  at  the  toe,  or  round  the  margin, 
becomes  turned  down,  cracked,  or  torn,  and  thus 
affords  lodgment  for  sand  and  dirt.  Insufficient 
wearing  of  the  hoof  is  the  obvious  cause,  and  henco 
the  prevalence  of  foot-rot  in  soft  rich  pastures,  and 
especially  amongst  sheep  previously  accustomed 
to  bare,  rough,  or  upland  walks,  where  the  hoof  is 
naturally  worn  down  by  the  greater  amount  of 
walking  necessary  to  procure  sustenance.  Taken  in 
time,  when  lameness  is  first  apparent,  and  before 
the  hoof  is  cracked,  and  the  foot  inflamed,  a  cure 
rapidly  follows  the  careful  paring  of  the  superfluous 
and  diseased  hoof ;  indeed,  further  treatment  is 
scarcely  necessary,  unless  any  of  the  vascular  parts 
have  been  laid  bare,  when  a  little  tar  may  be 
applied  as  a  mild  astringent  and  protection  from 
flies.  When,  from  inattention  or  neglect,  the  hoof 
is  separated  from  the  sensitive  parts  beneath, 
when  ulcers  appear  on  the  sole,  or  proud-flesh 
springs  up,  active  astringents  or  mild  caustics  are 
necessary.  The  shepherd's  old  favourite  butter  of 
antimony,  diluted  with  an  equal  quantity  of  tincture 
of  myrrh,  is  a  good  remedy  when  cautiously  and 
temperately  used.  A  convenient  paste,  which  in 
inexperienced  hands  is  safer  than  a  fluid  caustic, 
may  be  made  with  equal  weights  of  flowers  of 
sulphur  and  finely  powdered  sulphate  of  copper, 
rubbed  up  to  the  needful  consistency  with  lard 
or  oil.  Many  have  great  faith  in  a  mixture  of 
the  salt  of  copper  with  gunpowder  and  lard. — The 
second  and  more  troublesome  variety  is  allied  to 
what  is  termed  foid  in  the  foot;  instead  of  com- 
mencing at  the  ground  surface,  it  begins  in  the 
interdigital  space,  appea,rs  to  depend  ujion  consti- 
tutional rather  than  local  causes,  and  frequently 
occurs  along  with  the  other  variety,  but,  unlike  it, 
occasionally  becomes  contagious.  The  foot  is  hot, 
tender,  and  swelled  around  and  immediately  above 
the  coronet.  There  are  ulcerations  in  the  inter- 
digital space,  and  the  swelling,  and  subsequently 
the  sprouting  of  proud  flesh,  cause  a  separation  of 
the  toes.  When  the  tenderness  and  heat  are  great, 
poultices  are  advisable;  but  in  the  mildey  cases  and 
earlier  stages  the  parts  should  be  well  washed  with 
a  solution  containing,  to  the  pint  of  water,  half  an 
ounce  each  of  sulphuric  acid  and  oil  of  turpentine 


FORAGE- FORBES. 


"When  ulcers  apptar,  they  must  be  touched  with 
lunar  caustic,  or  dressed  with  the  paste  ahready 
recommended. 

FORAGE  (from  Yr.  fourage,  a  contraction  of  the 
barbarous  Latin  fodderwfuim,  taken  in  its  turn 
from  the  Gothic  fo-dur,  fodder),  hay,  straw,  and 
oats  supplied  to  horses  of  officers  and  soldiers  in  the 
army.  Where  troops  are  together,  the  provision 
of  forage  devolves  on  the  commissariat :  officers  of 
the  staff,  &c.,  who  are  entitled  to  horses,  but 
whose  duties  are  at  stations  where  bodies  of  horse 
are  not  collected,  receive  a  money  allowance,  in 
lieu  of  forage  in  kind,  varying  according  to  the 
place  and  price  of  provender,  but  usually  about 
\s.  \Qd.  to  2^,  per  horse  per  day.  When  a  soldier 
is  en  route  away  from  his  regiment,  the  innkeeper 
witli  whom  he  stops  is  bound,  under  the  Mutiny 
Act,  to  provide  his  horse  with  the  specified  ration 
of  forage — viz.,  10  lbs.  oats,  12  lbs.  hay,  and  8  lbs. 
straw,  for  the  payment  of  \s.  ^d.  a  day,  which  must 
also  include  stabling. 

FORAMINI'FERA,  a  group  of  marine  animals 
of  very  low  organisation,  consisting  of  a  gelatinous 
substance  enclosed  in  a  shell,  which  is  generally 
calcareous,  either  simple  or  divided  into  chambers 
variously  arranged,  and  j)ierced  with  pores  or 
passages  {foraminay  whence  the  ^jame),  through 
which  long  delicate  processes  of  the  soft  anunal  are 
protruded,  but  for  what  purpose  is  not  very  well 
known,  whether  to  seize  food,  to  imbibe  nutritive 
fluid,  for  locomotion,  or  for  all  these  purposes. 
Most  of  the  species  are  minute,  although  one  of 
more  than  two  inches  in  diameter  has  been  found  in 
Borneo,  and  fossil  forms  approaching  to  this  size 
are  well  known  under  the  name  of  Nujnmulites 
(q.  v.),  from  their  resemblance  to  coins.  The 
existing  species  are  very  numerous,  and  have  been 
distributed  into  many  genera.  They  are  found 
among  sea-sand,  and  among  all  the  dredgings  of 


Foraminifera : 
1,  Orbulina   Universa ;    2,  Lagena   Striata;   3,  Textilaria ; 
4,  Opcrculina ;     5.   Faujasina;    6,   Rosalina  Globulaiis; 
7,  Cassidulina :  8,  Part  of  two  chambers  of  an  Orbiculina; 
9,  Vertical  Section  of  fossil  Nummulite. 


deep  water.  The  fossil  species  are  still  more  nume- 
rous, and  constitute  great  part  of  some  calcareous 
rocks,  as  of  chalk.  The  F.  are  of  very  beautiful 
forms.  Some  of  the  simple  ones  are  orbicular,  some 
curiously  flask-shaped ;  those  in  which  the  animal 
is  divided  into  segments,  and  the  shell  consequently 
chambered,  sometimes  have  the  segments  arranged 
ill  a  straight  line,  sometimes  spirally,  sometimes 


alternately,  etc.  The  great  rescrn})hxnce  of  some  oi 
the  convohitcd  chambered  shells  of  the  F.  to  the 
shells  of  the  genus  JVauHlus  led  Lirmixius  and  many 
naturalists  to  rank  them  with  that  genus,  and  the 
F.  were  reckoned  among  the.  most  highly  oi-ganized 
molluscs,  a  ])lacc  from  which  compjuatively  recent 
discoveries  have  completely  removed  them.  They 
are  now  regarded  as  more  nearly  related  to  Si)onges, 
and  to  such  aiumals  as  the  Prateua  or  Am<eba, 
'  The  Foraminifera  are  evidently  composite  fabrics 
evolved  by  a  process  of  continuous  gemmation,  each 
gemma  remaining  in  connection  with  the  body  by 
which  it  was  put  forth,  and  according  to  the  plan 
on  which  this  gemmation  takes  place  will  be  tho 
configuration  of  the  shell.' — Eymer  Jones.  Repro- 
duction takes  place  by  the  detachment  of  minute 
granules  in  great  numbers,  and  is  apparently  accom* 
panied  with  the  death  of  the  parent.  See  Protozoa. 

Fossil  Foraminifera.  The  earliest  records  of 
this  order  yet  observed  are  in  sandstones  near 
St  Petersburg,  belonging  to  the  Lower  Silurian 
measures.  Scattered  through  these  sandstones  are 
numerous  green  grains,  which  have  been  shewn  by 
Ehrenberg  to  contain,  in  their  interior,  silicioua 
casts  of  shells  similar  to  the  recent  genera  O'^rttU' 
Una  and  Textidaria.  Forms,  apparently  referrible 
to  the  last  genus  and  to  Fumlina,  constitute  a 
large  portion  of  some  beds  of  carboniferous  Hme- 
stone  in  Prussia,  and  also  in  the  United  States. 
In  the  green-sund  nuirl  of  the  cretaceous  of  New 
Jersey,  foraminifera  are  very  abundant.  Chalk 
indeed,  is  composed  almost  entirely  of  the  perfect 
or  broken  shells  of  Rotalia,  Spirulina,  Textularia,  &c. 
(see  Chalk).  They  are  not  more  numerous  in  the 
Tertiary  strata,  but  here  they  attain  an  enormous 
size — gigantic  compared  with  any  that  preceded 
them,  or  with  recent  forms.  Vast  beds  of  limestone 
occur  on  the  borders  of  the  Mediterranean,  com- 
posed almost  entirely  of  tliese  large  forms.  See 
NuMMULTTES  and  Nummulite  Limestone. 

FORBES,  Duncan,  of  Culloaen,  a  celebrated 
Scottish  iiolitician  of  the  18th  c,  and  Lord  Presi- 
dent of  the  Court  of  Session,  was  born  either  at 
Culloden  or  at  Bunchrew— for  the  family  possessed 
both  estates — in  the  neighbourhood  of  Inverness,  on 
the  10th  November  1685.  In  1704,  the  year  that 
his  father  died,  F.,  then  a  lad  of  19,  commenced 
his  legal  studies  in  Edinburgh ;  but  the  following 
year  he  removed  to  Leyden,  then  the  great  school 
for  Scottish  lawyers  of  revolution  principles,  where 
he  studied  for  two  years  with  the  greatest  dili- 
gence. In  addition  to  the  knowledge  of  the  ci\'il 
law,  which  was  no  doiibt  the  principal  object  of 
his  residence  at  Leyden,  we  are  told  that  he  made 
considerable  progress  in  Hebrew  and  several  other 
Oriental  languages.  On  his  return  from  Leyden,  F. 
was  called  to  the  bar,  and  almost  immediately 
after  appointed  sheriff  of  Midlothian — a  promo- 
tion the  rapidity  of  which  is  somewhat  incon- 
sistent with  modem  usages.  He  rose  rapidly  into 
practice  and  into  political  influence  through  his 
connection  with  the  Great  Duke  of  Argyle,  then 
in  the  zenith  of  his  power,  to  whom  he  was  united 
by  family  ties,  and  of  whose  estates  he  acted  aa 
a  sort  of  manager.  He  married  Mary  Rose,  the 
daughter  of  the  Laird  of  Kilravock,  a  woman  of 
beauty  and  accomplishment,  to  whom  he  is  said  to 
have  been  devotedly  attached.  She  died  shortly 
after  their  marriage,  leaving  him  an  only  son, 
John,  who  eventually  succeeded  to  his  estate,  but 
did  not  inherit  his  abihties.  During  both  of  the 
rebellions,  Dmican  F.  acted  a  prominent  part  on 
the  side  of  the  Hanoverian  government.  In  1715, 
he  was  in  the  north,  actively  engaged  in  opposing 
the  rebels,  along  with  his  elder  brother  John,  who 
is  said  to  have  expended  £3000  on  the  royal  cax^B& 


FORBES. 


Qot  one  shilling  of  whicli  was  ever  repaid  him.  But 
ou  this,  as  on  all  other  occasions,  Duncan's  par- 
tisanship was  c  f  the  most  moderate  kind.  After  the 
suppression  of  the  rebellion,  he  was  opposed  to  the 
project  of  carrying  the  prisoners  out  of  Scotland,  to 
be  tried  by  English  juries,  and  he  MTote  to  Lord 
Islay,  when  he  heard  that  it  was  proposed  to  appoint 
him  lord  advocate,  that  he  should  certainly  decline 
that  office.  He  wrote  to  his  l)rother,  proposing  a 
Bubscription  for  the  comfort  of  the  prisoners.  '  It 
is  certainly  Christian,'  he  said,  '  and  by  no  means 
disloyal,  to  sustain  them  in  their  indigent  state  till 
they  are  f'^und  guilty.'  To  the  forfeitures  also  he 
was  opposed,  on  grounds  of  policy  as  well  as  of 
humanity.  The  only  effect  of  his  moderation  was 
to  bring  suspicion  on  his  own  loyalty.  But  he 
was  too  important  for  his  promotion  to  be  arrested. 
In  1710,  he  was  appointed  depute  to  the  lord  advo- 
cate ;  in  1722,  he  was  returned  to  sit  in  parliament 
for  the  Inverness  district  of  burghs;  and  in  1725, 
he  was  lord  advocate.  He  was  not  distingxiished 
as  a  debater,  but  he  was  largely  employed  at  this 
period  of  his  career  in  apj)eal  cases,  and  he  enjoyed 
the  friendship  of  Sir  llobcrt  Walpole,  Lyttleton, 
Mansfield,  and  Hardwick.  He  seems  oven  to  have 
penetrated  the  literary  circles  in  which  SAvift,  Pope, 
and  Arbuthnot  were  the  ruling  stars.  In  1734,  his 
brother  John — Bumper  John,  as  he  was  called — 
died,  and  he  succeeded  to  the  estates  of  the  family. 
In  earlier  life,  Duncan  partook  of  the  convivial 
habits  for  which  his  family  was  distinguished,  in  an 
age  that  was  famous  for  deep  potations.  Mr  Burton 
records  various  anecdotes  illustrative  of  his  i)Owers 
in  this  direction,  but  he  aliandoned  the  practice 
when  his  health  began  to  suffer,  and  devoted  him- 
self to  more  serious  if  not  more  onerous  duties. 
During  many  subsequent  years,  he  in  no  insi,^- 
nificant  degree  ruled  the  destinies,  and  contri- 
buted to  the  dawning  prosperity  of  Scotland  by 
fostering  and  developing  her  internal  resources, 
flis  policy  was  to  extinguish  the  rebellion  by  gaining 
over  the  Jacobites  to  the  government.  The  purity 
and  uprightness  of  F.'s  character  were  subjected  to  a 
severe  test.  His  whole  correspondence  during  these 
troubled  times  came  to  light  some  seventy  years 
after  his  d^ath  ;  and  though  few  men  ever  wrote  or 
were  written  to  with  less  idea  of  publication,  '  we 
have  not,'  says  Mr  Chambers  {Biographkal  Dic- 
tionary of  Bminent  ScoUmen),  '  to  detect  a  single 
one  of  his  advices  or  proceedings,  by  the  exposure 
of  which  even  a  private  gentleman  of  the  most 
delicate  honour,  and  the  most  reasonable  views, 
wonld  have  cause  to  feel  a  moment's  uneasiness.' 
Having  freed  himself  from  the  shackles  of  party, 
his  great  object  was  to  improve  the  trade  and 
agricTdtiire  of  the  kingdom.     But  his  views  of 

J)olitical  economy  were  not  greatly  in  advance  of 
lis  time  ;  for  in  order  to  encourage  the  use  of  malt, 
he  presented  to  the  government  a  long  and  detailed 
scheme  for  preventing,  or  rather  for  punishing  the 
use  of  tea.  F.  was  appointed  President  of  the 
Court  of  Session  in  1737  ;  but  he  still  continued  his 
interest  in  the  general  improvement  of  the  country. 
Though  he  was  aware  of  the  character,  and,  in 
general,  of  the  designs  of  the  Jacobites,  the  rebel- 
lion of  1745  took  the  President  by  surprise.  But 
he  was  no  sooner  aware  of  the  danger  than  he  has- 
tened to  the  north,  as  he  had  done  on  the  occasion 
of  the  former  outbreak,  and  by  his  presence  and  the 
influence  which  he  possessed  in  his  own  district, 
did  much  to  counteract  the  proceedings  of  the 
rebels.  Lovat,  as  is  well  known,  betrayed  both 
him  and  the  government,  and  actually  made  an 
attack  on  Culloden  House,  from  which  he  was 
beaten  off  with  great  spirit  by  the  President  and 
his  people.  When  the  rebellion  spread,  he  was 
41« 


forced  to  abandon  his  house,  and  take  refuge  in  the 
island  of  Skye,  where  he  remained  till  after  the 
battle  of  Cullo  len.  On  his  return,  in  place  of 
reaping  the  fruits  of  his  services,  he  was  regarded 
with  jealousy  and  aversion  l)y  the  government. 
Even  the  large  sums  of  money  which  he  had 
advanced  were  never  repaid  him ;  and  it  is  said  that 
the  ingratitude  of  the  government,  cou])led  with 
the  i)erfidy  of  many  of  his  friends  and  neighbours, 
who  had  changed  sides  more  than  once  during  this 
miserable  affair,  weighed  so  heavily  on  his  spirits 
as  to  shorten  his  life.  He  discharged  his  judicial 
duties,  however,  vnth  great  zeal  and  ability  till 
within  a  month  of  his  death,  which  took  place  on 
December  10,  1747.  There  is  a  beautiful  portrait  of 
the  Lord  President  F.,  who  was  a  man  of  great 
elegance  of  person  and  manner,  in  the  Parliament 
House  in  Edinburgh.  The  most  recent  and  com- 
plete biography  of  Forbes  is  that  of  Mr  Burton  in 
his  Lives  of  Simon  Lord  Lovat  and  Duncan  Forbes, 
1848. 

FORBES,  Edward,  an  eminent  naturalist,  was 
born  at  Douglas,  Isle  of  Man,  February  12,  1815, 
and  died  in  Edinburgh,  November  18,  1854.  He 
received  a  desultory  and  imperfect  education  in 
early  life,  in  consequence  of  ill  health ;  but  when 
he  left  home  at  the  age  of  16,  he  had  already 
possessed  liimsdf  of  a  very  considerable  amount  of 
knowledge  in  the  departments  of  botany,  zoology, 
and  geology.  In  1831,  F.  went  to  London,  with 
the  intention  of  becoming  a  student  at  the  Royal 
Academy ;  but  although  he  evinced  much  readiness 
in  drawing,  his  artistic  talents  were  not  sufficiently 
marked  to  hold  out  any  prospect  of  success  in  the 
event  of  his  making  art  his  profession  ;  and  he  there- 
fore determined  to  turn  his  attention  to  medicine, 
and,  with  this  view,  entered  the  university  of  Edin- 
burgh. In  1836,  he  finally  relinquished  his  special 
medical  studies,  to  devote  himself  exclusively  to 
the  natural  sciences.  In  1836 — 1837,  he  attended 
lectures  at  Paris,  where  he  studied  under  Geoffroy 
St  Hilaire,  Jussieu,  and  De  Blainville,  while  he  at 
the  same  time  availed  himself  -with  diligence  of  all 
the  advantages  afforded  to  students  by  the  museums 
and  libraries  of  Paris.  From  the  first  year  of  his 
college  life,  F.  had  spent  his  siunmer  vacations 
in  rambles  over  various  parts  of  Great  Britain,  or 
in  excursions  on  the  continent,  and  the  results  ^^f 
the  observations  which  he  made  during  these  torn  s 
which  w^ere  published  by  him  either  in  the  form  •  f 
separate  works,  or  in  the  pages  of  current  scientifio 
journals,  sufficiently  attest  his  diligence  as  an 
ol^sei^'er,  and  his  exact  appreciation  of  analogiws 
and  dififerences  of  forms.  F.  may  almost  be  regarded 
as  the  originator  of  the  use  of  the  dredge,  which  he 
employed  with  equal  success  in  investigating  the 
marine  fauna  of  our  own  seas,  and  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  the  ^Egean.  In  1841,  he  joined  the  sur- 
veying ship  Beacon,  as  naturalist,  and  accompanied 
that  vessel  during  the  survey  of  a  part  of  Asia  Minor, 
and  co-operated  in  the  exploration  of  many  of  the 
Xanthian  cities.  On  his  return  to  England  in  184,'S, 
he  found  that  he  had,  during  his  absence,  been 
elected  to  the  chair  of  botany.  King's  College, 
London.  •  He  was  soon  afterwards  named  curator 
of  the  Geological  Society  ;  and  from  that  period  till 
his  removal  to  Edinburgh,  he  remained  in  London, 
living  in  a  vortex  of  scientific  labours  and  literary 
work.  In  1844,  he  was  appointed  palaeontologist 
to  the  Museum  of  Geology  in  connection  with  the 
Ordnance  Geological  Survey ;  and  in  1851,  on  the 
opening  of  the  new  buildings  in  Jermyn  Street, 
London,  he  was  named  professor  of  natural  history 
in  the  School  of  Mines.  In  1852,  he  was  chusen 
president  of  the  Geological  Society,  an  honour  never 
before  conferred  on  so  young  a  man ;  and  in  185r3, 


rOEBES. 


on  the  death  of  Pi'ofessor  Jameson,  he  was  elected 
to  the  vacant  chair  of  Natural  History  in  the  univer- 
sity of  Edinburgh.  In  the  summer  of  1854,  he  deli- 
vered a  short  course  of  lectures — the  only  one  he  was 
destined  to  give — for  at  the  commencement  of  the 
winter  session  he  was  seized  with  a  severe  illness, 
which  si)eedily  proved  fatal,  and  terminated  his  life 
in  the  39th  year  of  his  age,  in  the  very  zenith  of 
his  fame,  and  in  the  full  vigour  of  his  intellectual 
powers.  F.  had  been  a  voluminous  writer  and  a 
diligent  observer  of  nature  from  his  earliest  j^outh, 
*knd  had  collected  an  immense  mass  of  materials, 
many  of  which  were,  however,  left  at  his  death  in  a 
disorganised  condition.  He  did  much  to  advance  and 
systematise  special  departments  of  natural  history, 
both  by  his  own  labours  and  by  the  stimulus  which 
he  imparted  to  his  associates  and  pupils  ;  and  it 
would  be  difficult  to  instance  any  naturalist  who 
has  exercised  a  greater  influence  on  the  thought  and 
line  of  inquiry  pursued  by  those  who  have  cultivated 
the  same  branches  of  knowledge.  His  classifica- 
tion of  the  British  Star-fislies  opened  a  new  era  in 
that  branch  of  zoology ;  and  his  discovery  that 
air-breathing  molluscs  lived  at  the  period  of  the 
Purbeck  beds,  has  been  the  means  of  rectifying  many 
erroneous  hypotheses,  and  throwing  unexpected 
light  on  several  hitherto  obscure  points  of  geology, 
while  the  inferences  which  he  drew  from  tiie 
presence  of  those  animals  have  been  fully  corro- 
borated. His  Report  on  the  ^gean  Sea,  and  his 
observations  of  the  tertiaries  of  Cos,  which  have 
proved  of  great  value  to  geology,  raised  him  to  the 
highest  rank  among  living  naturalists.  From  an 
early  period,  he  had  directed  his  attention  to  the 
distribution  of  animal  and  vegetable  life  in  different 
zones  of  the  sea  and  land,  and  his  observations 
in  this  path  of  inquiry  have  opened  many  new 
fields  of  research.  F.  was  a  diligent  contributor 
to  the  current  scientific  literature  of  the  day, 
and  many  of  his  beat  papers  were  written  for 
the  meetings  of  the  British  Association,  of  which 
he  was  an  active  member,  and  for  the  various 
societies  with  which  he  was  connected  ^  while  he 
also  took  a  most  efficient  share  in  the  labours  of 
the  Ordnance  Survey  during  his  connection  with 
its  sta^F.  His  separate  works,  papers,  and  mono- 
graphs, of  which  upwards  of  200  are  published, 
and  many  of  which  are  copiously  illustrated  by 
his  own  beautiful  drawings,  cannot  be  individually 
specified  ;  but  among  them  we  may  instance  the 
following :  On  tlie  Didrib.  of  Pidmoriif.  Mollusca 
in  Europe  (1838) ;  Malawi.  Monensis  (1838) ;  Star 
Fishes  (1841) ;  The  Radiata  and  Mollusca  of  the 
JEgean  (1843) ;  Travels  in  Lycia  (written  in  con- 
jimction  with  Lieutenant  Spratt,  1846)  ;  Naked- 
eyed  Medusoi  (1847) ;  British  Mollusca  (1853,  4 
vols.  8vo,  conjointly  with  S,  Hanley) ;  the  Map 
of  Homoiozoic  Belts  (Johnston's  Fhys.  Atlas,  1854) ; 
ColUxtion  of  Literary  Papers  by  E.  Forbes  (1855) ; 
&c.    See  Memoir  by  G.  Wilson  and  A.  Geikie,  1861. 

FORBES,  Sir  William,  of  Pitshgo,  Bart.,  an 
eminent  Scottish  banker,  son  of  Sir  William  Forbes, 
Bart.,  advocate,  was  born  in  Edinburgh,  April  5, 
1739.  He  succeeded  his  father  when  only  four 
years  old,  and  received  his  education  at  Aberdeen. 
In  his  15th  year,  he  was  introduced  into  the  bank 
at  Edinburgh  of  Messrs  John  Coutts  &  Co. ;  and 
in  1761,  was  admitted  a  partner.  In  1763,  one  of 
the  brothers  Coutts  having  died,  while  another 
retired  on  account  of  ill  health,  and  two  others 
were  settled  as  bankers  in  London,  a  new  company 
was  formed,  consisting  of  Sir  William  Forbes ;  Mr 
Hunter,  afterwards  Sir  James  Hunter  Blair;  Mr, 
afterwards  Sir  Robert  Herries ;  and  Messrs  Stephen 
and  Cochrane.  They  at  first  earned  on  business  in 
♦.he  name  of  the  old  firm.  On  1st  January  1773, 
183 


however,  on  some  changes  in  the  partnership  takini 
])lace,  the  name  was  changed  to  that  of  Sir  Vt, 
Forbes,  J.  Hunter,  &  Co.,  and  of  this  firm  Sir  Williair, 
continued  to  be  the  head  till  his  death.  In  178L 
he  purchased  the  estate  of  Pitsligo,  Aberdeenshire, 
which  had  been  forfeited  by  Lord  Forbes  of  Pitsligo 
for  taking  part  in  the  rebellion  of  1745.  Animated 
by  genuine  patriotism  and  public  spirit,  he  intro 
duced  the  most  extensive  improvements  on  it,  and 
laid  out  and  biult  the  village  of  New  Pitsligo.  He 
was  a  member,  with  Johnson,  Burke,  Garrick,  Pv-ey- 
nolds,  and  others,  of  the  celebrated  Literary  Club  of 
London,  and  the  author  of  a  Life  of  his  friend,  Dr 
Beattie,  the  poet,  published,  with  his  works,  in  2 
vols.  4to,  in  1805;  also  of  Memoirs  of  a  Banlcinfj 
House,  being  the  history  of  his  own,  edited  by  Mr 
Robert  Chambers  (Edinburgh,  1860).  He  died  at 
his  seat  near  Edinburgh,  November  12,  1806,  aged 
68.  By  his  wife,  Elizabeth,  eldest  daughter  of  Sir 
James  Hay  of  Hayston,  Bart.,  he  had  three  sons 
and  five  daughters.  Universally  esteemed  and 
respected,  his  character  is  well  described  by  Sir 
Walter  Scott  in  the  introductory  address  of  one  of 
the  cantos  of  Marm'ion.  His  bank  became,  in  1830, 
the  Union  Bank  of  Scotland. 

FORBES,  James  David,  Principal  of  the  United 
College  in  the  university  of  St  Andrews,  a  grand- 
son of  Sir  W.  Forbes,  the  banker,  was  born  at 
Cohnton,  near  Edinburgh,  April  20,  1809.  He 
stiidied  in  the  university  of  Edinburgh  from  1S25 
until  1830,  when  he  was  admitted  to  the  Scottish 
bar.  On  the  death  of  Sir  John  Leslie  (q.  v.),  he 
was  appointed,  in  1833,  to  the  chair  of  natural 
philosophy  in  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  after  a 
contest  in  which,  among  other  competitors,  he  waa 
opposed  by  Dr  (afterwards  Sir  David)  Brewster  and 
Mr  GaUoway.  In  1842,  the  Institute  of  Franco 
enrolled  him  among  its  corresponding  members. 
He  was,  besides,  a  member  of  numerous  other  scien- 
tific societies  at  home  and  abroad ;  he  received  the 
Royal  and  the  Rumford  medals  from  the  Royal 
Society  of  London,  and  two  Keith  medals  from 
the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  and  was  D.C.L.  of 
Oxford.  In  1860,  F.  resigned  his  chair  in  Edin- 
burgh, to  become  Principal  of  the  United  College 
in  the  university  of  St  Andrews.  Among  his 
contributions  to  science  are — the  polarisation  of 
radiant  heat  by  the  tourmaline,  and  also  by 
reflection  (1836),  and  its  circidar  polarisation- 
discoveries  forming  some  of  the  strongest  proofs 
of  the  identity  of  calorific  and  luminous  rays ,  tho 
imequal  polarisation  of  heat  from  different  sources 
(1844) ;  the  refrangibility  of  heat ;  the  depolarisation 
of  heat ;  &c.  This  whole  series  of  experimental 
results  is  of  a  very  high  order  of  importance.  Ho 
is,  however,  best  known  to  the  world  in  general 
by  his  researches  on  the  motion  of  glaciers.  See 
Travels  in  the  Alps  (1843) ;  Norway  and  its  Glaciers 
(1853)  ;  Tour  of  Mont  Blqnc  and  Monte  Bosa 
(1855) ;  and  Occasional  Papers  on  the  Theory  oj 
Glaciers  (1859).  He  was  undoubtedly  the  first  to 
establish  the  great  fact,  that  glacier  ice  moves  in 
its  channel  like  a  viscous  fluid,  the  middle  mo\'ing 
faster  than  the  sides,  and  the  upjier  portions  faster 
than  the  lower.  His  theory  of  glacier  phenomena 
has  encountered  a  good  deal  of  opposition  from 
some  quarters,  and  cannot  yet  be  considered  as  set- 
tled. See  Glaciers.  In  meteorology,  F.,  among 
other  things,  improved  Wollaston's  application  of 
the  thermometer  to  the  determination  of  heights, 
and  verified  with  great  care  Fourier's  theoretical 
results  concerning  the  temperature  of  the  ground 
at  difi'erent  depths  and  in  different  kinds  of  soil  and 
rock.  Besides  the  works  already  named,  numerous 
very  valuable  papers  by  F.  are  to  be  found  in  the 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  Societies  of  London  and 


9 


FORBES— FORBES  MACKENZIE  ACT. 


Edinburgh,  in  the  Edinburgh  Philosophical  Journal, 
and  other  periodicals.    He  died  Dec.  31,  1868. 

FORBES,  Sir  John,  an  eminent  physician,  was 
bom  October  18,  1787,  at  Cuttlebrae,  Banffshire, 
Bud  died  November  13,  1861.  After  studying  at 
Aberdeen  and  Edinburgh,  he  entered  the  navy  in 
1807  as  assistant-surgeon,  and  continued  on  active 
duty  till  1816,  when  he  finally  left  the  service. 
In  1817,  he  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  at  Edinburgh, 
and  soon  afterwards  settled  as  a  physician  at 
Penzance,  from  whence  he  removed  in  the  course 
of  a  few  years  to  Chichester.  In  1840,  F.  went 
to  Loridon,  where  he  speedily  obtained  a  large 
practice.  He  was  knighted  in  1853  l)y  the  Queen, 
to  whose  household  he  held  the  appointment  of 
Physician  in  Ordinary,  while  he  was  at  the  same 
time  Physician  Extraordinary  to  Prince  Albert. 
Ee  was  a  Fellow  of  the  College  of  Physicians,  and 
the  Royal  Society  of  London ;  D.C.L.  of  Oxford, 
and  a  member  of  numerous  foreign  societies.  F., 
conjointly  Avith  Drs  Tw(iedie  and  Conolly,  was  the 
editor  of  the  Cyclopadia  of  Practical  Medicine, 
which,  in  addition  to  the  numerous  contributions 
of  the  editors,  included  the  labours  of  more  than 
sixty  British  physicians,  of  the  first  rank.  This 
work,  which  has  exercised  a  most  beneficial  influence 
both  on  the  theory  and  practice  of  medicine,  was 
completed  in  4  vols.  8vo,  in  1835.  In  1836,  F. 
founded  the  British  and  Foreign  Medical  Review, 
which  he  carried  on  with  great  success  for  twelve 
years.  The  services  which  he  thus  rendered  to 
his  brother-practitioners  placed  him  deservedly 
among  the  foremost  of  his  profession.  To  F.  in 
a  great  measure  belongs  the  merit  of  having  intro- 
duced the  use  of  the  stethoscope  in  England,  and 
of  having  successfully  directed  the  attention  of 
British  practitioners  to  the  art  and  practice  of 
physical  diagnosis.  In  1831,  he  published  the  first 
edition  of  his  translation  of  Laennec's  Treatise  on 
Auscultation;  and  in  1838,  v»dien  the  fifth  edition 
appeared,  the  new  method  was  already  exten- 
sively used.  F.  was  a  ready  and  pleasant  writer, 
fis  is  amply  shewn  by  the  various  records  of  his 
eummer  rambles ;  among  which  we  may  instance 
his  Physician'' s  Holiday  {IS49),  and  his  Sight-seeing 
in  Germany  and  the  Tyrol  (1856).  His  last  profes- 
sional work,  entitled  Nature  and  Art  in  the  Cure  of 
Diseases  (1857),  contains  a  systematic  exposition  of 
his  medical  opinions  and  doctrines. 

FORBES  MACKENZIE  ACT.  The  statute, 
popularly  known  by  the  name  of  the  gentleman 
(Mr  Forbes  Mackenzie,  M.P.  for  Peeblesshii-e)  who 
introduced  the  bill,  is  the  16  and  17  Vict.  c.  67, 
entitled  '  An  Act  for  the  better  Regulation  of 
Public  Houses  in  Scotland.'  This  act  retained 
in  general  the  provisions  of  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  58,  by 
which  the  granting  of  certificates  by  justices  of 
the  peace  and  magistrates,  authorising  persons 
to  keep  common  inns,  ale-houfjes,  and  victualling- 
houses  in  Scotland  was  regulated.  But  it  pro- 
hibited the  granting  of  certiiicates  for  excisable 
liquors  to  be  '  drunk  on  the  premises,'  unless  on 
the  express  condition  that  no  groceries  or  other 
provisions  to  be  consumed  else  irhere  should  be  sold 
in  the  house  or  premises  with  re&pect  to  which 
Buch  certificate  is  granted.  The  object  of  this  por- 
tion of  the  enactment  being  to  prevent  grocers  from 
becoming  in  reality  the  keepers  of  tippling-houses, 
those  persons  continued  to  be  permitted  to  sell 
liquors  by  retail,  provided  that  they  were  not  con- 
sumed in  their  shops.  In  accordance  with  the  prin- 
ciple of  distinguishing  between  the  different  classes 
of  houses  in  which  the  trade  of  a  spirit-dealer 
shovdd  l>e  carried  on,  three  different  grades  of 
licences  were  introduced:  those  applicable,  viz., 
41H 


1,  to  inn  or  hotel  keepers ;  2,  to  public- house  keepem; 
and  3,  to  grocers  and  provision-dealers.  As  regards 
the  first  class,  it  is  enacted  that  they  shall  not 
'  keep  open  house,  or  permit  or  suffer  any  drinking 
in  any  part  of  the  premises  belonging  thereto,  or 
sell  or  give  out  therefrom  any  liquors  before  eight 
o'clock  in  the  morning,  or  after  eleven  o'clock  at 
night  of  any  day,  with  the  excei)tion  of  refresh- 
rnents  to  travellers,  or  persons  requiring  to  lodge  in 
the  said  house  or  premises ;  and  further,  that  they 
shall  not  open  their  houses  for  the  sale  of  any 
liquors,  or  sell  or  give  out  the  same  on  Sunday, 
except  for  the  accommodation  of  lodgers  and  bond' 
fide  travellers.'  The  same  restrictions  are  imposed 
on  the  second  class  of  persons — viz.,  the  keejjers  of 
public-houses,  with  this  addition,  that  no  exception 
is  made  in  their  case  in  favour  of  travellers  or 
lodgers ;  whilst  grocers  and  provision -dealers,  in 
addition  to  the  prohibition  to  open  on  Sundays,  and 
that  already  mentioned  with  reference  to  the  con- 
sumption of  spirits  on  the  i)remises,  are  forbidden 
'  to  sell  or  give  out  any  liquors  before  six  o'clock 
in  the  morning,  or  after  eleven  o'clock  at  night.' 
Separate  licences  were  also  introduced  for  the  sale 
of  malt  liquors  from  those  applicable  to  the  sale  of 
wine  and  spirits,  all  of  which  had  formerly  been 
included  under  one  licence.  By  this  statute,  also, 
for  the  first  time  in  Scotland,  the  very  formidable 
power  was  conferred  on  the  police  of  entering  at 
any  time  any  public-house,  or  house  where  refresh- 
ments are  sold  to  be  consumed  on  the  premises,  and 
penalties  were  awarded  against  those  who  refused  to 
admit  them,  or  who  obstructed  their  entrance.  These 
provisions  havirg  given  rise  to  much  discussion,  a 
Royal  Commission  to  inquire  into  the  working  of  the 
act  was  issued  on  the  25th  April  1859.  The  result  of 
the  commission  was  the  issue,  as  usual,  of  two  enor- 
mous volumes  of  printed  evidence,  and  of  a  repoi-t, 
more  distinguished  for  its  length  than  for  the  value 
of  the  suggestions  which  it  contains.  The  commis- 
sioners arrived  at  the  conclusion,  that  'although 
intemperance  still  prevails  to  a  lamentable  extent, 
it  would  seem  that  this  vice  has  been  for  some  time 
gradually  descending  in  the  scale  of  society,  and 
that  it  is  now  chiefly  confined  to  the  lowest  class 
of  the  population.'  This  effect  the  commissioners 
ascribe  to  several  causes,  of  which  the  first  and 
most  important  is  the  increase  of  the  duty  on 
excisable  liquors  from  25,  4f tZ.  per  unperial  gallon,  at 
which  it  stood  in  1823,  to  85.,  to  which  it  was 
finally  raised  in  1855.  Nor  do  they  deny  to  the 
Forbes  Mackenzie  Act  its  share  of  merit.  '  The  bene- 
ficial effect  of  the  act,'  they  say,  '  is  proved  b}'  the 
eWdence  which  we  received  as  to  the  diminution  of 
crime,  and  the  change  for  the  better  in  the  habits  of 
the  people,  immediately  after  the  passing  of  the  act, 
when  its  provisions  were  strictly  enforced,  and  by 
the  tendency  in  an  opposite  direction  which  m  some 
places  has  followed  its  less  rigorous  enforcement 
diuring  the  last  two  years.  In  some  to-\vns,  there  has 
been,  on  the  part  of  the  magistrates,  great  remiss- 
ness in  administering  the  law.  The  result  seems 
to  have  been,  if  not  an  increase  of  crime  in  these 
places,  at  least  the  absence  of  the  improvemeut 
witnessed  elsewhere.'  Whilst  thus  generally  approv- 
ing of  the  act,  the  commissioners  suggest  a  number 
of  alterations,  mostly  with  the  view  of  enabling 
the  police  to  carry  out  its  provisions  with  greater 
efficiency.  In  reference  to  the  difficulty  experienced 
by  hotel-keepers  in  ascertaining  what  persons  came 
under  the  descriptions  of  bond-fide  travellers,  th*? 
commissioners  recommend  that  in  future  'persons 
inducing  hotel-keepers  to  sell  or  give  out  excisable 
liquors  to  them  on  Sunday  by  falsely  representing 
themselves  as  travellers,  should  be  guilty  of  ai 
offence,  and  be  liable,  on  conviction,  to  a  fine.'  la 


FORBIDDEN  FRUIT— FORCE ;  ENERGY. 


these  circumstcances,  it  becomes  important  to  know 
that  it  has  been  decided  in  England  that  to  con-  I 
stitute  a  'traveller'  within  the  meaning  of  the 
corresponding  Act  18  and  19  Vict.  c.  118,  s.  2,  it 
is  a  matter  of  indifference  whether  the  })arties  be 
travelling  for  business  or  pleasure,  and  that  a  walk, 
ride,  or  drive,  for  exercise  and  amusement  of  such 
length  as  to  render  refreshments  desirable,  is  a  suffi- 
cient journey.  In  Atkinson  v.  Sellers  (5  C.  B.  N.  S. 
442),  Chief  Justice  Cockburn  remarked,  that '  a  man 
could  not  be  said  to  be  a  traveller  who  goes  to  a 
place  merely  for  the  purpose  of  taking  refreshment. 
But  if  he  goes  to  an  inn  for  refreshment  in  the 
course  of  a  journey,  whether  of  business  or  of  plea- 
sure, he  is  entitled  to  demand  refreshment,  and  the 
innkeeper  is  justified  in  su]iplying  it.'  See  also 
Taylor  v.  Humi)hreys,  C.  P.  705  ;  4  L.  T.  N.  S.  314. 
The  first  was  in  the  case  of  a  drive  from  Liverpool 
of  5 1  miles,  the  second  of  a  walk  from  Birmingham 
of  4  miles. 

FORBI'DDEN  FRUIT,  a  name  fancifidly  given 
to  the  fruit  of  different  species  of  Citrus.  In  the 
shops  of  Britain,  it  is  a  small  vai'iety  of  the 
Shaddock  (q.  v.)  which  genei-ally  receives  this  name. 
But  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  a  different  fruit, 
regarded  by  some  as  a  variety  of  the  orange,  and  by 
some  as  a  distinct  species  {Citrus  Paradisi),  is  known 
as  the  Forbidden  Fruit,  or  Adam's  Apple.  Like 
some  other  fruits  of  the  same  genus,  it  was  recently 
introduced  into  the  south  of  Europe  from  China. 
The  tree  has  broad,  tapering,  and  pointed  leaves, 
the  leaf-stalks  winged ;  the  fruit  is  large,  some- 
what pear-shaped,  greenish-yellow,  of  very  uneven 
surface,  having  around  its  base  a  circle  of  deeper 
depressions,  not  unlike  the  marks  of  teeth,  to  which 
it  probably  owes  its  name.  It  is  chiefly  the  rind 
which  is  the  edible  part;  the  rind  is  very  thick, 
tender,  melting,  and  pleasant;  there  is  very  little 
pulp;  the  pulp  is  acid. 

The  name  Forbidden  Fruit  has  also  been  given  to 
the  frmt  of  Taha^ncemontana  dichotoma,  a  tree  of 
Ceylon,  of  the  natural  order  Ajwcynacece.  The 
shape  of  the  fruit — which  is  a  follicle,  containing 
ulp — suggests  the  idea  of  a  piece  having  been 
itten  off,  and  the  legend  runs  that  it  was  good 
before  Eve  ate  of  it,  although  it  has  been  poisonous 
ever  since. 

FORCE  ;  E'NERGY.  Till  we  know  what  Matter 
(q.  V.)  is,  if  there  be  matter,  in  the  ordinary  sense  of 
the  word,  at  all,  we  cannot  hope  to  have  any  idea 
of  the  absolute  nature  of  force.  Any  speculations 
on  the  subject  could  only  lead  us  into  a  train 
of  hypotheses  entirely  metaphysical,  since  utterly 
beyond  the  present  powers  of  experimental  science. 
If  we  content  ourselves  with  a  definition  of  force 
based  on  experience,  such  a  definition  will  say 
nothing  of  its  nature,  but  will  confine  itself  to  the 
effects  which  are  said  to  be  due  to  force,  and  in 
the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  it  is  almost 
preposterous  to  aim  at  more. 

Our  first  ideas  of  force  are  evidently  derived  from 
the  exertion  required  to  roll,  or  lift,  bend,  or  com- 
press, &c.,  some  mass  of  matter ;  and  it  is  easy  to 
Bee  that  in  all  such  cases  where  muscular  contraction 
is  employed,  matter  is  moved,  or  tends  to  move. 
Force,  then,  we  may  say  generally,  is  any  cause  which 
produce,  or  tends  to  'produce,  a  change  in  a  bochfs  state 
of  rest  or  motion.  See  Motion,  Laws  of.  The 
amount  or  magnitude  of  a  force  may  be  measured  in 
one  01  two  ways  :  1.  By  the  pressure  it  can  produce, 
or  the  weight  it  can  support ;  2.  By  the  amount  of 
motion  it  can  produce  in  a  given  time.  These  are 
cafled  respectively  the  Statical  and  Dynamical 
measures  of  force.  The  latter  is,  as  it  stands,  some- 
what ambiguous.     What  shall  wt    take  as  the 


quantity  of  motion  produced?  Does  it  depend  mereljf 
I  on  the  velocity  produced  ?  or  does  it  take  account  of 
tlie  amount  of  matter  to  which  that  velocity  is  gi'ven  1 
Again,  is  it  proportional  to  the  velocity  itself,  or  to 
its  square?  This  last  question  was  very  fiercely 
discussed  between  Leibnitz,  Huyghens,  Euler,  Mac- 
laurin,  the  Bernouillis,  &c.  ;  Leibnitz  being,  as  usual 
with  him  in  physical  questions,  on  the  wrong  side. 
Newton,  to  whom  we  owe  the  third  law  of  motion, 
had  long  before  given  the  true  measure  of  a  force  in 
terms  of  the  motion  produced.  This  law  is  an  exper> 
mental  result — that  when  pressure  produces  motior, 
the  momentum  produced  (see  Momentuim)  is  propor- 
tional to  the  pressure,  and  can  be  made  (nuraericilly) 
equal  to  it  by  employing  proper  units.  Hence 
momentum  is  the  true  dynamical  measure  of  force, 
which,  therefore,  is  proportional  to  the  Jirst  powe* 
only  of  the  velocity  produced.  What  is  properly 
measured  in  terms  of  the  square  of  the  velocity, 
we  shall  presently  see.  For  various  properties  of 
force,  statical  and  dynamical,  see  the  following 
articles  :  Composition  of  Forces,  Couples,  Centre 
OF  Gravity,  Central  Forces,  Falling  BodieS;. 
Mechanical  Powers,  Virtual  Velocities. 

It  is  obvious  that  in  order  to  produce  any  effect  at 
all,  or  to  do  work,  as  it  is  technically  called,  a  force 
must  produce  motion,  i.e.,  must  move  its  point  of 
application.  A  weight  laid  on  a  table  produces  no 
effect  whatever  unless  the  table  yields  to  the  pres- 
sure, i.e.,  unless  the  weight  descends,  be  it  ever  so 
little.  We  do  no  work,  however  much  we  may 
fatigue  ourselves,  if  we  try  to  lift  a  ton  from  the 
floor ;  if  it  be  a  hundredweight  only,  we  may  Hft  it 
a  few  feet,  and  then  we  shall  have  done  work — and 
it  is  evident  that  the  latter  may  be  measured  as 
so  many  pounds  raised  so  many  feet — introducing 
a  new  unit,  the  Foot-pound,  which  is  of  great 
importance,  as  we  shall  shortly  see,  in  modern 
physics.  See  Work.  This  is  evidently,  however, 
a  statical  measure  of  work,  since  no  account  is 
taken  of  velocity.  Have  we  then  for  work,  as 
we  had  for  force,  a  dynamical  measure  ?  Let  us 
take  a  simple  case,  where  the  mathematical  inves- 
tigation is  comparatively  very  easy,  and  we  shall 
find  we  have.  We  know  (see  Velocity  ;  Motion, 
Laws  of)  that  if  a  particle  be  moving  along  a 
line  (straight  or  not),  and  the  distance  moved  (in 
the  time  t)  along  the  line  from  the  point  where  its 

ds 

motion  commenced  be  called  s,  its  velocity  is  v  = 

Also  we  know  that  the  force  acting  on  it  (in  the 
direction  of  its  motion)  is  to  be  measured  by  the 
increase  of  momentum  in  a  given  time — this  gives 

(just  as  the  last  equation  was  obtained)  F  = 

From  these  two  equations,  we  have,  immediately, 
7nvdv  =  Fds,  or,  as  the  rudiments  of  the  differential 

calculus  give  at  once,         =  J^ds  —  F.s  if  tha 

force  be  uniform. 

The  quantity  on  the  right-hand  side  is  the  sum  cf 
the  i^roducts  of  eacb  value  of  F,  by  the  correspond- 
ing space  ds,  through  which  the  particle  moved  under 
its  action.  It  is  therefore  the  whole  work  done  by 
the  force.  On  the  left  hand,  we  find  half  the  product 
of  the  mass,  and  the  square  of  the  velocity  it  fias 
acquired ;  in  other  words,  the  Vis-viva  (q.  v. ).  Hence, 
in  this  case,  the  vis-viva  acquired  equals  the  amount 
of  work  expended  by  the  force. 

It  appears  from  a  general  demonstration  (founded 
on  the  experimental  laws  of  motion,  and  therefore 
true,  if  they  are),  but  which  is  not  suited  to  the 
present  work,  that  if,  in  any  system  of  bodies,  each 
be  made  up  of  particles  cr  atoms,  and  if  the  forces 
these  mutually  exert  be  in  the  line  joining  each 


FORCE ; 


ENERGY. 


two,  and  depend  merely  on  the  distance  between  them, 
then  we  can  express  the  required  proposition  in  the 
following  form : 

Any  change  of  vis-viva  in  the  system  corresponds 
to  an  equal  amount  of  ivork  gained  or  lost  by  the 
attractions  of  the  })arfi(;les  on  each  otlier. 

What  is  spent,  then,  in  work,  is  stored  up  in  vis- 
viva  ;  and.  conversely,  the  system,  by  losing  some  of 
its  vi3-viva,  will  recover  so  much  work-producing 
power.  If  we  call  the  foraicr,  as  is  now  generally 
done.  Actual,  and  the  latter  Potential,  Energij,  we 
nrny  express  the  above  by  saying,  that  in  any  system 
of  bodies  where  the  before-mentioned  restrictions  ar*" 
complied  with,  the  sum  of  the  actual  and  potential 
encr(jies  cannot  he  altered  by  ilm  mutual  action  of  the 
bodies.  The  most  simple  and  evident  illustrations  of 
this  proposition  are  to  be  found  in  the  case  of  the 
force  known  as  gravitation.  The  potential  energy  of 
a  mass  on  the  earth's  surface  is  zero,  because,  not 
being  able  to  descend,  it  has,  in  common  language, 
no  work-i)roducing  power.  If  it  be  raised  above 
the  surface,  and  then  dropped,  it  is  easy  to  see 
that  the  Avork  expended  in  raisin;^  it  will  be  exactly 
recovered  as  vis- viva  after  its  fall.  For  (see  Fall- 
ing Bodies)  a  mass  falling  through  a  space.  A,  to 
the  earth  acquires  a  velocity  v,  such  that  v"^  =  2gh, 

or  if  w  be  the  mass,        =  mg.h.    The  left-hand 

side  gives  the  vis-viva  acquired  by  the  fall — the 
right  is  the  product  of  the  weight  [mg)  and  the 
height  fallen  through — or  is  the  work  required  to 
elevate  the  mass  to  its  original  altitude. 

Hence  we  may  calculate  the  amount  of  work 
which  can  be  obtained  from  a  head  of  water  in 
driving  water-wheels,  &c.,  remembering,  however, 
that  there  is  always  a  loss  (as  it  is  usually  called) 
due  to  friction,  &c.,  in  the  machinery.  That  there 
is  a  loss  in  useful  power,  is  true,  but  we  shall  find 
presently  that  in  energy  there  is  none,  as  indeed 
our  general  residt  has  already  shewn.  Where  the 
apparently  lost  energy  goes,  is  another  question. 

Another  good  example  of  potential  energy  is  that 
of  the  weights  in  an  ordinary  clock.  It  is  the 
gradual  conversion  of  potential  into  actual  energy 
m  the  diiving  weight  which  maintains  the  motion 
of  the  clock,  in  spite  of  friction,  resistance  of  the 
air,  &c. ;  and  we  have  in  the  actual  energy  of  sound 
(which  is  motion)  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
expended  potential  energy  of  the  striking  weight. 
A  coiled  watch-spring,  a  drawm  bow,  the  charged 
receiver  of  an  air-gun,  are  good  examples  of  stores 
of  potential  energy,  which  can  be  directly  used  for 
mechanical  purposes. 

The  chemical  arrangement  of  the  different  com- 
ponents of  gunpowder,  or  gun-cotton,  is  such  as 
corresponds  to  enormous  potential  energy,  which  a 
Bingle  spark  converts  into  the  equivalent  active 
amount.  But  here,  heat  has  a  considerable  share 
in  the  effects  produced;  it  may  then  be  as  well, 
before  proceeding  further,  to  consider  how  we  can 
take  account  of  it,  and  other  physical  forces,  as 
Jorms  of  energy. 

Correlation  of  Physical  Forces. — So  far  as  we  yet 
inow,  the  physical  forces  may  be  thus  classified : 
I.  Gravitation-  (q.  v.) ;  II.  Molecular  Forces — 
Cohesion  (including  Capillarity),  Elasticity, 
Chemical  Affinity;  III.  Heat  and  Light;  IV. 
Electricity  (including  Magnetism)  ;  V.  Animal 
Force;  VI.  Vital  Force,  having,  as  some  most 
irrationally  suppose  an  analogue  in  inorganic  masses, 
which  may  be  called  Crystalline  Force.  (This  idea 
is  examined  further  on.)  Of  these,  I.,  II.,  and  some 
fonns  of  III.,  are  more  immediately  connected  with 
matter  than  the  others— that  is  to  say,  that  the 
remainder  almost  necessitate  the  hy7)othesis  of  the 
existence  of  some  medium  unlike  ordinary  matter,  or, 
42' 


in  popidar  language,  an  imponderable.  ITie  almost 
universal  opinion  of  physicists,  however,  seems  to 
be,  that  even  the  former  must  be  accounted  for  in 
some  such  way.  Newton,  in  his  second  letter  t«) 
Bentley,  says,  with  respect  to  gravitation  (and  it 
is  ol>viou3  that  similar  language  is  applicable  to 
molecidar  forces  generally) :  '  You  sometimes  speak 
of  gravity  as  essential  and  inherent  to  matter. 
Pray,  do  not  ascribe  that  notion  to  me,  for  the 
cause  of  gravity  is  what  I  do  not  pretend  to  know.' 
And  again  in  the  third  letter :  '  It  is  inconceivable 
that  inanimate  bnite  matter  shoidd,  without  the 
mediation  of  something  else,  which  is  not  material, 
operate  on,  and  affect  other  matter  without  nuitual 
contact,  as  it  must  do,  if  gravitation,  in  the  sense 
of  Epicurus,  be  essential  and  inherent  in  it ;  and 
this  is  one  reason  why  I  desired  you  would  not 
ascribe  innate  gravity  to  me.  That  gravity  should 
be  innate,  inherent,  and  essential  to  matter,  so  that 
one  body  may  act  upon  another  at  a  distance 
through  a  vacuum,  withput  the  mediation  of  any- 
thing else,  by,  and  through  which  their  action  and 
force  may  be  conveyed  from  one  to  another,  is  to 
me  so  great  an  absurdity,  that  I  believe  no  man 
who  has  in  philosophical  matters  a  competent 
facidty  of  thinking,  can  ever  fall  into  it.  Gravity 
must  be  caiised  by  an  agent  acting  constantly 
according  to  certain  laws;  but  whether  this  agent 
be  material  or  immaterial,  I  have  left  to  the  con- 
sideration of  my  readers.'  Of  what  that  medium 
may  consist,  we  cannot,  of  course,  hazard  even  a 
conjecture;  but  if  it  be  composed  of  separate  atoms 
— i.  e.,  not  continuous — it  is  evident  that  a  second 
mediiim  wdll  be  requii'ed  to  help  the  particles  of 
the  first  to  act  on  each  other  (for  without  this,  the 
first  medium  would  be  merely  obstructive),  and  so 
on.  This  must  stop  somewhere ;  why  not,  the:i,  it 
the  first  ?  But  in  the  present  state  of  our  know- 
ledge of  mechanics,  a  continuous  medium  is  barely 
conceivable,  and  its  motions,  &c.,  present  consider- 
able difficidties  to  even  plausible  mathematical 
treatment.  If  we  take  the  view  opposed  to  New- 
ton's, as  Mosotti  and  others  have  done  (their  ideas 
are  considered  further  on),  we  can,  in  a  very  arti- 
ficial manner,  however,  account  for  gravitation  and 
molecular  action;  but,  as  before  said,  the  founda- 
tions of  this  attemi)t  at  explanation  are  hardly 
tenable. 

Just  as  sound  depends  on  the  elasticity  of  the 
air  and  vibrations  thereby  maintained  and  propa- 
gated, light  and  radiant  heat,  which  are  certainly 
identical,  most  probably  consist  in  the  vibrations 
of  some  very  elastic  fluid.  This  has  been  provi- 
sionally named  Ether  (q.  v.).  If  it  be  continuous,  it 
may  help  us  to  account  for  the  first  two  categories 
of  force  also,  as  we  have  already  seen ;  if  not  so,  aa 
is  more  likely,  fresh  difiiculties  arise.  Light  and 
heat,  however,  are  undoubtedly  forms  of  motion, 
and  correspond,  therefore,  to  so  much  vis- viva  or 
actual  energy.  Even  heat  in  a  liquid  or  solid  body 
must  coiTespohd  to  some  vis-viva  in  the  material 
particles,  since  a  hot  body  can  give  out  both  light 
and  heat,  and  a  body  may  be  heated  by  luminous  or 
calorific  rays  which  are  vibratory,  as  we  have  seen. 

Class  IV.  contains  perhaps  the  most  puzzliug  of 
all  these  forces.  That  there  is  something  in  com- 
mon in  all  the  forms  of  electricity,  and  that  mag- 
netism is  nearly  related  to  them,  is  certain;  it  is 
probable,  also,  that  frictional  electricity,  when  stat- 
ical, consists  in  something  analogous  to  a  coiled 
spring,  or  is  a  form  of  potential  energy — the  other." 
being  forms  of  actual  energy.  Some  have  supposed 
magnetism  to  be  also  a  form  of  potential  energy, 
but  Ampere's  discoveries  have  materially  lessened 
the  probability  of  the  truth  of  this  hypothesis.  We 
shall  consider  this  again. 


FORCE; 


ENERGY. 


Class  V.  may  be  deferred  for  the  present. 

As  to  Class  VI.,  it  seems,  from  tlie  observations  of 
physiologists  as  to  the  formation  of  cellular  matter, 
and  the  pi  eduction  in  11  ving  organisms  of  compounds 
which  have  not  yet  been  made  by  ordinary  chemical 
processes,  that  the  vital  force,  if  there  be  such,  is 
not  a  force  which  does  work,  in  the  mechanical 
sense  of  the  term,  but  merely  directs,  as  it  were,  the 
other  natural  forces  how  to  apply  their  energies. 
Were  a  railway  train  running  on  a  smooth  horizontal 
line  of  rails,  it  would  retain  for  ever  its  original 
velocity ;  but  in  turning  a  curve,  it  would  be  acted 
on  by  deflecting  forces,  without  which  its  path 
would  be  straight.  These  forces  do  no  work,  as  is 
evident,  since  this  would  be  shewn  in  alteration  of 
the  vis- viva,  and  none  takes  place.  They  modify, 
however,  the  direction  in  which  the  train  moves. 

When  gangs  of  labourers  and  masons  are  at  work 
bmlding  an  edifice,  the  former  are  employed  raising 
stones,  mortar,  &c.,  the  latter  in  laying  them ;  but 
there  is  present  an  overseer  with  a  plan,  who,  doing 
no  (mechanical)  work  himself,  guides  and  directs 
the  proper  expenditure  of  force  by  the  working 
body.  In  this  view  of  the  case,  the  labourers  are 
the  physical  forces,  and  the  overseer  the  vital  force. 
It  is  quite  certain  that  the  so-called  crystalline 
force  cannot  properly  be  put  in  this  category,  as 
presenting  even  an  analogy,  however  slight ;  it  is 
probably  an  effect,  not  a  cause,  and  due  to  the 
difierent  forms  of  simjile  or  compound  particles  of 
matter,  and  the  consequent  variations  in  their 
molecidar  forces  in  different  directions. 

So  far,  then,  for  the  possible  nature  of  the  forces, 
which,  with  the  probable  exception  of  Vt.,  can  be 
considered  as  various  forms  of  energy.  Can  they  be 
transformed  one  into  another,  as  the  different  kinds 
of  mechanical  energy  can?  Take  the  potential 
energy  of  gravitation  to  begin  with.  We  can  employ 
it  to  drive  a  water-wheel.  This  turns  a  shaft,  to 
which,  if  a  tight  break  be  applied,  heat  will  be 
produced  by  friction,  and  light  also,  if  a  rough 
wheel  on  the  shaft  be  made  to  rotate  against  a 
piece  of  flint  or  pyrites ;  or  electricity  may  be 
produced  by  employ'ug  the  moving  power  to  turn 
an  ordinary  electrical  machine,  or  a  magneto- 
electric  one ;  and  from  the  electricity  so  produced, 
electrical  attractions  and  currents  may  be  derived  ; 
from  them  heat  and  light  again.  Or  the  currents 
may  be  employed  to  magnetise  a  needle  or  a  piece 
of  soft  iron,  or  to  produce  chemical  decomposition. 

Again,  heat  may  be  employed  by  means  of  a 
eteam-engiric  as  a  substitute  for  the  water-power  or 
potential  energy  of  gravitation,  and  the  above  effects 
be  pioduced.  It  may  also  be  employed  in  raising 
weights,  and  therefore  in  producing  the  potential 
energy  in  question  ;  or  it  maj'  be  employed  to  pro- 
duce Thermo-electric  Currents,  and  thence  all  the 
ordinary  effects  of  electricity,  including  the  motion 
of  a  magnetic  needle. 

Light  may  be  employed  to  produce  chemical 
combination  or  decomposition,  as  we  see  in  photo- 
graphy ;  it  may  ?Jso  by  the  same  means  be  made  to 
produce  electric  currents,  and  consequent  motion  of 
a  nectUe.  It  is  not  yet  proved  that  light  can  pro- 
duce magnetism  directly,  though  there  can  be  little 
d(jubt  that,  if  proj)erly  applied,  it  is  capable  of 
doing  so. 

Chemical  action  in  a  voltaic  battery  can  be  made 
to  produce  motion,  heat,  light,  electricity,  electrical 
attractions  and  magnetism,  and  to  overcome  other 
chemical  affinity 

Capillary  action  has  been  employed  to  produce 
electricity,  and  mechanical  effects,  &c.,  but  we  need 
not  go  through  the  whole  category. 

Ill  these  experimental  results,  then,  consists  what 

called  the  Correlation  of  the  Physical  Forces — 


i.e.,  the  transmutability  of  one  of  the  latter  into 
another  or  others.  The  idea  is  old,  but  the  procf.1 
of  its  truth  have  only  become  numerous  within 
the  last  half -century.  Grove  has  published  an 
excellent  treatise  with  the  above  title ;  to  thia 
we  refer  the  curious  reader  for  further  detail  on 
this  interesting  subject. 

Conservation  of  Energy. — But  a  far  more  import- 
ant principle,  being,  in  fact,  the  precise  statement  of 
the  preceding — which  is  somewhat  vague — is  that 
of  the  Conservation  of  Force,  or  rather  Energy.  It 
is  simply  the  extension  (to  all  the  physical  forces)  of 
the  principle  which  we  have  given  in  full,  and 
proved  in  a  particular  case,  at  the  beginning  of  this 
article — i.  e.,  that  the  sum  of  the  potential  and 
actual  energies  of  any  set  of  moving  bodies  cannot 
be  altered  by  their  mutual  action.  Let  us  now 
suppose  heat,  light,  &c,,  to  consist  in  vibratory 
movements  of  particles,  and  in  their  relative  states 
of  distortion,  &c.,  and  make  the  supposition  that 
these  particles  act  on  each  other — no  matter  by 
what  meaus— in  the  line  joining  each  two,  and  with 
forces  which  depend  on  their  distance,  and  we  have 
at  once  the  theorem,  that  the  sum  of  the  potential 
and  actual  energies  is  a  quantity  unalterable  in  any 
system,  save  by  external  influences.  Hence,  when 
mechanical  power  is  said  to  be  lost,  as  it  is  by  the 
unavoidable  friction  in  machinery,  &c.,  it  is  really 
only  changed  to  a  new  form  of  energy — in  general, 
heat.  Thus,  when  a  savage  lights  his  fire,  he 
expends  animal  force  in  rubbing  two  pieces  of  dry 
wood  together.  If  these  pieces  of  wood  were  not  in 
contact,  no  force  would  be  required  to  move  them 
past  each  other — more  and  more  is  required  as 
they  are  more  strongly  pressed  together.  The  equi- 
valent of  this  force  so  expended  is  found  in  the 
heat  produced.  Davy  shewed  that  two  pieces  of 
ice  might  be  melted  by  rubbing  them  together.  A 
skilful  smith  can  heat  a  mass  of  iron  to  redness  by 
mere  hammering.  Here  the  actual  energy  employed 
is  partly  given  out  in  the  shape  of  heat,  and  j^artly 
stored  up  in  the  iron  as  potential  energy  due  to  the 
compression  of  the  mass,  or  the  forcible  ajiproxi- 
mation  of  its  particles.  Amongst  the  earliest,  and 
certainly  the  best  experiments  on  this  subject,  are 
those  of  Joule  (q.  v.).  He  determined  the  relation 
between  the  units  of  heat  and  potential  energy  of 
gravitation,  by  various  methods,  which  gave  very 
nearly  coincident  results.  One  of  these  we  may 
mention.  A  paddle-wheel  is  so  fixed  as  to  revolve  in 
a  closed  vessel  full  of  water.  The  wheel  is  driven 
by  the  descent  of  a  known  weight  through  a 
measured  space,  and  precautions  are  taken  against 
losses  of  energy  of  all  kinds.  The  water  agitated 
by  the  paddle-wheel  comes  soon  to  rest,  as  we 
know ;  but  this  is  due  to  friction  between  its 
particles ;  and  the  final  result  is  the  heating  of 
the  water.  The  quantity  of  water,  and  also  the 
number  of  degrees  by  which  its  temperature  ia 
raised,  being  measured,  a  simple  proportion  enables 
us  to  find  how  many  foot-pounds  (see  Foot-pound) 
of  mechanical  energy  correspond  to  the  raising  by 
one  degree  the  temperature  of  a  pound  of  water. 
The  residt  is,  that  the  heating  a  poimd  of  water 
one  degree  Falirenheit  is  effected  by  772  foot- 
pounds— and  this  number  is  called  Joule's  Equi- 
valent. In  other  words,  if  a  pound  of  water  fall 
to  the  ground  through  772  feet,  and  be  then 
suddenly  arrested,  its  temperature  will  be  raised 
one  degree  ;  and,  conversely,  the  heat  that  would 
raise  the  temperature  of  a  pound  of  water  one 
degree,  would,  if  applied  by  a  steam-engine  or 
otherwise,  raise  772  pounds  one  foot  liigh.  Nom 
(see  the  article  Heat),  we  know  the  auiount  of 
heat  vhich  is  produced  by  the  burning  (in  air) 
of    any   material  whose    composition    is  known. 


FORCE;  ENERGY. 


It  follows,  then,  that  from  the  mere  quantity  and 
composition  of  a  substance  we  can  tell  the  amount  of 
meclianical  work  due  to  its  combustion  ;  that  is,  suj)- 
posinij  it  all  to  be  effective,  As  we  have  been  led  to 
the  mention  of  heat  of  combustion,  let  us  consider 
what  this  is  due  to.  Cond)ustion  (in  air)  is  merely  a 
chemical  combination  of  the  constituents  of  tlie  burn- 
ing body  with  oxy<;en — the  heat  and  light  which  are 
developed  are,  therefore,  by  the  conservation  of 
energy,  equivalent  to  the  excess  of  potential  energy 
of  tlie  uncombined  over  the  combined  oxygen  and 
combustible. 

That  this  is  the  real  state  of  the  case — and  that 
the  original  setting  lire  to  the  combustible  lias 
nothing  to  do  with  the  matter,  as  is  frequently 
imagined — will  be  made  evident  hy  considering  any 
spontaneous  combination,  say  that  of  chlorine  and 
copper  filings,  or  of  mercury  and  sodium,  &c.,  in 
which  cases  the  potential  energy  lost  by  the  com- 
pound appears  as  heat,  light,  and  sometimes  soimd. 

The  equivalents  of  the  other  physical  forces  have 
not  been  even  approximated  to,  with  the  cxcei)tion 
of  that  of  light.  Thomson  has  determined  the 
energy  of  a  cubic  mile  of  sunlight  at  the  earth  to  be 
somewhere  about  12,000  foot-^mivds,  giving  aljout 
10,000  as  the  Ilor.se-iwiver  (q.  v.)  of  each  square  foot 
of  the  sun's  surface.  There  are  some  additional 
difficulties  in  the  way  when  we  seek  the  equivalent 
of  electricity,  for  here  the  question  arises  :  '  Is  there 
a  special  substance  which  is,  or  whose  motions  are, 
electricity,  or  is  it  merely  another  mode  of  motion 
of  the  luminiferous  ether?'  for  we  can  scarcely 
suppose  it  to  be  due  to  motions  of  the  particles  of 
matter.  If  the  first,  we  have  as  yet  no  means  of 
estimating  its  energy;  if  the  latter,  we  may  con- 
sider it  as  within  the  reach  of  experiment.  It 
may  merely  be  remarked  here,  that  Weber's  exqui- 
site theoretical  statement  of  dynamical  electricity 
— resting  on  the  fundamental  assumption  that  there 
are  two  electric  jluids — requires  the  admission  of 
mutual  forces,  which  vary  with  the  relative  velocity 
of  its  1  (articles,  and  for  which,  therefore,  the  con- 
servation of  energy  does  not  hold. 

Helmholtz,  in  an  admirable  paper  {Ueher  die  Er- 
haltunrj  der  Kraft,  ti'anslated  in  Taylor's  Scientific 
Memoirs,  New  Series,  i.),  starting  from  the  assump- 
tions above  explained,  has  applied  the  principle  of 
conservation  of  force  to  the  investigation  of  many 
recondite  problems  connected  with  most  of  the 
]ihysical  forces.  We  cannot,  of  course,  enter  into 
his  work  in  detail,  as  it  is  somewhat  analytical, 
but  we  may  freely  borrow  sv.ch  of  its  contents  as 
we  have  not  already  alluded  to,  at  least  such  as 
will  suit  the  plan  of  this  article. 

A  vexy  good  example  of  the  conservation  of  energy 
is  found  in  the  increasing  velocity  of  a  planet  or 
comet  as  it  approaches  the  sun,  and  thus  loses  poten- 
tial energy ;  and  also  in  the  fact,  that  in  the  case  of 
these  bodies  the  mere  distance  from  the  sun,  and  the 
velocity  at  that  distance,  enable  us  to  tell  at  once 
the  nature  of  the  orbit  described — i.  e.,  which  of  the 
«onic  sections  it  is. 

Lat'^nt  heat  is  a  form  of  potential  energy,  depend- 
Tiig  or  the  physical  state  of  the  substance  in  which 
j't  is  stored  up.  The  same  may  be  said  of  those 
substances  which,  when  mixed,  produce  heat  or  cold, 
as  water  and  sulphuric  acid,  or  nitrate  of  ammonia. 
It  is  easily  seen  that  here  the  heat  or  cold  depends 
upon  a  change  of  molecular  arrangement  of  some 
kind ;  that  is,  a  change  of  the  potential  energy. 

In  magnetism  and  statical  electricity,  of  course, 
the  conservation  of  energy  holds,  as  we  know  that 
all  the  phenomena  can  be  explained  by  attractions 
and  rei)ulsions,  following  the  law  of  gravitation. 
In  the  dischai-ge  of  a  Leydcn  battery,  the  potential 
energy  lost  is  reproduced  as  heat  in  the  connecting 


wires,  and  as  light,  heat,  and  sound  with  the  disrup- 
tive spark.  In  charging  a  Leyden  jar  by  means  of 
the  electrophorus,  the  charge  is  directly  produced 
by  the  expenditure  of  mechanical  force  in  over- 
coming the  attraction  of  the  negative  electricity  of 
the  resinous  plate  for  the  i>ositive  electricity  of  the 
cover. 

In  the  ordmary  voltaic  battery,  the  excess  of  loss 
of  potential  energy  in  the  cells,  by  the  chemical 
imion,  say  of  zinc  and  oxygen,  and  of  sulphuric  acid 
and  oxide  of  zinc,  over  that  gained  by  the  decom- 
position of  water,  i)roduces  the  actual  energy  of  tixe 
current,  which  may  be  transformed  into  heat,  lightj 
magnetism,  or  motfon,  or  two  or  inore.  Or  it  may 
be  employed  to  reproduce  })otential  energy  by  chem- 
ical decomposition,  say  that  of  water.  This  again, 
by  a  s})ai-k,  can  be  reconverted  into  actual  energy  as 
an  explosion  accompanied  by  heat,  light,  and  soimtL 
When  an  electric  current  causes  the  motion  of  a 
magnetised  needle,  our  general  princijile  should  lead 
us  to  infer  that  the  euiTcnt  itself  will  be  weakened. 
This  is  found  to  be  the  case,  but,  as  it  shoxdd  be, 
only  durinrj  the  motion  of  the  needle.  The  needle  in 
a  permanent  state  of  deflection  produces  no  effect 
whatever.  Now,  the  diminution  of  an  electric  cur- 
rent is  simply  equivalent  to  the  addition  of  a  weaker 
current  passing  in  the  opposite  direction.  We  sliould 
expect,  then,  that  the  motion  of  a  magnet  near  a 
conducting  wire  M  ill  in  general  produce  a  current  in 
the  latter,  and  this  is,  in  fact,  Faraday's  great  dis- 
covery of  magneto-electric  induction.  In  this  case, 
the  current  ceases  so  soon  as  the  magnet  ceases  to 
move  relatively  to  the  wire. 

If  a  mass  of  copper  or  other  good  conductor  be  aet 
in  ra])id  rotation  near  a  powerful  magnet,  the  motion 
produces  electric  currents  in  the  copper,  which,  being 
attracted  by  the  magnet,  soon  bring  the  ma,ss  to 
rest.  It  is  not  so  clear  in  this  case  into  wJial  the 
mechanical  energy  of  the  rotation  has  been  trans- 
formed, especially  as  the  electric  currents  cease  M  ith 
the  motion ;  but  if  we  keep  up  the  rotation  forcibly, 
we  find  in  a  short  time  the  copper  growing  warm  ; 
in  other  words,  the  motion  has  been  transformed 
into  electricity,  and  the  latter  into  heat.  This  very 
beautiful  experiment  is  due  to  Joule,  and  has  been 
repeated  in  a  striking  pojiular  form  by  Foucault. 

Advantage  has  been  taken  by  Faraday  of  the 
phenomena  of  induction,  to  produce  electric  currents 
by  aid  of  the  earth's  magnetism.  liis  apparatus  is 
simply  a  revolving  disc  of  metal,  and  the  terminal 
wdres  touch,  one  its  axis,  the  other  its  *'-dge.  The 
force  which  is  here  transformed  into  e)'?.ctricity  is 
the  additional  effort  requisite  to  turn  a  •conducting 
disc,  instead  of  an  equal  non-conducti7ig  oxxf..  It  is  a 
curious  consequence  that  in  all  metallic  juachinery 
a  portion  of  the  energy  of  the  prime  move>'  is  lost  in 
producing  electricity,  and  finally  heat,  in  ti«e  moving 
parts,  so  that  heat  in  such  cases  is  noi  entirely, 
though  very  nearly,  due  to  friction  alone. 

Perhaps  one  of  the  most  singular  of  th'^e  trans- 
formations of  energy  is  that  already  refen«;d  to  o£ 
heat  into  electricity.  Certain  crystals,  such  as  tour- 
maline, become  electrified  by  heat ;  but  ^lectrio 
currents  can  be  produced  by  simply  heating  a  junc- 
tion of  two  wires  or  bars  of  different  met.xls,  the 
other  ends  also  being  in  contact.  Now,  if  wo  were 
to  heat  the  other  junction,  it  is  obvious  that,  as  at  it 
the  metals  are  an-anged  in  the  opposite  order,  we 
should  produce  a  contrary  current ;  conversely  by 
cooling  them  we  should  strengthen  the  first.  But  the 
conservation  of  foi'ce  requires  that  such  a  junction 
should  be  heated  or  cooled  according  to  the  direction 
in  Avhich  a  current  passes  through  it.  This  was  dis- 
covered by  Peltier. 

Animal  force,  again — or  rather  its  actual  energy — 
is  sinq)ly  a  transformation  of  the  potential  energy 


FORCE;  ENERGY. 


of  food.  This  is  well  illustrated  by  the  increased 
diet  which  is  required  when  man  or  beast  abruptly 
changes  from  a  state  of  inactivity  to  one  of  toil,  as 
with  a  polai-  bear  after  his  winter's  sleep  ;  or  by  tlie 
greater  amoimt  and  better  quality  of  food  which 
are  necessary  for  criminals  subject  to  hard  labour, 
than  for  those  who  are  merely  imprisoned. 

Since,  then,  as  far  as  we  have  yet  seen,  there  is 
no  such  thing  as  gain  or  loss  of  energy  anywhere, 
while  it  appears  that  the  ultimate  transformation  of 
such  energy  is  heat,  and  that  the  latter  tends  to 
a  uniform  diffusion  or  dissi])ation,  in  which  it  is 
aruavailable,  as  far  as  we  know,  for  further  trans- 
formation (see  Heat),  whence  do  we  procure  the 
c  ipplies  of  energy  which  are  requisite  to  maintain 
tlie  economy  of  life  ?  We  answer  :  Chiefly,  or  indeed 
entirely,  from  the  sun,  whence  they  come  as  light  and 
radiant  heat,  perhaps  in  other  forms.  Without  the 
sun,  where  would  be  vegetation  ? — ^\^thout  the  latter, 
where  animal  life  ?  Where  would  be  our  stores  of 
fuel,  M^hether  wood  or  coal  ?  It  is  entirely,  then, 
we  may  say,  to  the  directly  supplied  energy  of  the 
sun  that  we  look  for  the  maintenance  of  life  ;  and  this 
leads  to  a  question  not  of  much  importance  to  our- 
selves, to  be  sure,  but  of  vast  future  consequence  to 
the  human  race  :  Is  this  supply  finite  ?  Will  the 
sun  in  time  have  given  off  all  its  energy,  or  is  it 
oontiimally  receiving  accessions  itself,  and  if  so,  has 
it  an  inexhaustible  store  to  draw  from  ? 

Now,  whether  the  sun  be  a  hot  mass,  or  be  sur- 
rounded by  an  atmosphere  m  an  intense  state  of 
coml)ustion,  or  whether  it  derives  the  main  part  of 
its  heat,  as  Thomson  supposes,  from  gravitation 
(in  a  way  presently  to  be  considered),  it  is  certain 
that,  as  far  as  we  know,  it  must  at  some  period 
be  exhausted.  Such  is  the  apparently  inevitable 
verdict  oi  the  conservation  of  energy. 

The  g:-avitation  theory  of  the  origin  of  energy 
generally  may  be  given  in  some  such  form  as  this  : 
The  matter  in  the  universe,  in  a  state  of  coarser 
or  finer  division,  originally  filled  all  space,  and 
possessed,  therefore,  by  virtue  of  gravitation,  a 
certain  amount  of  potential  energy.  As  particles 
gradually  moved  up  to  each  other,  and  became 
slowly  agglomerated  into  masses,  more  and  more 
of  this  energy  w'as  realised  in  its  actual  form ;  some 
as  heat  (that  of  the  sun,  or  the  internal  heat  of  the 
earth,  &c.),  some  as  vis-viva  of  axial  or  orbital  rota- 
tion, &c.  There  still  remains  unagglomerated  in 
space  (see  Zodiacal  Light,  Aerolites,  Nebulte) 
much  of  this  original  matter  still  falling  mainly 
towards  the  larger  masses,  as  the  sun  and  stars,  and 
exchanging  its  potential  for  actual  energy.  But  the 
hitter,  as  we  have  seen,  tends  ultimately  to  become 
heat,  and  to  seek  a  uniform  diffusion.  This,  then,  it 
appears,  is  to  be  the  last  scene  of  the  great  mystery 
of  tlie  universe— chaos  and  darkness  as  'in  the 
beginning.' 

An  immediate  consequence  of  the  truth  of  the 
conservation  of  energy  is  the  impossibility  of  what 
is  usually  understood  by  Perpetual  Motion  (q.  v.)  ; 
for  it  is  to  be  carefully  remembered  that  perpetual 
motion,  in  the  literal  sense  of  the  words,  is  not 
cnly  possible,  but  very  general.  If  there  were  no 
Buch  thing  as  friction,  or  if  we  had  a  perfectly 
smootli  body,  in  the  form  of  a  teetotum,  for  example, 
it  would  spin  for  ever  in  vacuo  with  undiminished 
speed.  The  earth  in  its  axial  rotation  affords  a 
good  example.  Were  it  a  perfect  s])here,  and  of 
uniform  material,  the  other  masses  of  the  system 
could  produce  no  effect  whatever  on  its  rotation, 
and  the  latter  wovdd,  as  indeed  it  does,  as  far  as 
we  can  determine,  remain  for  ever  unchanged.  And 
even,  as  we  have  already  seen,  when  one  motion,  as 
electricity,  or  ordinary  vis-viva,  is  lost,  we  find  it 
reappearing  in  other  forms  of  motion,  such  as  heat 


and  light.  But  this  is  not  the  technical  accepta* 
tion  of  tlie  term  per[)ctual  motion  ;  it  is  popularly 
understood  to  mean  a  source  of  motion  which  will 
not  only  preserve  its  own  vis-viva  unchungcd,  but 
also  do  work.  This  is,  of  course,  incoini)atil)lo  with 
the  conservation  of  energy,  for  wherever  work  ia 
done,  equivalent  energy  in  some  form  or  other  is 
consumed.  As  we  have  not,  however,  an  absolute 
certainty  of,  though  very  powerful  evidence  indeed 
for,  the  truth  of  the  principle,  it  woidd  l)e  un})hilo- 
sopliical  to  conclude  that  jierpetual  motion  is  aboo- 
lutely  impossible.  It  is  cei'tain,  however,  that  it 
cannot  be  attained  by  any  mechanical  arrangement ; 
and  neither  heat,  light,  nor  magnetism  can  give  no 
any  assistance.  If  we  knew  more  than  we  do  at 
present  about  electricity,  we  should  probably  add  it 
also  to  the  category.  The  ordinary  atteni])ts  which 
are  still  being  made  in  thousands  by  visionaries, 
are  simply  absurd,  based  as  they  are  for  the  most 
part  on  ignorant  applications  of  mechanics.  There 
is  absolute  imi)ossibility  here ;  and  a  '  per])etual 
motionist '  of  the  common  herd  is  far  more  infatu- 
ated than  a  '  squarer  of  the  circle  ; '  for  the  latter'a 
problem  majf  be  solved,  though  certainly  not  by  the 
means  usually  emi)loyed,  or  in  the  form  usually 
sought  for. 

We  may  now  briefly  consider  the  theories  of  the 
physical  forces  which  have  been  advanced  of  late 
times,  and  we  may  take  such  as  are  worth  notice 
together.  All  of  them  assume  at  the  outset  forces 
of  attraction  or  repulsion  between  particles,  or  else 
a  highly  elastic  liuid,  or  rather  solid,  if  we  may 
so  call  it,  in  which  the  particles  of  matter  float, 
or  are  imbedded.  We  have  already  considered  the 
difficidties  attending  the  latter  supposition;  but  it 
is  the  only  one  which  does  not  refer  force  back  to 
force,  thus  apparently  leaving  the  question  where 
it  found  it.  We  may  dismiss  it  with  the  remark, 
that  a  fluid  or  quasi-solid  absolutely  continuous 
and  alike  in  every  part  is  difficxdt  to  conceive ; 
and  it  is  hard  to  understand  how  motion  can  be 
propagated  through  it.  If  it  be  not  continuous, 
forces  must  be  supposed  to  be  exerted  by  its  parts 
on  each  other,  else  the  motion  of  one  part  would  not 
affect  the  others.  There  is  one  way  in  which  the 
latter  difficulty  has  been  attacked,  which  seema 
plausible  enough  ;  and  that  is,  that  the  particles  of 
this  fluid  are  in  a  state  of  rapid  motion,  and  con- 
tinually impinging  on  each  other  and  on  the  particles 
of  matter,  no  forces  being  exerted  except  those  of 
pressure  at  the  im})act.  But,  unless  these  particles 
be  supposed  elastic,  and  what  is  elasticity  but  a  form 
of  molecidar  force  {force  again),  their  motion  woidd 
be  lessened  at  every  impact,  and  destroyed  com- 
pletely if  the  impact  were  direct.  This  objection 
seems  to  be  a  very  strong  one.  The  first-mentioned 
theory,  that  of  Epinus  and  Mosotti,  assumes  that 
material  particles  float  in  a  general  atmosphere 
of  ether,  that  the  particles  of  each  repel  one 
another,  but  that  a  particle  of  matter  attracts 
one  of  ether.  From  these  suppositions,  and  an  hypo- 
thetical law  connecting  pressure  with  density  in 
such  an  ether,  Mosotti  has  deduced  gravitation  and 
the  molecidar  forces  ;  but  to  apply  the  hypothesis 
to  the  other  physical  forces,  other  suppositions  are 
necessary.  These  have  been  supphed  by  Clausius 
and  Redtenbacher,  who,  with  the  assumptions  of 
particles  of  matter  and  of  ether  as  before,  imagine 
those  of  matter  to  attract  each  other,  and  also  those 
of  ether,  but  the  latter  to  be  mutually  repulsive. 
Light  and  radiant  heat,  according  to  this  theory^ 
are  vibrations  of  the  ether  which  fills  all  space 
between  the  particles  of  matter,  or  rather,  between 
the  atmospheres  of  ether  which,  by  the  foregoing 
assumptions,  the  particles  of  matter  wdl  collect 
about  them.    Heat  consists  of  vibrations  of  the 

423 


FORCE ;  ENEHGY— FORCE  AND  FEAR. 


molecules  of  matter,  or  of  the  groups  of  atoms  (see 
Atomic  Theory)  of  which  the  molecule  of  a  com- 
pound body  is  built  up,  together  with  their  atmo- 
epheres.  Electricity,  magnetism,  &c.,  are  exi)lained 
to  be  rotations  in  the  atmospheres.  Redtenbacher 
and  Clausius  are  not  quite  agreed  as  to  the  physical 
forces  corresponding  to  each  of  these  forms  of  motion, 
but  the  above  sketch  will  give  a  general  idea  of  the 
nature  of  their  specidations. 

But  the  most  startling  of  all  the  reflections  on 
force,  and  its  ultimate  nature,  which  have  perhaps 
ever  been  made,  are  those  of  Faraday.  Without 
calling  in  question  in  ordinary  cases  the  truth  of  the 
conservation  of  energy,  he  has  endeavoured,  by 
experiment  (the  only  genuine  test  in  a  question  so 
novel  and  so  i)rofound),  to  prove  what  may  be  called 
the  Conservation  of  Force,  if  we  understand  force 
itself,  and  not  energy.  He  argues  thus  :  two  masses, 
according  to  the  undisputed  law  of  gravitation, 
attract  with  four  times  their  mutual  force  if  their 
distance  be  diminished  to  half  ;  and  with  only  one- 
fourth  of  the  same,  if  their  distance  be  doubled. 
He  asks  whence  comes  the  additional  force  in  the 
former,  and  what  becomes  of  the  lost  force  in  the 
latter  case  ? 

Now,  it  is  evident  that  this  is  a  new  question, 
totally  distinct  from  any  we  have  yet  considered. 
To  answer  it,  we  must  know  wliat  force  is.  Would 
gravitation  have  any  existence  if  there  were  but  one 
particle  of  matter  in  the  universe,  or  does  it  suddenly 
come  into  existence  when  a  second  particle  appears  ? 
Es  it  an  attribute  of  matter,  or  is  it  due  to  something 
between  the  particles  of  matter  ?  Faraday  has  tried 
several  experiments  of  an  exceedingly  delicate  kind, 
in  order  to  get  at  some  answer  to  his  question.  A 
Blight  sketch  of  one  of  them  must  suffice.  A  pound- 
weight  is  not  so  heavy  at  the  ceiling  of  a  room  as  it 
is  when  on  the  floor ;  for,  in  the  former  case,  it  is 
more  distant  from  the  mass  of  the  earth  than  in  the 
latter.  The  difference  for  a  height  of  30  feet  is 
(roughly)  about  •330^,75^(1'^^  of  a  pound.  Now,  if  a 
mass  of  metal  be  dropped  through  such  a  space,  an 
additional  force,  -530.^(575^1^  weight,  is  called 

into  play,  and  the  object  of  the  experiment  was  to 
detect  whether  electrical  effects  accompanied  this 
apparent  creation  of  force.  The  mass,  therefore,  was 
a  long  copper  wire,  whose  coils  were  insulated  (see 
Electricity)  from  each  other,  and  whose  extremities 
were  connected  with  those  of  the  coil  of  a  delicate 
Galvanometer  (q.  v.).  Had  any  trace  of  an  electric 
current  been  produced,  the  needle  of  the  galvan- 
ometer would  have  been  deflected,  but,  when  all 
distur})ing  causes  were  avoided,  no  such  deflection 
was  detected.  Other  experiments  with  a  view  to 
the  detection  of  other  physical  forces,  were  also  tried, 
but,  like  the  first,  with  negative  results  only.  We 
must  not,  however,  conclude  that  such  can  never  be 
found,  as  this  would  be  assuming  the  absolute  truth, 
in  all  cases,  of  the  conservation  of  energy,  which  is 
no  doubt  thoroughly  borne  out  by  experiment  in 
many  cases,  but  not  even  approximately  in  others  ; 
while  even  in  the  former  class  more  delicate  instru- 
mental means  may  enable  us  to  trace  small  but  most 
important  deviations  from  absolute  exactness  ;  and 
it  is  to  the  results  of  such  trials  that  we  must  look 
for  further  information  as  to  the  nature  of  force,  and 
the  generality  of  the  law  of  conservation  of  energy. 

There  are,  in  mechanics,  several  other  quantities 
which  rettiln  a  fixed  value  under  certain  circum- 
gtances.    We  may  briefly  consider  a  few  of  them. 

Conservation  of  Areas.  Invai-iable  Plane. — We 
have  seen  (Central  Forces)  that  if  a  particle 
move  about  a  centre  of  force,  its  motion  is  con- 
fined to  a  i^lane,  and  its  radius  vector  traces  out 
eoiial  areas  in  equal  times.  Similar  theorems  hold 
ill"  any  system  of  particles  acted  on  only  by  their 

41\ 


mutual  attractions.  If  in  such  a  system  we  suppoM 
the  positions  of  the  respective  particles  to  be  con- 
tinually projected  (orthogonally,  see  Projection)  on 
ayiy  fixed  plane,  and  radii  vectores  to  be  drawn  from 
any  point  in  that  plane  to  the  projections — the  sum 
of  the  areas  swept  out  by  all  those  radii  vectores  will  be 
equal  in  equal  times.  Also,  this  being  true  of  all 
planes,  there  is  one  for  which  this  sum  is  a  maxi- 
mum,  and  this  plane  is  fixed  in  space.  It  is  thence 
called  the  invariable  plane  of  the  system.  Si  nailar 
propositions  hold  for  a  system  of  bodies  each  <  f  :  Inite 
size,  their  several  axial  rotations  being  taken  intc 
account ;  hence  what  is  called  the  Invariable  Plant 
(q.  V.)  of  the  Solar  System. 

Conservation  of  Momentum. — When  two  massen 
attract  or  impinge,  the  forces  they  exert  (tn  each 
other  are  evidently  equal  and  opposite.  Now,  the 
measure  of  a  force  is  the  momentum  it  produces ; 
hence  equal  and  opposite  momenta,  in  addition  to 
their  original  quantities,  will  be  communicated  to 
the  masses,  and  therefore  the  sum  of  the  momen.a 
of  the  two,  resolved  in  any  direction,  will  be 
unaltered ;  hence,  the  sum  of  the  momenta  of  any 
number  of  bodies  will  be  unaltered  by  mutuul  actions 
either  of  the  nature  of  attraction  or  impact. 

For  a  full  exhibit  of  the  ablest  presentations  of  the 
views  that  now  obtain  respecting  the  most  important 
discovery  of  the  present  centur}'^,  the  reader  will  con- 
sult The  Correlation  and  Conservation  of  Forces,  a 
series  of  expositions  by  Professors  Grove,  Helmholtz, 
Mayer,  Faraday,  Liebig,  and  Carpenter.  Edited  by  E. 
L.  Voumans,  New  York,  1865;  also.  The  Chemical 
Forces,  by  T.  R.  Pynchon,  Hartford,  1870. 

FORCE  AND  FEAR.  As  consent  is  of  the 
essence,  or  rather  is  the  essence  of  all  contracts, 
and  as  consent  implies  not  only  intelligence,  but 
unfettered  power  of  action  in  the  consenting  parties, 
contracts,  by  the  laws  of  all  civilised  nations,  will 
be  invalidated  if  it  shall  be  proved  that  they  were 
entered  into  under  the  influence  of  force  or  fear. 
Circumstances  which  constrain  the  will  have  the 
same  efi"ect  as  those  which  blind  the  vmderstanding, 
and  the  law  of  force  and  fear  is  consequently 
closely  analogous  to  that  of  Fraud  (q.  v.),  including 
under  that  head  misrei^resentation,  concealment, 
and  consequent  Error  (q.  v.).  But  it  is  not  every 
degree  of  constraint,  however  exercised,  which  will 
have  this  efi"ect  in  law.  On  the  contrary,  it  must 
be  of  such  a  description  as  may  be  reasonably  sup- 
posed to  influence  the  will  of  the  party  in  the 
circvimstances  in  which  he  is  placed  at  the  time. 
In  determining,  therefore,  whether  there  really  has 
been  force  or  fear  in  the  legal  sense,  the  law  will 
take  into  account  the  age,  sex,  education,  and  other 
personal  characteristics  of  the  party,  along  with  the 
accidental  circumstances  in  which  he  was  placed, 
e.  g.,  the  state  of  his  health  and  spirits  at  the  time, 
whether  he  was  alone,  what  anxiety  he  may  have 
felt  for  the  life  or  interest  of  others,  and  the  like. 
But  '  M'here  there  is  no  peculiar  weakness  of  age 
or  sex,  or  condition,'  says  Mr  Bell,  stating  in  this 
respect  not  the  law  of  Scotland  alone,  but  of 
most  other  countries,  '  law  will  require,  in  order  to 
aimul  a  contract,  such  fear  and  compulsion  as  may 
reasonably  shake  a  mind  of  ordinary  constancy  and 
resolution,  and  will  not  listen  to  the  pretence  of 
every  va?n  and  foolish  fear.' — Com.  i.  p.  22,  Shaw's 
ed.  As  a  contract  which  is  invalid  on  the  ground 
of  force  and  fear  is  not  only  incapable  of  being 
enforced  after  its  invalidity  has  been  ascertained  by- 
legal  process,  but  from  the  absence  of  consent  was 
invalid  ab  initio — i.  e.,  no  conti-act,  in  a  legal  sense, 
at  all — the  object  of  the  law  is  to  restore  the  parties 
to  the  position  in  which  they  were  before  it  was 
entered  into.  All  moneys  which  have  been  paid 
under  the  provisions  of  the  extorted  contract  musf 


FORCELLINI— FOKD,  FOEDING. 


consequently  be  repaid,  and  reparation  in  as  far  as 
possible  must  be  made  by  the  payment  of  damages 
for  such  personal  injuries  as  the  party  who  was 
dragged  into  it  may  have  suffered  from  the  enforce- 
ment of  its  pro^asions,  See  IIeduction.  By  the 
law  of  England,  Duress  (q.  v.)  which  will  invalidate 
a  contract  must  amount  to  fear  of  the  loss  of  life 
or  limb  (Mayhem,  q.  v.).  '  Whatever  i^.  done  by  a 
man  to  save  either  life  or  member,'  says  Black- 
stone,  '  is  looked  upon  as  dune  upon  the  highest 
necessity  and  compulsion.  There-^ore,  if  a  man, 
through  fear  of  death  or  mayhem,  is  prevailed  upon 
to  execute  a  deed,  or  do  any  other  legal  act,  these, 
though  accompanied  wdth  all  other  the  requisite 
solemnities,  may  be  afterwards  avoided.'  But  '  a 
fear  of  battery  or  being  beaten,  though  never  so 
Well  grounded,  is  no  duress;  neither  is  the  fear  of 
having  one's  house  burned,  or  one's  goods  taken 
awaj'-  and  destroj'-ed,  because  in  these  cases,  should 
the  threat  be  performed,  a  man  may  have  satisfac- 
tion by  recovering  equivalent  damages.' — Stephen's 
Com.  i.  p.  142.  The  avoidance  of  such  a  contract 
is,  however,  dependent  on  the  will  of  the  injured 
[arty.  'A  contract  made  under  duress  may  be 
avoided  by  the  person  whose  free-will  was  thus 
restrained,  though  he  has  also  an  election,  if  he 
thiniis  proper,  to  insist  upon  it  as  a  binding  trans- 
act'on '  [lb.  vol.  ii.  p.  62).  But  the  parties  who  are 
entitled  to  treat  a  contract  either  as  a  nullity  or  a 
subsisting  contract,  must  make  their  election,  and 
cannot,  after  treating  the  contract  as  rescinded,  set 
it  up  as  a  subsisting  contract  (Addison  on  Contracts, 
pp.  273,  436,  and  1074). 

rORCELLI'NI,  Egidio,  an  Italian,  philologist  of 
great  attainments,  was  born  on  the  26th  of  August 
1688,  in  a  village  near  Padua.  Owing  to  the  limited 
means  of  his  family,  F.  was  deprived,  of  the  benefit 
of  early  instruction,  and  was  already  verging  towards 
manhood  v/hen  enabled  to  commence  a  regular 
course  of  study  in  the  seminary  at  Padua.  His 
Kealous  industry,  combined  wath  unusual  powers  of 
learning,  singled  him  out  from  his  companions, 
and  won  the  admiration  of  the  learned  principal, 
Giacomo  Facciolati,  who  even  associated  him  with 
some  of  his  own  scientific  labours.  The  pupil 
rendered  his  teacher  valuable  service  in  the  com- 
pilation of  a  highly  important  lexicon,  a  work 
which  y)robably  inspired  both  with  the  project  on 
which  F.'s  literary  i-epute  is  based — viz.,  the  com- 
pilation of  a  vast  and  comprehensive  vocabulary  of 
the  Latin  language.  The  work  was  published  after 
F.'s  death,  and  pronounced  by  public  voice  as  one 
of  the  most  valuable  acquisitions  to  philological 
Bcience  of  the  age.  In  addition  to  the  Italian  and 
Greek  signification  of  the  Latin  word,  the  literal  and 
figiu-ative  application  of  each  expression  is  given  in 
a  collection  of  examples,  in  themselves  a  perfect 
compendium  of  knowledge,  embracing  the  customs, 
lavv.s,  arts,  sciences,  religion,  and  history  of  the 
Romans.  This  immense  work  was  published  in  4 
vols.,  folio,  under  the  title,  Totias  Latinltatis  Lexicon, 
cons'dio  et  ciira  Jac.  Facciolati,  opera  et  studio  Aeg. 
ForccUitd  Lucul)ratu7n  (Padua,  1771).  Furlanetto's 
n])pendix  ajipeared  in  1816  (Padua),  and  a  new 
edition  of  the  complete  work  was  published  in 
1828  (Padua).    F.  died  in  1768. 

FORCENE,  said,  in  Heraldry,  of  a  horse  when 
rearing,  or  standing  on  his  hinder  legs. 

FO'RCEPS  (Lat.  a  pair  of  tongs  or  pincers),  the 
name  given  by  surgeons  to  an  instrument  of  great 
antiquity,  used  as  a  substitute  for  the  fingers,  and 
yonnisting  of  two  levers  of  metal  jointed  together 
croi^wise,  nearer  to  one  end  than  the  other.  The 
hand  grasping  the  longer  ends  of  tlie  levers  or 
handles,  close*  the  shorter  ends,  which  are  shaped 


so  as  to  seize  firmly  the  intended  object.  There  ifl 
scarcely  a  surgical  operation  in  which  it  is  not 
applied ;  and  it  is  made  of  various  forms,  to  suit 
different  cases.  In  addition  to  the  forms  used  in 
Dentistry  (q.  v.),  there  is,  e.  g,,  the  dissecting  iorG&[)By 
which  has  roughened  points,  to  lay  hold  of  smaU 
portions  of  tissue  which  are  to  be  divided  by  the 
knife ;  the  lithotomy  forceps,  again,  has  blades 
concave  like  spoons ;  and  fenestrated  forceps  have 
apertures  in  the  blades,  and  as  the  soft  tissues  pro- 
ject into  these,  a  firm  hold  is  obtained  with  less  risk 
of  tearing  the  parts.  By  means  of  Listen's  cutting 
forceps,  a  powerful  hand  can  divide  a  greit  l^hick- 
ness  of  bone.  But  the  most  important  of  all  ia  the 
midwifery  forceps,  an  invaluable  invention,  in  cases 
of  difficult  dehvery,  which  daily  rescues  from  suffer- 
ing and  danger  numerous  mothers  and  infants.  It 
was  gradually  brought  to  its  present  perfection ;  but 
the  name  of  Chamberlen,  an  accoucheur  of  the  time 
of  James  IL,  is  associated  with  it,  as  one  of  its  chief 
improvers.  It  consists  of  two  concave  fenestrated 
blades,  forming  a  cavity  mto  which  the  head  of  the 
child  fits.  The  blades  are  applied  separately,  one 
to  each  side  of  the  head,  and  then  locked  together. 
Holding  by  the  handles,  the  accoucheur  aids  the 
natural  efibrts  of  labour.  The  instrument  does  not 
necessarily  or  generally  injure  either  mother  or 
child. 

FORCIN'G,  in  Gardening,  is  the  artificial  appli- 
cation of  heat  to  accelerate  vegetation.  The  term 
is  not  usually  applied  to  the  cultivation  of  exotic 
plants  in  hothouses,  where  the  object  is  to  imitate 
as  much  as  possible  their  native  climate ;  but  it 
is  strictly  aj^plicable  to  the  system  usually  pursued 
wnth  vines  and  pine-apples,  to  secure  the  production 
of  fruit  at  desired  seasons,  and  by  different  plants 
of  the  same  kind  in  succession  through  a  consider- 
able period,  the  heat  being  increased  for  one  set 
of  plants  sooner  than  for  another.  Many  of  the 
fruits  and  vegetables  which  grow  well  in  the  open 
air,  are  very  commonly  forced,  in  order  that  they 
may  be  procured  at  seasons  when  they  could 
not  without  artificial  means.  Thus,  sea-kale  and 
rhubarb  are  forced  by  means  of  the  heat  produced 
by  heaps  of  fermenting  litter,  by  which  at  the 
same  time  they  are  blanched,  and  to  this  W' e  owe 
their  appearance  in  the  market  very  early  in  the 
season.  Potatoes,  pease,  kidney-beans,  asparagus, 
salads,  &c.,  are  often  forced  by  means  of  hotbeds, 
or  in  fined  pits ;  or  a  place  is  foimd  for  them  in 
hothouses.  Strawberries  are  ciiltivated  in  pots, 
and  forced  in  hothouses ;  and  some  kinds  of  fruit- 
trees  are  often  treated  in  the  same  way,  particu- 
larly cherries  ;  and  very  diminutive  trees  may  b^ 
seen  richly  loaded  wdth  fruit.  Certain  varieties  are 
regarded  by  gardeners  as  particularly  suitable  for 
forcing.  The  system  pursued  in  the  Orchard-house 
(q.  V.)  cannot  be  called  forcing. 

FORD,  FORDING.  When  a  river  or  nxu' 
let  is  crossed  wdthout  the  aid  of  either  a  bridge 
or  ferry,  it  is  said  to  be  forded,  and  an  established 
place  for  this  crossing  is  caUed  a  ford.  Thus,  wo 
have  Oxford,  Stratford,  Deptford,  Hungerford,  &c., 
towns  built  around  ancient  fords.  To  the  military 
engineer  and  the  tiaveller  in  w^ild  countries,  the 
selection  of  the  safest  place  for  fording  a  river  ia 
a  matter  of  some  practical  imj)ortance.  In  the 
first  place,  the  widest  part  of  the  river  should  bo 
chosen,  as,  wherever  a  certain  quantity  of  water  is 
flowing,  the  w4der  its  bed — the  rapidity  of  the 
flow  being  the  same — the  shallower  it  must  be.  At 
the  bend  of  a  river,  the  line  of  shallow  water  does 
not  run  straight  aci'oss,  but  extends  from  a  pro- 
montory on  one  side  to  the  nearest  promontory  on 
the  other.    The  stream  usually  runs  deep  along 


FORD— FOREIGN  ATTACHMENT. 


hollow  curves,  and  bcncntli  steep,  perpendicular, 
and  overhanging  banks,  whilst  it  is  always  shoal  in 
front  of  promontories,  unless  the  promontory  is 
formed  by  a  jutting  rock.  For  safe  fording  on  foot, 
the  depth  of  water  should  not  exceed  three  feet ; 
on  horseback,  four  feet ;  or  a  foot  less  for  each  if 
th<j  cuiTeut  be  very  strong.  The  bottom  of  a  ford 
sliOTild  be  firm  and  even  ;  weeds,  blocks  of  stone,  &c., 
ara  seriovis  obstacles,  especially  for  cattle.  When  a 
caravan,  a  number  of  troops,  or  of  cattle,  have  to 
cross,  a  sandy  bottom  is  very  bad,  for  the  sand  is 
stirred  up  and  carried  away  by  the  stream,  and 
renders  the  ford  imi)racticable  for  the  hindmost. 
For  a  small  party,  hard  sand  or  gravel  is  the  safest 
bottom. 

The  inhabitants  of  a  district  generally  know  the 
safest  fords,  and  their  exy)erience  affords  a  better 
guide  than  the  best  rules  that  can  be  given.  F ords 
are  coutiually  varying,  either  from  the  swelling  of 
the  river  or  the  shifting  of  its  bed  or  banks,  and 
therefore  it  does  not  follow  tliat  the  jdace  set  down 
by  one  traveller  as  a  safe  ford,  will  continue  so  for 
the  next  that  succeeds  him. 

FORD,  John,  an  English  dramatist,  was  the 
second  son  of  Thomas  Ford  of  llsington,  in  the 
comity  of  Devon.  The  date  of  his  birth  is  not 
known,  but  he  was  baptized  in  llsington  Church, 
17th  April  loSG.  His  family  was  connected  M'itli 
the  famous  Lord  Chief  Justice  Popham,  and  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Middle  Temple  in  Novem- 
ber 1602  ;  his  cousin,  a  John  Ford  also,  at  the  same 
period  being  a  member  of  Gray's  Inn.  Unlike 
many  members  of  the  poetic  trilie,  F.  seems  to  have 
adhered  to  his  studies,  and  to  have  attained  some 
professional  success.  His  first  poem  was  an  elegy 
on  the  death  of  the  Earl  of  Devonshire,  entitled 
Fame's  Memorial,  and  siibsequently  he  assisted  in 
the  composition  of  various  plays  ;  i)erhaps,  from  his 
conjunction  with  Webster  and  Decker,  in  this  way 
he  acquired,  or  at  least  whetted,  his  appetite  for 
tragic  horrors.  In  1G29,  he  produced  Lover''s 
Mdanchobi ;  and  four  years  after.  The  Broken  Heart, 
and  Love's  Sacrifice.  Next  year  came  Perkin  War- 
beck  ;  and  in  1638— 1G30,  The  Fancies  Chaste  and 
Noble,  and  7'Ae  Lachjs  Trial.  After  tliis,  F.  drops 
out  of  literary  history.  Some  think  that  he  died 
soon  after;  others,  that  he  retired  to  his  native 
place,  married,  and  lived  to  an  old  age,  with  sons 
and  daughters  growing  up  around  him. 

F.  takes  high  position  as  a  dramatist,  and  this 
position  he  attains  more  by  general  mental  force 
than  by  di-amatic  instinct,  or  by  what  we  are  accus- 
tomed to  call  poetic  genius.  In  his  compositions, 
there  is  a  sense  of  effort ;  his  writing  looks  like  task- 
work; and  one  can  hardly  suppose  that  he  enjoyed 
his  work.  His  versification— even  when  the  subject- 
matter  is  distinctly  noble — is  hard  and  prosaic. 
He  has  no  humour.  He  has  been  praised  for  his 
pathcs,  but  in  his  pathetic  scenes  effort  is  apparent. 
He  cannot  '  flatter'  you  to  tears,  as  Shaksi^eare 
and  the  greater  poets  do.  An  edition  of  his  works, 
published  by  Edward  Moxon  of  London  (1840),  is 
enriched  by  a  biographical  notice  and  critical 
estimate  from  the  pen  of  Hartley  Coleridge. 

FORDLTN,  John  of.  Nothing  more  is  certainly 
kucwn  of  this  early  Scottish  chronicler,  than  that 
he  was  a  secular  priest,  and  wrote  about  the  year 
1380.  It  has  been  inferred  from  kis  name  that  he 
waa  bom  at  Fordun,  in  Kincardineshire,  and  it  has 
been  said  that  he  was  a  canon  of  the  cathedral 
church  ol  Aberdeen.  Having  proposed  to  himself 
the  compilation  of  a  chronicle  of  Scotland,  he  is 
Baid  to  have  travelled  on  foot  through  Britain  and 
Ireland  in  search  of  materials.  He  lived  to  write 
Dnly  five  books  of  his  Scotichronicon,  bringing  the 
426 


history  down  to  the  death  of  King  David  I.  in  11531 
He  left  collections  extending  to  the  year  1385,  about 
which  time  he  is  supposed  to  have  died.  The  work 
which  John  of  F.  had  left  uu.inished  was  resumed  in 
the  year  1441  by  Walter  Bower,  abbot  of  the  monas- 
tery of  Austin  Canons  Regular,  at  Inch  Colm,  or  St 
Colm's  Inch,  in  the  Firth  of  Forth.  He  enlarged 
the  five  books  which  F.  had  completed,  and  making 
use  of  his  collections  so  far  as  they  went,  wrote  eleven 
new  books,  bringing  the  Scotichronicon  down  to  the 
nuirder  of  King  James  I.  in  1437.  The  dearth  of 
other  annals  has  given  more  importance  to  the  work 
than  it  could  claim  from  its  literary  merits,  which 
are  scanty  enough.  It  has  been  printed  more  than 
once,  the  most  complete  edition  being  Walter  Good- 
all's,  publislied  at  Edinburgh  in  1759,  in  two  folios. 
This  includes  both  F.  and  Bower.  The  best  edition 
of  F.'s  work,  as  it  was  left  by  hirfiself,  is  T  lomas 
Hearne's,  published  at  Oxford  in  1722.  There  is 
room  for  a  new  edition,  which  shoidd  give  a  collation 
of  the  best  manuscripts,  and  distinguish  what  is  F.'s 
own,  what  he  copied  from  others,  and  what  Bower 
interpolated  into  liis  text. 

FORE  (i.  e.,  first),  a  term  applied  to  the  front 
or  foremost  part  of  a  ship.  The  forehold  is  that 
part  pf  the  hold  intervening  between  the  ciitwater 
and  the  foremast.  The  forecastle  is  that  portion  of 
the  u])j>er  deck  extending  from  the  foremast  to  the 
bow  ;  it  is  the  part  to  which  the  common  sailors 
have  free  access,  and  probably  derives  its  name  from 
a  small  turret  or  castle  placed  near  the  prow  in 
ancient  vessels,  from  which  darts  and  other  projec- 
tiles could  be  most  conveniently  hurled  upon  an 
enemy.  Foremost  is  the  first  of  the  three  masts,  or 
of  the  two,  when  only  that  number  are  present.  It 
is  surmounted  by  the  foretop-mast,  foretopgallant- 
mast,  and  foreroyal ;  its  sails  being  foresail,  fore- 
topsail,  &c.  ;  between  it  and  the  bow  flies  the  fore« 
staysail,  hoisted  on  the  forestay,  a  massive  rope 
passing  from  the  foretop  to  the  bow,  and,  wdth  the 
backstays  and  shrouds,  maintaining  the  mast  in  a 
perpendicidar  position.  The  forebraces  are  ropes 
passing  from  the  extremities  of  the  foreyard  into 
the  maintop,  whence  they  descend  through  pidleys 
to  the  deck,  where  they  serve,  when  necessary, 
to  alter  the  direction  presented  by  the  foresail  to 
the  wind. 

FORECLO'SURE,  in  English  Law,  the  process  by 
which  a  mortgagor  failing  to  repay  the  money  lent 
on  the  security  of  an  estate,  is  compelled  to  forfeit 
his  right  to  redeem  the  estate.  Every  person  having 
mortgaged  his  estate,  is  entitled  to  an  equity  of 
redemption,  which  can  only  be  cut  off  by  a  formal 
process.  For  this  pmpose,  the  mortgagor  files  a  bill 
of  foreclosure,  praying  that  an  account  may  be  taken 
of  the  principal  and  interest  due  under  the  mortgage, 
and  that  the  mortgagor,  on  failing  to  pay,  may  for- 
feit his  equity  of  redemption.  If  on  the  day  fixed 
for  payment,  the  money  be  not  forthcoming,  the 
mortgagor  will  be  declared  to  have  forfeited  his 
equity  of  redemption,  and  the  mortgagee  will  be 
allow'ed  to  retain  the  estate  in  perpetuity.  See 
Mortgage. 

FOREHAND  RENT.  In  Scotch  Law,  rent  is 
said  to  be  forehand  when  it  is  made  payable  before 
the  crop,  of  which  it  is  the  rent,  has  been  reaped. 
After  the  period  when  it  is  due  and  exigible,  fore- 
hand rent  is  in  bonis  of  the  lessor,  and  passes  to  his 
executor,  not  his  heirs  (Bell's  Law  Dictionari)). 

FO'REIGN  ATTA  CHMENT  may  have  refer- 
ence either  to  person  or  property.  A  defendant  who 
has  been  arrested  or  attached  in  a  foreign  country, 
may  be  again  arrested  in  England  on  the  sam? 
ground  of  action.  Thus,  where  a  defendant  had 
been  arrested  abroad  on  an  English  judgment,  act! 


FOREIGN  AUXILIARIES— FOREIGN  COURTS. 


escaped  and  came  to  England,  the  Court  of  Queen's 
Bench  decided  that  he  may  be  liolden  to  bail  in  an 
action  on  the  judgment.  But  after  an  arrest  in 
Ireland  or  Scotland,  the  defendant  cannot,  in  general, 
be  again  arrested  in  England  for  the  same  debt, 
neither  of  these  countries  being  deemed  foreign  to 
that  eifoct  (Wharton's  Die).  Under  the  same  name, 
a  proceeding  for  securing  the  debts  due  to  the 
defendant  has  been  immemorially  used  in  the  cities 
of  London  and  Bristol  (Stephen's  Com.  iii.  p.  663, 
ncte) ;  and  by  the  C.  L.  P.  Act  of  1854,  a  similar  pro- 
ceeding has  been  adopted,  but  with  this  difference, 
that  wliereas  by  a  foreign  attachment  in  the  Lord 
Mayor's  Court,  debts  are  attached  for  the  purpose 
of  compelling  the  defendant  to  a}>pear  and  put  in 
bail  to  the  action,  no  such  proceeding  can  take  j)lace 
in  the  common-law  courts  till  after  judgment.  See 
Garnishment.  In  Scotland,  where  a  creditor  may 
both  incarcerate  a  debtor  and  attach  his  effects, 
an  English  creditor  may  attach  the  property  of  his 
debtor,  though  he  has  imprisoned  him  in  England. 
See  Attachment,  Appreuend,  Arrest,  Foreign 
Courts.  The  corresponding  phrase  in  Scotland  is 
Arredment,  which  has  reference  both  to  person 
and  goods,  and  is  a  proceeding  at  common  law 
applicable  to  the  whole  country.  As  to  the  validity 
of  a  Scotch  arrestment,  ad  fandandam  jurisdic- 
tionem,  to  enable  the  Scotch  courts  to  proceed 
against  a  foreigner  though  absent,  see  the  recent 
aj)i)eal  case  of  the  Loudon  and  North  Western 
Railway  Co.  v.  Lindsay,  Macqueen,  iii.  p.  99. 

FOREIGN   AUXI'LIARIES.     In  the  early 

Eeriods  of  English  history,  foreign  auxiliaries  were 
y  no  means  uncommon.  Harold  had  a  body  of 
Danes  in  his  army  when  he  defeated  the  Norwe- 
gian king ;  and  to  their  refusal  to  march  agamst 
the  kindred  Normans  he  owed  not  the  least  among 
the  complications  which  ultimately  overwhelmed 
him.  Passing  to  modern  times,  William  III.  had 
for  some  time  a  body  of  Dutch  troops  in  his  pay  as 
king  of  England :  throughout  the  18th  c,  Hessian 
and  Hanoverian  regiments  were  constantly  in  the 
pay  of  the  English  government  for  temporary  pur- 
poses. Hessians  fought  for  us  in  the  first  American 
war;  and  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  who  sold  his 
troops  at  so  much  a  head,  received  upwards  of  half 
a  million  for  soldiers  lost  in  the  campaign.  During 
the  Irish  rebellion,  again,  in  1798,  many  Hessian 
troops  were  employed. 

On  the  outbreak  of  the  continental  war  in  1793, 
it  was  determined  to  recruit  the  British  army  by 
the  addition  of  a  large  body  of  foreigners ;  and 
accordingly,  in  1794,  an  act  passed  for  the  embodi- 
ment of  the  '  King's  German  Legion,'  consisting  of 
15,000  men.  These  troops,  who  were  increased  in 
the  course  of  the  war  to  nearly  double  that  number, 
disting^iished  themselves  in  various  engagements, 
and  formed  some  of  the  regiments  on  which  our 
generals  could  best  rely.  Corps  of  French  emigres, 
as  the  York  Rangers  and  others,  were  also  organised. 
The  whole  of  the  foreign  legions  were  disbanded  in 
1815,  the  officers  being  placed  on  half-pay. 

Dm-ing  the  Russian  war,  in  1854,  the  British 
government  again  had  recourse  to  the  enlistment  of 
foreigners ;  special  provision  being  made  in  the 
act  authorising  their  employment,  that  the  arms 
of  the  legionaries  were  in  no  case  to  be  used 
fcgainst  British  subjects,  in  the  event  of  internal 
discord.  The  numoers  to  be  raised  were  10,000 
Germans,  5000  Swiss,  and  5000  Italians  ;  the  pay  to 
be  the  same  as  to  British  troo})s,  but  temporary 
uervice  to  convey  no  claim  to  half-pay.  About  half 
Vhe  number  of  men  were  enrolled,  and  were  said  to 
have  reached  great  efficiency,  when  the  stoppage  of 
hostilitjes  arrested  their  prjgress,  and  caused  them 
V)  be  disbanded  at  a  gi'eat  cost  for  gratuities,  &c. 


An  attempt  was  made  to  locato  the  Germans  as 
military  settlers  on  the  frontier  of  Ciipe  Colony, 
where  they  should  at  once  be  a  i)rotcction  against 
the  Kafirs,  and  a  valuable  addition  to  the  labour  in 
the  eastern  provinces  ;  but  partly  from  the  ])aiicity 
of  females  in  their  community,  and  partly  from  the 
temptation  to  abscond,  offered  by  the  high  wages 
in  other  parts  of  the  colony,  Stutterheiin,  as  tlie 
settlement  was  called,  has  had  indifferent  success. 
Many  of  the  soldiers  of  the  Italian  legion  subse- 
quently turned  their  training  to  good  account 
under  Garibaldi. 

Troupes  etrangeres  form  a  permanent  portion  of 
the  French  army,  where  they  are  held  in  good 
esteem  ;  they  are  usually  Swiss,  who  are  always 
willing  to  sell  their  services  to  any  power,  whate\  er 
the  cause,  provided  only  that  the  pay  is  good.  The 
throne  of  the  late  Neai)olitan  monarchy  was  latterly 
upheld  chiefly  by  ^wiss  mercenaries. 

FOREIGN  BILL  OF  EXCHANGE  is  a  bill 
hich  is  either  both  drawn  and  acce])ted  abroad ; 
or  drawn  by  a  person  residing  abroad  on  a  person 
in  this  country,  or  the  reverse.  If  a  bill  be  drawn 
abroad,  and  accepted  in  England,  it  does  not  i-equire 
a  stamp  ;  but  if  drawn  in  this  country  upon  a  cor- 
respondent abroad,  or  a  foreign  house,  it  must  be 
stamped  (19  and  20  Vict.  c.  97,  ss.  6  and  7)  ;  and  when 
drawn  abroad,  it  must  be  stamped  by  the  holder, 
before  he  can  present  it  for  jiayment,  or  indorse, 
transfer,  or  otherwise  negotiate  it  within  the  United 
Kingdom  (Chitty  on  Bills  of  Exchange,  12).  It  has, 
however,  been  decided  that  the  stat.  17  and  18  Vict, 
c.  83,  s.  3,  does  not  render  a  stamp  necessary  w'nere 
a  bill  drawn  abroad  has  been  indorsed  aljroad  to  a 
person  in  England,  and  presented  by  him  for  accept- 
ance in  England  (Phillimore,  International  Law,  iv, 
609).  Formerly,  a  bill  drawn  or  jiayable  in  Scot- 
land or  Ireland,  was  foreign  in  England ;  but  such 
bills  were  made  inland  by  the  statute  just  men- 
tioned ;  and  the  same  regulation  was  extended  to 
the  islands  of  Man,  Guernsey,  Jersey,  Aldei-ney, 
and  Sark  (s.  7).  See  Bill.  It  has  been  established 
as  a  rule  in  England,  that  the  liabilities  of  the 
drawer,  the  accepter,  and  indorser,  shall  be  governed 
by  the  laws  of  the  countries  in  which  the  drawing, 
acceptance,  and  indorsement  respectively  took  place 
(Phillimore's  International  Law,  iv.  p.  606  and  506). 
In  the  case  of  bills  which  are  both  drawn  and 
accepted  abroad,  and  which  are  thus  in  reality 
foreign  contracts,  but  of  which  the  accepter  is  a 
native  of  this  country,  and  which  are  sought  to  be 
enforced  in  the  courts  either  of  England  or  Scot- 
land, a  distinction  is  made  between  the  contract 
and  the  remedy  :  '  Whatever  relates  to  the  nature 
of  the  obligation — ad  valorem  contractus — is  to  be 
governed  by  the  law  of  the  country  where  it  is 
made — the  lex  loci ;  whatever  relates  to  the  remedy, 
by  suits  to  compel  performance,  or  by  action  for  a 
breach — ad  dex^isioneni  litis — is  governed  by  the  lex 
fori — the  law  of  the  country  to  whose  courts  the 
application  is  made  for  performance  or  for  damages.' 
— Lord  Brougham  in  Don  v.  Lippman,  House  of 
Lords,  26th  May  1837;  Shaw  and  Maclean,  iL 
p.  723. 

FOREIGN  COURTS.  Kent,  after  stating  that 
in  cases  not  governed  by  the  constitution  and  laws 
of  the  United  States,  the  doctrine  of  the  English 
law,  as  to  the  force  and  effect  to  be  given  to  foreign 
judgments,  is  the  law  of  his  own  country  also, 
observes,  that  the  law  thus  common  to  England  and 
America  '  is  exceedingly,  if  not  peculiarly  liberal,  in 
the  respect  which  it  pays  to  foreign  judgments,  in 
all  other  cases  except  the  case  of  a  foreign  divorce 
or  an  English  marriage.  A  distinction  was  early 
taken  by  Lord  Nottingham,  and  is  now  recognised 


FOREIGN  ENLISTMENT  ACT-FOREST  FLY. 


tfOth  in  England  and  America,  and  indeed  almost 
every^'here  else,  between  a  suit  brouglit  to  enforce 
a  fon  ign  judgment,  and  a  plea  of  a  foreign  judgment 
in  bar  of  a  fresh  suit  for  the  same  cause.  As  the 
effect  to  be  given  to  a  foreign  jxulgment  is  alto- 
gether a  matter  of  comity,  in  cases  where  it  has  not 
been  regulated  by  positive  treaty,  and  no  sovereign 
is  bound  to  execute  within  his  own  dominions  a 
sentence  given  out  of  it,  the  rule  adopted,  where  a 
suit  is  brought  to  enforce  a  foreign  judgment,  is 
that  the  foreign  judgment  is  to  be  received,  in  the 
first  instance,  as  prima  fade  evidence  of  the  debt, 
but  that  the  defendant  is  entitled  to  impeach  the 
justice  of  it,  or  to  shew  that  it  was  irregidarly 
and  unduly  obtained.  But  the  case  is  ditFerent 
where  the  losing  party  comes  forward  and  wishes  to 
insuitute  a  new  suit  upon  the  same  matter,  and  to 
open  up  a  foreign  judgment  dismissing  the  action, 
pronounced  by  a  competent  court.  In  this  case,  to 
interfere  with  the  foreign  judgment  would  be  to 
assume  the  attitude  of  a  court  of  review,  and  the 
rule  in  England,  consequently,  is  that  such  a  decision, 
when  given  by  a  foreign  court,  is  final  and  conclu- 
sive. So  obvious,  indeed,  is  the  convenience  and 
necessity  of  this  rule,  that  it  has  been  regarded  as 
forming  a  portion  of  general  jurisprudence. — Kent's 
Com.  ii.  101,  102.  As  regards  the  enforcement  of 
foreign  decrees  and  judgments,  the  usages  of  nations 
have  differed  considerably,  and  tlie  subject  is  far  too 
wide  and  too  difficult  to  admit  of  being  satisfactorily 
discussed  in  this  work.  The  distinction  between  the 
recognition  of  the  judgment  of  a  foreign  court,  as 
determining  the  validity  of  a  foreign  contract,  and 
the  application  of  a  foreign  remedy  by  the  courts  of 
this  country,  has  been  pointed  out  under  Foreign 
Bill  of  Exchange  (q.  v.).  For  practical  purposes, 
biowever,  it  may  be  convenient  that  we  should  state 
that,  contrary  to  the  popular  belief  in  England,  the 
French  courts  are  in  the  habit  of  giving  effect  to 
judgments  obtained  in  England,  and  that  debtors 
cannot  escape  from  their  creditors,  as  is  too  gene- 
rally supposed,  by  simply  crossing  the  Channel.  The 
difficidty,  no  doubt,  still  exists  where  the  debtor 
has  escaped  before  any  proceedings  could  be  taken 
against  him  in  this  coimtry,  and  where  no  judgment 
can  be  obtained.  But  if  he  has  once  been  served 
with  process  in  England,  or  cited  either  edictally  or 
otherwise  in  Scotland,  the  creditor  may  go  on  with 
his  action  against  him  though  he  be  personally 
absent  from  the  country,  and  ultimately  enforce  his 
decree  against  him  by  the  interposition  of  a  French 
court.  The  same  observations  apply  to  Belgium. 
In  England,  there  is  no  regular  office,  as  in  Scot- 
land, for  the  publication  of  citations  to  persons 
abroad  (see  Edictal  Citation),  but  leave  to  sub- 
stitute service  at  the  last  place  of  abode,  in  place 
of  personal  service,  may  now  be  obtained  in  some 
cases  from  the  courts,  or  leave  may  be  granted  to 
serve  out  of  the  jurisdiction.  In  most  countries, 
the  rule  as  to  two  foreigners  resident  but  not 
domiciled  is,  that  they  may  sue  each  other  in  the 
ordinary  coui-ts,  as  natives  do.  To  this  the  French 
com-ts  are  an  exception,  and  hold  themselves  in- 
competent to  entertain  suits  between  undomiciled 
foreigners  relating  to  personality,  except  in  matters 
of  commerce  (Phillimore,  International  Law,  iv. 
645).  See  Jurisdiction  ;  DoanciLE;  International 
Law.  Private  ;  Conflict  of  Laws,  &c. 

FOREIGN  ENLI'STMENT  ACT.  In  the  law 
of  England,  there  is  a  statutory  prohibition  of 
enlistment  in  tLe  service  of  a  foreign  prince  in 
3  Jac.  I.  c.  4,  s.  18 ;  but  the  statute  commonly 
known  as  the  Foreign  Enlistment  Act  is  59  Geo. 
III.  c.  G9.  It  provides  that  if  any  natural-born 
Englishman  shall  enter  into  the  service  of  any 
foreign  statt,  eithel  as  a  soldier  or  a  sailor,  without 
428 


the  licence  of  his  majesty,  or  an  order  in  council 
or  royal  proclamation,  or  if  any  person  within 
the  ]5ritisli  dominions  hire  or  attempt  to  hire  any 
person  to  enlist  in  the  service  of  a  foreign  state, 
such  person  shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanour 
The  officers  of  the  customs,  on  information  on  oath, 
may  detain  any  vessel  having  persons  on  board 
destined  for  unlicensed  foreign  service.  Masters  of 
vessels,  knowingly  having  such  persons  on  board, 
are  subjected  in  a  penalty  of  £50  tor  each  indi- 
vidual Persons  fitting  out  any  vessel  for  foreign 
service,  without  licence,  are  guilty  of  a  high  mis- 
demeanour, and  the  ship  and  stores  are  forfeited. 
Even  to  assist  a  foreign  state  with  warlike  stores, 
without  licence,  is  a  misdemeanour  punishable  with 
fine  and  imprisonment.  These  penalties  are  irre- 
spective of  any  consequences  that  may  follow  to 
the  individual  for  having  committed  a  breach  of 
international  law. 

FOREIGNER.    See  Alien. 

FO'RELAND,  North  and  South,  two  promon- 
tories on  the  east  coast  of  Kent,  between  which  are 
the  Downs  and  Goodwin  Sands.  North  F.,  the 
Cantium  of  Ptolemy,  forms  the  north-east  angle  of 
the  county  and  of  Thanet  Isle,  in  lat.  51°  22'  N,  and 
long.  1°  26'  E.,  two  miles  east  of  Margate.  It  consists 
of  chalky  cliffs,  nearly  200  feet  high,  i)rojecting  into 
the  North  Sea,  and  has  a  light-house  with  a  fixed 
light,  184  feet  high,  and  seen  24  miles  off.  South  F., 
also  composed  of  chaik-ciiffs,  is  IG  miles  south  of 
North  F,  3  miles  north-east  of  Dover,  in  lat.  51°  8' 
N.,  and  1  22'  E.  It  has  two  fixed  lights,  respec- 
tively 380  and  275  feet  above  the  sea,  and  seen 
from  a  distance  of  25  and  22  miles.  From  this 
point,  there  is  often  a  magnificent  view  of  200  to 
300  merchantmen  i)assing  by,  after  having  been 
detained  by  contrary  winds  in  the  Downs. 

FO'RELOCK  is  a  flat  wedge  driven  through  the 
end  of  a  bolt  to  prevent  its  withdrawal :  it  is  used 
principally  on  board  ship. 

FORESHO'RTENING,  a  term  in  Painting  or 
Drawing,  applied  to  signify  that  a  figure,  or  a 
portion  of  a  figiu-e,  which  is  intended  to  be  viewed 
by  the  spectator  directly  or  nearly  in  front,  is  so 
represented  as  to  convey  the  notion  of  its  being 
projected  forward;  and,  though  by  mere  comparative 
measurement  occupying  a  much  smaller  space  on 
the  surface,  yet  to  give  the  same  idea  of  length  or 
size  as  if  it  had  been  projected  laterally.  In  compo- 
sitions of  figures  and  groups  on  ceilings,  and  in  the 
interior  of  domes,  &c.,  numerous  examples  will  be 
found  in  which  this  art  has  been  put  in  practice ; 
in  the  works  of  Raphael,  foreshortening  is  prac- 
tised with  most  judgment  and  correctness  ;  those 
of  M.  Angelo,  Correggio,  and  Tintoretto  display  the 
greatest  boldness ;  but  the  three  last-named  artists 
have  been  censured  for  introducing  foreshortening 
too  frequently  into  their  compositions,  for  the 
purpose  of  parading  their  skill  in  practising  it. 

FOREST  FL«Y  {Hippobosca  equina),  an  insect  ot 
the  order  Diptera.  It  receives  the  name  F.  F.  from 
its  frequent  occurrence  in  forests,  and  particularly 
in  the  New  Forest,  Hampshire,  It  is  also  some- 
times called  Horse  Fly,  from  the  annoyance  which 
it  gives  to  horses.  It  is  a  small  insect,  about  four 
lines  long ;  its  wings,  two  in  number,  much  exceed- 
ing the  length  of  the  abdomen.  When  at  rest,  the 
wings  are  laid  flat  on  the  back,  one  overlapping  the 
other.  The  general  colour  is  brown,  the  thorax 
varied  with  pale  yellow,  the  legs  ringed  ^^•ifch  yellow 
and  brown.  The  legs  terminate  in  hooked  claws. 
The  skin  is  leathery  and  remarkably  tough,  so  that 
the  insect  cannot  be  killed  by  any  ordinary  amount 
of  squeezing.  The  structure  of  the  mouth  differs 
much  from  that  of  ordinary  dipterous  insects,  and 


FOREST  FLY— FOREST  LAWS. 


bears  uo  inconsiderable  resemblance  to  that  of  fleas. 
The  F.  F.  lives  by  sucking  the  blood  of  quadrupeds, 
sometimes  of  oxen,  dogs,  &c,  but  most  of  all  of 


Forest  Fly  [Hippohosca  equina),  magnified : 
1,  natural  size  ;  2,  the  pupa,  as  deposited  by  the  mother. 

horses.  Iligh-bred  horses  with  smooth  hair  are 
most  liable  to  this  annoyance.  The  female  F.  F. 
does  not  deposit  her  eggs  until  they  have  reached 
the  pupa  stage  in  her  abdomen.  One  only  is  pro- 
duced at  a  time,  enclosed  in  a  tough,  strong  skin, 
egg-ldie,  black,  and  shining  like  a  bead,  wonderfully 
large  wtien  the  size  of  the  abdomen  from  which  it 
came  is  considered ;  the  perfect  insect  finally  emerges 
by  bursting  open  a  kind  of  lid  or  cap. 

FOREST  LAWS,  in  England,  laws  for  the  regu- 
lation of  the  royal  forests.  Forest  is  defined  by 
Lord  Coke  to  be  a  safe  preserve  for  wild  animals 
(ferce)  of  the  chase,  v/hence  comes  the  term  foresta, 
by  the  change  of  e  into  o  [Co.  Litt.  233  a).  Both 
words  probably  spring  from  the  same  root  as  the 
Latin  foris  and  the  French  hors,  and  signify  that 
which  is  loWiout  the  range  of  the  peopled  or  cidti- 
vated  country.  Hence  the  Italian  foreMiere  and 
foresto,  and  the  Spanish  foresta'o,  signify  strange, 
foreign,  wild,  and  the  like.  A  forest,  in  the 
sense  of  the  law  of  England,  is  a  large  tract  of 
open  ground,  not  necessarily  covered  with  wood, 
but  Tisually  containing  M^oodland  interspersed  with 
pasture,  and  forming  part  of  the  property  of  the 
monarch,  and  governed  by  a  special  code,  called 
the  forest  law.  This  particular  law  had  reference 
not  only  to  malters  connected  with  hunting  and 
the  like,  but  generally  governed  the  persons  livdng 
within  the  forest  in  all  their  relations.  A  chase  is 
a  smaller  forest,  in  the  hand  of  a  subject,  but  not 
governed  by  forest  law.  Though  the  privilege  of 
forest  belongs  of  right  to  the  sovereign  alone,  it 
may  be  granted  b/  him  in  favour  of  a  subject,  who 
becomes  entitled  to  exercise  the  privileges  of  forest 
in  the  district  assigned.  This  right  was  exercised 
by  the  Saxon  kings,  who  reserved  large  tracts  of 
country  for  the  royal  pastime  of  hunting,  and  a 
charter  of  the  forest  was  said  to  have  been  passed 
by  Canute  at  Winchester  in  the  year  lOlC.  But 
the  authenticity  of  this  document  is  doubted  by 
Lord  Coke  [Inst.  iv.  320).  William  the  Conqueror 
greatly  extendsd  the  royal  forests,  by  laying  desert 
vast  districts  iu  Hampshire  and  Yorkshire ;  he 
also  introduced  penalties  of  the  severest  kind  for 
offences  against  the  game.  The  penalty  for  killing 
a  stag  or  boar  was  loss  of  eyes  ;  for  William  loved 
t]\e  great  gajne  as  if  he  had  been  their  father  [Sax. 
Chronicle).  It  was  not  till  the  reign  of  Henry  III. 
that  the  laws  of  the  forest  were  reduced  into  a  regular 
code.  In  the  reign  of  that  monarch  was  passed  the 
charter  of  the  forest,  9  Hemy  IIL  (a.d.  1224).  The 
right  of  the  sovereign  to  create  a  forest  is  by  the 
common  law  confined  to  lands  of  his  own  demesne. 
Henry  II.  had  arbitrarily  exercised  his  power  by 
fcfr.)resting  the  lands  of  his  subjects  ;  but  by  the  1st 
and  3d  chapters  of  the  charter  of  the  forest,  it  is 
provided  that  all  forests  so  made  should  be  dis- 
afforested. At  a  subsequent  time,  when  Henry  VIII. 


created  Hampton  Court  Forest,  he  was  obliged  to 
obtain  the  consent  of  the  freeholders  before  he 
could  erect  a  chase  or  forest  over  their  grounds 
{Gdka,  Inst.  iv.  301).  Mr  Hallam  remarks :  'It  is 
well  known  that  Chai-les  1.  made  Richmond  Park 
by  means  of  depriving  many  proprietors  not  only  of 
their  common  rights,  but  of  their  freehold  landa. 
It  is  not  clear  that  they  were  ever  compensated  ; 
but  I  think  this  probable,  as  the  matter  excited  no 
great  clamour  in  the  Long  Parliament.' — Hallam, 
Const.  Hist.  i.  463,  note,  1st  ed.  By  the  charter  of 
the  forest,  the  penalties  for  destroying  game  are 
greatly  modified.  By  cap.  10,  it  is  provided  that 
no  man  shall  lose  life  or  limb  for  slaying  deer, 
but  that  the  pimishment  shall  be  restricted  to  fine 
or  imprisonment  for  year  and  day.  Cap.  11  con- 
tains the  following  curious  privilege:  'Whatsoevei 
archbishop,  bishop,  earl,  or  baron,  coming  to  us  at 
our  commandmeut,  passing  by  our  forest,  it  shall  be 
lawfid  for  him  to  take  and  kill  one  or  two  of  our 
deer  by  view  of  our  forester  if  he  be  present ;  or  else 
he  shall  cause  one  to  blow  an  horn  for  him,  that 
he  seem  not  to  steal  our  deer ;  and  likewise  thej 
shall  do  retiirning  from  us.'  This  law  is  still  unre- 
pealed ;  so  that  a  bishop  may  kill  the  Queen's  deei 
when  summoned  to,  or  returning  from  parliament. 
Charles  1.  attempted  to  fill  his  empty  exchequei 
by  imposing  penalties  and  exacting  fines  for  alleged 
encroachments  on  the  ancient  boundaries  of  the 
forests,  though  the  right  to  the  lands  thus  taken 
was  fortified  by  possession  for  several  centuries. 
This  was  one  of  the  first  grievances  with  which 
the  Long  Parliament  dealt,  and  since  the  passing 
of  the  act  for  the  'certainty  of  forests'  (16  Car. 
I.  c.  16),  the  laws  of  the  forest  have  practically 
ceased.  In  Coke's  time,  there  were  sixty-nine 
royal  forests,  aU  of  which,  with  the  exception 
of  the  New  Forest  and  Hampton  Court  Forest, 
had  been  created  before  the  period  of  record.  01 
these,  the  principal  were — the  New  Forest,  Sher- 
wood, Dean,  Windsor,  Epping,  Dartmoor,  Wich- 
wood,  in  Oxfordslure,  Salcey,  Whittlebury,  and 
Rockingham,  in  Northamptonshire,  Waltham,  in 
Lincolnshire,  and  Richmond,  in  Yorkshire.  Dur- 
ing the  present  reign,  several  of  the  royal  forests 
have  been  disafforested  by  act  of  parliament — 
Hainault,  14  and  15  Vict.  c.  43  ;  Whittlewood,  16 
and  17  Vict.  c.  42;  Wichwood,  19  and  20  Vict.  c.  32. 
Public  necessity  is  the  plea  on  which  these  spots, 
long  so  famous  for  their  silvan  scenery,  have  been 
condemned.  The  plea  is  one  which  cannot  be 
altogether  disregarded ;  but  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  it  will  not  be  suffered  to  prevail  to  the  entire 
destruction  of  our  royal  forests,  some  of  which, 
from  their  vicinity  to  large  towns,  afford  resorts  for 
public  recreation  highly  prized  by  the  citizens, 
and  which  never  can  be  equalled  in  beauty  and  in 
hea^thfulness  by  any  new-made  pleasm-e-ground. 

The  royal  forests  of  Scotland,  in  ancient  times, 
seem  to  have  been  nearly  as  numerous  as  those  of 
England.  In  Perthshire,  there  were  the  forests  of 
Athole,  Mamlorn,  Glenartney,  Glenfjmlas,  Gleu- 
almond,  Birnam,  Climy,  Alyth,  &;c.  In  Forfarshire, 
there  were  Pla,tan,  Montrethmont,  Kilgerry  ;  in 
Kincardineshire,  Cowie  and  Dui'ris  ;  in  Aberdeen- 
shire, the  Stocket,  Dyce,  Kintore,  Benachie,  Drum, 
Birse,  Braemar ;  in  Banffshire,  the  Boyne  and  the 
Enzie;  in  Morayshire,  Darnaway,  &c.  South  of 
the  Forth,  there  were  the  forests  of  the  Torwood, 
Cadzow,  Ettrick,  Selkirk,  Jedburgh,  Traquair,  tho 
New  Forest  in  Dumfriesshire,  &c.  The  Leges  Forest- 
arum — the  Scottish  Forest  Laws- ^have  been  printed 
more  than  once  ;  the  best  edition  is  in  The  Acts  oj 
the  Parliaments  of  Scotland,  vol.  i.  pp.  323 — 32S 
(Edin.  184-1).  The  forest  code  of  Scotland,  though 
neither  so  complete  nor  adjninistered  with  the  samf 


FOREST  MARBLE— FORFAR. 


ligo'.ir  as  that  of  England,  was  still  generally  com-  i 
plained  of  for  its  severe  penalties  or  vexatious  ' 
restraints.     The  grant  of  a  right  of  forestry  con- 
ferred the  same  privilege  as  if  the  ground  over  | 
which  it  exteuded  had  been  originally,  and  had 
continued  to  be,  a  king's  forest.    Hence  arose  great  ' 
oppression  and  annoyance  to  neighbouring  proprie-  ! 
tors,  and  in  1680  the  supreme  civil  court  suggested  ' 
that  a  representation  should  be  made  to  the  king  \ 
against  the  gi'anting  of  new  forests.    From  a  case 
which  has  jiist  been  decided,  it  would  seem  that  the 
high  pretensions  of  royaJ  furesters  have  in  some 
places  survived  to  the  present  day.    The  Dukes  of  \ 
Athole  still  hold  the  extensive  mountainous  district  i 
called  the  forest  of  Athole,  either  in  their  own  right  ; 
or  as  foresters  for  the  crown.   In  virtue  of  his  rights  j 
of  forestry,  the  present  duke  claimed  the  i)ower  of  j 
preventing  his  neighbour,  the  Laird  of  Lude,  from 
killing  deer  on  his  own  lands,  and  maintained  that 
he  was  bound  to  allow  the  duke  and  his  keepers  to 
enter  on  his  lands,  and  drive  back  any  deer  that 
might  stray  upon  them  from  the  forest  of  Athole. 
But  the  court  decided  (March  I,  1802)  against  the  I 
duke  on  both  points.  | 
Foi-est  Courts  were  courts  established  for  the  ! 
purpose  of  enforcing  the  forest  laws  in  the  royal  ' 
forests.     Of  these  courts,  there  were  in  England 
four — viz.,  the  Court  of  Attachments,  the  Court  of 
Regard,  the  Court  of  Swainmote,  and  the  Court 
of  the  Lord  Justice  in  Eyre  in  the  Forest,  or  Justice  j 
Seat.    The  last  Court  of  Justice  Seat  that  was  held 
where  business  was  transacted  was  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  I.,  before  Lord  Holland. 

FOREST  MARBLE,  a  member  of  the  Lower 
Oolite,  so  called  because  of  the  occurrence  of  the 
tyjiical  beds  in  Wichwood  Forest,  Oxfordshire. 
The  principal  bed  is  a  fissile  limestone,  containing 
large  niimbers  of  dark-coloured  shells,  and  capable 
of  sustaining  a  fine  polish.  On  this  account,  it  is 
used  to  some  extent  as  '  marble.'  It  is  inler- 
litratified  with  blue  marls  and  shales,  and  fine 
oolitic  sandstones.  The  whole  thickness  of  the 
group  seldom  exceeds  forty  feet. 

FOREST   OAK,  a  name  sometimes  given  in 
commerce  to  the  timber  of  Casuarina  tornlosa,  and 
other  species  of  Casuarina  (q.  v.),  Australian  trees. 
This  timber,  which  is  light  yellowish  brown,  and 
j»rettily  marked  with  short  red  veins,  is  imported 
into  Britain,  and  used  for  ornamental  work. 
FORESTA'LLING.    See  Engrossing. 
FORESTS.    See  Arboricultuek 
FORESTS,  Fossil,  have  been  frequently  observed 
in  the  coal  measures.    The  seams  of  coal  having  in 
general  been  formed  from  the  vegetation  of  the 
locahty  where  they  occur,  it  is  to  be  expected  that 
when  the  coal  is  removed,  the  stools  and  roots  of 
the  trees  would  be  observed  in  the  immediately 

subjacent  bed  of 
shale — the  ancient 
sod.  Such  a  forest 
was  laid  bare  in  an 
open  work  at  Park- 
field  Colliery,  near 
Wolverhampton,  in 
1844.  In  the  space 
of  about  one-fourth 
of  an  acre,  the 
stumps  of  73  trees, 
Ground-plan  of  the  Fossil  Forest  with  their  roots 
at  Parkfield  Colliery.  attached,  appeared 

as  shewn  in  the 
lumexed  groimd-jdan.  The  trunks,  broken  off 
close  to  the  root,  were  lying  prostrate  in  every 
direction,  often  crossing  each  other.  One  of  them 
measured  15,  another  30  feet  in  length  but  they 
430 


were  generally  shorter.     They  were  invariably 

converted  into  coal,  and  flattened  to  the  thickness 
of  1  or  2  inches.  The  upright  stems  shew  that 
some  of  them  had  a  circumference  of  more  than  8 
feet.  Similar  fossil  forests  have  been  oljserved  in 
the  coal-fields  of  Nova  Scotia,  and  have  been  care- 
fully described  by  Lyell,  Logan,  and  Dawson.  The 
usual  height  of  the  trees  observed  by  Lyell  was 
from  G  to  8  feet;  but  one  tree  was  about  25  feet 
high,  and  4  feet  in  diameter.  Brogniai-t  describes 
the  remains  of  a  fossil  forest  preserved  in  an 
upright  position,  in  strata  of  micaceous  saudstoue, 
belonging  to  the  coal  measures  at  St  Etieune, 
near  Lyon.  Though  most  abundant  in  sti-ata  of 
the  carboniferous  period,  fossil  forests  have  been 
observed  in  other  formations.  The  Dirt- bed  ((].  v.) 
'of  the  Lower  Purbeck  series  is  the  remains  of  an 
ancient  forest.  Instances  are  also  abundant  in  the 
pliocene  strata.  Sometimes,  as  on  the  coast  of 
Devonshire  and  on  the  shores  of  the  Firth  of  Tay, 
they  are  exjmsed  on  the  surface,  sti'etching  from 
high-water  mark  to  far  below  the  furthest  limit  of 
low  water  ;  or  they  are  exhibited  in  section,  as  in 
the  cliffs  of  Eastern  Norfolk,  where,  resting  on 
the  chalk  or  crag,  there  is  a  stratum  in  which  the 
stools  and  roots  of  the  trees  stand  in  their  natural 
position,  the  trunks  having  been  broken  short  off, 
and  iml)edded  with  their  branches  and  leaves.  This 
stratum  is  covered  with  fresh- water  beds  and  diift. 
The  position  of  these  forests  indicates  a  variation,  in 
recent  geological  time,  of  the  relative  level  of  land 
and  water.  The  instances  in  Devonshire  and  Fife 
shire  may  imply  a  simple  subsidence  of  the  land  ; 
at  Norwich,  however,  a  considerable  depression 
must  have  taken  place,  to  admit  of  the  dei)osition  of 
the  fresh- water  beds  and  the  till,  and  a  subsequent 
elevation,  to  expose  the  beds  so  high  above  the 
sea-level. 

The  remains  of  ancient  forests,  belonging  to  n 
yet  later  period,  are  to  be  found  in  beds  of  peat. 
There  is  good  evidence  that  some  kinds  of  peat 
had  their  origin  in  the  destruction  of  forests. 
Trunks  and  branches  of  beech,  hazel,  fir,  &c.,  are 
found  in  them,  and  their  roots  may  be  traced  in  the 
underclay.  The  rapidity  with  which  this  peat  is 
formed  is  very  remarkable.  At  Blair-Drummond, 
the  stratiun  of  peat  is  eight  to  ten,  and  in  some 
places  even  twenty  feet  in  thickness.  Many  of  the 
trees  here  have  been  felled  with  the  axe,  and  that 
this  was  done  while  the  Romans  were  in  possession 
of  the  country,  is  proved  by  the  discovery  of  '  cor- 
duroy roads,'  leading  from  one  camp  to  another,  and 
the  finding  of  camp-kettles  at  the  bottom  of  the 
peat. 

FO'RFANG,  or  FOREFAiMG  (Sax.  /ore,  before, 
and  fangen,  to  take),  the  takiug  of  proAisions  from 
any  one  in  fairs  or  markets,  before  the  king's  pur- 
veyors were  ser\^ed  with  necessaries  for  hi^  majesty. 
(Charter  of  Henry  I.  to  the  hospital  of  St  Bartholo' 
mew  in  London,  anno  1133,  referred  to  in  Tomlin'? 
Die.)  It  is  also  used  to  signify  the  rescuing  of 
stolen  or  strayed  cattle  from  a  thief,  or  from  those 
having  illegal  possession  of  them ;  or  the  reward 
fixed  for  such  rescue  (Wharton's  Die). 

FO'RFAR,  supposed  to  be  the  ancient  Orrea,  the 
county  to\^n  of  Angus  or  Forfarshire,  situated  near 
a  small  lake  of  the  same  name,  on  a  rising-ground 
of  no  great  heifiht,  in  the  fertile  valley  of  Strath- 
more.  Pop.  (1871)  1],031,  It  has  been  a  roval 
burgh  since  the  reign  of  King  David  I.  (1124 — 
1153).  It  had  a  royal  castle,  of  which  no  vestige 
remains,  said  to  have  been  situated  on  a  round 
hill  on  the  north  side  of  the  town,  and  to  have 
been  destroyed  by  order  of  King  Robert  Bruce,  in 
the  year  i307.    Its  staple  manufacture  is  linen. 


FORFARSHIRE— FOEFEITURE  AND  CORRUPTION  OF  BLOOD. 


It  is  connected  by  railway  with  Aberdeen,  Arbroath, 
and  the  south.  It  joins  wdth  Montrose,  Arbroath, 
Brechin,  and  Bervie,  in  sending  a  representative  to 
parliament. 

FORFARSHIRE,  or  ANGUS,  is  a  maritime 
county  in  the  east  of  Scotland,  being  bounded  on 
the  E.  by  the  German  Ocean,  on  the  N.  by  Kincar- 
dine and  Aberdeen  shires,  on  the  W.  by  Perthshire, 
and  on  the  S.  l^y  the  Firth  of  Tay.  It  extends  from 
Dorth  to  south  38  miles,  and  from  east  to  west  27 
miles,  with  45  miles  of  coast.  There  are  several 
valleys  of  considerable  extent,  the  principal  of  which 
are  Glen  Isla,  Glen  Prosen,  Glen  Esk,  Clova,  and 
Lethnot,  which  are  all  well  watered,  and  mostly 
productive.  The  surface  of  the  county  is  in-e- 
gular,  and  it  is  intersected  with  hills,  the  Sidlaw 
being  1400  feet  high,  and  Catlaw,  the  highest, 
2264  feet.  The  soil,  which  is  various,  ranging  from 
the  finest  alluvial  to  the  moorish,  rests  mostly  on 
the  old  red  sandstone  and  the  trap.  Devonian 
paving- stones,  limestone,  porphyry,  and  jasper, 
occur.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Tay,  North  Esk, 
South  Esk,  and  Isla ;  and  there  are  some  small 
lochs.  F.  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  Scotch  linen 
manufacture.  Cattle,  corn,  salmon,  and  paving- 
stone  are  the  principal  exports.  The  climate  par- 
takes of  the  qualities  common  to  the  east  coast. 
The  average  of  the  fall  of  rain  is  about  25  inches. 
The  valued  rent  of  the  county  in  1674  was  £171,440 
Scots,  or  £14,287  sterling.  The  valuation  for  1872 
—1873  was  £662,935  sterling,  including  £98,492  of 
railways. 

In  the  year  1872,  the  last  year  in  which  the  agri- 
cultural statistics  were  taken,  the  total  acreage  in  the 
county  of  all  kinds  of  crops,  hare,  fallow,  and  grass, 
was  241,493;  under  corn  crops  there  were  93,807; 
upder  green  crops,  51,237;  and  of  clover,  sanfovn, 
and  grasses  under  rotation  there  were  69,529.  The 
total  number  of  cattle  returned  for  1872  was  49,320; 
sheep,  116,109;  pigs,  7127.  The  number  of  horses 
used  solely  for  agriculture,  &c.,  retui-ned  by  occupiers 
of  land  in  the  same  year  was  9324.  Pop.  (1871)  237,- 
528,  being  an  increase  over  that  of  1861  of  30,832. 
The  chief  towns  are  Dundee,  Arbroath,  Montrose, 
Forfar  (the  coimty  town),  Brechin,  and  Kirriemuir. 
The  county  returns  one  member  to  parliament, 
and  the  boroughs  two.  Angus  was  the  province 
of  a  Mormaer  during  the  Celtic  period  of  Scottish 
history.  It  appears  as  an  earldom  in  the  12th 
century.  Its  fii*st  earls  were  probably  the  descend- 
ants of  the  old  Mormaers;  it  passed  subsequently  to 
the  Umphravilles,  the  Stewarts,  and  the  Douglases. 
The  castle  of  Forfar  was  the  residence  occasionally 
of  some  of  the  kings,  until  the  time  of  Alexander 
III.  The  chief  antiquities  are  some  Roman  camps, 
the  vitrified  fort  of  Finhaven,  the  remarkable  stone 
forts  of  the  White  Caterthun,  near  Brechin,  and 
of  the  Laws,  near  Dundee;  the  sculptured  stone 
pillars  at  Meigle,  Aberlemno,  St  Vigean's,  Glammis, 
Kirriemuir,  Aldbar,  Invergowrie,  &c. ;  the  fortified 
island  of  St  Margaret's  Inch  in  the  Loch  of  Forfar, 
the  roTind  tower  and  cathedral  of  Brechin,  the 
ruins  of  Restennet  Priory  and  Arbroath  Abbey; 
and  the  old  baronial  castles  of  Glammis,  Red 
Castle,  Edzell,  Melgund,  Finhaven,  Airlie,  Cares- 
ton,  Inverquharity.  At  Stracathro,  it  is  said  Baliol 
resigned  the  crown  to  Edward  I.  Several  eminent 
men  were  born  in  this  county;  among  whom  may 
be  mentioned  Hector  Boece,  Andrew  Melville,  the 
Marquis  of  Montrose,  Joseph  Hume,  Sir  Alexander 
Bumes,  Robert  BroAvn  the  botanist,  James  Mill 
the  historian  of  British  India ;  and  Graham  of 
Claverhouse  had  a  seat  at  Fintry  Mains. 

FORFEITURE  AND  CORRUPTION  OF 
BLOOD  are  penalties  consequent  on  convictions 


for  treason  or  felony.     The  penalty  of  forfeiturfl 

for  treason  is  founded  on  this  consideration,  that  he 
who  hath  thus  violated  the  first  princii)lea  of  govern- 
ment, and  broken  his  part  in  the  original  contract 
between  king  and  peoi)le,  hath  abandoned  his  con- 
nection with  society,  and  hath  no  htnger  any  right 
to  those  advantages  which  before  belonged  to  him 
purely  as  a  member  of  the  community  (Stephen's 
Com.  iv.  497).  The  penalty  of  forfeiture  for  treason 
prevailed  in  England  before  the  Conquest,  as  is 
clear  from  the  fact,  that  lands  held  in  gavelkind, 
which  is  a  Saxon  tenure,  may  be  forfeited  for  t  reason. 
But  after  the  Conquest,  forfeiture  of  lands  and 
goods  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  peculiar  punish- 
ment of  felony,  of  which  treason  against  the  sovereign 
was  ths  highest  kind,  and  was  denominated  high 
treason,  to'  distinguish  it  from  all  other  felonies, 
which  were  called  petty  treason.  In  cases  of 
treason,  the  oflender  forfeits  all  his  lands  abso- 
lutely to  the  crown.  In  felony,  according  to  the  old 
law,  the  offender  forfeited  to  the  crown  the  profits 
of  all  estates  of  freehold  during  his  life,  and  all  his 
estates  in  fee-simple  for  a  year  and  a  day,  after 
which  they  became  escheat  to  the  lord.  The  crown, 
during  the  year  of  occupancy,  was  entitled  to  com- 
mit upon  the  lands  what  Waste  (q.  v.)  it  pleased. 
By  Magna  Charta,  this  power  of  committing  waste 
was  restrained.  But  by  17  Ed.  II.  c.  IG,  the  king's 
title  to  waste  was  again  recognised.  As  the  law 
now  stands,  murder  is  the  only  felony  by  which 
forfeiture  for  year  and  day  is  incurred.  In  all 
felonies,  the  goods  and  chatties  of  the  offender  are, 
on  conviction,  forfeited  to  the  crown ;  but  unt'l 
conviction,  forfeiture  of  the  goods  does  not  operate. 
Where,  therefore,  a  person  has  disposed  of  his  goods 
before  conviction,  the  crown  cannot  reach  them. 
Forfeiture  of  lands  does  not  take  effect  until  sentence 
of  Attainder  (q.  v.)  has  been  pronounced.  So  that 
a  person  committing  Felo  de  se  (q.  v.),  or  a  rebel  dying 
before  sentence,  or  killed  in  open  rebellion,  does  not 
forfeit  his  lands.  But  sentence  of  attainder,  as 
soon  as  pronounced,  has  a  retro-active  effect,  and 
annuls  all  conveyances  made  between  the  act  of 
treason  or  felony  and  the  pronoi.mcing  of  sentence. 
Conveyances  made  before  the  act  of  treason  are  not 
affected.  Hence,  a  wife's  jointure  is  not  forfeited, 
because  settled  on  her  before  the  commission  of  the 
act.  But  dower  is  forfeited  by  5  and  6  Ed.  VI. 
c.  II.  Counterfeiting  the  coin  was  formerly  treason; 
but  by  various  statutes,  it  is  provided  that  the  wife's 
dower  should  not  be  forfeited,  and  that  the  lands 
should  be  forfeited  only  for  the  life  of  the  offender. 
Forfeiture  for  treason  and  felony  is  accompanied  by 
coJTuption  of  blood,  whereby  the  offender  is  incapable 
of  inheriting  any  lands  or  of  transmittmg  any  title 
to  an  heir.  But  where  the  lands  were  not  vested 
in  the  offender  at  the  time  of  the  act,  th^^y  are  not 
forfeited  to  the  crown,  but  to  the  overlord.  In 
England,  this  distinction  is  of  little  moment,  except 
in  copyhold  lands,  the  crown  being,  in  fact,  the 
overlord  of  nearly  all  the  freehold  land  in  the  king- 
dom.  By  7  Anne,  c.  21,  it  was  enacted  that,  after 
the  death  of  the  Pretender  and  his  sons,  no  attainder 
for  treason  should  operate  to  the  prejudice  of  othei 
than  the  offender  himself ;  bu*;  this  provision  waa 
repealed,  39  Geo.  III.,  c.  93.  But  in  Scotland, 
where  subinfeudation  still  subsists,  the  distinction 
is  of  practical  importance.  In  Scotland,  before 
the  Union,  forfeiture  of  estate  was  incun^ed  on 
account  of  treason  and  certain  other  crimes,  as  theft 
by  a  landed  man,  and  uttering  false  coin.  Lord 
Stair  is  of  opinion  that  the  doctrine  of  corruption 
of  blood  did  not  prevail  in  Scotland  to  exclude 
those  claiming,  through  a  person  attainted,  where 
the  offender  was  only  apparent  heir  (Stair,  iii.  3, 
38).    Since  the  Union,  the  law  of  Scotland  in  regai  J 

431 


FORFEITURE  OF 


to  forfeiture  for  treason  has  been  assimilated  to  tliat 
of  England. 

In  America,  forfeiture  of  estate  for  crimes  is  very 
much  reduced,  and  the  corruption  of  blood  is 
universally  abolished.  Several  of  the  state  consti- 
tutions have  provided  that  no  attainder  for  treason 
or  felony  shall  work  corruption  of  blood  or  forfeiture 
of  estate,  except  during  the  life  of  the  offender, 
and  some  of  them  have  taken  away  the  power  of 
forfeiture  absolutely,  without  any  such  exemption. 
Every  person  convicted  of  any  manner  of  treason, 
under  the  laws  of  New  York,  forfeits  his  goods  and 
chattels,  and  also  his  lauds  and  tenements,  during 
his  lifefime ;  but  the  rights  of  all  third  persons  exist- 
ing at  the  time  of  the  commission  of  the  treason, 
are  preserved.    Kent's  Commentaries,  ii.  505. 

FORFEITURE  OF  LANDS  was  originally 
a  penalty  of  the  feudal  law,  incurred  on  account  of 
some  act  by  the  tenant  inferring  disloyalty  to  his 
overlord.  The  acts  inferring  forfeiture  might  be 
of  either  a  civil  or  a  crirai/ial  nature.  Forfeiture 
for  cr:ir>es  was  incurred  by  treason  or  felony.  See 
Forfeiture  and  CoRRurTiON  of  Blood.  Civil 
forfeiture  may  be  incim-ed  in  England  in  three 
ways — viz.,  by  tortious  alienation,  by  wrongful  dis- 
claimer, and  by  alienation  in  mortmain  ;  the  first 
two  of  these  modes  were  incidents  of  the  feudal 
tenure,  the  lattei  was  introduced  by  statute.  It 
must  be  observed  that,  according  to  the  earliest 
feu'lal  customs,  a  gift  of  lands  was  always  made  in 
favour  of  a  particular  person,  and  that  alienation, 
without  consent  of  the  overlord,  involved  a  forfeiture 
of  the  fee.  But  this  strictness  having  by  degrees 
ceased  to  be  observed,  forfeiture  was  only  incurred 
in  case  of  a  tortious  alienation.  Tortious  alienation 
was  where  the  OAATier  of  a  particular  estate  conveyed 
by  common  law  conveyance,  as  feoffment,  fine,  or 
recovery,  a  greater  estate  than  that  to  which  he  was 
himself  entitled,  as  where  a  tenant-for-life  made  a 
feoffment  in  fee.  The  immediate  effect  of  this  act 
was  the  forfeiture  of  the  laud  to  the  remainder  man 
or  reversioner.  By  3  and  4  Will.  IV.  c.  74,  abolish- 
ing fines  and  recoveries,  and  8  and  9  Vict.  c.  106, 
s.  4,  declaring  that  a  feoffment  shoidd  nut  have  a 
tortious  operation,  forfeitiure  by  tortious  alienation 
has  ceased  to  have  a  practical  importance.  For- 
feiture by  wrongful  disclaimer  was  where  a  tenant 
holding  under  a  superior  lord,  on  being  summoned  in 
any  court  of  record,  either  disclaims  his  allegiance, 
or  does  any  act  which  amoimts  to  a  disclaimer. 
Since  the  abolition,  by  the  statute  of  qida  emjotores, 
of  subinfeudation,  this  species  of  forfeiture  can  only 
arise  in  lands  held  of  the  crown.  Forfeiture  by 
alienation  in  mortmain  is  incurred  by  the  convey- 
ance of  lands  or  tenements  in  favour  of  any  Cor- 
poration (q.  v.),  sole  or  aggregate,  ecclesiastical  or 
temporal.  As  by  vesting  the  land  in  a  tenant  of 
this  description,  the  overlord  was  deprived  of  all  the 
duties  and  services  due  by  his  vassal,  this  act  was 
declared  by  various  acts  of  parliament  to  infer  the 
forfeiture  of  the  lands.  See  Mortmain.  Forfeiture 
of  copyholds  was  incurred  by  committing  waste,  and 
Vy  other  acts  of  a  WTongful  kind  inconsistent  with 
the  fealty  due  to  the  lord.  See  Blackstone,  Com. 
ii.  284.  Forfeiture  on  breach  of  condition,  subsequent 
is  where  an  estate  is  held  upon  a  condition  contained 
in  the  grant  itself.  On  failure  of  the  condition,  the 
grantor  or  his  heirs  may  enter  upon  the  lands. 

In  Scotland,  civil  forfeiture  may  arise  either  from 
statutory  enactment,  at  common  law,  or  by  agree- 
ment. By  1597  c.  246,  it  is  enacted  that  vassals 
failing  to  pay  their  feu-duties  for  two  years  shall 
forfeit  their  right.  This  forfeiture  must  be  estab- 
hshed  by  an  action  to  recover  the  feu-duties  in 
arrear,  and  may  be  avoided  by  payment  at  the  bar. 
At  common  law,  a  vassal  forfeited  his  land  by  dis- 

432 


LANDS-FORGERY. 


clamation  or  purprestura    The  former  is  analogoii* 

to  the  English  disclaimer,  and  consists  in  the  denial 
by  a  vassal  of  his  lawful  superior.  Purpresture  waa 
incurred  by  the  vassal's  encroachment  on  the  streets, 
highways,  or  commonties  belonging  to  the  crown  or 
other  superior.  These  forms  of  forfeiture  are  fallen 
into  disuse.  Forfeiture  on  special  agreement  depends 
wholly  ui)on  the  terms  of  the  condition  inserted 
in  the  titles  to  the  land.  The  condition  m\ist  be 
fortified  by  irritant  and  resolutive  clauses,  and  must 
enter  the  sasine,  in  order  that  it  may  be  effectual 
against  purchasers  of  the  lands  (Erskine,  ii.  3,  s.  13). 
Of  this  kind  of  forfeiture  are  breaches  of  Entails  (q.  v.). 

FORGE,  FORGING.  The  process  of  hammer- 
ing  red-hot  iron  or  steel  into  any  required  sha})e  ia 
called  For;^ng,  and  the  workshop  in  which  the 
operation  is  performed,  a  Forge.  The  principal 
tools  of  a  common  smith's  forge  are  the  forge-fire  or 
heai-th,  with  its  bellows,  the  anvil,  and  the  various 
hammers,  swages,  &c.  For  large  work,  an  air- 
furnace,  blown  by  steam-bellows,  supplies  the  place 
of  the  simple  hearth  of  the  blacksmith,  powerful 
cranes  swing  the  work  to  its  place  on  the  anvil, 
and  a  steam-hammer  (see  Hammer)  strikes  the 
blows  that  squeeze  the  red-hot  mass  into  shajje. 
Besides  these,  there  are  portable  forges  of  various 
sizes  and  forms,  used  for  military  and  other  pur- 
poses. They  usually  consist  of  an  iron  frame,  to 
which  a  bellows,  worked  by  the  foot,  is  attached ; 
and  above  the  bellows  is  an  iron  tray,  with  a 
hearth,  &c.,  upon  which  the  fire  is  made;  and  the 
anvil  is  either  attached  to  this  frame,  or  has  a 
separate  stand. 

Under  Cutlery,  the  general  method  of  forging 
small  work  is  described.  For  the  largest  work  to 
which  hand-hammers  are  still  applied,  such  as 
anchor-forging,  two  gangs  of  from  six  to  twelve 
hammermen  are  employed ;  they  swing  the  large 
hammers  with  such  wonderful  precision  and  regu- 
larity, that  the  instant  one  hammer  is  witL^j-awn, 
another  falls  upon  the  same  place.  A  foreman,  with 
a  wand,  directs  the  hammering.  The  two  gangs 
relieve  each  other  alternately,  on  account  of  the 
great  severity  of  the  labour.  Shovels,  spades, 
mattocks,  and  many  other  tools  and  implements,  are 
partly  forged  imder  the  tilt-hammer.    See  Steel. 

In  all  processes  of  forging,  it  is  of  primary 
importance  to  obtain  the  greatest  possible  rapidity 
in  the  succession  of  the  Idows.  There  is  a  double 
reason  for  this :  first,  and  simply,  that  the  work  is 
cooling,  and  the  more  slowly  it  is  forged,  the  more 
frequently  it  must  be  re-heated  ;  and  secondly,  that 
percussion  generates  actual  heat,  and  if  the  blows 
are  sufficiently  heavy  and  rapid,  the  temperature  of 
the  work  may  be  fully  maintained  out  of  the  fire 
for  a  considerable  length  of  time.  The  hammer 
used  for  tilting  steel  not  only  maintains  the  heat 
of  the  bar,  but  raises  it  from  a  dull  to  a  bright  red 
heat. 

FORGERY  (Fr.  forger,  to  form  metal  mt-o 
shape  ;  to  fabricate),  the  crimen  falsi  of  the  Roman 
law,  is  held  in  England,  at  common  law,  to  be  the 
fraudident  making  or  altering  of  a  writing  or  seal, 
to  the  prejudice  of  another  man's  right,  or  of  a 
stamp  to  th<.  prejudice  of  the  revenue.  As  regards 
writings,  the  instrument  forged  must  be  executed 
Avith  such  skill  or  in  such  circumstances  as  to  be 
capable  of  being  mistaken  for  a  genuine  document 
by  a  person  ol  ordinary  intelligence  and  obser- 
vation. It  is  not  necessary  that  there  shovdd  be 
even  an  attempt  at  imitation.  If  there  was  inten- 
tion to  deceive,  and  the  circumstances  were  such 
as  to  render  deception  possible,  the  crime  has  been 
committed,  and  it  has  consequently  been  held  in 
Scotland  that  it  is  possible  to  forge  the  name 


FORGET-ME-NOT— FORKS. 


of  a  person  who  cannot  write  (1  Alison,  p.  372), 
and  fui-tlier  that  the  crime  may  be  committed 
by  the  adhibition  of  a  cross  or  mark  (Macmillan, 
January  24,  1859).  Any  material  alteration,  how- 
ever slight,  is  a  forgery  just  as  much  as  the  sub- 
scription of  the  name  of  the  pretended  maker,  or 
the  fabrication  of  the  entire  deed.  It  will  not 
lessen  the  crime,  though  the  whole  deed  should 
be  genuine,  the  name  only  being  forged,  or  the 
name  being  really  the  handwriting  oi  the  party  to 
whom  it  belongs,  but  appended  to  a  forged  deed. 
Even  if  the  name  be  a  fictitious  one,  but  appended 
for  the  purpose  of  deceiving,  a  forgery  has  been 
coaimitted  just  as  much  as  if  it  belonged  to  a  real 
penion.  Long  before  the  recent  extensions  took 
piace  in  the  law  of  evidence,  by  which  parties  were 
admitted  as  witnesses  in  their  own  causes,  it  was 
provided  by  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  32,  that  the  party  whose 
name  had  been  forged  might  be  a  witness  to  the 
effect  that  the  writing  was  not  his.  But,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  is  an  established  rule  of  law  that 
the  proof  of  forgery,  by  a  mere  comparison  of  hand- 
writing, is  incompetent  (Tailor  on  Evidence^  p. 
1428,  n.  5,  2d  ed.).  Identification  of  handwriting  is, 
if  possible,  more  difficidt  than  identification  of  the 
person,  which  so  often  forms  the  chief  difficulty  in 
crimmal  trials.  'As  illness,  strange  dress,  unusual 
attitude,  and  the  like,  cause  mistakes  in  identifying 
the  individual,  so  a  bad  pen,  or  rough  paper,  a 
shaking  hand,  hurry,  and  many  other  things,  change 
the  appearance  of  a  person's  handwriting.' — Dickson 
on  Evidence,  p.  474.  There  are  besides  resem- 
blances in  handwitings  proceeding  from  many 
accidental  causes,  so  that  much  caiition  is  neces- 
sary in  weighing  this  kind  of  evidence.  '  It  ought 
never,  therefore,  to  be  regarded  as  full  x>i"t)of  by 
the  crown  in  criminal  trials,  and  even  in  civil 
cases,  corroborative  evidence  should  be  required, 
unless  the  proof  of  handwriting  is  so  clear  as  to 
shift  the  onus  jprohandV  Though  writing-masters, 
engravers,  bankers'  clerks,  and  other  persons  in  the 
habit  of  examining  handwritings  are  often  adduced 
as  witnesses  in  trials  for  forgery,  their  evidence  is 
really  of  very  little  value,  and  generally  so  con- 
flicting that  it  can  be  produced  with  equal  effect 
on  either  side.  The  best  witness  is  one  who  has 
often  seen  the  party  write,  through  whose  hands 
his  waiting  has  been  continually  j^assing,  and  whose 
opinion  is  not  the  result  of  an  inspection  made 
on  a  particular  occasion  for  a  special  purpose.  The 
act  11  Geo.  IV.,  and  1  Will.  IV.  c.  66,  makes  the 
forging  of  the  great  seal,  the  privy  seal,  or  any 
privy  signet,  the  sign-manual,  the  seals  of  Scotland, 
or  the  great  seal  and  privy  seal  of  Ireland — 
treason.  The  same  statute  declares  the  off"ence  of 
forging,  or  uttering  with  intent  to  defraud,  stamps, 
exchequer  bills.  Bank  of  England  notes,  bills  of 
exchange,  promissory  notes,  deeds,  receipts,  orders 
for  the  payment  of  money,  transfers  of  stock,  wills, 
&c.,  to  be  felony.  Capital  punishment  was  first 
abol  .shed  with  regard  to  special  cases  of  forgery  by 
2  Goo.  IV.,  and  1  Will.  IV.  c.  66,  and  2  and  3  Will. 
IV.  c.  1 23  ;  and  then  altogether  done  away  with  by 
7  Will.  IV.  and  1  Vict.  c.  84.  The  off'ender  is  now 
liable  to  penal  servitude,  the  length  of  which  is  at 
4he  discretion  of  the  court ;  but  which  cannot  be  for 
less  than  three  years,  or  he  may  be  imprisoned  for 
not  more  than  four,  or  less  than  two  years,  with 
or  without  hard  labour  and  solitude.  As  to  the 
forgery  of  Bank  of  England  notes,  see  16  Vict.  c.  2. 
As  to  obtaining  property  by  false  pretences,  see 
Fraud. 

FORGET-ME-NOT,  or  SCORPION  pRASS 
{Myosotis),  %  genus   of  annual  or  biennial  her- 
baceous i)lants,  of  the  natural  order  Borar^inece, 
with  5-cleft  calyx  and  salver-shaped  coroUa;  the 
184 


flowers  small,  and  generally  blue.  The  genus  is 
diff'used  over  the  temperate  zone  in  all  quarters 
of  the  world,  and  a  number  of  species  are  con.mou 
in  Britain,  chiefly  growing  in  ditches  and  damp 
meadows — as  Myosotis  pcdustris,  with  crooked 
creeping  perennial  roots — an  angular  stem  of  a  foot 
in  height,  and  calyx  covered  with  appressed  bristles. 
M.  sylvatica,  with  calyx  covered  with  stiff  spreading 
hairs,  grows  in  bushy  places  and  woods,  and  is  often 
planted  in  flower-gardens.  The  dark  blue  F.  of  the 
Azores  {M.  Azorica)  has  of  late  begim  to  be  culti- 
vated in  Europe,  but  requires  the  green-house.  The 
genus  is  a  favourite  one  with  most  persons,  both 
because  of  the  brilliancy  of  the  flowers,  and  because 
throughout  Europe  it  is  generally  regarded  as  the 
emblem  of  friendship.  The  English  name  Scor- 
pion Grass  is  now  seldom  heard.  The  German 
name  Vergiszmeinnicht  corresponds  with  the  Eng- 
lish Forget-me-not. — 31.  versicolor,  very  common  in 
Britain,  often  as  a  weed  in  gardens,  is  remarkable 
for  the  change  of  colour  in  the  flowers,  which  are 
first  yellow,  then  blue.  They  are  very  small. — M. 
alpestris,  found  on  some  of  the  mountains  of  Scot- 
land, is  especially  admired  for  the  size  and  brilhancy 
of  its  flowers. 

FORIO,  a  thriving  town  of  Italy,  is  picturesquely 
situated  on  the  west  coast  of  the  island  of  Ischia, 
which  stands  at  the  northern  side  of  the  mouth  of 
the  Bay  of  Naples.  The  central  portion  of  the  town 
consists  of  very  narrow  streets,  but  the  sid-iurbs 
are  composed  of  charming  white  cottages.  It  has 
three  highly  decorated  churches,  a  good  harbour, 
and  some  trade  with  Leghorn,  Naples,  and  Genoa, 
Pop.  6764. 

FORISFAMILIA'TION  (literally,  the  putting 
forth  from  or  beyond  the  family)  is  the  separation 
of  a  child  from  the  family  of  his  father.  A  child  is 
said  to  be  forisfamiliated,  either  when  he  marriea 
or  when  he  receives  from  his  father  a  separata 
stock,  the  profits  of  which  are  enjoj'ed  by  himself, 
though  he  may  still  reside  with  his  father,  or  when 
he  goes  to  live  in  another  family  with  the  consent  oi 
his  father  The  same  result  is  also  brought  about 
when  a  child  renounces  his  legltim,  i.e.,  his  legal 
share  of  the  father's  free  movable  property  due  to 
him  on  the  death  of  the  latter.  See  Bell's  Die.  oj 
the  Laiu  of  Scotland. 

FORKS.  These  table  instruments  are  only  about 
three  centuries  old.  The  Greeks,  Romans,  and 
other  ancient  nations  knew  nothing  of  forks.  They 
had  large  forks  for  hay,  and  also  iron  forks  for 
taking  meat  out  of  pots,  but  no  instruments  of  the 
nature  of  table-forks.  In  ancient  times,  as  is  the 
practice  still  in  the  East,  meat  was  commoidy  pre- 
pared as  stews ;  or  if  roasted,  it  was  cut  into  smaU 
pieces  by  a  carver,  so  as  to  be  easily  taken  in 
mouthfuls  by  the  guests,  who  used  their  fingers  and 
a  knife  for  the  purpose.  It  certainly  is  a  strange 
fact,  that  the  use  of  any  species  of  forks  at  table  was 
quite  unknown  till  the  15th  c,  and  they  were  then 
known  only  in  Italy,  which  has  the  merit  of  this 
invention.  None  of  the  sovereigns  of  England  had 
forks  till  after  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII, ;  all,  high  and 
low,  used  their  fingers.  It  was  accordingly  a  part 
of  the  etiquette  of  the  table  to  employ  the  fingers  so 
delicately  as  not  to  dirty  the  hand  to  any  serious 
degree ;  but  as  even  by  the  best  management  the 
fingers  were  less  or  more  soiled,  it  was  the  cuso-n. 
to  wash  the  hands  immediately  on  the  dishes  being 
removed  from  the  table.  Hence,  in  the  royal  house- 
hold, there  was  a  dignitary  caUed  the  Ewrar  or 
Ewaiy,  who  with  a  set  of  subordinates  attended  at 
meals  with  basins,  water,  and  towels.  The  office 
of  Ewary  survived  after  forks  came  partially  into 
use.    We  learn  that  when  James  I.  entertained  th« 

433 


FORLI-FORMA  PAUPERIS. 


Spanish  ambassador  at  dinner,  very  shortly  after 
his  accession,  'their  majesties  washed  their  hands 
with  water  from  the  same  ewer,  the  towels  being 
presented  to  the  king  by  the  lord  treasurer,  and  to 
the  queen  by  the  lord  high  admiral,'  The  Prince 
of  Wales  had  a  ewer  to  himself,  which  was  after 
him  used  by  the  ambassador. — Ellis's  Letters.  The 
first  royal  personage  in  England  who  is  known  to 
have  had  a  fork  was  Queen  Elizabeth ;  but  although 
several  were  presented  to  her,  it  remains  doubtful 
whether  she  nsed  them  on  ordinary  occasions. 
From  the  inventory  of  her  majesty's  appointments 
in  Nichols's  Progresses,  it  would  appear  that  these 
forks  were  more  for  ornament  than  use.  '  Item^  a 
knife  and  a  spoune,  and  a  forke  of  christall,  garnished 
with  golde  sleightly,  and  sparcks  of  garnetts  :  given 
by  the  Countess  of  Lyncolne.  Item,  a  forke  of 
corall,  slightly  garnished  with  golde  :  given  by  Mrs 
Frances  Drury.  Item,  one  spoune  and  forke  of 
golde ;  the  forke  garnished  with  two  lyttle  rubyes, 
two  lyttle  perles  pendant,  and  a  lyttle  corall :  givpu 
by  the  Countess  of  Warwicke.'  These  ornamental 
forks  had  doubtless  been  presented  to  the  queen 
as  foreign  curiosities  of  some  value,  and  were  j)rob- 
ably  never  used  at  table.  As  yet,  and  for  a  con- 
siderable time  afterwards,  forks  were  not  in  common 
use,  a  circumstance  less  attributable  to  ignorance  of 
the  invention,  than  to  prejudice.  So  far  was  this 
prejudice  carried,  by  even  educated  persons,  that 
one  divine  preached  against  the  use  of  forks,  as 
being  an  insult  to  Providence  not  to  touch  one's 
meat  with  one's  fingers  ! 

Ital)%  as  has  been  said,  claims  the  merit  of  this 
useful  invention.  This  fact  is  explicitly  learned 
from  an  account  of  a  tour  in  Italy  by  a  traveller 
named  Thomas  Coryate,  who  visited  that  country 
in  1608.  His  travels,  styled  Crudities,  were  pub- 
lished first  in  1611,  and  republished  in  1/76.  In 
these  Crudities  appear  the  followdng  passages 
respecting  the  Italian  towns  :  *  I  observed  a  ciistom 
in  all  those  Italian  cities  and  townes  through  which 
I  passed,  that  is  not  used  in  any  other  country  that 
I  saw  in  my  travels  ;  neither  do  I  think  that  any 
other  nation  of  Christendom  doth  use  it,  but  only 
Italy.  The  Italian  and  also  most  strangers  do 
always  at  their  meals  use  a  little  forke  when  they 
cut  their  meat.  For  while  with  their  knife,  which 
they  hold  in  one  hand,  they  cut  the  meate  out  of 
the  dish,  they  fasten  the  forke,  which  they  hold  in 
their  other  hand,  upon  the  same  dish ;  so  that 
whatsoever  he  be  that  sitting  in  the  company  of 
others  at  meals,  should  unadvisedly  touch  the  dish 
of  meat  with  his  fingers,  from  which  all  the  table 
doe  cut,  he  will  give  occasion  of  oflfenee  unto  the 
company,  as  having  transgressed  the  laws  of  good 
manners,  in  so  much  that  for  his  error  he  shall  be  at 
the  least  browbeaten,  if  not  reprehended  in  wordes. 
This  form  of  feeding,  I  understand,  is  generally 
used  in  all  places  of  Italy ;  their  forks  being  for 
the  most  part  made  of  yron,  Steele,  and  some  of 
silver,  but  these  are  used  only  by  gentlemen.  The 
reason  for  this  curiosity  is,  because  the  Italian  can- 
not by  any  means  indure  to  have  his  dish  touched 
with  fingers,  seeing  that  all  men's  fingers  are  not 
alikf  cleane.  Hereupon,  I  myself  thought  good  to 
imit&te  the  Italian  fashion  by  this  forked  cutting 
of  meate,  not  only  while  I  was  in  Italy,  but  also  in 
Germany,  and  oftentimes  in  England  since  I  came 
home ;  being  once  quipped  for  that  frequent  using 
ai  my  forke,  by  a  certain  learned  gentleman,  a 
familiar  friend  of  mine,  Mr  Laurence  Whitaker, 
who  in  his  merry  humour,  doubted  not  to  call  me 
at  idhlt  furci/er,  only  for  using  a  forke  at  feeding, 
but  for  no  other  cause.'  The  term  here  employed 
jocularly,  was  in  its  serious  meaning  one  of  reproach, 
oavmg  been  applied  by  the  Romans  to  those  slaves 

i34 


'  who  as  a  punishment  bore  a  forked  frame  or  j'oke 
J  (/urea),  resembling  an  inverted  ^ — hence  the  Italian 
forca  and  forchetta ;  the  latter  (little  fork)  being 
followed  in  the  French  term  fourchette,  while  the 
former  is  the  root  of  the  English  word  fork. 
I     Forks  came  so  slowly  into  use  in  England,  that 
!  they  were  employed  only  by  the  higher  classes  at 
I  the  middle  of  the  17th  century.    About  the  period 
of  the  revolution,  few  noblemen  had  more  than 
I  a  dozen  forks  of  silver,  along  with  a  few  of  iron 
or  steel.    At  length,  for  general  use,  steel  forka 
;  became  an  article  of  manufacture  at  Shefiield  :  at 
first,  they  had  but  two  prongs,  and  it  was  only  ia 
!  later  times  that  the  three-pronged  kind  were  made. 
As  late  as  the  early  part  of  the  18th  c,  table-forks, 
and  we  may  add  knives,  were  kept  on  so  meagre  a 
scale  by  country  inns  in  Scotland  (and,  perhaps,  also 
in  some  parts  of  England),  that  it  was  customary 
for  gentlemen  in  travelling  to  carry  with  them  a 
portaljle  knife  and  fork  in  a  shagreen  case ;  and 
till  this  day  a  small  knife  and  fork  form  part  of  tho 
oniamental  equipment  in  the  Highland  dress.  The 
general  introduction  of  silver  forks  into  Great 
Britain  is  quite  recent ;  it  can  be  dated  no  further 
back  than  the  opening  of  the  continent  to  English 
tourists  at  the  termination  of  the  French  war  in 
1814.     The  extensive  use  of  these  costly  instru- 
ments in  the  present  day,  marks  in  an  extraordinary 
degree  the  rapid  progress  of  wealth  and  refined 
taste  throughout  the  United  Kingdom. 

FORLI,  an  interesting  city  of  Italy,  capital  of 
the  province  of  the  same  name,  is  beautifully  situ- 
ated at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines,  in  a  ])leasant 
and  fertile  plain,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Montone, 
16  miles  south-west  of  Ravenna.  It  is  a  well-built, 
handsome  city,  is  surrounded  with  walls,  and  con- 
tains many  striking  specimens  of  architecture,  of 
which  the  Guerini  Palazzo,  built  after  the  designs  of 
Michael  Angelo,  the  Palazzo  Comunale,  the  Monte 
di  Pieta,  the  cathedral,  a  majestic  building,  and  the 
churches  of  S.  Philipo  Neri,  of  S.  Girolamo,  and  of  S. 
Mercuriale,  are  the  most  notable.  The  ecclesiastical 
buildings  of  F.  contain  some  of  the  best  pictures  of 
Cignani,  Carlo  Maratti,  Guido,  and  other  masters. 
The  citadel,  founded  in  1361,  is  now  used  as  a  pris- 
on. The  inhabitants  carry  on  silk-spinning  and  salt- 
refining,  with  a  considerable  trade  in  corn,  Imen, 
hemp,  carthamus,  woad,  &c.  F.  (the  ancient  Foinirn 
Livii)  is  said  to  have  been  foimded  by  Marcus 
Livius  Salinator,  after  his  victory  over  Hasdrubal, 
on  the  Metaurus,  207  B.C.,  and  to  have  received 
its  name  from  him.  In  the  middle  ages,  it  formed  a 
reimblic,  and  exchanged  its  rulers  frequently  during 
the  struggles  of  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines.  In 
1503,  it  was  annexed  to  the  States  of  the  Church, 
and  so  remained  tiU  1860,  when  it  was  placed  with 
the  ^milian  provinces  under  the  sreptre  of  Victor 
Emmanuel.    Pop.  (1862)  17,723;  (1872)  38,480. 

FORLO'RN-HOPE,  the  body  of  men  selected  to 
attempt  a  breach,  or  to  le^d  in  scaling  the  wall  of  a 
fortress.  The  name  (which  in  the  French,  enfants 
perdus,  is  even  more  expressive)  is  given  on  account 
of  the  extreme  danger  to  which  the  leaders  of  a 
storming-party  are  necessarily  exposed.  As,  how- 
ever, the  honour  of  success  is  proportionate  to  the 
peril  of  the  undertaking,  there  is  ordinarily  no  lack 
of  volunteers  for  this  arduous  service.  The  forlorn- 
hope  is  called  by  the  Germans  Die  verlornen  Posten. 

FORMA  PAU'PERIS,  the  phrase  usually  em- 
ployed both  in  England  and  Scotland  to  signify  the 
arrangements  by  which  an  action  may  be  carried 
on  by  one  who  is  too  poor  to  sue  in  the  ordinary 
way.  In  England,  the  statutes  11  Henry  VII.  c.  12 
and  23  Henry  VIII.  c.  15,  provide  that  such  as 
will  swear  themselves  not  worth  £5,  except  theif 


FORMATION- FORMS  OF  ADDRESS. 


wearing  apparel  and  the  matter  in  question  in  the 
cause,  shall  be  exempt  when  plaintiffs,  but  not 
when  defendants,  from  the  payment  of  court-fees, 
and  shall  be  entitled  to  have  counsel  and  attorney 
assigned  to  them  by  the  court  without  fee.  They 
are  further  excused  from  costs  when  unsuccessful ; 
a  privilege  which,  according  to  Blackstone,  amounted 
in  former  times  only  to  the  rather  uncomfortable 
alternative  of  choosing  between  paying  and  being 
whipped.     In  the  event  of  success,  however,  a 

Eerson  suing  in  this  form  is  entitled  to  his  costs, 
ecause  his  coimsel  and  ageut,  and  the  officers  of 
court,  though  they  arc  bound  to  give  their  labour 
gratis  to  him,  are  not  bound  to  give  it  on  the  same 
terms  to  his  antagonist,  unless  he  too  be  a  pauper. 
To  prevent  the  abuse  of  suing  in  the  superior  courts 
at  Westminster  in  this  form  in  matters  of  small 
amount,  it  is  provided  (19  and  20  Vict.  c.  108,  s.  30), 
subject  to  certain  exceptions,  that  any  plaintiff  who 
resorts  to  one  of  these,  in  a  case  falling  within  the 
cognizance  of  a  county  court,  and  recovers  no  more 
than  £20,  or  in  some  cases  £5,  shall  have  no  costs, 
unless  he  satisfies  the  court  or  a  judge  that  he  had 
sufficient  reason  for  taking  that  course.  There  are 
some  other  exceptions  to  the  rule  (see  Stephen's 
Com.  iii.  p.  640). 

Ill  Scotland,  this  benevolent  arrangement  was 
introduced  by  statute  more  than  half  a  century 
before  the  date  of  the  English  act  we  have  men- 
tioned. In  1424,  the  statute  (c.  45),  which  we  have 
already  quoted  under  Advocate  (q.  v.),  was  passed 
for  the  purpose  of  securing  professional  assistance, 
gratis,  to  the  poor,  and  for  giving  to  them  and  those 
who  assisted  them  their  costs  in  the  event  of  success. 
The  more  special  arrangements  applicable  to  litiga- 
tion in  this  form  in  Scotland  will  be  detailed  imder 
Poor's  Roll  (q.  v.). 

FORMATION,  in  Geology,  is  applied  to  a  group 
of  strata  united  by  some  character  which  they  have 
in  common,  whether  of  age,  origin,  or  composition, 
as  the  coal  or  chalk  formation. 

FO'RMEDON,  an  old  form  of  action,  in  the 
Law  of  England,  whereby  an  heir  of  entail  or 
remainder  man  who  had  been  ousted  by  a  discon- 
tinuance, was  entitled  to  vindicate  his  claim  to  the 
lands  fi'om  which  he  had  been  ousted.  By  21  James  I. 
c.  IG,  it  was  enacted  that  writ  of  formedon  should 
be  brought  within  twenty  years  of  the  time  when 
the  cause  of  action  arose.  Writ  of  formedon  is  now 
abolished,  together  with  other  real  actions. 

FO'RMIC  ACID  (CH2O2)  derives  its  name 
from  the  circumstance  of  its  having  been  first 
obtained  from  the  Formica  rufa,  or  red  ant.  In  a 
concentrated  state,  it  is  a  fuming  liquor  with  an 
h^ntating  odour,  and  occasions  vesication  if  dropped 
upon  the  skin.  It  crystallises  at  a  temperature 
below  32°,  and  boils  at  about  212",  yielding  a  vapour 
which  burns  with  a  blue  llame.  It  is  a  strong 
reducing  agent,  at  a  boiling  temperature  reducing  the 
salts  of  silver,  mercury,  platinum,  and  gold. 

It  may  be  obtained  in  various  ways,  as,  for  example : 
.  By  the  distillation  of  red  ants  with  water  (a 
proceeding  never  adopted  now).  2.  By  the  distilla- 
tion of  a  mixture  of  starch,  binoxide  of  manganese, 
Bulphuric  acid,  and  water ;  this  is  the  usual  method, 
and  various  organic  matters,  as  sugar,  chaff,  bran, 
saw-dust,  &c.,  may  be  substituted  for  the  starch. 
3.  By  the  distillation  of  oxalic  acid  mixed  with 
sand,  or  far  better  (according  to  Berthelot),  with 
glycerine,  1  equivalent  of  oxalic  acid  (CaHiO*)  yield- 
ing 1  equivalent  of  formic  acid  (CH2O2)  +  2  equiva- 
lents of  carbonic  anhydride  (2CO2). 

Berthelot  has  recently  obtained  it  synthetically  by 
keeping  carbonic  oxide  gas  foi  a  prolonged  period 
lu  contact  wi'h  hydrate  of  potash,  at  a  temperature 


of  212".  The  gas  becomes  gradually  absorbed,  and 
formate  of  potash  is  tbe  result,  the  reaction  being 
exhibited  by  the  formuUi,  1  c(iuivalent  of  hydrate 
of  potash  (KHO)  -|-  2  equivalents  of  carbonic  oxide 
(2C0)  =  1  equivalent  of  formate  of  potassium 
fCHK02). 

Formic  acid  is  a  very  common  product  of  the 
oxidation  of  organic  bodies  ;  thus,  for  example,  the 
albuminates,  glycine,  sugar,  starch,  &c.,  yield  it  ia 
association  with  other  products,  when  acted  on  by 
chromic  acid  ;  the  fats  and  fatty  acids  yield  it  whea 
acted  on  by  nitric  acid ;  and  it  is  a  product  of  the 
action  of  ozone  on  glycerine,  fats,  fatty  salts,  acetic 
acid,  and  sugar,  provided  a  free  alkali  is  present. 
Hence,  we  can  readily  explain  its  occurrence  aa 
a  jiroduct  of  oxidation  in  the  animal  c!"ganism,  in 
which  it  not  unfrequently  occurs,  either  free  or  in 
combination.  Thus  we  find  it  not  only  in  ants,  but 
in  the  poison  of  the  bee  and  wasp,  and  in  the  hairs 
of  the  procession  caterpillar.  It  has  been  detected 
by  various  chemists  in  the  sweat,  in  the  expressed 
juice  of  the  spleen,  pancreas,  thymus  gland,  and 
muscles,  in  the  brain,  the  blood,  and  the  urine. 

The  salts  of  formic  acid,  which  are  termed  by 
some  chemists  formates,  and  by  others  formiates, 
require  no  special  notice.  They  are  all  soluble,  and 
yield  a  red  colour  with  persalts  of  iron. 

FORMI'CA.    See  Ant. 

FORMING'S  ISLAND  is  a  speck  on  the  bosom 
of  the  Pacific,  lying  a  little  to  the  north  of  the  Sand- 
wich Group,  or  Hawaiian  Archipelago,  in  lat.  30°  49' 
N.,  and  long.  159°  20'  W.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
recent  additions  to  the  British  empire,  having  been 
formally  occupied,  mainly  on  account  of  its  excellent 
harbour,  towards  the  close  of  1860. 

FORMO'SA  (Chinese  name,  Tai-wan),  a  large 
island  on  the  south-east  coast  of  China,  opposite 
the  province  of  Fu-keen,  from  which  it  is  distant 
about  90  miles.  It  lies  between  21°  53'— 25°  16' 
N.  lat,  and  120°  15'— 122°  4'  E.  long. ;  and  for  admini- 
strative purposes,  is  included  in  the  province  before 
mentioned,  of  which  (together  with  Pang-hoo  group) 
it  forms  a  department.  The  length  "of  F.,  from 
north  to  south,  is  about  237  miles,  and  its  average 
breadth,  from  east  to  west,  is  about  70  miles.  A 
chain  of  mountains  running  north  and  south  nearly 
bisects  the  island,  and  divides  it  into  an  eastern 
and  western  province.  Chinese  settlers  occupy  the 
latter,  but  the  other  section  is  held  by  the  abori- 
gines. Tai-wan  (q.v.),  the  capital,  in  23°  N.  lat.,  and 
on  the  western  coast,  was  opened  to  foreign  commerce 
by  the  treaty  of  Tien-tsin,  June  26,  1858.  F.  has  a 
fertile  soil,  and  produ'-'^s  rice,  maize,  sugar,  tobacco, 
cinnamon,  pepper,  &c.  ,  oranges,  pine-apples,  guavas, 
cocoa-nuts,  pomegranates,  as  weU  as  grapes,  peaches, 
and  other  European  fruits,  are  abundant.  The 
aboriginal  inhabitants  are  still  in  a  very  rude  state, 

FORMS  OF  ADDRESS.  Many  persons  are 
exposed  to  inconvenience  from  their  ig-\orance  of 
the  formal  modes  of  addressing  letters  to  persona 
of  title ;  we  shall  therefore,  in  the  present  article, 
give  an  enumeration,  taken  mainly  from  Mr  Dod'a 
Peerage  and  Baronage,  of  the  usual  ceremonious 
modes  of  WTitten  address.  Previous  to  their 
employment,  the  wi-iter  must,  of  course,  learn 
either  from  the  peerage-^vriters,  or  from  some  other 
source,  the  precise  rank  of  the  person  whom  ha 
wishes  to  address,  as  well  as  the  hereditary,  per- 
sonal, or  official  distinctions  by  which  that  rank  ia 
often  modified. 

1.  Archbishop — Letters  are  addressed:  'His  Graca 

the  Lord  Archbishop  of   ,'  and  commence,  '^ly 

Lord  Archbishop.'  More  formal  documents  are 
addressed :  *  The  Most  Reverend  Father  in  God 
(John  Bird),  by  Divine  Providence,  LorJ  Archbishop 


FORMS  OF  ADDRESS. 


of  Canterbury other  archbishops  and  suffragan 
bishops  being  *by  Divine  permission.'  When  per- 
sonally referred  to,  an  archbishop  is  styled  *  Your 
Grace,'  not  *Your  Lordship.'  The  Archbishop  of 
Armagh  is  addressed  as  '  His  Grace  the  Lord  Primate 
of  Ireland.' 

Archbishops'  wives,  and  the  other  members  of 
their  families,  enjoy  no  titles,  as  such. 

2.  Baron — Addressed  :   '  The  Kiglit  Honourable 

I  ord  ; '  referred  to  as  '  Plis  Lordship,'  or  '  Your 

Lordship.' 

Baroii's  Daughter — '  The  Honourable  Mary  ; ' 

cir,  if  married, '  The  Honourable  Mi's  .'  Letters 

commence,  '  Madam.' 

Baron's  Son—  The  Honourable  John  Letters 

commence,  '  Sir.' 

Baron's  Son's  Wife — *  The  Honourable  Mrs  .' 

Letters  commence,  '  Madam.' 

Baron's  Wife,  and  Baroness  in  her  own  right — 

The  Eight  Honourable  Lady  ;'  in  strictness, 

but  more  commonly,  *  The  Lady   .'  Letters 

commence,  *  Madam,'  and  refer  to  her  as  '  Your 
Ladyship.' 

Baronet — '  Sir  John   ,  Bart.'  Letters  com- 
mence, '  Sir.' 

Baronet's  Wife — *  Lady  .'    Unless  she  has  a 

title  as  the  daughter  of  a  peer,  no  Chnstian  name  is 
used.    She  is  referred  to  as  '  Y''our  Ladyship.' 

B'lshoj) — '  The  Right  Reverend  the  Lord  Bishop 
of   .'  Letters  commence,  '  My  Lord.'  Fre- 
quently the  address  is  simply,  '  The  Lord  Bishop 

of  .'    The  style  in  formal  docimients  is,  '  The 

Right  Reverend  Father  in  God  (John   ),  by 

Divine  permission,  Lord  Bishop  of   .'  Scotch 

l>ishops  are  addressed  'The  Bishop  of   ,'  some- 
times as  '  The  Right  Reverend  Bishop  (e.  g.,  C.  H. 
Terrot)',  and  letters  commence,  '  Right  Reverend 
Sir.'  The  colonial  bishops  are  addressed  by  their 
territorial  titles,  like  those  of  England. 

Bishops'  Wives  and  Children  have  no  titles. 

Countess — '  The  Right  Honourable  the  Countess 

of  .'    Letters  commence,  '  Madam,'  and  refer 

to  her  as  '  Y''our  Ladyship.' 

Duchess — '  Her  Grace  the  Duchess  of  .'  Let- 
ters commence,  '  Madam,'  and  refer  to  her  as  *  Your 
Grace.' 

Duke — '  His  Grace  the  Duke  of   Letters 

commence,  '  My  Lord  Duke ; '  and  he  is  referred 
to  as  '  Your  Grace.' 

Duke's  Daughter — *  The  Right  Honourable  Lady 

Marj'-  ,'  or  less  formally,  '  The  Lady  Mary  .' 

Letters  commence,  '  Madam,'  and  refer  to  her  as 
'  Your  Ladyship.'  If  she  is  married  to  a  person  of 
inferior  rank,  her  surname  only  is  changed. 

Duke's  Eldest  Son — Uses  the  second  or  some  other 
title  of  his  family  by  courtesy,  and  he  is  addressed 
as  if  he  held  the  title  by  law,  though  in  formal 

documents  he  is  called  '  ,  Esq.,  commonly  called 

the  Marquis  or  Earl'  (as  the  case  may  be). 

Duke's  Younger  Son — '  The  Right  Honourable 
Lord  John  Russell,'  or  less  formally,  '  The  Lord 
J  ;hn  E  .'    '  My  Lord,'  and  '  Your  Lordship.' 

Duke's  Younger  Son's  Wife — '  The  Lady  John  ,' 

rmleBS  where  she  has  a  title  in  her  ovm  right. 
Madam,'  and  '  Your  Ladyship.' 

Earl—'  The  Right  Honourable  the  Earl  of   

or  less  formally,  '  The  Earl  of  .'  '  My  Lord,'  and 

•  Your  Lordship.' 

Earl's  Daughter — Like  Duke's  Daughter  (q.  v.). 

Earl's  Eldest  Son  is  addressed  as  if  the  title 
which  he  holds  in  courtesy  were  a  title  in  law. 

Earl's  Younger  Son — Like  Baron's  Son  (q.  v.). 

EarVs  Younger  Son's  Wife — Like  Baron's  son's 
wife,  imless  of  superior  rank  to  her  husband. 

Earl's  Wife.    See  Countess. 

King — 'The  King's  Most  Excellent  Majesty.' 
436 


'  Sire,'  and  '  Your  Majesty ;'  or,  in  less  formal  notes, 
thus  :  '  Mr  Pill  presents  his  duty  to  your  Majesty.' 

Knight  Bachelor — Like  Baronet  (q.  v.),  except  that 
the  word  'Bart.'  is  omitted. 

Knight  Bachelor's  Wife — Like  Baronet's  Vv'ife 
(q.v.). 

Knight  of  the  Oarter — K.G.  is  added  to  the  name 
or  other  title  of  the  bearer. 

Knight  of  St  Patrick — K.P.  used  in  the  same 
manner. 

KnigM  of  the  Thistle— K.!!. 

Knight  of  the  Bath — if  a  Knight  Grand  Croea, 
K.G.C.B. ;  if  a  Knight  Commander,  K.C.B. 

Knight  of  the  Bath's  Wife — Like  the  wife  of  a 
Baronet  or  Knight  Bachelor. 

Lord  Advocate  (of  Scotland) — *  The  Right  Honour- 
able the  Lord  Advocate'  by  courtesy  ;  but  in  official 
documents  he  is  styled  *  Her  Majesty's  Advocate  for 
Scotland.'  Letters  ought  strictly  to  commence, '  Sir,* 
not  '  My  Lord,'  though  the  latter  mode  of  addi-ess  is 
the  more  usual. 

Lord  Lieutenant  [of  Ireland) — 'His  Excellency 
the  Lord  Lieutenant ; '  and  letters  commence  in 
accordance  with  his  rank  in  the  peerage  or  other- 
wise. ,  If  a  duke,  he  is  styled  '  His  Grace  the  Lord 
Lieutenant.' 

Lord  Mayor — *  The  Right  Honourable  the  Lord 
Mayor.'  '  My  Lord,'  and  '  Your  Lordship.'  There 
are  oidy  tliree  Lord  Mayors — those  of  London, 
York,  and  Dublin. 

Lord  Provost — The  Provost  of  Edinburgh  is  *  The 
I  Right  Honourable  the  Lord  Provost ; '  of  Glasgow, 
'  The  Honourable  the  Lord  Provost ; '  of  Perth, '  The 
Lord  Provost.'  There  are  no  other  Lord  Provosts. 
Perhaps  the  distinction  in  the  title  of  the  chief 
magistrate  of  the  Scottish  capital  is  traceable  to 
his  ha\'ing  been  always  a  member  of  the  Privy 
Councd  of  Scotland,  from  at  least  the  period  of  the 
Revolution. 

Lord  of  Session  (in  Scotland) — 'The  Honourable 
Lord  .'    '  My  Lord,'  and  '  Your  Lordship.' 

Lords  of  Her  Majesty's  Treasury — These  in  their 
collective  capacity  are  addressed  as  'The  Honour- 
able the  Lords  Commissioners  of  Her  Majesty's 
Treasury;'  individually  they  have  no  title  from 
their  connection  with  the  Treasury. 

Maid  of  Honour — 'The  Honourable  Miss;'  and 
*  Madam.' 

Marchioness — 'The  ^Most  Honourable  the  Mar- 
chioness of  .'    '  Madam,'  and  '  Your  Ladyship.* 

Marquis — '  The  Most  Honourable  the  Marquis 

of  ,'  not '  The  Most  Noble.'    Letters  commence 

'  My  Lord  Marquis ; '  but  when  personally  addressed, 
he  is  styled  '  My  Lord,'  and  '  Your  Lordship.' 

Marquis' s  Daughter — Like  Duke's  Dau^liter  (q.v.). 

Marquis's  Eldest  Son — Like  Duke's  Eldest  Son 
(q.v.). 

Marquis's  Younger  Son,  like  Duke's  Yoimger  Sou 
(q.  v.). 

Mayors — In  formal  documents,  '  The  Right  Wor- 
shipful the  Mayor   ,'  but  in  letters,  simply  *Tha 

Mayor.' 

Members  of  Parliament — The  letters  M.P.  are  added 
to  their  usual  address. 

Officers  in  the  Navy  and  Army — Their  rank  in  the 
service  is  always  prefixed  to  any  other  title  they  may 
possess,  thus :  '  Captain  the  Lord  John  .' 

Prince — 'His  Royal  Highness  Prince   o7 

'His  Royal  Highness  the  Duke  of   ,*  when  the 

Prince  is  also  a  Duke.  In  practice,  the  initials  H.  R. 
H.  are  usually  substituted  for  the  words.  A  letter 
begins  *  Si-r,'  not '  My  Lord  Duke ;'  and  the  mode  of 
reference  is  *  Your  Royal  Highness.' 

Princess — *  Her  Royal  Highness  the  Princess  

or  'The  Duchess'  (as  the  case  may  be).  'Madam,' 
and  *  Your  Royal  Highness.' 


FORMS  OF  PKOCEDURE— FORSTER. 


Princess  Wife,  thougli  of  inferior  rank,  like  a 
Princess  by  birtli. 

Privy  Councillor — 'The  Right  Honourable  John 

Privy  Councillor's  Wife  and  Children  have  no 
title. 

Queen — 'The  Queen's  Most  Excellent  Iklajesty.' 
'Madam,'  and  '  Your  Majesty  or,  'The  Lord  John 
R  presents  his  duty  to  your  Majesty.' 

Viscount — '  The  Right  Honourable  Lord  Viscount 

 ,'  or  less  formally,  '  Tho  Lord  Viscount.'    '  My 

Lord,'  and  '  Your  Lordship.' 

Viscountess — 'The  Right  Honourable  the  Vis- 
countess,' or  less  formally,  '  The  Viscountess.' 
'Madam,'  and  '  Your  Ladyship.' 

Viscount's  Daughter,  like  Baron's  Daughter  (q.  v.). 

Viscounfs  Son,  like  Baron's  Son  (q.  v.). 

Viscount's  Son's  Wife,  like  Baron's  Son's  Wife 
(q.v.). 

The  formality  of  these  modes  of  address  experi- 
ences considerable  modifications  when  employed  ! 
by  persons  of  equal  rank.  Between  friends  and 
relatives,  they  are  either  entirely  dispensed  with 
(except,  of  course,  in  addressing  letters),  or  adapted 
to  the  feelings  and  caprices  of  the  writers.  In  this, 
as  in  many  other  respects,  we  of  the  present  gener- 
ation are  far  less  ceremonious  than  our  fathers,  and 
Btill  more  than  our  grandfathers  were.  In  most  old 
letters,  it  wiU  be  found  that  the  titles  of  the  writers 
are  preserved  even  where  there  is  the  freest  and 
most  familiar  interchange  of  thought  and  feeling. 
Wives  address  their  husbands,  and  husbands  their 
wives,  children  their  parents,  and  occasionally  even 
parents  their  children,  as  '  Sir '  or  '  Madam,'  '  My 
Lord,'  or  '  Your  Royal  Highness,'  as  the  case  may  be. 

FORMS  OF  PROCEDURE.    See  Process. 

FORNICA'TION  {fornicatio,  from  fornix,  an 
arch-vault,  and  by  metonymy,  a  brothel,  because 
brothels  at  Rome  were  in  cellars  and  vaults  under 

f round).  In  most  countries,  this  crime  has  been 
roaght  within  the  pale  of  positive  law  at  some 
period  of  their  history,  and  prohibited  by  the  impo- 
sition of  penalties  more  or  less  severe  ;  but  it  has 
always  been  found  ultimately  to  be  more  expedient 
to  trust  to  the  restraints  which  public  opinion 
impose  on  it  in  every  community  which  is  gmded  by 
the  principles  of  morality  and  religion.  In  England, 
in  1650,  during  the  ascendency  of  the  Puritan  i)arty, 
the  repeated  act  of  keeping  a  brothel  or  committing 
fornication  was  made  felony  without  benefit  of 
clergy  on  a  second  conviction.  At  the  Restoration, 
when  the  crime  of  hypocrisy  seemed  for  a  time  to  be 
the  only  one  which,  under  the  influences  of  a  very 
natural  reaction,  men  were  willing  to  recognise,  this 
enactment  was  not  renewed  ;  and  though  not(jrious 
and  open  lewdness,  when  carried  to  the  extent  of 
exciting  public  scandal,  continued,  as  it  had  been 
before,  an  indictable  offence  at  common  law,  the 
mere  act  of  fornication  itself  was  abandoned  '  to  the 
feeble  coercion  of  the  si)iritual  court,  according 
to  the  rules  of  the  canon  law,  a  law  which  has 
treated  the  offence  of  incontinence  with  a  great  deal 
of  tenderness  and  lenity,  owing  perhaps  to  the  cou- 
Btrained  celibacy  of  its  first  compilers.' — Blackstone. 
The  proceedings  of  the  spiritual  court  were  regu- 
lated by  27  Geo.  HI.  c.  44,  which  enacts  that  the 
Buit  must  be  instituted  within  eight  months,  and 
that  it  cannot  be  maintained  at  all  after  the  mar- 
riage of  the  parties  offending.  But  proceedings  in 
the  ecclesiastical  courts  for  this  offence  have  now 
fallen  iiito  entire  desuetude  (Stephen's  Com.  iv. 
<?47).  It»  Scotland,  shortly  after  the  Reformation, 
fornication  was  probibited  by  what  Baron  Hume 
calls  '  an  anxious  statute  of  James  VI'  (1567  c.  13), 
•n titled  '  Anent  the  Fdthie  Vice  of  Fornication,  and 


Punishment  of  the  samin.'  This  act,  which  was 
passed  in  the  same  parliament  by  which  incest  and 
adultery  are  punished  with  death,  provides  that  the 
offender,  whether  male  or  female,  shall  pay  for  the 
first  offence  a  fine  of  £40  Scots,  aud  shall  stand 
bareheaded,  and  fastened  at  the  market-place,  for 
the  space  of  two  hours  ;  for  the  second,  shall  pay 
a  fine  of  100  merks,  have  the  head  shaven,  ana  shall 
be  exposed  in  the  same  public  manner  ;  and  for  the 
third,  pay  a  fine  of  £100,  be  thrice  ducked  in  the 
foulest  pool  of  the  parish,  and  be  banished  the  towD 
or  parish  for  ever.  There  is  but  one  instance  of  thi« 
statute  having  been  enforced  by  the  Court  of  Justi* 
ciary,  which  occurs,  as  might  be  supposed,  during 
the  government  of  the  Protector  in  Scotland  The 
offence  of  keeping  a  house  of  notorious  ill -fame  and 
scandalising  the  neighbourhood,  is  pimishable  in 
Scotland  as  a  police  offence.  See  ISuiSANCE  and 
Prostitution. 

FORRES,  a  royal  burgh  in  the  county  of  Elgin 
or  Moray,  situated  on  a  well-marked  old  sea-terrace 
and  promontory,  distant  about  two  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Findhorn  (q.  v.).  Pop.  (1871) 
3959.  It  was  a  royal  burgh  in  the  reigai  of  King 
David  1.  (1124 — 1153),  and  was  subsequently  the 
seat  of  the  Archdeacon  of  Moray,  who  had  as  his 
prebend  the  church  of  Forres,  dedicated  to  St  Lau- 
rence the  martyr,  and  the  church  of  Logynfythenach 
(now  Edinkillie),  dedicated  to  St  John  the  Baptist. 
A  i^ainting  of  St  Laurence  holding  in  his  hand 
the  gridiron  on  which  he  is  said  to  have  been 
roasted,  is  preserved  at  Brodie  House  near  Forres. 
The  antiquities  of  the  place  are  the  remains  of 
its  castle,  at  the  west  end  of  the  town,  now  sur- 
mounted by  a  monument,  erected  to  the  memory  of 
Dr  Thomson  (a  native  of  Cromarty,  distinguished 
by  his  eminent  medical  services  in  the  Crimean 
war),  and  the  remarkable  sculj)tured  pillar — 25  feet 
high — sometimes  called  Sueno's  Stone,  but  more 
commonly  '  the  Stan'in'  Stane,'  which  stands  about 
a  mile  to  the  eastward.  A  monastery  of  black 
friars  is  said  to  have  etood  foi-merly  on  the  site  now 
occupied  by  Anderson's  or  the  Forres  Academical 
Institution.  F.  lies  at  the  foot  of  a  curiously  formed 
group  of  four  gravelly  hills,  named  the  Cluny  or 
Cleeny  Hills,  evidently  water-made,  on  the  highest 
of  which,  the  site  of  an  old  encampment,  an  octagonal 
tower  66  feet  high,  was  erected  to  the  memory  of 
Nelson  in  1806. 

FORSTER,  John,  an  English  political  and 
histoi-ical  writer,  was  born  at  Newcastle  in  1812. 
He  was  edvicated  for  the  bar,  but  early,  like 
so  many  other  law-students,  devoted  himself  to 
periodical  writing.  In  this  sphere  of  literature  he 
dis[)layed  more  than  usual  ability;  and  his  political 
articles  in  the  London  Examiner,  for  which  he 
commenced  writing  in  1834,  attracted  more  atten- 
tion tlian  is  usually  bestowed  on  newspaper  leaders. 
There  was  a  vigoiir  and  point  about  them,  coupled 
with  a  truth,  consistency,  and  outsi^oken  honesty 
(the  three  latter  qualities  being  more  rare  in  news- 
paper writers  a  quarter  of  a  centiuy  ago  than  they 
are  now),  which  olitained  a  wide  renown  for  the 
paper.  F.  became  editor  of  the  Examiner  in  1846,  an 
office  which  he  held  for  ten  years.  He  was  the  au- 
thor of  many  admirable  biographical  and  historical 
essays,  and  we  are  indebted  to  him  for  much 
new  and  valuable  information  tending  to  elucidate 
obscure  points,  and  correct  erroneous  notions  about 
the  times  and  statesmen  of  the  English  Comni<m- 
wealth.  It  is  to  this  period  of  history  that  F. 
chiefly  directed  his  studies,  and  no  pei-son  desirous 
of  properly  understanding  it,  should  neglect  his 
History  of  the  Grand  Remonstrance^  Arrest  of  the 
Five  Members^  and  Lives  of  the  Statesmen  of  the 


FORSTER— FOET  AUGUSTUS. 


Commonwealth.  His  litei'ary  memoirs  are  also  excel- 
lent ;  the  chief  are,  The  Life  and  Times  of  Oliver 
OolcUmith;  Tli.storical  and  Bio<jra2)hical  Esmya 
(1858)  ;  Life  of  Sir  John  Eliot  (1864) ;  Walter  Savage 
Lnndor.^  a  Bioijraphy  (1869) ;  Life  of  Charles  Dickens 
(completed  in  1874);  and  Life  of  JonatJian  Swift 
(vol.  i.  1875).    He  died  Feh.  1,  1876. 

FORSTER,  JoHANN  Reinhold,  a  German 
traveller  and  naturalist,  was  born  in  Dirschau,  in 
Pmsiiia,  in  1729,  and  died  at  Halle  in  1798.  He 
was  educated  at  Halle  and  Danzig  for  the  clerical 

Erofession,  and  in  1753  became  pastor  at  Nassen- 
if oen,  near  Danzig ;  but  he  seems  to  have  devoted 
most  of  his  time  to  the  study  of  mathematics, 
jaatural  philosophy,  natural  history,  and  geography. 
In  1765,  he  accei)ted  an  offer  made  to  him  by  the 
Russian  government,  to  inspect  and  report  upon  the 
new  colonies  founded  on  the  banks  of  the  Volga; 
and  the  matter  of  his  rej)ort  is  said  to  have  been 
so  good  as  to  have  given  to  the  Empress  Catharine 
suggestions  for  her  gi-eat  code  of  laws.  His  irritable 
temper  soon  involved  him  in  difficulties  with  the 
Russian  government ;  and  in  the  following  year  he 
repaired  to  England,  where  the  exertions  of  some 
of  his  scientific  friends  in  London  soon  procured 
for  him  the  office  of  teacher  of  natural  history, 
and  of  the  French  and  German  languages,  at  an 
educational  institution  for  dissenting  clergymen  at 
Warrington,  in  Lancashire.  He  retained  this  post 
until  1772,  when  he  received,  through  the  influence 
of  Mr  Banks,  the  offer  of  naturalist  to  Captain 
Cook's  second  expedition  to  the  South  Seas.  In  the 
course  of  the  voyage,  his  temper  seems  to  have 
frequently  brought  him  into  unpleasant  collision 
with  the  other  officers ;  and  after  the  return  of 
Captain  Cook's  vessels  in  July  1774,  a  controversy 
arose  between  F.  and  Lord  Sandwich  on  the 
question  as  to  who  should  write  the  narrative  of 
the  voyage.  It  was  finally  settled  that  F.  should 
WTite  the  philosophical,  and  Cook  the  nautical  parts 
of  the  work;  but  further  difficidties  arose,  and 
Cook's  journal  appeared  alone.  In  1776,  in  associa- 
tion with  his  son,  he  j^ublished  a  M'ork  (in  Latin) 
on  the  botany  of  the  expedition;  and  in  1778  his 
Observations  faites  dans  iin  Voyar/e  autour  du  Monde 
8ur  la  Georjra}>hie  Physique,  L'Histoire  Naturelle,  et 
til  Philosoph  ie  Morale  appeared.  In  the  latter  year, 
he  returned  to  Germany,  and  was  soon  afterwards 
made  Professor  of  Natural  History  and  Mineralogy 
at  Halle,  where  he  remained  until  his  death.  In 
addition  to  the  works  mentioned,  lie  published 
De  Bysso  Antiquorum,  1775;  Zoologia  Indka, 
1781 ;  GescJiichte  der  Entdeckungen  mid  Schiffalirten 
im  Norden,  1784  (translated  into  English  and 
French),  &c. 

FORSTER,  JoHANN  Georg  Adam,  commonly 
known  as  George  F.,  eldest  son  of  Johann  Reinhold 
Forster  (q»v.),  a  German  traveller  and  naturalist, 
wai5  born  at  Nassenhuben,  near  Danzig,  in  1754, 
and  died  at  Paris  in  1794.  When  only  17  years 
of  age,  he  accompanied  his  father  in  Captain  Cook's 
?5cond  voyage;  and  shortly  after  his  return,  he 
'(lablished,  with  the  assistance  of  his  father,  an 
•ocount  of  the  expedition.  His  book,  which  does 
flot  differ  materially  in  its  facts  from  Cook's 
nai'rative,  was  well  received  by  the  public,  and 
was  translated  into  French,  German,  Swedish,  and 
other  languages.  Humboldt  speaks  of  this  work 
end  of  its  author,  'my  celebrated  teacher  and 
friend,  George  Forster,'  in  the  highest  terms  in  the 
Cosmos  (see  vol.  ii.  p.  437,  Bohn's  ed.).  F,  having 
returned  to  the  continent,  was  made  Professor  of 
Natural  History  at  Cassel,.  and  afterwards  at  Wilna. 
Having  there  no  access  to  books,  in  1788  he  gladly 
acce})ted  the  office  of  librarian  to  the  Elector  of 
m 


Mayence.  After  Mayence  was  taken  by  the  Fren»;k 
in  1792,  F.,  who  had  become  an  ardent  republican^ 
was  sent  as  a  deputy  to  Paris,  to  request  the  incor- 
poration of  Mayence  with  the  French  republic. 
While  he  was  in  Paris  on  this  mission,  the  Prussians 
retook  Mayence,  and  F.  lost  all  his  propert}", 
including  his  books  and  manuscripts.  He  then 
writes  to  a  friend:  '  If  I  cmld  only  scrape  together 
£400,  I  would  learn  Persian  and  Arabic,  and  go 
overland  to  India  to  gather  new  experience ; '  bv.  t 
about  this  time  he  seems  to  have  been  sufleriug 
from  rheumatic  gout,  which  gradually  increased  in 
severity,  and  which  terminated  his  life  on  the  12thi 
of  January  1794.  Besides  numerous  translations, 
and  the  account  of  Captain  Cook's  voyage,  his 
most  important  works  are  Kleine  Schri/ten,  ein 
Beitrag  zur  Lander-  und  Volherkunde^  Naturge- 
schichte  und  Philosophie  des  Leben  (6  vols.,  Berlin, 
1789 — 1797),  and  Ansichten  vovi  Niederrhein,  vom 
Brabant,  Flandern,  Holland,  England,  und  Frank- 
relch  (3  vols.,  Berlin,  1791 — 1794).  His  widow,  the 
daughter  of  Heine,  but  perhaps  more  widely  known 
as  Therese  Huber,  published  a  collection  of  his 
Letters,  in  2  vols.,  in  1828 — 1829;  and  a  complete 
edition  of  his  works,  in  9  vols.,  was  pubUshed  by 
his  daughter  and  Gervinus,  in  1843. 

F0RSTE:R,  Thomas  Ignatius  Maria,  an  English 
meteorologist  and  physicist,  bom  in  London  in 
1789,  and  died  in  1850.  In  1812,  he  entered  the 
university  of  Cambridge ;  in  the  following  year,  he 
produced  an  annotated  edition  of  Aratus,  and  in 
1816  he  edited  an  edition  of  CatuUus.  la  1817,  he 
published  Observaiions  on  Uie  Influence  of  Particular 
States  of  the  Atmosphere  on  Human  Health  and 
Diseases;  in  1824,  The  Perennial  Calendar ;  in  1827, 
The  Pocket  Encycloimdia  of  Natural  Phenomena, 
a  work  which  has  elicited  the  commendation  of 
Quetelet  and  Humboldt;  in  1836,  Observations  sur 
V Influence  des  Cometea;  and  in  1850,  Annales  d'un 
Physicien  Voyageur.  A  work  entitled  Epistolarium 
Forsterianum,  consisting  of  a  collection  of  original 
letters  from  eminent  men,  preserved  in  the  Forster 
family,  was  pubhshed  after  his  death,  at  Bnjssels, 
in  1852. 

FORT,  a  term  of  peculiar  meaning  in  British 
North  America,  api)lied  to  a  trading-post  in  the 
wilderness  with  reference  to  its  indispensable 
defences,  however  slight,  against  the  surrounding 
barbarism.  It  has  thus  been  often  employed  to 
designate  merely  a  palisaded  log-hut,  the  central 
oasis  of  civilisation  in  a  desert  larger,  it  may  be, 
than  Scotland. 

FORT,  FORTRESS  (from  Lat.  fortis,  strong),  a 
stronghold,  made  secure  by  walls,  and  generally 
further  j^rotected  by  a  ditch  and  parapet.  For  the 
construction  of  forts,  see  FoRTiriCATi02f. 

FORT  ADJUTANT,  an  officer  holding  an 
appointment  in  a  fortress — where  the  gamson  is 
often  composed  of  drafts  from  different  corps — • 
analogous  to  that  of  adjutant  in  a  regiment.  He  is 
responsible  to  the  commandant  for  the  internal 
disciiDline,  and  the  appropriation  of  the  necessary 
duties  to  particular  corps.  Fort  adjutants,  of  whom 
there  are  at  present  (1862)  ten,  are  stafi-officers,  and 
receive  4s.  dd.  a  day  in  addition  to  their  regimental 
pay. 

FORT  AUGUSTUS,  a  village  at  the  south  end 
of  Loch  Ness,  29  miles  south-west  of  Inverness.  A 
fort,  intended  to  overawe  the  Highlands,  was  built 
here  soon  after  the  rebellion  of  1715,  on  a  small 
eminence  on  the  loch.  It  can  accommodate  300 
men,  but  is  commanded  by  neighboring  heights. 
It  was  taken  by  the  rebels  in  1745,  and  became 
the  head-quarters  of  the  Duke  of  Cumberland  after 
the  battle  of  CuUoden.    It  is  a  quadrangle,  witb 


\ 


FORT  GEOEG  E— FORTH. 


a  bastion  at  each  of  the  four  corners.  The  twelve 
Bix-poimders  formerly  mounted  here  have  been 
removed,  but  a  few  soldiers  are  generally  stationed 
at  the  fort. 

FORT  GEORGE,  a  fortification  in  the  north-east 
of  Inverness- shire,  on  a  low  sandy  projection  into 
the  Moray  Firth,  here  only  one  mile  broad,  opposite 
Fcrtrose,  and  nine  miles  north-east  of  Inverness.  It 
ia  the  most  complete  fort  in  the  kingdom,  and  was 
built,  at  a  cost  of  £160,000,  soon  after  the  rebellion 
of  1745,  to  keep  the  Highlanders  in  siibjection.  It 
OCTers  twelve  acres,  and  can  accommodate  2000  men. 
It  is  an  irregular  polygon,  with  six  bastions,  and 
upwarvls  of  70  guns.  It  is  defended  by  a  ditch, 
covert-vay,  a  glacis,  two  lunettes,  and  a  ravelin.  It 
has  casen:ated  curtains,  27  bomb-proof  rooms,  bomb- 
proof magazines,  and  is  supi>lied  with  water  from 
eight  pump-wells.  It  is,  however,  only  secui'e  from 
attack  by  sea. 

FORT  GEORGE  (India).    See  Madr.vs. 

FORT  MAJOR,  the  next  officer  to  the  governor 
or  commandant  in  a  fortress.  He  is  expected  to 
unde^-stand  the  theory  of  its  defences  and  works, 
and  is  responsible  that  the  walls  are  at  all  times 
duly  protected.  He  is  on  the  staff,  and  receives 
98.  Gd.  a  day  in  addition  to  his  half-pay. 

FORT  ROYAL,  a  fortified  seaport  of  the  French 
island  of  Martinique,  in  the  West  Indies,  is  the 
capital  of  the  colony.  It  stands  on  the  west  coast, 
in  a  bay  of  its  own  name,  in  lat  14°  35'  N.,  and 
long.  61°  4'  W.  It  has  a  population  of  about  12,000, 
and  contains  offices  for  the  local  government,  bar- 
racks, arsenal,  and  hospital 

FORT  ST  DAVID,  on  the  Coromandel  or  east 
coast  of  Hindustan,  belongs  to  the  district  of  South 
Arcot  and  presidency  of  Madras.  It  is  three  miles 
to  the  north  of  Cuddalore,  and  100  to  the  south 
of  Madras,  in  lat.  11°  45'  K,  and  long.  79°  50'  E. 
The  place  became  British  in  1691.  It  occupied  a 
prominent  position  in  the  great  struggle  for  supre- 
macy between  England  and  France.  From  1746  to 
1758,  it  vas  the  capital  of  the  settlements  of  the 
former  power  on  the  Carnatic  ;  but  soon  afterwards, 
its  fortifications  having  been  demolished,  it  sank 
into  comparative  insignificance. 

FORT  WILLIAM,  a  village  in  Inverness-shire, 
near  the  west  base  of  Ben  Nevis,  63  miles  south- 
west of  Inverness,  and  at  the  south  end  of  the 
Caledonian  Canal.  A  fort  was  originally  built 
here  by  General  Monk,  and  afterwards  rebuilt  on 
a  smaller  scale  by  William  III.  It  is  an  irregular 
work,  with  ditch,  glacis,  ravelin,  bomb-j^roof  maga- 
zine, and  barracks  for  100  men.  It  resisted  sieges 
by  the  Highlanders  in  1715  and  1745.  It  was  one 
of  the  old  keys  to  the  West  Highlands,  and  is  now 
only  inferior  to  Oban  as  a  centre  for  tourists  to 
explore  these  romantic  regions. 

FORT  WILLIAM  (India).    See  Calcutta. 

FO'RTE,  in  Music,  the  ItaHan  term  for  loud ; 
fortissimo,  as  loud  as  possible. 

FORTESCUE,  Sir  John,  an  eminent  judge  and 
•writer  on  English  law,  descended  from  a  Devonshire 
family,  was  the  son  of  Sir  Henry  Fortescue,  Lord 
Chief -justice  of  Ireland,  and  was  born  some  time  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  Educated  at  Exeter  College, 
Oxford,  he  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn, 
and  in  1441  was  made  serjeant-at-law.  The  follow- 
ing year,  he  was  appointed  Lord  Chief -justice  of  the 
Court  of  King's  Bench.  In  the  struggle  for  the 
crovni  between  the  Houses  of  York  and  Lancaster,  he 
steadily  adhered  to  the  latter,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
been  for  a  time  Lord  High  Chancellor  of  England. 
Lor(^  Campbell,  in  his  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors 
vol  L  p.  367),  under  date  February  17,  1461,  says  : 


*If  Sir  John  Fortescue  ever  was  de  facto  chancellor, 
and  in  the  exercise  of  the  duties  of  the  offi(;e,  it  must 
have  been  no  (v,  after  the  second  battle  of  St  Albans, 
and  at  the  very  conclusion  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.' 
In  March  of  that  year,  he  fought  at  the  battle  of 
Towton  for  that  monarch,  and  was  attainted  Ijy  tho 
parliament  under  Edward  IV.  He  accompanied  the 
queen,  Margaret  of  Anjou,  and  her  young  son,  Prince 
Edward,  on  their  flight  into  Scotland,  and  while 
there  wrote  a  treatise  in  supi)ort  of  the  claim  of  the 
House  of  Lancaster  to  the  English  crown.  In  1463, 
he  embarked  with  the  queen  and  her  son  for  Holland, 
where  he  remained  for  several  years,  intrusted  with 
the  education  of  the  young  prince.  During  his  exile, 
he  WTote  his  celebrated  work,  De  Laudibiis  Legum 
Angllai,  for  the  instruction  of  his  royal  pupil.  In  the 
introduction,  and  throughout  the  dialogue,  he  desig- 
nates himself  *  Cancellarius.'  It  was  when  he  was 
in  Scotland  that  the  title  of  Chancellor  of  England 
is  said  by  some  to  have  been  conferred  upon  him  by 
the  dethroned  monarch.  He  probably  had  the  titidar 
office  of  chancellor  in  partihiis  during  his  exile,  but 
never  exercised  the  fmictions  in  England.  In  1471, 
he  returned  with  Queen  Margaret  and  her  son  ;  but 
on  the  final  defeat  of  the  Lancastrian  party  at  the 
battle  of  Tewkesbury,  where  he  is  said  to  have  been 
taken  prisoner,  finding  that  parliament  and  the 
nation  had  recognised  the  title  of  Edward  IV.,  h? 
submitted  to  that  monarch,  and,  as  a  condition  of 
his  pardon,  wrote  a  treatise  in  favour  of  the  claim  of 
the  House  of  York.  He  %vas  allowed  to  retire  to  hia 
seat  of  Ebrington,  in  Gloucestershire,  where  he  died 
in  his  90th  year.  His  male  representative  was,  in 
1789,  created  Earl  Fortescue  and  Viscount  Ebring-ton 
in  the  peerage  of  Great  Britain. 

FORTH,  a  river  of  Scotland,  rises  in  the  north, 
west  of  Stirlingshire,  in  the  mountains  between 
Loch  Katrine  and  Loch  Lomond,  from  two  main 
branches,  the  Duchray,  16  miles  long,  from  the  east 
side  of  Ben  Lomond,  and  the  Avendhu,  12  miles 
long,  flowing  through  Lochs  Chon,  Dhu,  and  AkL 
These  streams  unite  at  Aberfoyle,  and  issue  from  the 
mountains.  The  F.  then  runs  east  and  south-east 
along  the  borders  of  Perth  and  Stirling  shires,  with 
numerous  windings,  in  a  wide  valley  abounding  in 
picturesque  scenery.  It  passes  Stirling,  and  a  little 
above  Alloa  it  widens  out  into  the  Firth  of  Forth. 
The  F.  is  only  30  miles  long  in  a  straight  line  from 
its  source  to  the  movith  of  the  Devon  ;  but,  owing 
to  its  sinuosities,  its  real  course  is  more  than  twice 
that  length.  It  is  na\agable  for  vessels  of  100  tons 
to  Stirling.  Its  chief  tributaries  are  the  Teith,  the 
Allan,  and  the  Devon.  The  upper  parts  of  the  F. 
and  Teith  traverse  some  of  the  most  romantic  lake 
and  mountain  scenery  in  Scotland. 

FORTH,  Firth  of,  an  arm  of  the  sea,  or  the 
estuary  of  the  river  Forth,  lies  between  the  counties 
of  Clackmannan,  Perth,  and  Fife  on  the*  north,  and 
those  of  Stirling,  Linlithgow,  Edinburgh,  and  Had- 
dington on  the  south.  It  first  extends  6  miles 
south-east  from  where  the  Devon  joins  the  Foith  ; 
then,  with  an  average  breadth  of  2^  miles,  it  runs  JO 
miles  to  Queensferry;  and  finally,  it  extends  36 
miles  north-east,  gradually  expanding  in  width  to 
15  miles  between  Fife-ness  and  Tantallon  Castle  on 
the  coast  of  Haddingtonshire.  Its  waters  are  from 
7  to  30  fathoms  deep,  and  encircle  the  Isle  of  jMay, 
Bass  Rock,  Inchkeith,  Inchcolm,  Cramond  Isle,  &c. 
On  the  coast,  are  many  fine  harbours.  St  Margaret's 
Hope,  above  Queensferry,  is  one  of  the  safest  road- 
steads in  the  kingdom.  The  chief  nvers  which  fall 
into  the  firth  are  the  Forth,  Carron,  Avon,  Almond, 
Esk,  and  Leven.  The  comities  along  its  shore  are 
the  most  fertile  and  best  cultivated  in  Scotland, 
and  include  the  maritime  towns  of  North  Berwick, 

43U 


FOKTHCOMING— FOIITIFICATION. 


ilusselburgh,  Portobello,  Leith,  Quecnsferry,  Grange- 
mouth, Culross,  Bruntisland,  Kirkcaldy,  etc. 

FORTHCOMING,  in  the  Law  of  Scotland,  is  an 
action  by  which  au  arrestment  is  made  available  to 
the  arrester.  The  arrestment  secures  the  goods  or 
debts  in  the  hands  of  the  creditor  or  holder ;  by 
the  forthcoming  the  arrestee  and  common  debtor 
are  called  before  the  judge  to  hear  sentence  given, 
ordering  the  debt  to  be  paid,  or  the  eflfects  to  be 
delivered  vip  to  the  arresting  creditor.  (Bell's 
Law  Dictionary.) 

FORTIFICA'TION,  a  term  derived  through  the 
Italian  from  the  Latin  fords  and  facere,  means 
literally  the  '  making  strong'  of  any  place  whatever, 
be  it  a  town,  an  arsenal,  a  camp,  a  mere  house,  or 
the  extended  position  of  au  army  occupying  a  tract 
of  coimtry,  a  province,  or  even  a  kingdom.  In  effect, 
the  term  is  limited  to  strengthening  by  means  of 
walls,  ditches,  or  other  stationary  obstructions, 
aided  more  or  loss  by  artillery,  which  may  impede 
hostile  advance. 

Fortification  cannot  pretend  to  render  strongholds 
impregnable,  for  no  works,  however  skilfully  devised, 
will  withstand  the  continued  fire  of  well-directed 
artillery,  backed  by  energy  and  discretion  on  the 
part  of  assailants  :  its  aim  is  to  enable  a  beleaguered 
garrison  to  hold  out,  without  losing  ground,  until  it 
can  be  relieved  by  the  advance  of  allies  operating  in 
the  field.  In  foi-tifying  a  place,  the  engineer  usually 
proceeds  upon  some  detined  system  of  entoiu-age ; 
but  if  he  hope  for  success,  his  science  must  be  suffi- 
ciently elastic  to  adapt  itself  to  all  the  natural 
features  of  the  locality ;  and  from  this  it  follows  that 
a  system  perfect  in  theory,  aud  of  universal  applica- 
tion, will  in  practice  ha,ve  to  undergo  modifications, 
differing  in  almost  every  instance. 

The  oi'igin  of  the  art  is  involved  in  an  obscurity 
which  history  need  not  hope  to  penetrate.  The 
earliest  records  of  all  nations  speak  of  walled  cities 
and  forts. 

The  prime  element  of  all  fortification  is  the  para- 
pet (from  Italian  para,  before ;  petto,  the  breast), 
which  may  be  a  wooden  stockade,  a  M^all  of  masonry, 
or  a  mound  of  earth,  and  is  intended  to  give  more 
or  less  cover  to  the  defender  from  the  projectiles  of 
his  adversary,  while  he  is  still  able  to  use  his  own 
weapons  against  the  latter.  The  simplest  form  of 
parapet  being  the  mound  of  earth,  the  ground 
adjoining  it  would  probably  be  dug  uj)  for  its  for- 
mation, and  from  this  wovild  almost  unconsciously 
ensue  the  ditch,  as  an  additional  means  of  separating 
the  assailant  and  the  assailed.  Starting,  then,  from 
this  parapot  and  ditch  or  fosse,  as  the  elementary 
forn\s  of  defence,  it  will  be  well,  before  proceeding 
to  d  ascribe  the  ancient  ari  modern  systems,  to  give 
conc-se  practical  definitions  of  the  parts,  adjuncts, 
ftnd  iechnical  names  of  a  fortification. 

The  first  duty  of  a  defender  is  to  prevent,  as  far 
as  possible,  the  enemy's  near  approach  to  any  of  his 
works.  In  developed  systems,  this  is  sought  to  be 
done  by  bastions,  &c.  (of  which  hereafter),  which 
stand  out  at  angles  to  the  general  line,  so  as  to 
afford  a  fire  commanding  all  parts.  But  as  cases 
occasionally  happen  of  trooj^,  defended  by  a  mere 
Btraight  parapet  and  ditch,  having  to  withstand  the 
advance  of  the  enemy,  it  is  necessary  to  adopt  every 
measure  which  can  obstruct  his  path,  harass  his 
advance,  and,  if  possible,  aid  in  cutting  off  his  retreat 
in  the  event  of  failure. 

Ahatthi  (q.  v.)  are  among  the  simplest  obstacles  to 
be  improvised,  consisting  of  trees  cut  down,  shorn 
of  their  leaves  and  smaller  twigs,  having  their 
branches  pointed,  and  then  laid  close  together,  in 
tine  or  more  lines  parallel  to  the  works,  branches 
OuiA-ard,  and  trunks  imbedded  or  pinned  down  in 
440 


the  earth.  Accoutred  troops  must  remove  thesa 
before  they  can  pass,  and  the  operation  of  removal 
under  fire  from  the  besieged  is  a  very  serious  one 
indeed. 

Clievaux-de-frise  (q.  v.  for  derivation  and  illustra- 
tion) are  pointed  iron  or  wooden  rods  fixed  crosswise 
in  a  wooden  beam,  and  until  removed  offering  a 
complete  obstacle  to  progress.  They  are  very  useful 
in  a  breach  or  other  unclosed  portion  of  a  work, 
and  are  now  made  in  pieces,  so  as  to  be  portable^ 
and  yet  ready  for  immediate  putting  together.  A 
cheval-de-frise  is  usually  12  feet  long,  with  a  boau' 
9  inches  square. 

CJmusse-trapes,  or  Caltrops  (q.  v.),  give  serious 
annoyance  to  troops  advancing,  and  are  especially 
dangerous  in  cases  of  night-attack.  Their  uso  waa, 
however,  more  general  fonnerly  than  it  is  now. 

Troiis-de-loup  (wolf-traps),  which  are  deep  holoa 
dug,  and  armed  at  the  bottom  with  spikes,  young 
trees  cut  down  and  their  stumps  pointed,  inverted 
harrows,  broken  sword-blades,  bayonets,  or  any 
similar  annoyances,  are  resorted  to  as  expedients  to 
gain  time,  and  thereby  insure  a  more  deadly  fiiyj  on 
the  assailants.  They  are  frequently  constructed  in 
the  glacis  of  a  work. 

Fraises  and  Stockades  represent  another  form  of 
additional  defence,  and  are  stout  posts  driven  hori- 
zontally  or  perpendicularly  into  the  earth,  in  long 


Fig.  1. — Fraise  and  Stockade  (in  secfcion): 
AB,  parapet ;  C,  escarp  ;  D,  fraise  ;  E,  stockade  ;  F,  glacis ; 
G,  ditch  ;  11,  counterscarp. 

close  rows.  Fig.  1  shews  the  use  of  both  these 
defences  in  the  ditch  of  a  fortress,  and  it  will  be  per- 
ceived at  once  how  formidable  to  an  attacking  party 
solid  lines  of  these  posts  must  be.  The  stockade 
forms  hkewise,  at  times,  a  good  substitute  for  the 
l^arapet  itself,  pai-ticularly  when  the  direct  fire  of 
artillery  is  unlikely  to  be  brought  against  it,  as  in 
warfare  with  barbarous  tribes,  or  in  a  work  at  the 
very  crest  of  a  steep  hill.  In  this  case  it  is  usually 
constructed  of  two  rows  of  strong  palisades  firmly 
imbedded  in  the  ground :  the  outer  nearly  a  foot 
square,  planted  with  three-inch  intervals  between  ; 
the  second  about  six  inches  in  diameter,  closing  these 
spaces  behind.    Every  second  small  palisade  is  cut 


Fig.  2.— Stockade.        Fig.  3.— Double  Stockade. 


short  a  few  inches,  so  as  to  leave  a  loophole  for  mus- 
ketry-fire (as  in  fig.  2).  A  hill  protected  in  this  man- 
ner is  shown  in  fig.  3. 

Construction  of  the  Parapet. — The  object 
of  the  parajjet  being  to  defend,  or  defilade  a  certain 


FORTIFICATION. 


portion  of  ground  behind  it,  its  height  must  be 
ealcuhated  so  that  missiles  passing  across  its  crest 
shall  fail  to  strike  the  troops  mustered  behind. 
The  minimum  width  defiladed  to  allow  of  safe  com- 
munication for  troops  behind,  and  actually  defend- 
ing, is  30  feet;  but  if  the  men  have  to  be  drawn 
up°  in  line,  not  less  than  90  feet  will  suffice.  The 
mode  of  ascertaining  the  height  of  parapet  neces- 
sary in  particidar  cases  Mdll  be  seen  from  the  next 
diagram  (fig.  4).  Let  A  be  the  position  at  which 
the  parapet  is  to  be  made,  and  AB  the  space  which 


Fig.  4. 


it  is  required  to  defilade  to  a  height  throughout 
equal  to  BC.  D,  D^,  Dj,  are  three  points,  accord- 
ing to  the  supposed  country  round,  from  which  fire 
could  be  had  at  the  parapet — one,  D,  being  on  the 
level,  the  others  on  ground  respectively  higher  and 
lower  than  the  parapet :  if  lines  be  now  drawn 
from  these  points  to  C,  their  intersection  with  a 
perpendicular,  raised  on  the  point  A,  will  shew 
the  elevation  necessary  for  the  parapet  protecting 
the  space  AB  to  the  height  BC.  From  this,  the 
disadvantage  will  be  apparent  of  constructing  a 
parapet  within  range  of  higher  ground,  as  for 
every  extra  foot  of  elevation  in  the  commanding 
rise  a  proportionate  addition  must  be  made  to  the 
height  of  the  parapet.  In  practice,  the  ordinary 
parapet  for  a  level  is  eight  feet  high,  which 
allows  for  the  depressed  trajectory  of  a  spend- 
ing ball.  See  Projectiles.  If  the  parapet  be 
raised  on  ground  above  the  attacking  position,  it 
may  be  lowered,  according  to  the  angle,  to  about  six 
feet  six  inches,  the  height  necessary  for  a  man 
Btanding  up  to  be  thoroughly  protected.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  the  position,  A,  be  lower  than  the 
point  occupied  by  the  assailant,  the  parapet  must 
be  raised ;  as  12  feet  forms  the  limit  to  which 
a  parapet  can  conveniently  be  thrown  up,  further 
height  necessary  for  protection  is  obtained  by  sinking 
the  ground  to  be  defiladed  before  the  parapet's  base. 
In  measuring  for  these  heights,  the  instruments  used 
are  honing-rods,  which  are  fixed  in  the  ground  at  D 
and  B,  with  the  normal  height  of  a  man  marked 
on  them  ;  a  third  rod  at  A  is  then  marked  at  the 
point  where  the  line  of  sight  between  the  normal 
points  on  the  two  others  intersects  it,  and  so  shews 
the  height  of  the  parapet. 

The  foregoing  parapet  has  been  provided  only  as 
a  straight  breastwork,  deriving  its  safety  solely  from 
its  own  fire  in  a  direct  line  upon  the  besiegers  ;  but 
in  practice  such  a  rampart  would  be  exposed  to  the 
disadvantage  of  holding  but  little  command  over  the 
Bcarp  or  escarp  (part  cut  away)  at  its  foot ;  so  that, 
if  appro.'u^hed  under  cover,  an  enemy  could  readily 
lodge  himself  therein.  To  guard  against  this  a  work 
is  fiavked,  so  that  the  fire  of  one  part  shall  take  in 
fla  nk  an  enemy  advancing  against  another  part.  See 
fig.  5,  where  ABCDE  is  a  flanked  or  reciprocally 
defensive  parai)et,  in  which  it  is  evident  that  the 
fire  from  AB,  DE,  must  take  in  flank  any  force 
moving  on  BC  or  CD,  while  the  latter  also,  in  like 
manner,  flank  AB,  DE,  themselves.  In  a  flanked 
defence  of  this  sort,  the  angles,  A,  C,  E,  which 
project  towards  the  country,  are  technically  termed 
mlicrtt  angles  ;  those  at  B  and  D,  re-entering  angles. 
The  flanked  parapet  has  often,  likewise,  the  power 
of  defi]kdl3)g  larger  spaces  than  the  simple  <Qe  of 


parapet,  since  the  Ralient  angles  can,  perhaps,  be 
brought  on  elevated  ground  ;  whilo  the  re-entering 
angles,  though  with  less  elevation,  may  in  some 


Fig.  5. 


degree  compensate  that  defect  by  greater  distance 
from  the  front.  A  disadvantage  of  flanked  defences 
is,  that  the  hostile  fire  crosses  the  i)arapet  at  a  lesB 
angle  than  in  the  straight  line,  and  may,  there- 
fore, be  more  deadly ;  indeed,  the  object  of  the 
assailant  will  always  be  to  obtain  an  enfilade  fire 
alor^  one  or  more  parapets  of  the  defence,  as  (in 
fig.  5)  an  enemy  posted  at  F,  would  be  able  to 
sweep  the  complete  hne  of  the  parapet  CB.  To 
avoid  this,  the  engineer  who  constructs  the  works 
must  ascertain  minutely  the  elevation  of  the  sur- 
rounding points,  and  make  his  salients  at  such 
angles  that  the  prolongation  of  his  parapets  towards 
the  enemy  shall  always  fall  on  low  ground,  whence 
no  command  can  be  obtained. 

Now,  where  the  salient  angle  becomes  somewhat 
acute,  and  there  is  an  enemy  on  both  fronts,  the 
soldiers  defending  the  right  parapet,  and  standing 
on  its  banquette,  would  be  exposed  to  a  reverse  or 
back  fire  from  the  enemy  in  front  of  the  left  parapet, 
beyond  the  defilading  of  which  they  would  doubt- 
less be.  As  a  remedy,  an  internal  parapet,  called 
a  traverse,  or,  from  its  duty,  a  parados,  is  raised 
between  the  parapets  of  the  salient,  its  height  being 
determined  on  precisely  the  same  principles  as  were 
made  use  of  in  regard  to  the  original  parapets. 

Where  both  the  faces  of  the  salient  are  unavoid- 
ably so  placed  as  to  be  enfiladed,  a  small  work,  called 
a  bonnet,  is  constructed  at  the  angle,  which  consists 
in  the  parapet  being  so  raised  up  to  an  extra  height 
of  twelve  feet  if  necessary,  and  at  the  same  time 
widened,  that  the  banquette  shall  be  defiladed.  If 
a  height  of  twelve  feet  is  insufficient  to  defilade  the 
whole  length  of  the  banquette,  traversing  parapets 
must  be  raised  at  right  angles  to  the  face  of  the 
work,  and  within  it,  at  such  distances  that  the 
whole  may  be  safe  :  of  course,  the  height  of  the 
bonnet  and  of  the  traverses  must  be  decided  on 
rules  analogous 


to  those  ex- 
plained in  fig.  4. 
The  increased 
height  of  the 
parapet  of  the 
bonnet  renders 
it  necessary  to 
have     two  or 


more  banquettes  Fig.  6. — Bonnet, 

at  that  portion 

of  the  work,  with  steps  to  aid  the  ascent  (see  sectivv* 
in  fig.  6) ;  as  AB,  the  crest  of  the  general  parapt^* 
with  banquette  at  C;  and  DE,  the  bonnet,  wi{,i 
banquettes  at  F  and  G. 

In  enclosed  works — i.e.,  in  works  entirely  snr* 
rounded  by  parapets — the  position  of  the  parados  is 
of  vital  importance ;  and  they  have  often  to  be 
devised  with  great  ingenuity,  so  as  to  protect  the 
defenders  from  reverse  fire  in  any  du-ection,  and  at 
the  same  time  not  to  prevent  necessary  communica- 
tion between  difi!"erent  portions  of  the  fortress. 

Belief  means  the  height  of  any  point  in  a  work 
above  the  plane  of  construction,  which  may  be  the 
line  of  sight  or  the  bottom  of  the  ditch.  In  the 
latter  case,  the  reUef  of  the  parapet  is  an  important 


FORTIFICATION. 


item  in  estimating  the  resisting  power  of  a  work,  as  it 
represents  the  vertical  equivalent  of  the  obstacle 
wnich  will  be  offered  to  a  foe. 

When  the  relief  of  the  parapet's  crest  has  been 
determined,  its  thickness  becomes  the  next  con- 
sideration. The  dimensions  are  laid  down  on  the 
ground,  and  depend,  first,  on  tlie  angle  at  which  the 
material  to  be  used  will  pile;  and  then,  on  the) 


nature  of  the  missiles  against  which  the  parapet  ia 
to  afford  protection.  For  example,  an  earthwork  of 
from  three  to  four  feet  suffices  to  resist  musketry ;  a 
thickness  of  18  feet  is  impervious  to  the  24- pounder; 
while  larger  guns  can  pound  through  even  more 
solid  obstructions. 

Taking  fig.  7  as  an  example,  in  which  a  is  the 
I  crest  of  the  parapet,  then  the  banquette  c  should. 


Fig.  7. — Section  of  Parapet,  Ditch,  and  Glacis. 


for  convenient  firing,  be  four  feet  three  inches 
below  a ;  its  width  three  feet,  if  for  a  single  line 
of  soldiers ;  four  feet  six  inches  for  a  double  rank  ; 
its  slope  should  be  one  in  twelve,  that  water  may 
run  freely  off.  The  base,  be,  of  the  slope,  u]) 
which  the  men  mount  to  the  banquette,  should 
be  twice  its  height  6c,  and  cut  into  steps  with 
inclined  sides,  to  allow  of  easy  ascent ;  and  where 
the  height  is  considerable,  a  supplemental  ban- 
quette (on  which  relieving-men  can,  if  necessary, 
reload),  is  desirable.  The  interior  slope,  ac,  of 
the  parapet  should  be  one  in  four;  the  exterior 
slope,  or  phnrjee,  ad,  intended  for  the  direction  of 
the  guns  on  an  assailant,  one  in  six,  a  deviation 
being  permitted  between  one  in  nine  and  one  in 
four  ;  but  the  crest  being  more  liable  to  destruction 
as  the  slope  of  ah  is  augmented,  it  is  best  to  keep 
it  as  small  as  circumstances  will  allow ;  one  in  six 
is  the  ordinary  slope  in  English  fortification,  the 
angle  of  the  interior  slope  being  constant.  In  some 
continental  services,  however,  the  angle,  cad,  is  kept 
constant  at  100°,  by  increasing  the  de^dation  of  the 
interior  slope  of  the  parapet  from  the  perpendicular 
as  the  plunge  of  the  exterior  is  greater.  The  flatter, 
however,  the  crest  of  the  parapet  is  the  better,  as 
sand-bags  are  in  certain  cases  ranged  on  it  to  form 
cover  for  the  men,  while  they  fire  through  looi)holes 
left  in  this  additional  defence.  Earth  of  medium 
tenacity  maintains  its  position  properly  when  sloped 
at  an  angle  of  45° ;  and  this  is  the  greatest  angle 
which  can  be  counted  on  for  the  outer  slope  of  the 
parapet.  The  scarp,  I,  and  counterscarp,  m,  of  the 
ditch  need  not  have  so  great  an  incline,  as  the 
ground  in  which  they  are  cut  has  usually  had  time, 
and  the  footsteps  of  ages,  to  consolidate  it.  In  such 
cases,  the  base  of  the  ti'iangle  is  frequently  made 
equal  to  half  the  perpendicular.  Cases,  of  course, 
occur  in  which  steeper  banks  are  considered  indis- 
pensable ;  and  then,  to  prevent  slips,  the  earth  must 
have  a  coating  to  keep  it  up,  which  may  be  of 
fascines,  hurdles,  planks,  or  sand-bags,  for  temporary 
works,  or  those  constructed  in  the  midst  of  action ; 
while  the  most  solid  masonry  performs  the  same 
function  in  fortresses  of  a  more  permanent  nature. 
This  outer  coating  is  denominated  a  revetement. 

In  fig.  7,  f/Zw',  is  the  glacis,  formed  during  the 
axcavation  of  the  ditch,  and  having  for  object  the 
bringing  of  an  advancing  enemy  into  the  best  line  of 
firo  irom  the  parapet.  The  base  and  perpendicular 
of  its  interior  slope,  qh,  should  be  equal ;  the  slope  of 
the  outer  face  should  be  one  in  twelve,  unless  the 
slope  of  the  ground  render  some  different  angle 
desirable.  An  advanced  glacis,  k  in  fig.  7,  is  some- 
times adopted,  in  order  that  the  enemy  may  the 
sooner  be  brought  under  fire.  It  is  absolutely 
necessary  that  the  crest  of  the  parapet  should  be 
five  and  a  half  feet  higher  than  the  crest  of  the 


glacis,  as,  otherwise,  an  assailant  having  reached  the 
latter,  would  be  aljle  to  pour  a  musketry-fire  over 
the  former  into  the  work.  No  part  of  any  glacis, 
whether  near  or  advanced,  should  be  more  than 
two  feet  below  the  line  of  fire  from  the  parapet — 
i.  e.,  the  line  joining  the  crests  of  the  para})et  and 
glacis  continued ;  if  more  depth  be  allowed,  the 
enemy  may  advance  in  a  crouching  posture,  without 
being  liable  to  be  hit.  Advanced  glacis  are  usually 
made  of  earth  thrown  up  in  prolonging  beneath  the 
ground  the  plane  of  the  preceding  glacis.  They 
may  be  defended  entirely  from  the  parapet,  in 
which  case  palisades  or  abattis  are  often  fixed  (as  in 
fig.  7)  to  delay  the  advancing  enemy  when  at  the 
point  of  greatest  exposure.  On  the  other  hand, 
these  advanced  glacis  are  occasionally  defeiided  as 
a  series  of  advanced  intrenchments,  and  only 
abandoned,  one  by  one,  as  the  defenders  are  driven 
in  towards  their  main  work. 

The  dimensions  of  the  ditch  depend  in  some 
measure  on  the  amount  of  earth  required  for  the 
parapet  and  glacis  ;  but  in  addition  to  being  the 
mine  whence  the  materials  for  the  latter  works 
are  drawn,  the  ditch  must  also  oppose  a  consider- 
able obstacle  to  any  hostile  advance.  To  do  this 
effectually,  the  minimiun  width  across  the  top  ia 
18  feet ;  its  depth  need  only  be  limited  by  the 
trouble  of  raising  'the  earth  ;  but  in  practice  12 
feet  is  found  the  greatest  which  can  be  conveniently 
arrived  at.  Having  ascertained  the  profile  of  the 
parapet,  with  its  banquette  or  banquettes,  bonnets, 
traverses,  glacis,  &c.,  it  becomes  a  mere  matter  of 
mensuration  to  compute  the  area  of  a  section,  to 
multiply  it  by  the  length,  and  so  to  obtain  the 
cubic  feet  of  earth  required.  With  the  length  of 
the  ditch  known,  a  very  simple  calculation  then 
exhibits  its  width  and  depth — a  small  allow^ance 
being  made  for  the  fact  that  the  earth,  dug  out  from 
the  ditch,  where  it  has  probably  been  long  com- 
pressed, will  occupy  somewhat  more  space  whei. 
thrown  up,  and  broken  into  clods,  for  forming  the 
parapet. 

The  scaip,  or  inner  face  of  the  ditch,  is  most 
difficult  of  ascent  by  the  assailant,  when  in  a  con- 
tinvious  line  with  the  parapet  (as  in  fig.  7) ;  but 
sometimes  it  would  be  dangerous  to  construct  the 
work  with  this  continuity,  as  damage  to  the  scarp 
would  jeopardize  the  stability  of  the  parapet.  In 
these  cases  a  narrow  step,  called  a  Berm  (q.  v.),  of 
from  two  to  four  feet,  is  made  to  intervene  between 
the  foot  of  the  parapet  and  top  of  the  scarp ;  as  a 
precaution,  it  is  covered  with  all  possible  obstacles 
to  any  lodgment  being  effected  on  it  by  the  enemy. 
When  a  berm  is  employed,  greater  steepness  is  usually 
given  to  the  scarp. 

The  counterscarp,  or  outer  sloping  side  of  the 
ditch,  should  be  somewhat  steeper  than  the  scarp. 


FORTIFICATION. 


The  bottom  of  the  ditch  should  slope  from  both 
sides  towards  the  centre,  to  carry  off  the  water ; 
and  obstacles  shoidd  be  scattered  about  to  prevent 
an  enemy  from  forming  his  troops  in  the  ditch. 

Eartuworks  in  Field  Fortification. — As  the 
most  readily  constructed,  earthworks  naturally 
recommend  themselves  to  the  engineer,  who,  in 
the  held,  is  called  upon  to  defend  the  position  of 
an  army  against  sudden  attack.  Their  utility  has 
been  shewn  in  their  employment  from  the  earliest 
times ;  and  modern  experience  tends  to  prove  that 
earth-parapets  are  of  all  fortifications  among  the 
most  difficidt  to  overcome.  An  army  mauoeuvring 
before  a  superior  force,  can  scarcely  hope  to  avoid 
battle  being  thrust  upon  it,  imless,  strengthened 
by  ficKl works,  it  be  rendered  more  nearly  equal 
to  the  adversary.  Napoleon,  Marlborough,  Eugene, 
WeUington,  have  given  their  names  as  >vitnesses  to 
the  in  dispensability  of  such  works.  The  Kussian 
parapets  at  Borodino  made  the  French  victory  so 
sanguinary  a  triumph  that  it  was  useless  to  the 
victors.  A  few  redoubts  at  Pultowa  saved  Peter 
the  Great  from  total  defeat  by  his  formidable 
Swedish  rival.  The  world-famed  lines  of  Torres 
Vedras  enabled  Wellington  with  50,000  troops,  half 
of  whom  were  imtried  Portuguese,  to  withstand  for 
five  months,  and  idtimately  to  drive  back,  the 
hitherto  victorious  army  of  70,000  French,  under 
such  commanders  as  Massena,  Ney,  and  Junot. 
The  earthworks  surrounding  Sevastt  pol  partook 
greatly  of  the  nature  of  field  works  for  the  protec- 
tion of  a  large  army,  and  history  will  not  forget  to 
recount  the  resistance  they  offered  for  almost  a 
year  to  the  best  troops  of  the  civilised  world. 

For  a  line,  whether  of  earth  or  masonry,  to  be 
efficient,  it  must  combine  artillery  fire  with  that  of 
musketry.  The  giuis  will  generally  be  so  placed  as 
to  command  some  specific  line  of  approach,  such  as 
a  ravine,  a  hue  of  abattis,  or  some  poiiiion  of  the 
glacis.  They  should  themselves  be  as  little  exposed 
as  possible,  nor  should  the  gunners  be  uncovered 
more  than  is  absolutely  requisite.  To  effect  this, 
the  gun  is  generally  made  to  fire  through  an  emhra- 
8ure  (q.  v.)  in  the  parapet,  instead  of  over  the  latter. 
The  embrasure  is  a  cutting  through  the  solid  para- 
pet, 20  inches  wide  at  its  inner  extremity,  and 
outwards  half  as  much  as  the  width  of  the  pai-apet. 
In  cases  where  it  is  necessary,  for  proper  command, 
that  the  line  of  fire  should  not  be  lower  than  the 
top  of  the  parapet,  the  embrasure  is  made  through 
an  additional  parapet — raised,  as  in  the  previous 
case  of  the  bonnet,  above  the  original  one.  The 
bottom  of  the  embrasure  is  called  the  sole,  and 
slopes  downward  sufficiently  to  allow  of  a  certain 
depression  being  given  to  the  gun.  The  remainder 
of  a  parapet  below  the  sole  is  the  genouillere  (from 
genoiL,  a  knee),  and  in  field  fortification  should  be 
three  and  a  half  feet  high ;  the  portion  between 
two  embrasures  is  the  merlin  (Ital.  merlone,  battle- 
ment) ;  and  an  embrasure  need  not  cut  the  parapet 
perpendicularly,  an  angle  being  admissible,  when 
•n  obUquo  fire  is  necessary.    When,  however,  the 

obliquity  would 
exceed  70°,  it  is 
usual,  in  order 
that  the  thick- 
ness of  the  para- 
pet should  not 
be  too  much 
diminished,  to 
form  a  project- 
ing angle  in  it, 
tHrouffh  which  the  embrasure  is  cut  (as  in  fig.  8). 
The  sides  of  the  embrasures  are  cJieeks,  and  require 
re-vAting. 

A  barbette  is  a  platform  raised  behind  a  parapet, 


Fig.  8. 


Fig.  9.— Redan, 
there  ar 


forts. 


higner  ihan  the  general  interior,  with  a  Tiew  to 
guns  being  fired  from  it  over  the  paraj)et. 

There  are  certain  fixed  rules  in  all  fortification, 
such  as  : — 1.  The  length  of  lines  must  never  exceed 
musketry  range,  or  the  flanking- works  would  become 
ineffective  for  their  object.  2.  The  angles  of  defence 
should  be  about  right  angles.  3.  Salient  angles 
shoidd  be  as  obtuse  as  possible.  4.  Ditches  should 
have  the  best  possible  flanking.  5.  Tlie  relief  of  the 
flanking-works  must  be  determined  by  the  length 
of  the  lines  of  defence.  G.  The  value  of  almost 
every  detached  work  depends  on  the  sujjj^ort  it  can 
give  to  or  receive  from  an  army  or  other  work  or 
works.  7.  The  reduction  of  every  fortified  work 
is  merely  a  question  of  time ;  and  a  work  fairly 
surrounded  is  sure  to  fall,  unless  relieved  from 
without. 

Fieldworks,  which,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  are 
intended  merely  to  support  or  strengthen  an  army, 
may  either  have  a  com])lete  circuit  of  ])araiiets,  or 
may  be  open  at  the  gorge  in  the  rear.  The  latter 
are,  of  course,  the  simplest ;  but 
they  are  only  available  in  posi- 
tions which  the  enemy  cannot 
turn,  or  where  protected  by  the 
sweeping  fire  of  other  works 
behind.  Of  this  class  the  Redan, 
a  mere  salient  angle  (see  fig.  9), 
is  the  simplest  and  the  re])re- 
sentative  form.  Of  the  closed 
Redoubts,  usually  square ;  Star-forts,  now  considered 
objectionable ;  bastioned  forts,  as  in  fig.  10,  which 
flank  their  own  ditches  almost  perfectly, 
scarcely  susceptible  of 
being  flanked  them- 
selves. To  under- 
stand the  nature  of 
a  single  bastion,  see 
A  (fig.  10),  which 
represents  one  at  the 
corner  of  a  square 
work ;  ah  is  the  left 
flank,  be  the  left  face, 
cd  the  right  face,  de 
the  right  flank  ;  ae  is 
the  gorge;  af  fe  are 
the  demi-gorges,  being 
continuations  of  the 
sides,  or  curtains,  of  the  work;  a  and  e  are  ih» 
left  and  right  curtain  angles ;  b  and  d,  the  left  Mid 
right  shoulder  angles,  and''c  is  the  flanked  angle. 

Continued  lines  are  simple  parapets,  either  con- 
necting fortified  i^osts,  or  covering  the  front  or  Hank 
of  an  army.  Redans 
joined  by  curtains  (as  in 
fig.  11)  are  those  most 
easily  constructed  ;  but  pja.  n.. 
as  the  ditches  can  only  be 
defended  by  an  oblique 
fire,  the  curtains  are  occasionally  so  brolien  as  to 
form  nearly  right  angles  with  the  faces  of  the 
redan,  as  in  the  dotted  line;  they  then  become 
lines  of  tenailles. 

Lines  en  Cremailliere  have  long  faces  with  per- 
pendicidar  flanks.    Lines  with  intervals  are  often 


v^hile 


Fig.  10.— Bastioned  Fori. 


-Continued  line  of 
Redans. 


o  O 

Fig.  12. — ^Line  with  intervals. 


as  effective  as  continued  lines.  They  consist  n% 
detached  works,  in  two  Hues,  within  musketry 

413 


FORTIFICATION. 


fire  of  each  other.  The  re-entering  ande,  ahc  (fig. 
12),  should  as  nearly  as  practicable  he  a  right 
angle.  The  celehrated  lines  of  Torres  Vedras,  before 
advei-ted  to,  consisted  of  150  detached  ferts. 

Tete-dii-pont,  is  a  work  constructed  to  cover  the 
approaches  to  a  bridge,  and  will  be  found  described 
under  Bhidge-head. 

A  lenaille  is  the  reverse  of  a  redan,  and  consists  of 
two  faces  forming  a  re-entering  angle :  it  can  only 
be  ujjed  in  connection  with  some  other  work. 

A  Jleche  is  a  breastwork  of  two  faces,  forming  a 
salient  angle,  constructed  on  the  exterior  of  a  glacis, 
usually  at  its  foot,  in  order  to  defend  the  ground 
before  a  bastion  or  ravelin. 

Having  now  explained  the  principal  forms  which 
elemental  works  of  fortification  are  made  to  assume, 
we  proceed  to  describe — very  briefly,  of  course — 
the  systems  into  which  these  have  been  incorpor- 
ated for  the  defence  of  fortresses,  towns,  and  other 
permanent  purposes.  It  will  merely  be  necessary 
to  state,  in  addition  to  what  has  been  already 
written,  that  a  rampart  is  a  raised  structure  of 
earth  or  stone,  above  the  mean  level  of  the  country, 
on  which  the  j)arapets,  &c.,  can  be  thrown  ui),  and 
which  affords  to  the  town  or  space  protected  the 
extra  cover  of  its  height,  while  it  elevates  the 
inner  works  siifficiently  to  enable  them  to  command 
and  fire  over  those  situated  exteriorly  to  themselves. 
It  need  scarcely  be  said  that  a  line  which  can  be 
made  of  earth  may  equally  be  constructed  of  any 
other  material  which  circumstances  may  render 
desirable,  the  maximum  resistance  and  minimum 
liability  to  splinter  being  the  qualities  to  be  chiefly 
considered. 

Systeiviatic  Fortification  for  Permanent 
Works. — Adverting  to  the  most  ancient  fortifica- 
tions mentioned  in  history,  we  find  Greek  cities 
surrounded  -with  walls  of  brick  and  rubble,  and  occa- 
sionally of  stone  in  huge  blocks.  Babylon  had  a 
wall  of  prodigious  circuit — 100  feet  high,  32  feet 
thick,  and  surmounted  by  towers.  Jenisalem,  at  the 
time  of  Vespasian's  siege,  had  similar  walls  with 
masonry  of  enormous  solidity.  These  seem  to  repre- 
sent fortification  as  it  stood  fi'om  the  time  of  that 


emperor  to  the  introduction  of  cannon  for  breaching 
purposes.  Then  the  square  and  round  towers,  which 
had  formed  sufficient  flanking  defence  against 
arrows,  proved  useless  when  cannon-balls,  fired  from 
a  distance,  were  the  instruments  of  assaidt.  At  the 
same  time,  the  walls,  which  had  resisted  battering- 
rams,  crumbled  to  atoms  under  the  strokes  of 
artillery. 

Fortunately,  however,  the  art  of  defence  has 
always  made  equal  progress  -with  that  of  attack ; 
and,  early  in  the  15th,  if  not  late  in  the  14th  c, 
the  Italians  had  commenced  to  flank  their  walk) 
with  small  bastions.  The  bastions  at  Verona,  built 
by  Micheli  in  1523,  are  usually  looked  upon  as  the 
oldest  extant  specimen  of  modern  fortification. 
Tartaglia  and  Albert  DUrer,  painter  and  engineer, 
were  early  in  the  field  In  most  of  the  earl  ier  systems 
the  face  of  the  bastion  was  perpendicular  to  its  flank. 
The  first  principles  were  successively  improved  by 
Marchi,  an  Italian,  who  died  1599,  by  Errard  Bois- 
le-Duc,  and  De  Ville,  under  Henry  IV.  and  Louia 
XIII.  of  France.  The  Count  de  Pagan,  whose 
treatise  appeared  in  1645,  did  much  towards  demol- 
ishing previous  errors,  and  laid  the  basement  of  that 
science  which  Vauban  subsequently  WTOught  almost 
to  perfection.  Born  in  1G33,  Vauban  had  a  genius 
which  penetrated  in  every  direction,  equally  in  the 
ways  of  war  and  in  those  of  peace.  He  might  pos- 
sibly have  taught  how  fortresses  could  be  rendered 
impregnable,  had  not  the  restless  ambition  of  his 
master,  Louis  XIV.,  led  him  to  demonstrate,  first 
that  the  reduction  of  any  work  was  a  mere  question 
of  time  and  powder.  His  talent  so  improved  the 
system  of  attack,  that  even  he  himself  could  not 
constnict  a  rampart  that  should  withstand  the  fire 
conjured  up  against  it  by  his  discoveries.  He  con- 
structed 33  new  fortresses,  improved  above  100,  and 
conducted  personally  more  than  50  sieges.  To 
him  are  soldiers  indebted  for  the  sweeping  fire  of 
ricochet,  and -to  him  in  a  degree  for  the  traverses 
which  endeavour  to  render  it  harmless.  Coehoorn, 
director-general  of  the  fortresses  of  the  United 
Provinces,  was  the  contemporary,  rival,  and  opponent 
of  Vauban;   his  master- jnece  is  Bergen-op-Zoom« 


Fig.  13. — ^Vauban's  First  System ;  Ground-plan  : 
A,  bastion  ;  B,  curtain ;  C,  tenaille ;  D,  caponnidre  ;  E,  ditch  ;  V,  ravelin  ;  G,  covert-way  ;  H,  salient  place  of  arms  , 

1,  re-entering  place  ot  arras;  K,  glacis. 


Cormontaigne,  Belidor,  Montalembert,  Bousmard, 
and  Camot  may  also  be  mentioned  as  conspicuous 
masters  in  the  science. 

Irrespective  of  irregularities  in  the  form  of  the 
place  to  be  defended,  a  particular  polygon  is  selected 
fcs  that  on  which  the  lines  of  defence  are  to  be 
4U 


drawn.  Each  side  of  this  is  a  face  of  defence,  and 
tlie  length  cf  a  side  is  rarely  made  greater  than  360 
yards. 

Vauhan^s  first  system  is  shewn  in  fig.  13  as  regards 
the  outline  of  its  ground-plan ;  fig.  14  displaying  tho 
same  m  profile. 


FORTIFICATION. 


In  this  instance,  the  polygon  taken  is  an  octagon. 
Let  ab  (fig.  13)  be  a  side  of  this  polygon ;  bisect 
this  in  c,  and  draw  a  perpendicular  to  ab.  On  this, 
inwards,  mark  off  cC  one-sixth  of  ab ;  join  aC,  bC, 
and  produce  the  lines ;  then  from  a  and  b  respec- 


tively mark  off  ad,  bg,  each  equal  to  2-7  ab,  for  t^e 
faces  of  the  bastions.  Next,  from  a  and  b  aa  centres 
with  radius,  a/y,  describe  arcs  cutting  aC,  bC,  pro- 
duced in  /  and  e;  join  de,  fg,  for  the  flanks  of 
bastions,  and  ef  for  the  curtain  of  the  work.  TLi 


Fig.  14. — Vauban's  First  System  ;  Profile  : 
o,  h,  banquettes;  c,  parapet;  d,  ravetenient;     escarp;  /,  counterscarp. 


first  line  of  defence  is  then  complete,  the  necessary 
parapets,  &c.,  being  of  course  raised  on  the  site  laid 
out.  From  an  examination  of  this,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  whole  space  in  the  front  is  covered.  The 


faces  of  the  bastions  and  the  curtain  command  mor 
or  less  the  entire  front,  while  the  bastion  flanks  sweep 
along  the  faces  of  adjoining  bastions  and  along  the 
curtain.     In  front,  however,  of  the  apex  of  each 


ftasiion,  the  line  of  advance  is  only  covered  by  an 
extremely  oblique  fire.    To  obviate  this,  a  ravelin, 
is  constructed  on  the  further  side  of  the  main 
ditch,  which  commands  the  doubtful  fronts,  and,  at 


the  same  time,  forms  an  outwork  capable  of  asrist* 
ing  in  the  general  scheme  of  defence.  To  trace  the 
main  ditch,  describe  from  the  flanked  angle  of  the 
bastion,  a  or  &,  an  arc  with  radius  30  yards  (if  dry 

445 


FORTIGUERRA— FORTUNATUS. 


iitch,  36  if  wet),  and  from  these  arcs  draw  tangents 
to  tlie  shoulders  d  and  g  of  the  opjjosite  bastions. 
These  tangents,  meeting  in  the  line  cC,  form  the 
counterscarp  line  of  tlie  main  ditcn.  From  h,  the  | 
re-entering  angle  of  the  counterscarp,  set  off  100 
yards  along  the  perpendicular  to  i,  which  will  be 
the  apex  of  the  flanked  angle  of  the  ravelin.  From 
t,  draw  lines  to  points  situated  in  the  faces  of  the 
bastions,  10  yards  from  the  shoulder  angles ;  these 
lines  to  the  points  intersecting  the  counterscaq) 
giv^e  the  faces  of  the  ravelin.  The  ditch  of  the 
ravelin  is  20  yards  wide,  with  counterscarp  parallel 
to  the  escarj).  The  zigzag  line  now  arrived  at  gives 
tlie  inner  side  of  the  covert-way — 10  yards  wide 
■ — behind  the  glacis,  which  last  slopes  gradually 
towards  the  country,  and  is  ordinarily  the  outer 
work  of  all.  The  tenaille  is  a  comparatively  low 
parapet  sweeping  the  depressed  interior  of  the  ravelin, 
and  commanded  by  the  bastions  and  curtain. 

The  caponier,  forming  a  communication  between 
the  tenaille  and  the  ravelin,  consists  of  a  passage 
between  two  low  paraj)ets,  each  with  a  glacis 
sloping  towards  the  ditch,  which  is  swept  fi'om  the 
work. 

Nine  feet  clear  are  allowed  round  the  traverses 
on  the  covert- way ;  at  the  re-entering  angles  of  the 
covert- way,  places  of  an»s  are  formed  by  setting  off 
30  yards  on  each  side,  and  wdth  this  as  gorge, 
advancing  faces  inclined  to  each  other  at  100°.  If 
the  polygon  had  been  a  square,  cC  would  have  been 
J-  ah ;  if  a  pentagon,  -f  ab  ;  and  for  any  polygon  of 
more  sides  than  seven,  f  ab. 

Vauban^s  second  and  tldrd  systems  were  those  in 
which  he  adapted  old  walls  to  his  modern  improve- 
ments. Availing  himself  of  the  w^orks  already 
formed,  he  added  coimterguards  in  front  of  the 
corner-towers,  thereby  making  hollow  bastions,  and 
avoiding  the  necessity  of  entirely  rebuilding. 

Coelioorn^s  system  had  oounterguards  in  front  of 
the  bastions  and  parallel  to  them.  The  flanked 
angle  of  his  ravelin  had  a  fixed  value— \dz.,  70°. 

(^orviontaigne  widened  the  gorge  of  his  ravelin, 
thereby  reducing  the  length  of  the  bastion  face 
available  for  breaching  from  without.  He  also 
revived  the  step-like  formation  of  the  covered  way, 
originally  seen  in  Speckle  in  the  16th  c,  and  which 
gives  defenders  a  continued  line  of  fire  from  each 
traverse  along  the  covert-way. 

The  modern  system  differs  but  little  from  that  of 
Cormontaigne.  The  re-entering  places  of  arms  have 
circular  fronts  instead  of  angular ;  the  angle  of  the 
ravelin  is  fixed  at  60,  and  all  the  best  points  of  older 
styles  are  associated. 

Fig.  15  is  intended  to  present  at  one  view  a  repre- 
seritation  of  the  systems  in  force  since  artillery 
came  into  common  use,  as  well  as  the  gradual 
transition  from  square  towers  on  castle  Avails  to 
lanked  bastions  on  modern  lines.  The  elements  of 
foitifying  against  shipping  will  be  found  under 
M^^RINE  FORTIFICATION;  the  principles  of  attack- 
ing fortresses  generally,  under  Siege,  and  Mines, 
Military. 

FOIlTIGUE''RRA,  NicoLO,  an  Italian  poet,  was 
born  at  Fistoja,  November  7,  1674.  Destined  from 
youth  for  the  church,  he  pi-oceeded  to  Home  at  an 
early  period,  where  the  power  of  the  prelate  Carlo 
A.  Fabroni,  who  was  his  relative,  speedily  secured 
him  advancement,  and  where  he  was  ultimately 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  prelate  and  papal  cham- 
berlain by  Clement  XI.  An  ardent  cultivator  and 
protector  of  letters,  it  must  be  owned  that  F.'s  own 
compositions  are  more  prized  for  a  certain  rich 
joviality  of  imagery,  and  profuse  facility  of  language, 
than  for  any  salient  beauty  of  style  or  conception, 
His  ch-ief  work,  II  Bicciardetto,  was  originally  com- 
oaericed  in  confutation  of  friends,  who  maintained 
446 


that  the  striking  case  and  fluency  of  Ariosto, 
Berni,  and  other  poets  of  a  similar  school,  were  but 
apparent,  and  in  reality  the  fruit  of  deep  art  and 
I  severe  labour.  F.,  in  a  few  hours  threw  off  an 
entii'e  canto  of  II  Ricciardetto,  strikingly  in  imita- 
tion of  the  above  poets,  and  continued  the  work  at 
random  much  beyond  its  originally  designed  limits. 
It  was  published  in  1738,  two  years  after  his  death, 
and  met  with  unequivocal  favour,  notwithstanding 
the  incredible  incidents  and  licentious  images  with 
which  it  is  rej)lete.    F.  died  7th  February  1735. 

FORTRO'SE,  or  FORTROSS,  a  parliamentary 
and  royal  burgh,  seaport,  and  watenng-place  in  the 
east  of  Ross-shire,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Moray 
Firth,  opposite  Fort  George,  ten  miles  north-north- 
east of  Inverness.  Pop.  (1871)  911.  It  unites  with 
Inverness,  Forrea,  and  Nairn  in  sending  a  member 
to  parliament.  F.  had  a  fine  cathedral  and  a 
bishop's  palace  ;  but  both  of  these  buildings  were 
partially  destroyed  under  Cromwell,  and  the  stones 
sent  to  Inverness,  to  be  used  in  building  a  fort  there. 
It  has  a  good  trade  in  various  kinds  of  produce,  as 
pork,  eggs,  all  sorts  of  grain,  and  potatoes.  In  the 
IGtli  c,  F.  had  a  considerable  trade,  and  is  said 
to  have  been  the  seat  of  arts,  science,  and  divinity 
in  the  north  of  Scotland.  Chanonry,  with  which 
it  was  united  in  1444,  was  formerly  the  see  of  the 
bishops  of  Ross. 

FO'RTS  AND  FORTALICES.  The  military 
power  of  the  state  is  intrusted  by  the  constitiition 
of  this  country  to  the  sovereign.  After  having  been 
iinconstitutionally  claimed  by  the  Long  Parliament 
in  the  time  of  Charles  I.,  it  was  again  vindicated  for 
the  crown  by  2  Car.  II.  c.  6.  This  branch  of  the 
royal  prerogative  extends  not  only  to  the  raising  of 
armies  and  the  construction  of  fleets,  but  to  the 
building  of  forts  and  other  places  of  strength.  Sir 
Edward  Coke  lays  it  down  (1  Inst.  5),  that  no  subject 
can  build  a  house  of  strength  embattled  without 
the  licence  of  the  king;  and  it  was  enacted  by  11 
Henry  VII.  c.  18,  that  no  such  place  of  strength 
could  be  conveyed  without  a  special  grant. 

FORTU'NA,  called  by  the  Greeks,  r?/c7ie,  was 
in  classical  mythology  the  Goddess  of  Chance. 
According  to  Hesiod,  she  was  a  daughter  of 
Oceanus  ;  according  to  Pindar,  a  sister  of  the  Parcaa. 
She  differed  from  Destiny  or  Fate,  in  so  far  that 
she  worked  without  law,  giving  or  taking  away  at 
her  own  good  pleasure,  and  dispensing  joy  or 
sorrow  indifferently.  She  had  temples  at  Smyrna, 
Corinth,  and  Elis.  In  Italy,  she  was  extensively 
worshipped  from  a  very  early  period ;  and  had  many 
names,  such  as  Patricia,  Plebeia,  Equestris,  Virilis, 
Primigenia,  Publica,  Privata,  Muliebris,  Virginensis, 
etc.,  indicating  the  extent  and  also  the  minuteness  of 
her  superintendence.  Particular  honours  were  paid 
to  her  at  Antium  and  Pra3neste ;  in  the  temple  of  the 
former  cit}^,  two  statues  of  her  were  even  consulted 
as  oracles.  Greek  poets  and  sculptors  generally 
represented  her  Avith  a  rudder,  as  a  symbol  of  her 
guiding  power ;  or  with  a  ball,  or  wheel,  or  wings, 
as  a  symbol  of  her  mutability.  The  Romans  proudly 
affirmed  that  when  she  entered  their  city,  she  threw 
aw.'iy  her  globe,  and  put  off  her  wings  and  shoes, 
to  '  udicate  that  she  meant  to  dwell  with  them  for 
ev*  r.  • 

FORTUNATE  ISLANDS.  See  Canaries. 
FORTUNATUS  is  the  title  of  one  of  the  best 
people's  books  ( Volksbiicher)  ever  written.  It 
originated  about  the  middle  of  the  15th  c,  though 
many  of  the  tales  and  legends  included  in  it  are  of 
much  older  date.  The  opinion  that  it  was  worked 
up  into  German  from  a  Spanish  or  English  original 
may  be  considered  as  set  aside.  The  substance  of 
the  book  is  that  F.,  and  his  sons  after  hira,  are  ihf 


FORTUNE-TELLER-^FOSCOLO. 


possessors  of  an  inexh.austible  purse  of  gold  and  a 
wisliiug-cap,  which  however,  in  the  end,  prove  the 
cause  of  their  ruin.     The  moral  is,  tliat  worldly 
prosperity  alone  is  insufficient  to  produce  lasting 
happiness.    The  oldest  printed  edition  of  the  book 
now  extant  bears  the  date  Frankfurt  am  Maine, 
1509.    Later  German  editions  mostly  bear  the  title, 
Fortunatus,  von  Seinem  Seckel  und  Wumch-hiitleln 
(Fortunatus :  Story  of  his  Purse  and  Wishing-cap. 
Augsb.  1530;  Nurnb.  1377;  and  Basel,  1699).  It 
has  been  reprinted  in  Simrock's  Deutsche  Volkshiicher 
(3  vols.,  Frankt.  am  Maine,  1846).    Various  French 
versions  of  the  German  story  have  appeared  from 
time  to  time,  as  the  Histoire  de  Fortunatus  (Eouen, 
1670)  ;   which  served  as  the  groundwork  of  the 
Italian  Avennimenti  de  Fortunatus  e  tZe'  Suoi  Figli 
(Naples,  1676).    From  the  German  original,  have 
also  sprung,  among  others,  the  Dutch  version  Fen 
N'leuwe  Historie  van  Fortunatus  Borse  en  van  Zijnen 
Wensch  hoed  (Amst.  1796) ;  later,  the  English  History 
of  Fortunatus  and  his  Two  Sons  (London,  no  date) ;  j 
the  Danish  Fortunati  pung  og  onshthat  (Kopen. 
1664,  1672,  1695,  1756,  1783) ;  the  Swedish  Fortw  \ 
natus  (1694) ;  and  about  1690,  two  Icelandic  versions,  1 
one  in  verse  and  another  in  prose.     The  first  to 
dramatise  the  subject  was  Hans  Sachs,  in  his  Der  | 
Fortunatus  mit   dem    Wunsdiseckel    (1553),    after  i 
whom  comes  the  English  Thomas  Decker  with  his  i 
Pleasant  Comedie  of  Old  Fortunatus  (1600),  a  work  j 
which  had  the  honour  to  make  its  reappearance  in 
German  about  the  year  1620.    The  most  poetical  \ 
edition  of  the  story  is  that  given  by  Tieck  in  his  ; 
FJuinta^s  (3  vols.,  Berlin,  1816).    See  Grasse's  Die  \ 
Sagenkreise  des  Mittelalters  (Dresd.  and  Leip.  1842),  ■ 
and  Ersch  and  Gruber's  Fncyclopcedie  (first  sect., 
voL  46).  j 

FORTUIs'E-TELLER.  Under  the  designation 
Vagabonds,  in  the  Scottish  Act  1579  c.  74,  are 
included  all  who  go  about  pretending  to  foretell 
fortimes.  The  punishment  inflicted  on  them  by  the 
statute  is  scourging  and  burning  on  the  ear. 

FO'RUM,  a  Latin  word,  which  originally  signified 
an  'open  place,'  and  is  probably  connected  with 
foras,  '  out-6f-doors.'  The  Roman  fora  were  places 
where  the  markets  and  courts  of  justice  were  held. 
The  former  were  termed  foi'a  venalia,  and  the  latter 
fora  judidalia.  Of  the  fora  judicialia,  the  most 
ancient  and  celebrated  was  the  forum  Romanorum, 
or,  par  excellence,  the  forum  magnum,  occupying  the 
quarter  now  known  as  the  campo  vaccino  (or  cattle- 
market).  It  stretched  from  the  foot  of  the  Capito- 
line  Hill,  where  the  arch  of  Septimius  Severus  stands, 
to  the  temple  of  the  Dioscuri,  was  seven  jugera  in 
extent,  and  was  surrounded  by  streets  and  houses. 
The  boundary  on  the  east  and  north  was  the  Sacra 
via,  of  which  the  side  nearest  the  forum  was  left 
ojten ;  while  on  the  other  were  corridors  and  halls, 
Buch  as  those  of  the  argentarii  (bankers  or  money- 
changers). At  a  later  period,  the  site  of  these  was, 
for  the  most  part,  occupied  by  basilicas  and  temples. 
In  the  eastern  portion  of  this  sj^ace,  were  held  the 
earliest  Comitia  (q.  v.)  of  the  Romans — the  comitia 
euriata  ;  hence  this  part  took  the  name  of  the  comi- 
tium,  and  was  distinguished  from  the  forum  strictly 
BO  called.  Here  were  hune  up  for  the  benefit  of  the 
public  the  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables  ;*and,  after  304 
B.O.,  the  Fasti  written  on  white  tables  to  inform 
the  citizens  when  the  law-courts  were  open.  The 
Forum,  in  the  narrower  usage  of  the  word,  probably 
ceased  to  be  employed  as  a  market-place  about  472 
B.  c,  when  it  became  the  place  of  assembly  of  the 
Comitia  Tributa.  Of  the  later  fora  venalia,  the  prin- 
cipal were  the  forum  boarium  (the  cattle-market), 
the  forum  suarium  (pig-market),  piscatorivm  (£sh- 
market^.  oiilorium  (vrgetable-market),  &c  Public 


banquets  for  the  populace,  and  the  combats  of  the 
gladiators,  were,  in  the  time  of  the  republic,  usually 
held  in  the  great  forum,  which  also  contained 
monuments  of  various  kinds,  of  which  may  be 
mentioned  the  famous  Columna  Fostrata  of  C. 
Duilius,  erected  in  memory  of  his  victory  over  the 
Carthaginians.  The  rostra,  or  platforms  from  which 
public  orations  were  delivered,  formed  the  boundary 
between  the  fonim  in  its  narrower  usage  and  the 
comitium.  After  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar  and 
Augustus,  the  Forum  Romanorum  lost  the  import 
ance  it  had  previously  derived  from  being  the 
central  point  of  Roman  political  life.  The  other 
two  fora  judicialia  were  the  Forum  J idii  and  the 
Forum  Augusti.  Compare  Becker,  Ilayidhu^h  der 
Rom.  Alterthilmer  (1  vol.,  Leipsic,  1843). 

FORUM  CO'MPETENS,  in  Law,  is  the  court  to 
the  jurisdiction  of  which  the  party  is  amenable. 

FOSCARI,  Francesco,  Doge  of  Venice  from 
1423  to  1457,  a  brilliant  period  of  conquest  and 
prosperity  to  his  country,  and  of  unexampled  afflic« 
tion  to  himself  and  family.  Born  about  1370,  his 
aspiring  ambition  soon  fired  him  with  passionate 
eagerness  to  exalt  his  reign  by  the  glory  of  con- 
quest, and  sjieedily  involved  the  state  in  a  severe 
conflict  with  the  Dukes  of  Milan  ;  which,  how- 
ever, the  doge's  great  military  ability  in  the  end 
turned  into  a  source  of  glory  and  aggrandisement  to 
Venice.  His  triumph  was  embittered  by  the  suc- 
cessive loss  of  three  sons ;  and  the  one  who  remained 
to  transmit  the  name,  and  succeed  to  the  inheritance 
of  the  family,  was,  in  1445,  denounced  for  having 
received  bribes  from  the  hostile  generals,  to  use  his 
influence  -with  the  doge  in  procuring  less  rigorous 
terms.  Tried  for  this  grave  crime  before  the  Tribu- 
nal of  the  Ten,  and  racked  cruelly  in  view  of  hia 
father,  Giacopo  Foscari  was  banished  for  life,  under 
pain  of  death  should  he  attempt  to  revisit  his  native 
land.  In  1450,  the  assassination  of  one  of  the 
'  Council  of  Ten,'  Hermolao  Donati,  was  imputed,  on 
what  seem  most  unfoimded  grounds,  to  Giacopo, 
who  was  consequently  summoned  from  his  exile, 
tried,  tortured,  and  banished  a  second  time  on  stdl 
more  rigorous  terms  to  the  island  of  Candia.  GrowTi 
reckless  through  suff'ering,  and  longing  to  see  his 
home  and  country  on  any  terms,  Giacopo  petitioned 
the  Duke  of  Milan  to  intercede  in  his  behaK  with 
the  senate,  a  step  which,  by  Venetian  law,  was 
punished  as  a  high  crime,  and  led  to  the  unfor- 
tunate Giacopo  being  for  the  third  time  subjected 
to  tortiire  and  renewed  banishment,  on  entering 
into  which  he  died  of  grief.  The  doge  had  vainly 
besought  permission  to  resign  a  dignity  grown  loath- 
some to  him,  from  its  imposing  the  barbarous 
oljligation  of  witnessing  his  son's  torture  ;  but  in 
the  end  he  was  deposed,  and  ordered  to  vacate  the 
palace  in  three  days.  At  the  age  of  87,  decrepit 
from  years,  and  bowed  by  sorrow  and  humiliation, 
Francesco  F.,  supported  by  his  venerable  brother, 
descended  the  Giant's  Staircase,  and  passed  out  for 
ever  from  the  ducal  palace,  the  scene  of  such  vain 
pomp  and  bitter  misery.  Pasqnal  Malapieri  was 
elected  in  his  stead  in  1457,  and  at  the  first  peal 
of  the  bells  in  honour  of  his  elevation,  F.  expired 
from  the  rupture  of  a  blood-vessel.  Byron  has 
written  a  tragedy  on  the  subject,  entitled  llie  Tvx> 
Foscari. 

FO'SCOLO,  Ugo,  an  Italian  author,  was  bom 
about  1778,  at  Zante,  one  of  the  Ionian  isles,  and 
proceeded  to  Venice  in  his  16th  year,  where  for 
a  time  he  pursued  his  studies,  repairing  later  to 
Padua  to  enjoy  Melchiore  Cesarotti's  noble  course 
of  classic  literature.  His  earliest  efforts  at  poetical 
composition  were  strictly  modelled  on  his  favourite 
Greek  classics ;  and,  as  early  as  1797,  his  tragedy, 

447 


FOSS— FOSSIL  FERNS. 


II  Tieste,  was  received  v/ith  favour  by  a  critical 
Venetian  audience.  The  dismembernient  of  the 
Venetian  states,  decreed  by  the  treaty  of  Campo 
Formio,  bitterly  incensed  F.'s  patriotic  s])irit,  and 
inspired  him  with  one  of  his  most  remarkable 
works,  Le  Lettere  di  Jacopo  Ortis,  which,  owing 
to  the  fierce  political  excitement  then  prevailing 
throughout  the  entire  peninsula,  was  received  with 
immense  popularity.  F.  rei)aired  to  Milan  on  its 
being  declared  the  capital  of  the  Cisalpine  republic, 
and  there  obtained  the  grade  of  officer  in  the 
Lombard  legion.  On  the  downfall  of  the  republic, 
he  retreated  with  the  French  into  Genoa,  where, 
in  the  midst  of  the  terrors  of  a  rigorous  siege,  he 
composed  two  exquisite  odes  to  Luigia  Pallavicini 
Cadula  da  Cavalio,  and  AW  Arnica  risanata.  F. 
subsequently  entered  France  with  the  intention  of 
joining  Napoleon's  expedition  against  England, 
and  prepared  a  much  admired  version  of  Sterne's 
Sentimental  Journey,  to  exercise  himself  in  English. 
On  the  failure  of  the  plan,  he  returned  to  Milan, 
and  prepared  a  sjilendid  edition  of  Montecuculi's 
works,  ynt\x  notes  and  historical  references — 
Opere  di  Baimondo  MontecucuU,  per  Luigi  Mussi 
(Milan,  1807—1808),  a  very  rare  edition.  At  this 
time,  he  also  published  his  exquisite  poem,  in 
blank  verse,  /  Sepolcri,  which  at  once  placed  him 
among  the  classic  authors  of  his  country.  In 
the  same  year,  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of 
eloquence  in  Pavia,  and  continued  to  occupy  the 
post,  to  the  delight  and  benefit  of  his  students, 
until  the  professorship  was  suppressed  in  all  the 
colleges  of  Italy.  His  inaugurative  addi-ess,  DelC 
Oricjine  e  delV  Ufficio  della  Letteratura,  is  a  roaster- 
piece  of  beautifid,  noble,  and  patriotic  writing. 
From  the  time  F.  lost  faith  in  the  sincerity  of 
Bonaparte's  intentions  to  his  country,  he  not  only 
ceased  to  worship  his  early  idol,  but  employed  the 
fidl  powers  of  his  wrath  and  sarcasm  in  denouncing 
his  treachery.  After  various  \'icissitudes,  F.  finally 
sought  refuge  in  Britain  about  181G,  and  soon 
mastered  the  language  sufficiently  to  contribute  to 
the  Quarterly  and  Edinburgh  Reviews.  In  London, 
some  of  his  best  waitings  were  published — viz.. 
Essays  on  Petrarca  and  Dante,  Discorso  sid  testo  del 
Decamerone,  Discorso  storico  sul  testo  di  Dante,  and 
vai'ious  minor  compositions.  He  died  October  10, 
1827,  of  dropsy,  at  Turnham  Green  near  London. 
His  works  in  prose  and  verse  were  published  in 
Milan,  1822,  by  Silvestri. 

FOSS,  or  FOSSE  (Lat.  fossa,  from  fodio,  I  dig), 
in  Fortification,  is  a  ditch  or  moat,  either  with 
or  without  water,  the  excavation  of  which  has 
contributed  material  for  the  walls  of  the  fort  it  is 
designed  to  protect.  The  foss  is  immediately 
without  the  wall,  and  offers  a  serious  obstacle  to 
escalading  the  defences. 

FO'SSA  ET  FU'RCA,  or  PIT  and  GALLOWS, 
was  an  ancient  privilege  granted  by  the  crown 
to  barons  and  others,  whicli  implied  the  right  of 
drowning  female  felons  in  a  ditch,  and  hanging 
male  felons  on  a  gallows. 

FOSSA'NO,  a  town  of  Piedmont,  in  the  admini- 
strative division  of  Coni  or  Cuneo,  is  situated  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Stura,  on  a  hill  surmounted  by  an 
old  castle,  14  miles  north-east  of  Coni.  It  is  sur- 
rounded with  old  walls,  and  is  weU  built ;  but  the 
houses  are  erected  over  arcades,  under  which  run 
the  footways,  and  thus  the  streets  have  a  some- 
what gloomy  appearance.  It  has  a  handsome 
<;athedral,  ten  churches,  a  royal  college,  and  nume- 
rous minor  educational  institutions,  silk-factories, 
paper-mdls,  and  tanneries.    Pop.  16,423. 

FO'SSIL  (Lat.  fossilis,  dug  out  of  the  earth), 
448 


a  term  formerly  applied,  in  accordance  with  ita 
derivation,  to  whatever  was  dug  out  of  the  earth, 
whether  mineral  or  organic,  but  now  restricted  to 
the  remains  of  plants  and  animals  imbedded  in  the 
earth's  crust.  They  were  formerly,  and  are  some- 
times still,  called  petrifactions.  They  occur  in  nearly 
all  the  stratified  rocks,  which  have,  on  this  account, 
been  called  Fossdiferous  strata.  It  is  difficult  or 
impossible  to  detect  them  in  the  metamorphic 
rocks,  for  the  changes  that  altered  the  matrix  Imve 
also  affected  the  organisms,  so  as  either  almost  or 
altogether  to  obliterate  them.  In  the  fundamental 
mica-schist  and  gneiss  they  have  escaped  notice,  if 
ever  they  existed  ;  and  it  is  only  within  the  lart 
few  years  that  their  presence  has  been  detected  iq 
the  gneiss  and  other  rocks,  which  are  the  greatly 
metamorphosed  representatives  of  the  Lower  Sili- 
rian  Measures  in  the  north  of  Scotland. 

The  conditions  in  which  fossils  occur  are  very 
various.  In  some  Pleistocene  beds  the  organic 
remains  are  but  slightly  altered,  and  are  spoken  of 
as  sub-fossil.  In  this  state  are  the  shells  in  some 
raised  sea-beaches,  and  the  remains  of  the  huge 
struthious  birds  of  New  Zealand,  which  still  retain 
a  large  portion  of  the  animal  basis.  In  the  progress 
of  fossilisation,  every  trace  of  animal  substance 
disappears ;  and  if  we  find  the  body  at  this  stage, 
witliout  being  affected  by  any  other  change,  it  is 
fragile  and  friable,  like  some  of  the  shells  in  the 
London  clay.  Most  frequently,  however,  a  petrify- 
ing infiltration  occupies  the  cavities  left  in  the  fossU 
by  the  disapj)earance  of  the  animal  matter,  and  it 
then  becomes  hardened  and  solidified.  Sometimes 
the  whole  organism  is  dissolved  and  carried  off  by 
water  percolating  the  rock,  and  its  former  presence 
is  indicated  by  the  mould  of  its  outer  surface,  and 
the  cast  of  its  inner  in  the  rocky  matrix,  leaving 
a  cavity  between  the  cast  and  the  mould  agreeing 
with  the  size  of  the  fossil.  This  cavity  is  occasion- 
ally filled  up  with  calcareous  spar,  flint,  or  some 
other  mineral ;  and  we  thus  obtain  the  fcin  of  the 
organism,  with  the  markings  of  the  outer  ind  inuei 
surfaces,  but  not  exhibiting  the  internal  structure. 
The  most  advanced  and  perfect  condition  of  fossiUsa- 
tion  is  that  in  which  not  only  the  external  form, 
but  also  the  most  minute  and  complicated  internal 
organisation  is  retained ;  in  which  the  organism  loses 
the  whole  of  its  constituents,  particle  by  particle, 
and  as  each  little  molecide  is  removed,  its  place  is 
taken  by  a  little  molecule  of  another  substance,  as 
silica  or  iron  pyrites.  In  this  way  we  find  calcareous 
corals  perfectly  preserved  in  flint,  and  trees  exhi- 
biting in  their  sdicified  or  calcified  stems  aU  the 
details  of  their  microscopic  structure — the  cells, 
spiral  vessels,  or  disc-bearing  tissue,  as  well  as  the 
medullary  rays  and  rings  of  growth. 

FOSSIL  FERNS.  As  far  as  has  been  yet  deter- 
mined  from  the  rocky  tablets  of  the  earth's  crust, 
ferns  first  appeared  in  the  Devonian  period,  but  then 
only  sparingly,  not  more  than  nine  or  ten  species 
having  been  observed.  In  the  immediately  suc- 
ceeding Coal-measures,  they  suddenly  reached  their 
maximum  development.  The  dense  forests  and  the 
moist  atmosphere  of  this  period  were  so  suited  to 
their  growth  that  they  formed  a  large  bulk  of  the 
vegetation.  Upwards  of  350  species  have  been 
described,  som'e  of  them  tree  ferns  of  a  size  fitting 
them  to  be  the  companions  of  the  immense  Sigil- 
larias  and  Lepidodendrons  whose  remains  are  found 
associated  with  theirs  in  the  Carboniferous  rocks. 
Twenty-three  species  have  been  found  in  Permian 
strata.  Many  new  forms  ai)pear  in  the  Trias, 
and  their  number  is  increased  in  the  Oolite.  The 
fresh-water  beds  of  this  period  contain  numerous 
beautiful  ferns,  upwards  of  fifty  species  having  been 
described.     The   marine   beds   of   the  Cretaceous 


FOSSIL  [FERGUS 


ROCKS— FOUCHE. 


period  contain  very  few  forms,  and  in  the  Tertiary 
rocks  they  are  equally  rare, 

FOSSILI'FEROUS  ROCKS  are  those  which 
contain  organic  remains.  If  we  except  the  lowest 
metamorphic  rocks,  in  which,  as  yet,  no  fossils 
have  been  found,  the  term  is  equivalent  to  the 
*  stratified  rocks,'  when  used  comprehensively ;  but 
it  D,ay  also  be  applied  to  a  particular  bed,  as  when 
we  speak  of  an  unfossiliferous  sandstone  compared 
with  the  neighbouring  fossiliferous  shale  or  lime- 
Btone. 

FOSSOMBRO'N:^,  a  small  episcopal  town  of 
Italy,  in  the  province  of  Urbino  and  Pesaro,  is 
pleasantly  situated  on  a  hill  on  the  left  bauk  of  the 
Metauro — which  is  here  spanned  by  a  fine  modern 
bridge — 11  miles  east  of  the  town  of  Urbino.  It 
rose  in  the  14th  c,  from  the  ruins  of  Forum  Sem- 
pronii,  destroyed  by  the  Goths  and  Lombards.  Some 
interesting  Roman  inscriptions  and  remains  of  the 
ancient  city  are  contained  in  the  cathedral  of  St 
Aldobrando.  F.  is  celebrated  for  its  fine  manufac- 
tures of  carpets  and  woollen  cloths,  and  particularly 
for  the  excellent  silk  of  its  neighbourhood.  Three 
miles  from  F.  is  U  Monte  d'Asdrubale,  famous  as 
the  sceiie  of  the  engagement  in  which  the  Cartha- 

£'nian   general  was   defeated   and  killed  by  the 
omans  in  207  b.  c. — See  Lauro  Jacomo,  Historia 
e  Pianta  di  Fossomhrone. 

FOSTER,  John,  a  well-known  English  essayist, 
was  born  in  the  parish  of  Halifax,  Yorkshire,  Sep- 
tember 17,  1770.  He  was  educated  for  the  ministry 
at  the  Baptist  College  at  Bristol,  but  after  preach- 
ing for  several  years  to  various  small  congregations 
with  very  indifferent  success,  he  resolved  to  devote 
nimself  mainly  to  literature.  His  Essays,  in  a 
Series  of  Letters,  were  published  in  1805,  while  he 
was  ofhciating  as  pastor  of  a  Baptist  chapel  at 
Frome,  in  Somersetshire.  They  were  only  four  in 
number — On  a  Man's  Writing  Memoirs  of  Himself ; 
On  Decision  of  Character ;  On  the  Application  of 
the  Epithet  Romantic ;  and  On  some  of  the  Causes 
by  which  Evangelical  Religion  has  been  rendered 
less  acceptable  to  Persons  of  Cultivated  Taste  ;  yet 
Sir  James  Mackintosh  did  not  hesitate  to  affirm 
that  they  shewed  their  author  to  be  '  one  of  the 
most  profound  and  eloquent  writers  that  England 
has  produced.'  They  have  been  remarkably  popu- 
lar, especially  among  the  more  thoughtful  of  the 
community,  and  have  gone  through  upwards  of 
twenty  editions.  In  1808,  F.  married  the  lady  to 
whom  his  essays  were  originally  addressed,  and 
retired  to  Bourton-on-the- Water,  in  Gloucestershire, 
■where  he  lived  a  quiet,  studious,  literary  life, 
preaching,  however,  in  the  villages  round  about  on 
Simdays.  In  1819  appeared  his  celebrated  Essay 
on  the  Evils  of  Popular  Ignorance,  in  which  he 
urges  the  necessity  of  a  national  system  of  edu- 
cation. He  was  long  the  principal  writer  in  the 
Eclectic  Bevieio,  and  a  selection  from  his  contribu- 
tions to  that  magazine  was  published  by  Dr  Price  in 
1844.  He  died  at  Stapelton,  near  Bristol,  October 
15,  1843.  F.  was  a  man  of  deep  but  sombre  piety. 
The  sjcadows  that  overhung  his  soul  were,  however, 
lihose  of  an  inborn  melancholy,  and  had  nothing 
in  comLTion  with  the  repulsive  gloom  of  bigotry  or 
fanaticism.  His  thinking  is  rugged,  massive,  and 
original ;  and  at  times,  when  his  great  imagination 
rouses  itself  from  sleep,  a  splendour  of  illustration 
breaks  over  his  pages  that  startles  the  reader  both 
by  its  beauty  and  its  suggestiveness.  Besides  the 
works  already  mentioned,  F.  published  several 
others,  of  which  the  most  important  is  an  Intro- 
ductory Essay  to  Doddridge's  Rise  and  Progress 
of  Religion  (1825).  Compare  the  Life  and  Corres- 
pondence of  F.  (2  vols.  1846),  edited  by  J.  E.  Ryland, 


and  republished  in  Bohn'a  Standard  Library  in 
1852. 

FO'THERGILL  PROCESS.  This  is  one  of  the 
numerous  dry  processes  in  Photography  (q.  v.) 
which  have  for  their  object  the  preservation  oi 
sensitive  plates  ready  for  exposure.  It  is  named 
after  the  inventor,  and  consists  in  the  partial 
removal  of  the  free  nitrate  of  silver  which  adherea 
to  the  collodion  film  on  withdrawing  it  from  the 
sensitising  bath  by  washing  with  water,  and  th« 
subsequent  conversion  of  the  remaining  free  citrate 
of  silver  into  albuminate  and  chloride  of  silver  by 
pouring  over  the  plate  dilute  albumen,  containing 
chloride  of  ammonium,  the  excess  of  albumen  being 
finally  washed  off  by  violent  agitation  with  a  copious 
supply  of  water.  The  plates  being  set  aside  to 
drain  on  folds  of  blotting-paper,  are,  when  dry, 
ready  for  use.  For  details  of  manipulation,  see 
Hardwich's  Photographic  Chemistry. 

FOUCHE,  Joseph,  Duke  of  Otranto,  the  son  of 
a  sea-captain,  was  born  at  Nantes,  29th  May  17^^, 
and  educated  at  the  Oratoire.  He  hailed  the 
Revolution  with  enthusiasm,  and  in  1792  became  a 
member  of  the  National  Convention.  He  voted  f 
the  death  of  Louis  XVL,  and  was  one  of  the  com- 
missioners of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety  sent 
to  Lyon  in  1794  to  reduce  that  city  to  obedienca. 
In  1795,  he  was  expelled  from  the  Convention  s.8 
a  dangerous  Terrorist,  and  kept  in  confinement  for 
a  short  time.  After  the  revolution  of  the  18th 
Brumaire  (5th  November  1799),  in  which  he  took 
a  part,  F,  as  minister  of  police  (an  office  to  which 
he  had  been  appointed  on  the  31st  July  of  the 
same  j'ear),  organised  an  extraordinary  police.  He 
restrained  the  new  government  from  deeds  of 
violence,  and  by  his  advice  the  list  of  emigres  waa 
closed,  a  general  amnesty  proclaimed,  and  the  prin- 
ciple of  moderation  and  conciliation  steadily  adhered 
to.  His  remark  upon  the  execution  of  the  Duke 
d'Enghien  was  very  happy:  Cest  hlen  ins  qiCun 
crime,  c'est  unefauteJ  (It  is  much  worse  than  a  crime  ; 
it  is  a  blunder).  In  July  1804,  he  was  again  placed 
at  the  head  of  the  police.  His  chief  endeavours  were 
directed,  as  before,  to  attaching  the  ro3^alists  to  the 
imperial  throne  by  prudent  moderation.  In  18^9, 
the  Emperor  conferred  on  him  the  title  of  Didce  of 
Otranto,  along  with  large  grants  from  the  revenues 
of  the  Neapolitan  territory.  An  unguarded  expres- 
sion, however,  in  a  proclamation,  lost  him  the 
favoiir  of  Napoleon,  and  in  the  following  year  he 
was  forced  to  resign.  In  the  campaign  of  1813,  the 
Emperor  summoned  F.  to  head-quarters  at  Dresden, 
and  sent  him  thence  as  governor  of  the  lUjTian 
provinces,  iind,  after  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  to  Rome 
and  Naples,  in  order  to  keep  a  watch  upon  Murat'a 
proceedings.  Being  recalled  to  Paris  in  the  spring 
of  1814,  he  predicted  the  downfall  of  Napoleon  even 
before  his  arrival  in  France.  After  the  Emperor'a 
abdication,  F.  advised  him  to  abandon  Europe 
altogether.  On  liis  return  from  Elba,  Napoleon 
again  nominated  him  minister  of  police;  but  after 
the  battle  of  Waterloo,  F.  placed  himself  at  tho 
head  of  the  provisional  government,  brought  about 
the  capitulation  of  Paris,  drew  back  the  ai-my 
behind  the  Loire,  and  thereby  prevented  unneces- 
sary bloodshed.  At  the  Restoi'ation,  Louis  XVllI. 
reappointed  him  minister  of  police ;  but  he  resigned 
his  office  in  a  few  months,  and  went  as  ambassador 
to  Dresden.  The  law  of  the  12th  January  1816, 
banishing  all  those  who  had  voted  for  the  death  of 
Louis  XVL,  was  extended  to  F.  also,  who  from 
that  time  resided  in  different  parts  of  Austria. 
He  died  at  Trieste,  26th  December  1820,  lea\nna 
an  immense  fortune.  Napoleon,  at  St  Helena,  caDed 
F.  '  a  miscreant  of  all  colours ; '  and  Bourrienne 

4ia 


FOUGERES— FOULIS. 


declares  thut  lie  *  never  regarded  a  benefit  in  any 
other  light  than  as  a  means  of  injurhig  his  bene- 
factor'— statements  which  are  far  too  exaggerated 
to  be  worth  ranch.  The  simple  truth  appears 
to  be,  that  F.  was  a  man  whose  highest  principle 
was  self-interest,  but  whose  sagacity  was  not  less 
conspicuons,  and  who  never  failed  to  give  the 
governments  which  he  served  the  soundest  political 
advice.  It  is  true,  however,  that  he  was  unscru- 
pulous in  passing  from  one  party  to  another,  and 
that  he  wa=?  as  destitute  of  political  morality  as 
Napoleon  l.imself.  In  1824,  appeared  a  work 
entitled  Memoires  de  Foiiche,  Due  d'Otrante,  edited 
by  A.  Beauchamp,  which,  though  declared  to  be 
spurious  by  the  sons  of  F.,  is  generally  held  to  have 
been  based  on  genuine  documents. 

FOUGERES,  a  handsome  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Ille-et-Vilaine,  stands  on  a  hill  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Couesnon,  28  miles  north-east 
of  llennes.  It  is  a  well-built  town,  with  wide 
Btreets,  and  in  the  old  quarter  retains  traces  of  the 
middle  ages  in  the  ancient  arcades  which  still 
obtrude  in  some  places  upon  the  streets.  The  castle 
of  F.  is  picturesque,  but  being  commanded  by  other 
parts  of  the  town,  forms  but  a  feeljle  defence.  In 
the  neighbourhood  is  a  gi-eat  forest  containing 
Druidical  rema.ins.  A  famous  engagement  took 
place  here  between  the  Vendean  royalists  and  the 
Kepublicans,  November  15,  1793.  F.  has  manu- 
factures of  sail-cloth,  canvas,  tape,  flannel,  lace, 
hats,  &c. ;  and  dyeworks,  principally  for  the  dyeing 
of  iscarlet.  In  the  vicinity  are  important  glass  and 
paper  works.    Pop.  (1872)  9850. 

FOUL  A,  a  solitary  isle  in  the  Atlantic,  25  miles 
west  of  the  Mainland  of  Shetland.  It  is  3  by  1^ 
miles  in  extent,  and  consists  of  five  hills  (highest, 
1300  feet),  rising  steeply  out  of  the  water.  The  sea- 
cliffs  are  sublime,  and  covered  with  sea-birds.  The 
isle  is  seen  from  Orkney  in  fine  weather,  and  is 
supposed  to  be  the  Ultima  Thule  of  the  ancients. 
It  has  only  one  landing-place.  It  is  inhabited  by 
about  250  fishermen.  F.  consists  of  sandstone,  ^^^th 
a  small  patch  of  granite,  gneiss,  mica-slate  and 
clay-slate  in  the  north-east  corner. 

FOULD,  ACHILLE,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the 
31st  of  October  1800,  and  was  educated  at  the 
Lycee  Charlemagne,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
establishments  of  Paris.  He  originally  belonged  to 
the  Jewish  creed,  his  family  being  wealthy  Jew 
banliers,  but  now  adheres  to  the  Protestant  faith. 
Early  in  life,  he  was  initiated  into  financial  trans- 
actions by  his  father,  and  his  natural  talents 
were  developed  by  travel  in  Europe  and  the  East. 
In  1842,  he  began  his  political  career,  being  then 
chosen  as  a  member  of  the  council-general  of  the 
Hautes  Pyrenees,  and  immediately  after  elected  a 
deputy  for  Tarbes,  the  chief  town  of'  that  depart- 
ment. He  soon  acquired  a  high  position  in  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  for  the  peculiar  talent  with 
which  he  handled  questions  of  finance  and  political 
economy.  In  1844,  he  was  appointed  reporter  to 
the  commission  on  stamps  on  newspapers,  and 
his  views  were  adopted,  in  spite  of  the  oi^i^osition 
party,  he  being  at  that  period  a  stanch  supporter 
of  M.  Guizot's  home  and  foreign  policy.  After  the 
revolution  of  1848,  F.  accepted  the  new  regime  of 
the  republic,  and  ofiered  his  services  to  the  pro- 
visional government.  In  July  1848,  he  was  elected 
representative  for  the  department  of  the  Seine, 
and  continued  to  rise  in  pubhc  estimation  by  the 
elevated  views  he  expressed  in  the  chamber,  while 
opposing  among  other  things  a  proposed  issue  of 
assignats.  During  the  presidency  of  Louis  Napoleon, 
F.  was  four  times  Minister  of  Finance,  and  his 
repeated  resign  ationa  for  state  reasons  did  not 
450 


prevent  him  from  being  again  appointed  on  the 
occasion  of  the  coup  (Velat,  2d  December  1851.  He 
once  more  resigned  his  position  on  the  25th  January 
following,  in  consequence  of  the  decree  ordering 
the  confiscation  of  the  property  of  the  Orleans 
family.  The  same  day,  however,  he  was  created  a 
senator,  and  shortly  afterwards  returned  to  power  as 
minister  of  state.  In  this  capacity,  he  uuperintended 
the  Universal  Paris  Exhibition  in  1855,  the  com- 
pletion of  the  palace  of  the  Louvre,  and  other  great 
measures.  He  remained  one  of  the  most  confidential 
ministers  of  Napoleon  III.  till  December  1860,  when 
he  was  succeeded  as  minister  of  state  by  Comto 
Walewsky.  He  was  out  of  office  up  to  the  14tb 
November  1861,  at  which  date  he  was  reappointed 
finance  minister,  his  long  experience  and  well-known 
ability  as  a  financier  pointing  him  out  as  the  man  to 
manage  the  crisis  of  the  French  finances  at  that  time. 
He  was  removed  in  1867,  and  died  the  same  year. 

FOULIS,  Robert  and  Andrew,  two  eminent 
printers  of  Glasgow,  brothers,  whose  nanics  are 
usually  classed  together. — Robert,  the  elder,  born  in 
that  city,  April  20,  1707,  was  bred,  and,  like  Allan 
Ramsay,  for  some  time  i)ractised  as  a  barber — in 
those  days  of  flowing  periwigs,  a  profitable  and 
respectable  profession.  Having  attended  for  several 
years  the  lectures  of  the  celebrated  Dr  Franci." 
Hutcheson,  then  Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy  m 
Glasgow  University,  he  was  advised  by  that  gentle- 
man to  become  a  bookseller.  In  winter,  he  and 
his  brother  Andrew  (born  November  23,  1712) 
employed  themselves  in  teaching  languages ;  and  in 
summer,  they  made  short  excursions  to  the  conti- 
nent, and  thereby  acquired  a  considerable  amount 
of  learning  and  knowledge  of  the  world,  Andrew 
seems  to  have  been  designed  for  the  church.  In 
1727,  he  entered  as  a  student  at  the  university  of 
Glasgow,  where  he  is  supposed  to  have  undergone  a 
regular  course  of  study.  About  the  end  of  1739, 
Robert  began  business  in  Glasgow  as  a  printer,  his 
first  publications  being  chiefly  of  a  religious  nature. 
In  1742,  he  published  an  elegant  edition  in  4to  of 
Demetrius  Pkalereus  on  Elocution,  supposed  to  be 
the  first  Greek  work  printed  in  Glasgow.  In  1743, 
he  was  appointed  printer  to  the  university.  In 
1744,  he  brought  out  his  celebrated  immaculate 
edition  of  Horace,  12mo,  each  printed  sheet  of 
which  was  hung  up  in  the  college  of  Glasgow,  and 
a  reward  offered  for  the  discovery  of  any  inac- 
curacy. Soon  after,  he  took  his  brother  Andrew  into 
partnership ;  and  for  thirty  years  they  continued 
to  bring  out  some  of  the  finest  specimens  of  correct 
and  elegant  printing,  pai-ticularly  in  the  Latin 
and  Greek  classics,  which  the  18th  c.  produced, 
either  in  this  country  or  on  the  continent.  Among 
them  were  Cicero's  works,  in  20  volumes  ;  Caesar's 
Commentaries,  folio ;  Homer's  works,  4  vols.  ; 
Herodotus,  9  vols.,  &c. ;  also  an  edition  of  the 
Greek  Testament  ;  Gray's  poems  ;  Poj^e's  works  ; 
a  folio  edition  of  Milton,  and  other  publications 
in  English.  With  the  view  o-f  promoting  the 
cultivation  of  the  fine  arts  in  Scotland,  Robert 
Foulis,  after  a  two  years'  visit  to  the  continent  iii 
preparation,  commenced,  in  1753,  an  academy  »^ 
Glasgow,  for  the  instruction  of  youth  in  painting 
and  sculpture.  The  great  expense  attending  thi* 
institution  led  to  the  decline  of  the  printing 
business,  which,  however,  continued  to  be  carried  on 
till  the  death  of  Andrew,  September  18,  1775.  la 
1776,  Robert  exhibited  and  sold  at  Christie's,  Pal' 
Mall,  London,  the  remainder  of  his  paintings,  when, 
after  all  expenses  were  defrayed,  the  balance  in  hia 
favour  amounted  only  to  fifteen  shillings.  He 
died  the  same  year,  at  Edinburgh,  on  his  return  to 
Scotland.  He  was  twice  married,  and  left  several 
children.    One  of  them  was  a  printer  in  Glasgow  aa 


FOUNDATION— FOUNDING. 


late  as  180fi.  His  Virgil,  printed  in  1778,  and  his 
iEschylus,  1795,  for  beauty  and  exactness,  were  not 
unworthy  of  the  name  of  Foiilis. 

FOUNDATION.  This  term  may  be  applied 
either  to  tlie  surface  or  bed  on  which  a  building 
rests,  or  to  the  lower  part  of  the  biiilding  which 
rests  on  the  natural  bed.  1.  Foundation  as  the 
bed. — The  best  that  can  be  had  is  solid  rock,  or  any 
kind  of  resisting  incompressible  stratum,  free  from 
water.  Where  there  is  no  chance  of  water,  sand 
forms  a  solid  foundation.  When  the  soil  is  soft, 
loose,  and  shifting,  a  solid  bearing  can  be  obtained 
only  by  driving  piles  or  long  beams  of  wood,  sharp- 
ened at  the  end,  through  the  soft  soil,  till  they 
reach  a  hard  bottom.  This  is  then  planked  or  laid 
with  cross-beams,  on  which  the  superstructure  is 
built.  The  piers  of  many  bridges  are  formed  in 
this  manner.  Where  the  soil  is  soft,  but  not 
shifting,  as  in  the  case  of  made  or  deposited  earth, 
the  method  of  Concretirifj  (q.  v.)  is  adopted — i.  e.,  a 
large  surface  is  laid  with  broken  metal  or  gravel, 
and  run  together  with  hot  lime,  so  as  to  form  a 
broad  solid  artificial  rock,  on  which  the  building 
may  rest.  2.  Foundation  as  the  base  of  the  building. 
■ — The  broader  and  larger  the  lower  courses  of  the 
mason-work,  the  stronger  the  wall.  The  stones 
should,  if  possible,  extend  through  and  through,  and 
project  on  each  side  of  the  wall. 

In  the  best  periods  of  art,  the  foundations  have 
always  been  most  attentively  considered.  The 
Romans  formed  solid  bearings  of  concrete  as  above 
described,  and  paid  great  attention  to  secure  the 
stability  of  their  buildings.  In  the  dark  ages,  when 
there  was  want  of  knowledge  combined  with  want 
of  materials  and  means,  many  buildings  fell  from 
the  yielding  of  the  foundations.  Some  of  the 
earlier  Gothic  buildings  also  suffered  from  the  same 
cause.  But  knowledge  came  with  experience,  and 
the  foundations  of  the  later  Gothic  buildings,  during 
the  14th  and  15th  centuries,  were  built  with  extreme 
care,  and  on  the  virgin  soil — the  stones  being  as 
finely  dressed  as  those  above  ground,  where  neces- 
sary to  resist  a  strong  thrust.  And  where  the 
weight  is  thrown  unequally  on  piers  and  walls, 
these  detached  points  are  all  carefully  united 
below  the  floor  with  a  net-work  of  solid  walls. 

Bad  foundations  have  been  the  cause  of  the  ruin 
of  many  modern  buildings.  This  has  arisen  from 
the  costly  nature  of  making  a  good  foundation, 
when  the  soil  is  not  natiurally  suitable.  But  it 
is  clear  that  no  expense  should  be  spared  to  make 
the  foundation  good,  as  the  value  and  stability  of 
the  superstructure  depend  entirely  on  the  security 
of  the  foundation. 

FOU'NDER,  also  called  Laminitis,  consists  of 
inflammation  of  the  vascular  sensitive  laminae  of  the 
horse's  foot.  It  is  rarely  met  with  in  cattle  or 
sheep,  owing  to  the  corresponding  structures  being 
in  them  greatly  loss  developed.  Occasionally,  the 
laminae  are  sti'air.ed  from  severe  exertion ;  more 
freqiiently,  they  suff"er  from  the  morbid  effects  of 
cold,  which  is  especially  injurious  after  the  excite- 
ment and  exhaustion  of  labour.  Very  commonly 
also,  they  become  inflamed  from  their  close  sympathy 
with  diseases  of  the  digestive  organs,  often  following 
engorgement  of  the  stomach,  or  inflammation  of 
the  bowels.  All  four  feet  are  sometimes  afi"ected, 
more  usually  the  fore  ones  only.  They  are  hot 
and  tender  ;  the  animal  stands  as  much  as  possible 
uiv)n  his  heels  ;  trembles  and  groans  when  moved  ; 
and  is  in  a  state  of  acute  fever  and  pain.  Except 
when  following  su^Kirpurgation  or  internal  disease, 
bleeding  is  usefid.  The  shoos  must  at  once  be 
reiDo/ed,  and  the  toes,  if  long,  reduced,  but  no 
further  rasping  or  cutting  is  permissible.  The 


feet  must  be  enveloped  in  liot  bran  poultices,  antl 
kept  off  the  hard  ground  by  a  j^lcntiful  supply 
of  short  litter.  Soap  and  water  clysters,  repeated 
if  necessary  every  hour,  usually  suffice  to  oj^eu 
the  bowels,  which  are  very'  irritable,  and  physic, 
if  re(iuircd,  must  therefore  be  used  with  extrenia 
caution.  Two  drachms  of  aloes  is  an  ample 
dose  in  founder.  Have  the  strain  taken  off  tho 
inflamed  lamince  by  getting  the  animal,  if  possible, 
to  lie  down,  or,  where  this  is  impracticable,  by 
slinging  him.  When  the  inflammation  conti7'Up« 
so  long  that  serum  and  lymph  are  poured  out 
between  the  sensitive  and  horny  laminae,  they 
must  have  free  exit  provided,  by  making  an  opening 
through  the  toe  with  a  small  drawing-knife.  This 
may  prevent  the  pumiced  and  disfigured  feet  that 
are  apt  to  follow  severe  and  repeated  atl  acks.  After 
the  acute  symptoms  pass,  cold  applications  to  the 
feet,  and  a  mild  blister  round  the  coronet,  help  to 
restore  the  parts  to  their  natural  condition. 

FOUNDING,  or  METAL-CASTING,  the  art 
of  obtaining  casts  of  any  desired  object  by  means  of 
pouring  melted  metal  into  moulds  prepared  for  the 
purpose.  It  has  risen  to  great  importance  in  recent 
times,  on  account  of  the  many  new  applications  of 
iron.  Iron-founding,  brass-founding,  type-founding, 
as  well  as  casting  in  bronze  and  zinc,  are  the  jjrin- 
cipal  divisions  of  the  art.  The  casting  of  the  finer 
metals  and  alloys,  as  gold,  silver,  and  German  silver, 
is  necessarily  conducted  on  a  smaller  scale. 

When  the  casting  of  an  object  is  required,  it  is 
necessary,  in  the  first  place,  to  make  a  pattern. 
Suppose  it  to  be  a  plain  round  iron  pillar,  such 
as  is  used  for  hanging  a  gate  upon.  A  pattern  of 
this  is  turned  in  some  wood  which  can  be  readily 
made  smooth  on  the  surface,  such  as  pine,  and  then 
varnished  or  painted  so  as  to  come  freely  out  of  the 
mould.  This  wooden  piUar,  or  any  similar  pattern, 
is  always  made  in  at  least  two  pieces,  the  division 
being  lengthwise,  for  a  reason  which  we  shall  pi'e- 
sently  see.  The  next  step  is  to  prepare  the  mould. 
The  moidds  used  by  the  iron-founder  are  either  of 
sand  or  loam,  but  more  generally  of  fine  sand.  Pro- 
ceeding 'v\dth  the  preparation  of  the  moidd,  the 
founder  takes  a  moulding-box,  which  is  composed  of 
two  open  iron  frames  with  cross-bars,  the  one  fitting 
exactly  on  the  other,  by  means  of  pins  in  the  upper, 
dropping  into  holes  in  the  lower  frame.  One- 
half  of  the  box  is  first  filled  with  damp  sand,  and 
the  pattern  laid  upon  it,  a  little  dry  |ja?-^t?i7  sand 
being  sprinkled  on  the  sui'face.  The  upper  half  of 
the  box  is  then  put  on,  and  sand  firmly  rammed  all 
round  the  pattern.  The  box  is  then  carefully 
opened,  and,  when  the  pattern  is  removed,  its  im- 
j)ression  is  left  in  the  sand.  The  mould  at  this  stage, 
however,  is  generally  rough  and  bi'oken.  It  is 
necessary,  therefore,  to  give  it  a  better  finish,  which 
is  done  by  taking  each  half  of  the  mould  separately, 
repairing  it  with  a  small  trowel,  and  re-introduciag 
the  corresponding  half  of  the  pattern  till  the  impres- 
sion is  firm  and  perfect.  Finally,  the  surface  cf  the 
mould  is  coated  with  charcoal-dust,  which  g^ves  Sk 
smooth  siu'face  to  the  future  casting.  These  oolumus 
being  made  hollow,  there  is  j^et  another  matter  to 
arrange  before  the  casting  can  be  made — namely,  the 
core.  In  the  instance  before  us,  it  would  simply  be  a 
rod  of  iron,  covered  with,  straw  and  loam  to  what- 
ever thickness  the  internal  diameter  of  the  column 
happened  to  require.  The  core  of  coiu'se  occupiea 
the  centre  of  the  mould. 

The  cast  iron  is  melted  with  coke  Lx  a  roimd  fire- 
brick furnace,  called  a  cupola,  the  heat  being  urged 
by  means  of  a  powerful  blast,  created  by  fanners 
revolving  at  a  high  speed.  The  molten  metal  is  rua 
from  a  tap  at  the  bottom  of  the  furnace  into  a 
malleable  iron  ladle,  Hned  with  clay,  from  which  it 


FOUNDING -FOUNDLING  HOSPITALS. 


is  poured  into  the  mould  through  holes  called  runners 
Of  gates.  When  the  mould  is  newly  filled,  numerous 
jets  of  blue  flame  issue  from  as  many  small  holes 
pierced  in  the  sand.  These  perforations  are  neccs- 
Bary  for  the  escape  of  air  and  other  gases  produced 
by  the  action  of  the  hot  metal  on  the  mould.  Care 
must  also  be  taken  not  to  have  the  mould  too 
damj ,  otherwise  steam  is  generated,  which  may 
cause  holes  in  the  casting,  and  even  force  part  of 
the  metal  out  of  the  mould.  The  casting  remains 
cov  ircd  up  for  a  time,  in  order  to  cool  slowly,  and 
3S  then  removed  by  breaking  away  the  sand,  and 
drawing  out  the  core. 

In  the  case  of  a  fluted,  or  otherwise  ornamented 
pillar,  the  pattern  would  require  to  be  in  at  least  four 
pieces  instead  of  two,  because  it  is  only  a  plain 
pattern  that  will  come  out  of  the  mould  in  halves 
without  tearing  away  the  sand.  When  a  pattern 
is  necessarily  made  in  several  pieces,  it  is  drawn 
out  of  the  mould  bit  by  bit,  to  the  right  or  left, 
as  the  case  may  be,  and  so  parts  from  the  sand 
without  breaking  it. 

Suppose  that  a  small  ornamental  vase  was  to 
surmount  the  jnllar,  the  founder  woidd  prepare  the 
pattern  of  this  in  a  more  elaborate  manner.  He 
would  first  mould  it  in  wax  or  clay,  from  which  a 
cast  in  plaster  of  Paris  is  made  ;  from  that,  again,  a 
cast  is  taken  in  an  alloy  of  tin  and  lead,  which, 
after  being  sharply  chased,  and  divided  into  the 
required  number  of  pieces,  is  used  as  a  pattern 
to  cast  from.  All  ornamental  i)atterns,  such  as 
flgures,  sci  olls,  loaves,  enriched  mouldings,  and  the 
like,  are  made  in  this  way,  whatever  metal  the 
idtimate  casting  is  to  be  produced  in. 

Very  large  engine  cylindeis,  pans,  and  such 
vessels,  are  cast  in  loam-moulds,  which  are  built  of 
brick,  plastered  with  loam,  then  coated  with  coal- 
dust,  and  Anally  dried  by  means  of  a  fire.  This 
method  is  adopted  with  large  plain  objects,  where  a 
pattern  would  be  expensive,  and  when  few  castings 
of  one  kind  are  required. 

Iron  moulds,  coated  -svath  blacklead  or  plumbago, 
have  recently  been  introdnced  for  casting  pipes 
into  ;  they  are  greatly  more  expensive  than  any 
other  kind,  but  they  enable  the  founder  to  dispense 
with  a  pattern,  as,  when  once  made  into  the  required 
form,  they  are  not  destroyed  like  moulds  of  sand  or 
loam  at  each  casting. 

Bronze  and  brass  are  east  in  moulds  prepared 
with  finer  sand  than  that  used  for  iron.  Pewter 
and  similar  soft  metallic  alloys  are  cast  in  brass 
moulds.  The  type-founder,  on  the  other  hand,  uses 
moulds  of  steel,  which  are  now  worked  to  a  gi-eat 
extent  by  a  machine. 

The  variety  of  articles  produced  by  founding  or 
casting  are  very  numerous,  among  others  we  may 
mention  cylinders,  cisterns,  paper-engines,  beams, 
boilers,  pumps,  and  the  heavy  parts  of  machinery 
generally,  gates,  railings,  lamps,  grates,  fenders, 
cooking- vessels,  and  the  like,  in  iron  :  cannon,  many 
portions  of  machinery,  and  numerous  ornamental 
objects,  in  brass  :  sculjiture  and  other  works  of 
art  in  bronze  and  the  more  costly  metals.  One  of 
the  most  remarkable  castings  yet  executed  for  the 
requirements  of  modern  engineering,  was  the  cylinder 
of  the  hydraulic  press  used  for  raising  the  tubes  of 
the  Britannia  Bridge.  It  measured  9  feet  x  3  feet  6 
inches,  the  metal  being  10  inches  thick,  and  weighed 
upwards  of  twenty  tons.  It  remained  red  hot  for 
three  days,  and  it  was  seven  days  more  before  men 
could  approach  it  to  remove  the  sand.  Sole  plates 
for  steam-hammers,  and  for  other  purposes,  have 
been  cast  more  than  double  this  weight,  but  the 
same  care  was  not  required  in  their  execution.  In 
regard  to  sculpture,  perhaps  the  most  wonderful 
casting  known  is  the  colossal  statue  of  Bavaria  at 
462 


Munich,  finished  in  1850,  which  stands  54  feet 
high,  the  face  being  equal  to  the  height  of  a  man. 
It  took  eight  years  to  cast,  and  the  cost  of  the 
bronze  used  was  about  £10,000. 

FOUNDLING  HOSPITALS,  establishraenta 
in  which  children  that  have  been  abandoned  by 
their  parents  and  found  by  others,  are  nurtured  at 
the  public  expense.  Amongst  the  ancient  nations, 
these  institutions  were  not  unknown,  though  a* 
the  law  usually  jdaced  the  power  of  life  and  death 
in  the  hands  of  the  father,  and  permitted  him  to 
sell  his  children  into  slavery,  it  is  to  be  feared 
that  infanticide,  as  among  eastern  nations  at  the 
present  day,  was  the  usual  mode  of  solving  the 
difficulty  which  foundling  hospitals  are  intended  to 
meet.  Desertion,  however,  and  exposure  as  less 
atrocious,  were  still  more  frequent  crimes  ;  and  to 
meet  these,  the  reception  and  education  of  found- 
lings were  enjoined  on  private  jiersons,  to  whom 
they  were  assigned  in  property.  When  this  means 
of  suj)poi-t  failed,  they  were  protected  by  the  state. 
The  Egyptians  and  Thebans  are  pi-aised  by  the 
classical  historians  for  discouraging  the  exposure 
of  infants.  The  practice  of  exposing  infants  prob- 
ably prevailed  even  amontjst  the  Germanic  nations 
previous  to  the  introduction  of  Christianity ;  and 
though  Tacitus  says  that  infanticide  was  forbidden, 
in  Iceland,  in  particular,  it  is  said  to  have  reached 
a  fearfid  height.  From  the  period  at  which 
Christianity  became  the  state  religion  of  the  Pomau 
emjHre,  a  sensible  change  in  the  spirit  of  legislation 
on  the  subjects  both  of  infanticide  and  exposure 
is  ai)parent ;  and  though  the  latter  is  spoken  of  by 
Gibbon  as  one  of  the  most  stubborn  remnants 
of  heathendom,  it  gradually  gave  way,  and  the 
Christian  church,  at  a  very  early  period,  lent  its 
encouragement  to  the  establishment  of  foundling 
hospitals.  So  eaily  as  the  Cth  c,  a  species  ^ 
foundling  hospital  is  said  to  have  existed  at 
Treves.  The  bishop  j^ermitted  the  children  to  be 
deposited  in  a  marble  basin  which  stood  before  the 
cathedral,  and  gave  them  in  charge  to  members 
of  the  church.  But  the  first  well-authenticated 
one  is  that  of  Milan,  established  in  787,  probably 
in  obedience  to  the  70th  article  of  the  Council  of 
Nice,  which  enjoined  that  a  house  should  be  estab- 
lished in  each  town  for  the  reception  of  children 
abandoned  by  their  i)arents.  It  is  probable,  how- 
ever, that  foundling  hospitals  existed  pretty  exten- 
sively at  an  earlier  period,  as  mention  is  made  of 
them  in  the  cajntularies  of  the  Frankish  kin^s. 
In  1070,  a  foundling  hospital  was  established  in 
Montpellier;  in  1200,  in  Eimbeck;  in  1212,  in  Rome ; 
in  Florence,  in  1317 ;  in  Nurnberg,  in  1331 ;  in  Paris, 
in  1362  ;  in  Vienna,  in  1380.  In  France,  the  utility 
of  these  establishments,  which  were  the  special 
labour  of  Vincent  de  Paul  (q.  v.),  was  early  called 
in  question ;  and  letters-patent  of  Charles  VII.,  in 
1445,  affirmed  that  '  many  persons  would  make  less 
difficulty  in  abandoning  themselves  to  sin  when 
they  saw  that  they  were  not  to  have  the  charge  of 
the  iipbringing  of  their  infants.'  In  Germany,  the 
system  of  foundling  hospitals  was  soon  abandoned, 
the  duty  of  rearing  the  children  being,  as  in  England, 
imposed  by  law,  first  on  the  parents,  then  on  more 
distant  relatives,  whom  failing,  on  the  parish,  and 
last  of  all,  on  the  state.  The  reproach  made  by 
Poman  Catholic  countries  against  this  more  natural 
arrangement — that  it  tends  to  promote  infanticide 
— is  said  to  have  been  in  no  degree  established  by 
statistical  investigations.  The  revolutionary  govern- 
ment of  France  not  only  adopted  the  system  of 
foundling  hospitals  as  it  had  been  handed  down  to 
it,  but  in  1790  declared  all  children  found  to  be 
children  of  the  state  {enfants  de  la  patrie).  Nay,  as 
a  still  further  premium  on  immorality,  it  declared 


FOUNDLING  HOSPITALS-FOUNTAIN. 


tliat  every  girl  wlio  slioukl  declare  her  pregnancy 
should  receive  a  premium  of  120  francs !  The 
imperial  government,  in  1811,  abolished  this  insane 
enactment,  continuing,  however,  the  arrangement  by 
which  the  foundling  hospitals  had  become  govern- 
ment establishments,  and  the  children,  children  of 
the  state.  The  system  is  still  adhered  to  in  France, 
where  foundling  hospitals  exist  in  most  of  the  large 
towns  to  the  number  of  about  141 ;  in  Spain, 
where  the  number  is  estimated  at  70  ;  and  gener- 
ally in  the  Roman  Catholic  countries  of  Europe  ;  and 
figiu-es  are  brought  forward  to  prove  that  it  has 
not  exhibited  what  would  seem  to  be  its  obvious 
tendency.  The  number  of  children  deposited  in 
the  revolving  cradle  at  the  Hospital  in  Paris,  in 
place  of  increasing,  is  said  by  the  advocates  of 
the  system  to  have  diminished  in  proportion  to  the 
population ;  but  the  statement  is  utterly  denied 
by  German  and  Protestant  writers.  The  expense 
of  rearing  a  child  to  the  age  of  twelve  in  the 
Hospital  at  Paris  is  952  francs  42  centimes,  or  a 
trifle  less  than  £40.  The  moment  that  the  child  is 
received  it  is  weighed,  and  if  its  weight  be  less  than 
six  pounds,  it  is  considered  that  its  chance  to  live  is 
very  small.  It  is  then  inscribed  in  a  register,  and  a 
formal  statement  is  drawn  up  of  any  name  which 
may  have  been  given  along  with  it,  or  of  any  par- 
ticular mark  which  it  bears  either  on  its  person  or 
otherwise ;  of  the  hour  at  which  it  was  deposited, 
its  sex,  and  its  dress.  It  is  then  inspected  by  a 
medical  man,  and  handed  over  to  the  nurses.  At 
Paris,  each  child  is  committed  to  a  special  nurse, 
many  of  whom  are  retained  on  the  premises,  and 
paid  40  centimes  a  day.  Other  nurses  are  brought  in 
from  the  country  in  carriages  kept  by  the  Hospital, 
which  return  conveying  the  children  along  Avith 
their  new  mothers.  The  children  thus  boarded  out 
are  inspected  twice  a  year  by  local  medical  men 
appointed  for  the  purpose ;  but  the  surveillance  is 
too  often  negligent,  and  consequently  the  treatment 
of  the  children  by  no  means  such  as  to  conduce  to 
their  health.  The  jjarents,  and  indeed  the  relations 
of  the  children,  are  permitted  to  reclaim  them  at 
any  period,  or  they  may  be  legally  adopted  by  any 
French  citizen  who  is  in  a  condition  to  maintain 
them.  Notwithstanding  the  precautions  of  which 
French  writers  boast,  the  mortality  amongst  these 
•  infants  of  the  state '  is  very  appalling.  Their 
average  life,  it  is  said,  does  not  exceed  four  years  ; 
62  per  cent,  dying  during  the  first  year,  and  78  jier 
cent,  during  the  first  twelve  years.  Only  22  out 
of  100  foundlings  thus  reach  the  age  of  twelve, 
whereas  in  the  general  population  50  out  of  100 
live  to  twenty-one.  As  might  naturally  be  sup- 
posed, those  who  do  survive,  and  are  ushered  into 
the  world  without  friends  or  means,  constitute  a 
large  proportion  of  the  thieves  and  prostitutes  of 
the  country.  Of  the  male  convicts  and  prisoners 
of  France,  13  per  cent,  are  foundlings,  and  female 
foundlings  form  one-fifth  of  the  inmates  of  the 
public  houses  of  prostitution.  The  question  of 
the  propriety  of  encouraging  secrecy  by  the  use  of 
the  turning-box,  or  of  causing  the  parents  openly 
to  deposit  the  children  in  the  hands  of  an  officer, 
has  been,  and  is  still  discussed  with  much  keenness 
in  France.  The  argument  in  favour  of  the  turning- 
box  is  that  by  which  the  whole  institution  is 
defended,  viz.,  that  it  tends  to  discourage  infanticide, 
and  statistics  are  said  to  be  rather  in  favour  of  it 
in  this  point  of  view.  But  there  are  many  other 
obvious  considerations  of  morality  and  public  policy 
to  be  taken  into  account,  which  would  serve  to 
counterbalai»--*e  this  advantage,  even  supposing  it  to 
be  real  Many  Protestant  states  have  established 
foundling  hospitals  ;  that  at  Amsterdam,  where 
about  3000  children  are  received  annually,  is  one 


of  the  most  famous  in  Europe.  The  fcjundling 
hospitals  of  Moscow  and  St  Petersburg  are  among 
the  largest  in  the  M'orld. 

The  Foundling  Hosj)ital  in  London  v/as  estab- 
lished by  Caj)tain  Thomas  Coram,  a  Ijenevolent  sailor, 
in  1739,  as  '  an  hospital  for  exposed  and  deserted 
children.'     The  ground  in  Guildford  Street  was 
purchased  from  the  Earl  of  Salisbury  for  £7000,  and 
the  architect  of  the  hospital  was  Theodore  Jacob- 
son.  The  system  of  foxuidling  hos])itals  never  having 
been  aj)prove<rin  England,  the  London  hospital  was 
changed  in  1760  to  what  it  now  is — viz.,  an  hospital 
for  poor  illegitimate  children  whose  mothers  are 
known.    The  committee,  previous  to  admitting  the 
child,  must  be  satisfied  of  the  previous  good  character 
j  and  ])resent  necessity  of  the  mother.    The  qualifica- 
j  tion  for  a  governor  is  a  donation  of  £50.    The  great 
I  Handel  was  one  of  the  chief  benefactors  of  the 
j  hospital.    He  endowed  it  with,  a  magnificent  organ, 
;  and  frequently  performed  his  oratorio  of  the  Me-'isiah 
j  in  the  chapel,  which  is  still  celebrated  for  its  music. 

Though  every  attention  is  paid  to  the  health  and 
I  comfort  of  the  children  at  the  Foundling — to  such 
I  an  extent,  indeed,  as  very  often  to  unfit  them  for  the 
I  hardships  which  many  of  them  must  encounter  in 
1  after-life — we  have  been  informed  by  the  physician 
I  that  they  do  not  attain  to  the  height  of  average 
j  English  men  and  women.  There  are  no  foundling 
j  liosj)itals  in  the  United  States  ;  but  they  exist  in 
Mexico,  and  in  almost  all  the  states  of  South 
America. 

FOUNTAIN,  a  basin  or  jet  for  the  supply  of 
I  fresh  running  water.    There  are  fountains  of  ever}'" 
I  form  and  variety,  from  the  simple  spring  with  its 
I  natural  basin,  to  the  most  elaborate  and  ornamental 
j  structure  for  the  display  or  supply  of  water.    In  all 
j  ages,  fountains  have  been  considered  as  public 
j  monuments  of  the  greatest  importance;  and  where 
i  the  source  for  their  supply  has  not  been  provided  by 
I  nature  on  the  spot,  immense  labour  and  expenditure 
!  have  often  been  incurred  to  make  uj)  for  the 
;  deficiency.    The  splendid  Aquedvicts  (q.  v.)  of  the 
I  Poomans  are  instances  of  the  important  light  in 
j  which  they  regarded  the  fountains  of  their  cities. 
I  Every  Roman  town  had  at  least  one  aqueduct,  the 
I  water  from  which  was  distributed  to  as  many  foun- 
I  tains  as  the  population  required. 
1     Utility   is  the  first  object  of  a  fountain,  and 
j  although  they  are  frequently  made  subjects  of  great 
j  display  and  magnificence,  the  finest  fountains  are 
I  those  where  the  water  is  the  greatest  ornament. 
In  the  middle  ages,  fountains  of  gi-eat  beauty  and 
variety  of  form  were  built,  b^it  the  useful  nature  of 
the  structure  was  never  lost  sight  of.  Sometimes 
a  spring  was  arched  over  for  protection,  with  a 
beautiful  vault,  and  a  statue  of  the  patron  saint 
placed  in  a  niche,  with  a  basin  below  to  contain  the 
water.    In  towns  where  a  number  of  persons  might 
require  to  draw  at  one  time,  a  large  basin  was 
erected,  with  a  pillar  in  the  centre,  from  which 
pipes  radiated  all  round — each  with  its  separate  jet 
to  supply  the  running  water — while  the  basin  was 
used  for  washing  the  pitchers.    Many  exampks  of 
this  kind  of  fountain  remain.  On  the  following  page 
is  represented  a  fomitain  at  Viterbo,  in  the  Papal 
States,  where  there  are  many  of  the  same  descrip- 
tion.    The  pillar  is  sometimes  surmounted  by  a 
statue,  or  has  one  or  more  smaller  basins,  with 
ornamental  streams  and  jets  of  water  falling  from 
tier  to  tier.     A  beautiful  fountain  of  this  nature 
existed  in  the  royal  palace  at  Linlithgow,  and  a 
copy  of  it  has  recently  teen  erected  in  front  of 
Holyrood  Palace. 

In  modern  times,  the  French  have  distinguished 
themselves  by  their  magnificent  fountains,  those 
of  Paris  and  Versailles  bemg  almost  umivalled.  In 

4£8 


FOUNTAIN— FOORIER. 


England,  the  fountains  at  Chatsworth  (q.  v.)  and 
tliose  at  the  Crystal  Palace  are  among  the  finest, 
and  are  remarkable  for  the  great  height  to  which 


Fontana  Grande,  Viterbo. 

tlie  water  is  thrown.  Although  Rome  has  lost  four- 
fifths  of  the  aqueducts  which  so  lavishly  siipplied 
her  with  fresh  water  in  the  times  of  the  Empire, 
she  is  still  xmsnrpassed  for  the  mmiber,  beauty,  and 
utility  of  the  public  fountains  which  adorn  her 
streets  and  places. 

Modern  fountains  are,  for  the  most  part,  entirely 
ornamental.  This  arises  from  the  modern  mode  of 
distributing  water  in  pipes  through  the  houses, 
making  the  street-fountains  to  a  great  extent 
useless.  It  is  found,  however,  that  our  town  popu- 
lations— both  man  and  beast — require  some  public 
sup])lies  of  Avater,  and  these  are  now  largely  supjdied 
by  the  numerous  drinking-foimtains  which  are  being 
constructed  in  all  our  prmcipal  towns. 

FOUNTAIN.  Water  is  represented  heraldically 
by  a  round  ball,  having  wavy  stripes  of  blue  and 
white,  barways,  called  a  fountain. 

FOUQUE,  Friedrich  Heinrich  Karl,  Baron  de 
LA  MoTTE,  a  modern  German  author,  was  grandson 
of  the  Prussian  general  of  this  name,  distinguished 
in  the  Seven  Years'  War.  Born  at  Brandenburg, 
12th  February  1777,  F.  served  as  Prussian  officer 
in  the  campaigns  of  1702  and  1813.  The  interval 
between  these  campaigns  was  devoted  to  literary 
pm-suits  in  the  country,  and  the  rest  of  his  life  was 
spent  alternately  in  Paris  and  on  his  estate  at 
Nennhaixsen,  and  subsequently  at  Halle.  He  died 
in  Berlin,  23d  January  1843.  F.  appeared  first 
under  the  name  Pellegrm,  as  translator  of  Cerv^antes's 
Nurnancia,  and  author  of  some  eff  usions  in  the  spiiit 
«f  Spanish  poetry.  But  the  Norse  legends  and  old 
'German  poetry  attracted  him  most  strongly ;  this 
fras  evinced  in  numerous  romances,  in  i>rose  and 
verse-,  which  picture  the  old  life  of  medieval  Euro]:)e. 
Among  the  best  kno>vn  of  these  are  Sigurd^  der 
/sohlangeritodter  (1809) — the  first  Avork  to  which  F. 
Mttached  his  real  name — Der  Zauhery-ing,  Die  Fahrten 
Thiodolf^s,  and  Undine.  Successful  in  exhibiting 
nany  of  the  beauties  of  the  romantic  school,  he  is 
yet  chargeable  with  all  its  extravagances.  Straining 
too  often  after  fantastically  unnatural  conceits,  he 
seel  s  fascinated  by  the  antique  life  which  he  pic- 
tures, rather  merely  from  its  quaint  contrast  with 
modern  manners,  than  as  a  form  into  which  the  life 
of  actually  living  men  had  shaped  itself  in  former 


times.  He  has  himself  edited  a  selection  of  hii 
works  [Auserwdhlte  Werlce,  12  Bde.,  Halle,  1841). — 
F.'s  first  wife,  Karoline  von  Briest,  is  also  known 
in  Germany  as  a  productive  authoress. 

FOUQUIER-TINVILLE,  Antoine  Quentin, 
the  notorious  public  accuser  in  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, was  born  in  the  village  of  Hcrouelles,  in  the 
department  of  Aisne,  in  1747.  His  early  career  was 
immoral,  but  insignificant.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
Revolution,  he  figured  as  one  of  the  fiercest  demo- 
crats. By  Robespierre,  he  was  appointed,  first,  a 
member,  then  director  and  public  accuser,  of  the 
Revolutionary  Tribunal.  Without  education,  con- 
science, or  sense  of  justice,  he  executed  Avith  brutaJ 

j  apathy  the  bloody  orders  of  the  Committee  of 
Public  Safety.    In  reference  to  this  feature  of  hia 

*  character,  his  countrymen  say  that  '  he  had  no  soul 
—not  even  that  of  a  tiger,  which  at  least  pretends 
to  be  pleased  with  what  it  devours.'  Incapable  of 
friendship,  or  of  anything  even  remotely  allied 
to  generosity,  he  systematically  abandoned  his 
successive  coadjutors  in  their  hour  of  need,  and 
sent  to  the  scaffold,  v/ithout  the  slightest  com- 
punction, Bailly  and  Vergniaud,  Danton  and  Hebert, 
Robespierre  and  St  Just.  He  himself  died  by  the 
guillotine,  in  a  cowardly  manner,  7th  May  1795. 

FOUR  EVANGELISTS,  part  of  a  larger  group 
of  islands  known  as  the  Twelve  Apostles,  lie  off  the 
west  entrance  of  the  Strait  of  Magellan.  They  are 
about  lat.  52°  34'  S.,  and  long.  75°  5'  W.  The  eight 
other  islands,  with  which  they  are  classed  as  above, 
rim  al)Out  15  miles  fiui^her  out  into  the  Pacific. 

FOUR  LAKES,  a  chain  of  connected  sheets  of 
water  in  Wisconsin,  United  States,  are  fed  chiefly 
by  springs,  and  form,  through  their  outlet,  the  Cat- 
fish, a  north-eastern  source  of  the  Mississippi. 
They  are  naAdgable  for  steam-boats,  and  drain  a 
beautifid  country.  Madison,  the  capital  of  the 
state,  stands  on  the  strip  of  land  which  sejjarates  lakes 

Mendota  and  Monona,  the  uppermost  of  the  series. 

FOURCRO'YA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Amaryllidece,  nearly  allied  to  Agave  (q.  v.), 
but  with  stamens  shorter  than  the  corolla.  The 
species  are  all  tropical.  The  leaves  of  some — 
perhaps  of  all — of  them  yield  a  fibre  similar  to 
the  Pita  Flax  obtained  from  those  of  species  of 
Agave. 

FOURIER,  Jean  Bapttste  Joseph,  Baron,  a 
distinguished  French  mathematician,  was  bom  of  a 
respectable  family  at  Auxerre,  21st  March  1768. 
He  became  a  pupil,  and  at  the  age  of  18,  a  professor, 
in  the  military  school  of  his  native  place.  He  was 
afterwards  removed  to  the  normal  school  in  Paris, 
and  then  to  the  Polytechnic,  and  accomj)anied  Gene- 
ral Bonaparte  to  Egypt.  Besides  performing  i)olitical 
services  on  this  occasion,  he  was  secretary  to  the 
Institut  d^Egypte,  and  an  active  contributor  to  the 
Description  de  VEgypte,  the  masterly  historical 
introduction  to  which  is  from  his  pen.  On  return- 
ing to  France,  he  was  made  prefet  of  the  department 
of  Isfere  in  1802,  an  office  which  he  held  till  1815, 
and  was  created  baron  in  1808.  As  i)refet,  he 
succeeded  in  draining  the  marshes  in  Bourgoin,  near 
Ijyon,  which  had  for  centuries  baffled  all  attempts. 
On  the  return  of  Napoleon  from  Elba,  F.  issued  a 
royalist  proclamation ;  notwithstanding  which  he  Avaa 
appointed  by  Napoleon  prefet  of  the  department  of 
the  Rhone,  but  was  shortly  after  removed.  He  now 
took  up  his  abode  in  Pcxris,  and  devoted  himself 
exclusively  to  science.  The  Academy  of  Sciences, 
which  in  1807  had  crowned  his  essay  on  the  propa- 
gation of  heat  through  solid  bodies,  chose  him  a 
member  in  1815,  and  afterwards  secretary  for  life^ 
conjointly  with  Cuvier.    He  died  16th  May,  1830. 

His  most  famous  work  is  the  Theorie  Anal^tiou 


FOURIER— FOUrJERISM. 


de  la  Chaleur  (Par.  1822),  in  whicli  he  applies  new 
methods  of  mathematical  investigation.  An  allied 
subject  is  discussed  in  his  Mevioire  mr  les  Tempera- 
tures du  Globe  Ta-restre  et  des  Espaces  Planetaires 
(Par.  1827).  Besides  heat,  he  occupied  himself 
with  the  theory  of  equations,  which  received  from 
him  important  improvements.  His  work.  Analyse 
des  Equations  Determmees,  distinguished  both  for 
its  substance  and  manner  of  exposition,  was  left 
unfinished,  and  was  published  after  his  death  by 
Na\aer  (Par.  1831). 

FOURIER,  Francois  Marie  Charles,  a  French 
Socialist,  was  born  at  Beaangon,  April  7,  1772.  His 
father,  a  merchant,  had  him  educated  in  an 
academy  at  Besangon  for  his  own  profession.  He 
distinguished  himself  hj  his  perseverance  and 
success  ia  study,  and  excelled  in  geography,  mathe- 
matics, music,  and  the  natural  sciences.  He  left 
his  studies  with  regret  to  enter  upoii  the  duties  of  a 
merchant's  clerk,  which  he  performed  with  zeal  and 
integrity  at  Lyon,  Rouen,  Marseille,  and  Bordeaux. 
He  also  travelled  in  the  interest  of  his  employers, 
not  only  in  France,  but  in  Holland  and  Germany. 
In  these  journeys  and  residences,  nothing  escaped 
his  observation ;  he  noted  climate,  cultiu'e,  popu- 
lation, puldic  and  private  edifices,  and  remembered 
even  the  topography  of  villages,  and  the  dimensions 
of  buildings,  with  astonishing  accuracy.  His  father 
died  in  1781,  lea\ang  him  about  £5000,  which  he 
became  possessed  of  in  1793,  and  invested  in  trade 
at  Lyon.  This  was  lost  in  the  Revolution  ;  and  he 
was  thrown  into  prison,  and  compelled  to  serve  two 
years  as  a  cavalry  soldier.  Discharged  on  account 
of  illness,  he  obtained  employment  in  a  mercantile 
house  at  Marseille,  where  he  was  employed  to 
superint'^nd  the  destruction  of  au  immense  quantity 
of  rice,  held  for  higher  prices,  in  the  midst  of  a 
scarcity  of  food,  imtil  it  had  become  unfit  for  con- 
Bumption.  This  c'rcumstance  called  his  attention 
to  the  frauds  and  duplicities  of  commerce,  and  he 
devoted  his  spare  time  to  the  study  of  social  ]>rob- 
lems,  until  he  developed  the  system  of  Socialism 
to  which  his  name  is  commonly  given.  This 
system  is  contained  in  several  works,  written  and 
published  under  discouraging  circumstances.  In 
1808,  he  published  his  Theorie  des  Quatre  Mouve- 
ments,  et  des  Destinees  Ge.yierale^  (Theory  of  the 
Four  Movements,  and  of  the  General  Destinies  of 
the  Human  Race).  In  1822,  he  pi^oduced  his  Traite 
d'Association  Doniestique  Ayricole  (Treatise  on 
Domestic  and  Agricultural  Association) ;  in  1829, 
Le  Nouveau  Monde  Industriel  et  Societaire  (The 
New  Industrial  and  Social  World) ;  in  1831,  Pieges 
et  Charlatanism e  des  Deux  Sectes  Saint-Simon  et 
Owen,  promettant  V Associaiion  et  Progres  (Snares 
and  Quackeries  of  the  Two  Sects  of  St  Simonians 
and  Owenites,  promising  Association  and  Pro- 
gress) ;  in  183o,  La  Faiisse  Industrie,  Morcelee, 
Jirqn>gna7ite,  Mtnsongere,  et  V Antidote,  V Industrie 
]^aturdle,  Gomhinee,  Attrayante,  Veridique,  donnant 
Quadruple  Produit  (False  Industry,  Fragmentary, 
Bepulsive,  and  Lying,  and  the  Antidote,  a  Natural, 
Combined,  Attractive,  and  Truthful  Industry,  gi^^ng 
Q\i9drupld  Products).  These  works,  MTitten  in  the 
midst  of  ( ommercial  pursuits,  and  j)ublished  at  long 
intervals,  by  means  of  his  small  savings,  found  for 
many  years  few  readers,  and  no  disciples.  Towards 
the  close  of  his  life,  a  small  group  of  intellectual 
men  accepted  his  views,  and  gathered  round  him, 
to  learn  the  details  of  his  social  system  from  his 
own  lii)3.  He  was  unwearied  in  his  efforts  to 
interest  men  of  i)ower  or  capital,  who  could  give 
his  theories  the  test  of  practical  realisation,  and  for 
many  of  the  last  years  of  his  life  waited  patiently  at 
Oi  certain  hour  every  day,  expectiiig  to  be  visited  by 
euch  a  patron.    His  less  j)atient  disciples  probably 


hastened  his  death  by  immature  an.l  partial  efforts  at 
realization.    He  died  in  I'aris,  October  8,  1837. 

FOURIERISM,  the  Social  System  invented  by 
Charles  Fourier,  is  contained  in  his  published 
works,  in  a  large  collection  of  unjmblished  MSS., 
and  in  the  writings  of  Considerant,  Lechevallier, 
Brisbane,  and  others  of  his  disciples.  It  difTera 
materially  from  the  systems  of  Connnunism  strictly 
so  called,  and  all  other  social  theories,  and  })ro- 
fesses  to  be  based  upon  natural  laws,  and  capable 
of  being  carried  out  on  mathematical  principles, 
as  fixed  and  certain  as  those  of  geometry,  music^ 
or  colours.  The  earth  and  human  society,  Fom-icr 
taught,  are  in  their  crude  and  infantile  stage.  The 
period  of  the  race  will  be  80,000  years,  the  latter 
portion  of  which  will  be  its  declining  phase,  as  the 
present  is  its  ascending.  The  middle  term  will  bo 
a  long  period  of  maturity,  prosperity,  and  happi- 
ness. What  we  call  civilisation,  Fourier  considers 
a  false  and  imperfect  condition,  with  poverty,  crime, 
ignorance,  idleness,  repugnant  toil,  disease,  wasting 
wars,  general  antagonism,  oppression,  and  misery. 
He  believed  that  Association  wovdd  produce  general 
riches,  honesty,  attractive  and  varied  industry, 
health,  peace,  and  universal  haj^piness.  Consider- 
ing attractions  and  repulsions  the  governing  forces 
of  all  nature,  and  that  God  has  distributed  them 
for  the  happiness  of  all  His  creatures,  he  held  that 
*  attractions  are  proportional  to  destinies,'  or  that 
the  desires  or  passions  of  men,  their  aj)titudes  and 
inclinations,  if  they  could  have  free  scojje,  would 
infallibly  produce  the  highest  condition  and  greatest 
happiness  of  which  they  are  capable.  He  believed 
in  a  universal  harmony,  flov/ing  from  and  centering 
in  God,  the  author  of  all  harmonies,  and  that 
there  is  thereiore  a  principle  of  '  imiversal  analogy.' 
Seeing  that  all  things,  from  suns  and  planets  to 
atoms,  range  themselves  in  groups  and  series,  accord- 
ing to  certain  fixed  laws  of  attraction  and  repulsion, 
he  laboured  to  discover  the  kind  of  human  society 
that  must  eventually  foi-m  itself  in  obedience  to 
those  laws.  This  is  the  Association  or  Phalanstery, 
which  is  to  consist  of  400  families  or  1800  })er- 
sons,  which  number  he  found  included  the  whole 
circle  of  human  capacities.  These  should  live  in 
one  immense  edifice,  in  the  centre  of  a  large  and 
highly  cultivated  domain,  and  furnished  with  work- 
shops, stvidios,  and  all  the  appliances  of  industry 
and  art,  as  well  as  all  the  sources  of  amusement 
and  pleasure.  When  the  earth  is  covered  with 
palaces  of  attractive  industry,  the  associations  -will 
also  unite  in  groups  and  series,  under  a  unitary 
government.  There  will  be  but  one  language  and 
one  government,  and  the  only  armies  will  be  the 
great  industrial  armies,  which  will  drain  swamps, 
irrigate  deserts,  j^lant  forests,  and  effect  the 
amelioration  of  climates.  The  sj^stem  of  Foiu-ier 
does  not  propose  to  destroy,  but  rather  to  conserve 
property,  position,  and  hereditary  rights,  nor  does  it 
war  directly  vrith.  morals  or  religion.  The  property 
of  the  Association  is  to  be  held  in  shares,  and  the 
whole  product  of  the  industrial  and  artistic  groups 
is  to  be  di^aded  into  twelve  parts,  of  which  five 
parts  are  due  to  labour,  four  to  capital,  and  three 
to  talent.  The  apartments  are  to  be  of  varioug 
prices,  and  the  styles  of  hving  to  vary  in  luxury 
and  cost ;  but  the  poorest  person  in  the  Association 
is  not  only  to  be  secure  of  comfort,  but  his  mini- 
mum of  enjojonents  will  be  greater  than  the  present 
social  arrangements  can  give  to  princes  and  millioi>  • 
aires  ;  while  these  will  have  opened  to  them 
pleasui-es  of  which  they  can  now^scarcely  have  a 
conception.  The  economics  of  the  large  scale  in 
the  Phalanstery  reduce  by  two-thirds  the  expenses 
of  living,  while  an  attractive  and  scientific  indufitr^ 
would  quadruple  the  j)roducts  of  ci'-ilisation. 


FOUENI  ISLANDS— FOWL. 


The  passions  of  the  human  soul  to  which  the 
system  of  Fourier  would  give  full  scope,  he  described 
as  the  five  sensitive — sight,  hearing,  taste,  smell, 
touch ;  four  affective — friendsliip,  love,  ambition, 
and  i)aternity  ;  three  distributive — the  emulative, 
alternating,  and  composite.  In  these  he  found  the 
springs  of  industry  and  ti  le  society.  Emulation, 
the  desire  of  success,  honours,  rewards,  is  the 
great  stimidant  to  exertion  ;  alternation  of  cm])loy- 
ments  makes  work  a  recreation ;  and  the  com- 
posite passion  requires  combinations  of  charm  and 
enjoyment  which  only  Association  can  give.  Many 
attempts  have  been  made — a  few  in  France,  and 
more  in  America — to  carry  the  ideas  of  Fourier  into 
practical  realisation  ;  but  they  have  all  been  on  a 
small  scale,  and  with  inadequate  means,  and  have 
resulted  in  failure.  Whatever  we  may  think  of  the 
system,  in  its  principles  or  its  theoretical  develop- 
ment, nothing  can  be  founded  upon  the  failure  of 
such  experiments.  It  remains  to  be  proved  whether 
human  nature,  in  its  present  state,  is  capable  of 
carrying  out  successfully  a  social  system  so  widely 
varying  from  all  existing  social  conditions.  The 
moral  objections  to  Fourierism  arc,  that  it  appears 
to  make  luxury,  ambition,  and  sensual  delights  the 
end  of  existence— the  incentives  and  rewards  to  all 
exertions ;  and  that  the  passions  of  men,  when  left 
in  the  perfect  freedom  which  this  system  requires, 
would  lead  to  ruinous  demoralisations.  The  answer 
is,  that  '  attractions  are  proportional  to  destinies,' 
and  that  these  excesses  belong  to  the  present  state, 
and  are  incident  to  the  poverty  and  rej)ressions  of 
civilisation,  but  could  not  exist  in  a  true  society; 
which  raises  the  question — What  is  a  true  society  ? 
Whatever  may  be  thouglit  of  the  practicability  of 
the  system,  its  study  in  the  works  of  ^Fourier  is  full 
of  sviggestions  to  the  student  in  sociology. 

FOURNI  ISLANDS  (anc.  CordssicB  or  Corseae), 
a  group  of  about  20  small  islands  in  the  Grecian 
Archipelago,  between  Nicaria  and  Samos,  on  the 
western  coast  of  Asiatic  Turkey.  The  largest  of 
these  islets  is  about  five  mdes  in  cii'cuit. 

FOWEY,  or  FOY,  a  borough  town  on  the  south 
coast  of  Cornwall,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river 
Fowey,  25  miles  south-south-west  of  Launceston. 
It  is  sheltered  by  hills,  and  lies  amid  picturesqite 
Bcenery,  rude  sea-clifFs,  and  promontox'ies.  The 
harbour  admits  large  vessels  at  all  states  of  the 
tide,  and  its  entrance  is  guarded  by  three  forts. 
The  chief  business  is  catching  and  curing  pd- 
chards,  which,  with  'china-stone'  and  iron-ore,  form 
the  main  exports.  F.  sent  47  ships  and  770  men  to 
the  siege  of  Calais  by  Edward  III.  in  1347.  It 
was  l)urned  by  the  French  in  1457,  and  taken  by 
Fairfax  in  1646.    Pop.  (1871)  1394. 

FOWL  (Ger.  vogel ;  allied  to  the  Lat.  root  fug-, 
to  flee,  and  perhaps  to  wag-),  a  word  originally 
Bynonymous  with  bird,  and  still  employed  in  that 
signitication,  but  also  in  a  much  more  restricted 
sense,  as  the  designation  of  the  genus  of  Birds 
(Gallus)  to  which  the  common  Domestic  Fowl  [G. 
domestkus)  belongs.  This  genus  gives  its  name  to  the 
important  order  of  Gallinaceous  Birds,  also  called, 
from  their  well-known  habit  of  scraping  the  earth 
in  search  of  food,  Ilasores  (Lat.  Scrapers)  ;  and  is 
included  in  the  family  Phasianidce,  with  pheasants, 
tragopans,  &c.  The  general  form,  and  the  charac- 
ters of  the  bill,  feet,  &c.,  agree  with  those  of  the 
j'heasauts  ;  but  the  crown  of  the  head  is  generally 
naked,  and  furnished  with  a  fleshy  comb,  the  base  of 
the  lower  mandibles  also  bearing  fleshy  lobes  or 
wattles,  characters  which  are  most  conspicuous  in 
the  males  ;  and  the  tail  is  very  different  from  that 
of  the  jdieasants,  and,  indeed,  very  singularly  formed, 
being  couxposed  of  fourteen  feathers  in  two  nearly 

45u 


vertical  planes,  or  as  if  a  horizontal  tail  were  folded 
together,  so  as  to  make  a  sharp  angle  at  top,  the 
two  middle  feathers  being  the  ui)permost,  and  in  the 
males  elongated  beyond  the  rest,  and  gracefully 
arched.  The  tad-coverts  of  the  male  are  also  veiy 
ample,  and  the  feathers  of  the  back  of  the  head  and 
of  the  neck  are  either  elongated  and  loosely  webbed, 
forming  the  hackles,  so  much  valued  by  anglers  for 
dressing  artificial  flies,  or  are  otherwise  modified  to 
serve  the  purpose  of  adornment ;  characters  which 
are  also  sometimes  exhibited  in  a  very  fvnferior 
degree  in  the  female  sex.  The  legs  of  the  maie  ire 
armed  with  spurs,  as  in  the  ])heasants,  of  whiob 
much  use  is  made  in  the  combats  of  these  birdi 
among  themselves,  all  of  them  being  very  pugna- 
cious. They  are  all  polygamous,  and  unable  to 
endure  the  i)resence  of  a  rival.  They  are  all  natives 
of  the  East  Indies  and  of  the  Malayan  Archipelago. 
From  what  country,  and  at  what  i)eriod  the  Domestic 
Fowl  was  originally  introduced  into  Europe,  is 
uncertain.  The  remains  of  Egyjitian  antiquity 
carry  us  back  to  a  period  when  it  was  apparently 
unknown  in  Egypt,  and  there  is  no  distinct  allusion 
to  it  in  the  Old  Testament ;  but  it  seems  to  have 
been  common  in  the  south  of  Europe  from  the 
earliest  ages  of  European  civilisation.  The  cock  was 
sacred  to  Apollo,  to  Mercury,  to  Mars,  and  to 
i^sculapius.  It  was  figured  on  Grecian  and  Koman 
coins  and  gems  ;  it  Wiis  higldy  valued  for  its  courage 
and  pugnacity,  and.  the  sport  of  cock-fighting  was  a 
favourite  one  both  with  the  Greeks  and  the  Komans, 
as  it  is  amongst  the  Chinese,  the  Malays,  and  many 
other  nations  at  the  present  day,  and  in  former 
times  was  amongst  all  classes  of  society  even  in 
Britain.  See  Cock-fightino.  The  Domestic  Fowl 
ajjpears  to  have  been  known  to  the  ancient  Britons 
before  the  lioman  invasion  ;  and  when  the  South 
Sea  Islands  were  first  visited  by  Europeans,  it  was 
found  there  in  the  same  domesticated  state,  and 
there  also  cock-fighting  was  found  to  be  a  fashion- 
able anuisement  of  the  savage  natives.  The  native 
country  of  the  Domestic  Fowl  is  not  certainly  known, 
nor  is  it  certain  what  the  species  is  in  its  original 
state.  The  ancient  Greeks  sometimes  called  it  the 
Persian  Bird,  and  hence  it  has  been  sujjposed  to  be 
a  native  of  Persia ;  but  there  is  nothing  else  to  sup- 
port this  opinion,  and  it  seems  Kkely  enough  that 
this  appellation  may  at  most  only  indicate  its  intro- 
duction into  Greece  from  Persia.  The  Jungle  Fowl 
of  India,  the  first  sjiecies  of  Gallus  known  in  its 
wild  state  to  naturalists,  was  for  some  time  supposed 
to  be  the  origin  of  the  Domestic  Fowl,  but  to  this 
opinion  there  are  strong  objections  in  the  very 
peculiar  character  of  some  of  the  feathers  which 
distinguish  the  Jungle  Fowl,  and  of  which  no  trace 
ever  appears  in  the  Domestic  Fowl.  More  leceutly, 
the  Bankiva  Fowl  and  other  species  have  been 
discovered  in  Java  and  other  islands  of  the  Eastern 
Archipelago,  more  nearly  resembling  the  Domestic 
Fowl,  and  the  distribution  of  the  latter  through 
the  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  is  favourable  to 
the  belief  that  it  derived  its  origin  from  that 
region  ;  l)ut  still  the  identification  of  the  spe-iica 
remains  difficidt,  and  some  naturalists  inchue  to  the 
opinion  that  the  Domestic  Fowl  may  be  deiired 
from  intermixture  of  distinct  wild  races. 

The  Bankiva  Fowl  {G.  Bankiva),  native  of  Java, 
is  extremely  similar  to  some  of  the  domestic 
varieties ;  indeed.  Sir  William  Jardine  says :  '  Many 
Bantams  so  nearly  resemble  this  bird,  that  tliere 
would  be  great  difficulty  in  making  a  distinction. 
The  comb  is  large  and  lobed,  or  dentelated ;  the 
colours  are  brilliant,  steel-blue  and  chestnut,  black 
and  yellowish  brown,  the  hackles  abundant  and 
golden  orange ;  some  parts  of  the  plumage  exhibit- 
ing a  very  fine  •  play  of  colours.    A  very  similar 


FOWLER'S  SOLUTION— FOWLING. 


species,  or  a  variety  of  the  same,  but  rather  larger, 
is  found  in  some  parts  of  continental  India.'  Very 
similar  also  is  the  Bronzed  Fowl  {G.  cene,us),  found 
in  Sumatra,  a  bird  resplendent  in  metallic  green, 
purj^le,  and  lake  ;  but  of  which  the  comb  has  the 
upper  margin  unbroken  ;  the  wattles  are  combined 
into  oue  attached  to  the  centre  of  the  throat ; 
and  the  neck  feathers  do  not  assume  the  hackle 
character,  which  appeals  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  tail  alone.  These  pecidiarities  also  belong  to 
the  FoRX-TAiLED  FowL  [O.  furcatus  or  Javanicus), 
a  species  very  abimdant  in  the  jungles  of  Java,  and 
often  to  be  seen  on  their  outskirts,  nearly  two  feet 
in  length  from  the  tip  of  the  bill  to  the  extremity 
of  the  tail.  A  still  larger  species — if,  indeed,  these 
are  not  rather  varieties  than  species — is  the 
Gigantic  Fowl,  Jago  Fowl,  or  Kulm  Fowl  (G. 
giganteus)  of  Sumatra,  with  double  wattle  under 
the  throat,  abimdant  hackles  on  the  head,  neck,  and 
upper  part  of  the  back,  greeu  and  reddish  yellow 
the  principal  colours,  and  the  height  considerably 
more  than  two  feet. — The  Jungle  Fowl  [G.  Son- 
neratli),  abundant  in  the  higher  wooded  districts  of 
India,  where  it  is  much  sought  after  by  European 
sportsmen,  is  aboiit  equal  in  size  to  an  ordinary 
Domestic  Fowl,  but  is  more  slender  and  graceful  in 
its  form  ;  the  comb  of  the  male  is  large,  and  its 
margin  broken ;  the  colours  are  rich  and  beautiful ; 
but  a  remarkable  peculiarity  is  exliibited  in  the 
hackle  feathers,  which  are  terminated  by  fiat  horny 
plates  of  a  golden  orange  colour,  into  which  the 
Bhaft  expands,  or  the  shaft  thickening  and  termi- 
nating abruptly  gives  rise  to  a  battledore-like  stem 
and  disc,  in  substance  like  the  tips  of  some  of  the 
feathers  of  the  wax-wing. 

Of  the  Domestic  Fowl  there  are  some  very  curious 
varieties,  of  which  some  naturalists  have  attempted 
to  constitute  distinct  species,  particularly  the  Negro 
Fowl  (G.  morio),  rarely  seen  in  British  poultry- 
yards,  remarkable  for  the  black  colour  of  the  perios- 
teum (the  outer  covering  of  the  bones),  and  the  dull 
purple  of  the  comb,  wattles,  and  skin  ;  the  Silky 
Fowl  {G.  lanatus],  very  common  in  China  and 
Japan,  with  periosteum  and  skin  of  the  same  dark 
colour  as  the  Negro  Fowl,  but  the  flesh  remarkably 
white,  the  comb  and  wattles  purple,  the  feathers 
with  webs  disunited  and  silky  ;  and  the  Friesland 
(probably  a  mistake  for  Frizzled)  Fowl  [G.  crispus), 
which  has  all  the  feathers  standing  nearly  at  right 
angles  to  the  body. 

There  are  also  varieties  of  the  Domestic  Fowl 
remarkable  for  what  may  be  considered  monstro- 
sities— as  the  want  of  a  tail  and  of  some  of  the  last 
vertebra},  the  presence  of  an  additional  spur  on  each 
leg  (Dorkings,  &c.),  superabundant  combs,  crests  or 
tufts  of  hackle  feathers  instead  of  combs,  tufts  of 
feathers  springing  from  the  lower  jaw  (the  Siberian 
Fowl),  &c.  ;  and  there  are  many  varieties  esteemed 
by  keepers  of  poultry,  of  which  the  most  important 
are — 1.  The  Game  Fowl,  with  erect  and  slender 
,  body  and  shewy  colours,  valued  also  for  the  delicacy 
I  of  the  flesh  and  of  the  eggs,  although  the  eggs  are 
rather  small.  It  is  this  Ijreed  which  is  used  for 
cock-  fighting ;  and  so  excessive  is  the  pugnacity 
which  characterises  it,  that  broods  scarcely  feathered 
are  occasionally  found  to  have  reduced  themselves 
fo  uttrr  blindness  by  their  combats.  Some  poultry- 
keej^rs  think  it  good  to  have  a  game-cock  in  their 
poultry-yard,  on  account  of  the  improvement  of  the 
quality  of  the  fowls  sent  to  the  table  ;  but  it  is 
almost  needless  to  say,  he  must,  like  the  prototype 
of  Ivobinson  Crusoe,  be  sole  monarch  of  all  he 
surveys.  2.  The  Dorking  Fowl,  so  named  from 
working,  in  Surrey,  where  it  has  long  been  bred 
in  great  numbers  for  the  London  market — a  breed 
tharacterisod  by  an  additional  spur'  on  each  leg ; 


often  of  a  white  colour,  with  short  legs  ;  one  ot  the 
most  useful  of  all  l^reeds,  both  for  excellence  of 
flesh  and  for  abundance  of  eggs.  3.  1'he  Polish 
Fowl,  black,  with  a  white  tuft,  a  breed  very  exten- 
sively reared  in  France,  Egyi)t,  &c.,  little  inclineo 
to  incubation,  but  valued  for  an  almost  uninter- 
rupted laying  of  eggs.  4.  The  Spanish  Fowl, 
very  sunilar  to  the  Polish,  but  larger,  and  laying 
larger  eggs,  on  account  of  which  it  is  now  muca 
valued,  aiid  very  common  in  Britain  ;  black,  with 
white  cheeks  and  large  red  comb.  5.  The  Malay 
Fowl,  tall  and  handsome,  very  pugnacious,  but 
little  esteemed.  6.  The  Hamburg,  of  veiy  beau- 
tiful plumage,  and  much  valued  for  the  quality 
both  of  flesh  and  eggs,  as  also  for  extreme  produc- 
tiveness of  eggs.  7.  The  Cochin  China  Fowl,  a 
large,  tall,  ungraceful  variety,  with  small  tail  and 
wings,  for  which  there  was  a  great  rage  among 
]ionltry  fanciers  ^vhen  it  was  newly  introduced  into 
Britain  ;  and  since  then  they  have  introduced  several 
new  varieties,  bearing  the  names  of  Shanghai,  Brah- 
mapootra, etc.,  which,  under  high  feeding,  are  very 
productive,  and  attain  large  dimensions.  8.  The  BAN- 
TAM Fowl  (q.  v.),  a  diminutive  variety,  rather  curious 
than  useful.  Of  most  of  these  there  arc  many  sub- 
varieties  and  fancy  breeds — gold-peneiUcd,  silver- 
pencilled,  &c.  The  common  Dunghill  Fowl  is 
apparently  a  breed  produced  by  the  intermixture 
of  others,  and  perhaps  chiefly  a  less  graceful,  less 
spirited,  and  less  pugnacious  race  of  the  Game 
Fowl. 

Concerning  the  treatment  of  the  Domestic  Fowl 
in  the  poultry-yard,  the  diseases  to  which  it  is 
liable,  &c.,  see  Poultry.  The  artificial  hatching 
of  eggs  is  noticed  in  the  nrticle  Incubation.  Con- 
cerning the  eggs  ot  the  Domestic  Fowl  as  an  article 
of  coiumerce,  &c.,  see  Egg. 

The  readiness  with  which  the  Domestic  Fowl  can 
be  induced  to  go  on  laying  eggs  far  beyond  the  num- 
ber proper  for  a  brood,  is  not  nearly  equalled  in  the 
case  of  any  other  domesticated  bird,  and  greatly 
enhances  the  usefulness  of  this  species  to  mankind, 
whether  the  eggs  are  used  for  food,  or,  by  artificial 
hatching,  made  to  produce  chickens,  as  is  common 
in  Egypt  and  some  other  countries.  Few  hena 
incubate  oftener  than  once  a  year,  but  some  lay  in 
the  course  of  a  year  even  more  than  200  eggs. 

FOWLER'S  SOLUTION.    See  Arsenic. 

FOWLING— the  killing  or  taking  of  birds  for  tne 
sake  of  their  flesh,  feathers,  &c. — is  very  variously 
practised  in  diff"erent  parts  of  the  world.  In  some 
places,  it  is  one  of  the  principal  employments  of  the 
people,  who  greatly  depend  on  it  for  their  subsistence, 
and  prosecute  it  -wdth  the  greatest  toil  and  danger  ; 
elsewhere,  it  is  in  some  of  its  forms  a  recreation, 
for  the  sake  of  which  much  expense  is  incurred  by 
the  opulent.  The  modes  in  which  it  is  practised 
depend  partly  on  the  habits  of  different  kinds  o£ 
birds,  and  partly  on  the  progress  of  civilisation  and 
the  arts.  The  peculiar  habits  of  some  birds  render 
it  ver}'  easy  to  take  or  kill  them.  Nets  are  much 
used  in  the  capture  of  many  kinds  of  birds,  parti- 
cularly of  small  birds  intended  for  the  table  :  bird- 
lime is  employed  for  the  same  purpose,  and  birds 
are  taken  by  means  of  it  in  greatest  numbers  near 
their  drinking-places,  particidarly  in  hot  and  dry 
weather ;  gins,  springes,  and  traps  of  various  kinds 
are  also  employed. 

The  numerous  kinds  of  ducks,  geese,  and  other 
Anatidm,  are,  in  an  economical  point  of  view,  among 
the  most  important  of  birds ;  and  the  methods 
employed  for  their  capture  are  very  various  and 
interesting.  These,  however,  we  reserve  for  a 
separate  article.  Wildfowl  ;  and  refraining  also 
here  from  any  notice  of  the  amusements  of  the 

457 


FOWLING— FOWLS  OF  WARREN. 


si)ortsnmn,  we  shall  proceed  to  describe  the  methods 
adopted  in  Roch-fowling ,  on  which  the  inhabitants  of 
many  northern  coasts  and  islands  in  a  great  measure 
depend  for  their  means  of  subsistence.  Of  all  kinds 
of  fowling,  it  is  by  far  the  most  adventurous.  The 
objects  of  pursuit  Are  gannets  or  solan  geese,  gulls, 
terns,  guillemots,  and  other  sea-birds,  which  fre- 
quent the  most  lofty  precipices,  and  breed  on  their 
shelves  and  ledges.  The  flesh,  even  of  the  best  of 
them,  is  generally  coarse,  and  of  a  fishy  taste,  yet 
it  forms  great  part  of  the  food  of  the  poor  people, 
both  fresh,  and  salted  for  winter  provisions.  The 
flesh  of  the  young  is  more  tender  and  pleasant  than 
that  of  adult  birds.  The  eggs  of  some  species  are 
Bought  after  by  the  same  perilous  means  as  the  birds 
themselves.  The  feathers,  too,  are  an  article  of 
commerce.  The  people  of  St  Kilda  pay  part  of  their 
rent  in  feathers ;  and  the  rocks  of  that  island 
are  apportioned  among  its  inhabitants  as  exactly 
as  its  soil.  Almost  every  man  in  the  island  is  a 
cragsman  or  rock-fowler,  which  is  pretty  nearly 
the  case  also  in  many  other  northern  isles.  The 
multitudes  of  sea-fowl  around  many  of  the  rocky 
northern  coasts  is  prodigious,  resembling  at  a  dis- 
tance— as  may  be  seen  at  the  Bass  llock  in  the 
Firth  of  Forth — the  bees  around  a  l)usy  hive. 
Uninhal)ited  islets  are  annually  visited  by  fowlers, 
as  Borrera  by  the  people  of  St  Kilda  ;  and  the 
*  stacks;'  or  high  insular  rocks  near  the  shore,  are 
often  extremely  productive.  These  are,  of  course, 
reached  by  means  of  a  boat ;  and  whilst  landing  is 
often  both  difiicidt  and  dangerous,  the  climbing  of 
the  precipice  is  still  more  so.  The  Norwegian 
fowlers,  or  '  bird-men,'  carry  on  such  expeditions 
with  a  bird-pole  or  fowUng-staff,  about  five  or  six 
yards  long,  and  a  rope  of  several  fathoms.  The 
bird-pole  has  an  iron  hook  at  one  end  :  it  has  also  a 
flat  head  ;  ?.ud  by  means  of  it  the  fowler  is  pushed 
and  guided  by  his  comrades  below  as  he  ascends  a 
very  steep  or  precipitous  cliff ;  by  means  of  it,  also, 
he  strikes  down  or  draws  in  birds.  The  rope  is 
used  to  %sten  two  fowlers  together,  being  attached 
to  the  waist  of  each  :  they  aid  one  another  in 
climbi'ig,  pushing,  and  drawing  one  another  up  the 
rocks,  the  safety  of  the  one  often  depending  on  the 
strength  and  courage  of  the  other.  The  bird-pole  is 
also  used  with  a  small  net  attached  to  it,  in  the 
capture  of  birds  that  are  flying  around.  The  Nor- 
"vegian  fowlers  sometimes  remain  for  days  on  ledges 
where  birds  are  abundant,  sleeping  in  boles  or 
clefts,  and  having  food  let  down  to  them  by  a 
roj^ft  from  above. 

Still  more  perilous,  if  possible,  is  the  mode  of 
fowling  practised  where  the  precipices  cannot  be 
scaled  The  fowler  is  let  down  by  a  rope,  and 
hangs  in  mid-air,  often  at  an  elevation  of  several 
hundred  feet,  above  rough  rocks  or  roaring  waves  ; 
and  by  means  of  his  feet  or  of  a  pole,  throws  himself 
out  to  ruich  a  distance  from  the  face  of  the  rock  as 
to  obtain  a  view  of  all  its  ledges  and  crannies,  to 
which,  with  astonishing  coolness  and  dexterity,  he 
directs  his  course,  often  also  catching  the  Isirds 
lhat  fly  near  him  in  the  air.  Speaking  of  the 
iowlers  of  St  Kilda,  Wilson  ( Voyage  Round  the 
Coasts  of  Scotland  and  the  Isles)  remarks  :  '  How 
one  man  (for  such  is  the  case),  himself  stand- 
ing with  the  points  of  his  toes  upon  the  verge 
of  a  precipice  many  hundred  feet  deep,  can,  with 
such  secure  and  unerring  strength,  sustain  the 
ent.'re  weight  of  another  man  bounding  from  point 
to  point  below  him  with  irregular  and  frequent 

springs,  is  what  a  stranger  cannot  understand  

But  we  ascertained  that  there  is  never  more 
than  a  single  man  above  sui)porting  the  weight  of 
the  one  below.  Each  of  these  couples  has  two 
ropes.    The  rope  which  the  upper  man  holds  in 

458 


his  hands  is  fastened  round  the  body  and  beneath 
the  arms  of  him  who  desrends,  whi]«  another  rope 
is  pressed  by  the  feet  of  the  upper  man,  and  ia 
held  in  the  hand  of  the  lower.'  The  second  rope 
is  for  giving  signals,  and  for  sending  up  birds  when 
captured.  The  principal  rope  is  made  of  raw  cow- 
hide, exit  into  thongs  and  twisted ;  it  is  so  durable 
as  to  last  for  two  generations,  and  is  bequeathed 
as  valuable  property  by  father  to  son.  Other 
materials,  however,  are  used  elsewhere ;  and  the 
practice  differs  also  as  to  the  number  of  comrades 
holding  the  rope  above.  In  the  Faroe  Isles,  v/here 
some  of  the  precii)ices  are  1400  feet  in  heiglit,  the 
rope  is  usually  held  by  a  number  of  men.  In 
some  of  the  Scottish  islands,  fowlers  have  been 
adventurous  enough  to  descend  the  cliffs  unaided, 
fastening  the  rope  for  themselves  to  a  stake  driven 
into  the  ground  above.  The  fowlers  of  the  Faroe 
Isles  sometimes  use  the  pole  with  net  at  the  end, 
whilst  susjiended  in  the  air.  It  is  not  unusual  for 
the  fowler,  when  he  finds  a  ledge  or  recess  in  the 
precii)ice  abounding  in  birds,  to  disengage  himself 
from  the  rope  whilst  he  pursues  his  labours  tliere  ; 
but  when  the  precipice  overhangs  above,  he  is 
exposed  to  a  great  danger  of  the  rope's  escaping 
from  his  reach.  A  case  is  on  record  in  which  the 
only  resource  of  the  fowler  was  to  make  a  desperate 
spring  and  catch  the  rope,  which  himg  a  few  feet 
before  him  in  the  air ;  and  this  he  succeeded  in 
doing. 

The  cut  represents  rock-fowling  at  the  Holm  of 
Noss,  a  precipitous  insular  rock,  separated  from  Nosa 


The  Holm  of  Noss,  Shetland. 


one  of  the  Shetland  Isles,  by  a  chasm  of  65  feet 
wide,  and  160  feet  deep,  over  which  ropes  have  been 
stretched,  so  that  a  cradle  or  sparred  box  can  be 
made  to  pass  along  them,  affording  access  to  the 
grassy  summit  of  the  Holm,  where  a  few  sheep  now 
feed,  and  where  innumerable  sea-birds  make  thsix 
nests. 

FOWLS  OF  WARREN.  Lord  Coke  says  they 
are  '  the  partridge,  quail,  rail,  &,c.,'  '  pheasant,  wood- 
cock, &c.,'  and  the  '  mallard,  heron,  &c.,'  leaving  the 
etcffiteras  without  explanation  (Co.  Litt.  233).  Man* 
wood,  again,  lays  it  down  that  there  are  only  two 
fowls  of  warren,  the  pheasant  and  the  partridge 
(Manw.  95).  In  the  Duke  of  Devonshire  v.  Lodge 
(7  B.  and  C.  36),  it  was  decided  that  grouse  are  no* 
bii  ds  of  warren. 


FOX. 


FOX,  Charles  James,  a  celebrated  WTiig  states- 
man, was  the  second  sou  of  Henry  Fox,  first  Lord 
Holland,  by  Lady  Georgiana  Carolina,  eldest 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Richmond.  He  was  born, 
according  to  Lord  John  Kussell's  memoir,  on  the 
24th  January  1749  (N.S.),  and  was  educated  at  Eton 
and  Oxford,  spending  his  vacations  on  the  continent 
in  the  gayest  and  wittiest  circles  of  the  French 
capital,  and  visiting  Switzerland  and  Italy.  Not- 
withstanding the  irregular  life  which  he  led  even 
as  a  school-boy,  he  was  very  distinguished  for  ability 
both  at  school  and  college ;  and  so  high  was  his 
father's  oi:)inion  of  his  talents,  that  at  the  age  of 
nineteen  he  had  him  brought  into  parliament  as 
member  for  the  borough  of  Midhurst,  a  step  to 
which  he  is  said  to  have  been  further  incited  by 
the  fact,  that,  even  at  this  early  age,  F.'s  energies 
had  found  an  outlet  in  gambling  and  various  other 
forms  of  dissipation.  His  precocity  in  vice,  as 
well  as  in  intellectual  development,  is  said  to  have 
been  the  result  of  the  injudicious  fondness  of  his 
very  unprincipled  but  very  gifted  father.  Till  he 
attained  his  majority,  F.  prudently  kept  silent  in  the 
House,  but  immediately  thereafter  he  appeared  as  a 
supporter  of  the  administration  of  Lord  North,  and 
was  rewarded  with  the  office  of  one  of  the  lords  of 
the  Admiralty.  In  1772,  he  resigned  that  office,  and 
the  following  year  was  named  a  commissioner  of 
the  Treasury.  From  that  post  he  was  dismissed,  in 
consequence  of  a  quarrel  with  Lord  North,  and 
passed  over  to  the  ranks  of  the  opposition.  During 
the  whole  course  of  the  American  war,  he  was  the 
most  formidable  oj)ponent  of  the  coercive  measures 
which  were  adopted  by  the  government,  and  the 
most  powerful  advocate  of  the  claims  of  the  colo- 
nists ;  acting,  to  this  extent  at  least,  in  accordance 
with  the  views  which  for  many  years  before  had 
been  urged  upon  the  country  by  the  great  Lord 
Chatham,  the  father  of  his  future  rival  Mr  Pitt. 
The  difference  between  them  was,  that  whereas 
Lord  Chatham  urged  conciliation,  in  order  to  pre- 
serve the  connection  between  the  two  countries,  F. 
foresaw  and  foretold  the  necessity  and  the  advan- 
tages of  complete  sejjaration.  In  1782,  on  the  down- 
fall of  Lord  North,  F.  was  appointed  one  of  the 
secretaries  of  state,  which  office  he  held  till  the 
death  of  the  Marquis  of  Eockingham,  when  he  was 
succeeded  by  the  Earl  of  Shelburne,  afterwards 
Marquis  of  Lansdowne.  On  the  dissolution  of  the 
Shelburne  administration,  the  North  and  Fox  coali- 
tion was  formed,  and  F.  resumed  his  former  office  ; 
but  the  rejection  of  his  India  Bill  by  the  House  of 
Lords  soon  after  led  to  the  resignation  of  his  govern- 
ment. It  was  now  that  Mr  Pitt  came  into  power, 
and  that  the  long  and  famous  contest  between  him 
and  F.,  who  occupied  the  position  of  leader  of 
the  opposition,  commenced.  In  1788,  he  enjoyed  a 
short  respite  from  his  public  labours.  Accompanied 
by  his  wife,  he  visited  the  continent,  and  having 
epent  a  few  days  at  Lausanne,  in  the  company  of 
Gibbon,  who  was  there  engaged  in  writing  his 
famous  history,  he  set  out  for  Italy.  The  sudden 
illness  of  the  king,  however,  and  the  necessity  of 
constituting  a  regency,  rendered  it  undesirable  that 
he  should  be  longer  absent  from  England,  and  he 
hastened  back  to  his  post.  The  regency,  the  trial 
of  WaiTen  Hastings,  the  French  Revolution,  and  the 
events  which  followed  it,  gave  ample  scope  to  the 
talents  and  energies  of  F.,  and  on  all  occasions  he 
emploved  his  influence  to  modify,  if  not  to  coun- 
teract, the  policy  of  his  great  rival.  He  was  a 
Btrenuous  oi)ponent  of  the  war  with  France,  and 
an  advocate  of  those  non-intervention  views  which 
find  greater  favour  in  our  day  than  tliey  did  in  his. 
After  the  death  of  Pitt,  F.  was  recalled  to  office, 
and  endeavoured  to  realise  his  doctrines  by  setting 


on  foot  negotiations  for  a  peace  with  France,  the 
residts  of  which  he  did  not  live  to  witness.  He  died 
on  the  13th  September  1806,  in  his  59th  year.  In 
private  life,  Mr  F.  was  a  genial  companion,  kindly 
and  sincere  in  the  closer  nJations  of  friendship, 
whilst  his  conduct  to  those  to  whom  he  was  opposed 
in  i)ublic  was  generous,  and  free  from  every  trace  of 
malignity  or  enmity.  Lord  John  Russell,  in  the 
preface  to  his  Memorials  and  Correspondence,  speaks 
of  the  singular  candour,  boldness,  simplicity,  and 
kindness  of  his  character ;  and  of  his  oratorical 
powers  it  is  enough  to  record,  that  Burke  called 
him  '  the  greatest  debater  the  world  ever  saw,'  and 
Sir  James  Mackintosh,  'the  most  Demosthenian 
speaker  since  Demosthenes.'  His  remains  were 
interred  in  Westminster  Abbey,  so  near  to  those  of 
Pitt,  as  to  suggest  to  Sir  Walter  Scott  the  well- 
known  couplet — 

Shed  upon  Fox's  grave  the  tear, 
'Twill  trickle  to  his  rival's  bier. 
FOX,  George,  a  religious  reformer,  and  chief  In- 
strument in  gathering  the  Society  of  Friends  (q.  v.), 
was  born  in  Leicestershire,  England,  in  1624.  As  he 
was  called  to  a  great  Avork  of  reformation — to  aAvuken 
men  from  lifeless  forms  and  dogmas  to  a  sense  of  the 
vital  importance  of  an  inward,  living,  spiritual  religion 
— he  was  prepared  for  this  work  by  peculiarities  of 
original  character,  and  by  trials  such  as  few  before 
him  had  experienced.  When  about  23  yeaisof  age 
he  began  to  preach,  and  thereafter  travelled  much  in 
the  ministry,  convincing  and  gathering  many  'from 
the  old  ways,'  as  he  expresses  it,  'to  Christ,  the  new 
and  living  way ;  from  the  churches  which  men  had 
made ;  from  the  world's  worships,  which  knew  not  tha 
spirit  of  truth  in  the  inward  parts;  from  Jewish  cer- 
emonies, heathenish  fables,  men's  inventions,  windy 
doctrines,  and  schools  for  making  ministers  which  are 
not  Christ's.'  '  I  was,'  says  he,  '  to  direct  people  to 
the  Spirit  that  gave  forth  the  Scriptures,  and  turn  them 
to  the  grace  of  God  and  to  the  truth  in  the  heart, 
which  came  by  Jesus.'  This  doctrine  Avas  received 
Avith  derision,  and  his  person  frequently  suffered  im- 
prisonment and  abuse  from  priests  and  magistrates, 
both  Puritan  and  Churchman.  '  But  in  his  persecu- 
tions,' says  Spurgeon,  'he  stands  before  us  as  a  true 
man,  a  complete  man,  one  of  the  noblest  types  of 
manhood,  a  model  of  Avhat  gracious  manhood  may 
become.' 

His  refusal  to  comply  Avith  the  fashions  of  the  Avorld 
and  to  pay  homage  to  the  pride  of  man  raised  against 
him  a  host  of  enemies.  The  testimony  he  bore  to  a 
free  gospel  ministry,  though  not  peculiar  to  him  and 
his  friends,  Avas  another  cause  of  antipathy  to  the  ris- 
ing society.  Though  the  doctrine  of  the  teaching  A. 
the  Holy  Spirit  is  an  essential  doctrine  of  Christianity, 
and  to  it  the  Christian,  in  all  ages,  has  ascribed  his 
illumination  and  regeneration,  yet  Avhen  Geor^  e  Fox 
visited  Scotland  and  promulgated  the  universality  of 
the  grace  of  God,  the  priests  drew  up  a  series  of  curses 
to  be  read  in  their  steeple-houses,  to  Avhich  all  their 
hearers  were  required  to  say  amen  !  Such  Avas  the 
character  of  many  of  the  teachers  of  that  day  against 
Avhom  Fox  raised  his  voice.  But  time  has  reversed 
the  decisions  of  these  professors  of  religion,  and  many 
Avill  now  admit  Avhat  Spurgeon  has  so  aptly  expressed: 
'  When  I  first  read  George  Fox's  life  I  could  think  of 
nothing  but  the  SeruKm  on  the  Mount.  Fox  seemed 
an  incarnation  of  it,  and  his  teachings — just  a  repeti- 
tion of  the  Master's  teachings — just  an  expansion  and 
explanation  of  the  primary  principles  of  Christianity.' 

The  events  of  his  life  are  of  minor  significance 
compared  Avith  the  Christian  doctrines  he  taught, 
Avhich  have  moulded  in  a  great  degree  the  civilization 
of  nearly  two  centuries,  and  our  space  Avill  permit  ua 
to  notice  but  a  few  of  them. 

45tf 


FOX. 


In  1669  he  married  Margaret  Fell,  widow  of 
Juds^e  Fell  of  Swarthmore,  a  woman  hi<^hly  esteemed 
for  her  piety  and  good  sense,  who  suffered  about  ten 
years'  imprisonment  at  different  times  because  of  her 
faith. 

In  1672  he  visited  Barbadoes,  whei'e  his  sympathies 
were  awakened  for  the  slaves,  which  induced  him  to 
write  an  address  to  their  masters  recommending-  their 
liberation  after  certain  years  of  sound  Christian  train- 
ing. In  the  same  year  he  visited  the  Provinces  of  N. 
America,  enduring  great  hardships  and  making  many 
converts.  He  returned  to  England  in  1673,  and  was 
Imprisoned  in  Worcester  jail  through  the  malice  of 
his  enemies,  and  brought  before  Sir  Matthew  Hale, 
Chief  Justice.  The  writ  of  indictment  having  been 
found  defective,  and  some  envious  persons  advising  the 
dhief  Justice  to  tender  to  him  the  oath  of  allegiance. 
Baying  he  was  'a  dangerous  man  to  be  at  large,'  Hale 
replied  he  *  had  indeed  heard  such  rejjort,  but  he  had 
heard  many  more  good  reports  of  him,'  and  ordered 
Fox  to  be  discharged  by  proclanuition. 

In  1677  Fox  visited  the  Continent  of  Euroj^e,  in 
company  with  William  Fenn  and  Robert  Barclay,  and 
assisted  in  establishing  a  yearly  meeting  for  Friends 
of  Holland,  the  Palatinate,  Hamburg,  Dantzig,  etc. 
Here  he  was  well  received,  and  Lutheran  priests  con- 
fessed they  had  never  heard  tJie  truth  so  jjlainly 
opened  to  their  understanding.  In  1678  he  returned 
to  his  home  in  Swarthmore,  and  although  much  en- 
feebled, his  limbs  being  stiffened  by  exposure  to  wet 
and  cold  in  noisome  dungeons,  so  that  it  was  painful  to 
ride  or  walk,  yet  the  lively  zeal  and  energy  of  his  mind 
Buffered  no  abatement,  and  during  this  retirement  he 
wrote  many  excellent  epistles.  On  the  13th  of  11th 
month,  1690  (Jatmary,  1691),  this  Christian  soldier 
rested  from  his  warfare.  Among  his  last  expressions 
were :  *A11  is  well *  The  seed  of  God  reigns  over  all — 
even  death  itself.' 

The  mental  faculties  of  George  Fox  were  clear  and 
vigorous,  and  though  deprived  of  the  benefit  of  early 
education,  he  yet  cultivated  various  branches  of  useful 
knowledge.  He  was  a  friend  of  learning,  and  not 
only  promoted  the  establishment  of  several  schools, 
which  he  frequently  visited,  but  spent  considerable 
time  and  pains  in  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  one  or 
more  of  the  ancient  languages.  He  cannot,  however, 
be  considered  learned,  but '  was,'  says  Coleridge,  *  an 
uneducated  man  of  genius;'  and  it  must  challenge 
•>ur  admiration  that  he  should, '  without  human  learn- 
ing, have  done  more,'  says  Gov.  William  Livingston, 
'towards  the  restoration  of  real  unadulterated  Christi- 
anity, and  the  extirpation  of  priestcraft,  superstition, 
and  unaA  ailing  rites  and  ceremonies  than  an}'  other 
reformer  in  Protestant  Christendom  with  it.'  Perhaps 
there  exists  no  better  monument  to  his  wisdom  than 
the  admirable  code  of  discipline  for  the  Society  of 
Friends,  almost  every  feature  of  which  originated  with 
him.  This  production  has  compelled  eulogy  from  a 
writer  in  the  Annual  Review  and  Iliatory  of  Litera- 
ture for  1 808  in  the  following  strain :  '  There  is  no 
character  in  Christian  history  since  the  days  of  its 
divine  founder  more  pure  from  spot  or  stain  than  that 
of  George  Fox.  No  form  of  civil  polity  so  unexcep- 
tionable in  its  means  and  ends,  so  beautiful  in  all  its 
parts,  so  perfect  as  a  whole,  has  ever  been  imagined 
in  philosophical  romance  or  proj^osed  in  theory  as  this 
man  conceived  and  established  and  reduced  to  prac- 
tice.' 

In  person,  George  Fox  was  tall  and  rather  corpu- 
lent, his  countenance  manly,  intelligent,  and  graceful, 
and  his  manners,  says  William  Penn,  'civil  beyond  all 
fornjs  of  breeding.'  The  same  competent  witness 
adds  that  *  though  God  had  visibly  clothed  him  with  a 
divine  preference  and  authority — and  indeed  his  very 
presence  expressed  a  religious  majesty — he  never 
abused  it,  but  held  his  place  in  the  Church  of  God 
460 


with  meekness  and  a  most  engaging  humility  and 
moderation.'  They  who  would  understand  the  cha- 
racter and  Christian  doctrines  of  this  great  reformer 
should  read  the  Journal  of  his  Life,  '  which,'  says  Sir 
James  Mackintosh,  *is  one  of  the  most  extraordinary 
and  instructive  documents  in  existence,  and  which  no 
reader  of  competent  judgment  can  peruse  without  re- 
vering the  virtues  of  the  author.'  'There  exist  folios,* 
says  Coleridge,  *on  the  human  understanding  which 
would  have  a  far  juster  claim  to  their  high  rank  and 
celebrity  if  in  the  whole  huge  volume  there  could  bo 
found  as  much  fulness  of  heart  and  intellect  as  burst 
forth  in  many  a  simple  page  of  George  Fox." 

See  Journal  of  the  lAfe  of  George  Fox,  and  Pre- 
face, by  William  Pcnn ;  Life,  etc.,  by  Kev.  Josiah 
Marsh,  Lond.,  1 847  ;  Addreas  to  the  Society  of  I'ViendSy 
by  Rev,  C.  H.  Spurgeon,  Lond.,  1866.  And  for  a  list 
of  his  writings,  see  Catalogue  of  Friends'  Hooks,  by 
Josei)h  Smith,  2  vols.  Svo.,  Lond.,  1867.       J.  S.  L. 

FOX,  William  Johnson,  orator  and  political 
writer,  the  son  of  a  small  Suffolk  farmer,  who  after- 
wards settled  as  a  weaver  at  Norwich,  was  Lorn  in 
1786.  He  gave  early  promise  of  talent,  and  was 
sent  to  Homei-ton  College,  to  be  trained  for  the 
ministry  of  the  Independents.  He  subsequently 
seceded  to  Unitarianism,  but  ultimately  shaking  off 
all  allegiance  to  existing  Christian  churches,  he 
delivered  a  scries  of  prelections  at  his  chapel  in 
South  Place,  Finsbuiy,  wdiich  marked  him  out  as 
the  leader  and  organ  of  English  rationalism.  AVheu 
the  Anti-cora-law  League  enlisted  the  ablest  plat- 
form orators  of  the  day  in  the  service  of  free  trade, 
his  bold  and  imimssioned  rhetoric  greatly  contributed 
to  arouse  and  intensify  public  feeling.  M.  Guizot 
quotes  his  speeches  as  the  most  finished  examples  of 
oratory  which  the  great  conflict  produced.  Their 
effect  upon  the  vast  metropolitan  audiences  to  which 
they  were  addressed  was  electric.  F.  also  con- 
tributed by  his  pen  to  the  success  of  free  trade,  and 
his  Letters  of  a  Norwich  Weaver  Boy  were  largely 
quoted  and  read.  After  the  abolition  of  the  Corn 
Laws,  he  was  invited  to  stand  for  Oldham,  which 
borough  he  continued  to  represent,  with  a  brief  in- 
terval, for  many  years.  Like  most  men  who  enter 
the  House  of  Conunons  late  in  life,  F.  did  not  alto- 
gether realize  the  oratorical  promise  of  his  platform 
and  pulpit  career.  His  best  parliamentary  speeches 
were  upon  the  education  of  the  peo{)le.  As  a  poli- 
tician, he  was  a  consistent  member  of  the  advanced 
Liberal  party.  A  succession  of  illnesses,  in  his  later 
years,  interfered  with  his  attendance  in  parliament. 
He  was  among  the  earliest  contributors  to  the  West' 
minster  Review^  edited  for  many  years  the  Monthly 
Repository^  and  largely  contributed  to  various  other 
organs  of  public  opinion.  His  Lectures,  chiefly  ad- 
dressed to  the  Working- Classes,  have  been  published 
in  3  vols.  He  is  the  author  of  a  philosophical  disser- 
tation on  Religious  Ideas,  and  other  theological 
works.    He  died  June  3,  1864. 

FOX  (  Vulpes),  a  genus  of  Canidre  (q.  v.),  particu- 
larly distinguished  from  dogs,  wolves,  jackals,  etc., 
by  the  pupils  of  the  eyes  contracting  vertically,  and 
in  the  form  of  the  section  of  a  lens,  not  circularly. 
This  takes  place  whenever  the  eyes  are  turned  to « 
strong  light,  and  foxes  are  all  nocturnal  animals. 
Foxes  are  also  generally  of  lower  stature  in  propor- 
tion to  their  length  than  the  other  Canidce ;  they 
have  a  roundish  head,  with  a  very  pointed  muzzle, 
short  triangular  ears,  slender  limbs,  and  a  bushy  tail. 
They  dig  burrows  for  themselves  in  the  earth,  or  take 
possession  of  holes  already  existing.  They  feed  on 
small  quadrupeds,  birds,  eggs,  etc. ;  some  of  them, 
however,  also  partly  on  fruits  and  other  vegetable 
substances.  The  Common  Fox  ( V.  vulgaris),  a  na- 
tive of  most  parts  of  Europe,  is  the  only  I3ritish 
species,  and  is  still  pretty  abundant  in  most  parw  ol 


FOX. 


the  country,  protected  with  a  view  to  the  sport  of  fox- 
hanting.  The  common  fox  is  a,  reddish  brown  above, 
wliite  beneath,  the  outside  of  the  ears  black,  a 
black  line  extendin<j^  from  the  inner  any;le  of  the  eye 
to  the  mouth ;  the  legs  mostly  black,  the  end  of  the 
tail  generally  white,  although  specimens  sometimes 


The  Common  Fox  [Vulpes  vulgaris). 

occur  in  which  it  is  gray,  or  even  black.  The  fox 
has  a  gland  under  the  tail  which  secretes  a  very 
fetid  eubstance,  communicating  to  the  whole  animal 
its  Avcll-known  smell.  It  breeds  once  in  a  year, 
having  usually  four,  five,  or  six  young  ones  in  a 
litter.  Its  usual  voice  is  a  kind  of  yelp.  Its  senses 
of  sight,  hearing,  and  smelling  are  very  acute. 
Innumerable  anecdotes  are  on  record  illustrative  of 
its  cunning.  The  difficult}'  of  setting  traps  so  that 
the}'  shall  not  be  detected  and  avoided  by  it  is  well 
known.  Foxes  are  said  to  have  been  observed  ap- 
proaching water-fowl  by  swimming  slowly  with  a  turf 
in  the  mouth,  so  as  to  remain  concealed.  A  most 
trustworthy  person  assured  the  writer  of  this  article 
that  he  saw  a  fox  approach  a  group  of  hares  that  were 
feeding  in  a  field  with  a  slow,  limping  motion,  and 
having  his  head  down  as  if  eating  clover,  till  he  was 
near  enough,  l)y  a  sudden  rush,  to  secure  very  differ- 
ent food.  Foxes  captured  in  hen-i*oosts  have  often 
been  known  to  simulate  death,  and  to  submit  to  being 
dragged  about  and  very  roughly  treated  without  a 
sign  of  life,  till  an  opportunity  of  escape  presented 
itself.  When  they  are  driven  to  their  holes,  and 
these  are  surrounded  with  traps,  they  not  unfre- 
quently  show  such  a  just  appreciation  of  the  danger 
tliiit  they  will  endure  starvation  for  days  and  even 
v/eeks  rather  than  come  out.  The  Himalaya  moun- 
tains i)roduce  a  species  of  fox  (  V.  Himalaicus)  very 
similar  to  the  common  fox,  but  of  superior  size  and 
brilliancy  of  colours.  The  fur  is  rich  and  fine.  The 
Black  Fox  of  Northern  Asia  is  also  very  similar 
to  the  common  fox,  but  is  entirely  of  a  velvety 
black  colour,  except  the  tip  of  the  tail,  Avhich  is 
white ;  its  fur  is  greatly  esteemed,  brings  a  high 
price,  and  forms  an  article  of  export  from  Kamt- 
chatka  to  China.  The  Coal  Fox  (  V.  alopex)  of  some 
parts  of  Europe,  as  Switzerland  and  Bavaria,  is  by 
eome  naturalists  regarded  as  distinct  from  the  com- 
mon fox.  It  is  of  inferior  size,  more  timid,  and  less 
troublesome ;  the  tip  of  the  tail  is  black.  N.  America 
has  several  species  of  fox,  of  which  the  Red  Fox  (  V. 
fulvus)  very  nearly  resembles  the  common  fox  of 
Europe,  but  is  of  rather  larger  size,  has  a  shorter 
muzzle,  eyes  nearer  each  other,  and  a  more  copiously 
bushy  tail.  Its  fur  is  also  longer,  finer,  more  bril- 
liantly coloured,  and  much  more  valuable,  forming  a 
considerable  article  of  export  from  the  fur  countries, 
in  which,  as  well  as  in  Canada  and  in  the  northern 
parts  of  the  United  States,  this  species  is  abundant. 
The  GlLVY  Fox  (  V.  Viryinianus)  is  the  most  abundant 


species  of  the  southern  states,  extending,  however,  ea 
far  north  as  Canada,  where  it  is  rare.  It  is  of  a  gray 
colour,  varied  with  black,  is  about  the  size  of  the  com- 
mon fox,  but  not  so  bold,  and  sometimes  eats  vege- 
table substances,  such  as  ears  of  maize.  There  are  a 
number  of  other  species  of  fox,  Asiatic,  African,  an(J 
American,  but  the  most  deserving  of  notice  is  the 
Arctic  Fox  (  V.  lagopn^),  which  inhabits  the  most 
northern  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America.  It  i3 
very  plentiful  in  Iceland,  feeding  much  on  ptarmigans, 
and  sometimes  on  young  lambs.  Great  numl)ers  are 
found  on  the  shores  of  Hudson's  Bay  and  Melleville 
Island.  The  Arctic  Fox  is  rather  smaller  than  the 
common  fox  ;  it  is  more  densely  clothed  with  a  woolly 
fur,  which  on  some  parts  is  two  inches  in  length ;  the 
tail  is  extremely  bushy ;  and  even  the  soles  of  the 
feet  are  thickly  covered  with  hair.  The  colour  is 
pure  white  in  winter,  at  least  in  very  cold  climates  ; 
\  arying  to  a  brownish  or  bluish  colour  in  summer. 
It  is  gregarious,  and  many  burrows  are  often  found 
together.  It  is  extremely  cleanly  in  its  habits,  and 
is  quite  devoid  of  the  offensive  smell  which  belongs 
to  most  of  the  foxes  ;  it  is  also  much  less  cunning, 
and  much  more  easily  trapped,  as  well  as  much 
more  gentle  and  capable  of  being  tamed.  Its  flesh 
has  been  sometimes  eaten  by  arctic  voyagers,  with 
a  relish  due  to  the  extreme  cold  of  the  climate,  and 
the  consequent  demand  of  the  system  for  animal 
food.  Its  fur  is  not  nearly  equal  in  value  to  that 
of  the  red  fox. 

FOXE,  John,  the  martyrologist,  was  bom  of 
respectable  parents  in  1517,  at  Boston,  Lincolnshire. 
In  1533,  he  entered  as  a  student  at  Brasenose 
College,  Oxford  ;  in  1538,  he  took  his  Bachelor's, 
and  in  1543,  his  Master's  degree,  and  was  elected 
a  fellov/  of  Magdalen  College.  He  displayed  at  an 
early  2">eriod  an  inclination  for  Latin  poetry,  and 
wrote  several  plays  in  that  language  upon  scriptural 
subjects.  Of  these,  the  only  one  that  remains, 
entitled  De  Christo  Triumphante,  was  printed  at 
London  in  1551,  and  at  Basel  in  1556,  8vo,  and 
1672.  The  religious  movements  of  the  times  led 
him  to  study  the  great  controversy  between  Popery 
and  Protestantism,  and  becoming  a  convert  to  the 
principles  of  the  Reformation,  he  was,  July  22,  1545, 
expelled  from  his  college  for  heresy.  His  father 
being  dead,  and  his  mother  married  again,  his  step- 
father refused  him  any  further  aid,  and  he  was,  in 
consequence,  reduced  to  great  distress.  For  a  short 
time,  he  was  employed  as  tutor  to  the  children  of 
Sir  Thomas  Lucy  of  Chailccote,  Warwdckshire,  and 
afterwards  was  engaged  by  the  Duchess  of  Rich- 
mond as  tutor  to  the  childi'cn  of  her  brother,  the 
Earl  of  Surrey,  then  a  state  prisoner  in  the  Tower. 
In  this  capacity  he  remained  during  the  whole  reign 
of  Edw^ard  VI.,  but  was  never,  notwithstanding 
Anthony  4  Wood's  assertion  to  the  contrary,  restored 
to  his  fellowship  at  Magdalen.  On  June  23,  1550, 
he  was  ordained  deacon  by  Ridley,  Bishop  of  London, 
and  preached  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation  at 
Reigate.  During  the  reign  of  Mary,  he  retired  to 
the  continent.  On  the  accession  of  Queen  Elizabeth, 
he  returned  to  England  in  October  1559 ;  and  in 
May  1563,  he  was  inducted  into  the  canonry  and 
prebend  of  Shipton,  in  the  cathedral  of  Salisbury. 
He  also  enjoyed  the  living  of  Cripplegate,  which  he 
soon  resigned,  and  for  a  year  he  held  a  stall  at 
Durham.  In  1575,  when  some  Dutch  Anabaptists 
were  condemned  to  the  flames  in  London,  F.  inter- 
ceded for  them  with  Queen  Elizabeth  and  othei 
persons  in  authority,  but  wdthout  eflfect.  He  wrote 
numerous  controversial  and  other  works,  but  the 
one  that  has  immortalised  his  name  is  his  Histcj-y 
of  the  Acts  and  Monuments  of  the  Church,  popularly 
known  as  Foxe's  Book  of  Martyrs,  the  first  part  of 
which  was  published  at  Strasbxirg  in  1554.  The 


FOXES— FOX-HUNTING. 


first  English  edition  appeared  in  1563,  in  one  vol. 
Ifolio.  Sanctioned  by  the  bishops,  it  was  ordered, 
by  a  canon  of  the  Anglican  Convocation,  to  be 
placed  in  the  hall  of  every  episcopal  palace  in 
England,  and  has  gone  through  inniimerable  editions. 
It  IS  not  a  very  critical  work,  as  might  naturally 
be  supposed,  and  Roman  Catholics  deny  its  trust- 
worthiness. F.  died  in  1587,  in  his  70th  year,  and 
was  buried  in  the  chancel  of  St  Giles's,  Cripplegate, 
lK)ndon. 

FOXES  AND  FOX-HUNTING.  The  law  with 
reference  to  fox-hunting,  which  is  a  matter  of  a 
giod  deal  of  importance  in  many  parts  of  the 
Cvuntry,  seems  to  stand  thus  in  England  :  '  Though 
ill  general  all  persons  who  go  upon  another's  lands 
without  permission  are  tresj)assers  in  the  eye  of  the 
law,  yet  there  are  some  cases  where  the  trespass  is 
said  to  be  justifiable,'  says  Mr  Paterson,  the  most 
recent  wi-iter  on  the  subject,  and  he  quotes  Black- 
stone's  dictum  to  the  effect  that  '  the  common  law 
warrants  the  hunting  of  ravenous  beasts  of  i)rey,  as 
badgers  and  foxes,  in  another  man's  land,  because 
the  destroying  such  creatures  is  said  to  be  profitable 
to  the  public'  (3  Black.  Com.  212).  Care  must  be 
taken,  however,  that  no  damage  be  done  Ijeyond 
what  is  necessary  for  the  public  good,  for  that  is  the 
ground  on  which  alone  the  legal  character  of  fox- 
hunting can  be  maintained.  It  was  found,  more- 
over, in  the  Earl  of  Essex  v.  Capel  '1  Chitt.  Game 
L.  114),  that  though  pursuing  a  fox  on  another's 
land  be  justifiable,  yet,  if  it  take  to  earth,  or  to  a 
bouse  there,  it  is  not  justifiable  to  dig  or  break  doors 
for  it.  In  Scotland,  where,  from  the  character  of 
the  country,  fox-hunting  is  often  impossible,  it 
never  has  become  a  national  sport  to  the  same 
extent  as  in  England  ;  and  cojisequently,  the  rule 
that  one  is  entitled  to  enter  on  the  lands  of  another 
for  the  pur[)ose  of  killing  a  fox,  has  been  confined  to 
those  cases  in  which  he  is  pursued  simply  as  a 
noxious  beast,  and  fox-hunting  for  sport  ^\itllout 
leave  has  been  held  to  be  punishable  as  a  trespass, 
and  the  trespasser  held  liable  for  Avhatever  surface- 
damage  he  may  occasion.  In  Ireland  (by  1  and  2 
Will.  IV.  c.  32,  s.  35),  persons  pm-suing  with  hounds 
any  fox,  hare,  or  deer  which  has  been  stai-ted 
elsewhere  on  another's  land,  are  exempted  from 
summary  proceedings  for  trespass. 

FOXGLOVE.    See  Digitalis. 

FOXHOUND,  a  kind  of  dog  much  used  in 
Britain  for  the  sport  of  fox-hunting.  It  is  not  quite 
Bo  large  as  the  staghound,  and  is  perhaps  a  mixed 
breed  between  the  staghound  or  the  bloodhound 
and  the  greyhound.  The  colour  is  commonly  white, 
with  large  patches  of  black  and  tan  colour.  Their 
speed  and  persevei'ance  are  remarkable ;  they  have 
been  known  '  to  run  hard  for  ten  hours  before  they 
came  up  with  and  killed  the  fox,  and  the  sportsmen 
were  either  thro\vu.  out,  or  changed  horses  three 
times.' 

FOX  HUNTING,  from  its  exciting  nature,  as 
well  as  from  the  qualities  of  daring  courage  and 
cool  calculation  requisite  in  those  who  thoroughly 
follow  and  appreciate  it,  has  long  been  termed  the 
king  of  British  national  sports. 

In  Great  Britain,  there  are  upwards  of  100 
hunting  establishments,  of  which  by  far  the 
greater  proportion  belong  to  the  coimties  south  oi 
the  Tweed.  Fox-himting  establishments — which 
are  in  most  instances  supported  by  subscription, 
though  sometimes  owned  by  private  gentlemen  of 
wealth  and  influence — are  organised  and  maintained 
at  a  very  considerable  annual  cost,  the  price  of  a 
single  pack  of  foxhounds  sometimes  amounting 
to  several  thousand  g^iineas.  Every  establishment 
463 


is  under  the  direct  superintendence  and  control  of 
one  experienced  ^rentleman,  the  master,  and  under 
him  again  rank  the  huntsman,  whijjpers-in,  earth- 
stopper,  kennel-servants,  &c.  A  '  pack '  is  composed 
of  from  20  to  60  couples  of  hounds,  the  number 
greatly  depending  upon  the  frequency  of  hunting- 
days  :  thus,  some  packs  hunt  six  days,  some  five 
days,  others  four,  and  many  only  two  days  a 
week ;  30  cou])le  of  hounds  is  a  good  averag«i ; 
these  are  carefully  reared,  fed,  and  Dfcherwise 
attended  to.  The  master  himself,  as  a  matter 
of  course,  has  the  general  superintendence  of  tLa 
servants,  hounds,  and  horses  ;  and  in  the  huutiuf;- 
field  is  general  director  of  the  proceedings.  N(!xt 
to  him  come  the  huntsman  and  one  or  tvva 
*  whippers-in '  ('whips').  The  huntsman,  who  ia 
practically  the  most  important  personage  in  the 
field,  reqiiircs  to  see  that  his  hounds  are  pro- 
perly managed  and  fed  m  their  kennels ;  duly 
led  to  the  j)lace  of  meeting  on  hunting-days ; 
and,  what  is  of  more  consequence  still,  that  they 
receive  fair-i)lay  in  the  field,  and  find  and  hunt 
their  foxes  in  true  style.  The  huntsman  requires 
to  be  a  man  of  great  nerve  and  much  activity : 
he  shoidd  also  have  a  good  head,  a  clear  ringing 
voice,  a  keen  eye,  and  above  all  he  must  be  a  first- 
rate  horseman,  and  know  thoroughly  every  point 
in  the  country  over  which  he  hunts.  He  has  often 
to  resti-ain  heedless  riders,  and  'keep  the  field 
back  ;'  a  duty  requiring  firmness  of  character,  with 
a  quiet  and  civil  manner.  With  these  necessary 
qualifications,  and  having  so  many  rcs])onsible 
duties  on  his  shoulders,  he  is  treated  with  great 
resi)ect  by  those  for  whom  he  provides  sport :  he 
is  mounted  on  the  best  horses  his  master 
can  produce,  and  may  be  said  to  conduct  and 
direct  the  hunt  from  the  moment  the  fox  is 
found  till  the  moment  of  its  death — from  '  find 
to  finish.' 

The  duties  of  the  first  whipper-in,  though  not  so 
responsil)le  as  those  of  the  hiintsman,  are  still  con- 
siderable :  for  instance,  he  takes  a  certain  manage- 
ment of  the  hounds  in  kennel,  assists  in  conducting 
the  hounds  to  the  '  meet,'  and  aids  the  himtsman 
in  various  ways  during  the  nin.  His  knowledge 
of  the  management  of  hounds,  and  of  fox-hunting 
generally,  must  at  the  same  time  be  sufch  as  to 
enable  him  to  occupy  the  huntsman's  place  in  an 
emergency.  The  '  second  whip's '  principal  duty  is 
that  of  bringing  up  and  urging  on  lagging  hounds 
in  the  field,  by  lashing  and  '  rating.'  In  many 
hunts,  however,  a  second  whipper-in  is  dispensed 
with. 

A  considerable  range  of  country  is  necessary  for 
the  full  enjoyment  of  fox-hunting,  vhe  best  being 
that  which  is  diversified  by  pasturage  and  planta- 
tion. Being  a  noctumal  feeder,  the  fox  quits  his 
burrow  or  '  earth ' — wliich  is  generally  in  a  gorse 
brake,  or  a  plantation  or  covert  of  imderwood — ■ 
during  the  night,  and  returns  to  it  in  the  nioming, 
and  this  fact  is  taken  advantage  of  by  those  who 
hunt  him  for  sport.  The  day  and  pleice  of  'the  meet' 
are  duly  advertised,  and  on  the  night  before  the 
hunt,  the  coverts  to  be  'drawn  '  next  day  are  %'isite^ 
either  by  a  duly  appointed  earth-stopper  or  by  tht 
gamekeeper,  who,  knowing  that  the  foxes  are  from 
home,  proceeds,  spade  in  hand,  from  one  hole  to 
another,  filling  them  up  with  earth  and  brush- 
wood as  he  goes.  Thus,  the  fox,  upon  returning 
at  dawn  to  his  '  earth,'  finds  ingress  denied,  and  so 
betakes  himself  to  some  neighbouring  thicket,  or  to 
some  unenclosed  cover  of  gorse,  rushes,  &c.,  where 
he  makes  a  temporary  lair  or  'kennel.'  When 
the  earths  have  been  carefully  closed,  the  earth- 
stopper  returns  home  and  mforms  the  huntsman, 
or  first  '  whip,'  as  to  their  number  and  locality, 


FOX-HUNTING. 


and  tliat  information  forms  a  gnide  for  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  following  day.  (After  the  hunt 
is  over,  the  earths  are  reopened,  and  as  little  trace 
as  possible  Mt  of  the  work.)  The  hour  of  'the 
meet '  is  usually  ten  or  eleven  o'clock  A.  M.,  and 
at  the  appointed  place  assemljle  the  whole  field, 
including  master,  huntsman,  whippers-in,  hounds, 
and  those  gentlemen  (and  frequently  ladies)  who 
intend  either  to  participate  in  the  day's  sport, 
or  merely  to  see  the  'hounds  throw  off.'  When 
a  covert  is  reached,  the  huntsman,  by  a  wave  of 
his  hand,  or  a  few  familiar  words,  such  as  '  Eu 
in !  eu  in  there  !  good  dogs  ! '  '  throws  in '  his 
hoimds,  following  immediately  after  with  the  first 
•whip.'  The  mounted  gentlemen  usually  remain 
outside,  and  take  their  directions  as  to  stance,  &c., 
from  the  master^  who  from  this  time  forward 
does  his  best  to  control  and  direct  their  move- 
ments. In  fact,  the  master  may  be  said  to  have 
the  control  of  the  'field' — that  is,  the  ridei's — 
and  the  huntsman  that  of  the  hounds  and  hunt. 
The  second  whip  being  posted  at  the  covert 
side,  near  where  it  is  expected  a  fox  may  burst 
through  or  '  break,'  one  or  two  of  the  more  eager 
riders  are  sometimes  permitted  to  jump  their 
horses  into  the  covert,  if  it  be  large,  to  assist  in 
the  finding  of  the  fox.  Those  who  remain  outside 
then  prepare  themselves  for  their  work,  and  eagerly 
listen  for  the  first  token  of  the  presence  of  rey- 
nard ;  this  is  betrayed  by  a  slight  but  anxious 
whimper  or  whine  from  the  '  challenging '  hound — 
that  is,  the  hound  (usually  an  old  and  experienced 
one)  that  first  perceives  or  '  hits '  the  scent  of  a  fox 
—and  is  soon  followed  by  others,  who  instantly 
rush  to  his  side.  The  huntsman,  if  he  be  tolerably 
certain  that  the  game  scented  is  no  other  than 
a  fox,  at  judicious  intervals  urges  on  his  hounds 
by  familiar  expressions,  such  as  '  Yoicks,  yoicks, 
have  at  him  ! '  '  Push  him  up ! '  &c.,  till  the 
fox  is  fairly  roused  from  his  kennel,  and  goes 
away.  It  not  unfrequently  happens  while  drawing 
coverts,  that  hounds  M'ill  come  suddenly  upon  a 
fox,  and  seize  him  before  he  has  time  to  escape. 
This  is  termed  '  chopping,'  and  is  always  to  be 
prevented  if  possible.  If  the  covert  be  very  thick, 
a  fox  may  leave  his  kennel  unperceived  ;  and  when 
he  does  so,  he  usually  runs  through  or  round 
the  covert  for  a  considerable  distance  before 
quitting  it  for  the  open  fields.  He  may  also  '  rim 
his  foil,'  by  doubling  back  and  forward  on  the 
Bame  path  or  track,  and  thus  possibly  baffle  the 
hounds,  even  when  they  '  own  his  scent.'  In  large 
coverts,  too,  a  fox  frequently  'hangs;'  that  is,  he 
remains  in  it  for  a  long  time  before  going  away. 
The  person  irho  first  sees  the  fox  '  break  cover,'  or, 
in  other  words,  'views  him  away,'  shoidd  always 
allow  him  a  certain  'law'  before  giving  the  'view 
halloo,'  as  a  fox  will  frequently  turn  or  '  head 
back '  into  covert  if  he  hears  any  unusual  noise  at 
the  instant  of  his  quitting  it.  When,  however,  the 
person  or  persons  w^ho  are  watching  see  that  the 
fox  is  really  off,  notice  is  instantly  given  to  those 
within  the  thicket,  and  those  without,  by  the  cry 
of  '  Ron — y !  hou — y !  Tallyho  !  Gone  away  !  Gone 
AW'  -AY ! ! '  upon  which  the  huntsman  blows  his 
horn  to  collect  his  hounds ;  the  whipper-in  drives 
out  lagging  members  of  the  pack,  either  with  his 
whip  or  by  some  cry ;  the  master  restrains  the 
more  impatient  of  the  riders  till  the  huntsman 
and  hounds  have  'settled  to'  their  fox;  and  then 
he  and  the  entire  field  join  in  the  chase,  and  the 
first,  and  frequently  the  most  exciting,  part  of  the 
day's  proceedings  has  commenced — the  fox  has 
'broke  cover,'  the  hoimds  have  been  'laid  on,'  and 
the  field  has  entered  on  its  impetuous  '  first  burst.' 
A  certain  etiqucHe  is,  however,  absolutely  necessary 


in  allowing  the  hounds  and  liuntsman  to  get  away 
first;  but  after  that,  each  rider,  with  a  certain 


Fox-hunting — *  Gone  away  ! ' 


deference  to  the  master,  chooses  his  own  place 
in  the  hunt,  and  does  his  best,  independently 
of  his  neighbours,  to  keep  at  a  certain  distance, 
not  directly  in  the  line,  but  to  one  side  and  in 
the  rear  of  the  hounds.  When  a  rider  happens 
to  be  near  the  pack  at  the  first  burst,  and  gets 
a  good  position  in  following  them,  he  is  said 
to  'get  well  aM^ay  wnth  the  hounds;'  and  if  well 
mounted  and  a  skilful  rider,  his  chances  of  both 
viewing  the  hunt  and  being  '  in  at  the  death '  are 
very  considerable.  And  now,  as  w^e  have  already 
said,  begins  the  grand  excitement  of  the  day ;  the 
fox  being  fresh,  races  away  at  tremendous  speed, 
followed  by  perhaps  upwards  of  twenty  couple 
of  hounds  at  full  cry.  If  the  day  is  proi:)itiou3 
(a  'southerly  wind  and  i^loudy  sky'  having  long 
retained  favour),  the  scent  of  the  retreating  fox 
lies  well,  especially  at  first,  when  it  is  called 
'  burning '  or  '  breast  high,'  and  is  for  many  minutes 
'  ovviied '  by  at  least  all  the  leading  hounds  in  the 
pack,  though,  perhaps,  the  object  of  pursuit  itself 
is  far  ahead,  and  out  of  sight;  and- away  streams 
the  hunt  OA^er  hedges,  ditches,  and  gates,  across 
rivers,  railways,  arable  land,  and  grass  pastures, 
perhaps  for  several  miles  before  a  single  check 
occurs.  Now,  the  foxhound  hunts  almost  entirely 
by  scent,  and  does  not,  like  the  greyhound,  depend 
upon  the  eye.  The  fact  of  scent  failing,  there- 
fore, at  any  time  during  the  hunt,  throws  out  the 
hounds,  and  prevents  them  from  rene-^ang  it,  untU 
the  scent  is  recovered,  or  'hit  off.'  When  the 
scent  is  'burning,'  hounds  run  almost  mnte,  though 
at  first,  and  at  intervals  afterwards,  they  usually 
'  throw  their  tongues '  pretty  freely.  When  aU  the 
hounds  are  giving  tongue,  they  are  said  to  be  at 
'  full  cry,'  and  '  carry  a  good  head,'  the  scent  behig 
on  such  occasions  so  thoroughly  diffused  as  to  be  felt 
or  '  owned '  breast  high  by  probably  every  membei  of 
the  pack.  Sometimes  scent  becomes  so  faint  as  to  l>e 
harcUy  perceptible,  and  when  this  is  the  case,  the 
energy  of  the  hounds  abates  considerably ;  they  then 
run  with  their  heads  close  to  the  ground,  and  are  said 
to  hunt  a  '  cold '  scent.  Here,  however,  a  little  timely 
assistance  from  the  huntsman  is  of  the  greatest 
moment  in  restoring  animation  to  the  pack.  He 
waves  his  cap,  blows  his  horn,  and  encourages  hiiS 
hounds  by  well-known  expressions,  to  renewed 
exertions.  When,  as  fiequently  happens  from 
various  causes,  the  scent  fails  entirely — such  as  the  fox 


FOX-HUNTING. 


crossing  water,  running*  through  a  drove  of  sheep, 
'  heading  back '  in  anotner  direction,  running  along 
or  lying  upon  the  tops  of  walls  or  thick  hedges, 
&c. — the  hounds  cease  'giving  tongue,'  suddenly 
stop,  throw  up  their  heads,  and  are  'at  fault.' 
In  this  emergency,  the  '  field '  remains  at  a  respectful 
distance  behind,  and  the  huntsman  knowing,  or 
at  least  guessing  by  exx)erience  which  way  the  fox 
has  taken,  or  the  special  means  he  has  adopted 
for  foiling  the  scent,  allows  his  hounds  at  first,  for  a 
few  moments,  themselves  to  attem])t  to  regain  it; 
but  failing  that,  and  finding  that  his  interference 
and  assistance  are  necessary,  he  instantly  blows  his 
hora,  and  calls  or  'lifts  his  hounds'  from  the  place, 
and  'takes  a  cast'  round  and  round  about  the  spot 
where  the  scent  failed,  cheering  them  on  the  while. 
Thus,  by  gradually  widening  his  casts,  the  scent  is 
very  frequently  recovered  or  'hit  off,'  a  circum- 
stance which  is  soon  made  apparent  by  the  whimper 
of  recognition  given  by  the  hound  that  first  '  owns 
it,'  followed  by  the  answering  tongues  of  the  whole 
pack.  When  the  hounds,  however,  fail  to  'hit  off' 
the  scent,  if  the  day  be  far  advanced,  they  are 
taken  home,  or  they  are  trotted  on  to  some  neigh- 
bouring covert,  which  is  drawn  for  a  fresh  fox. 

When  the  fox  is  killed,  either  in  '  the  open '  or 
elsewhere,  the  rider  who  is  first  in  at  '  the  death ' — 
swually  the  huntsman — springs  off  his  horse,  with  a 


'  Whoo !  whoop  ! '  lashes  the  hounds  off,  and  cuts  o9 
the  head,  feet  {jyads),  and  tail  (the  brush).  He  the;n 
flings  the  carcas3  to  the  hounds,  who  tear  it  to 
pieces,  and  devour  it  in  a  very  few  minutes.  The 
brush  is  usually  presented  to  any  lady  who  may 
hapi>en  to  be  in  at  the  death,  or  is  claimed  as  a 
trophy  by  one  or  other  of  the  gentlemen  present. 
The  ]yads  likewise  are  distributed  amongst  those 
who  may  wish  to  preserve  mementos  of  the 
chase.  As  a  general  rule,  the  huntsman,  and 
several  of  the  best  mounted  in  the  field,  manage 
to  be  in,  either  at  or  immediately  after  tlie  death, 
though  instances  are  not  wanting  when,  during 
unusually  protracted  runs,  the  hounds  have  left 
every  rider  far  behind,  and  have  followed  and 
killed  their  fox  miles  away  from  the  spot  where  the 
last  horseman  had  given  in.  A  strong  fox  will 
'live'  before  hounds  on  an  average  for  an  hour  or 
an  hour  and  a  half ;  Imt  cases  have  been  known 
when  this  has  been  far  exceeded,  and  when  the 
run  has  extended  to  thirty  or  even  forty  miles, 
and  has  lasted  all  day,  and  even  into  the  night. 
Young  foxhounds  begin  their  career  by  what  ia 
termed  cub-huntincf ;  but  this,  however  necesasry 
it  may  be  for  teaching  them,  is  considered  infeiior 
sport  to  regular  hunting. 

The  midland  counties  of  England,  such  as  Leicester, 
Northampton,  Warwick,  Yorkshire,  &c.,  are  the  befifc 


Blooa  Hunter  clearing  a  stone  wall  in  good  style  (from  Blaine's  Encyclopcedia  of  Rural  Sports). 


for  hunting  purposes  in  Great  Britain ;  and  owe 
thei  r  superiority  in  a  great  measure  to  two  causes  : 
\st,  the  strict  preservation  and  consequent  niunber 
of  foxes ;  and  2d,  the  extensive  tracts  of  pasturage 
being  favourable  both  for  running  and  scent. 
The  instinct  of  the  fox  leads  him,  as  a  general 
ride,  to  run  down  wind,  that  his  scent  may  not  be 
blown  to  the  hounds ;  he  also  takes  advantage  of 
every  peculiarity  in  a  country  likely  to  offer  him 
an  advantage  over  his  foes. 

The  fox-hunter  must  be  possessed  of  consider- 
able courage,  united  with  coolness,  and  must  be 
a  judge  of  pace  and  have  a  good  eye  in  'riding  to 
hounds.'  to  avoid  tiring  or  '  overmarking '  his  horse 
unnecessari'.y.  Much  of  the  excitement  and  pleasiire 
of  the  fox-hunter  consists  in  his  successfully  leaping 
404 


the  various  hedges,  ditches,  fences,  &c.,  encountered; 
but  at  the  same  time,  a  really  skilful  and  humane 
rider,  however  well  mounted,  will  never  knowingly 
urge  his  horse  at  a  fence  or  leap  of  any  kind,  unless 
he  is  positively  certain  it  is  within  his  horse's  power ; 
and  if  he  finds  his  horse  betrays  symptoms  of 
distress,  he  will  rather  turn  its  head  homewards, 
and  forego  the  chase,  than  overtax  its  courage  and 
strength. 

Much  usefxd  and  entertaining  information  on  fox- 
hunting occurs  in  Blaine's  Encydopo'dia  of  Rural 
Sports  (London,  Longmans) ;  British  JRvral  Sports, 
by  Stonehenge ;  Beckford's  Thoughts  on  Hunting; 
lieminiscences  of  a  Huntsman;  Nimrod ;  The  Field 
newspaper ;  &c. 

Fox-hunting  is  not  practised  after  the  English 


FOX  ISLANDS -FOYLE. 


fashion  in  the  northern  states  of  America,  but  in  the 
southern  states  from  Maryland  to  Florida,  it  is  a 
favourite  amusement.  The  object  of  jnirsuit,  how- 
ever, is  the  Gray  Fox  (  Vulpes  VirgirJ.anua)^  and  the 
chase  is  not  so  severe,  and  seldom  lasts  so  long  as 
that  of  the  common  fox. 

FOX  ISLANDS,  another  name  for  the  Aleu- 
tian Islands  (q.  v.). 

FOX  RIVER  is  the  name  of  two  considerable 
strtams  in  the  United  States  of  America,  both  of 
them  rising  in  Wisconsin. — 1.  The  F.  E.,  or  Pishtaka, 
is  an  affluent  of  the  Illinois,  which  is  itself  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Mississippi.  It  is  200  miles  long,  and  is 
valuable  chiefly  for  its  water-power. — 2.  '^le  F.  R, 
or  Neenah,  after  a  course  of  about  the  same  length, 
falls  into  Green  Bay  in  Lake  Michigan.  It  is 
divided  into  two  sections  by  Lake  Winnebago,  the 
upper  one  being  connected  by  a  canal  with  the 
Wisconsin,  so  as  to  link  together  the  Mississippi  and 
the  Great  Lakes  of  the  St  Lawrence. 

FOX  SHARK,  or  THRESHER  [Alopias  or 
Alopecias),  a  genus  of  sharks,  containing  only  one 
known  species  [A.  vulpes),  an  inhabitant  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  of  the  Atlantic,  and  occasionally 


Fox  Shark  {Alopias  vulpes). 

Be«n  on  the  British  coasts.  The  snout  is  short  and 
conical ;  the  spout-holes  are  very  small ;  the  mouth 
in  not  so  large  as  that  of  the  white  shark,  nor  the 
teeth  so  formidable ;  but  the  F.  S.  is  extremely 
bold  and  voracious,  readily  attacking  grampuses  or 
dolphins  much  larger  than  itself.  Its  most  remark- 
able pecidiarity  is  the  great  elongation  of  the  upper 
lobe  of  the  tail-fin,  which  is  nearly  equal  in  length 
to  the  whole  body,  and  into  which  the  vertebral 
column  extends.  Of  this  it  makes  use  as  a  weapon, 
striking  with  great  force.  It  is  said  to  be  not 
uncommon  for  a  whole 
herd  of  dolphins  to  take 
flight  at  the  flrst  splash 
of  the  tail  of  a  fox 
shark.  From  the  use 
which  it  makes  of  its 
tail,  it  has  acquired  the 
name  of  Thresher.  It 
attains  a  length,  tail 
included,  of  13  feet. 
The  body  is  spindle- 
shaped. 

FOXTAIL  GRASS 
[Alopecarus),  a  genus  of 
Grasses,  distinguished 
by  a  spiked  panicle,  two 
glumes  nearly  equal,  and 
generally  united  at  the 
base,  enclosing  a  single 
floret  which  has  a  single 
palea,  with  an  awn 
rising  from  the  base. 
The  species  are  chiefly 
natives  of  temperate 
countries,  and  about  six 
are  British.  Meadow 
Foxtail  Grass  {A.  pratensis),  which  has  an  erect 
nnooth  co'm  about  1^ — 2  feet  high,  and  a  cylindrical 


Foxtail  Grass  [Alopccurus 
pratensis) : 
a,  ijlames ;  b,  floret. 


obtuse  panicle  abundantly  covered  with  silvery  hairs, 
is  one  of  the  best  pasture  grasses  of  Britain,  but  is 
not  valued  by  New  England  fanners,  on  account  of 
its  lightness  in  proportion  to  its  bulk.  In  Britain 
it  is  reckoned  a  good  grass  for  lawns.  It  bearu 
drought  well.  The  Jointed  Foxtail  Grass  [A.  geni- 
culatus),  with  an  ascending  culm  bent  at  the  joints, 
is  very  common  in  moist  places,  and  cattle  are  fond 
of  it,  but  it  is  a  small  grass.  The  Slender  Foxtail 
Grass  [A.  agrestic)  is  an  annual  or  biennial,  of  little 
value  except  for  light  sandy  soils,  on  which  it  is 
sometimes  sown.  A  foreign  species  {A.  nigricans),  a 
native  of  the  continent  of  Europe  and  of  Siljeria, 
has  been  introduced  into  Britain,  and  appears  likely 
to  prove  valuable.  It  has  somewhat  creeping  roots, 
is  a  little  larger  and  stronger  than  A.  pratensis, 
and  is  rather  earlier. 

FOY,  Maximilien  Sebastien,  a  distinguished 
French  general  and  orator,  was  born  at  Ham,  3d 
February  1775.  In  1791,  he  was  one  of  the  volun- 
teers who  hastened  to  defend  the  frontiers  of  their 
country  against  foreign  invasion,  and  during  the 
next  nine  years  served  with  distinction  under 
Dumouriez,  Moreau,  and  Massena.  In  1800,  he 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  adjutant-general  in  the 
division  of  Moncey,  in  the  army  of  the  Rhine, 
which  marched  through  Switzerland  into  Italy, 
where  he  commanded  the  vanguard  of  the  army 
in  1801.  In  1805,  he  commanded  the  artillery  of 
the  second  division  in  the  Austrian  campaign.  In 
1807,  Napoleon  sent  him  to  Turkey  at  the  head  of 
1200  artillerymen,  to  assist  Sultan  Selim  against 
the  Russians  and  British.  After  the  revolution  in 
which  Selim  was  dethroned,  F.,  under  the  direction 
of  the  French  ambassador,  General  Sebastiani, 
defended  Constantinople  and  the  Strait  of  the 
Dardanelles  so  effectively,  that  Duckworth,  the 
British  admiral,  was  obliged  to  retire  with  loss. 
From  1808  to  1812,  F.  was  general  of  division  of 
the  army  in  Portugal.  His  talents  were  exhibited 
to  advantage  in  conducting  the  retreat  of  the 
French  army  across  the  Douro.  F.  was  present 
at  all  the  battles  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  at  Orthez, 
in  1814,  was  dangerously  wounded.  In  the  cam- 
paign of  1815,  he  commanded  a  division  on  the 
fleld  of  Waterloo,  where  he  was  wounded  for  the 
fifteenth  time.  In  1819,  he  was  elected  deputy  by 
the  department  of  Aisne.  In  the  chamber,  he  was 
the  constant  advocate  of  constitutional  liberty,  and 
shewed  great  rhetorical  talent  and  knowledge  of 
p-^litical  economy.  He  distinguished  himself  par- 
ticidarly  by  his  eloquence  in  opposing  the  war 
against  Spain  in  1823.  F.  died  at  Paris,  November 
28,  1825.  Madame  Foy  pubHshed,  in  1827,  from 
her  husband's  papers,  a  Histoire  de  la  Guerre  d« 
la  Peninsule.  In  the  previous  year  appeared  his 
Discours,  with  a  biography. 

FOY'ERS,  a  stream  rising  in  the  Monadleadh 
Mountains,  in  the  middle  of  Inverness-shire.  It 
runs  12  miles  north,  and  falls  into  the  east  side  of 
Loch  Ness,  nearly  opposite  Mealfourvounie  Moun- 
tain. It  has  two  celebrated  falls  within  a  mile 
and  a  half  of  its  mouth,  where  the  stream  rushes 
through  a  deep,  narrow  ravine  in  the  hills,  skirt- 
ing the  east  side  of  the  loch.  The  upper  fall  is  30 
feet  high.  The  sti'eam  then  descends  30  feet  m  a 
quarter  of  a  mile.  The  lower  fall  (specially  called 
The  Fall  of  Foyers)  is  90  feet  higli.  It  is  the  finest 
cascade  in  Britain. 

FOYLE,  Lough,  an  inlet  of  the  Atlantic,  on  the 
north  coast  of  Ireland,  between  the  counties  of  Derry 
and  Donegal.  It  is  triangular  in  form,  10  miles 
long  from  north-east  to  south-west,  1  mile  wide  at 
its  entrance,  and  9  miles  broad  along  its  south  side. 
A  great  part  is  &ry  at  low  neater,  and  its  w»'st  side 

4A6 


FRA  BARTOLOMEO— FRACTIONS. 


nloue  is  navigable.  Vessels  of  600  tons  ascend  the 
Mest  side  of  the  lough,  and  its  chief  tributary  the 
Foyle  (which  conies  16  miles  from  the  south),  to 
Londonderry.  On  the  east  shore  is  a  flat  strand  with 
a  sandy  beach,  on  which,  in  1827,  was  measured  a 
line  of  41,640,  which  was  afterwards  extended  by 
triangulation  to  about  53,200  feet,  and  formed  the 
base  line  of  the  Ordnance  Survey  of  Ireland. 

FRA  BARTOLOMEO.  See  Baccio  della 
Porta. 

FRACASTORO,  Girolamo,  an  Italian  savant 
and  philosopher,  faruous  for  the  universality  of  his 
learning,  was  born  of  an  ancient  family  at  Verona 
in  1483.  At  the  age  of  19,  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  logic  in  the  university  of  Padua.  But 
his  vast  knowledge  embraced  the  most  divergent 
sciences,  and  on  account  of  his  eminence  in  the 
practice  of  medicine,  he  was  elected  physician  of  the 
Council  of  Trent.  His  Latin  verse  also  exhibits 
remarkable  elegance.  He  died  in  1553.  A  bronze 
statue  was  erected  in  his  honour  by  the  citizens  of 
Padua,  while  his  native  city  commemorated  their 
great  compatriot  by  a  marble  statue.  His  writings 
in  prose  and  verse  are  numerous,  llie  chief  are — 
Syphilidis,  sive  Morbi  Oallld  (Verona,  1530,  in  4to ; 
Paris,  1531  and  1539,  in  8vo  ;  London,  1720,  in  4to, 
and  1746,  in  8vo ;  Italian  edition,  Verona,  1739, 
in  4to,  by  Tiraboschi  ;  Naples,  1731,  by  Pietro 
Belli) ;  De  Vini  Temperatara  (Venice,  1534,  in 
4to) ;  Homocentriconim  sive  de  Stellis,  De  Causis 
Criticorum  Dierum  Libellus  (Venice,  1535,  in  4to)  ; 
De  SympatMa  et  Antipathia  lierum,  De  Contagi- 
onibtis  et  Contagiosis  Morbis,  et  eorum  Curatione 
(Venice,  1546,  in  4to ;  Lyon,  1550,  1554,  in  8vo). 
The  collective  works  of  F.  appeared  for  the 
first  time,  Venice,  1555,  in  4to. 

FRA'CTED,  heraldically,  signifies  broken  asunder. 

FRACTION.  In  Arithmetic,  a  fraction  is  any 
part  or  parts  of  a  unit  or  whole,  and  it  consists  of 
two  members,  a  denominator  and  a  numerator, 
whereof  the  former  shews  into  how  many  parts  the 
unit  is  divided,  and  the  latter  shews  how  many  of 
them  are  taken  in  a  given  case.  Thus  f  denotes 
that  the  imit  is  divided  into  four  parts,  and  that 

three  of  them  are  taken;  and  more  generally  ^ 

denotes  that  the  unit  is  divided  into  b  parts,  and 
that  (i  of  them  are  taken.  A  fraction  is  called 
proper  when  the  numerator  is  less  than  the  deno- 
minator, and  improper  when  the  numerator  is  greater 
than  the  denominator.     In  Algebra,  any  quantity 

^  is  called  a  fraction,  although  a  and  h  are  not 

necessarily  representatives  of  whole  numbers,  as 
they  would  require  to  be  if  the  fraction  be  an  arith- 
metical fraction.     The  algebraical  fraction  ^  just 

means  that  any  quantity  affected  by  it  is  to  be 
multipAied  by  a,  and  divided  by  b.  This  definition, 
however,  through  the  greater  generality  of  algebra, 
includes  that  of  an  arithmetical  fraction.  The  rules 
for  the  addition  and  multiplication  of  fractions  are 
the  same  in  algebra  and  arithmetic.  To  add  two  or 
more  fractions  together,  we  must  bring  them  to  a 
common  denominator,  and  add  the  numerators  for  a 
new  numerator,  and  take  the  common  denominator 

for  the  new  denominator.    Thus  if  be  two 

b  d 

...         . ,       a      c     ad     cb     ad  +  be 
fractions,   then  -j  +  :7  =  T-i-hn  =  — — ,  the 
b      d     bd     bd         bd  ' 

fractions  being  brought  to  a  common  denominator 
by  (as  a  general  rule)  multipl3dng  each  numerator 
by  every  denominator,  except  its  own,  and  multiply- 


ing all  the  denominators  for  the  common  denomi- 
nator. To  subtract  two  fractions,  we  bring  them  to 
a  common  denominator,  and  subtract  their  numera- 

  be 

b 


tors  for  the  new  numerator.  Thus  ^  —  ^  =  — 


d  bd 

To  multiply  two  fractions  together,  the  rule  is,  to 
multiply  the  numerators  together  for  a  new  numer- 
ator, and  the  denominators  together  for  the  new 

denominator.    Thus  t  x  -i  =  t-i-    The  reasons  for 
0     d  bd 

all  these  rules  are  obvious.  The  rule  of  division 
is  to  invert  the  divisor,  and  proceed  as  in  multi- 
l)lication.  This  follows  from  the  consideration, 
that  to  ^ivide  is  the  inverse  of  to  multiply,  and 

that  to  divide  by  ^  must  be  the  same  thing  as  to 


multiply  by  -. 
FRACTIONS,  Continued.  U 


and  —  =  b  +  —,  and  ^  =  c -f- ^,and....^  =s  to -f 

«!  «!  o,  6j' 


—  =  n  +  — ,  &C. 
Then     ^  =  a+^L_. 


....1  

m  +  I 

n-H.... 

A 

This  expression  for  the  value  of  ^  is  called  a  con- 
tinued  fraction.    If  we  consider  the  fractions  (!) 


(2)  a-h  ^or  ^^,(3),a-f  ^ 


b+  I 


1' 

jab  +  l)c  f  g, 
bc+  1 


formed  by  taking  into  account  parts  only  of  the 
denominator  in  the  continued  fraction,  we  obtain  a 

series  of  fractions  converging  to  the  value  of  ^. 

x> 

These  converging  fractions  arc  always  approximat- 
ing to  the  value  of     and  are  alternately  greater  and 
B 

less  than  it.  Throughout  the  series,  the  1st,  3d,  5th, 
7th,  &c.,  are  each  below  the  true  value,  while  the  2d, 
4th,  &c.,  are  above  it ;  or  vice  versa,  according  as 
the  original  fraction  is  improper  or  proper.  It  can 
be  shewn  that  the  successive  converging  fractions 
ap}iroach  nearer  and  nearer  to  the  true  value  of  tlie 
continued  fraction.  Converging  fractions  aie  of 
great  use  in  the  summation  of  infinite  series. 

In  illustration  of  the  alcove  general  statement,  let 

us  take  the  numerical  fraction  which  we  first 

2151'. 

reduce  to  a  continued  fraction  in  the  following 
6935       ^       482       ^         1         .  . 
manner:  =3-1-  — ^  =  3  -H  tTm"  =  3  -» 


3  -h  1 


2151  ■  2151 

--   =    (by   continuing  the  same  procean) 


4  -I-  1  

2  +  1 


6-H  1  

6  + 


commonly  written, 


or, 
1 


1  +  4  +  2  h 


as  it 
1 

6  \- 


is 

1 

5  + 


1 

7 


FEACTTONS— FRACTURE. 


Here  the  first  cof-vergent  is  3;  the  second 
1  1 


3  1 

1  +  4 

=  ^;  the  third  is|^-^2  =  '^^9=9"' 
and  finding  the  other  convergents  in  a  similar 
manner,  we  have  the  following  approximations  to 
the  value  of  the  original  fraction  : 

13    29    187    964  6935 
^'    4'    9'    58'  299'  2151* 
The  differences  between  the  successive  convergents 
And  the  original  fraction  are, 
6935      _       482  /.  .     ,  1  >, 

2l5l  "  ^  =  2151  fir#)' 
13     6935      223  /,  .     ,  1    \  j?.. 

T  -  2m  =  SG04  ^^"^"^  ^^^^      4^9)' ^ 

and  in  general  the  difference  between  any  convergent 
and  the  original  fraction  is  less  than  a  fraction  = 

Henom.  of  convergent  x  denom.  of  conv.  next  greater' 
consequently,  the  differences  grow  less  as  we 
proceed,  owing  to  the  denominators  of  the  conver- 
gents always  increasing.  If,  by  actual  subtraction, 
we  find  successively  the  difference  between  each 
convergent  and  the  original  fraction,  we  shall  also 
find  that  they  are  alternately  greater  and  less,  or 
less  and  greater,  according  as  the  original  fraction 
is  proper  or  improper. 

FRACTIONS,  Vanishing.  In  some  algebraical 
fractions,  the  substitution  of  a  particular  value  for 
the  unknown  quantity  will  make  both  the  numer- 
ator and  denominator  of  the  fraction  vanish  ;  such 
fractions  are  called  vanishing  fractions.  Thus  the 
—  1 

fraction  v  assumes  the  form  %  when  a;  =  1. 

a:  %  1  ' 

The  ascertainment  of  the  value  of  such  a  fraction 

for  the  particular  value  of  the  unknown  quantity 

which  gives  it  the  form  ^,  may  in  all  cases  be 

effected  by  a  general  method  furnished  by  the 

differential  calculus.     But  frequently  that  value 

may  be  determined  by  simpler  means,  as  the  form  ^ 

arises  from  the  existence  of  a  factor  common  to  both 

numerator  and  denominator,  which  becomes  zero  for 

a  particular  value  of  x ;  if,  then,  we  can  discover 

thia  factor,  either  by  finding  the  greatest  common 

measure  or  otherwise,  and  divide  it  out,  then  by 

substitution  we  obtain  the  value  of  the  fraction 

corrBsponding  to  the  particular  value  of  x.   Thus,  in 

the  example  given,  we  find  that  both  terms  are 

x"  —  I 

divisible  by  a;,  —  1,  so  that  ^  =  x  +  I.  There- 
fore, when  X  =  1,  and  the  fraction  becomes  its 
value  must  equal  2.  This  is  an  example  of  the 
ai)plication  of  the  method  of  Limits  to  the  determin- 
I  ti<  n  of  the  value  of  such  a  fraction,  for  it  is  clear 
that  for  every  value  of  x  I,  the  value  of  the 
fraction  is  ^  2,  and  continually  approaches  2  as  x 
approaches  1.  Much  discussion  has  taken  place  as 
to  whether  vanishing  fractions  have,  properly  speak- 
ing, values  or  not ;  but  this  is  not  the  place  for 
noticing  speculations  on  the  subject.  See  Limits, 
Theory  of  ;  and  Nothing,  and  Infinity. 

FRACTURE  of  a  bone  may  be  the  result  of 
accident,  muscular  action,  or  disease.  The  long 
bones  of  the  limbs  are  more  subject  to  the  latter 
two  causes  than  those  of  the  head  or  spine.  Pre- 
disposing causes  to  fracture  are  frosty  weather^  old 
age,  cancerous  disease,  a  morbidly  brittle  condition 
called  fragilUas  ostium. 

Some  bones,  as  the  kneepan  and  heel-bone,  are 
liable  to  give  way  from  sudden  contraction  of  the 
muscles  which  are  inserted  into  them.  The  subject 
of  the  injury  then  falls,  and  attributes  the  accident 


to  the  fall,  whereas  it  is  the  reverse.  A  medicjil 
man,  some  few  j^ears  ago,  awoke  with  a  fit  of 
cramp,  and  almost  immediately  his  Left  thigh-bone 
broke  with  a  snap.  It  reunited  in  the  usual  tiir>e. 
The  sufferer  from  cancer  of  long  standing,  some- 
times feels  a  bone  give  way  under  no  special  strain. 
In  such  cases,  there  is  seldom  any  attempt  at  repair. 
The  bones  of  old  people  arc  brittle  from  the  excess 
of  earthy  materials  (see  Bone),  and  so  readily 
give  way.  The  bones  of  the  feeble  patient,  with 
fragilitas  or  mollities  ossium,  are  soft  and  friable, 
and  when  examined,  are  found  saturated  with  a 
greasy  substance. 

There  are  some  persons  who  seem  liable  to 
fracture  without  any  such  reason.  Professor  Gibson 
of  America  mentions  a  boy  who,  though  apparently 
healthy,  had  broken  his  collar-bones  eight  times,  his 
arm  and  forearm,  while  his  leg  and  thigh  were 
broken  if  he  but  tripped  his  foot  on  the  carpet. 
An  old  lady  once  broke  both  thigh-bones  kneeling 
down  in  church.  There  is  one  predisposing  cause  to 
fracture  fortunately  now  but  seldom  seen — viz., 
scurvy.  Not  only  did  it  make  the  bones  brittle, 
but,  as  was  seen  in  Lord  Anson's  expedition,  which 
was  manned  chiefly  by  pensioners,  old  fractures 
again  became  disunited. 

Repair  of  a  broken  Bone. — Of  course,  as  the 
bone  lies  in  the  midst  of  soft  parts,  any  injury 
to  the  one  must  tear  the  other,  and  cause  an 
infusion  of  blood ;  but  the  latter  is  speedily 
absorbed,  and  is  of  no  service  in  the  process  of  repair. 
After  the  first  excitement  has  passed  off,  a  fluid 
is  effused  around  the  fragment,  which  in  a  short 
time  becomes  converted  into  bone.  The  amount 
of  this  new  material  depends  upon  the  position  of 
the  fragments;  should  they  be  far  apart,  or,  as  it 
is  technically  termed,  riding,  then  a  much  larger 
quantity  of  new  bone  is  thrown  out.  We  see  this 
in  animals  to  such  an  extent  that  the  materials  for 
repair,  or  '  calkis,'  may  be  divided  into  two  separate 
pai'ts — a  provisional  callus  to  act  as  a  wrapper  to 
the  bones  until  the  permanent  callus,  or  that  which 
imites  the  ends,  however  far  apart,  becomey  suflS- 
ciently  hard  ;  then  the  provisional  callus,  being  no 
longer  necessary,  is  removed  by  absorption. 

Symptoms  of  Fracture. — A  broken  limb  hangs 
loose,  and  is,  as  a  general  rule,  no  longer  under  the 
control  of  the  muscles,  which,  however,  are  pricked 
by  the  broken  ends  of  bone,  and  stimulated  into 
painfid  spasms,  which  still  further  disjilace  and 
deform  the  limb.  Should  there  be  any  doubt,  the 
limb  may  be  carefully  raised,  and  turned  gently 
from  side  to  side,  when  a  peculiar  rough  feeling 
termed  crepitus  removes  all  doubt.  Each  bone, 
however,  when  broken,  exhibits  symptoms  peculiar 
to  its'df,  and  requires  a  separate  treatment. 

Fractures  are  divided  into  /Swy^/e,  when  there  is 
no  wound  in  the  skin  which  communicates  with  the 
fracture  ;  Covtpound,  when  there  is  such  a  wound ; 
Comininuted  being  prefixed  to  either  of  these  terms 
when  the  bone  is  broken  into  several  pieces ;  /w 
pacted,  when  one  fragment  is  driven  into  the  other ; 
and  Complicated,  when  a  neighbouring  joint  or  large 
blood-vessels  participate  in  the  accident. 

Treatment  of  Fracture. — Replace  the  fragments  aa 
near  as  possible  to  their  former  positions  by  gentle 
extension,  retain  them  in  place  by  substituting  an 
externo.l  I'igid  skeleton,  made  of  any  unyielding 
material  which  will  be  firm  enough  to  resist  the 
spasms  already  alluded  to,  but  is  not  fastened  with 
very  great  tightness  to  the  limb.  Splints  are  gene- 
rally of  wood  or  pasteboard  ;  but  of  late  years  gutta 
percha  has  been  much  used.  In  simple  fractures,  it 
is  often  sufficient  to  adapt  a  bandage  to  the  limb, 
which  will  harden  on  drjang,  and  form  a  fiAe/i  for  it ; 
for  this  purpose,  starch,  dextrine,  and  plaster  ci 


FRA  DIAVOLO— FRAMING. 


Paris  are  generally  used.  AVliatever  the  splint  be 
made  of,  it  must  keep  the  bones  in  a  state  of 
complete  rest,  otherwise  the  lymph,  which  would  be 
formed  into  bone,  stops,  as  it  were,  half  way,  and 
becomes  fibrous  tissue,  "which  allows  the  fragments 
t)  move  on  each  other,  and  is  termed  a  false  joint. 

FRA  DIA'VOLO,  properly  Miciiele  Pezza,  a 
celebrated  brigand  and  renegade  monk,  born  in 
Calabria  in  1760.  Of  plebeian  origin,  he  at  first 
followed  the  trade  of  stocking- weaver,  then  entered 
the  Neapolitan  army,  and  subsequently  the  service 
of  the  pope  ;  finally,  he  abandoned  military  life,  and 
became  a  monk,  but  being  expelled  for  miscon- 
duct, he  withdrew  to  the  mountains  of  Calabria, 
where  he  headeil  a  band  of  desperadoes,  whose 
strongholds  lay  chiefly  in  the  district  between  Itri 
and  Terra  di  Lavoro.  Pillage,  bloodshed,  and 
atrocious  cruelties,  signalised  his  career.  For  years 
he  evaded  the  pursuit  of  justice  by  retiring  to  his 
haunts  amidst  mountains  and  forests,  and  skil- 
fidly  defeating,  with  much  inferior  numbers,  all 
the  armed  forces  despatched  against  him.  He 
became  at  length  known  among  the  peasantry 
of  the  neighbourhood  as  Fra  Diavolo.  On  the 
advance  of  the  French  into  the  Neapolitan  states, 
F.  D.  and  his  band  espoused  warmly  the  royal 
interests,  and  in  return  were  not  only  ]iardoned 
and  reinstated  in  civil  rights,  but  promoted  to  the 
grade  of  officers  in  the  royal  anuy,  F.  D.  himself 
becoming  colonel.  In  180G  he  attempted  to  excite 
Calabria  against  the  French,  but  was  taken  prisoner 
at  San  Severino,  and  was  executed  at  Naples  in 
November  of  the  same  year.  The  opera  of  Auber 
has  nothing  in  common  with  F.  D.  but  the  name. 
He  died  uttering  imprecations  on  the  queen  of 
Na])les  and  the  British  admiral,  Sidney  Smith, 
whose  influence  had  not  sufficed  to  rescue  him 
from  death,  although  on  his  '3a])ture  he  produced 
papers  bearing  the  royal  seal,  which  vouched  for 
Lis  right  to  the  rank  of  colonel  in  the  royal  forces. 

FRAGA'RIA.    See  STRAwrBERRV. 

FRAME,  in  Gardening,  the  covering  of  any  kind 
of  hotbed,  flued  pit,  or  cold  i)it,  used  for  the  cultiva- 
tion of  plants  not  sufficiently  hardy  for  the  open  air. 
Frames  are  of  various  materials,  but  generally  of 
wood  or  iron  and  glass,  and  are  made  in  one  jiiece  or 
in  sashes  according  to  the  size  of  the  hotbed  or  jnt. 

FRAME-BRIDGE,  a  bridge  built  of  timbers 
framed  together  in  such  a  manner  as  to  obtain  the 
greatest  possible  amoxmt  of  strength  witli  a  given 
quantity  of  material. 

The  fundamental  principle  upon  which  all  such 
construction  is  based,  is  that  the  timbei'S  shall 
be  so  arranged  that  the  Aveight  put  upon  them 
shall  exert  a  pulling  or  a  crushing  strain,  instead 
of  a  transverse  strain,  and,  if  possible,  that  the 
greatest  strain  shall  act  as  a  direct  pidl  in  the 
direction  of  the  fibres  of  the  w^ood.  The  con- 
struction of  a  frame-bridge  is  very  similar  to  that 
of  a  roof,  excei)ting  that  in  the  bridge  a  consider- 
ftble  outward  thrust  upon  the  abutments  is  gener- 
ally i>ei  missible,  while  the  walls  of  a  house  will 


Fig.l. 


not  stand  this  ;  and  that  for  the  bridge  a  nearly 
level  way  on  the  top  is  desirable,  while  for  a 
roof  a  steep  incline  is  not  objectionable,  or  is  even 

4(>8 


desirable.  Fig.  1  represents  a  simple  a  »d  useful 
form  of  frame-bridge.  It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  a 
weight  upon  the  bridge  will  exert  a  pulling  strain 
upon  the  horizontal  timber  ah,  and  a  crushing 
strain  upon  he  and  ad,  as  well  as  upon  the  upper 
timbers,  and  that  the  main  sui)port  is  in  ah,  which 
must  be  torn  asunder  before  ad  and  he  can  be  bent 
or  disj^laced  to  any  considerable  extent. 

The  celebrated  frame-bridge  of  Sch  iff hausen, 
constructed  in  1757  by  Grubenmann,  a  village 
carpenter,  was  built  exactly  in  the  manner  of  a 
roof  with  a  horizontal  pathway  superadded.  It 
was  comj)osed  of  two  arches,  one  193  feet,  the 
other  172  feet  span.  It  was  merely  laid  upon  the 
piers,  and  did  not  abut  against  them  to  exert  any 
outward  thrust,  as  will  be  seen  by  fig.  2.  The 


Fig.  2. 


weight  on  the  bridge  is  transmitted  by  the  obhque 

beams,  which  by  analogy  we  may  call  rafters,  to 
the  tie-beam  ah,  where  it  exerts  a  horizontal 
l)ulling  strain.  These  rafters  are  framed  into  the 
tie-beam  so  as  to  abut  firmly  against  it  in  the  same 
manner  as  Roof- rafters  (see  Roof).  It  was  found 
that  when  it  had  stood  but  26  years,  the  oak  beams, 
where  they  rested  on  the  masonry  at  a  and  h,  fig.  2, 
were  rotted,  and  the  frames  began  to  settle.  This  was 
remedied  by  a  carpenter  named  Spengler7  who  raised 
the  whole  structure  upon  piles  by  means  of  screw- 
jacks,  and  replaced  the  decayed  wood. 

In  modern  times,  the  U.  States  justly  claims  the  pre- 
cedence for  simplicity,  mechanical  perfection,  and  bold- 
ness of  design  in  the  construction  of  frame  bridges. 
In  Philadelphia,  the  upper  Schuylkill  bridge,  for- 
merly spanning  the  river  at  Callowhill  street,  had 
the  remarkable  span  of  340  feet.  It  consisted  of 
five  ribs,  each  foi-med  q|  a  curved,  Rolid-built  beam, 
connected  with  an  upper  single  beam  by  radial  pieces, 
diagonal  braces,  and  inclined  iron  stays.  Truss- 
bridges  of  great  length  span  many  of  the  rivers  of  the 
United  States,  bearing  the  weight  of  immense  railway 
trains.  Among  the  different  varieties  may  be  named 
Burr's,  Town's,  Long's,  and  Howe's.  The  first  consists 
of  open-built  beams  of  straight  timber,  connected  with 
curved,  solid-built  beams  termed  arch-timbers,  formed 
of  several  thicknesses  of  scantling,  between  which  the 
frame  work  of  the  open-built  beam  is  clamped. 
Town's  plan  is  knoAvn  as  the  lattice  truss,  and  consists 
of  two  main  strings,  each  formed  by  two  or  three 
parallel  beams  of  two  thicknesses  breaking  joints, 
with  a  series  of  diagonal  pieces  crossing  each  other, 
and  inserted  between  the  parallel  beams,  being 
connected  with  the  strings  and  with  each  other  by 
tree-nails.  In  Howe's  plan,  any  amount  of  tension 
can  be  given  to  the  truss  by  means  of  iron  bolts  and 
screws. 

FRAMING,  the  jointing,  putting  together,  or 
building  up  of  any  kind  of  artificers'  work,  llie 
framing  of  timber  generally  is  described  under 
Carpentry,  and  special  kinds  of  framing  under 
Centering,  Door,  Floors,  Frame-bridge,  Parti- 
tions, Roofs,  etc.  In  such  trades  as  mathematical, 
optical,  philosophical,  and  other  complex  instrument- 
making,  the  workman  who  does  flat-filed  work,  and 
fits  all  the  parts,  and  puts  the  whole  instrument 
together,  is  called  the  framer,  and  his  work  framing 


FRAMLINGHAM— FRANCE. 


In  the  watch-trade,  the  man  who  frames  all  the  parts 
together  and  builds  up  the  watch  is  called  a  finisher, 
tiud  his  work  is  called  finishing,  though  it  corre- 
sponds ^vith  what  is  called  framing  in  other  trades. 

FRA'MLINGHAM,  or  'Strangers'  Town,'  a 
t'^wn  in  the  east  of  Suffolk,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Ore.  14  miles  north-north-cast  of  Ipswich.  It  con- 
sists of  a  large  market-place,  from  which  a  few 
streets  iiTegxilarly  branch  out.  The  church  is  built 
of  black  flint  and  stone,  and  contains  the  monu- 
ments of  Thomas  Howard,  third  Duke  of  Norfolk, 
and  of  his  duchess,  and  of  the  unfortunate  Henry 
Howai'd,  Earl  of  Surrey,  and  of  his  countess.  Here 
are  the  remains  of  a  castle  with  thirteen  square 
towers,  where  Queen  Mary  retired  after  the  death 
of  her  brother  Edward  VI.    Pop.  (1871)  2569. 

FRANC,  a  French  silver  coin  and  money  of 
accoimt,  which  (since  1795,  when  it  supplanted  the 
livre  Tournois)  forms  the  unit  of  the  French  mone- 
tary system,  and  has  also  been  adopted  as  such  by 
Belgium  and  Switzerland.  The  franc  is  coined  of 
silver,  nine-tenths  fine,  and  weighs  five  grammes,  its 
value  being  about  9^d.  One  pound  sterling  =  25-2 
francs.  The  franc  is  divided  into  100  centimes,  but 
the  nld  di\dsion  into  20  sous  is  stiU  made  use  of  in 
common  life.  There  are  in  France  silver  coins  of  ^, 
^,  1,2,  and  5  francs,  and  gold  pieces  of  20  and  40 
franc's.  Italy  has  also  adopted  the  French  money- 
Rystem,  only  that  the  franc  is  called  Lira  nuova. 

FRANCAVrLLA,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  prov- 
mce  of  Otrnnto,  is  situated  on  an  elevation  22  miles 
ftouth-west  of  Brindisi.  It  is  well  built,  has  a  college, 
three  hospitals,  and  several  convents ;  has  manufac- 
tures of  woollens,  cottons,  and  earthen-ware,  and,  with 
its  dependent  villages,  has  a  population  of  15,300. 

FRANCE,  the  most  westerly  portion  of  Central 
Euiope,  extends  from  42°  20'  to  51°  5'  N.  lat.,  and 
from  8°  15'  E.  long,  to  4"  54'  W.  long. .  It  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Channel  and  the  Straits 
of  Dover,  which  separate  it  from  England,  by 
Belgium,  the  grand-duchy  of  Luxembourg,  and  the 
Rhenish  provinces  of  Prussia;  on  the  E.  by  the  newly- 
tmnexed  German  provinces  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine, 
by  several  of  the  Swiss  cantons,  and  by  Italy;  on  the 
S.  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  the  dominions  of 
Spain,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Pyrenees ; 
and  on  tlie  W.  by  the  Atlantic  (the  Bay  of  Biscay). 
The  greatest  length  of  F.,  measured  from  Dunkirlc  in 
the  north  to  tlie  Col  de  Falgaeres  in  the  south,  is 
about  620  miles;  audits  greatest  breadth  from  east 
to  west,  measured  from  the  new  boundary  line  in  the 
Vosges  to  Cape  St  Matthieu,  in  Finisterre,  is  about 
550  miles.  Its  circumference,  inclusive  of  sinuosi- 
ties, is  estimated  at  nearly  3100  miles,  or  5000  kilo- 
metres, of  wliich  nearly  the  half  is  composed  of  mari- 
time coast-lines,  which  are  subdivided  in  the  propor- 
tion of  about  600  kilom.  on  the  Mediterranean,  950 
kilom.  on  the  Atlantic,  and  about  940  kilom.  on  the 
northern  frontiers.  The  superficial  area  of  F.,  in- 
cluding the  two  Savoy  provinces  and  Corsica,  a  de- 
partment of  the  Republic,  but  excluding  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Bas-Rhin  and  the  other  territories  lost 
to  F.  by  the  treaty  of  peace  concluded  with  Germany 
ill  1871,  is  reckoned  at  about  204,000  square  miles. 
The  possessions  of  F.  which  are  situated  in  non -Eu- 
ropean parts  of  the  world — including  the  'Pays  pro- 
t6g6s,'  or  '  Countries  under  Protection,'  exclusive  of 
Algeria — have  a  total  superficial  area  of  about  460,- 
000  sq.  miles.  The  area  of  Algeria  is  about  170,000 
sq.  miles.  F.  is  divided  into  eighty-seven  d^partemeiits 
(inclusive  of  Savoy  and  Nice),  most  of  which  have 
been  named  from  the  rivers  or  mountains  by  which 
they  are  intersected.  The  following  table  gives  the 
names  of  the  ancierit  provinces  of  F.  with  the  corre- 
epooding  d6partements,  their  areas  and  pop.  for  1872. 


Old  Provinces 


1.  1  L  B      D  E 

Feancb/ 


2.  CUAMPAQNB< 


LORRAINI 


Departemcnts. 


Fl,AN0ER3. 

Artois. 

I'ICAKDY. 


7.  NoaMANPV, 


Brittany. 


9.  PoiTou.  "I 

10.  Anjou. 

11.  Maine.  | 

12.  angoujiais,  1 
Ai  Nis,  and  > 


.St  Ange. 

13.  touraine. 

14.  Or  i,EA  N- 

f^Aia. 

15.  NiVEHNAIS. 

16.  BoUKlitJNNAIS 

17.  M  ARC  HE. 

18.  Berky. 

19.  Limousin. 

20.  auvergne 

21.  Lyonnais. 


22.  Burgundy. 

23.  F  r  A  .V  c  H  E 

COMTE. 

24.  Alsace. 

25.  Dauphini!. 


26.  Langui:doc 


27.  Guienne, 


28.  Gascony. 

29.  Bearn  aiul>" 
Navarre.  ) 

30.  Foix 

31.  lioUSsiLLON 

32.  A 
Ve 
and 


Ii  VIG  N  ON,  1 
!N  A  IS8I  N,  y 

d  Orange.  | 


33.  Proven  c 

34.  Corsica. 

35.  Savoy. 

36.  Nice. 


1.  Seine,       .  . 

2.  Seine-et-OiHC, 

3.  Scinu-et-Marne, 

4.  Olse,  . 

5.  Ai.-^ne, 

6.  Ai  dciines,  , 

7.  Marne, 

8.  Mai  ne  [Ilaute), 

9.  Aube, 
lU.  Meiise,  . 

11.  Meurthe-et-Moselle,* 

12.  Vosges, 

13.  N'.nl,  . 

14.  Pas-de-Calais,  . 

15.  Sonime, 

16.  Seine-Infericure, 

17.  Kure,  . 

18.  Calvados,  . 

19.  La  Manche,  . 

20.  Ornc, . 

21.  Finisterre,  . 

22.  Morbihan,  . 

23.  C6tes-du-Nord,  . 

24.  lUe-et-Vilaine,  . 
25  Loire-Iiiterieure,  . 

Vendee, 

27.  Sevres  (Deux), 

28.  Vienna, 

29.  Maine-et-Loire, 

30.  Mayeime,  .  , 

31.  Sarthe,  . 

32.  Ch  a  rente,  . 

aa.  Charente-Inferieure, 


34.  Indre-et-Loire,  . 

35.  Loir-ot-Cher , 
3fi.  Eui  e-et-Luir,  . 

37.  Loire t,  .  . 

38.  Nic'vre,      .  . 

39.  Allier,  • 

40.  Creu.se, 

41.  Cher,  . 
42  Indre, 

43.  Vienne  (Haute),  . 

44.  Correze, 

45.  Cantal,  . 

46.  l'uy-de-D6me,  , 

47.  Loire,  . 

48.  lUione, 

49.  Ain, 

."iO.  Saone-et-Loire, . 
51.  Cote-d'Or,  . 
.t2.  Yonne, 

53.  Saone  (Haute),  , 

54.  Jura,  . 

55.  Doubs,  .  , 

56.  Rhin  (BelfortDist.), 

57.  Isere,  , 
,iS.  Drome,  . 

59.  Alpes  (Hautes), 

60.  Ardeche, 

61.  Loire  (Haute),  . 

62.  Lozere, . 

63.  Gard, 
6i.  Herault, 
65.  Tarn,  . 

H6.  Garonne  (Haute), . 

67.  Aude, 

68.  Avcyron,  .  , 
60.  Lot,  . 

70.  Doidogne, 

71.  I'arn-et-Garonnc, 
72  Lot-et-Garonne,  . 
73.  Gironde,  . 

74  Les  Landes, . 

75.  Gers,  . 

76.  Pyrenees  (Hautes), 

77.  Pyrenees  (Basses), 


Arij^ge,  . 

Pyrenees  Orien tales, 


Vaucluse, 


I   81.  Rh6ne(Bouche8-du),  601,960 

82.  Alpes  (Basses),    .  690,919 

83.  Var,  .       .       .  729,628 

84.  Corse,    .       .      ,  874,741 
Savoie,      .       .  642,074 

86.  Savoie  (Haute),     .  451,482 

87.  Alp  s  Maritimes,  429,874 
*  From  1871  to  1878,  the  portion  of  the  department  of  Haut- 

EniN  remaining  to  France  was  called  Terrtoire  de  Belfort  Sub. 
sequently,  the  old  name  Haut-Rhin  was  officially  resumed. 

469 


47,500 
560,337 
688,575 
583,067 
735,747 
623,000 
818,038 
625,403 
602.212 
621,618 
650,000 
650,000 
667,863 
660,426 
615,983 
603,463 
591,261 
.'j5 1,766 
577,178 
610,068 
667,668 
681,704 
744,073 
672,848 
687,441 
671,628 
599,995 
697,301 
712,563 
516,200 
620,397 

588,803 
716,»14 

611,369 
635,092 
686,921 
676,512 
686,619 
742,272 
679,455 
740,125 
701,661 
651,733 
686,621 
574,146 
800,679 
477,018 
281, aj6 
684,822 
856,018 
876,956 
736,916 
531,000 
503,. 364 
522,895 
250,000 
841,230 
653,557 
663,418 
651,227 
496,784 
516,666 
682,867 
630,935 
676,821 
629  601 
631,667 
882,171 
398,406 
915,000 
371,764 
634  628 
1,082,552 
985,273 
627,870 
464,531 

752,513 

478,401 
411,376 

356,640 


V!,220,060 
580,180 
341,490 
396,804 
552.439 
320,217 
386,157 
251,190 
255,687 
2S4.725 
365,137 
.392,088 

1,447,764 
761,158 
557,015 
790,022 
377,874 
4.54,012 
544,776 
398,250 
642,963 
490,:;52 
622,295 
589,532 
602.206 
401,446 
331.243 
320,598 
518.471 
350.637 
446,603 


FRANCE. 


By  the  treaties  with  Germnny  of  Fehruavy  and 
May  1871,  F.  lost  1,447,466  hectares  of  Innd,  and 
1,597,228  inhabitants,  comprised  within  1689  com- 
munes, and  distributed  over  five  departments.  These 
losses  included  the  whole  of  the  old  department  of 
the  Bas-Rbin,  two  arrondissements  with  a  fraction  of 
the  third  (Belfort)  of  the  dei)artment  of  the  Haut- 
llh'm,  the  greater  portion  of  the  department  of  the 
Moselle,  together  with  a  number  of  cantons  and  com- 
munes in  the  department  of  the  Muerthe  and  Vosges. 
The  portions  of  the  two  departments  of  the  Muerthe 
and  Moselle  remaining  to  F.  have  been  incorporated 
into  one.  Tlie  area  of  F.  is  now  given  at  52,875.100 
hectares,  and  the  total  population,  exclusive  of  Alge- 
ria and  her  colonies,  in  1876,  was  36,905,788. 

Chief  Cities, — The  following  table  gives  the  popu- 
lations of  some  of  the  largest  cities  of  F.  in  1872; 

Paris,  tlie  capital,   1,851,000 

Lyon,  32;i,000 

Marseille  312.000 

IJordeaux   194.000 

Lille,   158,000 

Toulouse   124.000 

Nantes,  118.000 

St,  Etienne,  110,000 

Roiien,  102,(M)0 

The  provinces  of  Savoy  and  Nice  were  ceded  to  F. 
by  Sardinia,  in  accordance  with  a  treaty  between  the 
two  governments  signed  in  1861.  The  following 
table  gives  the  non-European  dependencies  of  France: 


In  J frica — 

Al.!J;eria,  

Senegal  and  its  Dependencies, 

He  de  Reunion  and  Ste  Marie,  . 

Nossi-Be  and  Mayotte, . 
In  A  Ha — 

East  Indian  Possessions,  . 

Cochin  China,       .       .  . 
Jn  America — 

Martinique,  .... 

Gaudeloupe  and  its  Dependencies, 

Guiana,  

St  Pierre  and  Miquelon, 
Jn  Oceania — 

Marquesas  and  other  islands,  . 

New  Caledonia, 


Area  In 
Hectares. 


39,000.000 
undefined 
250.000 
50,000 

50,000 
2,200,000 

9S.000 
165.000 
1,000,000 
20,000 

117.000 
900,0(10 


Population 
in  1872. 


3,000,000 
200,000 
170,000 
45,000 

170,000 
1,000,000 

125,000 
151,000 
25,000 
3,000 

10.000 
30,000 


The  total  superficial  area  of  the  French  colonies,  in- 
cluding Algeria,  and  reckoning  the  districts  under 
French  protection,  is  estimated  at  upwards  of  50  mil- 
lions of  hectares,  and  the  population  at  about  4i  mil- 
lions; but  of  the  latter  number  more  than  3^  millions 
ai'e  natives  and  savages,  or  belong  to  only  half-civil- 
ised races.  The  methods  employed  in  taking  the  cen- 
sus are,  moreover,  so  diiferent  in  the  different  colo- 
nies, that  the  results  are  not  entirely  beyond  question  ; 
while  the  limits  of  French  protectorate  authority 
have  been  very  considerably  diminished  of  late  years 
in  the  Eastern  Hemisphere,  and  in  Africa  also,  if  we 
except  Algeria.. 

Populnlion. — The  population  of  F.  has  not  exhil> 
ited  the  san)e  rate  of  increase  as  other  first-class  Eu- 
ropean powers  during  the  present  century,  for  while 
the  population  of  Great  Britain  has  nearly  doubled 
within  the  last  fifty  yeai-s,  that  of  F.  scarcely  shews 
an  increase  of  40  per  cent,  for  the  same  period.  In 
1875,  the  birth-rate  was  only  2.64  per  100  inhabitants, 
a  lower  rate  than  in  any  other  European  country. 

The  following  table  shews  the  condition  of  the  pop- 
ulation from  the  beginning  of  the  century  to  the  date 
of  the  latest  census: 


Year  of 
Census. 

1801, 

ISOf),  . 

1821, 

1826,  , 

1831, 

183fi,  . 

1841, 


47a 


Number  of 
Population. 
27,349,003 
29,107,425 
30,461,875 
31.858,937 
32,569,223 
3;3,5-)  0,901 
34,217,719 
35,400,486 


Annual 
Increase. 
149,941 
351,GS5 
90,292 
279,415 
171.787 
194,337 
135.362 
236.553 


Year  of 
Census. 

1851, 

1856,  , 

1861, 

1866,  . 

1872, 

1876,  . 


Number  of 
Population. 
35,783.170 
36,0:59.364 
37.382,225 
38.067,094 
36,102,921 
36,905,788 


Annual 
Increase. 
76,537 
51.236 
268,572 
136,186 

128,310 


The  decline  of  population  between  the  census  of  May 
1866  and  of  May  1872  is  1,964,273,  of  which  1,597,- 
228  is  due  to  the  loss  of  the  different  territories  an- 
nexed by  conquest  to  the  German  empire.  The  re- 
mainder is  due  partly  to  losses  in  the  war,  and  partly 
to  an  absolute  decrease  in  the  pojiulation  of  73  de- 
partments. Between  1872  and  1876  there  was  a  de- 
crease in  20  departments,  most  of  all  in  Seine-et-Oise. 

Coast,  Islands,  and  Frontier.— The  north-north- 
west coast  is  generally  irregular,  indented  with 
nimierous  bays,  the  principal  of  which  is  the  Bay  of 
St  Malo,  in  which  lie  the  Chaunel  Islands,  Jersey, 
Guernsey,  &c.,  which  belong  geographically  to  F., 
the  arclii])elago  of  Brehat,  &c.  The  west-south-west 
coast  is  at  first  lofty  and  precipitous,  but  to  the 
south  of  Bretagne  it  becomes  more  shelving,  and  ia 
interspersed  with  isolated  rocks  and  promontories ; 
while  south  of  the  Loire  it  is  low,  and  lined  with 
salt-marshes.,  but  towards  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees 
it  again  assumes  a  rocky  and  precipitous  character. 
This  coast  forms  one  aide  of  the  bay  designated  by 
the  French  as  the  Bay  of  Gascogne,  but  by  the 
Endish  as  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  Here  lie  the  islands 
of  Ushant  (Ouessant),  Belleisle,  Noirmoutier,  Isle 
d  Yeu,  Re,  Oleron,  &c.  The  coast  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, which  is  broken  by  lagoons  or  shore-lakes, 
is  low  till  it  has  passed  Toulon,  after  which  it 
becomes  bolder.  The  only  islands  off  the  shore 
are  the  Hybres,  near  Toulon  ;  the  larger  island  of 
Coi-sica  (q.  v.;  lies  north  of  Sardinia.  The  Mediter- 
ranean here  forms  two  bays  or  gulfs,  as  the  Gulf 
of  Lyons  (Fr.  Gol/e  du  Lion,  so  named  from  the 
violence  of  its  storms),  and  the  Gulf  of  Genoa, 
which  belongs  only  in  part  to  France.  The  land 
frontiers  of  F.  are  formed  on  the  side  of  Spain  by 
the  Pyrenees;  on  that  of  Italy  and  Switzerland  by 
the  Alps  and  Jura  chain  ;  on  the  north-east  the  fron- 
tier line  is  unprotected  by  natural  boundaries,  and 
since  the  loss  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine  is  no  longer  de- 
fended, as  before  the  war  of  1870 — 1871,  by  strong 
fortresses. 

Plains. — The  chief  plains  are  those  of  Burgun- 
dy; and  the  Oceanic  district,  embracing  the  lower 
basins  of  the  Seine,  Loire,  and  Garonne.  There 
are  four  great  mountain  chains;  the  Pyrenees 
(q.  v.),  which  separate  the  French  territory  from 
Spain ;  the  Cevenno-Vosgian  range,  formed  of  the 
Cevennes  (q.  v.),  running  east  and  west  between 
the  Pvhone  and  Loire,  and  the  Vosges  (q.  v.), 
inclining  north  and  south,  and  running  between 
the  Rhine  and  Moselle ;  the  Alps  (q.  v.),  which 
separate  the  Swiss  territory  from  the  newly  acquired 
provinces  of  Savoy  and  Nice ;  and  the  Sardo  Oorsi- 
can  range,  which  belongs,  as  the  name  implies,  to 
the  islands  of  Sardinia  and  Corsica,  and  traverses 
the  Corsican  island  from  its  extreme  northern  to 
its  southern  extremity.  The  highest  peaks  in  the 
Pyrenees,  the  Maladetta  and  Mont  Perdu,  respec- 
tively attain  an  elevation  of  10,886  feet  and  10,994 
feet ;  in  the  Cevenno-Vosgian  range,  the  greatest 
height  (the  Widderkalni)  do'-^s  not  greatly  exceed 
7000  feet.  The  French  portion  of  the  Alps  now 
includes  several  of  the  highest  mountains  and 
most  elevated  passes  of  the  range,  as  Mont  Blanc, 
15,744  feet ;  Mont  Iseran,  13,272  feet ;  Mont  Cenis 
11,457  feet.  The  pass  of  Little  St  Bernard  is 
7190  feet;  that  of  Mont  Cenis,  6770  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  In  Corsica,  the  highest 
peak  rises  to  an  elevation  somewhat  above  9000 
feet.    The  grand  water-shed  of  F.  is  the  Cevenno- 


FRANCE. 


Vosj^es  chain  of  mountains,  which  determines  the 
direction  of  the  four  great  rivers,  the  Seine,  the 
Loire,  the  Garonne,  and  the  Rhone;  the  first  three 
of  which  flow  north-west  into  the  Bay  of  Biscay  or 
the  English  Cliannel,  and  the  fourth  into  the  Gulf 
of  Lyons.  Besides  these,  the  more  important  sti-eams 
are  the  Moselle,  Meuse,  and  Scheldt  (all  of  which  soon 
leave  France,  and  flow  into  the  Netherlands,  or 
Rhenish  Prussia) ;  the  Somme  and  Orne  (btilougin,^ 
to  the  basin  of  the  Seine)  ;  the  Vilaine  and  the 
Charente  (belonging  to  the  basin  of  the  Loir^) ;  and 
the  Adour  (rising  in  the  Pyrenees,  and  flowiiig  into 
the  Bay  of  Biscay  at  the  extreme  south-west  of 
France).  The  Oise,  the  Aube,  the  Yonne,  and  the 
Marne  are  the  chief  affluents  of  the  Seine  ;  the 
Sarthe,  the  Loir,  the  Allier,  and  the  Cher,  of  the 
1-oire ;  the  Dordogne,  the  Lot,  the  Tarn,  and  the 
Gers,  of  the  Garonne  ;  and  the  Saone,  the  laoro. 
and  the  Durance,  of  the  Rhone. 

The  entire  exteiit  of  river- na%'igation  in  F.  amounts 
to  5500  miles,  or  8,900,000  metres,  while  the  99 
larger  canals,  which  have  been  constructed  either 
to  connect  these  river- courses  or  to  supply  entirely 
new  channels  of  water-communication,  extend  over 
a  length  of  2900  miles,  or  4,700,000  mbtres.  The 
most  important  of  these  works  are  the  canals 
connecting  Nantes,  and  Brest,  and  the  Rhone  with 
the  Rhine,  and  the  canals  of  Berry,  Nivernais,  and 
Bourgogne.  F.  possesses  only  one  lake  of  any 
importance,  Le  Grand- Lieu,  a  little  to  the  south 
t)f  Nantes,  which  has  an  area  of  about  14,300 
acres ;  but  the  country  abounds  in  salt  marshes  or 
ponds,  more  especially  in  the  districts  of  Gascony, 
Koussillon,  and  Languedoc. 

F.  is  peculiarly  rich  in  mineral  springs,  of  which 
there  are  said  to  be  nearly  1000  in  use.  Of  these, 
more  than  400  are  situated  in  the  group  of  the 
Pyrenees,  where  there  are  93  establishments  for 
their  systematic  use.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are, 
moreover,  fully  4000  springs  not  hitherto  employed. 

Geology,  d'C. — F.  presents  a  great  variety  of 
geological  formations,  but  although  we  meet  with 
an  almost  complete  siiccession  of  all  the  stratified 
and  non-stratified  strata,  they  are  distributed  with 
great  inequality.  Thus,  for  instance,  while  nearly 
one-third  of  the  soil  is  composed  of  tertiary  for- 
mations, a  mere  fractional  part  only  is  made  up 
of  coal-beds.  A  belt  of  primary  rocks,  forming 
the  skeleton  of  some  portions  of  the  Vosges, 
Alps,  and  Pyrenees,  and  of  the  gi-eat  plateaux 
of  Brittany  and  La  Vendee,  encircles  the  great 
central  basin  in  which  rises  the  volcanic  formation 
of  the  mountains  of  Auvergne,  with  their  extinct 
craters,  lava  streams,  &c.  The  spaces  between  this 
external  breast-work  and  its  volcanic  nucleus  is 
occupied  by  secondary  and  tertiary  formations. 
Allu\'ial  deposits  are  met  with  in  all  the  valleys, 
but  they  occur  in  extensive  beds  only  in  the  neiglj- 
bourhood  of  Dunkirk  and  Niort,  and  on  the  I)orders 
of  the  Mediterranean.     According  to  M.  Maurice 


Block's  estimate,  the  physical  and  agriculturnl  cha- 
racter of  the  soil  of  F.  may  be  comprised  under  the 
following  heads : 

Hectare*. 

Mountainous  districts,  heaths,  and  commons,  9,;>44,(t.'!9 
Kicliland,       ...  ...  7,-^7'i,-'fi9 

Chalk  or  lime  districts,  9,7«HJ»7 

Gravel,  stony,  and  sandy,       ....  lo,!*.'}! 
Clay,  marshy,  miscellaneous,     .  .       •    9,Hv7  ,r>77 

52,7ti8,»*(J0 

The  same  writer  further  subdivides  the  soil  of  F.  ac- 
cording to  its  actual  emjilo^  ment ;  the  following  ar^ 


some  of  the  heads : 

BecUr^i. 

Arable  lands,  ,  25,500,1)75 

Meadow  lands,  £,1.-;9,I7!) 

Vineyards,  2,oaf!  048 

Woods,  7,(m,2m 

Orchards,  gardens,  ti-27,704 

Olive,  mulberry,  and  almond  woods,  .      .      .  109,264 

Chestnut  woods,   559,029 

Roads,  streets,  public  walks,  &c.,  .  .  .  1,102,122 
Forests  and  unproductive  lands,     .       .       .  1,047,684 


Climate. — F.  possesses  one  of  the  finest  climates 
in  Europe,  although,  owing  to  its  great  extent  of 
area,  very  considerable  diversities  of  temperature 
are  to  be  met  with ;  thus,  for  instance,  the  north- 
east parts  of  the  country  have  a  continental,  and 
the  north-west  parts  an  oceanic  climate,  resem- 
bling those  of  Germany  and  Great  Britain  ;  -while 
the  Mediterranean  districts  are  exposed  at  times 
to  the  ravages  of  the  burning  winds  which  have 
passed  over  the  deserts  of  Africa,  and  to  the 
destructive  north-west  wind  known  as  the  mistral, 
which  often  does  great  injury  to  the  fields  near 
the  mouths  of  the  Rhone  and  Var.  The  parts 
of  F.  lying  south  of  lat.  46°  have  about  134 
rainy  days  in  the  year,  and  those  north  of  that 
parallel  about  120.  The  mean  annual  temperature 
of  different  parts  of  F.  has  been  estimated  aa 
follows  by  H\imboldt:  Toulon,  62°  F.;  Marseille, 
59-5";  Bordeaux,  56°;  Nantes,  55*2°;  Paris,  51*2°; 
Dunkirk,  50-5°. 

Pi'oducts.—Of  the  vegetable  products  of  F.,  which, 
from  varied  climatic  and  geognostic  relations,  are 
necessarily  characterised  by  great  abundance  and 
diversity,  the  most  generally  cultivated  are  the 
cereals,  the  vine,  chestnuts,  olives,  culinary  fruits 
and  vegetables,  hops,  beet-root  for  the  manuiactiire 
of  sugar,  tobacco,  madder,  chicory,  flax,  &c.  In  1862, 
the  yield  of  wheat  in  F.  was  116  millions  of  hectoli- 
tres, the  maximum  annual  quantity  as  yet  on  record. 
During  the  last  50  years,  the  importation  of  cereals 
has  so  far  exceeded  the  supplies  for  home  consump- 
tion and  exportation,  as  to  leave  F.  the  loser  by  850 
millions  of  francs.  The  cultivation  of  wheat  has 
gradually  increased  during  the  last  fifty  years,  but 
that  of  rye,  barley,  and  maize  has  exhibited  little 
variation  ;  while  the  growth  of  potatoes  has  been  most 
extensively  augmented  during  the  same  period.  The 
following  table  shews  the  fluctuations  to  which  these 
alimentary  substances  have  been  subjected: 


EXTKNT  OF  LAND  OCCUPrED  IS  1815,  1830,  1845,  AND  1869 


QUANTITY  YIELDED  IN  1816,  1830,  1845,  AMD  1869 


1815. 

1830. 

1845 

1869. 

181.5. 

ia30. 

184.5. 

1869. 

Hectaren. 

Heciarei. 

Hectare*. 

Hectares. 

Hectolitres. 

Hectolitrei. 

HectoUtret. 

Hectolitres. 

IJy  Wheat,  . 

4  591,(;77 

5.01].7(t4 

5,743.135 

6.900.000 

39,4H0.971 

52.7»2.098 

71 ,963,280 

108,000.000 

If  Rye,    .  . 

2,500,000 

2,500,000 

2,500,000 

2,100,0(10 

25.700,000 

32,440  000 

30,000.000 

24,000.000 

0  Barley,  . 

1.100.000 

1,100,000 

1,2(10,000 

1,400.(100 

14,600,000 

17. 600. 000 

18,400,000 

90.0' 0,'!0') 

»  Maize,  .  . 

514,513 

593,000 

730,000 

600,000 

5,630.001) 

6.6(K).000 

8.000,000 

lo.ooi  1.000 

»  Potatoes, 

C<JO,()00 

800,000 

925,000 

100,000 

21,fitM),000 

54,835,167 

77,900,000 

100.000,000 

The  mean  annual  yields  of  these  productions  may  be 
estimated  as  follows:  Wheat,  73,000,000  hectolitres; 
rye,  22,000,000  hectolitres;  J)arley  and  oats,  40,000,- 
000  hectolitres;  maize,  9,100,000  hectolitres;  pota- 
toes, 95,000,000  hectolitres.*  The  subdivision  of 
*  The  hectolitre  equals  2-75  bushels. 


farms,  the  short  leases  (of  less  than  10  years)  on 
which  the  majority  are  let,  and  the  small  number  of 
the  great  land-owners  who  reside  on  their  estates, 
have  hitherto  tended  to  check  the  progress  of  agricul- 
ture in  France.  Agricultural  exhibitions  have  been 
held  since  1850;  360,000  francs  are  annually  given 


FRANCE. 


in  prizes.  Sec. ;  and  there  are  now  nearly  one  thou- 
sand agricultural  associations  in  different  parts  of 
France. 

The  manufacture  of  snc^ar  from  heet-root,  Avhich 
took  its  orii>:in  during  the  great  wars  of  the  early 
part  of  the  century,  has  heen  prosecuted  with  much 
vigour  during  the  last  50  years,  and  about  150  mil- 
lions of  kilogrammes*  are  annually  manufactured. 
Since  the  appearance  of  the  vine-disease,  beet-root 
has  b6en  extensively  employed  in  the  manufacture 
of  alcohol;  and  in  1857,  the  quantity  prepared 
amounted  to  429,000  hectolitres.  The  cultivation  is 
almost  litiiitcd  to  the  north  and  east;  hemp  and  flax 
are  grown  chiefly  in  the  northern,  but  also  in  the 
south-western  departments.  The  entiie  produc- 
tion of  hemp  was  estimated  in  1842  at  67,507,076 
kilogrammes,  worth  86.287,300  francs;  and  that  of 
flax  at  36,875.400  kilogrammes,  worth  57,507,400 
francs.  Since  that  period,  there  has  been  little  dif- 
ference in  the  home  production,  but  an  enormous  in- 
crease in  the  importation  of  foreign  flax  and  hemp; 
the  average  antiual  value  of  flax,  for  the  period 
between  1857  and  1866,  being  46  nnllions,  and  of 
hemp  8  millions  of  francs.  The  cultivation  of  the 
mull)crry-tree  derives  importance  from  its  bearing 
on  the  producticm  of  silk.  In  1858,  the  department 
du  Gard  had  monopolised  nearly  half  the  culture  of 
these  trees,  which  in  its  aggregate  amount  has  con- 
tinued unchanged.  From  its  connection  with  the 
mulberry,  we  here  refer  to  the  production  of  silk, 
which  began  at  the  opening  of  the  17th  c.,  and  which 
in  1790  liad  reached  such  vast  dimensions,  that  the 
produce  at  that  period  was  already  6^  million  kilo- 
grammes of  cocoons,  worth  16^  million  francs.  Since 
that  period,  it  has  exhibited  great  variations.  From 
1840  to  1853,  the  production  continued  steadily  to 
increase  from  17  to  26  millions  of  kilogramines ;  but 
the  diseases  to  which  the  silkworm  has  been  liable 
since  that  period  reduced  the  yield  of  silk  to  so  great 
an  extent,  that  in  1857  it  scarcely  amounted  to  7  mil- 
lions of  cocoons.  Raw  silk,  since  the  abatement  of 
this  disease,  has  again  assumed  its  place  among  the 
chief  sources  of  industrial  wealth  in  F. ;  and,  besides 
the  enormous  quantity  consumed  in  home  manufac- 
tures, the  totid  exports  for  the  year  1873  amounted 
to  no  less  in  value  than  100  millions  of  francs  (about 
|20. 000.000). 

The  vine  has,  from  a  very  early  period,  constituted 
one  of  the  principal  sources  of  the  agricultural 
wealth  of  France.  The  choicest  wines  are  grown  in 
the  Bordelais,  Burgundy,  and  Champagne,  but  some 
excellent  kinds  are  produced  on  the  banks  of  the 
Loire,  and  in  some  of  the  southern  departments.  The 
breadth  of  soil  devoted  to  this  culture  fluctuntes,  but 
may  be  stated  at  about  2,000,000  hectares.  The 
mean  produce  for  every  hectare  was,  in  1788,  21  hec- 
tolitres 21  litres;  in  1829,  27  hectolitres  20  litres;  in 
1850,  32  hectolitres  35  litres.  Some  time  ago,  the 
fungus  known  as  the  oi'dium  attacked  the  vine,  and 
inflicted  such  serious  damage  on  the  plant,  that  in 
1854  (the  worst  year),  the  hectare  yielded  5  hectoli- 
tres, instead  of  the  average  quantity  of  23  hectolitres. 
A  new  and  very  destructive  vine-disease,  occasioned 
by  the  ravages  of  an  insect  which  has  been  called  the 
Phylloxera  vastatrix^  appeared  in  the  south-east  of  F. 
in  1865,  and  by  1873  had  established  itself  in  12  de- 
partments. The  following  table  shews  some  of  the 
annual  yields  of  wine  between  1808  and  1869  : 

Hectolitres.  Hectolitres. 

ISnS,        .       .   28.000,000  1854,  .       .  10.789.869 

18-'9,           .      30,973,000  1!=58,  .       .  45.805,000 

18i8,        .       .   51,622,150  1874,  .        .  63,146,12-) 

The  average  yearly  produce  of  the  vineyards  of  F.  is 
estimated  at  about  50  millions  of  hectolitres  (about 
1000  millions  of  gallons).    Of  this,  about  ^th  is  made 
The  kilogrrmme  equals  2'2  lbs.  avoirdupois. 
472 


into  brandy.  F.  consumes  nearly  all  the  wine  raised 
on  her  soil ;  the  annual  ex{)orts  being  on  an  average 
little  more  than  2  millions  of  hectolitres,  valued  at 
about  218  millions  of  francs. 

The  principal  forest-trees  are  the  chestnut  and 
beech  on  the  central  mountains,  the  oak  and  cork  tree 
in  the  Pyrenees,  and  the  fir  in  the  Landes.  The  de- 
struction of  the  national  forests  has  been  enormous 
within  the  last  two  centuries,  but  measures  have  been 
taken  in  recent  years  to  plant  wood,  in  order  to  pro- 
tect those  mountain  slopes  which  are  exposed  to  inun- 
dations from  alpine  torrents,  and  to  provide  a  supply 
for  the  ever-increasing  demand  of  wood  for  fuel. 
About  one-seventh  of  the  entire  territory  of  F.  is  still 
covered  with  wood.  Turf  taken  from  the  marshy 
lands  is  extensively  used,  more  especially  in  the  rural 
districts,  for  fuel. 

Animals. — F.  is  not  so  well  stocked  with  domestic 
animals  as  her  great  resources  might  warrant  us  in 
assuming  that  she  ought  to  be.  During  the  50  yeara 
intervening  from  1812  to  1862,  the  numbers  of  horned 
cattle  were  almost  doubled  in  France.  According  to 
the  census  of  1872 — the  most  recent  in  regard  to  ani- 
mal— there  were  in  F.  2,880,000  hor.ses,  500,000 
asses,  300,000  mules,  11,000,000  horned  cattle,  25,- 
000,000  sheep,  5,000,000  swine,  and  2,250,000  dogs. 
There  were  in  the  same  year  about  2,390,000  hives 
of  bees,  valued  at  rather  more  than  20  millions  of 
francs ;  the  mean  annual  returns  are,  for  honey, 
6,670,000,  and  for  wax,  1,620,000  kilogrammes. 
Poultry  constitutes  an  important  item  of  farm-pro- 
duce in  F.,  estimated  at  45^  millions  of  francs; 
while  the  eggs  and  feathers  yield  35^  millions  of 
francs.  The  wild  animals  are  fast  diminishing 
from  tlie  soil  of  F. ;  the  lynx  is  rarely  seen,  even 
among  the  higher  alpine  regions,  but  wolves  are  still 
numerous  in  the  mountainous  districts  of  the  central 
departments;  while  the  chamois  and  wild  goat,  as 
well  as  the  marmot,  ermine,  and  hamster,  are  found 
among  the  Pyrenees,  Alps,  and  Vosges.  The  wild- 
boar,  roebuck,  fox,  squirrel,  polecat,  and  marten  are 
to  be  met  with  in  the  woods.  The  red  and  fallow 
deer  are  scarce ;  hares  and  rabbits  abound,  and  game 
generally  is  plentiful.  The  wanton  destruction  of 
small  (singing)  birds  having  been  found  to  be  condu- 
cive to  the  excessive  increase  of  noxious  insects,  strin- 
gent municipal  enactments  are  now  being  put  into 
force  for  the  protection  of  those  birds. 

Fisheries. — The  French  government  expends  be- 
tween three  and  four  millions  of  francs  annually  in 
aiding  those  engaged  in  the  great  fisheries.  The  value 
of  the  exports  of  fish  from  F.  (12  millions  of  francs) 
is  little  more  than  half  the  value  of  the  imports. 
There  are  no  official  reports  of  river  and  other  fresh- 
water fishing  in  F.,  or  of  the  minor  fisheries  carried 
on  along  the  coasts,  which  constitute  the  princijjal 
means  of  occupation  and  support  of  the  majority  of 
the  local  population.  Pilchards  and  mackerel  are 
caught  in  large  quantities  off  Normand}'  and  Brit- 
tany. The  west  coasts  have  extensive  oyster  and 
mussel  beds ;  tunnies  and  anchovies  are  caught  on 
the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  following 
table  shews  the  condition  of  the  principal  branches  of 
the  fishing-trade  in  1870: 

Number  of  men  oi.5_.      Quantities  in 

employed.  °'"P^-  M,.tric  Quintals. 

Cod  fisheries,     .       .       13,189  661  359.046* 

Herring  fisheries, .       .     9,709  681  244,645 

Mineral  Products. — The  chief  mineral  products  of 
F.  are  coal  and  iron,  in  the  excavation  of  which 
nearly  250,000  men  were  employed  in  1868.  Al- 
though F.  is  not  rich  in  coal,  it  possesses  several 
very  considerable  coal-beds,  which  are  situated  prin- 
cipally in  the  east-south-east  and  north.  The  supply 
hitherto  has  not  equalled  the  demand  ;  although  in 
*  The  quintal  equals  1"97  cwt. 


FRANCE. 


1874 — the  latest  period  determined — it  rose  to  tlie 
enormous  amount  of  170  millions  of  quintals.  Not- 
withstanding this  home-sup)3ly,  it  was  found  neces- 
sary to  import  many  millions  of  quintals  to  meet  the 
increased  annual  demand,  which,  before  the  late  war, 
had  risen  above  200  millions  of  quintals,  while  in 
1852  it  was  still  under  120  millions.  Tlie  iron  mines 
of  F.  are  of  excellent  quality,  but  their  distance  from 
the  fuel  necessary  to  the  working  of  the  mineral, 
renders  them  of  relatively  small  value.  In  1874 
there  were  150  mines  in  operation,  from  which  40 
millions  of  quintals  were  taken ;  more  than  half  of 
this  quantity  being  obtained  from  the  five  departments 
of  Haute-Marne,  Haute-Saone,  Cher,  Moselle,  and 
Nord.  F.  imports  iron  from  Switzerland,  Germany, 
Belgium,  and  England.  Argentiferous  galena,  a  little 
silver  and  gold,  copper,  lead,  manganese,  antimony, 
and  tin  occur,  but  hitherto  their  working  has  not 
proved  very  productive.  The  department  of  Cha- 
rente-Inferiem-e  yields  the  largest  amount  of  salt,  the 
mean  annual  produce  being  H  million  of  quintals 
{2i  millions  of  francs),  which  is  fully  one- third  of 
the  entire  annual  produce  of  the  whole  country.  F. 
derives  about  41  millions  of  francs  from  its  quarries 
of  granite  and  freestone,  its  kaolin,  marbles,  sands, 
lithographic  stones,  millstones,  &c.  Granite  and  sye- 
nite are  found  in  tiie  Alps,  Vosges,  Corsica,  Nor- 
mandy, and  Burgundy  ;  porphyry  in  the  Vosges,  and 
basalt  and  lava  for  pavements  in  the  mountains  of 
Auvergne.  Marble  is  met  with  in  more  than  40  de- 
partments ;  alabaster  occurs  in  the  Pyrenees ;  the 
largest  slate-quarries  are  situated  near  Cherbourg  and 
St  L6. 

The  following  list  gives  an  approximative  estimate 
of  the  value  of  the  chief  products  of  French  indus- 
try: 

Millions  of  Francs. 


Linen  fabrics,   250 

Cotton     "    650 

AVoollen  950 

Silk        "    lOno 

Mixed     "   330 

Jewellery,  watchmiiking,   ...  35 

Gilt-wares,   12 

Minerals,  mines,  salt,  &c.,  .       .       .  600 

Articles  of  food — as  sugar,  wines,  &c.,    ,  364 

Skins,  leather,  oils,  tol)acco,      .       .  556 

Bone,  ivory,  isinglass,  &c.,     ...  30 

Chemical  products,      ....  80 

Ceramic  arts,  ,  86 

Paper,  printing,   60 

Forests,  fisheries,   98 


Industry^  Trade. — The  principal  seats  of  industn- 
are  as  follows:  For  textile  fabrics,  the  departments 
Le  Nord,  La  Sarthe,  Maine-et-Loire,  Seine-Inf^rieure, 
Le  Calvados,  Seine-et-Oise,  Ille-et-Vilaine,  &c.  F. 
stands  uni-ivalled  for  her  silk  manufactories,  the  finest 
of  which  are  at  Lyon,  Tours,  and  Paris;  while  St 
Etienne  is  the  special  seat  of  the  ribbon  trade.  Alen- 
pon,  Bailleul  (fabricating  the  so-called  Vale7icienne), 
Lille,  Arras,  Caen,  and  Bayeux  are  all  famous  for 
their  laces  and  blonds,  which  alone  occupy  250.000 
persons.  Rheims  stands  conspicuous  for  its  merinos 
and  fine  flannels;  Amiens  and  Nancy  for  their  fine 
printed  woollen  goods;  Lodeve  and  Elbceuf  for  army 
cloths.  Gloves  are  made  at  Grenoble,  Paris,  &c. 
The  best  carpets  are  mnde  at  Aubusson,  Abbeville, 
and  Amiens.  Paris  is  the  seat  of  industry  for  some 
of  the  most  costly  fabrics,  as  Gobelins  tapestry, 
shawls  of  great  value,  watches,  clocks,  articles  of 
vertu.  carriages,  philosophical  instruments,  &c.  Sfevres 
stands  unrivalled  for  its  china  and  glass.  St  Gobain 
and  St  Quirin  manufacture  looking-glasses  of  the 
largf-st  size. 

The  trade  of  F.  is  inferior  only  to  that  of  England 
and  the  United  States.  The  great  emporiums  of 
trade  are  Paris,  Lyon,  St  P^tienne,  Lille,  Rheims, 
Nvmes.  Toulouse,  St  Quentin,  Orleans,  Avignon, 
Montpellier,  &c. ;  and  the  most  active  maritime  ports 


are  Marseille,  Cette,  Havre,  Bordeaux,  Nantes,  Rouen, 
Calais,  Dunkirk,  Boulogne,  l)icp])e,  &c.  'J'bese  cen- 
tres of  trade  have  all  suffered  at  different  periods 
during  the  present  century,  from  the  political  disturl>- 
ances  under  successive  governments;  i)at  notwith- 
standing these  drawbacks,  the  commercial  activity  of 
the  country  had  nuxde  rapid  strides  within  the  last  30 
years  before  the  war  of  1870 — 1871.  The  following 
table  shews  the  condition  of  trade  during  four  years 
of  the  old  monarchy : 


Value  of 

Value  of 

Tears. 

Imports 
in  milliona 
of  francs. 

Exports  in 
millions  of 
francs. 

Total. 

1787, 

551 

440 

991 

1788,  . 

517 

466 

983 

1789, 

577 

441 

1018 

1792.  . 

929 

803 

1732 

While  the  rate  of  this  progress 

from  1867 

to  1873  w 

as  follows: 

Imports 

Exports 

Years. 

In  milliona 
of  francs. 

in  millions 
of  francs. 

Total. 

1867, 

3026 

2825 

5851 

1868,  . 

,  3303 

2789 

6092 

]§H9, 

3153 

8074 

6227 

1870,  . 

2781 

2860 

5641 

1871, 

3393 

2685 

6078 

1872,  . 

4501 

47f)6 

9257 

1873, 

4576 

4822 

9398 

The  transit  trade  of  F.  is  efi^ected  by  maritime  navi- 
gation between  foreign  and  French  ports,  by  coasting 
traffic,  or  cabotage^  between  various  French  ports, 
and  by  railways.  The  merchant  navy,  which  has  in- 
creased extensively  of  late  years,  numbered  in  1873, 
15,559  vessels,  having  a  tonnage  of  1,068,031;  596 
being  steamers  of  185,165  tons.  The  cabotage^  or 
internal  and  coasting  traffic,  is  a  great  source  of  finan- 
cial wealth  to  the  state,  to  Avhich  all  rivers  and  canals 
belong.  There  is  a  length  of  13,155  kilometres 
available  for  inland  navigation  in  France,  but,  ac- 
co!-ding  to  official  reports,  tliree-fourths  of  the  entire 
traffic  is  concenti'ated  upon  1800  kilometi-es  of  this 
distance.  Of  this  number,  73  per  cent,  lielonged  t 
the  ocean  ports,  and  27  per  cent,  to  the  Meditei.^ 
nean. 

Mailways^  &c. — In  1878,  the  railways  actually  in 
operation  measured  23,793  kilometres,  or  about  13,500 
miles,  with  provisions  for  additions  of  10,000  kilome- 
tres to  be  constructed  before  the  end  of  1888.  With 
the  exception  of  less  than  200  miles,  the  railways  of 
F.  are  held  by  sixcom  panics,  which  are  under  the  su- 
perintendence of  the  state,  from  which  they  receive  the 
following  subsidies  as  defined  by  the  budget  for  1873: 


Francs. 

Eastern  line,   57,900,000 

Western  line,   82.000.000 

Orleans  line,   92.416,000 

Lvoiis,   189.233,333 

South,   45.300,000 

North,   45,300,000 


The  total  receipts  of  all  the  lines  were,  for  1858,  334,- 
769,469  francs;  and  the  total  number  of  passengers 
conveved  bv  rail,  37,952,398.  In  1865,  the  number 
was  81, 533,061  ;  and  in  1869,  111,164,284.  In  1877 
the  total  receipts  were  842,199,600  francs.  By  a 
clause  in  the  treaty  of  1871,  the  Avhole  of  the  lines  ot 
the  Eastern  Company  in  Alsace-Lorraine,  about  700 
kilometres  in  length,  were  sold  to  the  imperial  gov- 
ernment of  Germany  for  325  millions  of  francs. 

The  creation  of  the  first  railroads  in  F.  is  referred 
to  Philippe  Auguste;  and  their  more  perfect  organi- 
sation in  the  16th  and  17th  centuries,  to  Henry  IV. 
and  Louis  XIV.  Under  Napoleon  I.  there  were  125 
highroads,  extending  in  all  over  30,000  kilometres, 
and  at  the  present  time  there  are  upwards  of  600 
national  roads  (35,000  kilom.),  and  265,000  depart- 
mental roads  (45,000  kilom.). 

Postal  Service. — The  postal  service  in  F.  goes  back 
to  the  year  1464,  when  Louis  XI.  placed  it  under  the 
direction  of  the  state.    Since  1848,  a  system  of  low 

473 


FRANCE. 


prepayment  for  letters  has  been  established.  At  the 
present  time,  letters  weighing  from  under  10  to  under 
100  grammes  require  stamps  from  15  centimes  to  1 
franc  20  centimes,  according  to  weight.  The  whole 
receipt  of  the  postal  service,  which  was  for  the  year 
1871,  91,242,000  francs,  and  for  1869,  before  the  Avar, 
was  94,199,359  francs,  was  in  1874,  110,416,000 
francs;  the  expenses  in  the  meanwhile  having  risen 
from  63,000,000  francs  in  1869  to  nearly  67,000,000 
in  1871,  and  72,622,900  in  1877. 

Electric  Telegraph. — The  first  electric  telegraph 
was  constructed  in  F.  in  1844,  and  F.  is  now  inter- 
sected hy  a  close  network  of  wires,  which  flash  com- 
munications between  Paris,  as  the  central  focus,  and 
every  part  of  the  etnpirc.  At  the  close  of  1873,  there 
were  47,055  kilometres  of  lines,  comprising  125,808 
kilometres  of  wire,  and  in  1878,  57,110  kilometres. 
The  number  of  tclegra])hic  messages  sent  in  1873  was 
6,150,727,  and  in  1877,  12,422,112,  the  receipts  for 
1877  being  119,517,600  francs,  and  the  expenses 
72,622,900  francs. 

Constitution,  (>overnment. — On  September  4,  1870, 
the  emperor,  Napoleon  III.,  was  declared  to  be  no 
longer  tlie  head  of  the  state,  and  France  was  pro- 
claimed a  republic.  At  tiie  close  of  1872,  the  su- 
preme power  was  vested  in  a  National  Assembly,  with 
whom  rests  the  nomination  of  the  chief  officer  of  the 
state,  bearing  the  title  of  '  President  of  the  French 
Republic,'  and  nominated  for  seven  years.  This 
oflScer,  as  chief  of  the  executive  power,  but  under 
responsil)ility  to  the  National  Assembly,  is  authorised 
to  promulgate  and  insure  the  proper  execution  of  all 
laws  and  ordinances  which  may  be  transmitted  to 
him  by  the  president  of  the  Assembly.  Py  the  law 
of  February  25,  1875,  the  National  Asseml)ly  con- 
sists of  tw^o  bodies — the  Chamber  of  Deputies  and 
the  Senate.  The  members  of  the  former  are  elected 
by  universal  suffrage,  and  eligible  without  further 
conditions  than  those  of  citizenship  as  Frenchmen, 
and  qualifications  of  character  and  age,-  besides 
that  of  not  being  either  pr^fet  or  sous-pr^fet  of 
the  department  for  which  the  candidate  wishes  to 
be  elected.  The  Senate  consists  of  300  members, 
of  whom  225  are  elected  by  the  departments  and 
75  by  the  National  Assembly.  To  the  President 
of  the  Republic  belongs,  in  accordance  with  the  prin- 
ciples that  have  regulated  the  respective  domains 
of  legislative  and  executive  power  in  F.  under  all 
forms  of  government,  the  right  of  appointing  the 
judges,  commanding  the  forces,  and  maintaining  re- 
lations and  settling  treaties  with  foreign  states,  in 
respect  to  which  acts  he  is  responsible  to  the  Assem- 
bly. He  appoints  and  dismisses  the  ministers  of  state, 
who  are  also  responsible  to  the  Assembly,  and  he 
may  reside  at  the  seat  of  the  National  Assembly,  and, 
provided  he  gives  the  required  notice  of  his  inten- 
tions, may  take  part  in  its  deliberations.  His  salary 
was  fixed  in  1873  at  600,000  francs  ($120,000),  with 
an  extra  allowance  of  162,000  francs  for  general 
household  expenses. 

The  ministry  is  presided  over  by  nine  ministers  of 
state,  each  of  whom  has  a  definitely  limited  sphere 
of  administrative  duty  and  authoi'ity ;  and  in  addition, 
the  president  is  assisted  in  the  government  by  a 
Council  of  State,  '  Conseil  d'Etat,'  which,  according 
to  a  decree  of  the  National  Assembly,  is  to  consist  in 
all  of  43  members,  15  of  whom  may  be  nominated  by 
the  president,  while  the  remaining  28  are  selected  by 
the  Assembly.  The  functions  of  this  body  are  re- 
stricted to  giving  advice  on  hills  presented  to  the 
National  Assembly  by  the  president  or  the  min- 
isters. 

Departments,  &c.. — F.  is  at  present  divided  into  86 
department!^,  comprising  362  arrondistsementa,  2865 
cantons^  jmd  35,985  communes.  Each  department  is 
presided  over  by  a  prdfet,  nominated  by  the  president 


of  the  republic  on  the  presentation  of  the  minister  of 
the  interior;  each  arrondissement  by  a  sub-pr^fet; 
each  canton  by  a  niember  at  the  general  council  of 
the  d6partement,  which  meets  annually  for  whatever 
period  may  be  decreed  hy  the  head  of  the  state;  and 
evei'y  commune  has  its  maire  and  municipal  council. 
Every  chief  town  of  a  canton  has  its  commissary  of 
police ;  in  the  larger  towns,  there  must  be  one  of 
these  officers  to  every  10,000  inhabitants.  The  ad- 
ministration of  justice  is  presided  over  by  a  special 
minister  of  state,  who  is  keeper  of  the  seals.  A  su- 
preme trihunal  serves  as  a  court  of  appeal  from  the 
lower  courts.  The  tribunals  of  commerce  and  police, 
together  with  those  of  the  several  departments,  take 
cognizance  of  the  various  civil  and  criminal  cases 
specially  falling  within  their  several  spheres.  There 
are  357  tribunals  of  the  arrondissemcnts,  or  tribu- 
naux  de  premih-e  instance,  which  are  divided  into  six 
classes;  2681  police  courts;  216  tribunals  of  com- 
merce ;  26  courts  of  appeal,  divided  into  four  clasjses  ; 
a  Cour  de  Cassation,  divided  into  three  chambers, 
which  confirms  or  annuls  the  sentences  of  the  police 
and  assize  courts;  and  a  Haute  Cour  de  Jm^tice, 
which  gives  final  judgment  in  all  cases  of  offence 
against  the  state.  Assizes  are  held  every  three  months 
in  59  towns;  and,  independently  of  the  ordinary 
judicial  magistrates,  the  courts  of  assize  are  com- 
posed of  juries  of  twelve  men,  chosen  in  accordance 
with  certain  prescribed  regulations.  In  the  maritime 
and  commercial  towns  there  were,  under  the  empire, 
85  councils  of  prucThommes  (experienced  men),  with 
summary  jurisdiction  in  matters  to  the  amount  of 
200  francs.  These  councils,  which  are  composed  of 
master-workmen  elected  annually,  decide  on  causes  of 
dispute,  chiefly  in  regard  to  questions  of  wages,  and 
differences  between  masters  and  men.  The  state  is 
charged  33,771,640  francs  annually  for  the  expenses 
incident  to  the  ministry  of  justice,  according  to  the 
budget  for  1876.  There  are  387  departmental  pris- 
ons, 21  central  houses  of  detention,  2  political  pris- 
ons at  Doullens  and  Belleisle,  and  numerous  peniten 
tiaries  and  reformatories  for  the  young.  All  these 
prisons,  excepting  the  two  for  political  offenders,  are 
in  part  self-supporting.  The  only  hulks,  hagncs, 
still  remaining  are  at  Toulon,  where  convicts  of  a 
certain  class  undergo  their  sentences,  but  the  princi- 
pal penal  settlement  is  in  French  Guiana  (q.  v.). 

lieligion.  Churches. — No  person  can  be  molested  in 
F.  on  account  of  his  religious  opinions,  provided  I  he 
manifestation  of  them  does  not  disturb  the  public 
peace  as  established  by  law.  The  public  exercise  of 
any  special  form  of  religion  must,  however,  be  pre- 
ceded by  the  official  authorisation  of  the  pr^fet,  or  in 
special  cases,  by  higher  authority.  The  recognised 
forms  of  faith  are — the  Roman  Catholic,  the  Protest- 
ant (including  the  Reformed  and  Lutheran),  the 
Jewish,  and,  for  Algeria,  the  Mohammedan.  The 
clergy  attached  to  these  religions  receive  their  piy 
from  the  state,  and  are  exempt  from  military 
service.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  embraces 
the  great  majority  of  the  people.  Of  the  36,000,000 
which  constitute  the  present  population  of  F., 
1,500,000  appertain  to  the  two  Protestant  churches, 
150,000  to  the  Jewish  persuasion;  and  25,000  to 
non-recognised  but  tolerated  denominations,  the 
Anabaptists  comprising  nearly  one-third  of  this 
number. 

At  the  breaking  out  of  the  Revolution,  the  an- 
nual revenues  of  the  church  amounted  to  150,000,- 
000  of  livres,  and  its  debts  to  133,000,000.  The 
state  appropriated  to  itself  the  funds  of  the  church 
in  1789,  and  assumed  the  responsibility  of  main- 
taining public  worship.  The  following  table  gives 
a  summary  of  the  expenses  incurred  by  the 
state  for  the  maintenance  of  religion  since  the  Con- 
sulate. 


FRANCE. 


Tears. 

CathoUo 

Protestant 

Jewish  form 

Moham.  Rel 

Beligiou. 

Church. 

of  Faith. 

in  Algeria. 

Francs. 

Francs. 

Francs. 

Francs. 

1803,     .  . 

4,059.1)06 

22,303 

1813,  .    .  . 

16,628,868 

695.000 

1823,    .  . 

26.138  445 

577,829 

1835,  .    .  . 

33,523,319 

849,763 

79,995 

3,000 

1847,    .  . 

37,630.008 

1,240,229 
1,328,891 

108,S36 

3,000 

1854,  .   .  . 

42,223,329 

149,428 

568,024 

1859,    .  . 

44,994,100 

1,408,436 

189,400 

630,200 

1873,  .    .  . 

51,500,000 

1,400,000 

273,000 

500,000 

The  archbishops  and  bishops  of  the  church  of  F.  are 
to  1)6  nominated  by  the  President  of  the  Republic  and 
canonically  inducted  by  the  pope.  There  are,  accord- 
ing? to  the  budget  of  1873,  18  archbishops  and  69 
bishops.  The  archbishop  of  Paris  receives  50,000 
francs  per  annum;  the  other  archbishops,  20,000 
francs;  the  bishops,  15,000  francs.  Six  French  prel- 
ates hold  the  rank  of  cardinals,  to  which  disunity 
they  ai'e  nominated  by  the  pope  on  the  presentation 
of  the  president.  Every  archbishopric  has  3,  and 
every  bishopric  2  vicars-general,  the  whole  number 
being  190.  Their  salaries  vary  from  3500  to  4500 
francs.  There  are  709  canons  belonging  to  the  vari- 
ous cathedral  chapters,  receiving  from  1600  to  2400 
francs  per  annum  ;  3437  cur^s  or  parochial  beneficed 
clei-gy,  who  are  canonically  inducted  by  the  bishops, 
under  the  approval  of  the  state;  and  31,586  curates 
or  deaservants.  The  cur^s  receive  from  1200  to  1500 
francs;  the  curates,  200  francs.  The  cures  maybe 
assisted  by  a  certain  number  of  vicariats,  who  receive 
from  350  to  500  francs;  there  are  at  present  9000 
authorised  by  the  state.  There  are  in  F.  105  Re- 
formed consistories,  and  44  belonging  to  the  Lutheran 
Church.  The  central  council  of  the  Reformed 
churches  holds  its  sittings  at  Paris.  Synods  composed 
of  the  delegates  of  five  churches  may  assemble  with 
the  authority  of  the  state  to  regulate  the  celebration 
of  the  services  of  their  church;  but  their  meetings 
cannot  last  longer  than  six  days,  and  tlieir  decisions 
must  be  submitted  for  the  approbation  of  the  govern- 
ment. There  is  a  Protestant  seminary  for  the  Re- 
formed at  Montauban.  Besides  the  sums  inscribed  in 
the  budget  for  the  maintenance  of  religion,  the  de- 
partments are  charged  with  special  annual  subsidies, 
which  have  risen  of  late  yenrs  in  a  rapid  ratio,  and 
amounted  in  1868  to  upwards  of  717,000  francs. 

Public  Instruction. — Public  instruction  is  presided 
over  in  F.  by  a  special  ministry.  Nearly  half  the  ex- 
penses connected  with  it  are  defrayed  by  the  state,  and 
the  remainder  by  the  departments.  There  are  15 
academies  located  in  the  following  towns — Aix,  Be- 
sanfon,  Bordeaux,  Caen,  Clermont,  Dijon,  Douai, 
Grenoble,  Lyon,  Montpellier,  Nancy,  Paris,  Poitiers, 
Renncs,  Toulon.  These  academies  are  divided  into 
the  five  faculties  of  theology,  law,  medicine,  sciences, 
and  literature,  and  supplemented  by  various  superior 
and  preparatoiy  schools.  'J'he  professors  are  paid 
partly  by  the  state,  and  partly  by  fees.  There  are  81 
normal  schools  intended  to  train  teachers  for  the 
higher  departments  of  instruction.  Secondary  in- 
struction has  received  an  immense  impetus  during 
the  present  century.  In  1866,  there  were  41,800 
free  and  public  schools  for  boys,  and  14,000  com- 
munal schools  for  the  use  of  girls,  and  the  entire 
number  of  scholars  exceeded  four  millions.  In  1863, 
the  number  of  children  over  eight  and  under  eleven, 
who  had  never  been  to  school,  amounted  to  about 
200,000.  In  1866,  about  30  pel  cent,  of  the  military 
conscripts  were  unable  to  read.  The  different  de- 
partments share  very  unequally  in  the  diffusion  of 
education,  and  it  may  be  generally  observed  that  the 
proportion  of  the  educated  is  highest  in  tlie  northern 
and  eastern  districts  of  F.  The  duration  of  school  life 
is  generally  regulated  by  the  religion  of  the  scholar. 
Roman  Catholics  of  the  lower  classes,  more  particularly 
in  the  rural  districts,  rarely  visit  school  after  eleven  or 


twelve,  the  age  at  which  they  receive  their  first  com* 
munion,  while  Protestants  commonly  remain  at  school 
until  about  sixteen.  The  elementary  schools  super- 
intended by  the  clergy  impart  a  very  defective  educa- 
tion. With  the  general  census  of  1872  came  a  second 
inquiry  into  the  educational  state  of  the  nation,  which, 
being  very  carefully  made,  gave,  it  is  reported,  very 
accurate  results.  In  this  census  the  population  was 
divided  into  three  groups  according  to  ages — the  first 
comprising  all  children  under  six ;  the  second  the 
growing  generation  between  six  and  twenty;  and  the 
third  ail  the  grown-up  persons  above  twenty.  It  was 
found  that  of  those  under  six  years  of  age  there  were 
— unable  to  read  or  write,  3,540,101 ;  able  to  read 
only,  292,348;  able  to  read  and  write,  151,595;  un- 
ascertained, 38,042.  Of  those  from  six  to  twenty 
there  were — unable  to  read  or  write,  2,082,338  ;  able 
to  read  only,  1,175,125;  able  to  read  and  write, 
5,458,097;  'unascertained,  70,721.  Of  those  above 
twenty  there  were — unable  to  read  or  write,  7,702,- 
362  ;  able  to  read  only,  2,305,130  ;  able  to  read  and 
write,  13.073,057;  unascertained,  214,005.  It  will 
be  seen  that  nine-tenths  of  the  children  under  six, 
more  than  a  fifth  but  less  than  a  fourth  of  the  youths 
of  both  sexes  under  twenty,  and  more  than  a  third  of 
the  grown-up  population  of  men  and  women  are  un- 
able to  read  or  write.  Setting  aside  the  four  millions 
of  children  under  six  years  of  age,  it  may  be  said  that 
thirty  per  cent,  of  the  population  of  France  are  en- 
tirely devoid  of  education.  F.  supports  numerous 
colleges  and  schools  for  instruction  in  special 
branches  of  knowledge :  as  L'Ecole  des  Chartes ;  des 
Langues  Orientales;  des  Beaux-Arts,  founded  in 
1671  by  Louis  XIV.;  de  Dessin,  founded  in  1766  by 
Louis  XV. ;  the  Conservatoire  de  Musique,  founded 
in  1784;  L'Ecole  de  Rome,  founded  by  Louis  XIV., 
and  L'Ecole  d'Athenes,  founded  in  1846;  L'Ecole 
des  Ponts  et  Chauss^es,  for  the  instruction  of  engi- 
neers of  public  works ;  L'Ecole  des  Mines  (1783) ;  the 
Conservatoire  National  des  Arts  et  Metiers,  for  the 
application  of  science  to  the  arts  and  trades;  the  Cen- 
tral School  des  Arts  et  Metiers;  and  the  national 
schools  for  arts  and  trades.  There  are  numerous 
agricultural,  forest,  farming,  and  veterinary  schools, 
besides  the  Ecole  Poly  technique,  especially  designed 
to  prepare  youths  for  the  public  services ;  and  mili- 
tary and  naval  colleges  at  St  Cyr,  Saumur,  Paris, 
Vincennes,  Brest,  Toulon,  and  St  Denis. 

Literary  and  Scientific  Institiitions. — Among  the 
literary  and  scientific  institutions  of  F.  the  first  is 
L'Institut  de  France  (q.  v.).  The  Museum  of  Natu- 
ral History,  known  formerly  as  the  Jai-din  du  Roi,  is 
one  of  the  finest  in  the  world.  The  Bureau  des  Lon- 
gitudes and  the  Observatoire,  at  Paris  and  Marseille, 
have  occupied  the  first  rank  among  scientific  institu- 
tions since  their  foundation.  These  establishments 
are  all  maintained  at  the  cost  of  the  state.  Paris 
possesses  several  libraries  belonging  to  and  supported 
by  the  state,  but  freely  opened  to  the  public.  The 
most  important  of  all  is  that  now  known  as  the  Bib- 
liotheque  Nationale.  See  Libraries.  There  are 
338  public  libraries  in  the  provinces,  to  all  of  which 
access  is  afforded  in  the  most  liberal  spirit.  F.  is 
rich  in  public  galleries  of  painting,  statuary,  and 
articles  of  veriu.  The  expenses  of  secondary  and  pri- 
mary education,  literary  and  sciej)tific  institutions, 
national  archives,  &c.,  are  charged  in  the  budget  for 
1876  at  38,220,000  francs. 

Theatres. — The  theatre,  like  all  other  public  insti- 
tutions, is  under  the  surveillance  of  the  state,  which 
charges  the  annual  budget  for  the  maintenance  of 
theatrical  companies;  nearly  7  millions  of  francs  being 
inscribed  on  the  budget  of  1876  for  the  support  of 
theatres,  the  fine  arts,  &c. 

Charitable  Institutions. — F.  is  rich  in  institutions 
of  charity,  many  of  which  are  remnants  of  the  old 


FRANCE. 


system  of  church  relief ;  but  the  crlches^  of  which 
there  nre  several  hundreds,  and  which  are,  in  fact, 
free  nurseries,  are  a  modern  form  of  charity,  which 
originated  (in  1844)  with  M.  Marbeau  at  Paris.  The 
public  hospitals  and  infirmaries  are  maintained  by 
special  endowments,  a  perccnta<^e  on  the  receipts  at 
theatres  and  other  places  of  amusement,  and  by  sub- 
sidies from  the  government  and  local  communes. 
Public  charities  for  the  relief  of  paupers  derive  their 
resources  cither  from  departmental  or  nmnicipal 
funds,  and  are  administered  by  the  bureaux  de  hien- 
faUa7ice^  by  the  depots  de  ineudicite^  and  by  numer- 
ous other  local  institutions;  besides  which,  the  state 
contributes  between  8  and  9  millions  of  francs  (for 
1876,  8.485,810  francs)  for  charitable  purposes. 

Tar.ation,  Finances, — The  public  revenues  are  ob- 
tained in  F.  from  direct  and  indirect  taxation,  and 
comprised  in  the  budget,  voted  by  the  National  As- 
sembly, under  the  heads  of  ordinary  resources  and 
special  resources;  the  former  including  direct  and 
indirect  taxes,  from  stamps,  the  produce  of  forests, 
telegraphs,  Algeria,  &c. ;  and  the  latter,  depart- 
mental funds,  special  imposts,  tScc.  The  following 
table  shews  the  financial  report  of  the  public  receipts 
and  expenditure  for  different  years  from  1815  to 
•  876: 


Years.  Receipts,  In  francs.   Expenditure,  in  francs. 

1815,  .       .      .       7J3  8:}0,200  798.590,859 

1824,  .       .       .         994.971,962  992  58:1.2:53 

18:W,  .       .       .  1,031,796  054  1,095,142.115 

1840,  .       .       .  1.2:U,483,()99  1,36:5,711,102 

1850,  ....  1,431.622,471  1,472,5.37,238 

1859,  .       .       .  1,766,080,877  1,773,919,114 

1871,  ....  2,190,120,590  2,161.262,952 

1873,  .      .       .  2,668,772,334  2.715.658,413 

1874,  ....  2,482.496,416  2,5:54,311.618 


1876,  .  .  .  2,575,028,582  2,570,505,513 
Public  Debt.— In  1814,  the  date  of  the  Restoration, 
the  interest  of  the  debt  was  63  million  francs;  under 
the  Bourbons  it  rose  to  200  millions;  and  from  1830 
to  1848,  Louis  Philippe  increased  it  to  244  millions. 
During  the  three  years  of  the  second  republic,  5  mil- 
lions were  paid  off;  but  the  second  empire  (1852 — 
1869)  added  nearly  120  millions  to  the  annual  bur- 
den. The  increase  of  the  debt  during  the  empire 
arose  from  a  succession  of  loans  raised  by  borrowing 
directly  from  the  mass  of  small  capitalists,  without 
the  intervention  of  large  banking-houses.  The 
amount  of  the  national  debt  of  France  is  very  vari- 
ously given  according  to  what  is  included  under  that 
head ;  but  if  we  take  the  funded  debt  bearing  rentes 
or  interest,  the  amount  of  such  rentes  in  January 
1870,  before  the  war,  is  stated  at  358  million  francs  = 
about  £14,000,000,  representing  a  capital  of  11,500 
million  francs,  or  £460,000,000.  The  loans  and  other 
obligations  incurred  to  meet  the  expenses  of  the  war 
of  1870 — 1871,  including  the  indemnity  of  5  milliards 
francs  to  Germany,  nearly  doubled  this  sum,  so  that 
the  national  debt  of  France,  as  stated  in  the  bud- 
get for  1876,  was  19.900,206,733  francs,  or  about 
13,980,000,000.  In  1879  it  amounted  to  $4,815,- 
337,109  (about  25,000,000,000  francs),  the  revenue 
for  the  same  year  amounting  to  $545,000,000  and 
the  expenditures  to  $552,800,000. 

The  continual  deficits  from  the  close  of  the  first 
empire  in  1815  to  the  close  of  the  second  empire  in 
1870,  have  been  covered  by  loans,  inscribed  in  what 
is  known  as  le  grand  livre  de  la  dette  pnblique^  and 
bearing  interest  or  rentes  at  the  rate  of  3,  4,  4i,  and 
5  per  cent.  The  budgets  voted  annually  by  the  rep- 
resentatives of  tlie  nation  have  almost  invariably 
shewn  a  sniall  assumed  surplus;  while  the  compte 
dejinitlf  for  the  corresponding  period,  when  published 
some  years  afterwards,  has  without  exception  exhib- 
ited a  large  deficit.  The  following  table  shews  the 
rate  at  which  these  defi(;its  have  increased  since  1814, 
the  deficits  for  1868  and  1869  being  given  conjectur- 
ally  as  estimated  from  official  sources; 


Periods.  Amount  of  Deflcitt. 

Francs. 

RoHrbon  Monarch)',  from  1815  to  18:50,  .  .  22,550,000 
Jleigii  of  Louis  Philipixi,  from  18:-,0  to  1848,  997.^66,000 
Second  Rcpiil.lic,  from  1848  to  1852,  .  .  .  359,374,000 
Second  Empire,  from  1852  to  1870,       .       .  2,141,0.50,500 

The  total  value  of  the  French  money  in  circulation 
is  12,630,657,996  francs.  According  to  the  act  of 
monetary  union  effected  between  France,  Belgium, 
Switzerland,  and  Italy,  the  emission  of  coined  pieces 
is  to  be  at  the  rate  of  6  francs  for  every  inhabitant, 
which,  taking  into  account  the  presumed  increase  of 
population  to  the  year  1880,  when  the  term  of  the 
treaty  expires,  gives  for  France  the  sum  of  239  mil- 
lions; for  Belgium  32,  for  Italy  141,  and  for  Swit- 
zerland 17  miilions  francs.  The  amount  of  specie 
in  reserve  in  the  bank  in  January  1873,  was  790,000,- 
000  francs;  the  amount  of  notes  in  circulation  by  the 
bank  and  its  branches  was  2,858,619,270  francs.  The 
maximum  amount  of  notes  in  circulation  has  been 
fixed  at  3,000,000,000  francs,  by  the  decree  of  the 
National  Assembly  of  July  1872. 

^r«j?/.  — Standing  armies  date  in  F.  from  the  time 
of  Ciiarles  VII.  The  law  of  1832  regulated  the  sys- 
tem of  recruiting  by  conscription,  on  the  footing 
which,  with  few  modifications,  it  has  subsequently 
occupied.  By  the  law  of  1872,  substitution  and  en- 
listment for  money  are  prohibited,  and  the  principle 
of  universal  liability  to  arms  is  laid  down,  in  accord- 
ance with  which  every  Frenchman  must  be  for  five 
years  in  the  '  active  army,'  for  four  years  in  the  re- 
serve of  the  same,  foi  five  years  in  the  territorial 
army,  and  for  six  years  in  the  reserve  of  the  territo- 
rial army.  Besides  the  ordinary  physical  causes  of 
exemption,  there  are  various  others  admitted,  arising 
from  family,  social,  or  individual  conditions;  while, 
moreover,  young  men  who  pass  the  necessary  exami- 
nation, may  obtain  exemption  by  enlisting  as  volun- 
teei's  for  one  year  only,  and  defi-aying  the  cost  of 
their  maintenance  and  clothing.  The  returns  for  1871 
gave  the  strength  of  the  French  army  as  follows; 
Peace-footing — 404,192  men,  86,368  horses;  war- 
footing — 757,727  men,  143,238  horses;  while  the 
estimated  cost  was  somewhat  more  than  430  millions 
of  francs.  According  to  the  estimates  for  1879,  the 
French  army  is  calculated  at  502,856  men,  including 
281,601  infantry,  68,617  cavalry,  66,331  artilleiT, 
and  86,307  other  troops.  F.  is  divided  into  six  mili- 
tary commands,  or  corps  dCarmee  ,  each  under  a  field- 
marshal,  which  are  subdivided  into  districts  com- 
manded by  generals  of  division,  and  into  lesser  cir- 
cles, corresponding  with  the  departments,  and  under 
generals  of  brigades.  The  fortified  chefs-lieux  are  at 
Arras,  Bayonne,  Besanfon,  Bourges,  Brest,  Cher- 
bourg, Grenoble,  Langres,  La  Rochelle,  Le  Havre, 
Lille,  Lyon,  Marseille,  Montpellier,  Nantes,  Perpig- 
nan,  St  Omer,  Toulon,  and  Toulouse.  Metz  and 
Strasbnrg  were  formerly  included  in  this  number,  but 
since  their  annexation  by  Germany,  Avignon,  Per- 
pignan,  Quiberon,  and  Rouen  have  been  converted 
into  military  chefs-lieux  in  their  place.  Besides  reg- 
ular troops,  F.  has  its  Garde  Nationale^  which  was 
created  in  1789,  and  legally  organised  in  1791.  Since 
1852,  the  sphere  of  its  obligations  has  been  limited  to 
the  maintenance  of  order  in  case  of  threatened  insur- 
rection. 

Navy.  —  According  to  the  returns  of  1879,  the 
officers  of  the  French  navy  consisted  of  35  vice-ad- 
mirals, 50  rear-admirals,  113  captains  of  first-class 
men-of-war,  233  captains  of  frigates,  762  lieutenants, 
451  ensigns,  and  139  cadets;  total,  1783  officers.  The 
sailors  afloat  and  on  shore,  together  with  engineers, 
&c,,  brought  the  grand  total  of  those  employed  in 
the  fleet  to  49,930.  The  inscription  for  the  navy  owes 
its  systematic  organisation  to  the  great  mini.^ster  Col- 
bert (1681).  At  present,  all  persons  engaged  in  any 
maritnne  vocatioa  between  the  ages  of  18  and  50  are 


FRANCE. 


liable  to  inscription,  but  the  service  is  only  compul- 
sory for  three  years.  The  fleet  consists  of  232  ves- 
sels afloat;  of  these  31  ai'e  ironclads.  F.  has  6  de- 
pots for  marine  artillery,  .3  foundries,  and  2  manu- 
factories for  projectiles.  Tliere  are  special  hospitals, 
schools,  and  libraries  for  the  use  of  the  navy ;  and  .5 
maritime  districts,  subdivided  into  12  arrondisse- 
ments,  at  which  are  administrative  courts  for  the  set- 
tlement of  all  naval  questions. 

Money,  Weights,  and  Measures. — For  the  money, 
weights,  and  measures  now  used  in  F.,  see  Franc, 
Metre,  Litre,  Gramme. 

Colo7ues. — In  the  larger  French  colonies,  the  ad- 
ministrative power  is  vested  in  a  goA^ernor,  who  exer- 
cises supreme  military  command,  and  is  assisted  by  a 
general  council,  specially  charged  to  vote  the  budget 
of  the  province.  Three  officers  act  under  the  orders 
of  the  governor — viz.,  the  '  ordonnator,'  director  of 
the  interior,  and  procurator-general.  There  is  also  in 
each  colony  a  colonial  controller,  who  presides  over 
the  financial  and  other  departments. 

See  Dictions,  et  Annnaires  de  V Administ.  Franc. ; 
Bulletin  des  Lois  (1872);  Statistique  de  France 
(1872;;  Dictionnaire  general  de  la  Politique,  hy  M. 
Maurice  Block  (1873);  Almanack  de  Gotha  (1876). 

History. — Gallia  (Eng.  Gaul)  was  the  anciexjt 
name  under  which  F.  was  designated  by  t».. 
Romans,  who  knew  little  of  the  country  till  the 
time  of  Caesar,  when  it  was  occupied  by  the 
three  races  of  the  Aquitani,  Celt®,  and  Belgse,  who 
respectively  inhabited  the  south-west,  the  west 
and  central,  and  the  north  and  north-east  parts. 
There  were  also  some  tribes  of  Germans,  Ligurians, 
and  Greeks.  It  is  probable  that  the  Celts  were 
the  oldest  race,  for  this  people  had  sent  forth 
colonies  into  Italy  600  B.C.  The  Greeks  nevei 
penetrated  far  beyond  the  shores  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, where  they  planted  colonies,  the  most 
important  of  which  was  Massalia  (Marseille).  The 
conquests  of  Csesar  reduced  a  great  jiart  of  the 
country.  Under  Augustus,  Gaul  was  divided  into 
four  jH-ovinces,  which,  under  subsequent  emperors, 
were  dismembered,  and  sxibdi\ided  into  seven- 
teen. In  the  decline  of  the  Iloman  power,  Gaul 
was  ravaged  by  neighbouring  hordes,  and  in  the 
5th  c.  it  fell  completely  under  the  power  of  the 
Visigoths,  Burgundians,  and  Franks.  In  4SG  a.d., 
Clovis,  a  chief  of  the  Salian  Franks,  and  of  the 
race  of  MeroAongius,  raised  himself  to  supreme 
power  in  the  north.  His  dynasty,  known  as  the 
Merovingian,  ended  in  the  person  of  Childeric  III., 
who  was  deposed,  752  A.  D.,  after  the  kingly  power 
had  already  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  former 
Maire  du  Palais,  or  mayor  of  the  palace,  Pepin 
d'Heristal,  and,  after  him,  into  those  of  Charles 
Martel  and  Pepin  le  Bref.  The  accession  of  Pepin 
gave  new  vigour  to  the  Prankish  monarchy 
which,  under  his  son  and  successor  Charlemagne 
(768 — 814),  rose  to  the  rank  of  the  most  powerful 
empire  of  the  West.  Christianity,  civilisation, 
and  letters  were  protected  during  his  reign,  and 
before  his  death  he  had  joined  the  crown  of  Lom- 
bardy  to  his  other  diadems,  and  had  stretched 
the  bmits  of  his  empire  from  the  Eider  and  the 
German  Ocean  to  the  Ebro  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Baltic. 
With  him,  however,  this  vast  fabric  of  powei 
crumbled  to  pieces,  and  his  weak  descendants 
completed  the  ruin  of  the  Prankish  empire  by  the 
dismemberment  of  its  various  parts  among  the 
younger  branches  of  the  Carlovingian  family.  Intes- 
tine wars  desolated  the  land,  and  foreign  assailants 
threatened  it  on  every  si  le.  In  911  A.  d.,  the  ravages 
of  the  Northmen  had  assumed  so  persistent  a  char- 
acter,  that  Charles  le  Simple  was  glad  to  pxirchase 
Immunity  from  their  encroachments  by  the  cession 


of  the  territory  subsequently  known  as  Normandy. 
Anarchy  reigned  paramount;  the  various  governors 
established  an  hereditary  authority  in  their  several 
governments,  and  the  crown  was  by  degrees  depnved 
of  the  noblest  part  of  its  appanages.  The  power  of 
some  of  the  vassals  s  irpassed  that  of  the  kin^s ;  and 
on  the  death  of  Louis  V.  the  Carlovingian  dynasty 
was  replaced  by  that  of  Hugues,  Count  of  Paris, 
whose  son,  Hugues  Capet,  was  elected  king  by  the 
army,  and  consecrated  at  Rheims,  987  A.  d.  At  this 
period,  the  greater  part  of  F.  was  held  by  almost 
independent  lords,  and  the  authority  of  the  Capetian 
kings  extended  little  beyond  Paris  and  Orleans. 
Louis  le  Gros  (1108—1137)  was  the  first  of  the 
race  who  reinstated  order.  He  promoted  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  feudal  system,  abolished  serfdom 
on  his  own  estates,  secured  corporate  rights  to 
the  cities  under  his  jurisdiction,  and  gave  efficiency 
to  the  central  authority  of  the  crovm.  A  greater 
degree  of  general  order  was  thus  secured,  while  a 
new  element  in  the  state  was  generated  by  the 
foundation  of  a  free  burgher  class.  Louis  carried 
on  a  war  against  Henry  I.  of  England ;  and  when 
the  latter  allied  himself  with  tbe  Emperor  Henry  V. 
of  Germany  against  F.,  he  brought  into  the  field 
an  army  of  200,000  men,  whose  ready  appearance 
afforded  the  first  instance  of  the  existence  of  a  com- 
mon national  feeling  of  patriotism,  ready  to  respond 
to  the  appeal  of  the  sovereign.  The  oriflamme  is 
said  to  have  been  borne  aloft  for  the  first  time  on 
this  occasion  as  the  national  standard.  Louis  VII. 
(Le  Jeune),  who  took  part  in  the  second  crusade 
(1137 — 1180),  was  almost  incessantly  engaged  in 
war  mth  Henry  11.  of  -England.  His  son  and 
successor,  Philippe  Auguste  (1180 — 1223)  reoovcred 
Normandy,  Maine,  Touraine,  and  Poitou  from  John 
of  England,  and  increased  the  power  of  the  crown  in 
various  other  parts  of  France.  He  took  an  active 
personal  share  in  the  Crusades,  and  permitted  the 
pope  to  organise  a  cruel  persecution  against  the 
Albigenses  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  country. 
Phili])pe  was  the  first  to  levy  a  tax  for  the  main- 
tenance of  a  standing  army,  and  in  his  reign  a 
chamber  of  peers,  of  six  secular  and  six  ecclesias- 
tical members,  was  instituted,  to  act  as  a  council 
of  state.  Many  noble  institutions  date  their  origin 
from  this  reign,  as  the  university  of  Paris,  the 
Louvre,  &c.  By  the  amendment  of  the  admi- 
nistration of  justice,  the  right  of  appeal  to  the  royal 
courts  was  established,  and  the  arbitrary  piower  of 
the  great  vassals  crippled.  Improvements  in  tbe 
mode  of  administering  the  law  were  continued  under 
his  son,  Louis  VIII.  (1223—1226),  and  his  grand- 
son, Louis  IX.  (1226—1270),  who  caused  a  code  of 
laws  {Ltahlissements  de  St  Louis)  to  be  promulgated. 
St  Louis  also  effected  many  modifications  in  the 
fiscal  department,  and,  before  his  departure  for  the 
Crusades,  seciu'ed  the  rights  of  the  Galilean  Church 
by  a  special  statute,  in  order  to  counteract  the  con- 
stantly increasing  assumptions  of  the  papal  power. 
Under  his  son,  Philippe  III.  (1270—1285),  titles 
of  nobility  were  first  conferred  by  letters-patent. 
He  added  Valois  and  the  comtes  of  Toulouse  and 
Venaissin  to  the  crown.  Philippe  IV.  (1285—1314), 
surnamed  Le  Bel,  acquired  Navarre,  Champagne, 
and  Biie  by  man-iage.  With  a  view  of  securing  sup- 
port against  the  secular  and  ecclesiastical  nobility, 
with  whom  he  was  constantly  at  war,  Philippe  gave 
prominence  to  the  burgher  element  in  the  nation, 
and  on  28th  March  1302,  he,  for  the  first  time 
called  together  the  etats  generaux,  or  general  estates, 
at  which  the  tiers  etai,  or  burgher  class,  appeared 
together  with  the  nobles  and  clergy.  These  changes 
were,  however,  accompanied  by  arbitrary  iimova- 
tions  in  the  fiscal  and  other  departments  of  the 
govcmment,  which  were  effected  with  reckless  hasM 

477 


FRANCE. 


and  violence.  With  a  view  of  securing  to  the  crown 
the  great  tiefs,  he  abrogated  the  right  of  females  to 
succeed  to  landed  property.  His  tyrannical  perse- 
'Cution  of  the  Templars  shewed  the  extent  to  which 
the  regal  power  could  be  stretched  ;  and  under  his 
successors,  Louis  X.  (1314—1316),  Philippe  V.  (1316 
—1321),  and  Charles  IV.  {Le  Bel),  (1321—1328),  the 
last  direct  descendant  of  the  Capetian  line,  the  rule 
of  the  kings  of  F.  became  even  more  unlimited, 
whilst  the  court  was  given  up  to  every  sjjecies  of 
luxurious  indulgence  known  to  the  age.  Philippe 
VI.,  the  lirst  of  the  House  of 'Valois  (1328—1350),  a 
distant  relative  of  Charles  IV.,  and  the  nephew  of 
Philippe  IV.,  succeeded  in  right  of  the  salic  law. 
His  reign,  and  those  of  his  successors,  Jean  (1350 — 
13G4)  and  Charles  V.  [Le  Sage),  (13G4— 1380),  were 
disturbed  by  constant  wars  with  Edward  III.  of 
England,  who  laid  claim  to  the  throne  in  nght  of 
his  mother,  a  daughter  of  Philippe  le  Bel.  The  war 
began  in  1339 ;  in  1346,  the  battle  of  Crecy  was 
fought;  at  the  battle  of  Poitiers  (1356),  Jean  waa 
made  captive  ;  and  before  its  final  close  after  the 
death  of  Edward  (1377),  the  state  was  reduced  to 
bankruptcy,  the  nobility  excited  to  rebellion,  and 
the  mass  of  the  peo}>le  Scink  in  barbarism.  Falsifi- 
cation of  the  coinage,  onerous  taxation,  and  arbi- 
trary conscriptions,  brought  the  country  to  the 
verge  of  irretrievable  ruin,  while  the  victories  of 
England  humbled  the  sovereign,  annihilated  the 
French  armies,  and  cut  down  the  flower  of  the 
nation.  The  long  and  weak  minority  of  Richard  IL 
diverted  the  English  from  the  prosecution  of  their 
groundless  claims  to  the  kingdom  of  F.,  which 
re\aved  somewhat  from  •  the  effect  of  its  long  and 
disastrous  warfare ;  but  during  the  regency  for 
the  minor,  Charles  VI.  {Le  Bkii  Aimc),  (1.3S0— 1422), 
the  war  was  renewed  wdth  increased  \ngour  on  the 
part  of  the  English  nation,  who  were  stimulated 
by  the  daring  valour  of  Henry  V,  The  signal 
victory  won  by  the  English  at  Azincourt  in  1415 ; 
the  treason  and  rebellion  of  the  French  princes  of 
the  blood,  who  governed  the  larger  provinces  ;  the 
ambition  of  the  several  regents,  the  ultimate  imbe- 
cihty  of  the  king,  the  profligacy  of  his  queen,  and 
the  love  of  pleasure  early  CAinced  by  the  dauphin, 
all  combined  to  aid  Hemy  in  his  attempts  upon  the 
throne,  and  at  one  period  his  recognition  as  heir  to 
the  crown,  and  the  disorganised  state  of  the  nation, 
seemed  to  threaten  the  complete  ruin  of  F.  ;  but  the 
premature  death  of  Henry,  the  persevering  spirit 
of  the  people,  and  the  extraordinary  influence  exer- 
cised over  her  countrymen  by  the  Maid  of  Orleans, 
Jeanne  d'Arc,  who  instilled  courage  into  the  hearts 
of  the  soldiers,  and  roused  the  dauphin  from  his 
lethargic  indolence,  combined  to  bring  about  a 
thorough  reaction,  and,  after  a  period  of  murder, 
rapine,  and  anarchy,  Charles  VII.  (Ze  Victorieux), 
(1422 — 1461)  was  crowned  at  Rheims.  He  obtained 
from  the  Estates  General  a  regular  tax  {taille)  for 
the  maintenance  of  paid  soldiers,  to  keep  in  check 
the  mercenaries  and  marauders  who  pillaged  the 
country.  The  pohcy  of  his  successor,  Louis  XL 
(1461—1483),  the  first  king  entitled  'His  most 
Christian  Majesty,'  favoured  the  burgher  and  trading 
classes  at  the  expense  of  the  nobles,  while  he 
humbled  the  power  of  the  crown-princes.  He  was 
a  crafty  rider,  who  managed  the  finances  well,  and 
succeeded,  by  policy  and  good-luck,  in  recovering 
for  the  crown  the  territories  of  Maine,  Anjou,  and 
Provence;  while  he  made  himself  master  of  some 
portions  of  the  territories  of  Charles  the  Bold,  Duke 
of  Burgundy.  Charles  VIII.  (1483—1498),  by  his 
marriage  with  Anne  of  Brittany,  secured  that  power- 
ful state,  and  consolidated  the  increasing  power  of 
the  crown.  With  him  ended  the  direct  male  auccea- 
Bion  of  the  House  of  Valois.  Louis  XIL  (1498-  -1515). 
478 


{Le  P^re  du  Peuple)  was  the  only  representative  of  the 
Valois- Orleans  family.  The  tendency  of  his  reign 
was  to  confirm  the  regal  supremacy,  while  the 
general  condition  of  the  people  was  ameliorated.  He 
and  his  successor,  Francis  I.  (1515—1547),  of  the 
Valois- Angoideme  branch,  wasted  their  resources  in 
futile  attempts  to  establish  their  hereditary  claims 
to  LomV;ardy,  and  were  thus  perpetually  embroiled 
with  the  House  of  Austria.  A  concordat  with  the 
pope,  signed  in  1516,  secured  the  nomination  of  the 
Galilean  bishops  to  the  king.  In  this  reign,  the 
Assembly  of  Notables  and  Deputies  superseded  the 
General  Estates.  The  defeat  of  Francis  at  the 
battle  of  Pavia,  in  1525,  and  his  subsequent  imprison- 
ment at  Madrid,  threw  the  aftairs  of  the  nation  into 
the  greatest  disorder,  and  embarrassed  the  public 
finances  to  a  most  ruinous  extent.  Arts  and  litera- 
ture were  encouraged  in  this  reign,  and  in  that  of 
the  succeeding  monarch,  Henri  II.  (1547 — 1559),  who 
continued  the  disastrous  Italian  war.  In  the  latter 
reign  began  the  persecutions  of  the  Protestants, 
which  were  carried  on  with  still  greater  cruelty 
under  Henri's  three  sons,  Francis  IL  (1559 — 1560), 
Charles  IX.  (1560—1574),  and  Henri  IIL  (1574— 
1589),  the  last  of  this  branch  of  the  Valois.  The 
massacre  of  St  Bartholomew  (1572)  was  peri)etr^ted 
under  the  direction  of  the  (jueen-mother,  Catharine 
de'  Medici,  and  the  confederation  of  the  League,  at 
the  head  of  which  were  the  Guises.  The  wars  of 
the  League,  which  were  carried  on  by  the  latter 
against  the  Bourbon  branches  of  the  princes  of  the 
blood-royal,  involved  the  whole  nation  in  their 
vortex.  The  succession  of  Henri  IV.  of  Navarre 
(1589 — 1610),  a  Bourbon  prince,  descended  from 
a  younger  son  of  St  Louis,  allayed  the  fury  of  these 
religious  wars,  but  his  recantation  of  Protestantism 
in  favour  of  Catholicism,  disappointed  his  own  party. 
The  early  part  of  his  reign  was  perpetually  disturbed 
by  the  mutinies  of  the  troops  and  the  rebellions  of 
the  nobles.  By  degrees,  however,  Henri,  through 
the  astute  counsels  of  his  minister  Sully,  and  by  his 
own  personal  popularity,  raised  the  power  of  the 
crown  higher  than  ever,  while  he  began  a  system  of 
thorough  administrative  reform,  which  was  only 
arrested  by  his  assassination  by  the  fanatic  Ravaillac. 
During  the  minority  of  his  son,  Louis  XIIL  (1610 
— 1643),  Cardinal  Richelieu,  under  the  nominal 
regency  of  Marie  de'  Medici,  the  queen-mother, 
ruled  F.  with,  a  firm  hand,  although  his  op])ression 
of  the  Protestants  at  home,  and  his  co-operation 
with  them  abroad,  in  endeavouiing  to  hwnble  the 
House  of  Austria,  entailed  long  and  costly  wars  with. 
little  fame  on  France.  Cardinal  Mazarine,  under 
the  regency  of  the  queen-mother  Anne  of  Austria, 
exerted  nearly  equal  power  for  some  time  during 
the  minority  of  Louis  XIV.  (1643-1715).  The 
wars  of  the  Fronde,  the  misconduct  of  the  parlia- 
ment, and  the  humbling  of  the  nobility,  gave  rise  to 
another  civil  war,  but  with  the  assumption  of  poner 
by  young  Louis,  a  new  era  commenced,  and  till  near 
the  close  of  his  long  reign,  the  military  successes  of 
the  French  were  most  brilliant,  and  the  boundai'ies 
of  F.  were  enlarged  by  conquests  and  treaties  very 
nearly  to  what  they  are  now.  The  military  glory  of 
the  kingdom  was  maintained  by  a  host  of  gallant 
commanders,  amongst  whom  stood  conspiciious  the 
names  of  Turenne,  Vauban,  Luxembourg,  Catinat, 
Vendome,  Boufflers,  and  Crequi,  while,  by  the  far- 
sighted  policy  of  the  minister  Louvois,  a  well- organ- 
ised army  and  a  newly-created  navy  made  the  power 
of  F.  formidable  to  all  neighbouring  nations.  The 
progress  of  the  people  in  the  arts  of  pea,c©  wfta  not 
less  marked.  At  the  close  of  hip  rule,  the  oppressive 
war-taxes,  the  prodigahty  of  the  court,  the  luxurious 
lives  of  the  clergy,  and  the  absolutism  and  bigotry 
of  the  aged  monarch,  combined  to  imderwine  the 


FRANCE. 


foundations  of  national  prosperity  and  freedom,  and 
at  his  death  the  state  was  left  trammelled  with  a 
debt  of  3500  millions  of  livres,  and  his  youthful  heir, 
Louis  XV.  (1715 — 1775),  succeeded  to  a  heritage 
whose  glory  w^as  tarnished,  and  whose  stability  was 
shaken  to  its  very  foimdations.  The  long  inglorious 
reigu  of  Louis  XV.  presents  nothing  worthy  of 
notice  except  the  gradual  rise  of  those  sentiments  of 
infidelity  and  licence  which  prepared  the  overthrow 
of  all  the  ancient  institutions  of  the  country.  The 
regency  of  the  profligate  Orleans  paved  the  way 
for  the  miseries  which  followed,  while  his  corrupt 
financial  administration  brought  the  nation  into  the 
most  overwhelming  monetary  embarrassments. 
this  reign,  Corsica  was  added  to  France,  The 
thorough  disorganisation  of  the  state,  and  the  neglect 
of  the  fleet  and  army,  prevented  all  attempts  al 
conquests  either  on  sea  or  land.  The  colonies  \\  ere 
left  a  prey  to  the  attacks  of  other  powers,  while  the 
capricious  change  of  policy  which  the  king's  mistress, 
Madame  Pompadour,  forced  upon  the  government, 
brought  contempt  upon  the  country.  The  peace  of 
Paris,  1763,  by  which  the  greater  portion  of  the 
colonial  possessions  of  F.  w^ere  given  up  to  England, 
terminated  an  inglorious  war,  in  which  the  French 
had  expended  1350  millions  of  francs.  The  close  of 
this  unhappy  reign  was  still  further  distiu'bed  by 
the  cabals  of  the  Jesuits,  who  were  finally  banished 
in  1764.  In  1774,  Louis  XVI.,  a  well-meaning, 
weak  prince,  succeeded  to  the  throne.  His  first 
ministers,  Maurepas,  Turgot,  and  Malesherbes,  had 
not  the  vigour  to  carry  out  the  reforms  which  their 
sense  and  patriotism  suggested  to  them,  and  they 
were  soon  compelled  to  yield  to  the  intrigues  of  the 
nobility,  and  resign  their  places.  They  were  succeeded 
by  the  financier  Necker,  who  endeavoured,  by 
economy  and  method,  to  aiTest  the  impending  bank- 
ruptcy of  the  state,  and  succeeding  ministers  made 
futile  attempts  to  diminish  these  financial  disorders 
by  new  forms  of  taxation,  which  were  generally 
opposed  either  by  the  assembly  or  the  court.  The 
American  war  of  freedom  had  disseminated  republican 
ideas  among  the  lower  orders,  while  the  Assembly  of 
the  Notables  had  discussed  and  made  known  to  all 
classes  the  incapacity  of  the  government,  and  the 
wanton  prodigality  of  the  court.  The  nobles  and  the 
tiers  etat  were  alike  clamorous  for  a  meeting  of  the 
states  ;  the  former  wishing  to  impose  new  taxes  on 
the  nation,  and  the  latter  determined  to  inaugurate 
a  thorough  and  systematic  reform.  After  much 
opposition  on  the  part  of  the  king  and  court,  the 
eUits  generaux,  w^hich  had  not  met  since  1614, 
assembled  at  Versailles  on  the  25tli  of  May  1789. 

F.  was  at  that  moment  ripe  for  a  revolution. 
Although  the  nobility  was  exceedingly  numerous 
(as  not  only  did  the  children  of  a  noble  belong  to 
this  class,  but  its  numbers  were  constantly  being 
increased  by  creation),  there  w'ere  great  differeiicer 
in  the  rank  and  dignity  attached  to  the  order  ;  thus, 
in  1789,  there  were  only  44  secular  peers,  independ- 
ently of  the  princes  of  the  blood,  and  the  six  origin- 
ally created  ecclesiastic  peers ;  but  the  lower  grades 
of  nobility  were  so  nvmierous  that  their  numbers 
stood  in  the  ratio  of  1  to  250  of  the  entire  jwpula- 
tion.  Nevertheless,  every  grade  of  nobility  exemjited 
its  holder  from  the  payment  of  the  ordinary  land- 
tax,  or  ta'dle,  from  the  charge  of  maintaining  the 
public  roads  (corvee),  from  military'' conscription,  from 
receiving  billets  of  soldiers,  &c.  The  nobles  X)aid 
the  capitation  tax,  but  in  a  very  unequal  proportion, 
although  the  landed  property  was  vested  almost 
entirely  in  their  hands.  They,  in  fact,  monopolised 
(together  with  the  clergy)  the  principal  share  of  the 
national  revenues,  and  left  to  the  lower  classes  the 
burden  of  labour  and  of  paying  the  taxes.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  lie  volution,  the  French  nobility 


were  siink  in  j)rofligacy,  and  fallen  to  the  lowest 
stage  of  demoralisation.  The  clergy  kej)t  pace 
with  Ihe  nobles  in  general  depravity,  and  while 
their  aggregate  revenues  amounted,  according  to 
Necker,  to  130,000,000  of  livres,  and  their  landed 
property  stood  in  the  relation  of  1  to  5f  of  that  of 
all  other  proprietors,  tUeir  contributions  towards 
the  maintenance  of  the  state  were  inadequate  and 
irregular ;  the  open  profligacy  and  wasteful  excesses 
of  many  of  the  higher  members  of  the  hierarchy, 
brought  the  whole  order  into  disrepute.  Francis 
L  had  WT-ung  from  the  church  a  tithe,  known 
as  the  decime  paschaline,  and  every  five  years  the 
clergy  were  expected  to  present  their  so-called 
dons  gratuits  ordinaires,  of  from  15  to  18  million 
of  livres  ;  while  on  occasions  of  need  they  from 
time  to  time  made  extraordinary  dons  gratu'ds, 
which,  however,  were  usually  repaid  at  long  inter- 
vals. The  tiers  etat  were  crushed  by  the  weight 
of  an  unjust  taxation,  which  was  rendered  more 
obnoxious  by  the  system  of  farming  out  some  of 
the  taxes.  The  most  tyrannical  of  these  was  the 
tax  on  salt.  The  municipal  institutions  which 
had  been  permitted  to  flourish  under  some  of  the 
Valois  princes  in  the  middle  ages,  were  almost 
\  entirely  abolished,  and  the  offices  of  towns,  like 
■  those  of  the  state  and  the  courts  of  iustice,  were 
j  either  hereditary  or  open  to  purchase  ;  the  tiers  etat- 
which  included  professional  men,  and  all  who  were 
not  either  members  of  the  noble  or  the  clerical 
orders,  saw  themselves  utterly  excluded  from  all 
participation  in  the  privileges  and  duties  of  free 
citizens,  at  the  very  time  when  the  extensive 
circulation  of  the  writings  of  the  philosophers  of 
the  18th  c,  as  Voltaire,  Malesherbes,  Rousseau,  and 
Montesquieu,  had  habituated  men's  minds  to  the 
discussion  of  questions  of  political  independence, 
equal  rights,  and  universal  freedom. 

The  resistance  made  by  Louis  and  his  advisers  to 
the  reasonable  demands  of  the  Deputies  on  the  17th 
June  1789,  led  to  the  constitution  of  the  National 
Assembly — a  measure  which  was  followed,  on  the 
23d  of  June,  by  a  declaration  of  the  inviolability  of 
the  members.  The  king  retaliated  by  ordering  a  large 
body  of  troops  under  arms,  dissolved  his  ministry, 
and  banished  Necker,  whom  he  had  shortly  before 
recalled  under  the  pressure  of  public  opinion.  The 
consequence  was  the  outbreak  of  insurrectionary 
movements  at  Paris,  where  blood  was  shed  on  the 
12th  July.  On  the  following  day,  the  national 
guard  was  convoked ;  and  on  the  14th,  the  people 
took  possession  of  the  Bastille.  The  provinces 
repeated  the  acts  of  Paris,  and  everywhere  national 
guards  and  revolutionary  municipal  councils  were 
called  together.  On  the  4th  of  August,  feudal  and 
manorial  rights  were  abrogated  by  the  National 
Assembly,  which  gave  expression  to  a  solemn 
declaration  of  the  equality  of  human  rights.  The 
royal  princes  and  all  the  nobles  who  could  escape 
sought  safety  in  flight.  The  royal  family  having 
attempted  in  vain  to  follow  their  example,  tried  to 
conciliate  the  people  by  the  feigned  assumption  of 
republican  sentiments  ;  but  on  the  5th  October,  the 
rabble,  followed  by  numbers  of  the  national  guard, 
attacked  Versailles,  and  compelled  the  king  and 
his  family  to  remove  to  Paris,  whither  the  Assembly 
also  moved.  The  next  two  years  witnessed  the 
solemn  inauguration  and  the  subsequent  retraction 
of  various  constitutional  schemes  ;  the  princes  of 
the  blood  and  the  ancient  noblesse  raised  corps 
of  emigi-6s  in  different  parts  of  the  coimtry,  but 
their  efforts  coidd  not  arrest  the  spread  of  republi- 
canism. The  king  alternately  made  concessions  to 
the  republicans,  and  cherished  schemes  for  escaping 
from  their  surveillance,  but  each  month  added  to 
his  humiliations  and  to  the  audacity  of  those 

479 


FRANCE. 


,  .        »  war  with  Austria  was  bejCT'a 
Burroundmg  hira.   /^|^aefeat  of  the  French  was 
m  Apnl  1702  ;  and  t^^^L^fined  in  August  with 
visited  on  Louis  who  was  ^^^^^^^^-^ 
his  family  in  the  fern  pie.    ^fc^        .    .  , 
Prussians  into  Champagne  thi-??^^^^^^  ^^^^^ 
wildest  excitement.    The  N^tionaf\^^f,'"''^y  ^^^^^ 
Bolved  itself  in  September.    In  DecenTT^ji^  J^'"g 
was  brought  to  trial,  and  called  upon  t^^^V;. 
for  repeated  acts  of  treason  against  the  rcpH 
On  the  20th  January  1793,  sentence  of  death  w^ 
passed  upon  him;  and  on  the  following  day  he 
was  beheaded,    llevolts  burst  out  in  every  part 
of  France.    England,  Holland,  Spain,  Naples,  and 
the  German  States  combined  together  against  the 
republic.    Christianity  was  now  formally  deposed, 
and  the  sacredness  of  the  republic  and  the  wor- 
ship of  Reason  solemnised.    Marie  Antoinette,  the 
widowed  (jueen,  was  guillotined  ;  the  dauphin  and 
his  sur\dving  relatives  suffered  every  indignity  that 
malignity  could  devise.   A  reign  of  Mood  and  terror 
succeeded.    Danton  and  Kobespierre,  after  having 
condemned  countless  numbers   to   the  guillotine, 
sulfered  each  in  turn  a  similar  fate.     After  the 
destruction  of  the  Terrorists,  a  reaction  was  gradu- 
ally established ;  the  peoi)le  were  wearied  of  blood- 
shed, and  anxioits  for  peace  and  order  at  any  cost. 
The  brilliant  exploits  of  the  young  general.  Napoleon 
Bonaparte,  in  Italy,  turned  m<ni's  thoughts  to  other 
channels.    In  1795,  a  general  amnesty  vras  declared, 
peace  was  concluded  with  Pr  ussia  and  Spain,  and 
the  war  was  carried  on  with   redoubled  vigour 
against  Austria.     The  Revolution  had  reached  _  a 
turning-point.    A  Directory  was  formed  to  adminis- 
ter the  government,  which  was  now  conducted  in  a 
spirit  of  order  and  conciliation.    In  1797,  Bonaparte 
and  his  brother-commanders  were  omnipotent  in 
Italy.    Austria  was  compelled  to  give  up  Belgium, 
accede  to  peace  on  any  terms,  and  recognise  the 
Cisalpine  Repubhc.    The  glory  of  the  French  arms 
was  re-established  abroad,  but  at  home  the  nation 
were  stUl  sufi'ering  from  the  shock  of  the  Revolution. 
The  Directory  repudiated  two-thirds  of  the  national 
debt,  and  thus  almost  nmied  the  commerce  and 
credit  of  France.    Under  the  pretext  of  attacking 
England,  a  fleet  of  400  ships  and  an  army  of  36,000 
picked  men  were  equipped ;  their  destination  proved, 
however,  to  be  Egyjit,  whither  the  Directory  sent 
Bonaparte;  but  the  young  general,  resigning  the 
command  to  Kleber,  landed  in  F.  in  1799,  and 
at  once  succeeded  in  supplanting  the  Directory, 
and  securing  his  own  nomination  as  Consul,  con- 
jointly with  Si^yes  and  Roger  Ducos.    In  1800,  a 
new  constitution  was  promulgated,  which,  although 
in    appearance    purely    constitutional,    in  reality 
vested  the  sole   executive  power  in  Bonaparte, 
who   shewed   consummate   skill   in  re- organising 
tlie  government,  to  which  he  imparted  a  syste- 
matic efiiciency    and   a   spirit    of  centralisation, 
that  secured  a  thoroughly  practical  administration. 
Having  resumed  his  military  duties,  he  marched 
An  army  over  the  Alps,  attacked  the  Austrians 
unawares,  and  decided  the  fate  of  Italy  by  his 
\dctory  at  Marengo.  In  1801,  the  peace  of  LuneviUe 
was  concluded,  and  the  boundaries  of  F.  were 
extended  to  the  Pvhine.     England  w^as  the  only 
country  which  refused  to  recognise  the  legality  of 
the  various  Itaban  and  Gennan  conquests  of  F. ; 
and  with  the  exception  of  a  brief  period  of  peace, 
this  country  remained  the  implacable  foe  of  Bona- 
parte from  the  days  of  the  Consulate  to  his  defeat  at 
Waterloo.    Every  period  of  respite  from  war  was 
emi)loyed  by  the  First  Consul  in  reinstating  trade 
and  industry,  and  in  obliterating  both  in  private  and 
public  life  the  stains  left  by  the  Reign  of  Terror. 
In  1804,  on  an  appeal  by  universal  suffrage  to  the 
nation,  Bonaparte  was  proclaimed  emperor.  The 


pope  came  to  Paris  to  crown  him  and  his  wife 
Joaejihine ;  a  new  nobility  was  rapidly  created,  and 
the  relatives  and  favourites  of  the  emperor  received 
vanquished  kingdoms  and  principalities  at  his  hands. 
For  a  time.  Napoleon's  influence  with  the  weakened 
powers  of  the  continent  succeeded  in  maintaining 
an  injurious  system  of  blockade  against  England*; 
and,  except  in  the  Peninsula,  his  arms  were  every- 
where victorious.    By  his  marriage  with  the  Arch- 
duchess Maria  Louisa,  daughter  of  the  Emperor  of 
Germany,  Napoleon  seemed  to  have  given  to  hia 
tnil^^^*  t^ie  prestige  of  birth,  wliich  jdone  it  had 
lack?^   He  now  availed  himself  of  the  freedom 
affordeV  t)y  the  peace  with  Austria  to  exi)and  the 
material  p^^ptrity  of  the  country,  by  encouraging 
trade,  constSjJcting  roads,  bridges,  and  canals  in 
every  part  of  t^e  emi)ire,  and  })y  consolidating  his 
government,  and  o?g<2;nising  a  complete  code  of  lawa 
and  a  systematic  mode*Vlf^  administering  them  ;  bul 
this  period  was  the  poorest res})ect  to  the  literarj 
and  scientific  development  of  "1*Jie  nation,  who  were 
too  much  trammelled  by  ])olice^ -^.supervision  and 
military  di3cii)line  to  exercise  freecioim  of  thought 
and  intellect.    This  interval  of  companative  rei)Oso 
was  soon  internipted  by  the  ambitious  tJesigns  of 
Napoleon  on  Germany,  which  led  to  a  declai-„ation  of 
war  against  Russia  in  1812.    From  this  time  to  hia 
final  defeat  in  1815,  the  emperor  rapidly  receded 
from  the  lofty  station  he  had  won  for  himself.  The 
disastrous  Russian  campaign,  in  which  his  noble 
army  was  lost  amid  the  rigours  of  a  northern  wintt-r^ 
was  soon  followed  by  the  falling  away  of  his  allieg 
and  feudatories.  Napoleon  himself  was  still  victorioub 
wherever  lie  appeared  in  person,  but  his  generals^ 
were  beaten  in  numerous  engagements ;   and  the  , 
great  defeat  of  Leipsic  compelled  the  French  to  ' 
retreat  beyond  the  Rhine.     The  Swedes  brought^ 
reinforcements  to  swell  the  ranks  of  his  enemies  on 
the  east  frontier,  while  the  English  pressed  on  from 
the  west ;  the  senate  and  his  ministry  betrayed  his  ' 
cause,  and  the  allies  threw  themselves  on  Paris, 
which,  in  the  absence  of  the  emperor,  capitulated 
after  a  short  resistance,  March  30,  1814.  Napoleon 
now  abdicated  in  favour  of  his  young  son,  and 
retired  to  the  island  of  Elba,  the  sovereignty  of 
which  had  been  gi-anted  to  him.    His  wife  and  son 
removed  to  Vienna  ;  his  family  were  declared  to 
have  forfeited  the  throne ;  F.  was  reduced  to  her 
former  limits,  and  the  provinces  she  had  acquired 
were  restored  to  their  national  rulers.    On  the  3d 
May,  Louis  XVIIL  (the  brother  of  Louis  XVI.) 
made  his  entry  into  Paris.    The  conduct  of  the 
Bourbons   did  not  conciliate  the  nation;  they 
returned  loaded  with  debts,  and  surrounded  by  the 
old  nobility  and  clergy,  who  -had  not  renounced 
their  former  privileges,  and  who  looked  upon  the 
generation  of  Frenchmen  who  had  arisen  during 
theix  absence  as  their  natural  enemies.    A  narrow 
spirit  influenced  the  weak  policy  of  the  king,  which 
led  to  the  estabhshment  of  a  strict  censorship,  the 
rxtension  of  the  powers  of  the  police,  and  the  per- 
:?ecution  of  all  the  adherents  of  the  Empire ;  while 
the  lower  classes  and  the  army,  who  M'tjre  alike 
sensible  of  the  himiiliating  reaction  which  had 
lollowed  the  former  excitement  of  war  and  conquest, 
were  treated  with  an  indifference,  and  evfen  con- 
tempt, by  the  returned  emigres,  to  which  thby  were 
wholly  unaccustomed     On  the  1st  March  1815, 
Napoleon  left  Elba,  and  landed  in  I  ranee,  p^owds 
followed  him;    the   soldiers  flocked  aroufed  his 
standard  ;  the  Bourbons  fled,  and  he  took  pos!^ssion 
of  their  lately  deserted  palaces.    The  news 
landing  spread  terror  through  Eu/c»pe  ;  and 
25th  March,  a  treaty  of  alliance  was  signe 
Vienna   between    Austria,  Russia,  Prussia, 
England,  and  prepaiations  at  once  made  to  ii 


hia 
the 
at 


FRANCE. 


down  the  inovenient  in  bis  favour,  and  restore  the 
Bourbon  dynasty.  At  first,  the  old  p7-est>,ge  of  suc- 
cess seemed  to  attend  Napoleon;  but  on  the  18th 
June,  he  was  thorou<i:bly  defeated  at  Waterloo;  and 
havin<^  placed  himself  under  the  safei^uard  of  the 
English,  he  was  sent  to  the  island  of  St  Helena,  in 
conformity  with  the  generally  acknowledged  senti- 
ment, that  it  was  necessary  to  the  peace  oE  Europe 
to  remove  him  finally  and  definitely  from  the  scene 
of  his  former  power.  The  second  i*estoration  gave 
occasion  to  many  pledges  of  a  more  liberal  pf)licy  on 
the  part  of  Louis,  but  few  of  them  were  fulfilled, 
and  a  general  and  sullen  discontent  reigned  among 
the  people,  who  were  again  deprived  of  all  voice  in 
the  administration,  or  in  the  election  to  offices,  and 
were  harassed  by  the  petty  tyranny  of  the  priests, 
who  were  the  favourite  advisers  of  the  crown.  In 
1821,  Napoleon  breathed  his  last  at  St  Helena;  and 
in  1824,  Louis  XVni.  died  without  direct  heirs, 
and  his  brother,  the  Due  d'Artois,  succeeded  as 
Charles  X.  The  same  ministerial  incapacity,  want 
of  good  faith,  general  discontent,  and  excessive 
priestly  influence  characterised  this  reign,  which 
■was  abruptly  brought  to  a  close  by  the  revolution 
of  1830,  and  the  election  to  the  throne  of  Louis 
Philippe,  Duke  of  Orleans,  as  king,  by  the  will  of 
the  people.  Legitimist  insurrections  disturbed  the 
nation;  one  emeute  succeeded  another;  attempts 
upon  the  king's  life  were  frequent;  but  the  progress 
in  material  prosperity  made  the  government  popular 
with  the  hoargenisie,  or  middle  classes,  and  for  a 
^time  it  held  its  ground.  The  warlike  propensities 
6f  the  nation  found  an  outlet  in  the  war  in  Algeria 
(q.  V.)  with  Abd-el-Kader.  But  the  determined 
resistance  of  the  king  to  the  growing  desire  for 
electoral  reform,  led  at  last  to  open  insurrection 
in  Paris;  and  Louis  Philippe  having  abdicated 
(February  24,  1848),  a  Republic  was  proclaimed, 
under  a  provisional  government.  An  insuri-ection 
of  the  Red  Republicans  in  Paris  (June  1848),  was 
only  put  down  after  great  slaughter.  Louis  Napo- 
leon (q.  V.)  was  elected  President  of  the  Republic  in 
December  1848;  but  by  the  famous  coup  (Vetat  of 
December  2,  1851,  he  violently  set  aside  the  con- 
stitution, and  assumed  dictatorial  powers;  and  a 
year  after  (2d  December  1852),  was  raised,  by  the 
almost  unanimous  voice  of  the  nation,  to  the  dignity 
of  Emperor  as  Napoleon  IIL  His  rule  was  one  of 
complete  absolutism,  under  which,  however,  France 
made  great  advances  in  the  development  of  her 
natural  resources,  and  in  manufactures.  Assuming 
the  character  of  an  adjuster  of  the  wrongs  of  nations. 
Napoleon  proclaimed  himself  a  mediator  in  the 
Danish  and  Austro-Prussian  wars,  and  the  defender 
of  the  Italians  against  Austria,  of  the  Pope  against 
the  people  of  Italy,  and  of  the  Mexicans  against  the 
government  of  the  United  States  of  America.  By  his 
help  the  Italians  were  relieved  from  the  Austrian  yoke, 
and  the  pope  was  left  master  of  Rome ;  but  in  Mexico 
his  intervention  only  led  to  greater  bloodshed,  and 
ended  ignominiously  for  the  glory  of  F.,  and  fatally  for 
the  cause  and  life  of  his  protege,  the  Austrian  Prince 
Maximilian  (q.  v.).  Attempts  to  gain  a  Prussian 
alliance  ended  in  humiliating  repulses.  Although 
tlie  brilliant  success  of  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1867 
seemed  to  afford  evidence  of  the  personal  and  national 
consideration  in  which  the  emperor  was  held,  his 
political  credit  had  already  then  lost  its  importance. 
At  home,  the  great  financial  embarrassments  of  his 
government  were  arousing  the  discontent  of  the 
people ;  and  to  avert  the  growing  disaffection,  Napo- 
leon offered  (1869)  to  adopt  a  constitutional  form  of 
government,  and  to  make  some  concessions  in  regard 
to  freedom  of  the  press.  It  was  soon  found  that  the 
responsibility  of  the  ministry  was  fictitious,  and  that 
the  emperor  availed  himself  of  its  protection  to  cloak 
187 


his  own  acts  of  personal  government.  The  result  of 
the  appeal  made  to  the  nation  in  1 870,  on  the  plea 
of  securing  their  sanction  for  his  policy,  was  not 
what  he  had  anticipated;  and  the  50,000  dissen- 
tient votes  given  by  the  troops  in  this  pl6biscite, 
revealed  a  hitherto  unsuspected  source  of  danger. 
Confident  in  the  efficiency  of  the  army,  and  anx- 
ious to  rekindle  its  ardour,  he  availed  himself  of  a 
pretext  to  declare  war  against  Prussia.  The  course 
of  events  in  the  short  but  terrible  Franco-Ger- 
man conflict  of  1870 — 1871  electrified  Europe  l>y 
its  unexpected  character,  revealing  at  once  the 
solidity  of  Prussian  strength,  and  the  hollowness  of 
imperial  power  in  F.  Within  a  fortnight  of  the 
emperor's  appearance  at  the  head  of  his  troops  at 
Metz,  July  28,  1870,  the  strength  of  the  French 
army  was  annihilated,  Alsace  and  Lorraine  wei'e 
occupied  by  Germans,  and  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
in  Paris  was  clamouring  for  his  abdication.  On 
September  2,  Napoleon,  with  his  army  of  90,000  men, 
surrendered  at  Sedan,  and  on  the  4th,  Paris  was  in 
rebellion,  the  senate  dissolved,  the  Empress  Regent 
a  fugitive  on  her  way  to  England,  and  F.  proclaimed 
a  Republic  amid  tumultuous  excitement.  Before  the 
close  of  September,  Strasburg,  one  of  the  last  hopes 
of  F.,  had  capitulated,  and  Paris  was  completely 
invested  by  German  troops;  and  on  5th  October, 
the  Prussian  king  had  taken  up  his  headquarters 
at  Versailles.  The  fall  of  Metz,  with  200,000  men, 
completed  the  disasters  of  the  year.  In  January 
1871,  the  united  efforts  of  the  different  branches  of 
'  the  Provisional  Government  of  Defence,'  respectively 
installed  at  Paris  and  Tours,  succeeded  in  bringing 
about  an  armistice,  after  the  besieged  Parisians  had 
for  four  months  been  hourly  exposed  to  the  fire  of  the 
enemy,  cut  off  from  all  communication  with  the  outer 
world  except  by  balloons  and  carrier-pigeons,  and 
finally  threatened  by  famine.  With  the  concurrence 
of  Prussia,  the  French  nation  now  proceeded,  by  a 
general  election  of  representatives,  to  provide  for  the 
exigencies  of  the  country.  The  First  National  As- 
sembly of  the  French  Republic  met  at  Bordeaux  in 
February.  After  receiving  from  the  Provisional 
Government  of  Defence  the  resignation  of  the  powers 
confided  to  them  in  September  1870,  the  Assembly 
undertook  to  organise  the  Republican  Government, 
and  nominated  M.  Thiers  chief  of  the  executive 
power  of  the  state,  with  the  title  of  President  of  the 
French  Republic,  but  with  the  condition  of  re- 
sponsibility to  the  National  Assembly.  On  the  1st 
of  March  the  preliminaries  of  peace  were  finally 
ratified  at  Bordeaux,  the  chief  conditions  being  that 
the  province  of  Alsace  (except  Belfort)  and  part  of 
Lorraine,  including  Metz,  should  be  ceded  to  the 
German  empire,  and  that  F.  should  pay  a  war  in- 
demnity of  5000  millions  of  francs,  and  continue  to 
be  occupied  by  German  troops  till  the  money  was  all 
paid.  This  enormous  obligation  was  discharged  in 
September  1873,  and  during  the  same  month,  F., 
after  an  occupation  of  three  years,  was  finally 
relieved  from  the  presence  of  foreign  troops.  In  the 
spring  of  1871,  the  peace  of  F.  was  seriously  threat- 
ened by  a  successful  outbreak  at  Paris  on  the  part 
of  the  Communists  (q.  v.),  who  after  great  bloodshed 
and  grievous  damage  to  public  and  private  property, 
were  quelled  by  the  regular  army,  which  had  sided 
with  the  government,  and  on  2bth  of  May  order 
was  restored  in  Paris.  Since  then,  F.  has  been 
successfully  trying  to  obliterate  some  of  the  numer 
ous  misfortunes  resulting  from  the  war,  and  com- 
merce and  national  prosperity  are  beginning  to 
revive.  The  death  of  the  ex-Emperor  Napoleon, 
in  1872,  at  Chiselhurst,  wdiere  he  had  resided 
with  his  family  since  his  liberation  in  March  1871; 
the  retirement  of  M.  Thiers;  and  the  election  of 
Marshal  MacMahon  to   the   dignity  of  President 

481 


FRANCi^-FRANCIA. 


of  the  Frencli  Republic,  appear  to  have  pro(hiced  no 
political  excitement  in  the  country.  In  1879,  Mac 
Mahon  was  succeeded  as  President  by  M.  Jules 
Grevy. 

FllANCE,  Isle  of.    See  Mauritius. 

FRANCE' SCO  DI  PAULA,  founder  of  the  order 
ot  the  Minims^  was  born  in  1416  at  Paula  or  Paolo, 
a  villaj^e  of  Calabria.  From  birth,  his  destination 
was  the  churcli,  for  which  he  was  happily  fitted  l)y 
nature  and  preference.  At  the  age  of  12,  he  was 
an  inmate  of  a  Franciscan  convent,  practising  with 
the  utmost  rigour  the  regulations  of  the  order; 
and  at  14,  renouncing  all  world  I}'-  ])ossessions,  he 
retired  to  a  cave,  wliere  he  inflicted  on  himself 
every  species  of  self-mortification,  and  devoted  his 
time  to  prayer  and  meditation.  The  fame  of  his 
piety  having  attracted  to  his  cell  several  emulators 
of  his  austere  life,  he  received  permission  from  the 
bishop  to  erect  a  church  and  convent,  and  the  new 
community  received  from  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  the  title 
of  the  Hermits  of  St  Francis.  To  the  usual  con- 
ventual vows,  F.  added  one  of  the  most  rigorous 
abstinence — flesh,  eggs,  and  milk  being  strictly  for- 
bidden the  entire  year,  except  in  illness.  Popular 
i-eport  ha\ing  attributed  to  F.  several  wonderful 
€ures,  Louis  XI.  of  France,  the  most  superstitious  of 
monarchs,  being  severely  ill,  summoned  him  to  his 
presence,  in  hopes  of  some  miraculous  display  of 
power  on  his  behalf.  F.  repaired  to  France,  where 
he  was  received  with  the  highest  honour,  and  at- 
tended the  king  on  his  death-bed.  The  successoi-s 
of  Louis,  Charles  VIII.  and  Louis  Xlf.,  treated  F. 
with  great  favour,  consulted  him  in  important  mat- 
ters, and  induced  him  to  settle  in  France,  Charles 
VIII.  built  him  a  convent  at  Plessis-le-Tour,  and 
another  at  Amboise.  F.  died  at  the  former  in  1507, 
and  was  canonised  in  1519. 

FRANCHE  COMTE,  an  old  province  in  the  east 
of  France,  in  the  basin  of  the  Rhone,  comprised 
what  now  forms  the  departments  of  Doubs,  Haute- 
Scioue,  and  J ura,  and  had  for  its  capital  Besau9on. 

FRA'NCHISE.  In  its  political  acceptation,  the 
franchise  may  be  said  to  be  the  right  which  centres 
m  the  individual  holding  it  to  exercise  a  certain 
limited  portion  of  the  general  sovereignty  of  the 
state.  A  franchise  in  this  sense  is  possible  oiAy  in 
a  free  state,  i.  e.,  in  a  state  in  which  the  governed, 
as  a  whole,  are  identical  with  the  governors.  It 
does  not  necessarily  involve  the  idea  of  representa- 
tive government ;  for  where  legislation  is  effected 
by  the  votes  of  the  people  themselves,  as  it  was 
in  the  small  states  of  antiquitj'-,  the  franchise 
\s  exercised  by  each  individual  directly,  without 
the  intei'vention  of  any  representative  machinery. 
Where  representation  has  been  introduced,  the 
franchise  is  the  right  which  the  citizen  has  of 
voting  for  his  representative,  not  the  right  of 
voting  in  the  legislative  body  conferred  on  the 
representative  in  consequence  of  being  sent  thither, 
and  is  an  expression  not  of  the  sovereignty  which 
centres  in  him,  but  of  that  which  belongs  to  the 
constituents  who  send  him.  There  would  be  no 
theoretical  inconsistency,  however,  in  applying  the 
term  fra,nchise  to  the  right  of  voting  in  the  House 
of  Loids,  which  belongs  to  each  peer,  because  he 
here  exercises  the  sovereignty,  or  original  freedom 
xvhich  belongs,  or  is  supposed  to  belong,  to  himself, 
and  does  not  represent  that  of  others.  As  the  fran- 
chise is  the  political  expression  of  the  sovereignty 
which  centres  in  each  free  citizen,  the  extent  or 
value  which  ought  to  belong  to  the  franchise  will  be 
measured  by  the  amount  of  the  so  '/ereignty  which 
it  expresses.  But  this  sovereignty  again  corre- 
eponds,  or  finds  forma  of  actual  expression,  in  the 
social  position  which  the  individual  occupies,  in 
i82 


the  amount  of  power  and  influence  whicli  is  cciL' 
ceded  to  him  by  the  society  of  which  he  is  a  part. 
A  theoretically,  just  franchise,  then,  would  be  one 
which  corresponded  accurately  to  the  social  posi- 
tion of  each  individual,  which  translated  the  ver- 
dict by  which  society  fixed  his  status  into  the 
language  of  politics.  But  scientific  accuracy  in  such 
matters,  for  obvious  reasons,  is  unattainable.  An 
approximation  in  the  individual  case  is  all  that  is 
possible  in  dealing  with  the  mass,  and  one  of  the 
questions  which  is  at  present  most  keenly  discussed 
amongst  speculative  politicians  is,  by  what  test 
shall  this  approximate  estimate  of  social  vali'.e  be 
brought  most  nearly  to  the  truth.  Mr  J.  S.  Mill  haa 
proposed  intelligence,  as  indicated  by  instruction,  aa 
the  sole  measure  of  individual  sovereignty,  and, 
consequently,  as  the  basis  of  the  franchise  (see  hia 
recent  work  on  Representative  Government).  OtherB 
have  proposed  wealth ;  whilst  by  a  third  class  of 
speculators  it  is  contended  that,  in  the  case  of  each 
individual,  there  are  various  elements  of  social 
importance  which  must  be  taken  into  account  in 
determining  the  political  value  which  is  his  due. 
By  all  the  more  recent  waiters  on  the  theory  of 
government,  however,  the  idea  of  all  citizens  being 
entitled  to  an  equal  suffrage,  however  great  might 
be  the  disparity  of  intelligence,  wealth,  manhood, 
and  other  elements  which  go  to  make  up  social 
importance,  is  repudiated  as  a  scientific  absurdity, 
and  reprobated  as  the  source  of  all  the  practical 
injustice  which  residts  from  w^hat  are  commonly 
known  as  democratic  governments.  See  villi's  work, 
alluded  to  above  ;  also  Parliament. 

FRANCHISE  in  England  is  a  royal  privilege,  or 
branch  of  the  crown's  prerogative,  subsisting  in  the 
hands  of  the  subject.  Being  derived  from  tht 
crown,  franchises  must  arise  from  royal  grajit,  or 
in  some  cases  may  be  held  by  prescription,  which 
presupposes  a  grant  (Stephen's  Com.  i.  637).  The 
subjects  of  franchise  being  the  })eculiar  property 
of  the  crown,  correspond  with  what  in  Scotland  are 
called  Regalia  (q.  v.)  ;  and  a  franchise  is  analogous 
to  a  grant  of  regalia.  Gifts  of  waifs,  cstrayn, 
\\Tecks,  treasure-trove,  royal  fish,  and  forfeitures, 
all  of  which  are  the  prerogative  of  the  crown,  are 
franchises.  The  rights  of  forest,  chase,  park,  warren, 
and  fishery  are  also  franchises,  no  subject  being 
entitled  so  to  apply  'his  property  for  his  own  con- 
venience. A  county  palatine  (s^e  Palatine)  is  the 
highest  species  of  franchise,  as  within  it  the  earl, 
constable,  or  other  chief  officer,  may  exercise  witn- 
out  control  the  highest  functions  the  sovereign. 
And  as  the  crown  may  thus  erect  an  entire  county 
mto  an  independent  jurisdiction,  so  it  may  create 
a  hberty  or  bailiwnck  indej^endent  of  the  sheriff 
of  the  county.  This,  then,  is  another  species  of 
franchise.  It  is  likewise  a  franchise  for  a  number 
of  persons  to  be  incorjiorated,  and  svibsist  as  a  body- 
pohtic,  with  a  power  to  maintain  perjietual  succes- 
sion, and  do  other  corporate  acts  ;  and  each  mdi- 
vidual  member  of  such  corporation  is  nho  said  fco 
have  a  francliise  or  freedom.  The  right  to  hold  a 
fair  or  market,  or  to  establish  a  ferry,  and  to  levy 
tolls  therein,  is  also  a  franchise.  Where  tLa  holder 
of  a  franchise  is  disturbed  in  his  right,  he  may  sue 
for  damages  by  an  action  on  the  case ;  or  in  the 
case  of  non-payment  of  tolls,  he  has  the  remedy  ol 
Distress  (q.  v.).  Franchises  may  be  extinguished  by 
reunion  with  the  crown,  or  may  be  lost  by  w.iimser 
— that  is,  such  a  use  of  them  as  is  contrary  to  the 
express  or  implied  condition  on  which  the  royal 
grant  i)roceeded — or  by  non-user. 

FRAN  CI  A,  Dr.  Jose  Gaspar  Rodriguez, 
Dictator  of  Paraguay,  was  the  son  of  a  small  landed 
proprietor,  of  French  or  Portuguese  origin,  and  wa« 


FRANCIA— FRANCIS. 


bom  near  the  town  of  Asuncion  in  1757  or  1758. 
He  was  intended  for  the  church,  studied  at  the 
university  of  Cordova  de  Tucuman,  where  he  took 
his  degree  as  a  doctor  of  divinity  or  of  canon  law, 
and  was  for  some  time  a  theological  i)rofessor. 
Subsequently  he  adopted  the  profession  of  law, 
to  the  practice  of  which  he  continued  to  devote 
himself  for  a  period  of  thirty  years,  gaining  much 
reputation  for  learning,  skill,  honesty,  and  inde- 
pendence of  character.  When  he  had  attained 
the  age  of  fifty-two  or  fifty-three,  the  revolution 
which  shattered  the  Spanish  yoke  in  South  America 
broke  out  in  Buenos  Ayres.  Paraguay  at  first 
offered  activ^e  opposition  to  the  revolutionists,  but 
ultimately  sought  to  obtain  independence  for  itself. 
F.  took  a  leading  part  in  the  movement,  and 
was  made  secretary  of  the  independent  junta  set 
up,  but  he  soon  resigned  his  post.  The  conviction, 
however,  being  strong  in  the  public  mind  that  F. 
alone  could  properly  direct  the  affairs  of  the  new 
republic,  he  was,  in  1813,  appointed  joint-consul 
along  with  General  Yegros.  The  latter,  however, 
was  a  man  apparently  without  much  intellect  or 
energy,  and  F.  was  really  sole  ruler  from  the  first. 
In  1814,  he  was  appointed  dictator  for  three  years, 
at  the  expiry  of  which  time  the  dictatorship  was 
given  him  for  life  ;  and  the  absolute  control  so 
conferred  he  exercised  imtil  his  death  in  1840. 
Under  F.,  the  condition  of  Paraguay  rapidly 
improved,  and  the  system  of  non-intercourse,  poli- 
tical or  commercial,  with  other  nations,  which  he 
enforced,  however  much  it  may  seem  to  j^rove  him 
devoid  of  administrative  sagacity,  was  undou.btedly 
attended  with  good  residts  to  his  country.  So 
strict  were  the  regulations  against  foreign  inter- 
course, that  ingress  to,  or  egress  from,  Paraguay  was 
next  to  impossible ;  and  F.'s  treatment  of  some 
foreigners  who  did  get  in  (among  others  the  famous 
savant  Bonpland),  and  of  others  who  were  pre- 
vented entering,  savoured  of  harshness,  and  even 
barbarism.  Yet  his  administrative  talent  v/as  of 
a  high  order.  He  improved  agriculture,  making 
two  crops  of  corn  grow  where  only  one  had  grown 
before.  He  introduced  schools,  promoted  educa- 
tion, repressed  superstition,  and  enforced  strict 
justice  between  man  and  man  in  his  law-courts. 
His  death  was  regretted  by  the  people  as  a  public 
calamity — the  best  proof  that  he  was  no  vulgar 
tyrant.  See  Rengger  and  Longchamp's  Essai  His- 
torique,  &c.  (Paris,  1827) ;  FrancicCs  Beign  of  Terror 
(London,  18.39),  by  J.  P.  and  W.  P.  Robertson,  two 
young  Scotchmen  whom  F.  turned  out  of  the 
country;  and  T.  Carlyle's  essay  in  the  Edinburgh 
Revkw  (1843). 

FRANCIS,  OF  Assisi,  founder  of  the  Franciscan 
order,  and  a  saint  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
Was  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  men  of  his  age, 
and  merits  a  detailed  notice,  as  illustrating  in  his 
career  all  the  most  remarkable  characteristics  of  the 
religious  life  of  the  middle  age.  He  was  bom  in 
1182,  of  the  family  called  Bernardini,  at  Assisi, 
where  his  father  was  engaged  in  trade.  His  bap- 
tismal name  was  John ;  but  from  his  familiarity 
with  the  Romance,  or  language  of  the  troubadoiu'S, 
in  his  youth,  he  acquired  the  name  of  II  Francesco 
('  The  little  Frenchman ').  In  his  early  years,  he  was 
remarkable  for  his  love  of  gaiety  and  ostentatious 
prodigality ;  but  even  then  his  bounty  to  the  poor 
was  one  of  the  largest  sources  of  his  wastefulness. 
He  engaged  eagerly  in  exercises  of  chivalry  and  of 
arms ;  and  in  one  of  the  x>etty  feuds  of  the  time,  he 
was  taken  })risoner,  and  detained  for  a  year  in  cap- 
tivity at  Perugia.  An  illness  v/hich  he  there  con- 
tracted turned  his  thoughts  from  earth ;  and  although 
he  again  engaged  in  military  pursuits,  a  second 
illucss  at  Spoleto  decided  his  career  for  life.  He  now 


resolved  to  fulfil  literally  the  counsels  of  the  gospel, 

and  he  especially  devoted  himself  to  poverty,  which, 
in  the  mystic  language  thenceforth  familiar  to  him, 
he  designated  as  '  his  bride.'  Under  an  impulsa 
which  he  received  while  listening  to  a  sermon,  he 
took  a  vow  never  to  refuse  alms  to  a  beggar.  He 
made  a  pilgrimage  to  the  tomb  of  St  Peter  at  Rome, 
and  there  offered  to  God  all  that  he  j^ossessed  on 
earth.  On  his  return  to  Assisi,  he  exchanged  his 
clothes  with  a  poor  mendicant ;  and  disregarding  all 
remonstrance  and  ridicule,  he  ever  afterwards  coq- 
tinued  to  wear  the  meanest  attire.  He  gave  to  a 
priest  who  was  rebuilding  a  ruined  church  the  price 
of  his  horse,  whicli  he  sold  for  the  puq)ose,  and  even 
sought  to  approi)riate  to  the  same  use  the  moneys  of 
his  father,  which,  however,  the  priest  refused  to 
accept.  To  avoid  his  father's  anger,  he  took  refuge 
in  a  cave,  in  which  he  sj)ent  a  month  in  solitary 
prayer,  and  from  which  he  returned  more  than  ever 
confirmed  in  his  enthusiasm.  His  father  having  in 
vain  confined  him  in  a  dark  room  of  his  own  house, 
cited  him  before  the  magistrates,  and,  on  F.'s  declin- 
ing all  civil  jurisdiction  in  such  a  case,  before  the 
bishop,  in  order  to  compel  him  to  renounce  his 
inheritance.  F.  abandoned  all,  even  to  the  very 
clothes  he  wore,  and  then  declared  that  '  till  now 
he  had  been  the  son  of  Bernardini,  but  that  hence- 
forth he  had  but  one  Father,  Him  that  is  in  heaven.' 
Thenceforth,  no  humiliation  was  too  low  for  F.  ; 
he  begged  at  the  gates  of  monasteries  ;  he  discharged 
the  most  menial  offices  ;  he  served  the  lepers  in  the 
hospital  at  Gubbio  in  their  most  revolting  necessi- 
ties, and  with  the  most  tender  aasiduity.  He 
worked  ^vith  his  own  hands  at  the  building  of  the 
church  of  St  Daniian,  and  at  that  of  Sta  Maria  degli 
Angeli,  which  he  afterwards  called  his  '  Portiuncula,' 
or  'little  inheritance  ;'  and  as  the  last  act  of  self- 
spoliation,  and  the  final  acceptance  of  the  gift  of 
poverty,  he  threw  aside  his  wallet,  his  staff,  and 
his  shoes,  and  arrayed  himself  in  a  single  brown 
tunic,  of  coarse  woollen  cloth,  girt  with  a  hempen 
cord.  This  was  in  his  26th  year,  in  1208.  His 
enthusiasm  by  degrees  excited  emulation.  Two  of 
his  fellow-townsmen,  Bernard  Quintavalle  and  Peter 
Cattano,  M^ere  his  first  associates.  They  were  fol- 
lowed, although  slowly,  by  others  ;  and  it  was  not 
till  1210,  that,  his  brotherhood  having  now  increased 
to  eleven  in  number,  he  drew  up  for  them  a  rule, 
selected  in  the  true  spirit  of  religious  enthusiasm, 
by  thrice  opening  at  random  the  gospels  upon  the 
altar,  and  taking  the  passages  thus  indicated  as  the 
basis  of  the  young  institute.  (Milman's  Latm 
Christianity,  iv.  2G4.)  The  new  brethren  repaired 
to  Rome,  where  their  rule  was  approved  (though 
at  first  only  vivd  voce)  by  Poi)e  Innocent  HI.  in 
1210.  The  two  following  years  were  spent  by  the 
brotherhood  in  preaching  and  exhorting  the  people 
through  the  rural  districts  of  their  native  and  the 
adjoining  provinces ;  and  F.  himself  returned  to 
Assisi  in  1212,  at  whicli  time  he  finally  settled 
the  simple  constitution  of  his  order,  the  church  of 
Sta  Maria  degli  Angeli  being  assigned  to  them  aa 
their  home.  In  common  with  the  older  forms  of 
monastic  life,  the  Franciscan  institute  is  founded 
on  the  three  vows  of  chastity,  poverty,  and  obe- 
dience ;  but  of  these  the  second  was,  in  the  eyes 
of  F.,  the  first  in  importance  and  in  spiritual 
efficacy.  In  other  orders,  the  practice  of  poverty 
consisted  in  the  mere  negation  of  riches.  With 
F.,  it  was  an  active  and  positive  principle.  In 
other  orders,  although  the  indi\'iduals  could  not 
possess,  it  was  lawful  for  the  community  to  hold, 
property  in  common.  F.  rei)udiated  all  idea  of 
property,  alike  for  his  order  and  for  its  members  ; 
he  even  disclaimed  for  them  the  projierty  in  those 
things  which  they  retained  for  personal  use — tht 


FRANCIS. 


clothes  which  they  wore,  the  cord  Avith  which  they 
were  girded,  the  very  breviary  from  which  they 
chanted  the  divine  office.  The  very  impossibility, 
to  human  seeming,  of  these  vows,  was  their  strength. 
Numbers  crowded  to  the  standard  of  Francis.  He 
told  them  off  in  parties  to  different  provinces  of 
Italy.  Five  of  the  brotherhood  repaired  to  Marocco 
to  preach  to  the  Moors,  and,  as  the  tirst  martyrs  of 
the  order,  fell  victims  to  their  holy  daring.  Success 
removed,  all  the  hesitation  with  which  the  institute 
at  lirst  was  regarded,  and  in  1216,  the  order  was 
solemnly  approved  by  Pope  Innocent.  From  this 
date  it  increased  with  exti'aordinary  rapidity.  At 
the  fii'st  general  assembly,  held  in  1210,  5000  mem- 
bers Av^ere  present ;  500  more  were  claimants  for 
admission.  F.  himself  inaugurated  the  future 
missionary  character  of  his  brotherhood  by  going 
(1223)  to  the  East,  and  preaching  the  gospel  in  the 
presence  of  the  sultan  himself ;  but  the  only  fruit 
of  his  mission  was  a  promise  from  the  sultan  of  more 
indulgent  treatment  for  the  Christian  captives,  and, 
for  the  Franciscan  order,  the  privilege  which  they 
have  since  enjoyed,  as  guardians  of  the  Church  of 
the  Holy  Sepulchre.  It  is  after  his  return  to  Italy 
that  his  biographers  place  the  celebrated  legend, 
which,  to  friends  or  to  enemies,  has  so  long  been  a 
subject  of  veneration  or  of  ridicule — his  receiving, 
while  in  an  ecstasy  of  prayer,  the  marks  {sti<jm.ata) 
upon  his  OMTi  person  of  the  wounds  of  our  Divine 
Redeemer.  The  scene  of  this  event  is  laid  on  Monte 
Alverno,  a  place  still  sacred  in  the  traditions  of  the 
order ;  and  the  date  is  September  17,  1224.  Two 
years  later,  St  F.  died,  October  4,  1226.  On  the 
approach  of  his  last  hour,  he  requested  that  he 
should  be  carried  upon  a  bier  to  the  church,  where 
he  had  himself  placed  on  the  bare  ground,  thus  real- 
ising in  his  OM^n  death  the  most  literal  extreme  of 
the  doctrhie  which  he  had  made  in  life  the  basis  of 
his  system.  He  was  canonised  by  Pope  Gregory  IX. 
in  1228. 

The  works  of  St  F.  (folio,  Pedeponti,  1739)  consist 
of  letters,  sermons,  ascetic  treatises,  proverbs,  moral 
apothegms,  and  hymns.  The  latter  are  among  the 
earliest  metrical  specimens  of  the  Italian  language.  | 
They  are  exceedingly  simi)le,  and  full  of  the  tenderest 
expressions  of  the  love  of  God.  His  jirose  is  often 
more  poetical  than  his  poetry  itself,  abounding  in 
allegory  and  poetical  iiersonification.  Few  writers 
have  ever  turned  the  love  and  admiration  of  exter- 
nal nature  to  a  purpose  so  beautifully  devotional. 
'  Of  all  the  saints,'  says  Dean  Milman,  '  St  Francis 
was  the  most  blameless  and  gentle.'  No  saint,  it 
may  be  added,  has  been  the  subject  of  more  exag- 
gerated panegyric  from  the  writers  of  his  order ; 
and  one  of  the  works  in  his  praise  —  a  parallel 
between  St  F.  and  our  Divine  Redeemer— is  dis- 
owned by  the  Roman  Catholic  community  as  a 
most  reprehensible  exaggeration,  the  fruit  of  an 
affectionate,  but  most  misdirected  zeal  for  the 
memory  of  the  founder  of  the  Franciscan  order. 

See  the  Bollandist,  Acta  Sanctorum,  October  4; 
St  Bonaventure's  Life  of  St  Francis,  with  Wad- 
ding's notes;  Helyot,  Hist,  des  Ordres  Religleux,tom, 
vii. ;  Butler's  Lives  of  Saints,  October  4 ;  Milman's 
Latin  Christianity,  vol.  iv.  •  Gieseler's  Church  History, 
voL  iii. ;  Dollinger's  History  of  the  Church ;  St 
Francis  and  the  Franciscans  (Dublin,  1861). 

FRANCIS,  Sir  Philip,  son  of  the  Rev.  Dr 
Philip  Francis,  axithor  of  a  well-known  translation 
of  Horace,  was  born  at  Dublin,  October  22,  1740, 
and  educated  at  St  Paul's  School,  London,  where  he 
had  for  a  school- fellow  Henry  S.  Woodfall,  after- 
Wards  the  printer  of  the  Public  A  daertiser,  and  the 
publisher  of  the  /setters  of  Junius.  In  1756,  he 
obtained  a  place  in  the  office  uf  Mr  Fox,  then  secre- 
tftry  of  state,  which  he  retained  under  his  successor 
484 


Mr  Pitt.  In  1760,  he  became  secretary  to  the  Earl 
of  Kinnoul,  who  had  been  appointed  British  ambas- 
sador to  Portugal ;  and  on  his  return  to  England  in 
1763,  he  received  an  appointment  in  the  War-olBce. 
Ten  years  later,  he  was  sent  out  to  India,  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  council  for  the  government  of  Bengal, 
with  a  salary  of  £10,000.  Here  he  came  into  colli- 
sion with  the  governor-general,  Warren  Hastings, 
and  so  far  did  the  quarrel  proceed,  that  a  duel  was 
the  consequence,  in  which  F.  was  severely  wounded. 
In  December  1780,  he  resigned  his  situation,  and 
returning  to  England,  entered  parliament  for  the 
borough  of  Yarmouth,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  in  1784. 
He  never  obtained  a  reputation  as  an  orator,  but 
his  great  alnlities  and  extensive  information  always 
commanded  the  respect  and  attention  of  the  House. 
The  prosecution  of  Hastings,  begun  in  1786,  was 
hailed  by  him  with  malignant  joy,  and  it  must  be 
confessed  that  he  displayed  a  most  ungenerous 
alacrity  and  activity  in  furthering  the  designs  of  the 
committee  of  impeachment.  In  his  political  opinions, 
F.  w^aa  a  decided  and  consistent  Whig,  at  a  time 
when  Whiggism  meant  very  much  the  same  as  the 
Radicalism  of  a  later  period.  He  exidted  at  the 
success  of  the  French  Revolution,  was  an  active 
member  of  the  association  of  '  Friends  of  the  People,' 
and  ably  supported  the  efforts  of  Fox  and  Grey 
for  a  reform  in  the  representation  of  the  nation. 
He  withdrew  from  parliament  in  1S07,  and  died 
December  22,  1818.  F.  wrote  upwards  of  twenty 
political  pamphlets.  He  has  also  been  considered  by 
many  to  have  the  best  claim  to  the  authorsliip  oi 
the  Letters  of  Junius  (q.  v.). 

FRANCIS  I.,  king  of  France,  son  of  Charles, 
Comte  d'Angouleme,  was  bom  at  Cognac,  Sep- 
tember 12,  1494,  and  in  his  youth  manifested 
an  ardent  love  for  literature,  especially  for  the 
romances  of  chivalry,  whence,  probably,  he  drew 
his  brilliant  but  erroneous  views  of  a  kingly  char- 
acter. At  the  age  of  twenty,  he  married  Claude, 
daughter  of  Louis  XII.,  and  succeeded  his  father- 
in-law,  January  1,  1515.  His  first  act,  after 
mounting  the  throne,  was  to  set  abo.ut  the  recon- 
quest  of  Milan,  which  had  been  wrested  from 
his  predecessor  two  years  before  ;  and  at  the  head 
of  40,000  men,  among  whom  were  such  great 
warriors  as  the  Constable  Bourbon,  Bayard,  Lautrec, 
and  Trividzio,  F.  crossed  the  Alps,  and  attacked 
the  Swiss  allies  of  the  Milanese  at  Marignano,  ten 
miles  from  Milan.  Here  a  sanguinary  battle,  after- 
wards called  the  '  battle  of  the  giants,'  ensued  (13th 
September  1515),  in  which  F.  obtained  a  complete 
victory — the  Swiss  losing  12,000  men.  In  accord- 
ance ^vith  his  chivalrous  propensities,  F.  accepted 
knighthood  on  the  field  from  the  renowned  Baj^ard. 
After  some  further  successes,  F.  returned  to  Paris 
in  the  month  of  February  1516.  On  the  death  of 
Maximilian,  emperor  of  Germany,  in  January  1519, 
F.  and  Charles  of  Spain  became  rival  candidates  for 
the  imperial  crown.  The  election  of  the  latter 
excited  the  anger  of  F.,  who  immediately  prepared 
for  war,  and  endeavoured  to  secure  the  alliance 
of  Henry  VIII.  of  England.  An  interview  took 
place  in  1520  between  the  two  monarchs  on  the 
famous  feld  of  the  cloth  of  gold,  between  Guines 
and  Ardres,  but  it  led  to  no  result,  and  shortly 
after,  Henry  formed  an  alliance  wdth  the  pope  and 
the  emperor  against  Francis.  The  papal  troops 
drove  the  French  out  of  Italy ;  and  the  soldiers 
of  Henry  and  the  emperor  invaded  France  on 
the  north,  while,  to  complete  his  perplexities, 
the  Constable  Bourbon,  who  Avas  discovered  to  be 
conspiring  against  his  sovereign,  fled  to  Charles, 
who  gladly  accepted  the  sword  of  the  renegade 
warrior.  F.  gallantly  faced  the  dangers  that  now 
threatened  his  kingdom.    A  large  army  was  sent 


FKANCIS. 


fco  Italy  under  the  command  of  Bonnivet,  who, 
however,  proved  incapable,  and  was  forced  to  retreat 
across  the  Alps.  In  the  course  of  this  retreat, 
Bayard  lost  his  life.  The  imperialists  now  advanced 
into  Provence,  hut,  on  the  approach  of  the  French 
king,  withdrew  into  Italy,  whither  they  were 
followed  by  F.,  who  overran  Lombardy,  but  was 
totally  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of 
Pa  via,  24th  February  1525.  Charles  carried  his 
captive  to  Madi-id,  and  only  granted  him  his  liberty 
on  the  hardest  conditions.  F.  had  to  renounce  the 
suzerainty  of  Flanders  and  Artois,  the  duchy  of 
Burgundy,  and  all  his  Italian  possessions  and  pre- 
rogatives, to  promise  the  restoration  of  Bourbon  to 
his  former  dignities,  and  to  surrender  his  two  sons 
as  hostages.  He  obtained  his  freedom,  March  17, 
1526 ;  but  regarding  the  conduct  of  Charles  as 
utterly  base,  his  first  act,  on  his  return  to  his 
dominions,  was  a  refusal  to  fulfil  the  pledges  he 
had  given.  Pope  Clement  VII.  absolved  him  from 
his  oath ;  England,  Rome,  Venice,  Florence,  and 
Genoa — all  of  whom  were  growing  alarmed  at  the 
immense  powder  of  Charles — withdrew  from  the 
imperial  alliance,  and  sided  with  his  antagonist. 
The  war  in  Italy  now  recommenced.  On  the  5th 
May  1527,  Bourbon's  'black  banditti'  stormed  and 
sacked  the  '  Eternal  City,'  and  captured  the  pope. 
F.  now  sent  troops  into  Naples,  which,  after  a 
peries  of  brilliant  successes,  were  almost  wholly  cut 
oiF  by  disease,  mainly  through  the  negligence  of  the 
king,  who  failed  to  supply  them  with  the  means  of 
subsistence.  About  the  same  time,  F.  sent  a  chal- 
lenge to  Charles  to  decide  then-  quarrel  by  single 
combat.  The  challenge  was  accepted,  but  the  duel 
never  came  off.  At  last,  a  jieace  was  concluded  at 
Cambray,  in  July  1529,  much  to  the  advantage  of 
the  Sj^aniards.  In  1534,  how" ever,  war  broke  out 
between  F.  and  the  Duke  of  Milan  ;  and  in  the 
following  year  the  former  overran  Savoy,  to  which 
he  laid  claim  by  the  absurdest  pretensions.  The 
conduct  of  Charles  at  this  period  was  marked  by 
the  greatest  moderation,  but  he  was  ultimately 
reinvolved  in  hostilities  witii  his  inveterate  ojipo- 
uent.  Little  definite  result  ensued,  but  the  war  was 
marked  by  a  cii'cumstance  regarded  as  horrible  in 
those  days — viz.,  an  alliance  between  Christians 
and  Turks.  F.  formally  entered  into  a  league  with 
the  Sultan  Soliman,  who  went  so  far  as  to  laud 
ti-oops  in  the  south  of  Italy,  but  the  French  king 
shrunk  from  a  practical  co-operation  with  the  arch- 
euemy  of  Christendom.  By  the  efforts  of  Pope 
Paul  nr.,  a  treaty  was  concluded  for  ten  years  at 
Nice  between  Charles  and  F.,  18th  June  1538. 
In  point  of  fact,  however,  peace  lasted  only  four 
years,  and  in  1542,  F.,  insatiable  of  glory,  launched 
five  different  armies  against  the  emperor.  The 
battle  of  Cerisolles,  14th  April  1544,  in  which  the 
French  were  completely  victorious,  partially  wiped 
out  the  dishonour  of  the  defeat  at  Pa  via,  but  a 
second  alliance  of  F.  with  the  Turks  renewed  the 
indignation  of  Christendom.  Charles,  and  Henry 
kii'.g  of  England,  marched  upon  Paris,  and  F.  was 
compelled  to  make  peace  at  Crepy,  18th  September 
1544.  His  i)olitical  role  was  now  finished.  He 
died  at  Pamljouillet,  March  31,  1547.  It  is  not 
difficult  to  estimate  the  character  of  this  monarch. 
Gay  and  voluptuous  (it  was  the  physical  conse- 
quences of  an  amour  which  cost  him  his  hie),  he  was 
still  capable  of  heroic  impulses  and  acts  of  splendid 
generosity.  But  no  amount  of  '  chivalry '  could 
comi)ensate  for  the  lack  of  political  sagacity ;  it 
could  not  even  save  him  from  deeds  of  cruelty.  His 
persecution  of  the  Vaudois  and  other  '  heretics '  has 
left  a  dark  stain  on  his  memory,  which  all  his 
patronage  of  arts  and  letters  will  not  efface.  F. 
was  hiuiseit  a  writer  of  verses;  but  these  were  so 


bad,  that  even  French  critics  pronounce  them 
almost  intolerable. 

FRANCIS  I.  (Stephen),  Emperor  of  Germany, 
born  in  1708,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Leopold,  Duke 
of  Lorraine.  On  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1729, 
F.  succeeded  him  in  the  dukedom,  which,  in  1735, 
he  ceded  to  Stanislaus  Leszcynski,  father-in-law  of 
Louis  XV.,  to  revert  after  his  death  to  the  crown 
of  France.  In  lieu  of  Lorraine,  he  obtained  the 
grand  duchy  of  Tuscany,  whose  native  rulers,  the 
Medicean  family,  were  aljout  to  die  out.  In  1736, 
he  married  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria,  the  only 
daughter  and  heiress  of  the  Emperor  Charles  VI. 
In  1740,  Charles  died,  and  Maria  Theresa  succeeded 
him  ;  she  made  her  husband  co-regent  with  herself, 
but  gave  him  little  share  in  the  administration.  F. 
fought  bravely  for  his  wife's  rights  in  the  wars 
carried  on  against  Frederick  the  Great.  In  1745, 
he  was  elected  to  the  once  important  dignity  of 
Emperor  of  Germany,  and  crowned  at  Frankfurt. 
The  famous  Seven  Years'  War  (1756 — 1763)  now 
broke  out  between  Austria  and  Prussia;  but  the 
cares  which  it  imposed  fell  mainly  upon  his  leonine 
consort,  Maria  Theresa.  F.  died  at  Innspriick,  18th 
August  1765.  His  son  Joseph  succe^Hied  him  in  the 
imperial  dignity,  but  Mai'ia  Theresa  retained  in  her 
hands  the  sovereignty  of  the  Austrian  dominions 
till  her  death. 

FRANCIS  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  and  L 
of  Austria,  the  eldest  son  of  Leopold  II.  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany,  and  of  Maria  Louisa,  daughter 
of  Charles  III.,  king  of  Spain,  was  born  at  Flor- 
ence, in  February  1768.  In  1790,  his  father  became 
Emperor  of  Austria  by  the  death  of  his  brother 
Joseph,  but  died  only  two  years  after,  when 
the  crown  devolved  upon  Francis.  The  French 
Revolution  was  now  exciting  the  alarm  of  the 
old  European  dynasties  ;  F.  concluded  an  alliance 
with  Prussia  against  the  new  rejniblic  ;  and  the 
armies  of  the  allies  marched  to  the  frontiers  of 
France,  but  soon  recoiled  before  the  fiery  enthu- 
siasm of  the  republican  troops.  In  1794,  F.  placed 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  army  of  the  Netherlands, 
which,  on  the  26tli  of  A.pril,  defeated  the  French  at 
Cateau  and  Landrocy ;  and  on  the  22d  of  May, 
gained  the  bloody  l>attle  of  Tournay;  but  on  the 
whole  the  fortune  of  the  war  was  against  him ;  and 
the  triumphs  of  young  General  Bonaparte  in  Italy 
forced  him  to  conclude  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio 
(October  17,  1797).  Only  two  years  afterwards, 
however,  F.,  in  alliance  with  Russia  and  England, 
again  took  up  arms,  and  was  at  first  successfid ;  but 
the  recall  of  the  brave  Russian  general,  Su^varofF^ 
and  the  return  of  Bonaparte  from  the  East,  quicldy 
altered  the  state  of  matters.  The  great  victories 
won  by  Moreau  at  Hohenhnden,  and  by  Bonaparte 
at  Marengo,  paralysed  the  powers  of  Austria,  and 
F.  was  compelled  to  sue  for  peace,  which  was 
obtained  by  the  treaty  of  Lun^ville  in  1801,  by 
which  the  whole  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine 
was  ceded  to  France.  In  1805,  the  aggressions  of 
France  once  more  excited  the  jealousy  of  Austria. 
F.  entered  into  a  new  alliance  with  Russia  ;  and  the 
contest  was  renewed,  but  ended  more  disastrously 
than  ever  for  the  Austrians.  The  French  -vHctories 
of  Ulm  and  Austerlitz,  and  the  capture  of  Vienna, 
completely  humiliated  F.,  who,  at  the  j^eace  of 
Presburg  (December  1805),  was  obliged  to  surrender 
the  Venetian  states  and  the  Tyrol.  The  German 
empire  was  now  dissolved,  after  lasting  for  lOOC 
years,  and  F.  assumed  the  title  of  Emperor  of  Austria 
King  of  Bohemia  and  Hungary.  In  1809,  he  recom- 
menced the  war  with  Napoleon,  and  obtained  more 
success,  or  i)erhaps  we  should  say,  encountered  less 
loss  than  on  previous  occasions.     The  tremendous 

4t>5 


FRANCIS  JOSEPH-FEANCISCANS. 


battle  of  Aspei'ii  was  a  victory,  though  not  a  decisive 
one,  and  did  much  to  restore  the  prestige  of  the 
Austrian  arms.  Still  Napoleon  again  got  possession 
of  Vienna,  and  dictated  terms  of  peace  from  the 
palace  of  Schonhrunn  in  October  of  the  same  year, 
lu  1810  the  French  emperor  married  F.'s  daughter, 
Maria  Louisa.  A  permanent  friendly  alliance  now 
seemed  to  be  concluded  between  the  two  empires  ; 
and  during  the  Russian  campaign  in  1812,  the 
Austrians  rendered  the  French  some  slight  assist- 
ance. In  1813,  Austria  resumed  its  neutrality ;  but, 
after  having  exerted  himself  fruitlessly  to  mediate 
fcctv  een  l^'rance  and  Russia,  F.  suddenly  joined 
the  allies,  helped  to  win  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  and 
followed  the  Russians  and  Prussians  to  Paris  in 
1814.  His  subsequent  career  does  not  present  any 
pomts  of  special  importance.  He  laboured  honestly 
and  indefatigably  for  the  welfare  of  his  subjects, 
encoaraging  the  making  of  roads  and  canals,  and 
the  introduction  of  manufactures  ;  but  his  horror  of 
everything  revolutionary,  excited  by  his  early  recol- 
lections, and  by  the  cruel  death  of  his  aunt,  jNIarie 
Antoinette,  and  kept  alive  by  his  long  wars  with 
France,  had  rendered  him  an  absolutist  in  politics, 
and  a  lover  of  tliat  system  of  centralisation  to 
which  Austria  continues  to  cling.  F.  died  on  the  2d 
of  March  1835. 

FRANCIS  JOSEPH,  the  present  Emperor  of 
Austria,  born  18th  August  1830,  is  the  eldest  son 
of  the  Archduke  Francis  (son  of  the  Emjjeror 
Francis  I.),  and  Sophia,  a  princess  of  Bavaria. 
F.  was  taught  to  speak  all  the  various  languages 
of  his  heterogeneous  dominions,  and  only  the  year 
before  the  Hungarian  revolution  addressed  the 
Magyar  nobles  at  Pesth  in  their  own  language 
— a  circumstance  which  secured  him  a  certain 
transient  popularity.  In  1848,  he  served  under 
Radetzky  in  the  Italian  wars.  The  Emperor 
Ferdinand  having,  in  the  hour  of  his  extremity, 
made  certain  constitutional  promises  to  the  nation, 
the  archduchess,  F.'s  mother,  Avho  during  the 
whole  year  had  directed  the  schemes  of  the  anti- 
revolutionary  party,  resolved  that  the  fulfilment 
of  these  promises  should  be  evaded  by  a  change 
of  sovereign.  Ferdinand  accordingly  abdicated  in 
favour  of  his  nephew  (2d  December  1848),  and  F. 
assumed  the  government  as  Emperor  of  Austria, 
and  King  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia.  Hungary, 
however,  which  had  lost  all  faith  in  the  House  of 
Hapsburg,  rose  in  arms,  and  refused  to  accede  to 
the  change  of  succession ;  and  Italy  again  tried 
the  foitune  of  war.  The  progress  of  the  struggle 
between  F.  and  the  constitutionalists  of  Hungary  is 
described  in  the  biographies  of  Kossuth,  Bem,  Dem- 
binski,  Batthyani,  &c.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  Austria 
triumphed  in  Italy,  and  also  in  Hungary,  through 
the  treachery  of  Gorgei  and  the  help  of  Russia. 
F.  now  devoted  himself,  with  characteristic  per- 
sistency, to  the  re- establishment  of  '  order,'  that  is 
to  say,  of  despotism.  He  dissolved  the  national 
guard,  and  took  away  the  freedom  of  the  press,  and 
on  January  1,  1852,  abolished  the  constitution  of 
his  imcle,  M^hich  had  been  a  dead-letter  from  the 
beginning.  By  the  concordat  of  1855,  he  surrendered 
extraordinary  privileges  to  the  Roman  Catholic  See.  In 
1859,  by  the  war  with  Sardinia,  sustained  by  Napoleon 
III.,  Ixjmbardy  was  released  from  his  sway.  In  1864, 
he  co-operated  with  Prussia  against  Schleswig-Hol- 
stein  ;  and  in  1860  was  at  war  with  Prussia,  and  Avas 
defeated  at  Sadowa  with  great  loss.  In  the  same  year 
he  ceded  Venetia  to  Louis  Na]:)oleon,  and  greatly  humil- 
iated, was,  by  the  treaty  of  Prague,  excluded  from  the 
German  Confederation.  These  heavy  blows  of  fortune 
caused  him  to  listen  to  judicious  counsellors,  and  on 
June  8,  having  granted  autonomy  to  Hungary,  he  was, 
with  extraordinary  pomp,  crowned  king,  and  the  loy- 


alty of  that  nation  secured.  He  promulgated  one  of 
the  most  liberal  constitutions  of  Continental  Euro})e, 
guaranteeing  freedom  of  religion  and  conscience,  and 
tlie  freedom  of  the  Press.    See  Austria,  Hunqauy. 

FRANCI'SCANS,  Order  of,  also  called 
Minorites  or  Lesser  Brethren,  a  religious 
order  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  founded  by 
St  Francis  of  Assisi.  For  an  account  of  the  esta- 
blishment of  the  Franciscan  order,  and  its  earliest 
fortimes,  see  Francis  of  Assisi.  The  subsequenf 
progress  of  the  order  was  equally  wonderfid.*  Ii 
less  than  half  a  century  it  reckoned  no  fewer  thau 
33  'provinces,'  the  aggregate  number  of  convents 
in  which  exceeded  8000,  while  the  members  fell 
little,  if  at  all,  short  of  200,000.  Some  idea,  indeed, 
of  the  extraordinary  extension  of  this  remarkable 
institute  may  be  formed  from  the  startling  fact, 
that,  in  the  dreadful  plague  of  the  Black  Death 
in  the  following  century,  no  fewer  than  124,000 
Franciscans  fell  \4ctims  to  their  zeal  for  the  care 
of  the  sick,  and  for  the  spiritual  ministration 
to  the  dying !  But  this  marvellous  external  pro- 
gress was  accomi)anied  by  serious  internal  contro- 
versies and  divisions.  In  the  original  scheme  of  the 
institute,  its  great  fundamental  characteristic  was 
poverty,  which  St  Francis  proposed  to  render  in  his 
order  not  only  more  perfect  theoretically,  but  more 
systematical  in  its  i)ractice,  than  it  existed  in  any 
of  the  contemi)orary  institutes.  For  the  accomplish- 
ment of  this  design,  the  rule  which  he  drew  up 
contained  a  few  brief  and  simple,  but,  understood 
literally,  very  eflectual  proAasions ;  but  the  difficulty 
of  their  literal  observance  led,  even  in  the  lifetime 
of  St  Fi-ancis,  to  an  attemi)t  in  the  general  assembly 
of  the  order  to  introduce  some  imjiortant  modifica- 
tions ;  and,  though  the  authority  of  the  founder  was 
sufficient  to  prevent  the  adoption  of  these  modifica- 
tions during  his  lifetime,  and  although  his  last  will 
contained  a  special  clause  prohibiting  not  merely 
all  change  of  the  ride,  but  even  all  inter2)retation  of 
it,  the  attempt  was  renewed  with  still  more  deter- 
mination under  Brother  Elias,  his  successor  in  the 
office  of  general  of  the  order.  The  great  subject 
of  controversy  was  the  nature  and  extent  of  the 
obligation  of  religious  poverty,  as  vowed  in  the 
order.  Francis  desired  that  it  should  be  understood 
in  the  most  rigorous  sense  ;  and,  in  his  scheme  of 
poverty,  neither  the  indi\adual  brethren  nor  the 
entire  community  could  acquire  or  retain  any  right 
of  j)roperty  even  in  things  of  necessary  use.  The 
rigorous  party  in  the  order  sought  to  carry  out 
this  principle  to  the  fullest  extent ;  and  they 
contended  that  it  was  unlawful  for  the  order  to 
acquire  a  right  of  property  in  houses,  convents,  or 
even  churches  ;  restricting  their  right  in  everything 
which  they  possessed  to  the  simple  use.  Several 
successive  popes  sought,  by  explanatory  decrees, 
to  settle  the  dispute  ;  and  for  a  time  a  comi)ro- 
mise  was  received,  by  which  it  was  understood 
that  the  right  of  property  in  all  de  facto  posses- 
sions of  the  order  was  vested  in  the  see  of  Rome ; 
but  the  foundations  of  the  real  conti'oversy  lay 
deeper  than  this.  They  regarded  the  i)ractice,  far 
more  than  the  theory,  of  poverty ;  and  the  disputes 
to  which  they  led  eventuated  not  only  in  the 
formation  of  fresh  offsets  from  the  body  in  the  new 
religious  orders  to  be  named  hereafter,  but  also  in 
a  large,  and,  for  a  time,  formidable,  secession  from 
the  church  in  the  sect  of  the  FraticelUans.  Sefy 
Fraticellians. 

The  supreme  government  of  the  Franciscan  order, 
which  is  commonly  said  to  be  the  especial  embodi- 
ment of  the  democratic  element  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  is  vested  in  an  elective  general, 
who  resides  at  Rome.  The  subordinate  superiors 
are,  first,  the  '  provincial,'  who  presides  over  all  tha 


FRANCISCANS. 


brethren  in  a  pi'ovince  ;  and  secondly  the  '  tjnardian,' 
who  is  the  head  of  a  single  convent  or  community. 
These  officers  are  elected  only  for  two  years.  'J'he 
provincial  alone  has  power  to  admit  candidates, 
who  are  subjected  to  a  probation  of  two  years  (see 
Novitiate)  ;  after  which  they  are,  if  approved, 
permitted  to  take  the  vows  of  the  order.  Those 
of  the  members  who  are  advanced  to  holy  orders 
undergo  a  preparatory  course  of  study,  during 
which  they  are  called  '  scholars  ; '  and  if  eventually 
promoted  to  the  priesthood,  they  are  styled  '  fathers ' 
of  the  order ;  the  title  of  the  other  members  being 
*  brother  *  or  *  lay-brother.' 

A  v(ry  important  feature,  however,  of  the  organ- 
isation of  the  Franciscan,  as  it  subsequently  be- 
came of  other  orders,  is  the  enrolment  of  non-con- 
ventual members,  who  continue  to  live  in  society 
without  the  obligation  of  celibacy ;  and  in  general, 
are  only  bound  by  the  spirit,  and  not  the  letter,  of 
the  rule.    They  are  called  '  Tertiaries,'  or  members 
of  the  Third  Order  of  St  Francis.  See  Tertiary.  It  , 
is  impossible  to  overestimate  the  vahie  of  this  insti-  j 
tution  in  the  disorganised  social  condition  of  that 
age.    The  Tertiaries  were  bound,  as  the  very  first 
condition  of  enrolment,  to  restore  all  ill-gotten 
goods  ;  to  be  reconciled  with  all  those  wdth  whom 
they  had  been  at  feud  ;  to  devote  themselves  to  the 
practice  of  works  of  Christian  charity ;  to  avoid  all 
unnecessary  expenditure ;  to  renounce  the  use  of 
personal  ornaments ;  to  hear  mass  daily ;  to  serve  the 
sick  and  the  hospitals  ;  to  instruct  the  ignorant  ; 
and,  in  a  word,  to  practise  as  far  as  possible  in  the 
world  the  substance  of  the  vii'tues  of  the  cloister.  I 
The  institute,  in  this  form,  iindoubtedly  exercised  a 
powerfid  influence  in  medieval  society.    It  counted 
members  in  every  rank,  from  the  throne  to  the  , 
cottage  ;  and,  althongh  it  was  in  some  instances  ! 
deformed  by  abuses  and  superstitions  practices,  the  j 
aggregate  results  were  undoubtedly  beneficial.  | 

The  Franciscan  order  has  been  the  pai-ent  of 
many  other  religious  institutes.  The  earliest  of 
these  is  that  of  the  '  Observantists,'  or  '  brethren  of 
more  strict  observance.'  The  origin  of  this  body 
has  been  already  indicated.  The  party  in  the  order  ! 
which  contended  for  the  more  rigid  observance  of  ^ 
the  rule,  after  a  protracted  struggle— in  which  dis- 
affeclion  to  the  churcli  itself  wjis  often  strongly  ex- 
hibited by  tlie  contestants — ol)tained  a  separated 
organisation,  which  may  be  said  to  have  been  finally 
settled  at  the  time  of  Leo  X.  The  less  rigid  party, 
tinder  the  name  of  '  Conventuals,'  obtained  a  distinct 
general,  and  an  authorisation  for  their  mitigated 
observance  of  the  rule.  Their  chiu-ches  and  convents 
adm.it  greater  richness  of  architecture  and  decora- 
tion ;  and  they  are  at  liberty  to  acquire  and  retain, 
in  the  name  of  the  order,  the  property  of  these  and 
similar  possessions,  all  of  which  are  renounced  by 
the  Observant  Franciscans.  The  latter  community 
comprises  nearly  150  pro\'inces.  Their  constitvition 
ie  that  of  the  original  rule,  as  already  explained.  A 
Becoud  offshoot  of  the  Franciscan  order,  and  in  the 
Kime  direction  ot  rigorism,  is  that  known  as  the 
"Capuchin,'  founded  by  Matteo  di  Basio,  a  Francis- 
can brother  of  the  Observant  rule,  in  the  early  part 
of  the  IGth  century.  Jielieving  himself  divinely 
called  to  revive  the  old  spirit  of  his  order,  and 
learning  that  the  modern  habit  of  the  brethren  was 
different  from  that  of  St.  Francis,  he  began  with 
externals,  and  procured  for  himself,  and  obtained 
the  papal  permission  to  introduce  (1528),  the  peculiar 
habit,  with  a  pointed  hood  or  cowl  (capute),  from 
which  the  name  of  the  reformed  order  is  derived. 
Along  with  this  habit,  however,  Matteo  adopted  a 
very  rigorous  and  mortified  course  of  life,  in  which 
he  was  joined  by  others  of  the  brethren ;  and  the 
reform  8])read  so  rapidly  among  the  community,  that 


in  the  year  1530  a  general  ohnpter  of  the  new  con- 
gregation was  held.  They  were  subject,  however, 
to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  general  of  the  Franciscan 
order.  One  of  the  first  generals  of  the  new  reform 
was  Bernardino  Ocliino,  afterwards  notable  hy  hia 
defection  to  Calvinism.  After  the  Council  of  Trent, 
the  Capuchins  multiplied  rapidly,  though  they  were 
not  introduced  in  France  till  the  end  of  that  century 
A  similar  reform,  to  which  the  name  of  '  Kecollets  ' 
was  given  (introduced  in  Spain  by  John  de  Ouada* 
loupe,  in  1500),  was  approved  by  Clement  \  U.  in 
1532  ;  and  many  of  the  new  brethren  were  amon^ 
the  first  Spanish  missionaries  to  the  New  AVorld.  A 
further  development  of  tlie  rigoristic  spirit  is  the 
congregation  of  '  Discalced'  or  'Barefooted'  (q- v.) 
Franciscans.  The  author  of  this  reform  was  a 
Spanish  Capuchin,  Peter  of  Alcantara.  In  hia 
ca})acity  of  provincial  of  Estremadura,  Peter  intro- 
duced many  reforms ;  and  in  1555  obtained  the 
approval  of  Pope  Julius  III.  for  a  new  rule,  which 
was  afterwards  confirmed  by  Pius  IV. 

The  notice  of  the  Franciscan  institute  would  be 
incomplete  without  the  mention  of  the  several 
orders  of  nuns  ;  as  those  of  St  Clare,  the  Capu- 
chinesses,  the  Urbanist  nuns,  &c.,  w^hich  formed 
part  of  the  same  general  organisation.  None  of 
these,  however,  calls  for  any  detailed  explanation, 
or  presents  any  very  characteristic  features. 

The  Franciscan  order,  in  these  several  branches, 
has  at  all  times  maintained  its  jiopidarity  m  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  When  Helyot,  in  the 
beginning  of  the  18th  c,  published  his  great  History 
of  Religious  Orders,  the  Franciscan  order  numbered 
nearly  120,000  friars,  distributed  over  above  7000 
convents,  and  nearly  30,000  nmis,  occupying  abcct 
900  convents.  Since  the  French  Revolution,  the 
number  has  of  course  been  very  much  diminished, 
the  order  having  been  suppressed  in  more  than  one 
kingdom;  but  it  is  still  one  of  the  most  numerous 
in  the  R  oman  Catholic  Church.  Ma  ay  of  the 
foreign  missions  are  mainly  supplied  by  Franciscans, 
and  they  possess  convents  in  almost  every  part  of 
the  world. 

As  a  literary  order,  the  Franciscans  have  chiefly 
been  eminent  in  the  theological  sciences.  The  great 
school  of  the  Scotists  takes  its  name  from  John 
Duns  Scotus  (see  Scotits),  a  Franciscan  friar,  and  it 
has  been  the  pride  of  this  order  to  maintain  hia 
distinctive  doctrines  both  in  philosophy  and  in 
theology  against  the  rival  school  of  the  Thomists, 
to  which  the  Dominican  order  gave  its  allegiance. 
See  Tkomists.  In  the  Nominalistic  controversy,  the 
Thomists  were  for  the  most  part  Conceptualists ; 
the  Franciscans  adliered  to  the  rigid  Realism.  See 
Nominalism.  In  the  Free-will  question,  the  Fran- 
ciscans strenuously  resisted  the  Thomist  doctrine  of 
'predetermining  decrees.'  Indeed,  all  the  greatest 
names  of  the  early  Scotist  school  are  the  Fran- 
ciscans, St  Bonaventure,  Alexander  de  Hales,  and 
Ockhara.  The  single  name  of  Roger  Bacon,  the 
marvel  of  medieval  letters,  the  divine,  the  phil- 
osopher, the  linguist,  the  experimentalist,  the  prac- 
tical mechanician,  would  in  itself  have  sufficed  to 
make  the  reputation  of  his  order,  had  his  contem- 
poraries not  failed  to  appreciate  his  merit.  Two 
centuries  later,  the  great  Cardinal  Xinienes  was  a 
member  of  this  order.  The  Popes  Nicholas  IV., 
Alexander  V.,  Sextus  IV.,  the  still  more  celebrated 
Sixtus  v.,  and  the  well-known  Ganganelli,  Clement 
XIV.,  also  belonged  to  the  institute  of  St  Francis.  In 
history,  this  order  is  less  distinguished;  bv.t  its  own 
annalist,  Luke  Wadding,  an  Irish  Franciscan,  bears 
a  deservedly  high  reputation  as  a  historian.  la 
lighter  literature,  and  particularly  poetrj',  we  have 
already  named  the  founder  himself  as  a  sacred  poet. 
Jacopoue  da  Todi,  a  Franciscan,  is  one  of  the  mc«t 

■IS] 


FRAJSrCISCO— FRANCONTA. 


characteristic  of  the  medieval  hymn- writers ;  and  in 
later  times,  the  celebrated  Lope  de  Vega  closed  his 
eventful  caroer  as  a  member  of  the  third  order  of 
St  Francis.  We  may  add  that  in  the  revival  of 
art  the  Franciscan  oider  bore  an  active  and,  it 
must  be  confessed,  a  liberal  and  enlightened  part. 
See  Wadding,  Annales  Minorum  Fratrum,  8  vols.; 
see  also  Milman's  Latin  Christianity,  vol.  v. 

FRANCISCO,  San.  See  San  Francisco. 
FRA'NCKE,  Aug.  Herm.,  a  distinguished  German 
philanthropist,  founder  of  the  Orphan  Afjylum  and 
several  educational  institutions  at  Halle,  was  born 
at  Liibeck  in  1663.  Having  studied  languages  and 
theology  with  great  application  and  success,  he 
first  attracted  attention  by  his  academical  biblical 
lectures  in  Leipsic,  begun  about  1685.  These  were 
more  distinguished  for  ]>iety,  warmth,  and  zeal,  than 
for  attention  to  the  strict  and  dry  orthodoxy  then 
in  vogue ;  and  the  reception  they  met  with  from 
the  public  brought  on  F.  envy  and  persecution  as  a 
heretic.  He  thought  proi)er  to  yield  to  the  storm, 
and  withdrew  in  1690  to  Erfurt.  In  1692,  he 
obtained  the  professorship  of  Oiiental  languages  in 
the  newly  instituted  university  at  Halle,  where  he 
siibsequently  held  a  professorship  of  theology.  He 
also  received  the  pastoral  charge  of  the  sizburb  of 
Glaiicha.  The  ignorai>«e  and  poverty  of  his  parish- 
ioners gave  the  first  impulse  to  his  benevolent 
labours.  To  the  neglected  poor  and  children  that 
came  to  him  for  alms,  he  gave  instruction  on  stated 
days,  and  as  otlier?  joinecl,  jiaying  a  school-fee  of  a 
penny  a  week,  and  the  numbers  rose  to  some  sixty, 
he  divided  them  into  classes,  and  thus  laid  the  first 
foundation  of  his  educational  establishments.  At 
the  same  time  the  thought  suggested  itself  of  an 
orphan  asylum,  and  in  1698  he  laid  the  foundation 
of  a  special  building  for  the  asylum.  Some  years 
after,  he  erected  a  Pedagogium,  a  Latin  school,  and 
a  boarding  establishment  connected  with  it.  In 
1714,  there  were  1075  hoys  and  700  girls  receiving 
instruction  from  108  teachers  imder  the  direction  of 
Francke.  He  also  had  a  missionary  institution  for 
the  East  Indies.  To  erect  and  maintain  all  these 
establishments  required  large  sums  of  money ;  and 
it  is  surprising  how  F.  succeeded  in  obtaining  it 
without  assistance  from  government.  But  so  high 
was  his  rejnitation  for  disinterested  benevolence, 
and  in  such  a  practical  way  did  he  set  about  his 
undertakings,  never  appealing  for  the  charitable  aid 
of  others  till  he  had  first  effected  something  liim- 
Eielf,  that  contributions  flowed  in  from  all  parts  of 
Germany,  and  even  from  abroad.  F.  also  instituted 
an  apothecary's  shop  and  bookselling  in  connection 
with  his  otlier  operations,  and  thus  obtained  a  con- 
siderable income  for  their  support.  Nor  amidst 
all  these  voluntary  labours  did  he  neglect  his  duties 
as  professor  and  pastor ;  he  preached  and  lectured 
regularly,  and  also  found  time  to  study  and  write. 
He  died  June  8,  1727. 

Francke's  Institution,  as  it  now  exists  in  Halle, 
embraces  the  orphan  house  and  schools  erected  by 
F.,  together  with  others  since  added;  the  number  of 
pupils  amounting  in  all  to  upwards  of  2000.  Book- 
selling, printing,  and  a  laboratory  for  the  prepara- 
tion and  distribution  of  medicines  are  also  carried 
on  in  connection  with  education.  The  revenues 
consist  of  the  profits  of  this  industry,  of  the  income 
from  some  property  in  land  and  funds,  and  of  an 
allowance  of  £6000  from  the  state.  The  education 
imparted  retains  its  religious  character,  but  the 
excessive  number  of  prayers  and  the  otherwise 
conventual  and  ascetic  character  of  the  discipline 
have  been  diminished. 

FRANCOIS,  St,  is  the  name  of  two  towns  in  the 
French  West  Ti-dies. — 1.  St  F.  in  Guadeloupe  stands 

48S 


on  the  Grande  Terre,  the  more  easterly  of  the  twin 
islands  into  which  the  colony  is  divided  by  an  arm 
of  the  sea  knoAvn  as  Salt  River.  It  contains  about 
6600  inhabitants,  about  5600  of  them  having  been 
slaves  down  to  1848,  the  epoch  of  emancipation 
under  the  French  Repubhc. — 2.  St  F.  in  Martiniqiie 
possesses  a  good  harbour  on  the  east  coast.  Of  a 
population  of  5906,  4272  had  been  slaves. 

FRA'NCOLIN  {FrancoUniLs),  a  genus  of  birds  of 
the  family  Tetraonidce,  closely  allied  to  partridges, 
but  distinguished  by  a  stouter  bill,  a  larger  tail,  and 
generally  by  a  spur — in  some  species,  two  spurs — oa 
the  tarsus  of  the  male.  They  are  natives  of  Europe, 
Asia,  and  Africa.  One  species  only,  the  European' 
F.  {F,  vuhjaris),  is  found  in  the  most  southerr 


Gray  FrancoHn  {FrancoUnus  Ponticcrianud). 


parts  of  Europe ;  it  inhabits  also  the  north  of 
Africa  and  great  x^a^rt  of  Asia.  It  is  a  beautiful 
bird  ;  the  plumage  of  the  male  is  richly  coloured. 
It  frequents  watery  places,  and  feeds  much  on 
the  tender  tops  of  herbs.  One  [F.  Ponticerianus)  ia 
very  common  in  many  parts  of  India,  and  is  called 
Partridge  in  the  Deccan,  although  it  differs  much  in 
appearance  from  partridges,  on  account  of  its  large 
rounded  tail.  Another  {F.  spadiceus)  abounds  in 
some  of  the  mountainous  parts  of  India  ;  and  Africa 
has  a  number  of  species,  some  of  which  scrape  up 
bidbs  for  their  food.  The  Francolins  generally 
inhabit  forests  and  thickets,  and  roost  in  trees. 

FRANCO'NIA  (Ger.  Franken).  This  name  was 
first  applied  to  those  districts  on  both  sides  of  the 
Maine  which  were  originally  peopled  by  colonies  of 
Franks,  under  Thierry,  the  eldest  son  of  Clovis,  who 
inherited  the  Germanic  possessions  of  his  father  on 
the  death  of  the  latter  in  511.  Under  the  Mero- 
vingian and  Carlovingian  djmasties,  this  province 
acquired  a  certain  degree  of  preponderance  in  the 
state,  and  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  electing  the 
king  of  the  Germans  within  its  own  territories,  and 
crowning  the  sovereign  by  the  hands  of  its  arch- 
bishop (Mayence),  who  was  primate  of  the  empire. 
In  911,  Conrad,  the  Count  or  Duke  of  Franconia,  for 
there  is  some  doubt  which  of  these  titles  was  at  that 
time  borne  by  the  ruler  of  the  province,  was  raised 
to  the  thi'one  ;  and  a  century  later,  after  the  ducal 
dignity  had  been  recognised  in  F.,  the  choice  of  the 
electors  again  fell  upon  the  Franconian  House,  w  hich, 
by  its  direct  and  collateral  branches,  gave  kings  and 
emperors  to  Germany  from  1024,  when  Conrad  IT. 
began  his  reign,  till  1250,  when  the  indirect  line  oi 
the  Hohenstauffen  family  became  extinct.  During 


FRANEKER— FEANKALMOIGNE. 


its  connection  -with  tlie  crown,  F.  increased  in  extent 
and  importance,  while  its  great  si)iritual  jjrinci- 
p^"'ities  of  Mayence,  Sjjires,  Worms,  and  Wurzburg 
acquired  Loth  wealth  and  political  influence.  In 
the  course  of  the  following  200  years,  the  province 
underwent  various  modifications,  and  was  sub- 
divided into  numerous  territories,  as  those  of  the 
Rhenish  County-palatine,  Nassau,  Katzenellnhogen, 
Hainan,  the  landgravate  of  Hesse,  &c.,  until  the 
name  of  F.  was  limited  to  the  eastern  portions 
of  the  ancient  duchy,  which  included  Wurzhiu-g, 
Fulda,  Bamberg,  Niirnberg,  Hohenlohe,  &c.  In 
1512,  Maximilian  1.  re-established  the  circle  of  F., 
which  then  embraced  the  sees  of  Bamberg,  Wurz- 
burg, and  Eichstadt,  Baireuth  and  Anspach,  and 
several  counties  and  cities.  With  the  dissolution  of 
the  em])ire,  the  name  of  F.  disappeared  from  among 
the  political  divisions  of  Germany  ;  but  since  1837 
it  has  been  revived  in  the  kingdom  of  Bavaria  (q.  v.), 
where  those  portions  of  the  ancient  Franconian 
pro\dnce,  which  in  modern  times  have  been  known 
as  the  circles  of  the  Upper  Maine,  Rezat,  and  Lower 
Maine,  are  now  designated  Upper,  Middle,  and  Lower 
Franconia.  Upper  F.  includes  the  north-east  portion 
of  Bavaria.  It  is  watered  by  numerous  rivers,  as 
the  Maine,  Raab,  Saale,  &c.,  and  is  intersected  by  the 
Fichtelgebirge  and  by  the  hilly  ranges  of  theBohmer-, 
Franken-,  and  Steiger-Wald.  The  valleys  produce 
good  crops  and  fruit,  and  the  district  is  rich  in 
minerals.  There  are  38  civic  and  rural  circles  of 
jurisdiction  in  this  province ;  capital,  Baireuth. 
Middle  F.,  which  abuts  upon  Wurtemberg,  is  inter- 
sected by  branches  of  the  Franconian  Jura  chain, 
but  has  few  rivers  of  importance  besides  the  Regnitz 
and  Altmiihl,  which  are  connected  by  the  great 
Ludwig  Canal.  It  produces  good  wine,  but  is  prin- 
sipally  celebrated  for  its  hop-gardens.  The  chief 
towns  are  Anspach  and  Niirnberg,  and  it  has  30 
jivic  and  rural  circles  of  jurisdiction.  Lower  F. 
cum  Aschaffenburg,  which  occupies  the  north-west 
part  of  Bavaria,  is  traversed  by  the  Spessart-  and 
khbngebirge  and  the  Steiger-Wald,  and  watered  by 
the  Maine  and  Saale.  It  is  the  richest  and  best 
cultivated  of  the  Franconian  circles,  and  is  cele- 
brated for  the  excellence  of  its  wines,  the  Steiner 
and  Leister.  The  district  is  noted  for  its  mineral 
springs  at  Kissingen,  etc.  In  1866,  two  strips  of  ter- 
ritory in  U.  and  L.  Franconia,  containing  291  square 
miles  and  32,976  inhabitants,  were  ceded  to  Prussia. 

FRANEKER,  a  handsome  town  of  the  Nether- 
lands, in  the  province  of  Friesland,  situatf'd  on  the 
canal  between  Harlingen  and  Leeu warden,  and  10 
miles  west  of  the  latter  ])lace.  It  has  won  a  name 
in  the  literary  world  as  having  been  the  seat  of  a 
university  founded  in  1585  by  the  Frisian  states  on 
the  suggestion  of  Prince  William  Louis,  Count  of 
Na,ssau,  and  which  ranked  among  its  professors  the 
eminent  names  of  Vitringa,  Schultens,  Hemsterhuis, 
Valckenaer,  and  others.  It  was,  however,  abolished 
by  Napoleon  in  1811,  and  in  1816  was  transformed 
into  an  athenaeum,  to  which  a  i)hysiological  cabinet 
and  botanic  garden  belong.  F.  also  possesses  a 
celebrated  orrery.    Pop.  5500. 

FRANGIPANI,  an  illustrious  and  powerful 
Roman  House,  which  traces  its  origin  to  the  7th  c, 
and  attained  the  siunmit  of  its  glory  in  the  11th 
and  12th  centuries.  In  the  early  annals  of  Rome, 
Beveral  members  of  this  family  occupied  important 
public  offices,  and  seem  to  have  taken  a  prominent 
lead  in  all  matters  of  moment.  In  987,  Crescenzio 
Frangipani  successfully  vindicated  the  prerogatives 
of  the  Px)man  peo})le  against  the  encroachments  of 
pope  John  XV.  The  rivalry  of  the  F.  House  with 
I  that  ot  the  Pietro  Leoni,  not  only  occasioned 
il     lepeated  civil  wars  in  the  state,  but  likewise  several  | 


schisms  in  the  church.  The  lustre  of  their  race  was 
finally  outshone  by  the  two  great  i)atrician  families, 
Colonna  and  Orsini,  whose  magnificence,  power, 
and  pretension  far  exceeded  those  of  tlie  greatest 
citizens  of  Rome.  Two  of  the  last  of  the  F.  who 
merit  mention  are  Giovanni,  who  cajjtured  Con- 
radin  of  Hohenstaufen,  and  delivered  him,  in  1268, 
to  his  sanguinary  enemies ;  and  Latinr*,  Grand 
Inquisitor  and  Cardinal  and  Bishop  of  Ostia  and 
Velletri.  The  origin  of  the  name  Frangi])ani  is 
attributed  to  the  family's  benevolent  distribution 
of  bread  in  time  of  famine. — The  Croatian  family 
of  the  same  name  claim  descent  from  the  great 
original  Roman  House. 

FRANK,  FRANKING  LETTERS.    On  the 

introduction  of  the  uniform  penny-postage  on  all 
inland  letters  in  1840  (3  and  4  Vict.  c.  96),  the 
privilege  formerly  enjoyed  by  peers  and  members  of 
the  House  of  Commons,  and  many  official  j)erson3, 
of  ^  frankinrj,^  as  it  was  called,  that  is,  sending  and 
receiving  letters  duty  free,  was  abolished ;  the 
statute  7  Will.  IV.  and  1  Vict.  c.  32,  by  which  this 
privilege  had  been  recently  regulated,  being  repealed 
by  s.  68  of  the  first-mentioned  act.  The  privilege 
was  claimed  by  the  House  of  Commons  in  1660, 
when  the  post-office  was  first  legally  established  (see 
Post-office),  but  it  was  afterwards  dropped  upon 
a  private  assurance  from  the  crown  that  it  should 
be  allowed  to  members.  The  postmaster-general 
accordingly  constantly  issued  a  warrant  directing  the 
allowance,  till  the  privilege  was  expressly  conferred 
by  statute  4  Geo.  III.  c.  24.  In  the  days  of  frank- 
ing, each  member  of  either  House  of  Parliament  was 
entitled  to  send  ten  letters  every  day,  not  exceeding 
an  ounce  in  weight  each,  to  any  place  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  and  to  receive  fifteen,  free.  As  it  was 
not  necessary  that  the  letter  should  be  either  written 
by  or  to  the  privileged  person,  the  privilege  was 
greatly  abused  ;  and  most  persons  whose  memories 
reach  back  to  the  i)eriod  when  it  existed,  will 
remember  family  arrangements  for  taking  advan- 
tage of  it,  by  which  the  whole  correspondence  of 
the  kindred,  connections,  and  even  the  intimate 
acquaintances  of  a  peer,  or  a  member  of  parliament, 
was  in  general  carried  on  diity  free.  Up  to  the 
passing  of  the  last-mentioned  statute  (12th  July 
1837),  all  that  was  requisite  was  that  the  member 
should  write  his  name  or  title  on  the  corner  of  the 
letter.  From  this  time,  however,  till  the  abolition 
of  the  privilege,  it  was  required  that  the  whole 
address  should  be  witten  by  the  member ;  that  he 
should  add  not  only  his  name,  but  the  name  of  the 
post-town,  and  the  day  of  the  month ;  and  what  was 
most  troublesome  of  all,  that  the  letter  should  be 
posted  on  the  day  on  whicn  it  was  MTitten,  or  the 
following  day,  and  in  a  port- town  within  20  miles 
of  which  the  person  franking  was  then  actually 
resident.  By  this  cruel  regulation  (7  Will.  IV.  and  1 
Vict.  c.  35,  s.  9),  the  kindly  custom  of  gi^'ing  franks 
to  friends,  or  leaving  them  with  them  for  futuie  uso, 
was  rudely  interfered  with,  and  the  i:)ublic  mind 
reconciled  to  the  final  abolition  of  what  many 
regarded  as  a  time-honoured  abuse. 

FRANKALMOI'GNE  (Lat.  libera  eleemosyna, 
free  alms)  was  a  gift  of  lands  to  those  who  were 
consecrated  to  the  service  of  God.  By  the  ancient 
common  law  of  England,  a  man  could  not  alien  lands 
which  came  to  him  by  descent  without  consent  of 
his  heir,  but  he  might  give  a  part  to  God  in  free 
alms.  It  was  an  old  Saxon  tenure,  and  continued 
under  the  Norman  revolution,  throi  gh  the  great 
respect  that  was  shewn  to  religion  and  religious 
men.  This  is  the  tenure  by  which  almost  all  the 
ancient  monasteries  and  religious  houses  held  their 
1  lands,  and  by  which   the  parochial  clergy  and 


FRANKENBERG— FRANKFUKT-ON-TIIE-MAINE. 


very  many  ecclesiastical  foundations  hold  tliem  at 
this  day.  The  statute  of  12  Car.  II.  c.  24,  which 
abolished  the  old  tenures,  specially  reserved  tenure 
in  frankalmoigne.  The  condition  on  which  lands 
in  frankalmoigne  were  held  was,  that  masses  and 
divine  services  should  be  said  for  the  grantor  and 
his  heirs,  but  no  particular  ser\'ice  was  specified. 
At  the  Reformation,  the  nature  of  the  services  was 
changed,  but  the  tenure  was  suffered  to  continue. 
A  tenant  in  frankalmoigne  did  no  fealty  to  his 
overlord,  and  in  the  event  of  failure  to  perform  the 
service,  the  latter  M'as  not  entitled  to  distrain,  but 
might  complain  to  the  ordinary  or  visitor.  In  this 
respect,  this  tenure  differed  from  tenure  by  divine 
seivice,  i.e.,  where  lands  were  given  on  condition  of 
pel  forming  a  specified  service,  as  saying  a  mass  on  a 
particular  day,  or  distributing  certain  alms.  In  this 
case,  the  tenant  was  bound  to  render  fealty,  and 
the  lord  was  entitled  to  distrain  on  failure  to  per- 
form the  service.  But  lands  held  in  frankalmoigne 
were  subject  to  the  trinoda  necesdtafi,  of  repairing 
higliways,  building  castles,  and  repelling  invasions. 
Frankalmoigne  was  a  tenure,  to  l)e  held  of  the 
grantor  and  his  heirs  ;  all  lands,  tlierefore,  now  held 
in  frankalmoigne,  unless  created  by  the  crown, 
must  have  been  granted  before  the  reign  of  Edward 
I.,  for  by  Quia  cmpfores,  18  Edvv.  I.,  all  grants  by 
subjects  to  be  held  of  the  grantor  and  his  heirs 
are  ineffectual.  In  Scotland,  lands  conveyed  to 
the  church  in  puram  eleemosijnam  were  said  to 
be  mortiHed.    See  Mortification. 

FRA'NKENBERG,  a  flourishing  manufacturing 
town  of  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  is  beautifully 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Zschopau,  an 
affluent  of  the  Mulde,  32  miles  south-west  of  Dres- 
den. It  h;is  manufactures  of  cottons  (with  cotton 
printing),  linens,  leather,  and  machinery.  Pop. 
USTl)  9710. 

FRA'NKENHAU'SEN,  a  small  town  of  Ger- 
many, in  the  principality  of  Schwarzburg-Rudol- 
stadt,  stands  on  the  Wipi)er,  27  miles  north-north- 
west of  Weimar.  It  is  surrounded  with  walls, 
pierced  by  eight  gates,  has  a  palace,  a  Latin  school, 
a  productive  salt-work,  and  a  saltpetre  refinery. 
Pop.  5000,  who  are  engaged  chiefly  in  the  corn  and 
wool  trade,  and  in  the  production  of  wine.  F. 
figures  in  history  as  the  scene  of  a  battle  between 
the  rebellious  peasants  under  Thomas  Munzer,  loth 
May  1525,  and  the  Saxon,  Brunswick,  and  Hessian 
troops,  in  which  the  former  were  defeated. 

FRA'NKEXSTEIN,  a  small  but  active  towm  of 
Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Silesia,  is  situated  on  a 
height  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Pause,  37  miles 
south-south-east  of  Breslau.  It  is  surrounded  with 
walls  which  are  entered  by  four  gates,  and  con- 
sists of  the  town  proper  with  four  suburbs.  Seven 
miles  south-west  of  F.  is  the  mountain  fortress  of 
Silberberg,  the  defences,  bastions,  and  casemates 
of  which  are  almost  entirely  hewn  out  of  the  solid 
rock.  These  works  were  constructed  by  Frederick 
the  Great,  in  order  to  command  the  passage  from 
Bohemia.  Pop.  7328,  who  are  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facture of  broadcloth,  linen,  aquafortis,  strawplait, 
saltpetre,  &c. 

FR  V'NKENTHAL,  a  prosperous  manufacturing 
town  of  Germany,  in  the  Bavarian  Palatinate,  is 
situated  on  the  Isenach,  16  miles  north-north- west 
of  Spires.  From  the  town,  a  canal  between  50  and 
60  feet  broad  extends  east  to  the  Rhine,  a  distance 
of  three  miles.  It  has  important  cloth  manufac- 
tures, cottC)n  and  linen  weaving,  and  maiuifactures 
of  gold  and  silver  wire,  and  of  needles,  files,  and 
tobacco.    Pop.  (1871)  7021. 

FRA'NKFURT-ON-THE-MAINE  (Ger.  Frank- 
furt am  Alain) ^  a  city  in  the  Prussian  province  of 
490 


Hessen-Nassau,  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Maine,  in  hit.  Sd""  6'  N.,  and  long.  8""  41'  E.  Till 
1866  F.  was  the  foremost,  as  it  was  the  most  ancient, 
of  the  four  free  cities  of  the  German  Confederation 
and  the  seat  of  the  Diet.  The  city  lies  in  a  wide  and 
fertile  valley  at  the  mouth  of  the  Maine,  and  is  en- 
riched by  a  belt  of  villas,  gardens,  vineyards,  and  or- 
chards. In  respect  of  comn)erce  and  wealth,  Frank- 
furt-on-the-Maine  is  one  of  the  most  important  cities 
of  the  Emi)ire  of  Germany;  by  the  census  of  1871, 
its  population  antounted  to  90,922,  of  whom  up- 
wards of  7000  were  Jews.  F.  is  the  centre  fiom 
which  radiate  public  roads  and  railways  to  every 
part  of  Germany ;  while  its  site  on  the  banks  of  the 
Maine,  20  miles  from  its  confluence  with  the  Rhine, 
by  affording  it  a  direct  channel  of  water-communi- 
cation with  the  German  Ocean,  secures  to  it  great 
advantages  as  a  seat  of  commerce.  Its  central 
position  has  pointed  it  out  from  the  earliest  ages 
of  the  history  of  Germany  as  a  suitable  jilace  for 
national  meetings,  and  in  794  Charlemagne  convoked 
a  council  here.  In  843,  F.  was  made  the  capital  of 
the  eastern  Frankisli  empire,  and  continued  so  till 
889,  when  Arnidf  transferred  that  honour  to  Ratis- 
bon  ;  in  1257,  F.  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  free 
city ;  and  in  1356,  Charles  IV.  confirmed  by  the 
famous  '  Golden  Bull '  the  right,  which  it  had  enjoyed 
since  the  days  of  Frederic  Barbarossa,  of  being  the 
])lace  for  the  election  of  the  emperors  of  Germany. 
The  Guildhall,  or  Roemer,  contains  the  Wahlzimmer, 
or  Hall  of  Election,  in  which  the  Electors  (q.  v.)  met 
to  deliberate  on  the  nomination  of  the  emi)erors, 
and  the  Kaisersaal,  or  Imperial  Hall,  in  which  the 
newly  elected  monarch  held  his  public  dinner,  at 
which  he  was  waited  upon  by  the  coimts  and  high 
officers  of  the  empire,  who  held  their  respective 
domains  and  ofifices  in  right  of  their  performing 
various  acts  of  service  on  that  occasion.  Round 
this  hall  are  ranged  in  niches  the  portraits  of  the 
em])erors  from  Conrad  to  Leopold  II.  The  Golden 
Bull  is  i)reserved  among  the  archives.  The  ancient 
cathedral,  St  Bartholomew's,  contains  the  chapel 
in  which  the  electors  accepted  the  emperor  after 
he  had  been  anointed  at  the  high-altar.  F.  still 
contains  many  old  and  narrow  streets  with  high- 
gabelled  projecting  houses,  but  its  ancient  walls  and 
ramparts  have  been  converted  into  pleasure- walks, 
and  there  are  now  broad  quays,  and  wide  handsome 
streets  in  the  more  modernised  parts  of  the  city. 
The  famous  Juden-gasse,  or  Jews'  Street,  has  lost 
its  ancient  characteristics  since  a  more  liberal  policy 
has  permitted  members  of  the  Jewish  persuasion  to 
live  in  whatever  qiiarter  they  choose.  The  gates, 
which  secured  the  street  at  either  end,  and  were 
closed  at  night  to  prevent  the  egress  of  the  Jewish 
inhabitants,  were  razed  at  the  time  of  the  French 
occupation  in  1806.  F.  is  connected  with  its 
suburb,  Sachsenhausen,  which  lies  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Maine,  by  a  bridge  of  14  arches,  originally 
built  about  the  year  1342.  There  are  fountains  in 
several  of  the  squares,  one  of  which  is  adorned  with 
a  fine  statue  of  Goethe,  who  was  born  at  F.,  and 
another  with  a  group  commemorative  of  the  inven- 
tion of  printing.  F.  jjossesses  several  good  public 
libraries,  museums,  and  galleries,  and  many  charit- 
able institutions.  It  derives  great  wealth  from  its 
banking  transactions  ;  the  aggregate  capital  of  its 
bankers,  among  whom  the  name  of  the  Rothschilds 
has  long  stood  foremost,  is  said  to  be  about  20 
millions  sterling,  and  the  annual  transactions  in  bills 
of  exchange  about  12  millions  sterling.  Its  manu- 
facturing industry  has  greatly  extended  since  the 
annexation  to  Prussia;  to  the  former  manufactures 
of  snuff,  tobacco,  jewellery,  printers'  black,  wax- 
cloths,  and  carpets,  have  been  added  type-founding, 
chemical  works,  and  the  manufacture  of  sewing- 


FRANKFURT-ON-THE-ODER— FRANKLIN. 


nmcliines  on  a  larj^e  scale.  As  a  free  cit}^  F.  pos- 
BBssed  a  small  territory  of  about  39  square  miles  out- 
side its  precincts,  and  was  governed  by  2  burgomas- 
ters (elected  annually),  4  syndics,  a  civic  committee 
of  21  members,  and  a  legislative  chamber  of  57  mem- 
bers ;  the  highest  court  of  appeal  was  the  supreme 
tribunal  at  Ltibeck.  The  Constituent  Assembly 
elected  in  1848  to  frame  a  constitution  for  Gcrnumy, 
held  its  sittings  at  F.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Ans- 
tro-Frussiau  war  in  1866,  F.  chose  the  side  o))]iosed 
to  Prussia.  On  the  16th  July,  General  von  Falcken- 
stein  entered  the  city,  a  fine  of  31  millions  of  llorins 
being  imposed  ;  and  on  the  18tli  October  F.  was  for- 
mally incorporated  with  the  Prussian  state.  It  was 
in  F.  that  peace  was  finally  concluded  between  Ger- 
many and  France  in  1871,  the  treaty  having  been 
signed  on  the  10th  May,  in  the  Swan  Hotel  here,  by 
Bismarck  and  Jules  Favre. 

FRANKFURT-ON-THE-ODER,  the  capital  of 
an  extensive  Prussian  circle  of  the  same  name  in  the 
province  of  Brandenburg,  is  a  place  of  considerable 
trade,  on  the  railway  line  between  Berlin  and 
Breslau,  and  about  50  miles  east  of  the  former 
city.  F.  lies  in  lat.  52°  22'  N.,  and  long.  14°  20'  E. 
Pop.  in  1871,  43,211.  It  is  a  fortified,  well-built 
town,  and  has  three  suburbs,  one  of  which  lies  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Oder,  and  is  connected  with 
the  remainder  of  the  town  by  a  wooden  bridge. 
Of  the  six  Protestant  churches,  St  Mary's,  founded 
in  the  13th  c,  is  the  most  worthy  of  notice,  for 
its  large  oi*gan,  riclily  gilt  wood-car\dngs,  and  fine 
stained  windows.  The  university,  founded  in  1506, 
was  incorporated  in  1811  with  that  of  Breslau,  but 
F.  still  has  its  distinct  gymnasium,  with  its  branch- 
schools.  Three  great  fairs  are  still  annually  held  at 
F.,  but  although  they  are  still  attended,  as  of  old, 
by  many  Poles  and  Silesians,  sales  are  less  brisk 
than  in  former  times.  F.  has  manufactures  of  silk, 
leather,  gloves,  tobacco,  sugar,  and  porcelain  ware  ; 
it  has  considerable  distilleries,  and  is  noted  for  its 
mustard.  Its  situation  on  a  navigable  river,  con- 
nected by  canals  with  the  Vistula  and  the  Elbe, 
affords  great  commercial  and  social  advantages, 
which  have  rendered  it  a  place  of  importance  from 
a  very  early  period.  It  was  a  flourishing  member 
of  the  Hanseatic  League,  and  during  the  middle  ages 
it  suffered  frequently  at  the  hands  of  marauding 
enemies.  It  was  besieged  in  1430  by  the  Hussites, 
in  1450  by  the  Poles,  and  in  1477  by  the  Duke  of 
Sagan.  In  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  it  was  frequently 
taken  by  both  parties,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century  it  suffered  severely  at  the  hands  of 
the  French.  F.  is  the  seat  of  the  administrative 
government,  judicial  tribunal,  council  of  nobility, 
and  boards  of  taxation  for  its  circle.  The  village 
of  Kfmersdorf,  44  miles  from  F.,  was  the  scene 
of  a  great  battle,  fought  August  12,  1759,  between 
Frederick  the  Great  and  the  Ilusso- Austrian  forces, 
in  which  the  former,  after  a  sanguinary  engagement, 
Was  compelled  to  retreat  with  great  loss. 

FRA'NKINCENSE  {thus),  a  name  emploj^ed  to 
designate  various  fragrant  resinous  substances  which 
diffuse  a  strong  fragrance  in  burning,  and  are  on 
that  accou  t.t  used  in  certain  religious  services.  There 
in  good  reason  to  believe  that  the  frankincense  of 
the  Jew^s,  and  also  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans,  was  chiefly  or  entii-ely  the  substance  now 
known  as  OUhanum  (q.  v.),  the  produce  of  an  Indian 
tree,  Doswellia  serrata  or  timrifera.  See  Boswellia. 
It  was  formerly  supposed  to  have  been  obtained  from 
the  Juniperus  Lycia,  which  is  now  believed  not  to 
yield  any  such  product,  and  is  a  native  of  the  south 
of  Europe,  whilst  the  prized  frankincense  of  the 
fcncients  was  brought  from  the  East. — Several  trees, 
toM-fcver,  of  different  natural  orders,  yield  substances 


used  as  frankincense  instead  of  olibanum.in  dilTercrt 

parts  of  the  world,  as  several  sjtecies  of  Jcica  and  of 
Croton  in  America  ;  and  the  silver  fir  (see  Fir)  in 
Europe,  the  resinous  product  of  which  is  the  CoMiiON 
Frankincense  of  the  pharmacopaiias,  although  in 
the  shops,  concrete  American  turpentine  is  very 
often  sold  under  this  name.  It  is  used  in  the 
composition  of  stimulating  plasters,  &c.  Ihirgundy 
pitch  is  made  from  it.  It  is  a  spontaneous  exuda- 
tion from  the  tree,  hardening  by  exposure  to  the 
air,  and  generally  of  a  whitish  or  pinkish  colour, 
with  a  rather  agreeable  odour  and  a  balsamic 
taste. 

FRA'NKLIN.  The  franlvlin,  or,  according  to  tho 
old  spelling,  the  frankelein,  was  the  English  free- 
holder of  former  times,  who  held  his  lands  of  the 
crown,  free  (frank)  from  any  feudal  servitude  to  a 
subject-superior.  Chaucer's  Frankliii's  Tale,  and 
still  more  his  description  of  the  franklin  in  the 
prologue  to  his  immortal  Pilgrimage,  have  rendered 
him  a  classical  character.  In  the  whole  circle  of 
our  literature  there  is  probably  no  more  perfect 
picture  of  the  pei'son,  habits,  and  surroundings  of  a 
jovial  old  country  gentleman.  His  beard  was  white 
as  a  daisy,  bis  conplexion  sanguine,  he  loved  a  '  sop 
in  wine,'  and  woe  to  his  cook  if  his  sauce  were  not 
poignant  and  sharp;  in  a  word,  'he  was  Epicurus' 
owen  son.'  But  the  franklin's  luxuries  were  not 
intended  for  his  own  enjoj^ment  alone,  for  '  a  house- 
holder, and  that  a  great,  was  he.'  His  talde  stood 
'  in  his  hall  alway,'  '  ready  covered  all  the  longe 
day;'  and 

"Withouten  baked  meat  never  was  his  house. 
Of  fish  and  flesh,  and  that  so  plenteous, 
It  snoiced  in  hits  house  of  meat  and  drink. 

Nor  was  it  only  in  dispensing  good  cheer  that  tho 
fraidilin  fulfilled  the  functions  of  the  country  gentle- 
man of  his  day.  At  sessions,  he  was  '  lord  and  sire/ 
and  fidl  often  time  he  had  been  '  knight  of  the  shiro.' 
He  had  been  sheriff  too,  and  a  countour  and  vava- 
sour ;  though  what  these  latter  offices  were,  i&  a 
svibject  of  controversy  amongst  the  commentators. 
'  The  dress  of  the  franklin,  according  to  the  Duke  of 
Sutherland's  MS.,'  says  Mr  Saunders,  in  his  excel- 
lent little  book  called  Cabinet  Pictures  of  Emjlish 
Life  (p.  204),  was  a  siircoat  of  red  lined  with  blue, 
with  bars  or  stripes  of  fringe  or  lace  over  it  He 
wore  a  small  blue  hat  turned  up,  and  black  bjots.' 
Chaucer  adds  to  his  attire  a  knife  or  dagger  called 
an  'anelace,'  and  a  'gipciere'  or  silk  purse,  '  wiiite  as 
morrow  [morning]  milk,'  at  his  girdle.  Mr  Saunders 
mentions  {ut  svp.)  that  in  the  Metrical  Chronicle 
of  Robert  cle  Brune,  the  franklin  of  an  earlier 
period  (13tli  c.)  is  ranked  immediately  after  earls, 
barons,  and  lords,  and  vras  evidently  a  j^rsou  of 
great  consideration.  Such,  as  we  have  seen,  was 
very  much  his  position  in  Chaucer's  tim .;,  but  ho 
seems  to  have  fallen  in  dignity,  and  wo  find  him 
in  much  lower  company  in  Sliakspeare'\j  day.  In 
Tlie  Winter's  Tale  the  clown  is  made  t<  say  (Act  v. 
scene  2) : 

Not  swear  it,  now  I  am  a  gentlemai* 

Let  boors  and  frankhns  say  it,  I  '11  owear  it. 

From  other  passages  it  would  seem  that  his  position 
had  come  to  correspond  to  that  of  the  well-to-do 
yeoman.  In  1  Henry  IV.,  Act  ii  scene  1,  we  hear 
of  a  franklin  '  in  the  wold  of  K  ent  hath  brought 
three  hundred  marks  with  him  in  gold ; '  and  Cynibe- 
line  says  (Act  iii.  scene  2),  '  Provide  me  presently 
a  riding  suit,  no  costlier  than  is  fit  a  franklin  3 
housewife.'  There  seems  no  reason  to  think,  how- 
ever, that  Dr  Johnson's  remark  that  franklin  is  '  not 
improi)erly  Englished  a  gentleman  servant,'  is  vas> 
I'anted  by  his  position  at  any  period,  and  it  ceitainly 


FRANKLIN. 


Is  not  by  the  passage  which  he  quotes  from  the 
Fairy  Queen : 

A  spacious  court  thev  see,  &c., 

Where  them  does  luj^t  a  frankhn  fair  and  free. 

FRANKLIN,  Benjamin,  an  eminent  American 
philosopher  and  statesman,  born  at  Boston,  in  Massa- 
chusetts, the  17th  of  January  1706.  He  was  the 
youngest  son  and  fifteenth  child  out  of  a  family  of 
seventeen  children.  His  father,  Josiah  Franklin, 
emigrated  from  England  to  America  in  1G82  :  he 
followed  the  business  of  tallow-chandler  and  soap- 
boiler. Benjamin,  when  only  ten  years  old,  was 
employed  in  his  father's  shop  in  cutting  wicks,  going 
errands,  &c.  ;  but  becoming  soon  disgusted  with  the 
monotonous  routine  of  his  duties,  he  conceived  a 
strong  desire  to  go  to  sea.  To  preveut  this,  his 
father  bound  him  apprentice  to  his  brother  J ames, 
who  was  a  printer.  Young  F.  had  now  free  access 
ito  books,  for  which  he  had  evinced  a  fondness 
even  from  infancy.  He  himself  says  he  coidd  not 
remember  the  time  when  he  did  not  know  how  to 
read.  To  gratify  his  thirst  for  reading,  he  would 
often  sit  xxp  the  greater  part  of  the  night.  He  did 
not,  however,  neglect  his  duties  as  printer,  and  he 
became  in  a  few  years  well  sldlled  in  his  trade. 
But  the  two  brothers  could  not  agree.  The  elder 
appears  to  have  been  of  a  severe  and  passionate 
temper,  which  the  younger,  as  he  himself  intimates, 
may  have  sometimes  provoked  by  his  imperti- 
nence. At  length,  when  seventeen  years  of  age, 
voung  F.  left  Boston  without  the  knowledge  of 
his  relations,  embarking  in  a  vessel  bound  for  New 
York,  whence  he  proceeded,  partly  by  water,  and 
partly  on  foot,  to  Philadelphia.  Here  he  obtained 
employment  as  a  journeyman  printer.  In  the  follow- 
ing year,  encouraged  by  the  promise  of  assistance 
from  a  gentleman  in  Philadelphia,  he  resolved  to 
Bet  up  business  for  himself.  With  this  view,  he 
went  to  England,  in  order  to  pm-chase  type  and 
other  materials  necessary  for  carrying  on  his  trade. 
But  failing  to  receive  the  aid  which  he  had  expected 
from  his  pretended  friend,  he  was  obliged  to  work 
as  a  jom-neyman  in  London,  where  he  remained 
more  than  a  year.  He  returned  in  1726  to  Phila- 
delphia, and  in  1729,  with  the  assistance  of  some 
friends,  established  himself  in  business.  The  next 
vear  he  married  Miss  Deborah  Bead,  with  v.'bom  he 
had  become  acquainted  in  Philadelphia  before  he 
went  to  England.  In  1729,  F,  had  become  the 
proprietor  and  editor  of  a  newspaper  [The  Penn- 
sylvania Gazette),  which  his  talent  for  writing  soon 
rendered  very  popular  and  very  profitable.  In  1732, 
he  commenced  the  publication  of  an  almanac,  pur- 
porting to  be  by  Richard  Saunders.  He  sought 
to  make  his  almanac,  like  his  paper,  the  vehicle  of 
usefid  information  for  the  people,  especially  incul- 
cating the  virtues  of  frugality,  industry,  &c.  It 
was  commonly  called  Poor  Richard's  Almanac^ 
under  which  name  it  acqxiired  a  wide  celebrity. 

By  his  talents,  prudence,  and  integrity,  F.  con- 
tinued to  rise  in  the  estimation  of  the  community  in 
which  he  lived,  until  he  was  deemed  M^orthy  of  the 
highest  honours  which  his  country  could  bestow. 
He  was  made  successively  clerk  of  the  Assembly 
of  Pennsylvania  (1736),  Postmaster  of  Philadelphia 
(1737),  and  Deputy  Postmaster- general  for  the 
T\ritish  Colonies  (1753).  A  dispute  having  arisen 
between  the  Assembly  and  the  proprietary  gover- 
nors, in  consequence  of  the  latter  claiming  exemption 
from  taxation,  F.  was  sent  in  1757  to  England 
to  plead  the  cause  of  the  people  before  the  privy 
<5ouncil.  His  representations  and  arguments  pre- 
vailed, and  it  was  decided  that  the  estates  of  the 
proprietaries  should  bear  their  due  proportion  of  the 
public  burdens.    On  his  return  in  1762,  he  received 

m 


the  thanks  of  the  Assembly  for  the  able  and  faithful 
fulfilment  of  his  mission. 

F.  had  already  become  distinguished  in  the  scien- 
tific world  by  his  successful  experiments  on  the 
nature  of  electricity.  In  1752,  he  had  made  the 
important  and  brilliant  discovery  of  the  identity  of 
lightning  with  the  electric  fluid.  Soon  after,  the 
Boyal  Society  of  London,  even  without  waiting  for 
any  application  to  be  made  on  his  behalf — which 
had  been  the  general  usage — chose  him  a  member  of 
their  body,  and  bestowed  upon  him  the  Copley 
gold  medal.  Alluding  to  F.'s  account  of  his  elec- 
trical experiments.  Sir  Humi)hry  Davy  observes : 
'A  singidar  felicity  of  induction  guided  all  hia 
researches,  and  by  very  small  means  he  established 
very  grand  truths.  The  style  and  manner  of  his 
publication  are  almost  as  worthy  of  admiration  as 

the  doctrines  it  contains   He  has  written 

equally  for  the  iminitiated  and  for  the  philosopher.' 

In  1764,  F.  was  again  sent  by  the  Assembly  as 
agent  to  England.  The  ])olicy  of  taxing  the  colonies 
had  already  been  agitated,  and  he  was  instructed 
by  the  Assembly  to  use  his  eff'orts  against  such  a 
measure.  But  the  ministry  had  formed  their  plans, 
and  the  Stamp  Act  was  passed  early  in  1765.  It 
caused  a  great  excitement,  and  met  with  th'^  most 
determined  opposition  in  America.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  1766,  a  new  ministry  having  coma  into 
power,  the  subject  was  again  brought  to  the  atten- 
tion of  parliament.  F.  was  examined  before  the 
House  of  Commons,  on  which  occasion  his  talents, 
his  varied  information,  and  his  presence  of  mind, 
were  shewn  to  great  advantage,  and  the  repeal  of 
the  obnoxious  Stamp  Act  was  the  result.  But  other 
laws  deemed  equally  objectionable  remained  in  force. 
In  the  dispute  between  the  American  colonies  and 
the  mother-country,  F.  had  sought  sincerely  and 
earnestly  to  prevent  a  disruption  ;  when,  however, 
he  became  convinced  that  a  separation  was  inevi- 
table, he  returned  home,  and  took  an  active  part  in 
promoting  the  cause  of  independence.  He  arrived 
at  Philadelphia  on  the  5th  of  May  1775,  after  an 
absence  of  rather  more  than  ten  years.  The  day 
after  his  arrival,  he  was  unanimously  elected  by  the 
Assembly  of  Pennsylvania  a  delegate  to  the  Second 
Continental  Congress  then  about  to  assemble.  He 
was  one  of  the  committee  of  five  chosen  by  congress 
to  prepare  the  celebrated  '  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence,' which,  ha\dng  been  unanimously  agreed  to 
on  the  4th  of  Jidy  1776,  he  afterwards  signed  with 
the  other  leading  patriots.  Towards  the  close  of 
the  same  year,  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  the 
French  court.  To  him  is  due  the  principal,  if  not 
the  sole,  credit  of  effecting  between  France  and  the 
United  States  the  Treaty  of  Alliance,  the  stipula- 
tions of  which  were  so  eminently  favourable  to  the 
latter  country.  This  treaty,  signed  at  Paris  the  6th 
of  February  1778,  may  be  said  to  have  secured 
the  independence  of  the  American  colonies.  F. 
remained  in  Europe  some  time  after  the  establish- 
ment of  peace.  In  1785,  he  returned  to  Phila- 
delphia, where  he  died  on  the  17th  of  Aprd  1790, 
aged  84  years. 

In  person,  F.  was  of  a  medium  stature,  well  formeo 
and  strongly  built,  with  a  light  complexion  and  gray 
eyes.  His  manners  were  affable  and  engaging.  He 
was  remarkable  for  simplicity  of  character  and  prac- 
tical common  sense.  He  deemed  nothing  which  con- 
cerned the  interest  or  happiness  of  mankind  unworthy 
of  his  attention,  and  rarely  if  ever  bestowed  his  atten- 
tion on  any  subject  without  obtaining  permanently 
useful  results. 

He  left  among  his  numerous  works  an  extremely 
interesting  and  instructive  autobiography  of  the 
earlier  portion  of  his  life,  extending  to  his  fifty- 
second  year.    A  complete  collection  of  his  worka 


FRANKLIN- FRANK-PLEDGE. 


edited  by  Jared  Sparks,  has  been  pxiblisbed  in  ten 
volumes  octavo. 

Of  F.'s  living  posterity,  there  is  none  bearing  his 
name.  Among  the  descendants  of  his  daughter 
Sarah,  who  was  married  to  Richard  Bache,  several 
have  risen  to  eminence  in  science  or  literature. 

FRANKLIN,  Rear-admiral  Sir  John,  an 
English  naval  officer  of  distinguished  reputation, 
was  born  at  Spilsby,  in  Lincolnshire,  April  16,  1786. 
He  was  descended  from  a  long  line  of  freelioldei's, 
and  was  the  youngest  son  of  a  respectable  yeoman. 
F.  received  the  riidiments  of  his  education  at  St 
Ives ;  afterwards  he  spent  two  years  at  the  gram- 
mar school  of  Louth.  Tt  is  stated  that  he  was 
intended  for  the  church,  but  as  he  displayed  a 
decided  predilection  for  the  sea,  his  father  wisely 
abandoned  opposition  to  his  choice  of  a  profession, 
and  procured  him,  in  1800,  a  midshipman's  post  on 
board  the  Pohjphermis  line-of-battle  ship.  In  the 
following  year,  F.'s  ship  led  the  van  in  the  desperate 
battle  of  Copenhagen.  Two  months  after,  he  was 
removed  to  the  hwestigaior,  then  fitting  out  under 
command  of  Captain  Flinders,  for  discovery  and 
survey  of  the  Australian  coast.  In  this  expedition, 
F.  had  the  companionship  of  the  distinguished 
botanist  Robert  Brown,  and  of  his  coadjutor  Ferdi- 
nand Bauer,  and  from  them  he  learned  the  great 
importance  of  the  natural  sciences,  in  the  promotion 
of  which  he  ever  afterwards  took  a  deep  and 
intelligent  interest.  On  his  return  to  England, 
F.  was  appointed  to  the  Belleroplion,  in  which 
he  acted  as  signal  midshipman  in  the  battle  of 
Trafalgar  (1805),  and  had  the  good-fortune  to 
e&cape  unhurt.  He  subsequently  served  in  the 
Bedford  on  various  stations,  and  took  a  distin- 
guished part  m  the  attack  on  New  Orleans  in  1814. 
In  1819,  F.  was  despatched  by  government  to  Hud- 
son's Bay,  with  orders  to  make  his  way  thence  to 
the  Arctic  Sea,  and  survey  as  much  of  the  coast 
as  possible.  In  the  course  of  this  expedition,  which 
lasted  about  three  years  and  a  half,  F.  travelled 
5550  miles  under  circumstances  of  the  greatest 
hardship  and  privation,  to  which  more  than  half 
of  his  companions  succumbed.  But  the  gain  to 
science  was  great,  alike  from  the  carefulness  and  { 
extent  of  the  physical  surveys  of  the  mouth  of  \ 
the  Cop])ermine  River,  and  eastward  along  Corona-  | 
tion  Gulf,  and  from  the  attention  devoted  to  the 
natural  productions  of  these  inclement  shores.  On 
his  return,  in  1822,  F.  was  made  post-captain,  and 
elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  In  1825, 
lie  co-operated  (overland)  wdth  the  sea-expeditions 
of  Captains  Parry  and  Beechey,  and  surveyed  the 
Noith  American  coast  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Coppermine  westward  to  about  Point  Beechey.  F.'s 
discoveries  now  extended  over  44  degrees  of  longi-  j 
tude,  or  more  than  a  third  of  the  distance  between 
Baffiu's  Bay  and  Behring's  Strait.  For  these  vain-  1 
QV)le  exp  orations,  in  which  he  was  engaged  until 
1827,  he  received  the  honour  of  knighthood  from  ' 
his  sovereign,  and  the  degree  of  D.C.L.  from  the  j 
university  of  Oxford,  while  the  French  Geographical  ; 
Bocieby  awarded  him  their  gold  medal,  and  at  a 
subsequent  i)eriod  he  was  elected  coiTcspouding 
member  of  the  Instil  ite  of  France.  F.  next  took 
an  active  part  in  the  Greek  war  of  liberation.  In 
'I8;i6,  he  was  appointed  governor  of  Van  Diemen's 
Land,  where  his  wise  and  moderate  conduct  secured 
for  him  the  warm  approbation  both  of  the  govern- 
ment and  the  colonists.  The  latter  established  a 
college  and  a  philosophical  society  in  his  honour ; 
and  years  after,  they  testified  that  the  memory  of 
ciis  rule  was  gtiU  gratefully  cherished,  by  sub- 
pciiljing  £1600  towards  an  expedition  designed  for 
his  rescue.  In  May  1845,  F.,  now  bordering  on  his 
6(*th  year,  but  with  physical  and  mental  powers 


undiminished  in  vigour,  started  Arith  the  Erebus  and 
Terror  on  his  last  and  ill-fated  expedition  to  discover 
the  North-west  Passage.  The  last  time  that  the 
vessels  were  seen  was  in  J uly  of  the  same  year.  To 
enter  into  the  history  of  the  efforts  undertaken  foi 
the  relief  or  discovery  of  the  fate  of  F.  would  be 
out  of  place  here.  It  is  sufficient  to  say,  that  in  the 
course  of  eleven  years  upwards  of  twenty  separate 
expeditions,  at  the  cost  of  about  a  million  sterling, 
were  sent  out  to  look  for  the  missing  crews;  and 
the  discoveries  of  these  expeditions  added  moro 
to  our  knowledge  of  the  arctic  regions  than  all 
previous  explorations  had  done.  See  North-west 
Passage.  It  was  not  until  1859  that  the  fate  of  F. 
was  ascertained  by  the  commander  of  a  little  vessel 
fitted  out  by  Lady  Franklin,  after  hope  had  been 
declared  hopeless  by  all  else.  It  then  appeared 
that  F.  had  died  on  the  11th  June  1847,  fortunately 
before  his  sympathetic  heart  had  been  lacerated  by 
witnessing  the  awful  sufierings  of  his  men.  F.  wag 
one  of  the  boldest  and  most  persevering  explorers 
that  Britain  ever  sent  from  her  shores.  His  daring 
was  qualified  by  judgment,  and  his  sense  of  duty 
and  responsibility  as  to  the  lives  of  those  under  his 
charge  was  of  the  keenest.  His  heart  was  tender 
as  a  woman's  ;  and  altogether  he  was  one  of  the 
noblest  types  of  a  true  Chi-istian  gentleman. 

FRANKLIN,  Jane,  Lady,  the  second  wife  of 
Sir  John  F.,  to  whose  unwearied  energy,  devotion, 
and  hopefulness,  when  hope  had  sunk  in  all  other 
hearts,  we  are  indebted  for  the  knowledge  of  the 
fate  of  her  gallant  husband,  was  the  daughter  of 
John  Gritfen,  Esq.,  of  Bedford  Place,  London,  and 
was  married  to  Sir  John  Franklin  in  November 
1826.  In  1848,  when,  owing  to  the  long  absence 
of  news  about  the  expedition  of  the  Erebus  and 
Terror,  fears  began  to  be  entertained  about  ita 
safety.  Lady  F.  offered  large  rewards  to  any  per- 
sons who  should  discover  and  afford  relief  to  the 
missing  voyagers,  or  who  would  make  exertions 
with  that  end  in  view.  From  that  time  until  1857, 
when  she  fitted  out  the  Fox,  under  the  command  of 
M'Clintock,  whose  discoveries  set  all  doul:)ts  about 
t]ie  fate  of  her  husband's  expedition  at  rest.  Lady 
F.  never  rested  in  her  efforts  to  incite  by  voice, 
pen,  and  purse,  not  only  her  own  countrymen,  but 
Americans,  to  search  for  the  missing  shijjs  and  their 
unfortunate  crews.    She  died  July  18,  1875. 

FRA'NKMARRIAGE  {liberum  maritagium)  was 
a  species  of  estate  tail  existing  by  the  common  law 
of  England ;  for  where  a  man,  on  the  marriage  of  his 
daughter  or  cousin,  gave  lands  to  be  held  in  frank- 
marriage,  this  implied  a  gift  in  special  tail,  to  the 
donees  and  heirs  of  their  bodies.  This  tenure  was 
called  libe7~um  maritagium,  to  distinguish  it  from 
other  species  of  estates  tail  [Co.  Litt.  94  b).  Four 
things  were  necessary  to  a  gift  in  frankmarriage  : 

1.  That  it  must  be  in  consideration  of  a  marriage, 
but  it  might  be  as  well  after  as  before  a  maiTiage. 

2.  That  the  donee  with  whom  it  is  given  be  of  the 
blood  of  the  donor.  3.  That  the  donees  should  hold 
of  the  donor.  Hence  a  gift  in  frankmarriage  by  a 
sul)ject  became  impossible  after  the  statute  of  Quia 
em'ptores.  4.  That  the  donees  should  hold  for  four 
generations.  Therefore  a  gift  in  frankmarriage  with 
a  reservation  of  a  remamder  to  a  stranger,  or  a 
devise  by  will,  was  bad. 

FRANK-PLEDGE,  a  law  prevailing  in  England 
before  the  Norman  Conquest,  whereby  the  mem- 
bers of  every  tything  were  responsible  for  the  good- 
conduct  of  each  other.  This  responsibility,  accord- 
ing to  Mr  Ilallam,  consisted  in  every  ten  men 
in  a  village  being  answerable  each  for  the  otneis, 
so  that  if  one  committed  an  offence,  the  other 
nine   were   liable  for  his    appearance  to  make 


FRANKS— FEASER  RIVER. 


reparation.  Should  the  offender  abscond,  the  tyth- 
ing,  if  unable  to  clear  themselves  from  participation 
in  the  crime,  were  compelled  to  make  good  the 
penalty.  This  law  has  been  ascribed  to  Alfred 
the  Great ;  but  it  would  appear  to  have  been  in 
existence  at  a  much  earlier  period.  Mr  Hallam, 
Middle  AgeSy  ii.  p.  80  (edit.  1841),  observes:  'The 
pecidiar  sj^stem  of  frank-j)l.edges  seems  to  have 
passed  through  the  following  very  gradual  stages. 
At  first,  an  accused  person  was  bound  to  find  bail 
for  standing  his  trial.  At  a  subse(|uent  period,  his 
relations  were  called  upon  to  become  sectirities  for 
payment  of  the  compensation  and  other  fines  to 
which  he  was  liable ;  the}'  were  even  subject  to  be 
imprisoned  until  payment  was  made,  and  this 
imprisonment  was  commutable  for  a  certain  sum  in 
money.  The  next  usage  was  to  make  people  already 
convicted,  or  of  suspicious  repute,  give  securities  for 
their  good-behaviour.  It  is  not  till  the  reign  of 
Edgar  that  we  find  the  first  general  law,  which 
phxces  every  man  in  the  condition  of  the  guilty 
or  suspected,  and  compels  him  to  find  a  surety 
■who  shall  be  responsible  for  his  appearance  when 
judicially  summoned.  This  is  perpetually  repeated 
and  enforced  in  later  statutes  during  his  reign 
and  that  of  Ethelred.  Finally,  the  laws  of  Canute 
declare  the  necessity  of  belonging  to  some  himdred 
and  tything,  as  well  as  of  i)roviding  sureties.' 

The  Court  of  Frank-pledge,  or  Cotcrt-leet,  is  a  court 
of  record  held  once  in  the  year,  and  not  oftener, 
within  a  particular  hundred,  lordship,  or  manor, 
before  the  steward  of  the  leet ;  being  the  king's 
court  granted  by  charter  to  the  lords  of  those 
hundreds  or  manors.  All  freeholders  resident  in 
the  jurisdiction  are  bound  to  attend  this  court ;  but 
persons  under  twelve  and  over  sixty  years  of  age 
are  excused,  and  by  the  statute  of  Marlbridge,  52 
Hen.  III.  c.  10,  all  prelates,  peers,  and  clergymen, 
and  women  are  discharged  from  attendance.  It  was 
also  the  custom  to  summon  all  the  king's  subjects 
to  this  court,  on  attaining  years  of  discretion,  to 
take  the  oath  of  allegiance.  The  business  of  this 
court  was  to  present  by  jury  all  crimes  committed 
within  their  jurisdiction,  and  to  punish  all  trivial 
misdemeanours.  This  court  has  practically  fallen 
into  desuetude,  and  the  business  is  discharged  by 
^he  justices  of  the  peace  at  general  and  petty  ses- 
sions. See  Blackstone's  Commentaries.  Originally, 
the  business  of  the  coiurt  of  frank-pledge  was  con- 
fined to  the  taking  securities  or  free  pledges  for 
every  person  within  the  jurisdiction  ;  but  this  I 
practice  having  fallen  into  disuse,  the  court  gradually 
acquired  a  criminal  jurisdiction,  concurrent  with 
that  of  the  sheriff's  tourn.  '■Magna  Charta  distin- 
guishes between  the  tourns  or  leets  of  sheriffs  and 
the  view  of  frank-pledge  ;  limiting  the  former  to 
twice  a  year,  and  the  latter  to  once.  In  the  more 
ordinary  sense,  frank-pledge  and  leet  are  synonymous, 
as  appears  from  the  style  of  tourns  and  other  leets, 
which  in  court-rolls  are  usually  denominated  citrire 
or  visus  franci  plegil.  But  Avhen  free  pledge  is  i;sed, 
as  in  Magna  Charta,  it  should  be  understood  in  a 
strict  and  particular  sense.' — Co.  Lilt,  by  Hargrave, 
115  a,  note  10. 

FRANKS  (i.  e.,  freemen)  was  the  name  assumed 
by  a  confederation  of  German  tribes  that  appeared 
on  the  Lower  Rhine  in  the  3d  c,  and  afterwards 
overthrew  the  Roman  dominion  in  Gaul.  It  was 
only  the  name,  however,  that  was  new;  the  indi- 
vidual tribes  composing  the  confederation  had  been 
known  on  the  Rhine  as  early  as  the  time  of 
Augustus.  The  most  important  of  these  were  the 
Sigambri,  Chamavi,  Ampsivarii,  Chatti,  Chattuarii, 
and  Bructeri  of  the  time  of  the  first  emperors. 
In  the  .3d  and  4th  centuries,  hordes  of  them  began 
to  pour  through  the  Low  Coim  tries  into  Gaid,  until 
494 


at  last  the  country  became  their  prey.  After  the 
middle  of  the  4th  c,  they  appear  divided  into  two 
groups,  the  Sal  ians— either  from  the  old  Ger.  Sal, 
or  the  river  Sala  (Fsse/)— and  the  Ripuarians  {ripa, 
the  bank),  the  first  inhabiting  Holland  and  the  Low 
Countries,  the  last  on  both  sides  of  the  Rhine  as 
far  up  as  the  Main.  Each  groiip  had  its  own  laws, 
afterwards  committed  to  writing  {Lex  Salica  cand 
Lex  Bipuariorum).  Like  the  two  peoples,  these 
laws  difier  little  even  in  detail.  The  F.  wer?  a 
mobile,  well-endowed  race,  forming  in  language 
and  art  the  transition  from  the  Low  Germans  to 
the  High  ;  and  they  compose  to  this  day  the  g  r(>und 
of  the  population  of  the  west  of  Germany  as  far  sm 
the  Neckar,  Main,  Miirg,  and  Lower  Alsace,  aa 
well  as  the  chief  Germanic  element  of  the  popu- 
lation of  Northern  France.  For  the  later  history 
of  the  Franks,  see  articles  Clovis,  Carlo VINOIANS, 

ClIARLEMAONE,  FRANCE,  MEROVINGIANS,  &C. 

FRA'NZENSBRUNN,  or  FRANZENSBAD,  a 
small  village  and  well-known  bathing-place  in 
Austria,  on  the  north-western  frontier  of  Bohemia, 
three  miles  north- "west  of  Eger,  is  situated  amid  low 
bare  hills,  and  consists  of  four  rectangular  streets 
lined  with  trees.  It  has  four  cold  mineral  S))rings, 
chiefly  of  alkalo-saline  chalybeate  water,  d>^emed 
highly  efficacious  in  the  cure  of  scrofulous  complaints 
and  diseases  of  the  skin,  and  used  principally  for 
drirdving,  but  also  for  bathing  purj)oses,  in  which 
case  the  water  is  heated  to  a  temperature  of  90°  to 
98°  F.  Nearly  200,000  bottles  of  these  waters  are 
exported  annually.    F.  has  also  mud  and  gas  baths. 

FRASCA'TI,  a  beautiful  town  about  eight  miles 
east-south-east  of  Rome,  with  a  population  of  5000. 
It  stands  on  the  lower  heights  of  the  Alban 
Hills,  not  far  from  the  site  of  ancient  Tusculum, 
which  was  built  on  a  higher  range  of  hills.  Tus- 
culum (q.  v.),  a  town  of  much  more  ancient  date  than 
Rome,  was  burned  and  ruined  by  the  Romans  in 
1191  A.  D.,  to  avenge  a  former  victory  gained  by  the 
Tusculans  in  11G7.  Those  of  the  inhabitants  who 
escaped  the  fury  of  the  conquerors,  sought  refuge 
on  the  slope  of  the  hiU  towards  Rome,  constructing 
small  huts  out  of  the  underwood  or  frasche,  and 
hence  the  modem  name  Frascati.  The  chief  attrac- 
tions of  F.  are  its  lovely  villas  and  salubrious  air, 
which  attract  from  Rome  in  the  hot  season  all  its 
noble  and  foreign  residents,  and  render  this  resort 
in  the  Alban  Hills  the  most  fashionable  vUleagia- 
I  tura  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Eternal  City.  The  most 
splendid  of  these  summer  residences  are  the  villas 
Aldobrandini,  also  known  as  II  Belvedere,  from  its 
commanding  and  noble  prospect ;  those  of  Mon- 
dragon  and  Taverna  of  the  Borghese  family ;  the 
villas  Pallavicini  and  Piccolomini. 

The  cathedral  contains  a  tablet  to  the  Cardiral 
of  York,  for  many  years  bishop  of  this  diocese,  and 
another  to  his  brother,  Charles  Edward,  the  Young 
Pretender,  who  died  here  in  1788. 

FRASER,  Simon.  See  Lovat,  Lord. 
FRASER  RIVER,  the  principal  stream  of 
British  Columbia,  comprises  in  its  basin  the  far 
greater  part  of  the  colony.  The  F.  R.  proper  has 
its  origin  in  the  union  of  two  branches,  the  more 
important  of  Avhich  receives  its  waters  from  a  series 
of  lakes  that  lie  in  lat.  54" — 55"  N.,  long,  about 
124°  50'  W.,  flows  in  a  general  south-east  direc- 
tion for  260  miles,  and  then  unites  with  the  other 
branch,  which  has  its  source  near  Mount  Brown, 
in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  lat.  53"  N.,  long.  11 S'^ 
40'  W.,  flows  north-west,  and  is  200  miles  in 
length.  The  point  of  confluence  is  near  Fort 
George,  in  lat.  about  53"  25'  N.,  and  in  \ong. 
about  122°  40'  W.,  and  hence  the  F.  R.  flows  in  a 
generally   southern   direction    through  nearly  the 


FKASER  A  — FE  ATICELLIANS. 


whole  length  of  the  colony,  and  after  a  course  of 
alK)ut  600  miles  it  falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Georgia 
between  Vancouver's  Island  and  the  mainland, 
barely  to  the  north  of  the  international  boundary 
of  49°  of  latitiide.  Its  chief  afiluents  are  the  Stuart 
and  the  Chilcotin  on  the  right,  and  the  Thompson 
on  the  left.  Between  the  Stuart  and  the  Chil- 
cotin, and  on  the  same  side,  the  F.  K.  is  joined 
by  an  affluent,  which  is  rather  of  historical  interest 
than  of  jihysical  importance — the  West  Road  River, 
which  took  its  name  from  its  having  been  ascended 
by  Sir  Alexander  Mackenzie,  on  his  adventurous 
journey  of  1793  from  the  Hudson's  Bay  Territories 
to  the  Piicihc  Ocean.  The  F.  R.  is  practicable  for 
steam-boats  as  far  up  as  Fort  Hope,  a  distance  of 
about  150  miles  from  its  mouth,  while  about  half 
that  distance,  as  far  as  New  Westminster,  it  is 
navigable  for  large  ships.  Above  Fort  Hope,  all 
intercourse  is  more  safely  and  conveniently  con- 
ducted ])y  land ;  and  even  the  aborigines,  as  their 
trails  .still  testify,  appear  to  have  yielded  to  the 
same  n  ecessity. 

In  1857,  the  F.  R.,  in  its  auriferous  diggings  and 
washirgs,  began  to  stand  forth  as  the  rival  of  Cali- 
fornia and  Australia.  Since  then,  the  discoveries, 
origina  Jy  confined  to  the  lower  basin,  have  steadily 
becom^i  at  once  more  extensive  and  more  j)roductive. 
Eastward  on  the  Thompson,  and  more  especially 
aorth>.ard  among  the  upper  waters  of  the  great 
artery  of  the  country,  the  precious  deposit  has 
given  out  almost  fabulous  returns.  An  appaiently 
aath'?>itic  communication,  dated  towards  the  close 
of  October  1861,  regards  the  daily  earnings  of  £2;) 
foi  nae  miner  '  as  poor  this  year,'  and  adds  that, 
eve-n  as  a  hired  labourer,  a  man  gets  £2  a  day.  On 
the  practical  value  of  the  gold-iields,  the  peculiar 
chatacter  of  the  F.  R.  exercises  in  various  ways  a 
powerful  influence.  Besides  affording  comparatively 
few  and  scanty  facilities  for  transport,  whether 
upwards  or  downwards,  it  directly  embarrasses  the 
workings  themselves.  Generally  speaking,  the  bed 
is  a  mere  ravine,  which  rather  drains  than  waters 
whatever  lies  bej^ond  its  wall-like  banks.  For 
operations  on  the  high  ground,  therefore,  the  cur- 
rent is  J-arely,  if  ever,  available  ;  and  even  the  inner 
margins,  flooded  as  they  periodically  are,  are  accessi- 
ble during  only  half  the  year.  In  1867,  gold  of  the 
va'ue  of  £700,b00  was  exported. 

FRA'SERA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Geatlanece,  with  a  4-pai'tite  calyx  and  corolla, 
4  stamens,  and  a  2-valvular  capsule.  F.  Walteri, 
a  native  of  Carolina,  Virginia,  and  great  part  of  the 
basins  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi,  is  often  called 
American  Calumba,  the  root  being  imi)orted  into 
Europe  under  that  name.  It  is  a  pure  and  valualde 
bitter,  similar  in  its  effects  to  gentian.  The  stem 
is  hei-baceous,  erect,  3 — 6  feet  high ;  the  leaves 
oval,  ol>long,  opposite  and  whorled ;  the  flowers 
greenish  yellow.  The  plant  is  a  bienniah  It  grows 
m  marshy  places. 

FRA'SERBURGH,  a  burgh  of  barony  and 
regality  and  seaport  on  the  north  coast  of  Aber- 
deenshire, 42  miles  north  of  Aberdeen.  It  stands 
on  the  north-west  side  of  a  bay  two  miles  in  depth 
immediately  south  of  Kinnaird's  Head  (supposed  to 
be  the  Taixalorum  Promontorium  of  the  Romans), 
on  which  is  the  W^ine  Tower,  an  old  castle  with 
a  cave  below.  The  town,  originally  called  Faithly, 
was  made  a  burgh  of  l)arony  by  Queen  Mary  in 
1546.  Its  name  was  changed  into  Fraserburgh  (in 
honour  of  its  j)roprietor.  Sir  Alexander  Eraser  of 
Rhilorth)  by  King  James  VI.  in  1592;  and  the 
Bame  king,  in  1601,  erected  it  into  a  free  port,  free 
burgh  of  barony,  and  free  regality.     The  streets 

e  wide  and  clean,  with  substantial  hjuses.  Pop. 


in  1871,  4252,  annually  increased  by  1200  during 
the  herring-fishing  in  July  and  August.  It  ia 
l)ossessed  of  one  of  the  best  haibours  on  the  east 
coast,  erected  at  a  cost  of  £50,000.  The  chief 
exi)orts  are  oats,  barley,  meal,  potatoes,  cured 
herrings,  and  cod.  At  the  west  end  of  the  town 
is  a  quadrangular  building  of  three  stories,  designed 
as  a  college  by  Sir  Alexander  Eraser,  who  in 
1592  had  obtained  a  crown-charter  for  the  insti- 
tution of  a  college  and  university ;  but  although 
the  charter  was  ratified  by  parliament  in  1597,  and 
renewed  and  enlarged  by  the  crown  in  1001,  the 
plan  was  never  carried  out.  F.  has  a  handsomo 
cross  and  town-house  in  the  principal  square,  a 
spacious  hall  belonging  to  the  Harbour  Commis- 
sioners, and  several  recently  erected  public  buildings. 

FRASIER,  a  strawberry  flower,  is  used  by  Scotch 
heraldic  writers  as  synonymous  with  a  cinquefoil ; 
as  in  blazoning  the  coat  of  the  Erasers,  Azure 
three  /rases  (Nisbet,  i.  p.  388). 

FRATE'RCULA.    See  Puffin. 

FRATICE'LLIANS,  or  FRATICELLI  ('Little 
Brethren'),  a  sect  of  the  middle  ages,  which  may 
be  regarded  as  an  embodiment,  outside  of  the 
medieval  church,  of  the  same  spirit  to  which  is  due, 
within  the  church,  the  Franciscan  order  with  its 
many  offshoots.  The  Italian  word  Fraticelli  originally 
was  the  popular  name  of  the  Franciscan  monks; 
but,  in  the  progress  of  the  disputes  which  arose  in 
the  order  (see  Franciscans),  the  name  was  specially 
attached  to  the  members  of  the  rigorist  party,  and 
eventually  to  those  among  them  who  pertinaciously 
refused  to  accept  the  pontifical  explanations  of  the 
monastic  rule,  and,  in  the  end,  threw  off  all  subjec- 
tion to  the  authority  of  the  church.  Several  of  the 
popes,  especially  Gregory  IX.  and  Nicholas  TIL, 
attempted  to  reconcile  the  disputants.  Pope  Celes- 
tine  V.  granted  permission  to  the  rigorists  to  form 
for  themselves  a  separate  organisation,  in  which 
the  rule  of  St  Francis  might  be  observ^ed  in  all  its 
primitive  and  literal  rigour.  The  suppression  of 
this  order  by  Boniface  VIII.  appears  to  have 
furnished  the  direct  occasion  for  the  secession  of 
the  extreme  party  from  the  chm-ch.  They  openly 
resisted  the  authority  of  the  pope,  whom  they 
proclaimed  an  apostate  from  the  faith.  The  party 
thus  formed  was  increased  by  adhesions  from 
other  sectarian  bodies,  as  the  '  Beghards '  and  the 
'  Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit '  (see  Free  Spirit). 
In  vain  Clement  V.,  in  the  council  of  Vienna  (1311 
— 1312),  jtut  forward  a  new  declaratiop  /egarding 
the  rule  of  St  Francis.  They  still  held  their  ground, 
esi)ecially  in  Sicily,  Central  and  Northern  Italy, 
and  Provence.  John  XXII.,  against  whom  they 
sided  actively  with  Lewis  of  Bavaria,  condemned 
them  by  a  special  bull  in  1317,  and  again  in  a 
similar  document  directed  against  Henry  de  Oeva, 
one  of  their  chief  leaders  in  Sicily.  From  these 
sources  we  learn  that  they  regarded  the  existing 
church  as  in  a  state  of  apostasy,  and  claimed  for 
their  own  community  the  exclusive  title  of  the 
Church  of  God.  They  forbade  oaths,  and  discounte- 
nanced marriage.  They  professed  a  di\ane  mission 
for  the  restoration  of  the  Gospel  truth.  They  held 
that  all  spiritual  authority  was  forfeited  by  sin  on 
the  })art  of  the  minister.  It  woukl  cA^en  appear 
that  they  proceeded  so  far  as  to  elect  for  themselves 
a  pope,  with  a  college  of  cardinals,  and  a  regidar 
hierarchy  (Wadding,  An 7ml  Min.  Fratruvi  ad  an. 
1374,  n.  20).  Their  j)rinciples,  in  a  Avord,  seem  to 
have  partaken  largely  of  the  same  fanatical  and  anti- 
social tendencies  which  characterised  the  Brethi'en 
of  the  Free  Spirit ;  and  in  common  with  them,  the 
F.  were  the  object  of  a  rigorous  persecution  about 
the  middle  of  the  14th  century.    The  piinciplea  of 

«85 


FRATTA-MAGGIOr.E— FEEDERICIA. 


this  sect  formed  the  subject  of  a  public  discussion 
at  Perugia  in  1374  between  them  and  a  Franciscan 
monk  named  Paolucci,  which  appears  to  have  ended 
in  their  discomfiture.  They  still  maintained  them- 
selves, nevertheless,  in  Central  Italy,  down  to  the 
15th  c,  when  John  de  Capistran  received  a  com- 
mission to  labour  for  their  conversion  in  the  March 
of  Ancona ;  but  before  the  beginning  of  the  follow- 
Qg  century,  they  seem  to  have  disappeared  alto- 
gether. See  Mosheim,  De  Beghardis  et  Beguinahus 
(Lij>si£e,  1790) ;  Milman's  Latin  Christianity,  vol.  v. ; 
VVitsix's  KircJien-Lexico?i. 

FRA'TTA-MAGGIO'RE,  a  town  of  Italy,  six 
miles  north-east  of  the  city  of  Naples,  has  extensive 
rope-works,  and  furnishes  great  quantities  of  straw- 
berries for  the  market  of  the  capital.  8ilk- worms 
!ire  here  reared  in  great  quantities.  Pop.  about 
9000. 

FRAUD.  By  the  laws  of  all  ciAalised  nations 
fraud  invalidates  obligations.  In  order  to  produce 
this  effect,  however,  it  is  necessary  that  the  mis- 
representations, or  other  dishonest  manoemTes  of 
the  offendmg  party,  shall  have  induced  the  other  to 
enter  into  the  agreement  or  contract,  and  that  he 
would  not  otherAvise  have  consented.  Fraud  of  this 
description  on  the  one  side  produces  en'or  in  essen- 
tialihus  on  the  other,  and  where  such  error  exists 
there  is  no  consent.  But  as  consent  is  of  the  essence 
of  the  contract,  there  is  liere  no  contract  at  all ;  i.  e., 
the  contract,  or  pretended  contract,  is,  as  laA\'}'er3 
say,  null  ah  initio.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the 
fraud  which  thus  gives  birth  to  the  contract  shall 
have  consisted  in  positive  misrepresentation,  or  even 
in  studied  concealment ;  and  it  was  well  laid  downn 
in  the  case  of  an  English  sale,  that  where  the  pur- 
chaser laboured  under  a  deception,  in  which  the 
seller  permitted  him  to  remain,  on  a  point  which  he 
knew  to  be  material  in  enabling  him  to  form  his 
judgment,  the  contract  was  void.  But  there  is 
another  kind  of  fraud  which,  though  it  be  not 
actuall}^  tlie  cause  of,  is  incident  to,  the  contract, 
and  which,  though  it  does  not  annul  the  contract, 
gives  rise  to  an  action  for  damages  or  restitution 
by  the  party  deceived.  The  distinction  between 
these  two  kinds  of  fraud  was  well  known  to  the 
civilians,  the  first  species  being  described  by  them 
as  that  '  quod  causam  dedit  contractui,'  that  is 
to  say,  which  causes  the  contract ;  the  second  as 
that  '  quod  tantum  in  contractum  incidit,'  which 
is  incident  to,  or  accompanies  the  contract,  but 
independently  of  which  the  contract  would  have 
been  entered  into  (Voet.  lib.  4,  tit.  3,  3).  There  is 
another  very  important  element  to  be  taken  into 
account  in  judging  of  the  character,  and  deter- 
mining the  legal  effects  of  a  fraud,  viz.,  whether  it 
proceeded  from  one  whose  position  was  such  as  to 
impose  upon  him  the  obligation  of  making  the 
discovery.  In  illustration  of  this  principle,  the 
following  case  was  put  by  Lord  Thurlow  in  Fox  v. 
Mackreth  (2  Bro.  Ch.  R.  420):  'Suppose  that  A, 
knowing  there  to  be  a  mine  on  the  estate  of  B,  of 
which  he  knew  B  was  ignorant,  should  enter  into  a 
contract  to  purchase  the  estate  of  B  for  the  price  of 
the  estate,  without  considering  the  mine,  could  the 
court  set  it  aside?  Why  not,  since  B  was  not 
apprised  of  the  mine,  and  A  was  ?  Because  A,  as 
the  buyer,  was  not  obliged,  from  the  nature  of  the 

contract,  to  make  the  discovery  The  court 

^vill  not  correct  a  contract  merely  because  a  man  of 
nice  honour  would  not  have  entered  into  it ;  it  mxist 
fall  within  some  definition  of  fraud.  The  nile  mast 
be  drawn  so  as  not  to  affect  the  general  t^'ansac- 
tions  of  mankind.'  Neither  will  the  commendations 
usually  bestowed  on  their  commodities  by  trades- 
men be  regarded  as  fraudulent  statements,  so  long 
496 


as  they  are  simi)ly  extravagant  in  degree  ;  but  if 
positively  at  variance  with  facts  known  to  t'nera, 
they  will  not  be  permitted  to  enjoy  the  protection 
which  custom  has  extended  to  ordinary  '  puffing.' 
The  same  principle  will  yield  the  converse  result 
wherever  a  relation  of  pecidiar  confidentiality  exists 
between  the  contracting  parties.  Here  courts  of 
law  require  what  is  called  uberrima  fdes,  the  fullest 

I  measure  of  good  faith,  to  validate  the  transaction. 

I  As  an  illustration,  may  be  mentioned  a  case  in  which 
the  managing  partner  of  a  firm  purchased  the  share 
of  his  CO- partner  for  a  sum  which  he  knew  from  ths 
accounts,  of  which  he  had  the  entire  superintend- 
ence, to  be  inadequate,  but  the  inadequacy  of  which 

]  he  concealed.     The  transaction  was  reduced,  Sir 

;  John  Leach,  V.  C.,  remarking  that  '  the  defendant 
being  the  partner  whose  business  it  was  to  keep  the 
accoimts  of  the  concern,  could  not,  in  fairness,  deal 
with  the  ])laintiff  for  his  share  of  the  profits  of  the 
concern  without  putting  him  in  possession  of  all  the 
information  which  he  himself  had  with  res])ect  to 
the  state  of  the  accounts  between  them.' — Madde- 
ford  V.  Austwick  1  Gini.  R.  89. 

In  addition  to  direct  misrepresentation,  and  con^ 
cealment  in  circumstances  in  which  open  dealing 
was  a  duty,  fraud  may  l)e  perpetrated  by  taking 
advantage  of  the  imbecility  of  the  party  Avho  has 
been  led  into  the  contract,  and  still  more  flagi'antly 
by  inducing  this  imbecility  by  intoxication  or  other- 
wise. See  Concealment,  Error,  Misrepresenta- 
tion, Contract.  In  addition  to  the  ordinary  Eng- 
lish sources  of  information,  we  mayrefer  to  the  exten- 
sive and  learned  Traite  da  Dot  et  de  la  Fraude^  par 
J.  Bedarride,  3  vols.  (Paris,  1852). 

FRAUNHOFER,  Joseph  von,  a  distin.guished 
practical  optician,  was  born  at  Straubing,  in  Bavaria, 
Cth  March  1787.  In  1799  he  was  a])i)renticed 
to  a  glass-cutter  in  Munich,  and  in  1806  was 
received,  as  a  working  optician,  into  the  estab- 
lishment of  Reichenbach  and  Utschneider  at 
Benedictbeurn  (afterwards,  in  1819,  removed  to 
Munich).  While  there,  he  acquired  considerable 
wealth  through  his  inventions,  and  soon  after- 
wards became  proprietor  of  the  estaljlishment.  He 
invented  a  machine  for  polishing  parabolic  surfaces, 
and  was  the  fii  st  who  succeeded  in  polishing  lenses 
and  mirrors  without  altering  their  curvature.  His 
prisms  also  were  celebrated,  being  free  from  the 
Ijlebs  and  strife  which  are  so  often  seen  in  those 
of  English  manufacture.  His  inventions  are  numer- 
ous, and  include  a  '  heliometer,'  a  '  micrometer,'  an 
'  achromatic  microscope,'  besides  the  great  paral- 
lactic telescope  at  Dorpat.  But  that  which  has 
rendered  F.'s  name  celebrated  throughout  tha 
scientific  world,  is  his  discovery;  of  the  xines  in  the 
Spectrum.  He  died  at  Munich'  on  the  7th  of  J une 
182G. 

FRAU'NHOFER'S  LINES.    See  Spectrum. 

FRAU'STADT  (Polish,  Wszowa),  a  town  o4 
Prussia,  in  the  government  of  Posen,  is  situated  in  a 
sandy  i)lain  on  the  Silesian  frontier,  55  miles  north- 
west of  Breslau.  It  has  linen,  woollen,  and  other 
manufactures,  and  important  grain  markets.  In  the 
vicinity  are  about  100  wind-mills.    Pop.  6724. 

FRAXINE  LLA.    See  Dittany. 

FRA'XINUS.    See  A^jh. 

FREDERI'CIA,  a  seaport  and  fortress  i>t  Den- 
mark, is  situated  on  the  east  coast  of  the  province 
of  Jutland,  on  a  projecting  tongue  of  land,  at  the 
northern  entrance  to  the  Little  Belt.  It  is  fortified 
with  nine  bastions  and  three  ravelins  on  the  land- 
side,  and  with  two  bastions  towards  the  sea.  It  haa 
several  ecclesiastical  edifices,  a  hosjutal,  and  a 
custom-house,  at  which  a  toll  is  paid  by  all  shipft 


FREDERICK. 


passing  through  the  Little  Belt.  Tobacco  is  grown 
and  manufactured  here    Pop.  5579. 

FRE'DERICK  (Ger.  FRIEDRICH)  I.,  of  Ger- 
MA>rY. — Frederick  I.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  sur- 
named  Barbarossa  (Redbeard),  was  born  in  1121, 
succeeded  his  father,  Frederick  Hohenstauffen,  as 
Duke  of  Swabia  in  1147,  and  his  uncle,  Conrad  III., 
as  emperor  in  1152.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
enlightened  and  powerful  rulers  who  ever  swayed 
the  imperial  sceptre.  In  his  desire  to  emulate 
Cha-rlemague,  and  to  raise  the  secular  power  of  the 
empire  in  opposition  to  the  arrogated  sujjremacy 
of  th3  papal  chair,  he  was  brought  into  constant 
collision  with  his  Italian  subjects.  Six  times  he 
was  compelled  to  cross  the  Alps  at  the  head  of 
great  armies,  in  order  to  chastise  the  refractory 
cities  of  Lombardy,  which  were  ever  ready,  on  the 
sHghtest  provocation,  to  throw  off  their  allegiance. 
In  the  early  periods  of  his  reign,  he  visited  their 
defection  with  undue  severity;  hxxt  in  his  latter 
days  his  conduct  towards  them  was  characterised 
by  a  generous  leniency  and  a  politic  liberality  in 
advance  of  his  age;  and  in  1183,  he  convoked  a 
council  at  Constance,  in  which  he  finally  agreed  to 
leave  the  Lombard  cities  the  right  to  choose  their 
ov/n  municipal  rulers,  and  to  conclude  treaties  and 
leagues  among  themselves,  although  he  retained  his 
supremacy  over  them,  together  with  the  power 
of  imposing  certain  fixed  taxes.  The  difficulty  of 
settling  the  Italian  differences  was  as  usual  aggra- 
vated in  F.'s  time  by  the  attitude  assumed  by  the 
occupants  of  the  papal  chair,  and  at  one  time  Italy 
was  distracted  by  the  pretensions  of  two  rival  popes, 
Alexander  III.  and  Victor  IV.,  who  each  excom- 
municated the  other,  and  hurled  the  anathemas 
of  the  church  against  their  several  opponents ;  and 
it  was  not  till  1176  that  F.,  after  his  defeat  at 
Lignano,  by  consenting  to  acknowledge  Url)an  II., 
the  successor  of  Alexander  III.,  as  the  rightful  pope, 
was  enabled  to  turn  his  attention  to  Germany.  By 
his  energetic  measures,  he  succeeded  in  thoroughly 
humbling  his  troublesome  vassal,  Henry  the  Lion, 
Duke  of  Brunswick,  and  thus  crushing  the  Guelfic 
power  in  Germany.  F.  made  Poland  tributary 
to  the  empire,  raised  Bohemia  to  the  rank  of  a 
kingdom,  and  the  markgrafdom  of  Austria  into 
an  independent  hereditary  duchy.  In  1189,  F., 
having  settled  the  affairs  of  the  empire,  and  pro- 
claimed universal  peace  in  his  dominions,  resigned 
the  government  to  his  eldest  son  Henry,  and, 
at  the  head  of  100,000  men,  set  forth  for  the  Holy 
Land,  accompanied  by  his  second  son,  Frederick 
of  Swabia,  the  founder  of  the  order  of  Teutonic 
Knights.  After  gaining  two  great  victories  over 
the  Saracens  at  Philomeliiim  and  Iconium,  he  was 
drowned  (1190)  in  a  river  of  Syria,  while  trying 
to  urge  his  horse  across  the  stream.  His  remains 
were  rescued  by  his  son,  and  buried  at  Tyre.  The 
death  of  F.,  which  led  to  the  dispersion  of  the 
Crusaders  before  any  material  advantage  had  been 
obtained  over  the  Infidels,  excited  the  deepest  grief 
in  Germany,  where  his  memory  has  always  been 
ch.ri'ihed  as  that  of  the  best  and  wisest  of  his  race. 
F.  as  a  patron  of  learning,  and  enacted  many 
admirable  laws,  some  of  which  are  still  in  force. 

FREDERICK  II.,  of  Germany,  grandson  of 
the  fonner,  and  son  of  the  Emperor  Henry  VI.,  and 
of  Constance,  heiress  of  Sicdy,  was  born  in  1194. 
His  mother  secured  the  favour  of  Pope  Innocent 
III.  for  her  infant  son,  by  conceding  many  import- 
ant privileges  to  the  pai)al  chair-,  and  after  the 
civil  war  which'  had  raged  in  Germany  for  eight 
years  between  the  rival  claimants  of  the  throne, 
rhilip  of  Swabia  and  Otho  IV.,  was  brought  to 
\n  end  by  the  agency  of  Innocent,  F.  succeeded 


(1212)  in  obtaining  the  support  of  the  German 
electors.  On  his  promising  to  undertake  a  crusade, 
the  i)ope  sanctioned  his  coronation  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  in  1215.  Like  his  grandfather,  F.  was 
actuated  by  an  ardent  desire  for  the  consolidation 
of  the  imperial  power  in  Italy  at  tlie  expense  of  the 
pontificate,  which  he  wished  to  reduce  to  the  rank 
of  a  mere  archiej)iscopal  dignity.  Having  secured 
the  nomination  of  his  son  Henry  to  the  rank  of 
king  of  the  Romans,  and  appointed  Archbishop 
Engelbert  of  Cologne  as  his  vicegerent,  he  left 
Germany ;  and  after  having  been  crowned  emperor 
at  Rome  in  1220,  devoted  himself  to  the  task  of 
organising  his  Italian  territories.  He  founded  the 
university  of  Naples,  gave  encouragement  to  the 
medical  school  of  Salerno,  invited  to  his  court  and 
patronised  men  of  learning,  poets,  and  artists,  and 
commissioned  his  chancellor,  Petrus  de  Vineis,  to 
draw  up  a  code  of  laws,  to  suit  all  classes  of  his 
German  and  Italian  subjects.  F.'s  schemes  for  the 
union  of  his  vast  and  widely  scattered  dominions 
were,  however,  frustrated  by  the  refractory  con- 
duct of  the  Lombard  cities,  and  still  more  by  the 
arrogance  of  the  popes  Honorius  III.  and  Gregory 
IX.,  who  threatened  him  with  excommunication 
unless  he  fulfilled  his  pledge  of  leading  a  crusade. 
Being  compelled  to  depart  on  this  expedition,  he 
made  the  necessary  preparations  for  its  prosecution ; 
but  a  pestilence  having  broken  out  among  hia 
troops  in  the  Morea,  he  returned  in  haste  to  Italy, 
only  to  be  again  forced  away  by  j:)apal  threats. 
This  second  attempted  crusade  proved  more  suc- 
cessful; and  in  1228,  notwithstanding  the  machina- 
tions of  the  pope,  and  the  treachery  of  the  Knights 
Templars,  F.  extorted  a  ten  years'  truce  from  the 
Moslem  ruler,  and  forced  him  to  give  up  Jerusalem 
and  the  territory  around  Jopjia  and  Nazareth.  The 
rest  of  his  life  was  spent  in  bringing  his  rebellious 
Lombard  subjects  to  subjection,  and  in  counter- 
acting the  intrigues  of  the  pope,  the  rebellion  of 
his  eldest  son,  and  the  treachery  of  his  friend  and 
minister,  the  Chancellor  Petrus  de  Vineis,  who  was 
suspected  of  attempting  to  poison  him.  F.,  who 
died  suddenly  in  1250,  the  possessor  of  seven  crowns, 
was  the  most  accomplished  sovereign  of  the  middle 
ages,  for  he  not  only  spoke  and  wrote  the  six  lan- 
guages common  to  his  subjects,  but  he  was  famed 
for  his  talents  as  a  minnesinger,  and  for  Ins  skill 
in  all  knightly  exercises,  while  he  Avrote  elaborate 
treatises  on  natural  history  and  philosophj'.  Hia 
strong  sympathies  with  his  Italian  mother-laaL  and 
his  unremitting  endeavours  to  establish  a  .  om- 
pact  and  all-supreme  empire  in  Italy,  wert,  the 
causes,  not  only  of  his  own  misfortunes,  but  of 
the  miseries  which  he  brought  upon  the  German 
empire,  by  embroiling  him  in  costly  wars  abroad, 
and  leading  him  to  neglect  the  welfare,  and  sacri- 
fice the  interests  of  his  German  subjects.  See  for 
Frederick  1.  and  Frederick  II.,  Raumer,  Geschicht^ 
der  Hohenstauffen  ;  Sismondi,  Italian  Eejmhlks,  and 
Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages;  Voigt's  Lom^-ai'dea 
bund;  Funk,  Geschichte  Kaiser  Friedrich  II. 

FREDERICK  III.,  of  Germany.— Frederick 
who  was  F.  III.  as  Emperor  of  Germany,  F.  IV.  as 
King  of  Germany,  and  I'.  V.  as  Duke  of  Austria, 
was  born  in  1415,  being  the  son  of  Duke  Ernst, 
of  the  Styrian  branch  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg. 
At  the  age  of  20,  he  undertook  an  expedition 
to  the  Holy  Land  ;  and  on  his  return,  m  con- 
junction with  his  factious  brother,  Albert  the 
Prodigal,  he  assumed  the  government  of  his  here- 
ditary dominions  of  the  Duchy  of  Austria,  the 
revenues  of  which  scarcely  exceeded  16,000  mai-ks. 
On  the  death  of  the  Emperor  Albert  II.,  he  was 
unanimously  elected  as  his  successor ;  and  twc 
years  afterwards,  in  1442,  he  was  solemnly  cro^vned 


FREDERICK. 


at  Aix-la-Chapelle  ;  ten  years  later,  he  received 
the  imperial  crown  at  the  hands  of  the  pope  at 
Rome,  and  in  1453  scoured  the  archducal  title  to 
his  family.  His  reigu  was  a  prolonged  struggle 
against  domestic  'ntrigues  and  foreign  aggressions. 
One  of  his  most  troublesome  ojiponents  was  his 
brother  Albert,  who  refused  to  give  up  the  proAdnces 
which  he  held  until  he  had  received  a  large  sum  of 
money;  but  notwithstanding  these  causes  of  annoy- 
ance, and  while  John  Hunyades  Corvinus,  at  the 
head  of  a  Hungarian  army,  overran  Austria,  and  laid 
fiiege  to  Vienna,  and  the  usurper  Sforza  possessed 
himself  of  the  imperial  fief  of  Milan,  on  the  extinc- 
tion of  the  male  line  of  the  Visconti,  F.  remained 
absorbed  in  his  o-\vn  private  studies,  or  roused  himself 
only  to  attem})t,  by  the  aid  of  foreign  mercenaries, 
to  recover  the  crown-lands  of  which  the  House 
of  Austria  had  been  deprived.  His  pusillanimous 
subserviency  to  the  papal  chair,  and  his  wavering 
policy,  irritated  the  electors,  who  at  one  time 
cherished  the  desirrn  of  deposing  him  and  nominat- 
ing George  Podiehrand,  king  of  Bohemia,  to  the 
imperial  throne ;  "^hile  it  entangled  him  in  quarrels 
on  account  of  thf.  succession  to  the  Palatinate,  and 
other  questions  of  German  policy,  and  deprived 
the  churcli  in  G  armany  of  that  independence  from 
the  thraldom  of  the  papal  chair  which  it  had 
been  the  object  of  the  Council  of  Basel  to  secure 
to  it.  The  contempt  in  which  F.  was  held  was 
made  apparent  on  the  death  of  his  ward,  Ladislaus, 
king  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  without  children, 
when,  notv/ithstanding  his  just  pretensions  to  this 
inheritance,  he  was  passed  over,  the  people  of  the 
former  having  chosen  George  Podiebrand  as  their 
king,  and  those  of  the  latter  Matthias  Cor^'imls. 
His  Ijrother  Albert's  death  in  14G3  secured  him 
a  short  reprieve  from  internal  distiu'bances,  and 
gave  him  possession  of  Upper  Austria;  but  he 
was  rapeatedly  embroiled  in  quarrels  with  Podie- 
brand and  INIattliias ;  the  latter  of  Avhom  several 
times  besieged  Vienna,  and  finally  dispossessed 
him  of  every  tomi  of  importance  in  his  heredi- 
tary domains.  In  the  meanwhile,  the  Turks  were 
suffered  to  push  their  conquests  in  Europe  until 
they  had  advanced  in  145G  to  Hungary,  in  1469 
to  Carniola,  and  in  1475  to  Salzbiu-g,  although 
a  vigorous  opposition  at  the  outset  would  easily 
have  put  a  definite  stop  to  their  encroachments. 
Oq  the  death  of  Matthias,  in  1490,  F.  recovered 
Austria,  but  he  was  obliged  to  acknowledge  Prince 
Ladislaus  of  Bohemia  as  king  of  Hungary.  This 
mortiiication  was  soon  followed  by  his  death,  in 
1493,  after  an  inglorious  reign  of  53  years,  which 
did  nothing  to  advance  the  prosperity  or  progress 
of  the  empire,  although  the  times  were  propitious 
to  both.  But  although  F.  neglected  the  interests 
and  duties  of  the  imperial  crown  to  indulge  in 
the  pursuit  of  his  favourite  studies  in  alchemy, 
astronomy,  and  botany,  he  never  lost  an  ojipor- 
tunity  of  promoting  the  aggrandisement  of  his  own 
family,  which  he  very  materially  secured  by  marry- 
ing liis  son  and  successor,  Maximilian,  to  Mary, 
the  rich  heiress  of  Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgundy. 
F.  was  temperate,  devout,  parsimonious,  scrupulous 
about  trifles,  simple  in  his  habits,  pacific  in  his 
•lisposition,  and  naturally  averse  to  exertion  or 
excitement.  From  his  time,  the  imperial  dignity 
continued  almost  hereditary  in  the  House  of 
Austria,  which  has  perpetuated  the  use  of  his 
fa\'ourite  device,  A.  E.  I.  0.  U.,  A  ustri(je  Est  Imperare 
Orbi  Uni verso.  See  -^neas  Sylvius,  Historia  ;  Coxe, 
House  of  Austria. 

FREDERICK  V.,  Prince  Palatine.— Frederick 
r.,  Electoral  Prince  Palatine,  was  born  in  1596, 
=;iK'coeded  to  the  Palatinate  in  1610,  was  king  of 
Bolumia  from  1619  to  1620,  and  died  in  1632.  He 
4aci 


married,  in  1613,  Elizabeth,  the  daughter  of  Jamea 
VI.  of  Scotland  and  I.  of  England,  through  whose 
ambitious  counsels  he  was  induced  to  take  a  pro- 
minent part  in  the  proceedings  of  the  union  of 
the  Protestant  princes  of  Germany,  and  finally, 
although  against  his  own  inclinations,  to  accept  the 
title  of  king  of  Bohemia.  His  complete  defeat  at 
the  battle  of  Prague  terminated  his  short-lived 
enjoyment  of  the  regal  crown,  of  which  he  retained 
no  other  memorial  but  the  mocking  title  of  '  The 
Winter  King.'  Ridicule  and  contumely  !ollowod 
him  wherever  he  went,  and  the  rest  of  his  life  waa 
spent  in  exile  under  the  ban  of  the  empire,  and 
with  no  resources  beyond  those  which  he  could 
obtain  from  the  generosity  of  his  friends.  In  1623, 
he  was  declared  to  have  forfeited  his  electoral  title 
and  his  dominions  in  the  Palatinate,  which  were 
conferred  upon  his  cousin,  Maximilian  of  Bavari\ 
the  head  of  the  Catholic  league. 

FREDERICK  I.,  of  Denmark,  was  bom  in 
1473,  and  died  in  1533.  During  the  disturbed 
reign  of  his  nephew,  Christian  IT.,  he  behaved  with 
so  much  circumspection,  that  the  choice  of  the 
nation  fell  upon  him  when  the  king  was  deposed, 
and  he  was  raised  to  the  throne  in  152,3.  He 
shewed  great  cruelty  to  his  unfortunate  relative, 
whom  he  detained  in  close  captivity ;  but  he  was 
a  ])olitic  ruler.  In  1527  he  embraced  the  Lutheran 
faith,  which  he  estal)lished  in  his  dominions  by 
the  most  arbitrary  measures. 

FREDERICK  III.,  of  Denmark,  the  son  of 
Christian  IV.,  was  bom  in  1609,  succeeded  to  the 
throne  in  1648,  and  died  in  1670.  The  wars  of  his 
father's  reign  had  brought  the  country  to  a  state 
of  great  embarrassment ;  and  notwithstanding  aU 
his  efforts  to  maintain  peace,  F.  was  continually 
embroiled  in  the  quan-els  of  other  nations,  and 
during  his  reign  Copenhagen  was  twice  besieged  by 
the  Swedes  under  their  warlike  king,  Charles 
Gustavus ;  nor  was  peace  re-established  till  after 
the  death  of  Charles.  The  reign  of  F.  III.  was 
rendered  memorable  by  the  change  effected  in  the 
constitution,  which,  after  ha\dng  been  in  some 
degree  elective,  was  at  once  changed  into  a  heredi- 
tary and  absolute  monarchy  by  the  voluntary  act  of 
the  commons  and  clergy,  who,  from  abhorrence  of 
the  nobility,  surrendered  to  the  crown  the  liberties 
and  prerogative  which  they  had  hitherto  enjoyed, 
and  made  the  sovereign  absolute  and  irresponsible. 

FREDERICK  V.,  of  Denmark,  the  son  and 
successor  of  Christian  VI.,  wa,s  born  in  1723, 
ascended  the  throne  in  1746,  and  died  in  1766, 
lea\ang  the  reputation  of  ha\ang  been  on?  of  the 
best  and  wdsest  monarchs  of  his  time.  Denmark 
owed  to  him  the  increase  of  her  national  wealth, 
and  the  esta,blishment  of  various  branches  of  com- 
merce and  manufacture.  F.  established  a  Green- 
land Company,  opened  the  American  colonicxl  trade 
to  all  his  subjects,  founded  the  military  academy 
of  Soroe,  in  Denmark,  and  caused  schools  to  be 
opened  at  Bergen  and  Trondhjem,  in  Norway,  for 
the  instruction  of  the  Laplanders.  He  established 
academies  of  painting  and  sculpture  at  Copenhagen, 
and  sent  a  number  of  learned  men — among  whom 
was  Niebuhr,  the  father  of  the  historian — to  travel 
and  make  explorations  in  the  East. 

FREDERICK  VI.,  or  Denmark,  th«  son  of 
Christian  VII.  and  Caroline  Matilda  of  England, 
was  born  in  1768,  and  assumed  the  regency  of  the 
kingdom  in  1784,  on  account  of  the  insanit}'  of  his 
father,  on  whose  death,  in  1808,  he  ascended  the 
throne.  In  this  reign,  feudal  serfdom  Wiis  abolished, 
monopolies  abrogated,  the  criminal  cude  amended, 
and  the  slave-trade  prohibited  earlier  than  in  any 
other    country.     In  1800,   Denmark  joined  the 


Ah 


FREDERICK— FREDERICK-WILLIAM. 


maritime  confederation  formed  between  Russia, 
S'.voden,  and  Prussia,  which  led  to  retahation  on  the 
part  of  England,  to  the  seizure  by  that  power  of  all 
banish  vessels  in  British  ports,  and  to  the  despatch 
of  a  powerful  fleet,  under  Sir  Hyde  Parker  and 
N'  Ison,  to  give  efficacy  to  the  peremptory  demand 
tbat  the  regent  should  withdraw  from  the  conven- 
tion. His  refusal  to  accede  to  this  demand  was 
folloAvcd  by  a  fierce  naval  engagemeut,  in  which 
the  Danish  fleet  was  almost  wholly  destroyed.  A 
peace  was  concluded  on  the  regent's  withdrawal 
from  the  confederation  ;  but  in  consequence  of  his 
persisting  to  maintain  an  attitude  of  neutrality, 
mstead  of  combining  with  Great  Britain  against 
Napoleon,  the  war  was  renewed  in  1807  by  the 
appearance,  before  Copenhagen,  of  a  British  fleet, 
bearing  envoj^s,  who  summoned  F.  to  enter  into 
an  albance  with  England,  and  to  surrender  his  fleet 
and  arsenals,  and  the  castle  of  Cronborg,  com- 
manding the  Sound.  On  his  refusal,  Copenhagen 
was  bombarded  for  three  days,  the  arsenals  and 
docks  destroyed,  and  all  the  shipping  disabled,  sunk, 
or  carried  to  England.  This  blow  paralysed  the 
national  resources,  and  it  required  the  exercise  of 
much  discretion  on  the  part  of  the  government,  and 
great  endurance  on  that  of  the  people,  to  prevent 
the  irremediable  ruin  of  the  country.  Smarting 
under  the  treatment  which  he  had  experienced  from 
the  English,  the  Danish  monarch  became  the  ally 
of  Napoleon,  and  suffered  proportionally  after  the 
overthrow  of  his  empire.  In  1814,  Norway  was 
taken  by  the  allies  from  Denmark,  and  given  to 
Sweden.  The  state  became  bankrupt,  and  many 
years  passed  before  order  could  be  restored  to 
the  finances.  Notwithstanding  his  autocratic  ten- 
dencies, F.  so  far  yielded  to  the  movements  of  the 
times  as  to  give  his  subjects,  in  1831,  a  repre- 
sentative council  and  a  liberal  constitution.  He 
died  December  3,  1839. 

FREDERICK  VIL  of  Denmark,  son  of  Chris- 
tian Vll.,  Avhom  he  succeeded,  was  born  in  1808,  and 
died  in  1863.  The  principal  events  of  his  reign  were 
the  wars  and  diplomatic  negotiations  arising  out  of 
the  revolt  of  the  duchies  of  Holstein  and  Slesvig 
(q.  v.),  and  the  vexed  question  of  the  succession  to 
Denmark  Proper  and  the  duchies  on  the  death  of 
the  king  and  of  his  uncle,  the  heir  presumptive, 
both  of  whom  were  childless.  Notwithstanding 
the  heavy  expenses  of  the  war,  the  finances  were 
considerably  augmented,  and  the  material  pros- 
perity of  the  country  was  increased  during  his 
reign. 

FREDERICK-WILLIAM,  Duke  of  Britns- 
J71CK,  born  in  1771,  entered  the  Prussian  service 
at  an  early  age,  and  was  actively  engaged  with 
the  army  during  the  war  with  France  in  1702,  and 
again  in  1806,  and  was  taken  prisoner  with  Blucher 
at  Leipsic.  On  the  death  of  his  father  and  eldest 
brother,  he  would  have  succeeded  to  the  dukedom, 
as  his  other  brothers  were  incapacitated  by  disease 
for  reigning,  had  not  Napoleon  put  a  veto  on  his 
accession  to  power.  Being  resolved  to  take  part  in 
fclie  war  against  the  French,  he  raised  a  free  corps  in 
Bohemia,  and  threw  himself  into  Saxony,  which  he 
was,  however,  speedily  compelled  to  evacuate.  After 
the  total  defeat  of  the  Austrians  in  1809,  the  duke 
determined  to  leave  Germany;  and  with  his  corps 
of  700  '  black  hussars,'  and  800  infantry,  he  began 
his  masterly  retreat.  After  various  skirmishes,  in 
one  of  which  he  defeated  the  Westphalian  com- 
mander Wellingerode  and  a  picked  detachment  of 
troops,  he  reached  Brunswick,  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  which  he  gained  a  victory  at  Oelper  over  4000 
Westphalians,  commanded  by  General  Reupel.  He 
aext  crossed  the  Weser,  and  having  reached  Elsfleth, 


and  taken  possession  of  a  sufficient  number  of  vessel* 
and  seamen,  he  embarked  his  troops ;  and  finally 
after  stopping  at  Heligoland,  landed  in  England 
with  his  men  in  August  1800.  He  was  received 
with  enthusiasm  ;  and  having  entered  the  Englisli 
service  with  his  men,  subsequently  took  part  in  the 
Peninsular  war,  where  he  served  with  distinction, 
rocei\nng  from  the  British  government  an  allowance 
I  of  £6000  a  year,  which  he  retained  till  his  return  to 
his  own  dominions  in  1813.  Although  no  prince 
could  be  more  earnestly  bent  on  securing  the  ■w^elfare 
of  his  subjects,  his  efforts  failed  utterly  from  th« 
untimely  and  injudicious  nature  of  the  reforms  he 
I  endeavoured  to  effect ;  while  the  magnitude  of  his 
military  establishments,  which  were  quite  unsuited 
I  to  the  limited  extent  of  his  territories,  excited  the 
ill-will  of  his  i^eople.  He  joined  tlie  allied  army 
with  his  hussars  after  the  return  of  Na])oleon  from 
Elba,  and  fell  Avhile  leading  on  his  men  at  Quatre 
Bras,  on  the  16th  of  June,  1815. 

FREDERICK-WILLIAM,  Elector  of  Bran- 
denburg, commonly  called  'the  Great  Elector,' 
was  born  in  1620,  succeeded  to  the  electorate  iu 
1640,  and  died  in  16S8.     On  his  accession,  he 
j  found  an  empty  exchequer,  the  towns  and  cities 
j  depopulated,  and  the  whole  electorate  devastated 
j  by  the  ravages  of  the  Swedish  and  Imperialist 
I  armies  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  which  was 
j  not  yet  concluded  ;  while  a  portion  of  his  inherit- 
I  ance  had  even  been  confiscated  by  the  Swedes, 
j  His  first  acts  were  to  regulate  the  finances,  and 
'  to  conclude  a  treaty  of  neutrality  with  Swedeu, 
I  which  left  him  at  leisure  to  devote  himself  to  the 
I  organisation  of  his  army,  and  the  re-peopling  of  the 
deserted  towns  and  villages  by  means  of  immigra- 
j  tion.    By  the  treaty  of  Westphalia,  through  which 
he  lost  several  important   places,   he  recovered 
the  eastern  portions  of  Pomerania,  Hohenstein,  the 
bishoprics  of  Halberstadt,  Minden,  and  Kamin,  as 
1  lay-principalities,  and  the  reversion  of  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Magdeburg.     In  the  course  of  ten 
1  years  he  had,  by  tlie  help  of  his  generals,  Derfflinger, 
Schomberg,  and  Kannenberg,  created  an  army  of 
25,000  men,  organised  on  the  Swedish  model ;  and 
having  been  constrained  to  enter  into  an  alliance 
'with  Charles  X.,  he  co-operated  with  him  in  the 
I  taking  of  Warsaw,  which  was  effected  at  the  cost 
of  a  most  sanguinary  engagement  in  1656.  In 
I  return  for  this   co-operation,  F.-W.  secured  the 
emancipation  of  his  Prussian  duchy  from  its  former 
I  dependence  on  Poland.    The  aggressions  of  Louia 
XIV.  on  the  Rhenish  frontier  alarmed  the  elector, 
who  induced  the  emperor,  the  king  of  Denmark,  and 
the  Elector  of  Hesse-Cassel,  to  enter  into  a  league 
against  France.    The  result  was  unfavourable  to 
the  cause  of  the  German  princes,  and  F.-W.  was 
obliged  to  content  himself  with  making  highly  dis- 
advantageous terms.    The  war  was  soon  renewed, 
and  Brandenburg  was  again  a  prey  to  the  incursions 
of  the  Swedes,  who,  at  the  instigation  of  Louia, 
advanced  upon  Berlin,  laying  waste  everything  on 
their  march.    The  elector,  who  had  taken  up  hio 
winter-quarters  in  Franconia,  hurried  acrcss  tha 
Elbe  at  the  head  of  his  cavalry,  and  having  signally 
defeated  the  Swedes,  drove  them  from  his  domi- 
nions.   If  the  emperor  had  been  true  to  his  word- 
and  supported  him,  F.-W.  might  have  made  head 
against  the  French;  but  being  forsaken  by  the 
other  German  princes,  and  his  dominions  ovemm 
by  the  troops  of  Louis,  he  was  obliged  to  agree  to 
the  treaty  of  St  Germain,  by  which  he  restored  all 
his  conquests  to  the  Swedes,  in  return  for  the  with- 
drawal of  the  French  army,  and  the  payment  to 
him  of  an  indemnity  of  300,000  crowns.  From 
this  time  forth,  F.-W.  devoted  himself  to  the  task 
of  consolidating  the  prosperity  of  his  dominions, 


FREDERICK— FREDERICK-WILLIAM. 


During  his  reign,  he  more  than  tripled  the  area  of 
his  territories,  and  by  his  generous  reception  of 
20,000  French  Protestants  after  the  revocation  of 
the  Edict  of  Nantes,  and  the  encouragement  which 
he  afforded  to  the  immigration  of  Dutchmen  and 
other  foreigners,  he  augmented  the  population  of 
his  states,  and  introduced  numerous  industrial  arts 
among  his  subjects.  He  founded  the  university 
at  Duisburg,  and  the  royal  library  at  Berlin,  and 
reorganised  the  universities  of  Frankfiirt-on-the- 
Oder,  and  Konigsberg,  opened  canals,  established  a 
aj'Stem  of  posts,  and  greatly  enlarged  and  beautified 
Berlin.  He  left  a  well-filled  exchequer  and  a  highly 
organised  army.  See  Orlich,  Gesch.  des  Freuss. 
Stunts  im  17  Jahrh.    Berl.  1839. 

FREDERICK  III.,  Elector  of  Brandenburg, 
Bon  and  successor  of  the  former,  and  the  first  king  of 
Prussia,  was  born  in  1657,  and  succeeded  to  the 
electorate  of  Brandenburg  in  1G88.  He  exhibited 
the  same  zeal  as  his  father  for  the  aggrandisement 
and  amelioration  of  his  dominions;  but  he  was 
distinguished  from  him  by  his  admiration  of  Louis 
XIV.,  whose  pomp  and  luxurious  display  he  imitated 
at  his  own  court.  He  supported  William  of  Orange 
in  his  attempt  on  England,  and  gave  him  a  subsidy 
of  6000  men,  which,  under  the  command  of  Marshal 
Schomberg,  contributed  to  gain  the  victory  at  the 
Boyne  which  decided  the  fate  of  James  II.  F.  was 
always  ready  to  lend  troops  and  money  to  his  allies; 
he  sent  6000  of  his  best  men  to  aid  the  Impe- 
rialists against  the  Turks ;  and  although  he  met  with 
the  same  ingratitude  as  his  father,  he  succeeded,  by 
treaties,  exchanges,  and  purchases,  in  very  consider- 
ably extending  his  territories ;  and  after  many  years' 
negotiations,  he  induced  the  emperor  to  agree  to  the 
Crown  Treaty,'  by  which,  in  return  for  permission 
to  assume  the  title  of  King  of  Prussia,  he  bound 
himself  to  furnish  certain  contingents  of  men  and 
money  to  the  Imperial  government.  As  soon  as 
this  treaty  had  been  signed,  F.  hastened  in  mid- 
winter with  all  his  family  and  court  to  Konigsberg, 
where,'  on  the  18th  January  1701,  he  placed  the 
crown  on  his  own  head.  He  died  February  25, 
1713.  F.  did  much  to  embellish  Berlin,  where  he 
founded  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  the 
Academy  of  Painting  and  Sculpture,  erected  several 
churches,  and  laid  out  numerous  streets.  He  estab- 
lished a  court  of  aj)peal  at  Berlin,  built  the  palace 
of  Charlottenburg,  and  founded  the  university  at 
Halle ;  but  his  actions  were  generally  influenced 
by  a  love  of  display;  and  his  vanity,  together  with 
his  neglect  of  those  who  had  served  him,  made  him 
personally  unpopular,  although  his  patriotic  love  of 
Germany  redeemed,  in  the  eyes  of  his  countrymen, 
many  of  his  bad  points. 

FREDERICK- WILLI  AM  I.,  oe  Prussia,  bom 
in  1688,  was  in  almost  every  particular  the  opposite 
of  his  father  Frederick  I.  He  was  simple,  and 
almost  penurious  in  his  habits,  attentive  to  business, 
passionately  fond  of  military  exercises,  but  averse 
to  mental  cultivation,  and  fond  of  the  society  of 
the  low  and  illiterate,  while  he  carried  to  the 
utmost  his  ideas  of  arbitrary  power  and  the  divine 
right  of  kings.  The  public  events  of  his  reign  were 
of  little  importance,  although  he  was  continually 
implicated  in  foreign  wars,  and  he  supported  the 
cause  of  Stanislaus  of  Poland,  and  assisted  Austria  in 
her  contests  with  France.  He  died  in  1740.  By  his 
economy  and  reforms  in  the  finances,,  he  was  able 
to  indulge  his  taste  for  the  organisation  of  military 
forces,  while  his  childish  love  of  tall  soldiers  induced 
him  to  connive  at  the  most  flagrant  outrages  both 
at  home  and  abroad  for  kidnapping  tall  men  and 
forcing  them  into  his  serviue :  the  result  of  this 
BjBtem  was,  that  he  left  at  his  death  a  well-drilled 
600 


army  of  70,000  soldiers,  of  whom  a  large  proportion 
were  men  of  gigantic  stature.  What  was  of  n-ore 
consequence  to  his  son  and  successor  was,  that  hia 
exchequer  contained  9,000,000  thalers,  and  that 
his  kingdom  had  attained  an  area  of  more  than 
45,000  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  .upwards 
of  2,240,000.  See  Morgenstern,  Ueber  Friedrich 
Wilhelm  1.  (Braunsch.  1793)  ;  F.  Forster,  Gesch. 
Friedrich-  Wilhelm's  I.  (Pots.  1835)  ;  Carlyle,  llist. 
of  Friedrich  II.,  called  Frederick  the  Great. 

FREDERICK  II.,  of  Prussia,  surnamed  ♦the 
Great,'  was  the  son  of  Frederick- William  1.  and 
the  Princess  Sophia- Dorothea,  daughter  of  George  L 
of  Great  Britain,  and  was  born  in  1712.  His  early 
years  were  spent  under  the  restraints  of  an  irk- 
some military  training,  and  a  rigid  system  of 
education.  His  impatience  under  this  discipline, 
his  taste  for  music  and  French  literature,  and  his 
devotion  to  his  mother,  gave  rise  to  dissensions 
between  father  and  son,  and  resulted  in  an  attempt 
on  the  part  of  F.  to  escape  to  the  court  of  his  uncle, 
George  II.  of  England.  Being  seized  in  the  act,  his 
conduct  was  visited  with  still  greater  severity,  and 
he  himself  was  kept  in  close  confinement,  while  his 
friend  and  confidant.  Lieutenant  Katt,  was  executed 
in  his  sight,  after  having  been  barbarously  ill-treated 
by  the  king.  According  to  some  reports,  the  prince's 
life  would  have  been  sacrificed  to  the  fury  of  hia 
father,  had  not  the  kings  of  Sweden  and  Poland 
interceded  in  his  favoui*.  Having  humbly  sued  for 
pardon,  he  was  liberated,  and  allowed  to  retire  to 
Ruppin,  which,  with  the  town  of  Rlieinsberg,  was 
bestowed  upon  him  in  1734.  Here  he  continued  to 
reside  till  the  king's  death,  surrounded  by  men  of 
learning,  and  in  correspondence  with  Voltaire,  whom 
he  especially  admired,  and  other  philosophers ;  but 
on  his  accession  to  the  throne  in  1740,  he  laid  aside 
these  peaceful  pursuits,  and  at  once  gave  evidence 
of  his  talents  as  a  legislator,  and  his  determination 
to  take  an  active  share  in  the  political  and  warlike 
movements  of  the  age.  His  first  military  exploit 
was  to  gain  a  victory  at  MoUwitz  over  the  Austrians, 
in  1741,  which  nearly  decided  the  fate  of  Silesia, 
and  secured  to  Prussia  the  alliance  of  France  and 
Bohemia.  Another  victory  over  the  Empress  Maria 
Theresa's  troops  made  him  master  of  Upper  and 
Lower  Silesia,  and  closed  the  first  Silesian  war.  The 
second  Silesian  war,  which  ended  in  1745,  from 
which  F.  retired  with  augmented  territories  and  the 
reputation  of  being  one  of  the  first  commanders  of 
the  age,  was  followed  by  a  peace  of  eleven  years, 
which  he  devoted  to  the  improvement  of  the  various 
departments  of  government,  and  of  the  nation 
generally,  to  the  organisation  of  his  army,  and  the 
indulgence  of  his  literary  tastes.  The  third  Silesian 
war,  or  'the  Seven  Years'  War,'  was  begun  in  1756 
by  the  invasion  of  Saxony — a  step  to  which  F. 
was  driven  by  the  fear  that  he  was  to  be  deprived  of 
Silesia  by  the  allied  confederation  of  France,  Austfria, 
Saxony,  and  Russia.  This  contest,  which  was  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  of  modem  times,  secured 
to  F.  a  decided  influence  in  the  afl"airs  of  Europe 
generally,  as  the  natural  result  of  the  pre-eminent 
genius  which  he  had  shewn  both  under  defeat  and 
victory  ;  but  although  this  war  crippled  the  powers 
of  all  engaged  in  it,  it  left  the  balance  of  European 
politics  unchanged.  It  required  all  the  skill  and 
inventive  genius  of  F.  to  repair  the  evils  which 
his  country  had  suffered  by  the  war.  In  1772,  he 
shared  in  the  partition  of  Poland,  and  obtained  as 
his  portion  all  Polish  Prussia  and  a  part  of  Great 
Poland ;  and  by  the  treaty  of  Teschen,  in  1779, 
Austria  was  obliged  to  consent  to  the  union  of 
the  Franconian  provinces  with  Prussia,  and  he  waa 
thus  enabled  to  leave  to  his  nephew  and  successor 
a  powerful  and  well- organised  kingdom,  one  half 


FREDERICK-WILLIAM. 


larger  in  irea  than  it  had  been  at  his  own  accession, 
with  a  1  Jl  treasury,  and  an  army  of  200,000  men. 
He  died  at  the  chSLteau  of  Sans  Soxici,  August  17, 
1786.  J'Vederick  the  Great  is  said  to  have  '  inherited 
rH  his  father's  excellences  and  none  of  his  defects.' 
His  courage,  fertility  of  resource,  and  indomitable 
resolution,  cannot  be  too  highly  praised.  Not  the 
least  wonderful  of  his  achievements  was  his  con- 
triving to  carry  on  his  bloody  campaigns  without 
incurring  a  penny  of  debt.  A  true  spirit  of  self- 
sacrifice — though  not,  perhaps,  for  the  highest  ends — 
was  in  him.  Never  was  king  more  liberal  towards 
his  subjects.  In  Silesia,  where  war  had  nearly 
ruined  the  inhabitants,  he  once  remitted  the 
taxes  for  six  months,  and  in  Pomerania  and  New 
Brandenburg  for  two  years,  while  his  government 
was  carried  on  with  rigid  economy,  such  as  Europe 
had  never  before  witnessed.  But  not  only  was 
his  government  economical,  it  was  essentially  just. 
Religious  persecution  was  unknown,  civil  order 
everywhere  prevailed  ;  property  was  secure,  and  the 
press  was  free.  On  the  other  hand.  F.'s  faults  were 
far  from  being  few.  Education  had  made  him 
French  in  all  his  ideas  and  prejudices  ;  and  in  those 
days,  to  be  French  was  to  be  sceptical.  He  was 
utterly  unconscious  of  the  grand  intellectual  and 
spiritual  life  that  was  about  to  sj^ring  up  in  Ger- 
many, and  to  make  it  again  the  guiding- star  of 
Europe,  as  it  had  been  in  the  days  of  Luther.  He 
was,  in  fact,  almost  ignorant  of  his  native  language, 
which,  moreover,  he  despised  as  semi-barbaric; 
though  before  his  death  Goethe  had  published  his 
Gotz  von  Berlichingen,  Sorroivs  of  Werther,  Iphigenia 
in  Tauris,  and  many  of  his  finest  lyrics ;  while  Kant, 
besides  a  variety  of  lesser  works,  had  also  given 
to  the  world  his  master-piece,  the  Critique  of  Pure 
Reason.  The  new  literature  was  essentially  one  of 
belief  and  aspiration,  and  therefore  alien  to  the 
tendencies  of  the  royal  disciple  of  Voltaire,  who  had 
learned  from  his  master  to  cherish  at  once  contempt 
and  suspicion  of  his  fellow-creatures.  This  disagree- 
able feature  of  his  character  increased  with  years. 
He  declared  the  citizen  class  to  be  destitute  alike  of* 
ability  and  honour,  and  relied  not'  on  the  love  of  the 
nation,  but  on  his  army  and  purse.  F.  was  a  very 
voluminous  writer.  Of  hia  numerous  works,  all  of 
which  are  written  in  French,  his  Memoires  pour 
serv'tr  d  VHistoire  de  Brandenhourg,  and  Histoire  de 
la  Guerre  de  Sept  Ana,  exhibit  perhaps  the  greatest 
^  powers  of  description,  but  aU  evince  talent  of  no 
common  order.  The  Academy  of  Berlin,  by  the 
direction  of  Frederick- William  IV.,  brought  out 
a  fine  edition  of  his  collected  works  in  octavo 
and  quarto,  1846 — 1851.  Frederick  left  no  children, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Frederick- William 
11.  See  Carlyle,  History  of  Frederick  II.  ;  Pagenel, 
Histoire  de  F.  le  Grand  (Par.  1830);  Riedel, 
Gesch.  d.  Preussisch.  Konigsh.  (Berl.  1861). 

FREDERICK-WILLIAM  II.,  of  Prussia,  was 
bom  in  1744,  and  died  in  1797.  After  a  prolonged 
estrangement  between  his  uncle  and  himself,  he 
regained  the  good-will  of  the  king  by  his  valour 
m  the  war  of  the  Bavarian  succession  in  1778 ;  but 
although  he  succeeded  to  a  well-consolidated  power 
and  an  overflowing  treasury,  he  had  not  the  capacity 
to  maintain  his  favourable  position.  Futile  or  hastily 
undertaken  wars  wasted  his  resources ;  so  that  at  his 
death,  instead  of  the  overplus  of  70,000,000  thalers 
that  had  been  bequeathed  to  him,  the  state  was 
hampered  with  a  debt  of  22,000,000.  His  predilec- 
tion for  unworthy  favourites,  the  establishment  of  a 
strict  censorship  of  the  press,  aiid  the  introduction 
of  stringent  ecclesiastic  enactments,  alienated  the 
affections  of  the  people  from  him,  although  his 
natural  mildness  of  disj)Osition  had  excited  the  san- 
guiao  hopes  of  the  nation  on  his  accession.  F.-W. 


shared  in  the  second  partition  of  Poland  in  1793,  And 
thus  gained  a  consideral)le  addition  to  his  kingdom, 
which,  by  purchase,  inheritance,  and  other  means, 
was  augmented  during  his  reign  l>y  the  acquisition 
of  more  than  46,000  square  miles  of  territory, 
and  2|  millions  of  inhabitants.  The  chief  internal 
improvements  in  this  reign  were  the  introduction 
of  a  new  code  of  laws,  and  a  less  onerous  mode  oi 
raising  the  taxes. 

FREDERICK-WILLIAM  III.,  of  Pnussi  v,  the 
son  of  Frederick- William  II.,  was  born  in  1770. 
He  early  took  part  in  the  administration,  and,  on 
his  accession  in  1797,  he  at  once  dismissed  the 
unworthy  favourites  of  the  preceding  reign,  and 
accompanied  by  his  beautiful  young  queen,  Louisa 
of  Alecklenburg-Strelitz,  made  a  tour  of  inspection 
through  the  numerous  provinces  of  his  kingdom, 
with  a  view  of  investigating  their  condition,  and 
contributing  to  their  local  and  general  improve- 
ment. But  although  F.-W.  was  well  intentioned, 
and  in  his  moral  and  domestic  relations  his  con- 
duct was  exemplary,  he  lacked  the  dignity  and 
force  of  will  to  cope  with  the  difficulties  of  hia 
position.  By  his  efforts  to  maintain  an  attitude 
of  neutrality  in  the  great  European  struggle  that 
had  been  excited  by  the  wars  and  victories  of 
the  French,  he  awakened  the  distrust  of  all  the 
great  anti-Gallican  powers  of  Europe,  and  disap- 
pointed the  petty  German  princes,  who  had  looked 
upon  Prussia  as  their  protectress  against  foreign 
encroachments.  Napoleon's  promises  of  support 
and  friendly  intentions  soon  changed  this  neutrality 
to  an  alliance  with  France,  and  for  some  time 
Prussia  persevered  in  her  dishonourable  and  self- 
seeking  policy,  which  was  rewarded  by  the  acqui- 
sition of  Hildesheim,  Paderborn,  and  MUnster, 
v.'hich  added  nearly  4000  square  miles  of  territor}^ 
and  half  a  million  of  inhabitants  to  the  king- 
dom ;  but  at  length  the  repeated  and  systematic 
insults  of  Napoleon,  who  despised  F.-W.  while  he 
professed  to  treat  him  as  a  friend,  roused  the  spirit 
of  the  nation,  and  the  king  saw  himself  obliged, 
in  1805,  to  agree  to  a  convention  with  Russia,  the 
real  object  of  which  was  to  drive  Napoleon  out  of 
Germany.  Again  the  treachery  of  Prussia  led  her 
to  make  a  new  treaty  with  France,  by  which  she 
consented  to  receive  the  electorate  of  Hanover, 
and  thus  involved  herself  in  a  war  with  England. 
The  insults  of  Napoleon  were  redoubled  after  this 
fresh  proof  of  F.-W.'s  indecision.  The  Prussian 
nation,  headed  by  the  queen,  now  called  loudly  for 
war,  and  at  the  close  of  1806,  the  king  yielded  to 
these  appeals.  Hostilities  began  without  fiu'ther 
delay;  but  the  defeat  of  the  Prussians  at  Jena, 
Eylau,  and  Friedland,  compelled  their  unfortimate 
monarch  to  sue  for  peace.  The  Prussian  army  was 
annihilated,  and  the  whole  of  the  kingdom,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  fortified  places,  remained  in  the 
power  of  the  French.  By  the  intervention  of  the 
Emperor  Alexander  of  Russia,  a  peace  was  con- 
cluded, known  as  the  Treaty  of  Tilsit,  by  which  F.« 
W.  lost  the  greater  part  of  his  realm,  and  was 
deprived  of  all  but  the  semblance  of  royalty ;  but 
although  for  the  next  five  years  he  was  a  mere  tocA 
in  the  hands  of  Napoleon,  who  seized  every  oppor- 
tunity of  humbling  and  irritating  him,  his  spirit 
was  not  subdued,  and  his  unremitting  efibrts  at  this 
period  of  his  life  to  reorganise  his  enfeebled  govern- 
ment by  self-sacrifices  of  every  kind,  endeared  him 
greatly  to  his  people.  The  disastrous  termiuation 
of  Napoleon's  Russian  campaign  was  the  turning- 
jioint  in  the  fortunes  of  Prussia;  for  although  the 
French  emperor  was  victorious  over  the  Prussiana 
and  Russians  in  the  battles  of  Lutzen  and  Bautzen, 
which  were  fought  soou  after  the  declaration  of 
war  which  F.-W.  had  made  against  France,  to  tho 

6Ui 


FEEDERIOK-WILLIAM— FREE  CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND. 


great  joy  of  his  people,  in  1813,  the  allies  were  soon  ' 
able  to  renew  hostilities,  which  were  carried  on 
with  signal  success  until  they  finally  culminated  in 
the  great  battle  of  Leipsic,  in  which  the  Prussians, 
under  their  general,  Blucher,  earned  the  greatest 
share  of  glory.  The  Peace  of  Vienna  restored  to 
Pnissia  almost  all  her  former  possessions,  while  the 
part  taken  by  the  Prussian  army  under  Blucher  in 
gaining  the  victory  of  Waterloo,  by  which  Napo- 
leon's power  was  finally  broken,  raised  the  kingdom 
from  its  alvaseraent.  From  that  time,  F.-W.  devoted 
himself  to  the  improvement  of  his  exhausted  states ; 
but  altlioixgh  before  the  French  revolution  of  1830 
Prussia  hsid  recovered  her  old  position  in  regard 
to  material  prosperity  at  home  and.  political  con- 
eidcration  abroad,  the  king  adhered  too  strictly  to  the 
old  German  ideas  of  absolutism,  to  grant  his  people 
more  than  the  smallest  possible  amount  of  i)olitical 
liberty.  He  had  indeed  promised  to  establish  a 
representative  constitution  for  the  whole  king- 
dom, 1  ut  this  promise  he  wholly  repudiated  when 
reminded  of  it,  and  merely  established  the  Land- 
stdnde,  or  Provincial  Estates,  a  local  institution, 
devoid  of  all  effective  power.  His  support  of  the 
Russian  government  in  its  sanguinary  methods  of 
crushing  revolutionary  tendencies  in  Poland,  shewed 
his  absolute  tendencies,  and  his  dread  of  liberal 
principles.  F.-W.  was  more  than  once  embroiled 
with  the  pope,  on  account  of  his  violation  of  the 
concordat.  He  concluded  the  great  German  com- 
mercial league  known  as  the  Zollverein  (see  Ger- 
MA.NY),  which  organised  the  German  customs  and 
duties  in  accordance  with  one  uniform  system.  He  t 
died  in  1840. 

FREDERICK-WILLIAM  IV.,  of  Prussia, 
son  of  the  foregoing,  was  born  October  15,  1795.  He 
had  been  carefidly  educated,  was  fond  of  the  society 
of  learned  men,  and  was  a  liberal  patron  of  art 
and  literature.  He  exhibited  much  of  his  father's 
vacillation  and  instability  of  purpose ;  and  although 
he  began  his  reign  (June  7,  1840)  by  granting  minor 
reforms,  and  promising  radical  changes  of  a  liberal 
character,  he  always,  on  one  plea  or  other,  evaded 
the  fulfilment  of  these  pledges.  He  Avas  possessed 
by  high  but  vague  ideas  of  '  the  Christian  state,' 
and  shewed  through  life  a  strong  tendency  to 
mystic  pietism.  The  one  idea  to  which  he  adhered 
with  constancy  -was  that  of  a  union  of  all  Germany 
mto  one  great  body,  of  which  he  offered  himself  to 
be  the  guide  and  head.  He  encouraged  the  duchies 
of  Holstein  and  Slesvig  in  their  insurrectionary 
movement,  and  sent  troops  to  assist  them  against 
Denmark ;  but  he  soon  abandoned  their  cause,  and 
being  displeased  with  the  revolutionary  character  of 
the  Frankfurt  Diet,  refused  to  accept  the  imperial 
crown  which  it  offered  him.  The  conspiracies  in 
Prussian  Poland  were  suppressed  with  much  rigour ; 
and  the  popular  movement  w^hich  followed  the 
French  revolution  of  1848,  was  at  first  met  by 
the  king  with  resolute  opposition;  but  when  the 
people  persisted  in  demanding  the  removal  of  the 
troops  from  the  capital,  and  enforced  their  demand 
by  storming  the  arsenal,  and  seizing  on  the  palace 
of  the  Prince  of  Prussia  (the  present  king),  who  was 
at  that  time  especially  obnoxious  to  the  liberals,  he 
was  obliged  to  comply  with  their  wishes.  Constitu- 
ent assemblies  were  convoked,  only  to  be  dissolved 
when  the  king  recovered  his  former  security  of 
power,  and  new  constitutions  w^ere  framed  and 
sworn  to,  aud  finally  modified  or  withdrawn.  After 
the  complete  termination  of  the  revolution  in  Ger- 
many, the  revolutionary  members  of  the  Assembly 
of  1848  were  prosecuted  and  treated  with  severity, 
the  obnoxious  '  pietistic '  party  and  the  nobility 
were  reinstated  in  their  former  influence  at  court, 
and  the  freedom  of  the  press  and  of  religious  and 
6C2 


political  opinion,  was  strictly  circumscribed.  The 
life  of  the  king  was  twice  attemj)ted;  first  in 
1847  by  a  dismissed  burgomaster,  named  Tschech; 
and  secondly,  in  1850,  by  an  insane  discharged 
soldier  of  the  name  of  Sefeloge.  In  1857,  F.-W. 
was  seized  with  remittent  attacks  of  insanity ;  and 
in  1858  he  resigned  the  management  of  public 
affairs  to  his  brother  and  next  heir,  who  acted  as 
regent  of  the  kingdom  till  his  own  accession,  in 
1860,  as  WiUiam  I.    F.-W.  died  in  1861. 

FRE'DERICTON,  the  political  capital  of  New 
Brunswick,  in  British  North  America,  stands  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  St  John,  the  largest  river  in  the 
province.  It  is  56  miles  to  the  north-west  of  the 
principal  seaport,  which  bears  the  name  of  the  stream 
above  mentioned,  and  it  is  itself  accessible  to  vessels 
of  50  tons.  The  population  is  about  6000.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  public  buildings,  which  F.  possesses  as 
the  seat  of  government,  it  contains  the  university 
of  King's  College,  which,  independently  of  other 
resources,  receives  from  the  legislature  an  annual 
grant  of  £2000. 

FRE'DERIKSHALD,  a  fortified  seaport  of  Nor- 
way, in  the  department  (amt)  of  Smalenen,  stands  on 
an  inlet  called  Swinesund,  near  the  Swedish  border, 
about  60  miles  south-south-east  of  Christiania.  It 
is  beautifidly  situated,  and  is  a  neat,  well-built 
town,  with  several  handsome  edifices.  Its  harbour 
is  excellent ;  in  it  the  largest  vessels  may  be  safely 
moored.  F.  largely  exports  deals  and  lobsters. 
Pop.  7408.  To  the  south-east  of  the  town  stands 
the  fortress  of  Frederiksteen,  on  a  perpendicular 
rock  400  feet  high.  This  fortress,  though  often 
assaulted,  has  never  yet  been  taken.  While  laying 
siege  to  Fredeiiksteen,  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  was 
killed,  1718 ;  in  commemoration  of  which  event  an 
obelisk  was  raised,  in  1814,  upon  the  spot  where  he 
fell. 

FREE  BENCH  {Francus  Bancus).  By  custom 
of  certain  manors  in  England,  a  widow  was  entitled 
to  dower  out  of  the  lands  which  were  held  by  her 
"husband  in  Socage  (q.  v.).  In  some  places,  the  widow 
had  the  whole,  or  the  half,  and  the  Uke  dum  sola  ei 
casta  vixerit  (Co.  Litt.  110,  b).  This  right  is  called 
francus  bancus,  to  distinguish  it  from  other  dowers, 
for  that  it  cometh  freely,  without  any  act  of  the 
husband's  or  assignment  of  the  heir  (Co.  Litt.  94,  b). 
See  Dower.  A  widow  who  has  forfeited  her  free 
I  bench  is,  by  the  custom  of  some  manors,  permitted 
i  to  recover  her  right.  At  East  and  West  Enborne, 
in  the  county  of  Berks,  and  also  in  the  manor  of 
Chadleworth,  in  the  same  county,  and  at  Torr,  in 
Devon,  if  the  widow  commit  incontinency,  she  for- 
feits her  estate  ;  yet  if  she  will  come  into  the  court 
of  the  manor  riding  backward  on  a  black  ram,  with 
his  tail  in  her  hand,  and  will  repeat  certain  verses 
(more  remarkable  for  their  plainness  than  their 
delicacy),  the  steward  is  bound  by  the  custom  to 
admit  her  to  her  free  bench  (Cowel's  Interpreter, 
ed.  1727,  fob). 

FREE  CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND,  the  name 
assumed  by  those  who  at  the  '  Disruption '  of  the 
Established  Church  of  Scotland,  in  1843,  withdrew 
from  connection  with  the  state,  and  formed  them- 
selves into  a  distinct  religious  community,  at  the 
same  time  claiming  to  represent  the  historic  church 
of  Scotland,  as  maintaining  the  principles  for  w^hich 
it  has  contended  since  the  Reformation. 

(It  is  proper  to  state  that,  in  accordance  wath  a 
method  adopted  in  other  cases  also  in  this  work,  the 
present  article  is  written  by  a  member  of  the  church 
to  which  it  relates,  and  is  an  attempt  to  exhibit  the 
view  of  its  principles  and  position  generally  taken 
by  those  within  its  own  pale.) 
There  is  no  difference  between  the  F.  C.  of  S.  and 


FEEE  CHUrwCH  OF  SCOTLAJSD. 


the  Established  Cliiircli  in  the  standards  which  they 
receive  ;  and  all  the  laws  of  the  church  existing 
and  in  force  prior  to  the  Disruption,  are  acknow- 
ledged as  still  binding  in  the  one  as  much  as  in  the 
other,  except  in  so  far  as  they  may  since  have  been 
repealed.  The  same  Presbyterian  constitution  sub- 
sists in  both  churches,  with  the  same  classes  of 
office-bearers  and  gradations  of  church -courts.  The 
F.  C,  indeed,  professes  to  maintain  this  constitution 
and  church-government  in  a  perfection  impossible  in 
tlis present  circumstances  of  the  Established  Church, 
because  of  acts  of  parliament  by  which  the  Estab- 
lished Church  is  trammelled,  and  interventions  of 
civil  authority  to  which  it  is  liable.  And  the  whole 
difference  between  the  F.  C.  and  the  Established 
Church  relates  to  the  consent  and  submission  of  the 
Established  Church  to  this  control  of  the  civil  power 
in  things  which  the  F.  C.  regards  as  belonging  not 
to  the  province  of  civil  government,  but  to  the 
church  of  Christ  and  to  its  office-bearers  and  courts, 
as  deriving  authority  from  Him ;  so  that  the  contro- 
versy is  often  described  as  respecting  the  Headship 
of  Christ  or  the  Kingdom  of  Christ.  It  is  to  be 
borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the  doctrine  of  the 
headship  of  Christ  over  his  church,  as  set  forth  in 
the  Westminster  standards,  is  fully  professed  both  by 
the  Established  Church  and  by  the  F.  C.  of  Scotland ; 
the  only  queEtion  between  them  is,  whether  or  not 
the  existing  relations  of  the  Established  Church  of 
Scotland  to  the  state  are  consistent  with  the  due 
maintenance  and  practical  exhibition  of  this  doc- 
trine. And  the  question  does  not  directly  relate  to 
Voluntaryism  (q.  v.).  Those  who  constituted  the 
F.  C.  of  S.  in  1843,  firmly  believed  that  the  church 
might  be  connected  with  the  state,  and  receive 
countenance  and  support  from  it,  to  the  advantage 
of  both ;  whilst  they  maintained  that  there  must 
not,  for  the  sake  of  any  apparent  benefits  flowing 
from  such  connection,  be  any  sacrifice  of  the  inde- 
pendence or  self-government  of  the  church,  as  the 
kingdom  of  Christ,  deriving  its  existence,  organis- 
ation, and  laws  from  Him.  Nor  has  any  change 
of  opinion  on  this  subject  been  manifested. 

The  Westminster  Confession  of  Faith  asserts 
*  that  there  is  no  other  head  of  the  church  but  the 
Lord  Jesus  Christ  ; '  and  that  '  the  Lord  Jesus,  as 
King  and  Head  of  his  church,  hath  therein  appointed 
a  government  in  the  hand  of  church- officers,  distinct 
from  the  civil  magistrate ; '  it  ascribes  to  these 
chm-ch-officers  the  right  of  meeting  in  '  synods  or 
councils,'  which  it  affirms  to  be  '  an  ordinance  of 
God  ; '  and  represents  the  exercise  of  church-dis- 
cipline as  intrusted  to  them  as  well  as  the  ministry 
of  the  word  and  sacraments.  It  ascribes  to  the 
civil  magistrate  much  power  and  many  duties  con- 
cerning things  spiritual,  but  no  power  in  or  over 
these  things  themselves.  And  all  this  was  equally 
the  doctrine  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  before  the 
Westminster  Confession  was  compiled.  The  sup- 
port which,  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  princes  gave  to 
the  cause  of  the  Reformation,  and  the  circumstance 
that  states  as  well  as  churches  were  shaking  off  the 
fetters  of  Rome,  led  in  many  cases  to  a  confounding 
©f  tho  civil  and  the  8])iritual.  The  Church  of 
Scotland  accomplished  its  emancipation  from  Rome, 
not  with  th^  co-operation  of  the  civil  power,  but 
in  spite  of  its  resistance  ;  and  after  the  Reformation, 
the  Scottish  Reformers  and  their  successors  were 
compelled  to  a  closer  study  of  their  princij)les,  by  the 
continued  attempts  of  the  civil  rulers  to  assume 
authority  over  all  the  internal  affairs  of  the  church.* 
But  amidst  their  struggles,  the  Presbyterians  of 
Scotland  so  far  prevailed  as  to  obtain  at  different 
-imes  important  acts  of  parliament  in  recognition  of 
their  principles,  and  '  ratification  of  the  liberty  of 
the  true  kirk ; '  and  finally,  after  the  Revolution  of 


1688,  an  act  ratifying  the  Westminster  Ct/iifesj-ioii 
of  Faith  itself,  and  incorporating  with  the  statute 
law  of  the  realm  all  its  statements  concerning  the 
province  of  church  judicatories  and  that  of  the 
civil  magistrate,  and  the  bounds  of  their  respective 
powers. 

The  rights  and  privileges  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  of  Scotland,  guaranteed  by  the  Revolution 
settlement,  were  expressly  secured  by  the  Treaty 
of  Union,  and  jealously  reserved  from  the  power 
of  the  British  parliament ;  yet  within  live  years 
afterwards,  when  Jacobite  counsels  prevailed  in 
the  court  of  Queen  Anne,  an  act  was  passed  for 
the  restoration  of  patronage  in  Scotland,  with  the 
design  of  advancing  the  Jacobite  interest  by  render- 
ing ministers  more  dependent  on  the  aristocracy, 
and  less  strenuous  advocates  of  the  most  liberal 
principles  then  known.  This  act  soon  became 
the  cause  of  strife  within  the  Church  of  Scotland, 
and  of  separation  from  it ;  effects  which  have  con- 
tinually increased  to  the  present  day.  How  the 
church  at  first  earnestly  protested  against  the  act ; 
how  this  protest  gradually  became  formal,  and  waa 
at  last  relinquished ;  how  the  church-courts  them- 
selves became  most  active  in  carrying  out  the 
settlement  of  presentees,  notwithstanding  all  oppo- 
sition of  congregations,  are  points  to  which  it  is 
enough  here  to  allude.  It  is  important,  however, 
to  observe  that  in  all  the  enforcement  of  the  rights 
given  to  patrons  by  the  act  of  1712,  during  the  18th 
c,  and  considerable  part  of  the  19th,  no  direct 
invasion  of  the  ecclesiastical  province  took  place 
on  the  part  of  civil  courts  or  of  the  civil  power  ;  the 
presentation  by  the  patron  was  regarded  as  convey- 
ing a  civil  right  at  most  to  the  benefice  or  emolu- 
ments only,  whilst  the  church-courts  proceeded 
without  restraint  in  the  induction  of  ministers ;  and 
in  a  few  instances  it  happened  that  the  benefice  and 
the  pastoral  office  were  disconnected  by  the  opposite 
decisions  of  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  courts.  And 
even  the  '  forced  settlements,'  in  which  the  fullest 
effect  was  given  by  the  church-courts  to  the  will  of 
patrons,  were  accomplished  according  to  the  ancient 
form,  upon  the  call  of  the  parishioners,  inviting  the 
presentee  to  be  their  minister,  although  the  call  was 
a  mere  form — in  the  words  of  Dr  Chalmers,  'the 
expressed  consent  of  a  few,  and  these  often  the  mere 
driblet  of  a  parish.' 

When  the  '  Moderate '  party,  long  dominant  iu 
the  General  Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland, 
became  again  the  minority  in  1834,  the  accession  of 
the  'Evangelical'  jjarty  to  power  was  at  once 
signalised  by  an  attempt  to  restore  the  call  to 
efficacy.  This  was  done  by  the  famous  Veto  Law, 
by  which  it  was  declared  '  that  it  is  a  fundamental 
law  of  this  church  that  no  pastor  shall  be  intruded 
on  any  congregation  contrary  to  the  will  of  the 
people,'  and  enacted,  in  order  to  give  effect  to  this 
principle,  that  a  solemn  dissent  of  a  majority  of 
male  heads  of  families,  members  of  the  vacant  con- 
gTegation,  and  in  full  communion  with  the  church, 
shall  be  deemed  sufficient  ground  for  the  rejection 
of  the  presentee.  The  Veto  Law  thus  determined 
rather  how  strong  an  expression  of  disrent  by  the 
parishioners  should  be  requisite  to  invalidate  a 
call,  than  how  strong  an  expression  of  assent  shoidd 
be  requisite  to  give  it  validity ;  a  circumstance 
which  was  afterwards  much  turned  to  account  ia 
controversy ;  as  if  the  veto  were  a  new  and  imcon 
stitutional  principle  introduced ;  although  it  was 
certainly  adopted  as  the  least  extreme  mode  of 
giving  effect  to  the  old  principle  which  the  law 
declared. 

The  same  General  Assembly  by  which  the  Veto 
Act  was  passed,  is  memorable  for  the  assertion  of 
the  constitutional  principles  and  inherent  powers  of 

503 


FREE  CHUECH  OF  SCOTLAiNT). 


the  church  in  another  important  particular,  the 
admission  of  the  ministers  of  'chapels  of  ease'  to 
tlie  same  ecclesiastical  status  with  the  ministers  of 
endowed  parishes,  in  consequence  of  which  they 
became  meird)ers  of  church-courts,  and  had  districts 
assigned  to  them  quoad  sacra,  with  the  full  parochial 
organization. 

The  Veto  Act  was  soon  the  subject  of  litigation 
in  the  Court  of  Session.    A  conflict  arose,  which  in 
various  forms  agitated  the  whole  of  Scotland,  and 
which,  erelong,  related  as  much  to  the  status  of 
chapel  ministers  as  to  the  rights  of  presentees  to 
parishes  ;  and  indeed  involved  the  whole  question 
of  the  relations  of  civil  and  ecclesiastical  powers,  at 
least  as  far  as  the  Established  Church  was  con- 
cerned.   The  first  case  carried  into  the  civil  court 
was  that  of  a  i)resentation  to  Auchterarder,  in 
which  the  call  to  the  presentee  was  signed  by  only- 
two  parishioners,  whilst  almost  all  who  were  entitled 
to  do  so  according  to  the  Veto  Act,  came  forward 
to  declare  their  dissent.    The  decision  of  the  Court 
of  Session,  which,  upon  an  ap[)eal,  was  aliirmed  by 
the  House  of  Lonls,  was  to  the  effect,  that  the 
rejection  of  the  presentee  on  the  ground  of  this 
dissent  was  illegal ;  the  opinions  of  the  judges  in 
the  Scottish  court  were  indeed  divided ;  but  those 
in  accordance  with  which  the  judgment  was  pro- 
nounced, asserted  the  right  of  the  civil  courts  to 
review  and  control  all  pi'oceedings  of  church-courts, 
a  power  wdiich  it  was  speedily  attempted  to  put  forth 
in  other  cases,  to  the  extent  of  requiring  presbyteries 
to  proceed  to  the  settlement  of  qualified  presentees 
without  respect  to  the  opposition  of  congregations  ; 
interdicting  the  admission  of  ministers  to  pastoral 
charges  even  when  no  question  of  emoluments  was 
involved  ;  interdicting  the  quoad  sacra,  division  of 
parishes  or  any  innovation  on  iilie  existing  state  of 
a  parish  as  to  pastoral  su])eriutendence  and  the 
jurisdiction  and  discipline  of  the  kirk-session  ;  inter- 
dicting clmrch-courts  from  pronouncing  ecclesiastical 
censures,  and  suspending  or  revoking  them  when  ; 
pronounced ;  interdicting  ministers  from  preach-  \ 
mg  the  gospel  and  from  administering  the  sacra- 
ments within  certain  parishes  ;  determining  who  [ 
should  and  who  should  not  be  deemed  entitled  to 
Bit  and  vote  in  General  Assemblies  and  other  courts 
of  the  church  ;  and  other  such  things,  wholly  sub-  j 
versive  of  the  independence  of  the  church,  and 
reducing  it,  if  acquiesced  in,  to  the  condition  of  'a 
creature  of  the  state.'    They  were  not,  however,  ; 
acquiesced   in ;    and   although  in   one  instance,  ! 
ministers  were  brought  to  the  bar  of  the  Court  of 
Session,  and  reproved  for  disregarding  its  authority, 
their  protest  against  its  claim  to  authority  was  ^ 
maintained  even  there  ;  and  in  the  far  greater  ; 
number  of  instances,  its  interdicts  were  broken  ! 
without  any  attempt  being  made  to  call  those  who  ■ 
did  so  to  account.  It  is  impossil)le  here  to  enter  into  j 
the  details  of  this  struggle,  which  was  brought  to  a  [ 
tiual  issue  by  the  judgment  of  the  House  of  Lords 
in  August  1842,  affirming  a  decree  of  the  Court  of 
Session,  which  required  the  presbytery  of  Auchter- 
arder to  take  the  ordinary  steps  towards  the  settle- 
ment of  the  presentee  to   Auchterarder,  without 
regard  to  the  dissent  of  the  parishioners.    The  law 
of  the  land  being  thus  decided  by  the  supreme 
court  to  be  such  as  they  could  not  with  good  con- 
science comply  with,  and  parliament  having  rejected 
an  application,  in  the  form  of  a  '  Claim  of  Right,' 
for  an  act  such  as  would   have  reconciled  the 
diities  of  their  position  according  to  the  law  of  the 
land,  in  the  church  by  law  established,  Avith  what 
ihey  believed  to  be  their  duty  towards  Christ  and 
according  to  his  law  ;  it  now  seemed  to  the  greater 
number  of  the  ministers  and  elders  holding  the 
principle  of  the  iudepenience  of  the  church,  that 
504 


the  only  course  open  to  them  was  tc  retire  from 
their  position  by  the  sacrifice  of  the  emoluments 
and  benefits  of  an  establishment.  And  this  th<^-y  did 
at  the  meeting  of  the  General  Assembly  on  18th 
May  1843.  Headed  by  Dr  Chalmers,  ]>r  Welsh, 
and  others  of  the  most  eminent  for  piety,  learning, 
eloquence,  and  usefulness  in  the  chunih,  they  left 
the  api)ointed  place  of  meeting  of  the  General 
Assembly,  St  Andrew's  Church,  Edinburgh,  and 
I)roceeded  to  another  place,  i)reviously  prepared, 
Tanlield  Hall,  Canonmills,  where,  in  the  iridst  of  a 
great  concourse  of  peojjle,  the  first  General  Assembly 
of  the  F.  C.  of  S.  was  immediately  constituted, 
and  Dr  Chalmers  was  unanimously  called  to  the 
chair  as  its  moderator.  Four  hundred  and  seventy- 
four  ministers  renounced  their  connection  with  the 
Establislmicnt,  and  along  with  them  a  great  body 
j  of  its  elders  and  members. 

Immediate  steps  were  taken  for  comjdeting  the 
organisation  of  the  F.  C,  and  extending  it  as  much 
as  possible  into  every  district  of  Scotland.  The 
forethought  of  Dr  Chalmers  had  already  devised  the 
SusTENTATiON  FuND  (q.v.).  The  F.  C.  undertook 
from  the  first  the  continued  support  of  all  the  mis- 
sions i)reviously  carried  on  by  tlie  Church  of  Scot- 
land ;  and  all  the  missionaries  hastened  to  declare 
their  adherence  to  the  Free  Church.  An  '  educa- 
tion scheme '  was  soon  afterwards  imdertaken,  when 
it  l)egan  to  be  found  that  parish  schoolmasters  were 
ejected  from  their  office  for  their  adherence  to  the 
F.  C.  ;  and  coUe<jes  for  the  training  of  ministers  were 
founded  in  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and  Aberdeen. 
Considerable  opjiosition  was  at  first  experienced  on 
the  part  of  landowners,  who  refused  to  grant  sites 
for  churches  and  other  buildings  ;  but  this  gradually 
gave  way,  although  not  until  much  hardship  had  in 
many  cases  resulted  from  it.  The  bitterness  of  feel- 
ing which  at  first  existed  between  the  Established 
Church  of  Scotland  and  the  F,  C.  has  passed  away 
to  a  degree  Avhich  could  scarcely  have  been  expected 
in  so  short  a  time  ;  and  there  are  many  who  hope  to 
see  the  questions  between  them  amicably  discussed 
and  settled. 

in  1873,  the  number  of  ministerial  charges  in  the 
F.  C.  of  S.  was  905.  There  nre  also  numerous 
'  preaching  stations,'  in  which  preaching  is  regularly 
maintained,  and  other  ordinances  are  admuiistered 
under  the  care  of  presbyteries.  All  of  these  would  be 
2)rovided  with  ministers  of  their  own,  if  the  means 
at  the  disposal  of  the  chiirch  admitted  of  it ;  and 
some  of  them  are  continually  being  added  to  the  list 
of  ministerial  charges.  The  w^hole  sum  raised  for 
religious  and  educational  purposes  by  the  F.  C.  of  S. 
up  to  March  1873,  or  in  about  30  years,  has  been 
al)Out  £10,299,306,  or  rather  more  than  £343,310  a 
year.  In  this  are  included  the  sums  devoted  to  the 
erection  of  churches,  manses,  school-buildings,  col- 
leges, &c.  The  Sustentation  Fund  for  the  year  end- 
ing 15th  of  May  1873,  amounted  to  £136,779,  19s. 
8(7. ;  the  missionary  and  educational  funds  to  £77,  3s. 
bd.\  congregational  fimds  to  £147,715,  6.s'.  \d. 

Since  1843,  the  history  of  the  F.  C.  has  been  gone- 
rally  that  of  peaceful  i)rogress.  It  has  been  agitated 
by  internal  questions  respecting  the  administration 
of  the  Sustentation  Fund,  the  propriety  of  having 
only  one  college  or  more  than  one,  &c.,  which  are  of 
comparatively  little  interest  to  those  beyond  its  own 
pale,  but  which  have  produced  no  permanent  divi- 
sions, and  have  either  reached  or  advanced  towards 
a  peaceful  solution.  Latterly,  however,  it  has  again 
||eeu  brought  into  a  litigation  in  the  Court  of  Session, 
in  which,  according  to  the  belief  of  its  members,  its* 
fundamental  principles  are  involved.  The  minister 
of  the  F.  C.  at  Cardross,  in  Dumbartonshire,  having 
been  charged  with  immorality,  and  suspended  by 
the  General  Assembly  of  1858,  had  recourse  to  ths 


FEEE  CITIES— FREE  PORT. 


C^ourt  <»f  Session,  on  the  alleged  ground  of  irregu- 
larity in  the  proceedings  of  the  ecclesiastical  judi- 
catories, demanding  the  suspension  of  the  sentence  : 
and  being  on  this  account  summarily  deposed  by  the 
General  Assembly,  he  raised  an  action  in  the  Court 
of  Session,  not  only  claiming  di'.mages,  but  to  have 
the  sentence  rescinded  and  found  null  and  void. 
The  case  terminated  in  the  recognition  of  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  church  in  things  purely  spiritual,  and 
its  subjection  to  the  civil  courts  in  all  things  temporal. 

FREE  CITIES,  the  name  given  to  those  German 
towns,  Hamburg,  Bremen,  Luljec,  and  Frankfort-on- 
the-Maine,  whicli  were  of  themselves  sovereign  states 
and  members  of  the  German  Confederation.  They 
are  renmants  of  the  once  numerous  'Imperial'  cities, 
or  cities  not  subject  to  any  superior  lord,  but  imme- 
diately under  the  empire.  Of  the  four  F.  C,  Ham- 
burg, Lubec,  and  Bremen  still  retain  their  privileges 
under  the  re-constituted  German  Empire,  but  Frank- 
fort (q.  V.)  was  annexed  to  Prussia  in  1866. 

FREEDOM  OF  THE  PRESS.    See  Press. 

FREEHOLD,  Estate  of  {Uherum  tenementum, 
frank  tenement).  Real  estates  in  England  in  the 
present  day  are  di\dded  into  freehold  and  copy- 
hold. By  freehold  property  is  meant  all  estates 
which  owe  no  duty  or  service  to  any  lord  but 
the  king.  What  are  now  known  as  estates  of  free- 
hold were,  under  the  feudal  system,  denominated 
frank  tenements.  They  were  held  by  the  honour- 
able tenure  of  Knight's  Service  (q.  v.)  and  Free 
Socage  (q.  v.),  and  might  have  been  held  either 
of  the  crown  or  of  a  subject.  But  the  statute  of 
Quia  emptores  having  abolished  subinfeudation,  all 
freehold  estates,  except  those  which  have  been  held 
of  subjects  since  the  time  of  Edward  I.,  are  now 
held  of  the  crown.  A  freehold  estate  must  be  an 
estate  in  fee,  in  tail,  or  for  life  ;  all  other  estates  in 
land,  as  estates  for  years,  are  called  chattel  interests. 
An  estate  of  freehold  coxdd  in  general  be  created 
only  by  livery  of  sasine  of  Feoffment  (q.  v.).  By 
the  doctrine  of  the  feudal  law,  no  person  who  had 
an  estate  of  less  duration  than  for  his  own  life  or 
for  the  life  of  another  man,  was  considered  to  be  a 
freeholder ;  and  none  but  a  freeholder  was  con- 
Bidered  to  have  possession  of  the  land.  A  tenant  for 
years,  &c.,  was  regarded  as  holding  possesion  for 
the  freeholder.  The  possession  of  the  freeholder 
might,  however,  be  defeated  by  the  wnrongful  act  of 
the  tenant ;  for  a  transfer  of  iiossession  or  livery  of 
sasine  by  the  tenant  would  divest  the  freeholder, 
and  leave  him  to  his  Right  of  Entry  (q.  v.).  This 
effect  of  a  feoffment  by  wrong  was  abolished  by  8 
and  9  Vict.  c.  106,  s.  4,  Before  the  time  of  Henry 
VI.,  all  freeholders  were  entitled  to  vote  on  the 
election  of  a  knight  of  the  shire,  as  they  still  may 
for  the  appointment  of  coroner.  But  by  8  Hen.  VI. 
c.  7,  the  famous  statute  was  passed  which  still  in 
great  measure  regulates  the  county  elections,  and 
enacts  that  no  freeholder  shall  vote  who  cannot 
spend  from  his  freehold  at  least  40.s'.  a  year.  By 
2  Will.  IV.  c.  45,  s.  18,  this  qualification  is  con- 
tinued as  to  all  freeholds  of  inheritance,  and  to  free- 
holders for  life  in  actual  occupation,  or  who  have 
acquired  their  lands  by  marriage,  mari'iage  settle- 
ment, devise,  or  promotion  to  any  benefice  or  office. 

FREEHOLD  liAKD  SCHEME  had  for  its 
object  to  enable  mcchavnics,  artisans,  and  other  per- 
sons belonging  to  tlie  lower  classes,  to  purchase  a 
piece  of  freehold  laiiJ,  of  such  yearly  value  as  to 
entitle  the  owner  to  Ihe  elective  franchise.  Irre- 
spective of  any  political  object,  benefit  building 
societies  now  exist  in  most  of  the  greater  towns  of 
this  country,  and  are  believed  to  be  of  great  service  to 
the  iabouriui;  me-^.    See  Benefit  Societies. 


FREE-LANCES  were  roving  companies  of 
knights  and  men-at-arms,  who,  after  the  Crusadea 
had  ceased  to  give  them  employment,  wandered 
from  state  to  state,  selling  their  services  to  any  lord 
who  was  willing  to  purchase  their  aid  in  the  per- 
petual feuds  of  the  middle  ages.  They  played  their 
most  prominent  part  in  Italy,  where  they  were 
known  as  Condottieri  (q.  v.). 

FREEMAN  and  FREEDMAN.    In  the  most 

general  acceptation  of  these  terms,  the  first  imphes 
one  who  has  inherited  the  full  privileges  and  immu* 
nities  of  citizenship  :  the  second,  one  who  has  bceB 
delivered  from  the  restraints  of  bondage,  but  wba, 
usually,  is  not  placed  in  a  position  of  full  social  c/ 
even  i)olitical  equality  with  him  who  was  born  free. 
Though  the  words  are  Teutonic  (being  composed  of 
frei,  free ;  and  mann,  a  man  or  human  being),  the 
distinction  between  them  depends  on  the  constitu- 
tion of  Roman  society.  The  eoojvalent  for  freeman 
{liber  homo),  indeed,  comprehended  all  classes  of 
those  who  were  not  slaves  ;  but  the  distinction  here 
pointed  out  was  preserved  by  the  application  of  the 
term  ingenuus  to  him  who  was  born  free  (Gains, 
i.  11),  and  of  Ubertinus  to  him  who,  being  born 
in  servitude,  was  emancipated.  For  the  further 
development  of  this  subject,  as  regards  the  classical 
nations  of  antiquity,  see  Slavery,  Citizen.  As 
the  organisation  of  Roman  society  survived  the 
convulsions  of  the  middle  ages  to  a  far  greater 
extent  in  the  towns  (see  Municipality,  Municipal 
Corporation)  than  in  the  landward  districts,  where 
the  institutions  of  feudality  almost  entirely  super- 
seded it,  it  is  in  the  borough  and  other  municipal 
corporations  of  this  country,  and  of  continental 
Europe,  that  we  still  find  freevien,  or  persons  inherit- 
ing or  acquiring  by  adoj^tion,  purchase,  or  apprentice- 
ship, the  rights  of  citizenship.  See  Freeman's  Roll. 
But  the  idea  of  a  freeman  was  by  no  means  peculiar 
to  the  Roman  or  Romanised  population  of  Europe ; 
on  the  contrary,  it  belonged  to  the  constitution  of 
society  in  all  the  Indo- Germanic  nations.  Amongst 
those  branches  of  them  commonly  known  as  Teutonic, 
it  was  generally  based  on  the  possession  of  some 
portion  of  the  soil.  In  Anglo-Saxon  England,  the 
freemen  were  divided  into  Ceorls  (q.  v.)  and  Eorla 
(q.  v.),  or  Thanes  (q.  v.).    See  Citizen. 

FREEMAN'S  ROLL.     By  5  and  6  Will.  IV.  c. 

76,  commonly  called  the  Municipal  Corjjorations' 
Act,  which  placed  the  corj^orate  towns,  or,  as  they 
are  denominated,  the  boroughs  enumerated  in  the 
schedules  A  and  B — i.  e.,  nearly  all  the  boroughs  in 
England  and  Wales  except  London — under  one  uni- 
form constitution,  a  distinction  is  made  (s.  2)  between 
the  Freeman's  Roll  and  the  Burgess  Roll.  Every 
person  who,  if  the  act  had  not  passed,  would,  as  a 
burgess  or  freeman,  have  enjoyed,  or  might  have 
acquired,  the  right  of  voting  in  the  election  of  mem- 
bers of  pai-liament,  is  to  be  entitled  to  enjoy  or 
acquire  such  right  as  heretofore.  And  it  is  fiirther 
enacted  (s,  5),  that  the  town-clerk  of  each  borough 
shall  make  out  a  list,  to  be  called  the  Freeman's  Rollj 
of  all  persons  admitted  burgesses  or  freemen,  for 
the  piirpose  of  such  reserved  rights  as  aforesaid,  as 
distinguished  from  the  burgesses  newly  created  by 
the  act,  and  entitled  to  the  rights  wliich  it  newly 
confers  ;  these  last  are  to  be  entered  on  another 
roll,  to  be  called  the  Burgess  Boll.    See  Bfroess. 

FREEMASON,  FREEMASONRY.  Seo 

•  Mason  ;  Masons,  Free. 

FREE  PORT  (Itah  Porto  Franco),  is  a  harbour 
where  the  shijis  of  all  nations  may  enter  on  paying 
a  moderate  toll,  and  load  and  unload.  Free  ports 
form  depots  where  goods  are  stored  at  first  with- 
out paying  duty;  these  goods  may  then  be  eithei 


FREE  SPIRIT—: 


-FREE  TRADE. 


re-shippod  for  export  on  payinji:  a  mere  transit  duty, 
or  they  may  pay  the  usual  full  customs  of  the  coun- 
try, and  be  admitted  for  home  consumption.  Free 
ports  thus  facilitate  transit  made,  and  form,  as  it 
were,  a  foreign  district  \^'ithin  a  state.  See  H^ARE- 
HousiNG  System. 

FREE-SPIRIT,  Brethren  of  the,  a  fanatical 
Beet  of  the  middle  ages,  which  was  very  generally 
(though  sometimes  secretly)  diffused  over  Italy, 
France,  and  Germany,  between  the  13th  and  15th 
centuries.  They  took  their  name  from  the  '  freedom 
of  spirit '  which  they  claimed,  in  virtue  of  the  words 
of  St  Paul  (Romans,  viii.  2,  14),  maintaining  that 
the  true  sons  of  God  are  exempt  from  subjection 
to  the  law.  They  appeared  lirst  in  Alsace,  in  the 
eu,Y\y  part  of  the  13th.  c,  and  attracted  notice  by 
their  siiiguxsr  a^^tire  and  their  fanatical  proceedings, 
traversing  the  country  in  troops,  accom])anied  by 
women,  with  whom,  under  the  name  of  sisters,  they 
lived  in  the  greatest  familiarity.  Their  doctrine 
was  a  species  of  pantheistic  mysticism,  which  they 
applied  with  fearless  consistency  to  all  the  details 
of  the  moral  obligations.  They  held,  according  to 
Mosheim,  who  has  collected  the  original  authorities, 

*  that  all  things  emanate  from  God,  and  will  revert 
back  into  Him ;  that  rational  souls  are  part  of 
the  Divine  Being  ;  that  the  whole  universe  is  God ; 
that  a  man,  by  turning  his  thoughts  inward, 
is  united  inexplicably  with  the  First  Canse,  and 
becomes  one  vsith  Him  ;  and  that  those  who  are  so 
immersed  in  the  vortex  of  the  Deity  attain  to  per- 
fect freedom,  and  are  divested  not  only  of  the  lusts, 
but  even  of  the  instincts,  of  nature.'  From  these 
principles,  they  inferred  that  the  free  man,  thus 
absorbed  in  God,  is  himself  God,  and  a  son  of  God, 
in  the  same  sense  in  which  Christ  it,  called  the  Son 
of  God ;  and  that,  as  such,  he  is  raised  above  aU 
laws,  human  and  divine  ;  to  such  a  degree  that, 
according  to  some  of  them,  '  the  godlike  man  cannot 
sin,  do  what  he  may ;  eithffer  because  the  soul,  being 
elevated  and  blended  with  the  divine  nature,  is  no 
longer  atfected  by  the  actions  of  the  body,  or 
because  the  emotions  of  the  soul,  after  such  union, 
become  in  realit}''  the  acts  and  operations  of  God 
himself,  and  therefore,  though  apparently  criminal, 
and  contrary  to  the  law,  are  really  good  and  holy, 
because  God  is  above  all  law  !'  These  blasphemous 
and  immoral  principles,  incredible  as  they  may 
appear,  are  extracted  by  Mosheim,  partly  from  the 
books  of  the  sect,  partly  from  the  decrees  of  Henry, 
Archbishop  of  Cologne,  by  whom  they  were  con- 
demned. Principles  such  as  these  drew  down  upon 
the  sect  the  arm  of  the  state,  as  well  as  the  censures 
of  the  church.  No  sect  of  the  time  suffered  so  much 
from  the  inquisition  in  the  14th  century.  They 
were  regarded  as  offenders  against  public  order  and 
morality,  as  well  as  against  the  faith  of  the  church. 
See  Inquisition.  After  the  first  appearance  of  the 
sect  in  Alsace  (1212),  where  its  leader  was  a  certain 
fanatic  called  Ortliels  (after  whom  the  members  are 
sometimes  called  Ortliebians),  it  spread  into  Thurgau 
and  the  Ui>per  and  Lower  Rhine.  During  the  latter 
part  of  that  century,  one  of  the  leaders,  named 

*  Meister  Eckart,'  had  so  large  a  following  at  Cologne, 
that  the  archbishop  made  his  teachings  the  subject 
of  a  lenirthened  'edict.  The  sect  spread  also  in 
Swabia,  where  it^  members  were  confounded  with 
the  Beghards.  In  France,  they  were  popularly  known 
by  the  name  '  Turlupins,'  a  word  of  uncertain 
etymology.  We  meet  them  in  Bohemia  in  the 
beginning  of  the  15th  c.,  and  there  is  considerable 
similarity  between  their  principles  and  those  of  the 
Adamites,  who  figure  in  Hussite  history.  From  this 
date  they  are  heard  of  no  more. — See  Mosheim, 
Soames's  ed.  ii.  582;  also  Gieseler's  Church  History, 
m.  407,  iv.  226. 

606 


FREE  STATE,  Orange.  See  Orange  Riveu 
Free  State. 

FREE'STONE,  any  rock  which  admits  of  being 
freely  cut  and  dressed  by  the  builder.  It  lias  also 
been  defined  as  any  rock  which  works  equally  freely 
in  every  direction,  having  no  tendency  to  split  in  one 
direction  more  than  another.  In  this  sense,  lime- 
stone and  even  granite  have  been  called  freestones. 

FREE-TOWN,  the  capital  of  Sierra  Leone,  a 
British  settlement  of  freed  negroes  on  the  west  const 
of  Africa,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sierra 
Leone  river,  about  .5  miles  from  the  sea,  in  lat.  8°  20' 
N.,  and  long.  13°  9' W.  The  temperature  is  tolera- 
bly uniform,  varying  in  opposite  seasons  between  the 
averages  of  77°'6  F.  and  80"'9.  Towards  the  interior 
F.  is  enclosed  by  the  mountain  chain  from  which  the 
colony  takes  its  name.    Pop.  about  16,000. 

FREE-TRADE  in  a  literal  sense  means  trade  or 
commercial  intercourse  free  from  interference  or  re- 
striction. As  generally  used,  however,  the  terni  has 
a  wider  and  more  complex  meaning,  and  expresses  a 
])rinciple  of  political  economy  which  holds  that  the 
jirosperity  of  a  State  can  best  be  promoted  by  freeing 
the  exchange  of  all  commodities  and  services — foreign 
as  well  as  domestic — to  the  greatest  possible  extent, 
from  all  interferences  and  obstructions,  but  more 
especially  from  such  as  are  of  an  arbitrary,  artificial 
character,  resulting  from  legislation  or  prejudice. 
Free-trade  in  this  sense  is  not,  as  is  often  asserted, 
necessarily  opposed  to  the  imposition  of  taxes  on 
imports,  but  simply  demands  that  taxes  shall  not  be 
imposed  by  the  State  for  any  purposes  other  than  to 
provide  revenue  for  the  defraying  of  necessary  and 
legitimate  public  expenditures,  and,  subject  to  such  a 
limitation,  regards  the  question  as  to  what  forms 
taxation  had  best  assume  as  one  merely  of  experi- 
ence and  expediency.  Free-trade  as  an  economic 
principle,  or  politico-commercial  system,  is  moreover 
the  direct  opposite  of  the  principle  or  system  of  pro- 
tection^ which  maintains  that  a  State  can  most  surely 
and  rapidly  attain  a  high  degree  of  material  prosperity 
by  'protecting'  or  'shielding'  its  domestic  industries 
from  the  competitive  sale  or  exchange  of  the  products 
of  all  similar  foreign  industries;  the  same  to  be  ef- 
fected either  by  direct  legislative  prohibition  of  im- 
ports, or  by  the  imposition  of  such  taxes  on  imports 
as  shall,  through  a  consequent  enhancement  of  prices, 
interfere  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  with  their  intro- 
duction, free  exchange,  and  consumption.  Some  of 
the  principal  arguments  in  favour  of  free-trade,  as  con- 
tradistinguished from  protection,  are  as  follows; 

1.  The  highest  right  of  property  is  the  right  to 
exchange  it  for  other  property ;  and  in  the  absence  of 
all  freedom  of  exchange  between  man  and  man,  each 
individual  would  be  assimilated  to  the  condition  of 
Crusoe  on  his  uninhabited  island.  It  would,  there- 
fore, seem  to  stand  to  reason  that  to  the  degree  in 
Avhich  we  obstruct  the  freedom  of  exchange,  to  that 
same  degree  we  oppose  the  development  of  civilisation. 

2.  Any  system  of  law  which  denies  to  an  individual 
the  right  to  freely  exchange  the  products  of  his 
labour,  by  declaring  that  A  may  trade  with  but 
shall  not  trade  on  equally  favourable  terms  with 
C,  reaffirms  in  effect  the  principle  of  slavery;  for 
both  slavery  and  the  artificial  restriction  or  pro- 
hibition of  exchanges,  deny  to  the  individual  the 
right  to  use  the  products  of  his  labour  according  to 
what  may  seem  to  him  the  best  advantage,  without 
making  in  return  any  direct  compensation.  'I'he  plea 
that  is  put  forth  in  justification  of  such  restiiction, 
that  any  present  loss  resulting  to  the  individual  is 
more  than  compensated  for  by  an  indirect  benefit 
accruing  to  society,  is  the  same  in  character  as  that 
which  has  always  been  advanced  in  justification  of 
slavery,  enforced  conformity  to  established  religions, 
and  in  vindication  of  persecution  for  unbelief. 


FREE  TRADE— FREE-WILL. 


3.  Free-trade,  or  tlie  interchange  of  commodities  and 
services  with  tlie  minimum  of  obstruction,  by  render- 
ing commodities  cheap,  tends  to  promote  abundance. 
Whatever,  on  the  other  liand,  obstructs  exclianges, 
Avhetlier  it  be  in  the  mature  of  a  bad  road,  high 
mountains,  broad  oceans,  or  a  legisbitive  enactment, 
tends  to  increase  the  cost  of  commodities  to  the  con- 
sumers, and  thereby  promotes  scarcity. 

4.  The  only  true  test  of  the  increase  of  national 
wealtli  is  the  possession  of  an  increased  quantity  of 
useful  things  in  the  aggregate,  and  not  the  amount  of 
labour  performed  or  the  number  of  labourers  em- 
ployed irrespective  of  results.  Nothing,  therefore, 
can  be  more  irrational  than  the  supposition  that  in- 
creased cheapness  diminishes  or  restricts  the  opportu- 
nity to  labour.  If  it  were  so,  opposition  to  the  inven- 
tion and  use  of  all  labour-saving  machinery  would  be 
the  part  of  wisdom. 

5.  A  tariff  cannot  create  anything;  it  only  affects 
the  distribution  of  what  already  exists.  Protective 
duties  no  doubt  temporarily  stimulate  certain  indus- 
tries ;  but  it  is  at  the  expense  of  those  who  pay  the 
consequent  increased  prices. 

6.  Product  for  product  is  the  invariable  law  of 
exchange ;  and  we  cannot  buy  a  single  article  in  any 
market  except  with  or  by  a  product  of  our  own,  or 
for  money  which  we  have  obtained  by  the  exchange 
of  some  product.  Nothing,  moreover,  can  or  will  be 
imported  unless  that  in  which  it  is  paid  for  can  be 
produced  at  home  with  greater  final  advantage.  Free- 
trade,  therefore,  can  by  no  possibility  discourage  home 
labour  or  diminish  the  real  wages  of  lal)ourers. 

7.  It  is  often  claimed  that  a  tariff"  on  imports 
'obliges  the  foreigner  to  pay  a  part  of  our  taxes;' 
but  the  claim  involves  an  absurdity.  Taxes  on  im- 
ports are  paid  by  the  persons  who  consume  them,  and 
these  are  not  foreigners,  but  residents  of  the  country 
importing.  Again,  if  there  were  any  device  by  which 
one  nation  could  thus  transfer  in  any  degree  its  bur- 
den of  taxation,  it  would  be  universally  adopted,  at 
least  to  the  extent  of  making  the  transfer  in  all  cases 
reciprocal. 

See  Bastiat's  ^  SoiMms  of  the  Protectio7iists 
^  Does  Protection  Protect  P  Grosvenor;  'Reports  of 
the  U.  S.  Special  Conunissioner  of  Revenue,  1868-69  ;' 
'  The  Parsee  Letters ;'  and  the  various  economic  ti  eat- 
ises  by  Mill,  Mcleod,  Cairnes,  Atkinson,  Amasa 
Walker,  Perry,  &c.  Davtd  A.  Wells. 

(For  a  statement  of  the  principles  antagonistic  to 
Free  Trade,  see  Protection— Protective  Duty  ) 

FREE-WILL.  The  freedom  or  liberty  of  the 
will  is  the  designation  of  a  doctrine  maintained  in 
ojjposition  to  another  doctrine,  expressed  by  the 
term  'necessity.'  The  contest  between  those  two 
views  has  been  maintained  in  the  fields  both  of 
theology  and  of  metaphysics.  The  idea  of  a  man 
being  '  free '  in  his  actions  appears  first  in  the  writ- 
ings of  the  ancient  Stoics.  Afterwards  in  Philo 
Judaeus,  an  Alexandrian  Platonist,  who  flourished  at 
the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era,  there  occurs 
an  inquiiy  i)ropounded,  '  whether  it  be  not  the  case 
that  the  upright  man  is  free,  and  the  vicious  man  a 
slave.'  This  language  was  evidently  meant  to  pay 
a  compliment  to  virtue,  and  to  affix  a  degrading 
Btigma  on  vice,  and  oiight  not  to  have  been  too 
literally  interpreted  ;  for  in  strictness  it  might  have 
been  maintained,  with  even  greater  plausilnlity,  that 
the  vicious  man,  who  defies  all  the  restraints  of 
society,  has  the  greater  libe)-ty  of  the  two.  The 
doctrine  of  freedom,  as  appLed  to  the  human  will, 
Tras  first  contended  for  by  Pelagius  against  Augus- 
tine's doctrines  regarding  the  operation  of  grace; 
and  in  a  later  age  was  the  subject  of  controversy 
between  Arminians  and  Calvinists,  the  Calvinists  | 
{such  as  Jonathan  Edwards)  having  usually  been  | 
Neceaaitarians.  » 


Although  in  this  dispute  there  are  certain  points 
of  real  difference  of  opinion  between  the  opposing 
parties,  yet  the  problem  has  been  unnecessarily 
encumbered  with  the  unsuitable  phrasef)logy  that 
has  accidentally  invested  it.  Ihc  notion  of  'free- 
dom '  is  intelligible  when  we  speak  of  a  free  man 
as  opposed  to  a  Russian  serf,  or  of  a  free  press  as 
opposed  to  censorship ;  but  with  reference  to  human 
actions  generally,  it  has  no  particular  relevancy. 
When  a  man,  urged  by  hunger,  eats  the  food  that  is 
before  him,  we  recognize  two  separate  facts,  the  one 
leading  to  the  other  :  the  first  is  a  painful  feeling  oi 
sensation,  the  other  a  series  of  movements  by  which 
food  is  conveyed  to  the  system  ;  the  one  fact  we  call 
the  motive,  the  other  the  action,  of  the  will  follow- 
ing on  the  motive  ;  but  there  is  no  projjjriety  in 
describing  this  sequence  as  either  free  or  not  free. 
We  may  inquire  into  the  greater  or  less  certainty 
of  the  sequence — namely,  whether  a  hungry  m.an  does 
alw^ays,  as  a  matter  of  course,  avail  himself  of  the 
food  presented  to  him,  or  whether  one  may  be  very 
hungry  with  the  option  of  eating,  and  with  no  other 
motive  operating  to  deter  from  the  act,  and  yet  not 
eat,  thus  shewing  an  absence  of  uniform  connection 
between  pain  and  the  movements  for  alleviating  it  ; 
this  would  be  a  real  question,  and  woiJd  throw  light 
on  the  actual  constitution  of  the  human  w^ill ;  the 
qiiestion  of  liberty  and  necessity  does  not  present  ua 
so  much  with  an  intelligible  question  as  with  an 
artificial  difficidty  made  by  inapplicable  phraseology. 
It  woiild  have  been  much  the  same  to  have  disputed 
whether  or  not  the  will  is  rich,  or  noble,  or  royaL 
merely  because  the  virtuous  and  right-minded  man 
has  sometimes  been  commended  by  those  epithet'j 
being  applied  to  him.  The  word  '  necessity,'  also,  n 
ill  chosen,  in  consequence  of  its  great  ambiguity; 
being  applied  sometimes  to  logical  and  mathe- 
matical implication,  as  when  w^e  say  the  whole  is 
greater  than  its  part ;  sometimes  to  the  rigorous 
uniformity  of  physical  laws,  such  as  gravitation ;  and 
at  other  times  to  what  is  merely  a  high  probability, 
as  when  w^e  expect  that  a  man  of  honourable  and 
upright  character  will  speak  the  truth  on  some 
given  occasion.    See  Necessity. 

If  we  cast  aside  these  confusing  phrases,  and 
inquire  what  is  the  real  matter  of  dispute,  we  sha.'Il 
find  that  there  are  intelligible  differences  of  opinion 
in  reference  to  the  sequences  of  human  volition.  It 
may  be  maintained  that  our  actions  have  the  feame 
uniformity  as  the  successions  of  the  ph^'sical  world ; 
and  this  view  w^ould  be  supported  by  a  very  wide 
induction  of  experience.  It  will  be  found  that  the 
whole  of  the  complicated  operations  of  society 
depend  upon  the  certainty  that  men,  in  the  same 
circumstances  and  under  the  same  motives,  will  act 
in  the  same  way.  We  allow  for  differences  of  indi- 
vidual character;  but  when  once  we  have  seen  what 
any  man  is  disposed  to  do  in  one  instance,  we  take 
for  gi-anted  that  he  wiU  be  similarly  actuated  when 
the  identical  circumstances  are  repeated.  The  whole 
of  our  trading  operations  are  founded  on  the  maxim 
that  human  beings  prefer  a  greater  to  a  smaller  gain ; 
and  it  has  never  been  found  that  any  portion  of  our 
race  has  taken  a  wa>-Avard  fit,  and  contradicted  itself 
on  this  point.  We  are  prejmred  for  exceptions  to 
the  rule,  when  other  strong  motives  aie  present,  but 
these  are  merely  the  intervention  of  a  new  force, 
not  the  suspension  of  the  law  that  connects  the  other 
motive  with  its  usual  consequent.  Nor  is  there 
anything  degrading  to  human  nature  in  this  mii- 
formity;  while  the  opposite  state  of  things  would 
undermine  all  the  securities  of  human  life,  and 
land  us  in  a  moral  chaos.  If  human  beings,  who 
habitually  dread  pains  and  penalties,  were  sud- 
denly, for  no  ulterior  reason,  to  court  hunger  and 
cold,  imprisonment  and  disgrace,  it  is  obvious  that 


FREE-WILL. 


there  would  be  a  speedy  termination  of  man's  career 
on  the  globe. 

Still,  the  position  thus  contended  for  may  be,  and 
has  been,  called  in  question ;  or,  at  least  certain 
exceptions  to  its  universality  may  be  put  forward. 
We  are  able  to  comprehend  the  meaning  of  this 
jounter-doctrine,  even  although  we  may  find  a 
lifficulty  in  acceding  to  it.  For  example,  Socrates 
Irew  a  distinction  between  human  and  divine  know- 
.edge,  intending  by  the  one  the  departments  of  nature 
where  strict  law  prevailed,  and  where  by  assiduous 
observation  men  might  attain  to  certainty ;  such 
was  the  knowledge  of  the  operative  respecting  his 
special  craft,  in  which  it  was  a})surd  to  seek  for  any 
other  source  of  insight  than  his  own  and  other  men's 
experience.  But  this  did  not  include  all  knowledge. 
There  was  a  department,  the  divine,  reserved  by  the 
gods  for  their  own  special  administration,  and  M'^here 
they  did  not  bind  themselves  to  observe  uniformity 
of  dealing.  This  region  included,  according  to 
Socrates,  such  great  operations  of  the  physical  world, 
as  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  the  pheno- 
mena of  weather  and  season.  To  be  enlightened  on 
these,  it  was  necessary  to  consult  the  gods  by  oracle 
and  sacrifice.  Now,  applying  this  view  to  the  case 
of  the  human  will,  it  might  be  maintained  that,  in 
the  greater  number  of  instances,  and  in  all  matters 
of  primary  importance,  such  as  self-preservation,  the 
uniformity  of  human  actions  must  be  admitted  ;  but 
Btill  there  may  be  some  deep,  subtle,  and  refined 
operations,  where  the  same  motives  sometimes  lead 
one  way,  sometimes  another,  the  whole  sitiiation 
being  in  every  other  respect  identical.  But  it  lies 
with  the  supporters  of  this  view  to  substantiate 
their  exceptional  cases  in  the  midst  of  so  much 
evident  uniformity.  As  yet,  nothing  of  the  kind 
has  ever  been  proved,  and  our  only  safe  ground, 
philosophically,  is  what  is  our  safe  ground  ]n'acti- 
cally— namely,  to  abide  by  the  doctrine  of  law  in 
all  human  actions,  on  which  we  have  not  the  I 
emallest  scruple  as  respects  the  preponderating 
mass  of  them. 

The  partisans  of  liberty,  who  take  up  the  ground 
of  oi)position  to  uniform  law  as  now  expounded, 
not  unfrequently  express  themselves  to  the  follow- 
ing effect.  Granting  that  the  emotions  of  the 
mind  have  a  uniform  efficacy  as  motives,  and  that 
he  that  has  a  musical  taste  will  be  found  on  all 
occasions  acting  in  conformity  with  it,  still  the 
emotions  are  not  the  whole  of  the  mind.  We 
have,  in  our  mental  composition,  Feelings,  and 
Intelligence,  and  Acti\aty  ;  but  these  do  not  make 
up  our  entire  being.  There  is  a  something  that  all 
these  inhere  in,  a  substratum  or  support,  which  we 
call  our  '  self,'  the  '  ego,'  or  '  I,'  and  this  abstract 
self  is  exempt  from  the  conditions  that  attach  to 
these  attributes  of  self.  This  ultimate  personality  of 
every  human  being  is  free  and  independent,  being 
exempt  from  the  laws  whereby  our  several  feelings 
operate  as  motives  to  our  ordinary  actions.  A  self- 
determining  power  is  supposed  to  reside  here,  even 
if  excluded  from  the  other  mental  adjuncts.  It  is 
considered  un  philosophical  and  incorrect  to  resolve 
tlis  whole  of  mind  into  feelings,  actions,  and  intellect ; 
these  are  mere  attributes  of  an  inexplicable  some- 
thing which  each  one  is  conscious  of,  and  recognises 
as  the  essence  or  centre  of  the  mental  being,  while 
they  are  merely  properties  or  attributes.  Granting 
the  existence  of  this  inner  self,  there  is  said  to  be 
sufficient  scope  for  a  properly  free  agency,  without 
going  the  length  of  supposing  that  men  are  to  con- 
tradict themselves  in  the  everyday  conduct  of  life. 

Such  a  mode  of  stating  the  doctrine  of  liberty, 
however,  is  liable  to  the  charge  of  logical  confusion, 
not  to  speak  of  the  difficulty  of  establishing  the 
existence  of  tho  sntity  in  question.    If  we  were  to 
503 


inquire  into  what  constitutes  the  essence  of  mind, 
the  thing  which  being  present  constitutes  mind, 
and  whose  absence  is  the  negation  of  mind,  we 
might  perhaps  not  be  able  to  come  to  a  conclusion 
that  all  philosophers  would  acquiesce  in.  It  if 
always  reckoned  a  very  abstract  and  metaphysical 
discussion  to  settle  the  essence  of  things ;  even 
as  regards  matter,  this  is  not  an  easy  question. 
But  if  '  essence '  is  to  mean  something,  and  not 
absolutely  nothing,  it  must  point  to  some  power, 
property,  or  quality,  capable  of  being  named  and 
signalised.  Thus,  we  might  say  the  essence  of 
material  bodies  is  the  quality  variously  named,  as 
resistance,  momentum,  inertia;  all  which  in: ply 
that  one  body  is  at  once  an  obstruction  to  other 
moving  bodies,  and  a  moving  power  when  once 
in  motion  ;  but  if  any  one  insists  that  this  is  but 
one  of  the  attribiites  of  matter,  in  common  with 
weight,  extension,  colour,  &c.,  and  that  there  must 
be  something  still  deeper,  in  which  all  the  various 
qualities  inhere,  we  can  only  answer  that  we  know 
of  no  such  essence  or  substratum,  and  are  incapa.ble 
of  conceiving  any  such.  We  may  fix  upon  the  most 
fundamental,  the  most  universal,  and  inerasable 
quality  of  a  thing,  such  as  this  property  of  resistance 
as  regards  material  bodies,  and  term  that  the  essence ; 
while  any  other  attempt  at  discovering  an  essence 
would  only  end  in  setting  up  fictions.  So  in  the 
case  of  mind.  If  we  are  called  on  to  specify  any  one 
aspect  of  oiir  mental  constitution  more  universal  and 
fundamental  than  the  rest,  with  a  view  to  setting 
forth  the  essence  of  mind,  we  should  be  obliged  to 
select  VOLITION,  or  action  governed  by  feeling,  as  the 
main  or  central  fact.  Wherever  we  can  prove  the 
existence  of  feeling,  and  of  an  activity  controlled  by 
that — as  when  an  animal  uses  its  organs  to  preserve 
its  own  life,  to  cater  for  pleasures,  and  ward  off 
pains — we  should  have  to  admit  the  reality  of  mind, 
although,  perhaps,  the  intelligence  were  of  the  lowest 
kind.  Any  being  not  possessing  both  sensibility 
and  the  power  of  acting  in  accordance  with  it,  could 
not  1)0  said  to  possess  a  true  mental  nature.  We 
should  not  trouble  ourselves  with  considering  the 
possible  existence  of  a  mystical '  ego,'  but  should  at 
once  declare  that  such  a  bein^  did  not  come  up  to 
the  standard  or  definition  of  mind.  Will,  or  volition^ 
as  thus  explained — namely,  the  direction  of  the  active 
organs  of  a  living  creature  to  chime  in  with  its 
various  feelings — is  itself  the  essence  or  substratum 
of  mind,  as  resistance  is  the  essence  of  matter. 
Wherefore,  to  speak  of  feelings  and  actions  as 
something  apart  from  the  '  ego,'  but  inhering  in  it, 
is  merely  to  count  the  same  fact  twice  over,  or  to 
call  a  thing  the  attribute  of  itself.  Volition  is  mind, 
and  not  an  attribute  of  mind ;  and  when  we  have 
specified  the  power  of  voluntary,  or  feeling-guided 
action,  and  a  certain  amount  of  intelligence,  varying 
greatly  in  individuals,  we  have  specified  everything 
that  can  belong  to  any  individual  man  or  animal ; 
an  *  ego '  beyond  this  is  something  inexjilicable 
and  fictitious.  It  cannot,  therefore,  be  admitted 
that  any  foimdation  is  given  to  a  supposed  '  free 
agency,'  by  referring  to  this  occult  and  imaginary 
essence,  any  more  than  it  woidd  be  competent  to 
claim  exceptions  to  the  great  physical  laws  that 
govern  material  boiies,  by  assuming  an  occult 
essence  of  matter  with  powers  and  properties  ct 
variance  with  its  inertia,  weight,  extension,  and 
other  known  qualities. 

In  one  respect,  the  mind  is  differently  situated  from 
the  material  world  in  all  that  regards  the  power  of 
tracing  strict  uniformity,  and  predicting  the  future 
from  the  past.  Each  one  of  us  has  direct  access  to 
our  own  feelings,  but  only  an  indirect  and  imperfect 
access  to  the  feelings  of  another  person.  Exce])ting 
self,  we  can  never  know  the  whole  of  what  any  oue 


FREEZING  AND  FUSING  POINTS— FREIBUKG. 


feels  ;  our  best  observations  and  reasonings  are  but 
approximations  to  the  truth,  and  predictions  founded 
on  them  are  liable  to  be  falsiiied  through  unseen 
forces  in  the  arcana  of  another  man's  individuality. 
Admitting  the  uniformity  of  seq\ience  of  motive  and 
act,  we  are  never  able  to  exhaust  the  motives  of  any 
single  mind,  beyond  our  own  ;  and  thus  each  one 
may  be  said  to  move  in  a  certain  inner  circle  of  the 
impenetrable  and  impredictable,  v/liile  the  large 
mass  of  the  everyday  actions  of  all  human  beings 
follows  an  almost  undeviating  regidarity.  This  is 
a  very  important  distinction  between  mind  and 
matter,  although  not  invalidating  the  great  general 
fact  of  uniform  law,  as  attaching  to  the  one  no  less 
than  to  the  other.  For  a  sketch  of  the  history  of 
this  great  controversy,  see  Dugald  Stewart's  Active 
Powers. 

FREEZING  AND  FUSING  POINTS,  ^ee 

Fusing  PoiNTb. 

FREEZING  MIXTURES,  and  other  Means 
OF  CooLTNG.  When  matter  passes  from  the  solid  into 
the  liquid  state,  heat  in  large  quantity  disappears, 
and  ceases  to  affect  the  thermometer.  See  Heat. 
The  chemist  avails  himself  of  the  fact  that  heat 
disappears  during  liquefaction,  for  the  purpose  of 
procuring  artificial  cold.  When  a  piece  of  ice  having 
a  temperature  of  32°  F.  is  placed  in  its  own  weight 
of  water  at  174°,  we  find,  on  testing  the  water  with 
the  thermometer  after  the  ice  has  melted,  that 
its  temperature  is  32  ;  the  heat  which  the  water 
contained  having  disappeared  during  the  melting  of 
the  ice.  As  water  in  passing  from  the  solid  to  the 
fluid  state  possesses  the  property  of  rendering  latent 
a  greater  amount  of  heat  than  any  other  substance, 
it  is,  when  in  a  solid  form,  as  ice  or  snow,  or  when 
combined  with  salts,  as  water  of  crystallisation, 
a  powerful  agent  in  jjroducing  artificial  cold. 

The  substance  employed  in  freezing  mixtures 
should  be  finely  powdered,  rapidly  mixed,  and  placed 
in  vessels  with  little  conducting  power.  The  fol- 
lowing are  a  few  of  the  important  formula  for  these 
mixtures  :  1.  A  mixture  of  2  parts  of  pounded  ice 
or  of  fresh  snow  and  1  part  of  common  salt,  causes 
the  thermometer  to  fall  to  —  4°.  2.  A  mixture  of  5 
parts  of  commercial  hydrochloric  acid  and  8  parts 
of  powdered  crystallised  sulphate  of  soda,  causes 
a  reduction  of  temperature  from  50°  to  0°.  3.  Equal 
parts  of  water,  of  powdered  crystallised  nitrate  of 
ammonia,  and  of  powdered  crystallised  carbonate  of 
soda,  produce  a  cold  of  —  7°.  4.  A  mixture  of  3  parts 
of  crystallised  chloride  of  calcium,  previously  cooled 
to  32°,  and  2  parts  of  snow,  produces  a  cold  of  —  50 
which  is  sufficient  to  freeze  mercury.  5.  By  dis- 
solving solid  carbonic  acid,  or  solid  nitrous  oxide 
gas,  in  sulphuric  ether,  temperatures  of  from  —  120° 
to  —  146  may  be  obtained,  at  which  alcohol  passes  to 
the  consistency  of  oil,  and  finally  to  that  of  melted 
wax.  This  is  the  most  powerful  freezing  mixture 
that  is  known. 

The  freezing  mixtures  used  by  confectioners  and 
those  that  are  most  convenient  for  ordinary  experi- 
mental purposes,  are  the  first  and  second  of  the 
•hove  list. 

When  matter  passes  from  the  liquid  to  the  aeriform 
state,  heat  also  disappears,  and  the  knowledge  of 
this  fact  has  been  applied  to  the  cooling  of  liquids, 
and  to  the  actual  i>roduction  of  ice.  If  a  glass 
bottle  containing  water  be  covered  with  a  cloth, 
which  is  kei)t  constantly  wet  by  the  application  of 
water,  the  evaporation  from  the  wet  cloth  will  soon 
diminish  the  temperature  of  the  contents  of  the 
bottle,  and  if  the  cloth  were  moistened  with  alcohol 
or  with  ether,  the  cold  would  be  proportionally 
greater,  the  degree  of  cold  varying  with  the  rapidity 
and  extent  of  the  evaporation.    Wine-coolers,  or 


water- coolers,  made  of  porous  earthenware,  act  a 
the  same  manner  as  the*cloth.  They  are  soaked  in. 
and  saturated  by  water,  which  by  its  evay)oration 
occasions  cold.  Coolers  of  this  kind  are  common  in 
most  hot  countries.  On  the  ancient  monuments  of 
Egypt,  a  man  is  sometimes  represented  as  fanning 
tliese  vessels  with  n  palin-leaf,  to  promote  eviiijoru- 
tion,  and  tlie  Arabs  still  ])ractise  this  custom.  See 
Refrigerating  Machines,  in  Supp.,  Vol.  X. 

In  some  parts  of  India,  where  the  dryness  of  the 
air  allows  a  considerable  evaporation  to  take  place, 
ice  is  obtained  in  the  following  manner  :  '  Flat, 
shallow  excavations,  from  one  to  two  feet  deep,  are 
loosely  lined  with  rice-straw,  or  some  similar  ba<J 
conductor  of  heat,  and  upon  the  surface  of  this 
layer  are  placed  shallow  pans  of  porous  earthenware, 
filled  with  water  to  the  depth  of  one  or  two  incheso 
Radiation  (see  Heat)  rapidly  reduces  the  tempera- 
ture below  the  freezing-point,  and  ice  is  formed  in 
thin  crusts,  which  are  removed  as  fast  as  they  are 
produced,  and  stowed  away  in  suitable  ice-houses.' — 
Miller  s  Elements  of  Chemistry,  2d  ed.,  vol.  i.  p.  220. 

FREEZING-POINT.    See  Thermometer, 

FREI'BERG,  an  ancient  city  of  Germany,  the 
centre  of  administration  for  the  Saxon  mines,  ia 
situated  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  Erzgebirge 
mountains,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Munzbach,  not  far 
from  its  confluence  with  the  Mulde,  20  miles  south- 
west of  Dresden.  It  owes  its  origin  to  its  silve-r- 
mines,  discovered  about  the  year  1190.  It  is  still 
surrounded  by  old  walls  and  towers,  and  contains 
many  interesting  buildings  and  institutions,  of  which 
the  principal  are  the  town-house,  dating  from  1410, 
and  the  cathedral  (1484 — 1512),  two  stately  Gothic 
edifices,  and  the  Berg- Academic,  or  School  of  Mines, 
founded  in  17G5,  the  most  famous  institution  of  the 
kind  in  Eui'ope.  At  the  Berg- Academic,  instruction 
is  given  by  professors  in  survejdng,  mining,  the 
preparation  of  ores,  geology,  mineralogy,  &c.  It 
possesses  lecture-rooms,  a  library,  and  mineralogical 
and  geological  collections  ;  and  has  attachsd  to  it 
three  separate  laboratories,  and  an  office  for  the 
sale  of  minerals.  Humboldt,  Werner,  Jameson  ot 
Edinburgh,  and  many  other  eminent  geologists  and 
mineralogists,  studied  at  this  institution.  There 
are,  it  is  said,  about  150  mines  of  silver,  copper,  lead, 
and  cobalt  around  Freiberg.  The  manufactures 
consist  principally  of  articles  in  imitation  of  gold 
and  silver  ware,  of  white-lead,  gunpowder,  iron  and 
copper  wares,  &c.  In  the  17th  c,  it  was  a  place  of 
great  wealth,  and  had  a  pop.  of  40,000.  The 
mines,  however,  have  of  late  greatly  fallen  off,  owing 
either  to  the  richest  veins  being  exhausted,  or  to 
the  shafts  being  driven  so  deep  that  the  water  cannot 
be  drained  from  them.    Pop.  (1871)  21,673. 

FREIBURG,  or  FRIBOURG,  a  canton  of 
Switzerland,  bounded  on  the  N.  and  E.  by  Bern,  and 
on  the  S.  and  W.  by  Vaud  and  the  Lake  of 
Neuch&,tel.  It  has  a  superficies  of  623  square  miles, 
and,  according  to  tbe  census  of  1870,  a  population 
amounting  to  110,832,  of  whom  about  95,000  wera 
Catholics.  More  than  two-thirds  of  the  inhabitants 
are  French ;  the  remainder  are  Germans.  The 
official  language  is  French,  but  all  the  laws  and 
decrees  binding  on  the  whole  canton  are  published 
both  in  French  and  German.  The  surface  of  the 
country  is  hiUy,  the  mountains  in  the  south  of 
the  canton  forming  a  continuation  of  the  Bernese 
Alps,  and  rising  in  the  highest  points  upwards  of 
7000  feet  high.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Saane 
or  Sarine — which  traverses  almost  the  whole  extent 
of  the  canton  from  its  southern  to  its  northern 
extremity — and  the  Broye.  The  coimtry  abounds 
in  excellent  meadows  and  rich  pastiires,  upon  which 
are  reared  the  strongest  horses  and  the  best  breed 

509 


FREIBURG— FREILIGRATH. 


of  cai  tie  in  the  whole  of  Switzerland ;  indeed,  the 
great  part  of  the  Awalth  o'f  the  canton  consists  in 
cows,  sheop,  goats,  and  horses,  of  which  in  pro- 
portion to  its  area  there  are  great  numbers.  Dairy 
husbandry,  and  especially  cheese-making,  is  pursued 
with  great  success  ;  40,000  cwt.  of  cheese  are  said 
to  be  made  yearly.  There  are  considerable  manu- 
factures of  straw-plat,  leather,  cherry  hrandy,  and 
tobacco.  F.  was  received  as  a  member  of  the 
S^viss  confederation  in  1481,  and  in  1848  a  liberal 
constitution  was  established.  Five  members  are 
sent  from  this  canton  to  the  national  council. 

FREIBURG,  or  FRIBOURG,  a  town  of  Switzer- 
land, capital  of  the  canton  of  the  same  name,  is 
situated  on  both  banks  of  the  Sarine,  but  chiefly  on 
a  hilly  ])romoutory  formed  by  one  of  its  windings, 
about  18  miles  south-west  of  Bern.  Seen  from 
some  distance,  the  town  has  a  highly  imposing  and 
pictm-esque  appearance.  Houses  climb  to  the  top, 
and  extend  to  the  very  edge  of  the  precipice  that 
overhangs  the  river,  and  in  another  portion  of  the 
town  they  form  terraces,  the  roofs  of  one  tier 
being  on  a  level  with  the  pavement  of  another  ; 
while  the  whole  is  surroxmded  by  a  long  rising  and 
falling  line  of  embattled  walls,  with  watch-towers 
and  gateways  of  ancient  fortifications  Avhich  still 
exist  in  a  perfect  state.  The  banks  of  the  Sarine 
are  united  by  four  bridges,  one  of  them  a  suspen- 
sion-bridge, 90G  feet  long,  28  feet  wide,  and  175  feet 
above  the  stream,  the  longest  bridge  of  a  single 
span  in  the  world — about  300  feet  longer  than  the 
Menai  Bridge.  Another  suspension-bridge  spans  the 
gorge  of  Gotteron,  and  is  about  700  feet  long,  and 
284  feet  above  the  valley  beneath.  The  church  of 
St  Nicholas,  a  fine  Gothic  structure,  has  an  organ 
built  by  a  native  of  F.,  which  has  7800  pipes,  one 
of  them  32  feet  long,  and  is  considered  the  finest 
toned  instrument  in  Europe.  This  church  has 
also  the  highest  spire  and  finest  set  of  bells  in 
Switzerland.  The  other  principal  buildings  are 
the  Cantonal  School  (previous  to  1848  the  Jesuits' 
College),  the  most  conspicuous  building  of  the  town  ; 
and  the  Lyceum.  The  inhabitants  of  the  upper 
portion  of  the  town  speak  French  ;  in  the  lower 
portion,  German  is  spoken.  F.  has  few  manu- 
factures ;  the  chief  are  woollens,  hardware,  leather, 
pottery,  and  tobacco.  Pop.  10,454,  of  which  only  500 
are  Protestants. 

FREIBURG,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  grand 
duchy  of  Baden,  capital  of  the  circle  of  the  tjf)per 
Rhine,  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop,  and  is  situated 
on  the  Dreisam,  on  the  western  border  of  the  Black 
Forest,  42  miles  south-south- east  from  Strasburg. 
It  is  an  open,  well-built  towTi;  the  walls  and 
ditches  with  which  it  was  formerly  surrounded, 
have  been  converted  into  promenades  and  vineyards. 
The  Minster  or  Cathedral  of  F.  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  perfect  specimens  of  Gothic  architec- 
ture in  Germany.  It  is  cruciform,  and  built  of  red 
sandstone,  was  begun  in  1122,  and  not  thoroughly 
completed  tiU  1513.  It  has  a  tower  367  feet  high, 
remarkable  for  its  elegance  and  lightness.  In  one 
of  its  chapels,  the  University  Chapel,  there  are, 
among  other  pictures,  a  Nativity  and  an  Adoration 
by  Holbein,  the  latter  considered  one  of  his  most 
successful  pictures.  The  university  of  F.  w^as 
founded  in  145G  ;  it  is  the  Roman  Catholic  seminary 
of  the  duchy  of  Baden.  The  Exchange  [Kaufhaus] 
is  a  quaint  Gothic  structure  of  the  16th  century. 
The  chief  manufactui-es  are  chicory,  tobacco,  paper, 
potnsh,  &c.  Pop.  (1871)  24,600,  of  whom  about  2500 
are  Protestants. 

FREIGHT  (a  word  having  the  same  origin  as 
fare  '),  the  hire  of  a  ship,  or  part  of  a  ship,  for  the 
transport  oi  merchandise  ;  also  the  merchandise  so 

610 


transported.  The  agreement  for  th^  servi  je  u 
termed  a  Charter-party  (q.  v.). 

If  a  merchant  freight  a  whole  ship,  but  neglect  to 
fill  it,  the  captain  is  not  at  liberty  to  complete  the 
cargo  from  other  soiu-ces,  without  accounting  to  the 
merchant  for  any  moneys  received  for  such  addi- 
tional load.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  merchant 
covenant  to  freight  a  certain  portion  of  a  ship,  he  is 
bound  to  pay  the  sum  agreed  on  for  that  portion, 
notwithstanding  that  his  goods  may  fail  to  c-ccupy 
so  much  space.  If,  in  the  charter-party,  a  day  be 
appointed  for  sailing,  and  either  the  merchjint  fail 
to  have  his  goods  ready  for  embarkation  by  the  time 
fixed,  or  the  vessel  be  unprepared  to  start — wind 
and  weather  permitting— the  agre^^ment  may  be 
declared  void  by  the  aggrieved  party,  who  can  also 
recover  at  law  for  any  detriment  caused  to  his 
property  in  consequence  of  the  delay.  The  use  of 
charter-parties  has  been  traced  back  as  far  as  the 
reign  of  Henry  III. 

This  contract,  which  in  England,  and  generally  in 
the  commercial  language  of  this  country,  is  called 
freight,  is  more  commonly  spoken  of  by  the  legal 
writers  of  Scotland  as  AfFrightment,  from  the  French 
ajpretement  (Bell's  Com.  i.  p.  414),  but  there  is  no 
essential  difference  in  the  laws  of  the  two  coiintries 
with  regard  to  it.  Throughout  the  whole  commercial 
world,  indeed,  in  so  far  as  its  provisions  are  not 
made  the  subjects  of  positive  stipulation  either  })y 
Charter-party  or  Bill  of  Lading  (q.  v.),  they  will  be 
held  to  be  in  accordance  with  the  usage  of  trade, 
and  of  that  particular  branch  of  trade  to  which  the 
hiring  has  reference. 

It  was  formerly  held  that  the  payment  of  the 
wages  of  the  crew  was  contingent  on  the  earning  of 
freight  by  the  ship,  in  accordance  with  the  ma:dm 
of  Lord  Stowell,  that  '  freight  is  the  mother  of 
wages.'  But  this  rule,  which  was  already  subject  to 
many  exceptions,  has  been  abrogated  by  the  Merchant 
Shipping  Act  (17  and  18  Vict.  c.  104),  and  wages  may 
now  be  recovered  either  by  seamen  or  apprentices, 
even  though  no  freight  has  been  earned  by  the  vessel 
The  seaman  has  a  right  to  cling  to  the  last  plank 
in  satisfaction  of  his  wages  ;  but  in  cases  of  ship- 
wreck, his  claim  for  wages  will  be  barred  if  it  be 
proved  that  he  did  not  exert  himself  to  the  utmost 
to  save  the  ship,  cargo,  and  stores.  This  provision 
was  first  introduced  by  7  and  8  Vict.  c.  112.  s.  17, 
which  enacted  that,  in  order  to  enable  him  to  recover 
his  wages,  the  seaman  should  be  bound  to  produce 
a  certificate  from  the  master,  or  chief  surviving 
officer  of  the  ship,  to  the  effect  that  he  had  so  exerted 
himself.  By  s.  183  of  17  and  18  Vict.  c.  104,  the 
onus  of  proof  is  very  properly  laid  on  those  who 
impugn  the  conduct  of  the  seaman.  The  old  rule  is 
still  adhered  to  in  America,  but  it  is  not  applied  to 
the  master,  and  it  does  not  hold  with  reference  to 
seamen,  if  the  freight  has  been  lost  by  the  fault 
either  of  the  master  or  owner ;  e.  g.,  if  the  ship  has 
been  seized  for  debt,  or  for  having  contraband  goods 
on  board-    See  Kent's  Com.  iii.  pp.  266,  267 

FREI'LIGRATH,  Ferdinand,  a  brilliant  lyric 
poet  of  Germany,  w\as  born  at  Detmold,  in  the  prin- 
cipality of  Lippe,  17th  June  1810.  He  attended 
the  high  school  in  his  native  town  till  the  year  1825, 
when  he  entered  a  merchant's  office,  first  at  Soest, 
and  afterwards  at  Amsterdam.  Encouraged  by  the 
favourable  reception  of  his  poems,  he  abandoned 
mercantile  pursuits,  married,  and  removed  to  Darm- 
stadt. In  1842,  a  pension  was  bestowed  upon  him 
by  the  king  of  Prussia,  whereupon  he  removed  to 
St  Goar,  on  the  Rhine.  This  circumstance,  and  his 
poem  Aus  Spanien,  deprived  him  of  the  sympathy 
of  the  liberal  party,  which,  however,  was  restored  to 
him  twofold  when,  in  1 844,  he  gave  up  his  pension, 
and  in  his  political  poems  attached  himself  to  the 


FEEISCHOtZ— FEEMONT. 


democratic  party.  The  publication  of  his  Glauhena- 
hekenntniss  (Coufession  of  Faith),  iu  the  same  year, 
compelled  him  to  take  refuge  abroad.  He  went  to 
Belgium,  S\\'itzerland,  and  in  1846,  to  London,  where 
he  resumed  his  mercantile  pursuits,  and  Ijecame 
correspondent  for  the  banking-house  of  Huth  &  Co. 
He  was  about  to  accept  an  invitation  to  America, 
sent  him  by  Longfellow,  when  the  events  of  1848 
recalled  him  to  his  native  country.  F.  settled  in 
Diisseldorf,  where  he  became  the  most  important 
member  of  the  democratic  party,  and  sang  the 
praises  of  democratic  socialism.  He  was  impeached 
on  accoimt  of  his  poem  Die  Todten  an  die  Lehenden 
(The  Dead  to  the  Living).  The  interest  felt  in  this 
trial  was  extraordinary.  F.  was  defended  by  cele- 
brated advocates,  who  did  not  fail  to  ridicule  the 
folly  shewn  in  prosecuting  a  man  for  writing  poetry. 
The  doctrine  that  the  poet  is  a  '  chartered  libertine ' 
in  the  expression  of  his  sentiments,  carried  the  day, 
and  F.  was  acquitted,  3d  October  1848.  The  con- 
sequence was  inevitable.  His  poem  immediately 
became  the  rage;  the  first  edition  was  sold  off  in 
Diisseldorf  within  a  few  hours,  and  thousands  of 
correct  and  incorrect  impressions  were  circulated 
over  all  Germany.  A  second  prosecution  induced 
F.  again  to  withdraw  from  his  native  country,  and 
from  1849  to  1868  he  resided  in  London.  F.'s  prin- 
cipal productions  are  his  Oedichte  (Stiittg.  1838; 
18th  edit.  1857) ;  Ca  Ira  (Herisau,  1846)  ;  Die  Revo- 
lution (Leip.  1848) ;  and  Neuere  politische  nnd  sociale 
Gedidite  (Col.  1849).  A  complete  edition  of  his  works 
iipoeared  in  New  York  {Sdmmiliche  Werke^  6  vols. 
1858 — 1859).  F.'s  poems  display  lively  imagination, 
fire  and  melody  of  rhythm,  a  ri(;hness  of  execution, 
and  a  picturesque  originality  of  style,  which  not  sel- 
dom, however,  passes  into  eccentricity  and  merely 
'spasmodic'  force  of  expression.  His  translations 
are  admirable,  especially  of  the  poems  of  Victor 
Hugo,  Burns,  and  Longfellow's  Hiaioatha.  He  died 
at  Stuttgardt,  March  18,  1876. 

FREI'SCHUTZ,  the  free-shooter,  is  the  name 
given  in  the  legend  to  a  hunter  or  marksman  who, 
by  entering  into  a  compact  with  the  devil,  procures 
balls,  six  of  which  infallibly  hit,  however  great  the 
distance,-  while  the  seventh,  or,  according  to  some 
versions,  one  of  the  seven,  ^belongs  to  the  devil,  who 
directs  it  at  his  pleasure.  Legends  of  this  nature 
were  rife  among  the  troopers  of  Germany  of  the 
i4th  and  15th  centuries,  and  during  the  Thirty 
Years'  War.  The  story  first  appeared  in  a  poetic 
form  in  1810  in  Apel's  Gespeyisterhuch  (Ghost-book, 
Leip.  1810—1815),  and  F.  Kind  adapted  the  story 
(Leip.  1843)  to  the  opera  composed  by  Weber  in 
1821,  which  has  made  it  known  in  aU  civilised 
countries. 

FREI'SING,  a  town  of  Bavaria,  is  situated  in  a 
fruitful,  agreeable  district  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Isar,  20  miles  north-east  of  Mimich.  The  town 
was  the  seat  of  an  episcopal  prince  till  1802,  when 
the  see  was  secularised.  The  bishopric  of  F.  dated 
as  far  back  as  724  A.  d.,  but  its  bishops  were  first 
made  princes  by  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  (1619 — 
1637).  The  chief  buildings  are  the  palace  formerly 
of  the  bishop,  and  a  beautiful  cathedral,  dating  from 
the  12th  c,  having  three  naves,  two  towers,  and  a 
eingular  cryj)t,  the  pillars  of  Avhich  have  monsters 
crav/ling  up  their  shafts.  Pop.  8000,  who  carry  on 
brewing  and  distilling,  and  manufacture  vinegar, 
tobacco,  saltpetre,  &c. 

FREJUS  (anc.  Forvm  Jvlii),  a  small  to^vn  of 
France,  in  the  department  cf  Yar,  is  situated  a  mile 
inland  from  the  embouchure  of  the  Argens  (anc. 
Arf/enteus)  into  the  Mediterianean  Sea,  and  15 
miles  south-east  of  Draguignan.  It  was  originally  a 
colony  from  Mai  seiUe,  and  was  afterwai'ds  colonised 


anew  by  Julius  Caesar,  and  called  Forum  Julil  It 
has  remains  of  anc'ent  Roman  walls,  and  of  a 
Roman  circus  and  viaduct.  The  ancient  harbour, 
at  one  time  the  most  important  Gallic  port,  and  in 
which  Augustus  posted  the  fleet  of  300  galleys  which 
had  been  captured  from  Antony  at  Actium,  haa 
become  silted  up.  Here,  or  rather  at  the  new 
harbour  of  8t  Raphael,  1^  miles  off,  Napoleon  landed 
on  his  return  from  Egypt  in  1709,  and  embarked 
for  Elba  in  1814.    Pop.  (1872)  2705. 

FREMONT,  John  Charles,  a  diytinguisbed 
explorer,  born  at  Savannah,  in  Georgia,  January  21, 
1813.  His  father  was  a  Frenchman,  his  mother  a 
native  of  Virginia.  At  the  age  of  15,  he  entered  the 
junior  class  of  Charleston  College,  South  CaroHna; 
but  he  left  that  institution  without  taking  a  degree. 
From  1830  to  1833,  his  time  was  chiefly  employed 
in  teaching  in  Chai-leston.  In  1833,  he  was  appomted 
teacher  of  mathematics  on  board  of  the  United 
States  sloop-of-war  Natchez,  in  which  he  made  a 
cruise  of  more  than  two  years.  After  his  return,  he 
became  assistant- engineer  under  Captain  Williams, 
then  engaged  in  a  preliminary  survey  for  a  railway 
between  Charleston  and  Cincinnati.  In  the  spring 
of  1838,  he  accomj)anied  M.  Nicollet,  as  his  principal 
assistant,  in  the  exploration  of  the  region  north  of 
tJie  Missouri  river.  While  occupied  with  these 
important  labours,  he  was  appointed  by  President 
Van  Buren  second-lieutenant  in  the  corps  of  Topo- 
graphical Engineers. 

In  the  early  part  of  1842,  F.  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  an  expedition  sent  out  to  explore  the 
country  between  the  Missouri  river  and  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  He  set  out  from  St  Louis  near  the  end 
of  May,  and  reached  the  South  Pass  (about  42°  30' 
N.  lat.,  and  109"  30'  W.  long.)  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains,  in  August.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  pass,  he 
ascended  a  lofty  peak  (since  known  as  Fremont'a 
Peak),  which  he  found  to  be  13,570  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea ;  this  is  the  highest  sunmiit  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  yet  measured  within  the  limits  of 
the  United  States.  He  returned  to  St  Louis  about 
the  middle  of  October.  Throughout  the  entire 
route  of  the  exploration,  F.  had  made  careful 
barometrical  and  astronomical  observations,  for  the 
purpose  of  ascertaining  the  elevation  and  position 
of  the  different  points,  besides  noting  the  character 
of  the  soil,  and  adding  largely  to  the  sciences  of 
geology  and  botany. 

In  1843,  he  set  out  on  another  expedition,  planned 
on  a  more  extensive  scale.  Passing  beyond  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  he  partially  explored  a  remark- 
able tract  of  country,  to  which  he  gave  the  name 
of  the  Great  Basin  (q.  v.).  Having  advanced  as 
far  as  Fort  Vancouver,  about  90  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Columbia  River,  on  the  10th  of 
November  the  party  commenced  their  homeward 
journey.  They  soon  found  themselves  traversing,  in 
the  depth  of  winter,  a  wild  and  desert  region,  in 
many  parts  of  which  it  was  impossil)le  to  obtain 
any  pasture  for  their  horses  and  mules,  while,  in 
the  most  favoured  portions  of  their  route,  grass  wa,3 
to  be  found  only  in  a  few  sheltered  spots.  At 
length,  after  incredible  hardships  and  sufferinga, 
finding  that  it  was  in  vain  to  attempt  to  reach  the 
United  States  at  that  season,  F.  resolved  to  strilte 
directly  across  the  Sierra  Nevada,  towards  the  vales 
of  Caiifornia.  Although  assm-ed  by  his  Indian 
guides  that  it  was  quite  impossible  for  any  man 
to  cross  those  mountains,  he  boldly  imdertook  the 
desperate  enterprise,  and  on  the  6th  of  March 
succeeded  in  reaching  Sutter's  Fort,  an  American 
settlement  in  California,  near  the  river  Sacramento. 
More  than  half  of  his  animals  had  perished  on  the 
way,  and  those  that  remained,  though  bearing  no 
burden,  had  scarcely  sti'ength  to  drag  themselvea 

611 


FRENCH  BEANS— FEENCH  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 


along.  The  expedition  returned  to  the  United  States 
in  the  summer  of  1844.  In  acknowledgment  of  his 
importaiit  services,  F.  was  raised,  January  1845,  to 
the  rank  of  brevet-captain.  The  fame  of  his  dis- 
coveries, joined  to  tlie  heroic  daring  and  fortitude 
•which  he  had  exhibited  in  his  last  expedition,  not 
only  made  him  the  theme  of  enthusiastic  admiration 
in  the  United  States,  but  soon  spread  his  name  to 
the  remotest  parts  of  the  civilised  world.  In  1846, 
F.  having  again  led  a  company  of  exi)lorers  into 
California,  took  an  active  ])art  in  the  war  against 
Mexico.  Becoming  involved  in  a  dis})ute  between 
two  of  his  su])erior  officers  as  to  the  right  of  com- 
mand in  California,  F.,on  his  return  to  Wa-shington, 
was  censured  for  disobedience  ;  and  as  he  could  not 
admit  the  justice  of  the  decision  against  him,  he 
resigned  his  ])osition  in  the  army. 

In  1848,  F.  set  out  on  a  fourth  expedition  to  Cali- 
fornia at  his  own  ex])ense.  Attempting  to  cross 
the  mountains  between  the  Rio  Grande  and  the 
Colorado  in  mid- winter,  the  guide  mistook  the  way, 
and  F.  lost  all  his  animals  and  one-third  of  his  men. 
In  1849,  he  settled  in  California,  and  in  December 
of  that  year  was  chosen  senator  to  represent  the 
new  state  in  tlie  national  congress.  In  IB^O,  he  re- 
ceived a  gold  medal  from  the  king  of  Prussia,  and 
another  from  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  In  1853, 
he  conducted,  at  his  own  expense,  an  exploring  party 
to  the  Pacific,  and  discovered  a  new  route  in  lat.  .38" 
N.  He  was  norninated  by  the  Rei)ublican  National 
Convention  as  a  candidate  for  the  presidency  in  1856, 
and  received  114  electoral  votes;  iiis  coin])etitor,  Jas, 
Buchanan,  174.  In  1861,  he  was  made  a  major  general, 
and  comnumder  of  the  Department  of  Missouri,  and 
in  August  issued  an  order  for  the  emancipation  of  the 
slaves  of  those  who  took  up  arms  against  the  U.  States ; 
but  the  act  was  annulled  by  the  ])resident  as  prema- 
ture. In  1878  he  was  appointed  govei'nor  of  Arizona 
Territory. 

FRENCH  BEANS.    See  Kidney  Beans. 

FRENCH  BERRIES.  Avignon  Berries,  Persian 
Berries,  or  Yellow  Berries  (Fr.  Graines  cV Avlcpion), 
small  berries,  the  fruit  of  certain  species  of  Buck- 
thorn (q.  v.),  but  principally  of  the  Yellow-berried 
Buckthorn  {Rliamnus  infectorius),  used  by  dyers  in 
dyeing  yellow.  For  this  purpose,  they  are  gathered 
unrijie,  and  dried ;  they  yield  a  rich  yellow  colour, 
but  it  is  fugitive,  and  on  this  account  the  use  of 
this  dye-stuff  has  very  much  given  place  to  that  of 
mineral  dyes.  It  is,  however,  still  imported  into 
Britain  from  the  Levant  and  from  the  south  of 
France.  That  from  the  Levant  is  the  best.  The 
yellow-berried  buckthorn  is  a  very  sj^reading  pro- 
cumbent shrub,  with  ovato-lanceolate  smooth  leaves, 
growing  naturally  in  rough  rocky  places  in  the 
countries  near  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  cultivated 
to  some  extent  in  the  south  of  France. 

FRENCH  HONEYSUCKLE  [Hedysm-um  coro- 
TUirium),  a  beautifiU  biennial  plant  of  the  natural 
order  Legiuninosce,  sub-order  Papilionacece,  with 
branching  and  spreading  stems,  pinnate  leaves, 
scarlet  or  sometimes  white  flowers,  and  jointed  pods, 
which  have  one  seed  in  each  articulation.  It  has 
fine  foliage,  and  a  very  elegant  appearance,  and  is 
often  to  be  seen  in  flower-gardens.  It  is  a  native  of 
the  south  of  Europe,  and  is  there  pretty  extensively 
ciUtivated  as  food  for  cattle.  It  grows  to  a  height 
of  four  or  five  feet,  yields  a  large  crop,  and  is  very 
nutritious.  It  is  used  either  in  a  green  state,  or 
dried  as  hay.  It  requires  a  rather  warmer  climate 
than  that  of  England  for  its  profitable  cultivation. 
The  genus  Iledysarum  contains  many  species,  exten- 
sively diffused  over  the  warmer  parts  of  the  world. 
A  few  are  found  in  cold  regions,  as  //.  fruticomm  in 
Siberia,  growing  in  sandy  soils,  very  useful  in  fixing 

6J2 


them  by  its  roots,  and  valuable  as  affording  food  foi 
horses. 

FRENCH  LANGUAGE  and  LITERATURE, 

The  French  language  has  been  developed  undei 
the  combined  influence  of  numerous  forms  of  speech, 
among  which  Latin,  as  in  every  other  tongue  oi 
Western  Europe,  takes  a  principal  part.    It  would 
appear  that  in  the  4th  and  5th  centur  ies  of  our  era, 
the  whole  of  Gallia,  from  the  Rhine  to  the  Pyrenees, 
had  adopted  the  language  of  the  Roman  conquerors^ 
not  the  polished  speech  of  the  classic  writers— the 
sermo  urbanvs — but  the  form  of  Latin  tliat  had 
become  common  to  all  the  sul)jugated  provinces  of 
Central  Europe — lingva  Jlomana  rustka.  Suetonius, 
Pliny,  Juvenal,  and  Martial  make  frequent  reference 
to  the  Latin  in  use  in  Southern  Gaul  and  Spain ; 
and  in  the  4th  c.  we  find  that,  under  the  Emperor 
Theodosius,  the  Roman  senate  was  addressed  by  an 
orator  of  Gaul  in  rude  and  uncultured  transalpine 
Latin.    At  this  period,  and  much  later,  Latin  waa 
emjdoyed  in  the  i)rovincial  assemblies  of  Gaul ;  but 
in  the  7th  c,  two  other  forms  of  speech  had  come 
into  general  use — a  provincial  dialect  of  the  lingva 
Jiomana,  and  a  form  of  German  known  as  the 
lingua  Theotlsca.    The  latter  which  was  }>robably 
a  mingled  jargon,  used  in  common  by  the  Frankish 
and  Teutonic  tribes,  and  consequently  in  vogue  in 
the  north  and  east,  received  a  more  definite  develop- 
ment under  Charlemagne,  who  caused  a  grammar 
of  it  to  be  prepared  for  the  use  of  the  schools  which 
he  had  established,  and  in  which  it  was  taught 
conjointly  with  Latin.    The  council  of  Tours  (813) 
recommended  the  use  both  of  the  rustic  Latin  and 
the  Teutonic  dialect ;  and  in  842,  in  the  compact 
made  between  the  two  brothers,  Charles  the  Bald 
and  Louis  the  German,  the  former  swore  in  the 
Eomana  rustka,  and  the  latter  in  the  Tmtscht 
language,  which,  although  it  had  been  generally 
spoken  at  the  court  of  Charlemagne,  had  already 
given  place  in  France  to  the  Frankish  form  of 
Latin.     This  Gallo-Romanic  idiom  early  branched 
off  into  the  two  characteristically  different  forms  of 
the  Provencal  or  Langue  d^oc  of  the  south,  and  the 
lloman  Wallon,  or  Langue  d'oil  of  the  north.  The 
comparative  prosperity  which  the  south  of  France 
enjoyed,  first  under  the  kings  of  Aries,  and  subse- 
quently under  the  counts  of  Provence,  its  freedom 
from  foreign  aggression  for  several  centuries,  the 
beauty  of  the  climate,  and  the  more  thoroughly 
Romanised  character  of  the  people,  led  to  the  early 
develojiment  of  the  Provencal,  and,  by  the  lipa 
of  the  troubadours,  breathed  forth  a  rich  melody 
of  song,  which,  after  a  time,  was  re-echoed  in  les3 
harmonious  tones  by  the  trouveres  of  the  north  in 
their  ruder  tongue.     The  earlier  productions  of 
these  two  schools  exhibit  striking  differences  in 
diction,  inflection,  and  construction ;  and  while  the 
trou.badour  sang  of  love,  and  dwelt  on  the  beauti  3 
which  a  southern  climate  and  a  fruitfid  soil  scattered 
broadcast  over  the  face  of  nature  around  him,  the 
northern  trovvere  invented  a  chivalrous  mythology 
of  his  own,  and  ascribed  to  the  heroes  of  Greece  and 
Rome,  and  the  brethren  in  arms  of  King  Arthur  and 
Charlemagne,  the  sentiments  of  his  own  times.  The 
use  of  the  northern  or  Walloon  French  was  very 
considerably  extended  through  its  adoption  by  the 
Normans,  who  in  time  carried  it  under  WiUiam 
the  Conqueror  to  England,  and,  under  the  northern 
leaders  of  the  Crusades,  to  the  south  and  east.  In 
the  south,  on  the  contrary,  the  cruel  persecutions 
of  the  Albigenses,  against  which  the  troubadours 
inveighed  aloud,  checked  the  development  of  the 
Provengal  language  ;  for  the  songs  of  the  trouba- 
dr  .rs  were  proscribed,  and  thus  the  use  of  the 
langue  d'oil  soon  extended  with  the  spread  of  northern 
power  into  the  provinces  of  Provence  and  Languedoc; 


FRENCH  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 


One  of  the  earliest  monuments  of  the  French- 
Walloon,  in  the  form  in  which  it  shews  evidence  of 
its  gradual  development  into  modern  French,  is  the 
Roman  de  Eou,  a  versified  chronicle  of  the  exploits 
of  Rollo  and  his  successors,  composed  by  Robert 
Wace.  In  this  composition,  the  language  is  no 
longer  the  sonorous,  m any- vo welled  Provencal,  or 
the  mongrel  Latin  of  the  Umjua  riistica.  Out  a 
distinct  form  of  speech.  The  language  thus  formed 
by  the  ingrafting  of  Norman,  Frankish,  and  Teu- 
tonic idioms  on  the  degenerate  Latin  of  the  Gallic 
pro\'inces,  was  rapidly  developed  vinder  the  foster- 
ing influence  of  the  university  of  Paris  and  the 
Sorbonne,  which  already,  in  the  13th  c,  attracted 
the  learned  men  of  all  nations  to  their  schools.  The 
Boman  de  la  Rose,  begun  in  the  1.3th  c.  hy  Jean  de 
Meung,  and  completed  in  the  14th  c.  by  G.  de  Lorris, 
and  Guyofs  Bible,  belonging  to  the  same  period,  are 
typical  of  the  literature  of  France  in  the  middle 
ages,  which  consisted  chiefly  of  tales  of  chivalry 
and  coarse  sallies  against  the  clergy.  Froissart's 
chronicles  of  the  14th  c,  which  afford  a  \nvid  picture 
of  the  wars  of  the  English  and  French,  in  which  he 
himself  took  an  active  share,  are  written  in  a  dialect 
that  is  quite  comprehensible  to  the  modern  student. 
Comines,  who  wrote  in  the  15th  c,  is  a  less  pictur- 
esque narrator ;  but  he  may  be  classed  among  the 
earliest  true  historians  of  his  country,  for  he  was  one 
of  the  first  who  observed  public  events  with  judg- 
ment, and  recorded  what  he  had  seen  in  a  straight- 
forward, truthfid  manner.  Francis  I.,  by  his  love 
of  music,  song,  and  dramatic  re])resentations,  gave 
indirect  encouragement  to  literature ;  while  the 
French  language  acquired  force  and  terseness 
throuj^h  the  writings  of  Rabelais,  Ronsard,  Amyot, 
and  Ivfontaigne ;  and  although,  i;nder  the  regencies 
of  Catharine  and  Marie  de'  Medici,  Italian  writers 
were  more  patronised  at  com't  than  native  authors, 
the  language  and  the  literary  talent  of  the  nation 
were  undergoing  a  process  of  gradual  development, 
which  was  completed  by  the  establishment,  under 
the  auspices  of  Richelieu,  of  the  Academie  Fran^aise 
in  1G.34.  At  this  period,  Comeille  brought  French 
tragedy  to  its  highest  point  of  grandeur  in  the 
classic  style  of  the  drama,  which  he  had  adopted. 
His  best  pieces  are  Le  Cid,  Les  Horaces,  Cinna, 
&c.  Pascal,  in  his  Lettres  Provinciales,  established 
a  standard  of  French  prose ;  while  Descartes,  in  his 
Discours  sur  la  Methode,  shewed  the  adaptability 
of  the  language  to  subjects  requiring  conciseness 
and  precision.  A  long  galaxy  of  great  names  gave 
splendour  to  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  in  every 
branch  of  literature.  Notwithstanding  the  frivolity 
of  the  hal)its  of  the  higher  classes  in  France  during 
this  period,  no  age  produced  more  vigorous  writers 
or  original  thinkers.  Bossuet  and  Flechier  won 
respect  by  their  noble  funeral  orations  ;  Bourdaloue 
and  Massillon,  by  their  eloquent  preaching ;  Fene- 
loD,  by  his  learning  and  earnest  exhortations;  and 
Pascal,  by  his  Christian  view  of  the  great  questions 
of  human  experiences.  In  dramatic  literature, 
Racine  and  Molifere  stand  forth  conspicuous  among 
A  host  of  lesser  writers,  the  former  pre-eminent 
in  tragedy,  as  his  Andromaque,  Iphigenie,  Phedre, 
testify ;  the  latter  inimitable  in  comedy,  and  exhibit- 
ing wonderful  i)Owers  of  delineating  human  character 
from  a  humorous  point  of  view,  that  have  never 
been  surpassed.  Among  his  best  pieces  we  may 
instance  Tartufe,  Le  Misanthrope,  and  Les  Femmes 
Savantes.  La  Fontaine  is  alike  well  known  among 
his  countrymen  for  his  moral  Fables  and  his  licen- 
tious Tales.  La  Rochefoucauld  and  La  Bruyfere, 
in  their  Sentences  and  Caracteres,  depicted  human 
character,  with  its  peculiarities,  inclinations,  and 
foibles  in  strong,  humorous,  ?.nd  vivid  touches.  This 
was  the  age  of  Memoirs  and  Letters  :  in  the  former 
lb9 


branch  of  contemporary  history.  Cardinal  Retz  was 
perhaps  the  most  successful  of  the  host  of  writers 
who  gained  a  reputation  in  this  special  depai-tmer.t 
of  literature ;  while  Madame  de  Sevigne's  letters 
are  models  of  easy  epistolary  style,  and  aflord  a 
lively  i)icture  of  the  times.  This  age,  in  which,  jxt 
anyrate,  the  semblance  of  religion  had  been  respected, 
was  followed  by  one  of  scepticism,  infldelit}',  and 
philosophical  speculations  of  the  wildest  kind.  Four 
men  of  genius,  Montesquieu,  Voltaire,  Rousseau,  and 
Buffon,  contributed,  to  a  very  great  extent,  by  their 
writings,  and  the  influence  which  they  exerted  on 
the  minds  of  their  contemporaries,  in  bringing  about 
the  Revolution.  Montesquieu,  by  his  philosophical 
dissertations  on  the  laws  and  government  of  hia 
country,  taught  the  French  to  take  more  enlightened 
views  of  the  rights  and  duties  of  different  classes 
of  society,  and  thus  naturally  roused  the  angry 
passions  of  the  oppressed  lower  orders ;  while  tho 
passionate  eloquence  of  Rousseau  won  a  hearing  for 
doctrines  which  were  entirely  subversive  of  moral 
obligations,  and  recognised  no  higher  standard  than 
human  inclinations.  Voltaire's  versatility  of  powers, 
which  were  exercised  with  equal  ease,  and  nearly 
equal  success,  on  tragedy,  satire,  romance,  poetry, 
history,  and  philosophy,  enabled  him,  to  the  end 
of  his  long  life,  to  maintain  the  supremacy  over 
public  opinion,  which  he  had  won  in  his  youth. 
Buffon  devoted  himself  to  the  study  and  description 
of  nature,  and  his  Histoire  Naturelle,  which  inaugur* 
ated  a  new  era  in  the  literature  of  natural  history, 
is  a  remarkable  monument  of  the  science  and  learn- 
ing of  that  period.  Diderot,  and  D'Alembert  the 
geometer,  founded  the  Encyclopedie,  which,  while 
it  gave  a  lucid  summary  of  numerous  branches 
of  human  knowledge,  was  always  hostile  to  reli- 
gion. The  Revolution,  which  had  been  materially 
accelerated,  if  not  produced,  by  the  inspirations 
of  men  of  consummate  intellect,  was  not  favour- 
able to  literature.  A  period  of  almost  complete 
intellectual  torpor  succeeded  the  active  mental 
development  that  had  characterised  the  preceding 
classic  and  philosophic  periods.  The  Empire  was 
scarcely  more  propitious  to  learning  ;  but  with 
the  Corinne  and  L  Alleynarpie  of  Madame  de  Stael, 
and  Les  Martyrs  of  Chateaubriand,  a  reaction 
took  place ;  and  these  productions  of  the  new 
romantic  school  were  soon  followed  by  niuneroua 
others,  either  belonging  to  the  same,  or  to  the 
rival  classical  school.  Among  the  host  of  young  and  ' 
original  writers  who  now  acquired  reputation,  we 
may  instance,  in  dramatic,  art,  poetry,  and  Action. 
Alexandre  Dumas,  Victor  Hugo,  Alfred  de  Vigny, 
and  Frederic  Soulie.  The  first  of  these  has  been 
one  of  the  most  prolific  of  novel-writers  ;  among  hia 
most  popular  works  are — Les  T rois  Mousquetaires^ 
Le  Comte  de  Monte  Chrlsto,  Le  Collier  de  la  Reine, 
&c.  Casimir  Delavigne  has  attempted  to  combine 
the  romantic  and  classical  schools  in  his  Louis  XL, 
Les  Enfayits  d! Edouard,  &c.  George  Sand  (Madame 
Dudevant)  is  one  of  the  most  elegant  wi-iters  of 
her  country,  and  her  works  are  models  of  style. 
Her  Indiana,  which  appeared  in  1832,  inaugurated 
a  new  era  of  emotional  novel- writing,  and  has  had 
nutneious  imitators.  Among  her  numerous  well- 
known  works  ai'e  Jacqnes,  Leila,  Mauprat,  Andre, 
and  Consnelo,  and  the  many  pieces  which  she  subse- 
quently wrote  for  the  stage.  Les  Mysth-es  de  Paris, 
and  Le  Juif  Enfant,  which  depict  the  concealed 
miseries  and  depravities  of  social  life,  quickly 
brought  their  author,  Eugfene  Sue,  into  notice. 
The  tendency  to  materialism  and  sensuaHsm,  which 
characterises  the  works  of  the  two  last-named 
v/ritevs,  is  more  or  less  perceptible  in  all  belonging 
to  their  age  in  France.  The  few  artistic  and  gooa 
historical  novels  that  have  appeared  have  met  with 

513 


1?  BENCH  POLISHING— FRENCH  EIVER. 


iittle  success  among  the  general  public.  Among 
oririnal  and  finished  writers  of  tales,  A.  de  Musset 
ramts  foremost,  while  Merim^e  the  historian,  who 
has  written  several  novels  of  very  great  merit,  has 
not  always  met  with  the  success  which  he  deserved. 
Of  late  years,  a  host  of  young  writers  have  appeared, 
some  of  whom  belong  to  what  they  themselves  term 
the  realistic  school.  A.  Dumas  the  Younger,  who 
is  following  in  the  steps  of  his  father,  E.  Feydau,  0. 
Feuillet,  and  E.  About,  all  deserve  notice.  Poetry 
has  not  been  followed  \\ath  any  marked  success  in 
France  duinng  the  present  century ;  and  beyond  the 
great  names  of  B6ranger — whose  songs  are  unsur- 
passed in  any  other  tongxie — Victor  Hugo,  Lamar- 
tine,  and  Musset,  there  are  few  French  poets  of  the 
present  day  known  beyond  the  limits  of  France. 
The  theatre  absorbs  much  of  the  talent  of  Young 
France ;  but  here  light  pieces,  vaudevilles  and  farces, 
are  tli-e  most  successful,  as  is  testified  by  the  host 
of  comedies  and  operatic  scores  for  which  Eugfene 
Scribe  has  obtained  a  favourable  reception.  History 
is  undoubtedly  the  most  successful  branch  of  modern 
French  literature.  Among  those  who  have  gained 
for  themselves  a  world-wide  reputation  in  this 
department  of  research,  we  would  instance  Barante, 
whose  early  work,  L'JTistoire  des  Dues  de  Boiirgo<jne, 
has  been  followed  by  the  recent  publication  of 
histories  of  the  CoJivention  and  Directory.  Guizot, 
another  writer  holding  monarchical  views,  has 
shewn  indefatigable  powers  of  research  and  a  philo- 
sojjhic  power  of  generalisation  in  a  great  number  of 
works,  among  which  the  first  rank  may  be  awarded 
to  his  Efisais  sur  VHistoire  de  France,  and  UHis- 
toire  de  la  CivUisaiion  en  Europe.  Thierry,  in  his 
Lettres  sur  VHistoire  de  France,  and  L'llisioire  de 
la  Conquete  de  V Angleterre  par  les  Normans,  dis- 
plays great  powers  of  narration  and  aptitude  for 
theoretic  criticism,  perhaps  more  imaginative  than 
sagacious.  Sismondi  has  shewn  great  research  and 
profound  knowledge  in  his  somewhat  diffuse  His- 
tory. Thiers  has  devoted  his  learning,  industry, 
and  powers  of  delineation  to  the  exposition  of  the 
revolutionary  and  imperial  phases  of  French  govern- 
ment. Michelet  and  Louis  Blanc  are  both  known 
for  their  democratic  principles  ;  the  latter,  in  his 
Histoire  de  Dix  Ans,  gives  one  of  the  most  vivid 
pictures  of  contemporary  history  that  we  possess. 
Lamartine,  who  carries  his  poetic  inspirations 
and  enthusiastic  temperament  with  him  into  his 
historical  researches,  presents  magnificent  but  not 
perfectly  trustworthy  pictures  of  history  in  his 
Histoire  des  Girondins,  Histoire  des  Constituents,  and 
Histoire  de  la  Restauration.  Villemain,  although 
better  known  for  his  history  of  literature  in  the 
middle  ages  and  in  the  ISth  c,  is  yet  to  be  classed 
among  historians  as  the  author  of  Histoire  de 
Cromwell,  and  his  Souvenirs  Contemporains,  &c. 

There  is  no  department  of  the  moral  and  physical 
sciences  that  has  not  been  enriched  and  eluci- 
dated by  the  labours  of  French  savans.  Among 
the  great  scientific  writers  of  modern  France,  we 
may  instance  in  metaphysics  and  political  economy, 
Victor  Cousin,  Jouffroy,  Simon,  and  Lamennais, 
whose  eloquent  defence  of  spiritualistic  and  religious 
principles  reacted  strongly  against  the  materialism 
to  which  French  philosophy  had  long  been  addicted ; 
while  socialism  has  found  powerfid  advocates  in 
Comte,  St  Simon,  Foiirrier,  and  Leroux.  Chevalier, 
De  Tocqueville,  Bonald,  and  Laferri^re,  are  known 
(or  their  able  and  philosophic  exposition  of  the 
juris])rudence  of  nations,  and  the  social  and  political 
condition  of  democracy  in  the  new  and  old  world. 
In  philology  and  ancient  history,  ChampoUion, 
Sylv(;strfo  de  Sacy,  Renaii,  Remusat,  and  Stanislas 
Jul) en,  by  their  profound  researches  into  Egyptian 
hieroglyphics  and  Semitic  literature,  have  thrown 
514 


new  light  on  the  origin  of  races  and  languages. 
In  mathematics  D'Alembert,  Lapla.e,  Lagrange, 
Biot,  Amp&re,  and  Arago  stand  unrivalled.  In 
natural  history,  and  its  kindred  sciences,  among 
a  host  of  great  French  discoverers,  we  can  only 
instance  a  few  of  the  more  distinguished,  as  Cuvier, 
Geoffroy  and  Isidore  St  Hilaire,  Blainville,  Jussieu, 
U'Orbigny,  Haiiy,  Gay-Lussac,  Elie  de  Beaumont, 
Milne-Edwards,  Brongniart,  whose  services  in  the 
cause  of  science  have  identified  their  names  with 
the  triumphs  of  physical  research. 

No  comitry  has  ever  produced  a  greater  number 
of  elegant  essayists  and  literary  critics  than  Franco, 
and  no  language  seems  to  lend  itself  more  readily 
than  French  to  a  concise  and  graceful,  yet  forcible 
style  of  epigrammatic  writing,  and  few  admit  of 
more  idiomatic  terseness,  or  a  more  polished  play  of 
words.  French  literature  has  of  late  years  been 
suffering  from  the  state  of  torpidity  which  seems  in 
France  to  be  the  natural  secondary  eff"ect  of  any 
great  political  movement,  and  hitherto  the  imperial 
rule  has  not  been  i)ropitious  to  the  development  of 
original  literary  talent. 

For  authorities  on  French  Literature,  see  Nisard, 
Hist,  de  la  Litter.  Fra7ignise  (1846);  Villemain,  Tab- 
leau de  la  Litter,  an  Moyen  Age  (1857);  DQmnj^eot, 
HiM.  de  la  Litter.  Frang.  (1857)  ;  Littre's  Histoire 
de  la  Langne  Fravgaise  (1867);  Gidel's  Histoire  de 
la  Litteratare  Frnngalse  (1875);  La  Litteratare  Fran- 
gaise,  Staaf  (1869-73);  LListory  of  French  Litera- 
ture, hy  H.  Van  Laun  (1877-79). 

FRENCH  POLISHING,  the  name  given  to  the 
now  common  method  of  coating  wood  wdth  a  fme 
smooth  surface  or  varnish  of  gum -lac.  Gum-lac  is 
easily  sohible  in  spirits  of  wine,  methylated  spirits, 
or  wood-naphtha,  and  a  varnish  is  thus  produced ; 
but  if  it  be  applied  simply  vaih  a  brush,  as  copal, 
maetic,  and  most  other  varnishes  are  applied,  the 
result  is  a  very  rough  and  broken  surface,  instead  of 
a  smooth  continuous  polish.  To  obtain  this  with  a 
lac-varnish  on  wood,  it  is  necessary  to  appl}''  a  very 
small  quantity  at  once,  and  to  rub  it  continuously 
until  it  dries.  If  a  dry  rul)ber  be  used,  the  lao 
sticks  to  it,  and  it  is  dragged  from  the  wood.  An 
oiled  rubber  is  therefore  used,  and  the  oil  should  be 
a  drying  oil,  such  as  linseed.  Various  kinds  of 
rubbers  are  used;  such  as  a  ball  of  wool  covered 
vdth.  rag,  a  small  roll  of  cloth  with  the  edges  down- 
wards, and  likewise  covered  with  rag.  The  varnish 
and  oil  may  be  mixed  together  in  a  bottle,  shaken 
up  when  used,  and  a  little  poured  upon  the  rubber  ; 
or  a  simple  solution  of  shell-lac  may  be  used,  and 
some  of  this  laid  upon  an  oiled  rubber.  Several 
successive  coats  and  rubbmgs  are  required,  and 
some  skni  is  necessary,  in  order  to  produce  a  good 
surface. 

The  following  are  some  receipts  for  French  polish 
for  mahogany  ;  they  might  be  midtiplied  to  a  great 
extent,  for  they  should  be  modified  according  to  the 
kind  of  wood  to  which  they  are  applied,  and  the 
mode  of  applying  them :  1.  5  oz.  of  pale  shell-lac, 
dissolved  in  1  pint  of  wood-naphtha,  or  methylated 
spirit,  or  spirits  of  wine.  2.  5  oz.  of  pale  shell-lac, 
1  oz.  gum  sandarac,  1  pint  spirit.  3.  1^  lb.  pale 
shell-lac,  \  lb.  mastic,  2  quarts  spirit.  4.  Shell- lac, 
6  oz.  ;  spirit  or  naphtha,  1  pint ;  linseed  oil,  j  pint. 
The  last  is  the  most  easy  to  apply;  it  requiies  no 
oil  on  the  rubber,  and  is  a  very  good  dom'^^tic 
polish  for  restoring  furniture,  if  properly  applied 
by  careful  and  continuous  rubbing. 

FRENCH  PROTESTANT  CHURCH.  Se« 
Huguenots. 

FRENCH  RIVER,  a  stream  of  Ontario,  Canada, 
empties  Luke  Nipissing  into  Lake  Huron,  entering 
Georgian  Buy,  in  lat.  45*^  53'  N.,  and  long.  81°  5'  W. 


FEENCH  SETTLEMENTS— FRESCO,  FBESCO-PAINTING. 


It  has  a  rapid  course  of  about  sixty  miles ;  and, 
towards  its  mouth,  is  so  uniform  in  breadth  and 
depth,  as  to  resemble  an  artificial  cut  through 
bare  rock.  It  forms  part  of  the  route  by  which 
canoes,  preferring  the  Ottawa  to  the  St  Lawrence, 
pass  from  Montreal  to  the  Ked  River  of  the  north. 

FRENCH  SETTLEMENTS.    See  Pondi- 

CHEBUY. 

FRERON,  lilLiE  Catherine,  a  French  writer, 
was  born  at  Quimper  in  1719,  educated  under  the 
Jesuits  at  the  college  of  Louis  le  Grand,  and  first 
acquired  a  rejmtation  by  his  publication  of  a  critical 
journal  in  1746.  This  journal  appeared  under  the 
curious  title,  Lcttres  de  Madame  la  Comtesse  de  *  *  * 
It  was  sujipressed  in  1749,  but  virtually  re-appeared 
as  Leitres  sur  qiielques  Ecrits  de  ce  Tewps  (13  vols., 
1749 — 1754),  and  was  again  continued  under  the 
title  of  Ann^e  Litteraire  (1754 — 1776).  F.  exhibited 
the  most  intense  bitterness  against  his  leading 
contemporaries.  A  worshipper  of  the  age  of  Louis 
XIV.,  he  hated  and  satirised  the  levelling  philosophy 
of  his  timos.  Voltaire  was  the  special  object  of  his 
aversion,  and  that  sensitive  scofit'er  was  deeply  galled 
by  the  weekly  diatribes  of  his  antagonist.  The 
names  of  Voltaire  and  F.  are  mseparably,  though  not 
amicably,  conjoined  in  the  history  of  literature.  F. 
was  often  right  in  his  criticisms  and  in  the  accusa- 
tions which  he  brought  against  his  adversaries,  but 
opinion  in  France  in  the  18th  c.  was  swayed  by 
epigrams,  and  F.  fell  a  Adctim  to  the  animosity  of 
the  wits.  He  died  of  grief,  March  10,  1776.— Louis 
Stanislas  Freron,  a  son  of  the  former,  was  born 
in  Palis  in  1765,  played  a  somewhat  prominent  part 
in  the  melodrama  of  the  French  Revolution,  and  in 
1802  was  sent  as  sub-prefect  to  the  island  of  St 
Domingo,  by  the  First  Consul,  but  died  two  months 
^.fter  his  arrival. 

FRE'SCO,  FRESCO-PAINTING,  or  PAINT- 
ING IN  FRESCO,  the  term  applied  to  paintings 
executed  upon  plaster  while  it  is  still  wet  or  fresh 
(Ital.,  fresco).  Many  celebrated  artists  and  well- 
known  writers  have  maintained  that  fresco  is  the 
only  way  in  which  the  highest  efforts  in  art  should 
be  embodied.  A  very  large  proportion  of  the  best 
woiks  of  the  Italian  schools,  particularly  those  of 
Rome  and  Florence,  are  done  in  this  manner ;  and 
during  the  present  century  it  has  been  revived, 
and  many  of  the  chief  paintings  of  the  modern 
German  school  are  executed  in  fresco.  The  practice 
has  to  some  extent  been  introduced  into  Britain, 
and  certain  works  of  that  kind  have  been  executed, 
and  others  are  in  progress,  in  the  new  Houses  of 
Parliament. 

Before  noticing  more  particularly  the  various 
properties  claimed  for  fresco-painting,  it  is  proper 
first  to  describe  the  process.  A  cartoon  or  draw- 
ing on  paper  is  first  raade  of  the  subject.  This  must 
be  executed  with  a  correct  outline,  and  the  shading 
and  effect  fully  made  out.  The  finished  cartoon 
may  either  be  of  the  same  size  as  the  intended 
fresco,  or  it  may  be  done  on  a  smaller  scale  ;  but,  at 
all  events,  an  outline  of  the  same  size  as  the  fresco- 
painting  is  necessary.  When  the  finished  cartoon  is 
macle  the  same  size  as  the  fresco,  it  is  generally 
executed  in  black  and  white,  with  chalk  or  charcoal, 
but  it  is  essential  to  have  also  a  careful  study  of  the 
subject  in  colours,  and  this  is  in  most  cases  done  on 
a  small  scale.  The  colours  used  are  mostly  earths  or 
minerals,  as  few  others  will  stand  the  action  of  lime  : 
these  are  ground  and  applied  with  pure  water.  The 
ground  to  be  painted  on  is  the  last  or  smooth  coating 
of  plaster  that  is  laid  over  the  rough  plaster-work 
with  which  walls  are  prepared.  This  last  coating, 
or  ground,  or  rather  as  much  of  it  as  the  artist 
calculates  on  Ijeing  able  to  cover  in  one  day,  is  laid 


on  immediately  before  he  commences  work.  Tlie 
surface  is  wet,  but  firm  and  smooth  ;  the  tracing  is 
laid  over  the  portion  prepared,  and  the  artist,  with 
a  point  of  hard  wood  or  hone,  goes  over  the  lines  of 
the  tracing,  and  slightly  indents  them  on  the  pkstcr 
He  then  proceeds  with  his  work,  the  finished  cartoon 
and  coloured  sketch  being  hung  or  placed  near  him 
for  his  guidance.  After  his  day's  work  is  over,  any 
portion  of  the  plaster  that  has  not  been  painted  on, 
or  that  may  remain  beyond  or  at  the  edge  of  hia 
work,  is  cut  away ;  and  next  day,  when  the  painter 
is  ready  to  commence  work,  the  plasterer  is  at 
hand,  and  joins  closely  another  portion  of  plaster 
to  the  edge  of  the  jwrtion  ])ainted  on  the  previous 
day,  which,  when  cut,  had  been  slightly  sloped. 
The  lime,  in  drying,  throws  out  a  kind  of  crystal 
surface,  which  protects  the  colour,  and  imparts  a 
degree  of  clearness  much  superior  to,  and  easily  dis- 
tingviishable  from,  that  of  a  work  in  tempera  or 
size  paint.  This  process,  although  apparently  simple, 
nevertheless  requires  great  dexterity  and  certainty 
of  hand ;  for  the  surface  of  the  plaster  is  delicate, 
and  must  not  be  overworked,  besides,  the  lime  only 
imbibes  a  certain  quantity  of  additional  moisture 
in  the  form  of  liquid  colours,  after  which  it  loses 
its  crystallising  quality,  and  the  surface,  or  a  por- 
tion of  it,  becomes  what  painters  call  rotten.  Many 
frescoes  are  defective  in  this  way.  It  is  only  after 
the  lime  has  dried  that  such  flaws  are  discovered ; 
the  proper  plan,  in  such  a  case,  is  to  cut  away  the 
defective  portion,  have  fresh  plaster  laid  on,  and 
do  the  work  over  again.  But  the  flaws  are  too 
often  retouched  with  tempera  or  size  colours;  and 
though  they  may  escape  notice  for  a  time,  the  parts 
touched  will  change  or  come  off  in  the  course  of  a 
few  years.  Another  difficulty  in  fresco  is,  that  the 
colours  become  much  lighter  after  the  plaster  dries, 
and  for  this  allowance  must  be  made.  However, 
by  practice,  the  painter  may  soon  get  over  tliis  diffi- 
culty ;  and  he  can  test  the  difference  between  the 
colour  as  wet  and  as  dry,  by  putting  a  touch  on  a 
piece  of  umber  he  has  generally  at  hand,  which 
instantly  dries  the  colour,  and  shews  it  as  it  will  be 
when  the  lime  has  dried. 

The  pre-eminence  claimed  for  fresco-painting  is 
founded  on — 1.  The  quality  it  possesses  of  clear- 
ness and  exhibiting  colours  in  a  pure  and  bright 
state.  The  surface  not  being  dry  and  dull,  as  tem- 
pera or  size  colour,  nor  glossy  like  oil-paintings,  ia 
capable  of  being  favourably  viewed  from  any  point. 
2.  Its  diirability — many  frescoes  being  painted  on 
arcades  or  the  cloisters  of  churches  open  on  one 
side,  some  on  the  fronts  of  houses  entirely  exposed 
in  the  open  air.  3.  The  skill  and  dexterity  required 
in  execution — retouching  not  being  admissible,  nor 
those  various  appliances  of  glazing  over  painting, 
&c.,  available  in  w^oi'king  with  oil-colours  ;  all  which 
circumstances  compel  the  fresco-painter  to  confine 
his  energy  more  to  the  subject  and  design,  than 
to  the  mechanical  qualities  so  much  sought  after 
by  painters  in  oil.  The  frescoes  by  M.  Angclo  in 
the  Sistine  Chapel,  by  Raphael  in  the  stan/e  of 
the  Vatican,  and  those  in  the  cupola  of  the  cathe- 
dral of  Parma  by  Correggio,  are  pointed  to  by 
the  advocates  of  this  mode  of  art  as  settling  the 
question. 

But,  on  the  other  side,  it  maybe  said — 1.  Though 
a  certain  degree  of  clearness  and  purity  of  colour 
results  from  fresco,  it  is  deficient  in  depth  and  rich- 
ness. The  absence  of  glossiness  is  no  doubt  an 
advantage  in  the  case  of  mural -painting  with  refer- 
ence to  architectural  decoration  ;  but  to  a  consider- 
able extent  this  difficulty  can  be  obviated  in  the 
case  of  painting  in  oil ;  and  Delaroche's  great  pic- 
ture of  the  Hemicycle  in  the  Beaux  Arts  in  Paris, 
which  is  in  oil,  is  not  (objectionable  on  that  ground 

615 


FRESHWATER  HERRING— FRESHWATER  STRATA. 


. — indee(!r,  many  mistake  it  for  fresco.  2.  No  doubt, 
in  fresco,  the  colours  are  not  liable  to  change  much, 
if  the  Avork  be  executed  in  pure  fresco,  and  not 
retouched ;  but,  generally  speaking,  the  surface  is 
fragile,  and  easily  broken  or  scratched,  and  there  is 
no  way  of  mending  it  but  by  retouching  with  tem- 
pera colours  ;  and  if  that  be  extensively  done,  its 
nature  is  altered,  and  it  becomes  a  picture  in  size 
colours.  The  '  Madonna  de  Foligno,'  '  Madonna  di 
San  Sisto,'  '  Sposalozia,'  and  other  celebrated  easel- 
pictures  by  Raphael,  are  in  much  better  prcserva- 
tiom  than  his  frescoes  in  the  stanze  of  the  Vatican. 
3.  The  properties  of  difficulty  in  execution  and 
limited  range  of  colouring,  and  of  technical  appli- 
ances, are  of  a  negative  kind.  No  doubt,  some 
painters  have  maintained  that  good  colouring  is 
incompatible  with  grand  compositions  ;  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  Titian's  '  Entombment '  in  the  Louvre, 
and  Peter  Martyr  in  Venice,  amontj  others,  are 
referred  to  as  rebutting  such  an  assertion. 

Mural-i)ainting  is  of  great  antiquity  :  in  Egypt,  in 
the  Etruscan  tombs,  on  the  walls  of  houses  in 
Pomi)eii,  and  in  the  catacombs,  there  are  various 
remains  of  paintings  which  are  generally  considered 
to  be  frescoes  ;  those  in  Pomi)eii,  in  particular,  are 
remarkable  for  grandeur  and  purity  of  style  in 
design  and  drawing  ;  but  they  are  executed  in  a 
slight  and  free  manner,  and  on  this  accoxint,  and 
from  the  same  or  nearly  similar  subjects  being 
often  found  repeated,  are  supposed  to  be  copies  by 
house- decorators  of  celebrated  paintings  that  were 
preserved  in  temples  or  palaces  at  Rome.  AVhether 
these  were  frescoes  painted  on  the  w^alls  or  movable 
pictures,  is  matter  of  dispute.  *  The  Greeks  pre- 
ferred movable  pictures,  which  could  be  taken  away 
in  case  of  fire,  or  sold  if  necessary.' — Wilkinson  on 
Egyi-)tian  and  Greek  Paintings.  Pliny  says  Apelles 
never  painted  on  walls ;  and  various  pictures  of 
immense  value  are  stated  to  have  been  taken  from 
Greece  to  Rome. 

On  the  whole,  it  may  be  assumed  as  an  opinion 
that  has  long  been  generally  adopted,  that  where 
painting  is  to  be  combined  wath  architecture,  fresco 
is  the  style  that  assimilates  most  with  it.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  fact  of  Delaroche  having  so  suc- 
cessfully execiited  in  the  Beaux  Arts  a  work  in  oil, 
which  by  size  and  subject  was  so  well  adapted  for 
fresco,  and  the  circumstance  of  the  adoption  lately 
in  Germany,  and  by  the  artists  in  our  Houses  of 
Parliament,  of  stereochromic  painting  (see  below) 
in  place  of  fresco — a  method  by  which  cei'tain 
defects  in  the  process  of  fresco-painting  are  said  to 
be  obviated — militate  against  the  soundness  of  some 
of  the  opinions  hithert-r"  adopted  as  to  the  advan- 
tages ascribed  to  fresco-painting. 

Fresco  Secco  is  a  spurious  kind  of  fresco,  mucli 
used  in  Italy  in  ordinary  house-decoration.  The 
colours,  mixed  in  water,  are  laid  on  the  wall  after 
the  plaster  is  dry,  and  adhere  in  a  certain  degree 
by  absorption,  the  hard  or  glassy  surface  which 
forms  on  plaster  after  it  dries  being  fii'st  removed 
by  p^imice  or  otherwise.  Pictures  executed  in  this 
manner  look  coarse  and  dry,  or  rotten,  and  are  in 
fivery  way  inferior  To  pure  fresco. 

Stereochromic  Painting  (Gr.  stereos,  firm,  and 
cJiroma,  colour). — The  ordinary  process  of  fresco 
secco,  however,  has  lately  assumed  very  great 
importance  from  a  discovery  by  the  late  Dr  J.  R. 
von  Frichs  of  what  is  called  water-glass  (see  FucHs's 
Soluble  Glass),  which,  being  passed  over  the 
surface  of  a  work  executed  in  fresco  secco,  imparts 
much  brilliancy,  and  fixes  and  gives  great  durability 
to  the  colours  ;  this  method  is  styled  stereochromic 
painting,  and  is  now  extensively  practised  in  Berlin 
by  Kaulbach  and  other  eminent  German  artists. 
Tbe  late  Prince  Albeit  was  so  much  impressed  by 
616 


the  bearing  which  this  discovery  would  have  on  the 
art  of  mural- painting,  that  he  translated  from  the 
German  a  pamphlet  describing  the  'manufacture, 
properties,  and  application  of  water-glass  (solul>l<d 
alkaline  silicate),  including  a  process  of  atereo- 
chromic  painting,'  and  printed  it  for  private  circu- 
lation. Mr  Maclise,  R.A.,  made  use  of  this  new 
style  of  art  in  executing  his  great  picture  in  the 
palace  of  Westminster  of  the  'Meeting  of  Wellington 
and  Bluclier  at  Waterloo.' 

FRESHWATER  HERRING.   See  CoREGONuat 

FRESHWATER  MUSCLE,  a  popular  name 
common  to  a  whole  family  of  lamellibranchiata 
molluscs,  Unionidce  (sometimes  called  A^aiarto),  allied 
to  muscles  {Mytilidce),  but  having  a  much  larger 
foot,  which  does  not  generally  produce  a  Byssua 
(q.  v.),  except  in  a  very  young  state  of  the  animal. 
All  the  known  molluscs  of  this  family  are  inhabit- 
ants of  fresh  water,  some  of  them  being  found  in 
still,  and  some  in  running  waters.  A  few  si)eciea 
are  European ;  but  it  is  in  North  America  that 
they  chicriy  abound,  its  lakes  and  rivers  producing 
many  si)ecies.  They  crawl  about  by  means  of  the 
foot ;  many  of  them  generally  live  immersed  in 
mud.  They  are  supposed  to  feed  on  animalcules, 
and  on  decomposed  animal  and  vegetable  matter. 
The  epidermis  of  many  is  brilliantly  coloured,  and 
the  inside  of  the  shell  is  lined  with  a  brilliantly 
and  variously  coloured  nacre,  so  abundant  as  to  be 
sometimes  used  for  mother-of-pearl.  Pearls  are 
sometimes  produced.  There  are  four  British  species, 
of  which  one,  Anodon  ajgneus,  attaining  a  size  oi 
24  inches  long  by  6  broad,  is  common  in  lakes, 
ponds,  and  muddy  rivers.  It  is  "very  variable  in 
the  thickness  of  the  shell  and  in  other  particulars. 
The  hinge  is  toothless.  Two  species  are  confined 
chiefly  to  the  south  and  east  of  England ;  the 
fourth  {Unio  or  Alasmodon  margaritifera,  Mya 
margaritifera  of  Linnaeus)  inhabits  the  rivers  of 
mountainous  and  hilly  districts  with  a  rocky  bed,  and 
bas  long  been  celebrated  for  the  pearls  which  it- 


Freshwater  Muscle  [Alasmodon  margaritifera). 

produces.  It  is  about  2^  inches  long  by  5  broad, 
and  has  a  thick  blackish-brown  shell,  with  a  toothed 
hinge.  It  is  the  most  northern  European  species, 
and  is  found  in  the  rivers  of  Norway  and  Sweden. 
The  pearls  of  the  British  rivers  w^ere  famous  among 
the  ancient  Romans ;  and  Suetonius  represents 
them  as  having  formed  an  inducement  for  Ctesar'a 
expedition.  Some  of  the  rivers  of  Wales,  the  north- 
west of  England  and  Scotland,  have  at  various 
times  produced  beautiful  and  valuable  pearls.  In 
the  river  Earn,  a  tributary  of  the  Tay,  muscle- 
gathering  is  quite  a  trade,  and  the  pearls  found 
form  the  means  of  subsistence  to  many  families.  A 
pearl  from  the  Conway,  presented  by  Sir  Richard 
Wynn  to  the  queen  of  Charles  II.,  is  among  the 
ornaments  of  the  British  crown.  Large  and  fine 
pearls  have  also  been  procured  from  rivers  of 
Tyrone  and  Donegal. 

FRESHWATER  STRATA  are  so  named  from 
their  supposed  origin.  This  can  be  easily  deter- 
mined from  an  examination  of  the  contained  fossils. 


FRESNEL-FREYTAG. 


Thoufrh  the  great  propoi-tion  of  aqueous  rocks  are 
of  mariue  origin,  yet  freshwater  strata  are  occasion- 
ally met  with.  The  yellow  sandstones  of  the  Old 
Red  or  Lower  Carboniferous  period  are  freshwater 
beds,  as  are  also  the  Burdie-House  limestone  in 
the  Edinbui-gh  coal-field,  the  Purbeck  beds  in  the 
Oolite,  the  Wealden  beds  in  the  Chalk,  and  the 
Hempstead  and  other  beds  in  the  Eocene  period. 

FRESNEL,  AuGUSTiN  Jean,  a  French  physicist, 
was  born  at  Broglie,  in  the  department  of  Eure, 
10th  May  1788,  educated  at  Caen  at  the  Ecole 
Polytechnique,  and  finally  at  the  Ecole  des  Fonts 
et  Chaussees.  On  the  completion  of  his  studies, 
he  was  sent  as  government  engineer  to  La  Vendee, 
and  afterwards  to  the  department  of  Drome,  where 
he  remained  till  March  1815.  On  the  return  of 
Napoleon  from  Elba,  F.  offered  his  services  to 
the  Bourbons,  but  ill  health  prevented  him  from 
actively  engaging  in  military  life.  At  the  Restora- 
tion, he  resumed  his  duties  as  government  engineer ; 
but  in  the  interval  he  had  been  devoting  his 
enforced  leisure  to  physico-mathematical  researches, 
particularly  the  polarisation  of  light,  with  so  much 
success,  that  although  in  a  letter,  dated  28th  Decem- 
ber 1814,  we  find  him  writing  to  a  friend  to  get 
him  some  books  on  the  subject,  as  he  did  not  know 
what  the  phrase  'polarisation  of  light  meant'  (' Je 
ne  sais  ce  qu'on  entend  par  la  polarisation  de  la 
lumi(ire'),  yet  before  the  completion  of  the  follow- 
ing year,  he  ranked  among  the  first  authorities  on 
the  question.  In  ignorance,  it  is  said  of  the  labours 
of  Young,  F.  demonstrated  to  his  countrymen  the 
error  of  the  Newtonian  theory  of  the  propagation 
of  light  by  the  emission  of  material  particles,  and 
ably  advocated  the  undulatory  hypothesis.  The 
result  of  his  researches  was  exhibited  in  a  memoir, 
crowned  by  the  French  Academic  des  Sciences  in 
1819.  Along  with  Arago,  he  investigated  the  action 
exercised  by  polarised  rays  of  light  on  eacli  other, 
and  their  discoveries,  published  in  a  joint  memoir, 
confirmed  his  previous  theory  on  the  mode  of  the 
proj)agation  of  light.  His  practical  application  of  the 
new  theory  to  the  improvement  of  the  light-house 
system,  was  of  incalculable  value,  and  has  quite 
abolished  the  old  method  of  illuminating  light- 
houses. See  Light-houses.  In  1823,  F,  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  Academic  des  Sciences ;  in  1825, 
a  member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  ;  and  in 
16>27,  received  from  the  same  Society  the  Kumford 
mt  dal  for  his  discoveries  concerning  light  and  heat. 
He  died  July  14,  1827. 

1^'RET,  a  figure,  in  Heraldry,  resembling  two 
Btio.js  laid  saltier  wise,  and  interlaced  with  a  mascle. 


Fret.  Fretty. 

FRFiTTY.  When  six,  eight,  or  more  pieces  are 
represented  crossing  and  interlacing  like  lattice-work, 
the  shield  is  said  to  be  fretty. 

FREYJA  AND  FRFGGA,  though  spoken  of  in 
northern  mythology  as  distinct,  are  originally  one, 
and  intimately  associated  with  Freyr.  Frigga,  in  the 
genealogy  of  the  Ases  (q.  v.),  is  the  supreme  goddess, 
wife  of  Odin,  and  one  of  the  daughters  of  the  giant 
Fiorgwyn,  and  presides  over  marriages.  Freyja  is 
the  daughter  of  Niord,  sister  of  Freyr,  and  goddess 
of  love.  She  is  drawn  on  a  car  yoked  with  cats  ;  to 
her  deceased  women  go,  and  also  the  half  of  those 


that  fall  in  battle,  whence  she  is  called  Val-Freyja. 
In  this  last  respect,  she  must  be  considered  as 
signifying  the  Earth  ;  but  the  earth  is  also  repre- 
sented by  Frigga,  the  wife  of  Odin,  and  when 
Freyja  seeks  Odin,  as  Isis  seeks  her  Osiris,  this  is 
Odin  conceived  as  the  Sun.  The  names  also,  Frigga 
and  Freyja,  are  in  signification  almost  alike,  and 
the  two  are  often  confoimded  in  mythology.  The 
Anglo-Saxons  and  Lombards  worshipped  the  vnfo 
of  Odin  as  Frea.    The  name  yet  survives  in  Friday. 

FREYR,  the  son  of  Niord,  of  the  dynasty  of  the 
Vanagods,  was  adopted  with  his  father  among  the 
Ases,  who,  when  he  got  his  first  tooth,  bestov/ed 
upon  him  the  celestial  castle  Alfheim.  He  is  the 
god  of  peace  and  fertility;  dispenses  rain  and  fer- 
tility; and  to  him  prayers  for  a  good  harvest  are 
addressed.  His  wife  is  Gerda,  daughter  of  the 
giant  Gymer.  F.  had  seen  her  as  he  once  ascended 
the  lofty  seat  of  Odin,  Hlidskialf,  from  which  every- 
thing on  earth  is  seen.  Gerda  was  so  beautiful,  that 
the  brightness  of  her  naked  arms  illuminated  air 
and  sea.  Seized  with  violent  love,  F.  sent  Skirnir 
as  spokesman,  and  for  his  services  had  to  give 
him  his  good  sword,  which  he  will  miss  in  the  great 
final  contest  or  eclipse  of  the  gods.  Like  Freyja,  he 
was  the  patron  of  marriage,  and  probably  the  two 
wei'e  at  one  time  conceived  as  united,  hermaphro- 
dite-wise. F.  was  held  in  great  veneration,  especially 
in  Sweden,  of  which  he  was  patron-god,  and  also  in 
Iceland.  His  chief  temple  was  at  Upsala,  where  a 
bloody  offering  was  yearly  made  to  him  of  men  and 
animals.  His  festival  was  at  the  winter  solstice, 
the  turn  of  the  year — Yule-tide.  While  the  god 
was  borne  round  the  land,  all  strife  was  laid  aside. 
(Does  '  the  procession  of  the  boar's-head,'  at  Ckrist- 
mas-time,  commemorate  F.,  who  rode  on  the  boar, 
GuUinbursti,  and  whose  symbol  was  the  boar's- 
head  ?)  The  circumstance  that  the  Saxon  form  of 
F.'s  name.  Fro,  has  been  preserved  in  the  German 
name  of  a  Christian  festival,  Fronleichnam  (Corpus 
Christi,  the  Lord's  body),  seems  to  shew  that  it  had 
become  among  these  peoples  the  abstract  term  for  a 
god. 

FREYTAG,  Gustav,  a  dramatic  poet  and 
novelist  of  Germany,  was  born  13th  Jidy  1816,  at 
Kreuzburg,  in  Silesia,  studied  at  the  universities  of 
Breslau  and  Berlin,  and  took  his  degree  in  phil- 
osophy in  183S.  His  first  important  work  was  a 
comedy,  entitled  Die  Brautfahrt,  oder  Kunz  von 
Bosen  (Breslau,  1844).  Among  his  other  productions 
may  be  mentioned  In  Breslau  (Berlin,  1845),  which 
is  a  collection  of  small  poems  written  in  a  popular 
style  ;  the  dramas  Die  Valentine  (Leip.  1847)  and 
Graf  Waldemar  (Leip.  1848) ;  and  the  comedy 
entitled  Die  Journalistcn.  (1854).  An  edition  of  his 
dramatic  works  was  published  at  Leipsic,  in  3  vols., 
1848 — 1850.  But  hi^  greatest  achievement  in  litera- 
ture is  undoubtedly  Soil  und  Hnben  (Leip.  1855),  a 
novel  of  German  citizen-life,  illustrating  its  persever- 
ance and  counigeous  loyalty.  It  has  been  translated 
into  English  under  the  title  of  Debit  and  Credit 
(1858).  In  1859,  F.  published  a  new  classical  drama, 
Die  Fahier^  a  second  edition  of  ^vhich  appeared  the 
following  year.  A  series  of  prose  pictures  from  Ger- 
man history,  entitled  Ntue  Bilder  aiis  dem  Lehen  des 
Deutschen  Volkes  (Leip.  186^),  was  translated  by  Mrs. 
Malcolm,  under  the  title  oi  Pictures  of  German  Life. 
The  same  lady  published  in  1865  The  Lost  Manu- 
script^ a  translation  of  Die  Verlorene  Handschrift^ 
published  in  the  previous  year  by  Freytag.  In  conse- 
quence of  a  difference  with  the  publisher  of  the  Grenz- 
hoten  (Border  Messenger)  in  1870,  he  retired  from  the 
oditorsliip  of  that  journal,  which  he  had  conducted 
for  23  years,  and  became  the  editor  of  a  weekly  paper 
published  at  Leipsic. 

617 


FRIAR— FPtlCTlOK 


FillAR,  a  name  common  to  the  members  of  cer- 
tain i-eligious  orders  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
and  generally  employed  in  contradistinction  to  the 
name  Monk  and  Regular  Clerk  (see  these  articles). 
The  name  friar,  although  from  its  etymology 
{frere,  brother)  it  belongs  to  the  members  of  all 
religious  brotherhoods,  yet  has  come  to  be  reserved 
almost  exclusively  for  the  brethren  of  the  Mendi- 
cant orders.  It  is  applied  chiefly  to  the  four  great 
orders,  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Augustinians,  Car- 
melites, and  later,  to  the  Trinitarians,  and  to  the 
various  branches  of  these  orders.  The  Franciscans 
Were  properly  denominated  '  Friavs  Minor'  [Fr aires 
Minores).  The  Dominicans  received,  in  contrast,  the 
title  '  Friars  Major,'  which,  however,  was  j)erhaps 
rather  a  sobriquet  thar  a  serious  name.  These  several 
bodice*  of  fiiars  too,  were  popularly  called,  from 
the  ci  lour  or  other  peculiarity  of  their  habit,  Grey 
Friars  (Franciscans),  Black  Friars  (Dominicans), 
White  Friars  (Carmelites)  Crutched  [or  Crouched 
{Cruciati,  'crossed')]  Friars  (Trinitarians),  so  called 
from  the  cross  which  was  embroidered  upon  their 
habit.  This  is  the  origin  of  the  names  of  the  several 
localities  in  London,  and  other  towns  thus  desig- 
nated, to  the  present  day.  In  the  orders  to  which 
we  refer,  the  friars  who  are  in  priest's  orders  are 
Btyled  'father.'  The  other  members  are  called 
imply  'brother.'  The  vow  taken  by  friars  at  pro- 
fession is  of  the  class  called  in  the  Catholic  Church 
*  solemn,'  and  is  held  to  render  null  and  void  any 
contract  of  marriage  entered  into  by  the  party 
subsequently  to  his  religious  profession. 

FRIARS'  BALSAM.    See  Benzoin. 

FRI'CTIOK  When  one  body  rubs  against 
another  as  it  moves,  a  certain  force  is  felt  to  resist 
the  motion.  This  resistance  is  cv^WeA  friction.  As  a 
considerable  proportion  of  the  motive-power  in  all 
operations  is  spent  in  overcoming  the  friction  of  the 

f)arts  of  the  machine  upon  one  another,  and  is  thus 
ost  for  the  useful  work,  it  is  of  great  importance  to 
luiderstand  the  nature  of  this  obstructive  force,  with 
a  \dew  to  reduce  it  to  the  least  possible  amount. 
Accordingly,  a  great  many  careful  experiments  have 
been  made  on  this  subject,  and  the  result  is  a 
number  of  precise  and  valuable  facts  or  laws  regard- 
ing friction,  which  are  now  considered  certain  and 
reliable.  The  more  important  may  be  thus  stated 
and  illustrated. 

When  a  block  of  oak — say  a  cubic  foot,  which 
weighs  about  60  lbs. — is  placed  on  a  horizontal  table 
of  cast  iron,  the  two  surfaces  being  flat  and  Smooth, 
it  requires  a  force  of  nearly  f  the  weight  of  the 
block,  or  24  lbs.,  jralling  horizontally,  to  make  it 
slide  along  the  table.  This  measures  the  friction 
between  the  two  surfaces.  Another  block  of  the 
same  size  and  shape  laid  on  the  same  table,  would 
require  the  same  force  to  draw  it ;  and  if  the  two 
were  laid  side  by  side,  and  fastened  together  so  as 
to  become  one  block,  it  would  evidently  require 
double  the  force,  or  48  lbs.,  to  draw  the  double 
block ;  the  amount  of  the  friction  being  thus  still 
\  of  the  weight,  or  of  the  pressure  between  the  two 
iurfaces.  But  suppose  that,  instead  of  being  laid 
side  by  side,  the  second  block  were  laid  on  the  top 
of  the  first,  what  is  to  be  expected?  Here  the 
weight  is  doubled  as  before,  but  the  extent  of  rub- 
bing surface  remains  unaltei-ed ;  it  would  be  natural, 
therefore,  to  expect  that  this  would  make  a  differ- 
ence, and  that,  though  the  friction  would,  of  course, 
be  increased,  the  increase  would  be  less  than  in 
the  former  case.  Experiment,  however,  shews  that 
there  is  no  difference,  and  that  the  friction  is  just 
double  in  both  cases.  In  short,  the  unexpected  and 
important  fact  is  established,  that,  vnth'in  certain 
limits,  the  /victim  of  any  two  surfaces  increases  in 


proportion  to  the  force  with  which  they  are  pretaed 
togetlier,  and  is  wholly  independent  of  ilie  extent  of  the 
surfaces  in  contact. 

The  amount  of  friction  between  two  bodies  Ik  thufc 
a  constant  fraction  or  proportion  of  the  force  with 
which  they  are  pressed  against  each  other.  This 
fraction  differs  for  the  different  kinds  of  surfaces. 
Thus,  between  oak  and  cast  iron,  it  is,  as  already 
stated,  about  I,  or  more  exactly,  "38 ;  for  wrought 
iron  on  wrought  iron  (we  speak  at  present  of  dry 
surfaces,  without  grease  or  unguent  of  any  kind),  it 
is  '44 ;  for  brass  upon  cast  iron,  •22.  This  constant 
fraction  (expressing  the  proportion  between  the 
pressure  of  two  surfaces  and  their  friction)  is  called 
the  coefficient  of  friction  for  these  two  surfaces. 

Another  way  of  illustrating  this  law  of  friction  is 
the  following,  which  has  an  important  bearing  on 
the  erection  of  structures,  and  on  mechanics  in 
general.  Suppose  a  slab  AB,  in  contact  with  another 
slab  CD,  of  the 
same  or  of  difi'er- 
ent  material ;  an»l 
that  a  force  PQ 
presses  on  AB 
obliquely.  Let  QR 
be  the  perpendi- 
cular to  the  two 
surfaces,  and  draw 
PR,  PS  parallel  to 
AB  and  QR,  thus 
resolving  the  force 
PQ  into  two  forces, 

one,  PS,  pressing  AB  against  CD,  the  other,  PR  or 
SQ,  tending  to  make  AB  slide  towards  C.  It  wiU 
clearly  depend  upon  the  strength  of  friction  between 
AB  and  CD,  how  far  the  force  PQ  may  be  made  to 
decline  from  the  perpendicular  without  actually 
causing  the  one  body  to  slide  on  the  other.  Suppose 
that  when  the  pushing  force  is  brought  into  the 
position  P'Q,  AB  is  just  ready  to  slip  on  CD,  and 
that  it  is  a  case  of  oak  upon  iron ;  then,  since  P'S' 
or  R'Q  is  the  force  pressing  the  siirfaces  together, 
and  P'R'  or  S'Q  the  force  tending  to  produce 
motion,  P  R'  will  be  |  of  R'Q.  The  angle  P'QR'  is 
called  the  limiting  angle  of  resistance  of  the  two 
surfaces  AB,  CD  ;  for  so  long  as  the  direction  of  the 
pressure  PQ  is  within  that  angle,  the  friction  of  the 
surfaces  will  sustain  it ;  but  if  the  obliquity  is 
greater,  the  surfaces  will  slip.  This  is  true,  inde- 
pendently of  the  extent  of  the  siu-faces  in  contact ; 
and  also  of  the  amoimt  of  the  pressure ;  for  the 
stability  depends  upon  the  proportion  of  PR  to  RQ, 
and  that  is  the  same,  whatever  is  the  length  of  PQ, 
so  long  as  its  inclination  is  the  same. 

If  the  slab  CD  were  tilted  up,  so  as  to  form  an 
inclined  plane,  until  AB  were  on  the  point  of  sliding, 
the  angle  of  inclination  would  be  found  to  be  equal 
to  the  limiting  angle  of  resistance  RQP'. 

Knowing  the  coefficient  of  friction  of  any  two 
substances,  their  limiting  angle  of  resistance  ia 
easily  found.  Example. — The  coefficient  of  brick 
upon  hard  limestone  is  -60 ;  required  the  limiting 
angle.  Take  a  line  QR'  of  any  convenient  length, 
raise  a  perpendicidar  R'P'  equal  to  of  QR',  and 
join  QP  ;  R'QP'  is  the  angle  required  :  if  measiu-ed, 
it  would  be  found  to  be  about  3r.  In  any  struc- 
ture, then,  the  obliquity  of  the  thrust  between 
two  surfaces  of  these  materials  must  always  be 
considerably  within  this  limit,  in  order  to  be  safe. 

friction  of  quiescence^  that  is,  the  resistance  to 
the  commencement  of  motion,  is  greater  than  the 
resistance  to  its  continuance ;  and  the  more  so  if 
the  surfaces  have  been  a  considerable  time  in  con- 
tact. But  the  slightest  shock  or  jar  is  sufficient  to 
destroy  this  cohesion,  or  whatever  it  is  that  consti- 
tutes the  peculiar  initial  resistance  ;  so  that  it  is  onljr 


FEIEDLAND. 


the  constant  and  regular  friction  of  motion  that  is 
of  much  consequence  in  practice. 

Friction  is  very  much  diminished  by  the  use  of 
grease  or  unguents.  The  coefficient  of  wrought  iron 
ui)on  oak,  which,  in  the  dry  state,  is  '49,  is  reduced 
by  the  application  of  water  to  "26,  and  by  dry  soap 
to  '21.  The  result  of  experiments  on  this  subject 
is  stated  to  be,  '  that  with  the  unguents,  hog's-lard 
and  ohve-oil,  interposed  in  a  continuous  stratum 
between  them,  surfaces  of  wood  on  metal,  wood  on 
wood,  metal  on  wood,  and  metal  on  metal  (when  in 
motion),  have  all  of  them  very  nearly  the  same 
coefficient  of  friction,  the  value  of  that  coefficient 
being  in  all  cases  included  between  "07  and  "08.' 
Tallow  gives  the  same  coefficient  as  the  other 
unguents,  except  in  the  case  of  metals  upon -metals, 
in  which  the  coefficient  rises  to  'lO.  In  the  case  of 
wood  on  wood,  black-lead  is  frequently  employed 
for  the  same  purpose. 

The  most  important  fact,  perhaps,  and  one  that 
could  hardly  have  been  anticipated  before  experi- 
ment, is,  that  the  fiidion  of  viotion  is  wlvolly  inde- 
pendent of  the  velocity  of  the  motion. 

The  resistance  to  the  motion  of  a  wheeled  carriage 
proceeds  from  two  sources  ;  the  friction  of  the  axle, 
and  the  inequalities  of  the  road.  The  resistance  of 
fiiction  to  the  turning  of  a  shaft  in  its  bearings,  or 
of  an  axle  in  its  box,  has  evidently  the  greater 
leverage,  the  thicker  the  journal  or  the  axle  is  ;  the 
axles  of  wheels  are  accordingly  made  as  small  as  is 
consistent  with  the  required  strength.  The  resist- 
ance that  occurs  between  the  circumference  of  the 
wheel  and  the  road,  constitutes  what  is  called  ro//i«(7 
friction.  There  are  on  all  roads,  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent,  visible  rigid  prominences,  such  as  small 
stones,  in  i)assing  over  which  the  wheel  and  the 
load  resting  on  it  have  to  be  lifted  np  against 
gra\aty.  But  even  were  these  wanting,  the  hardest 
road  yields,  and  allows  the  wheel  to  sink  to  a 
certain  depth  below  its  surface  ;  so  that  in  front  of 
the  wheel  there  is  always  an  eminence  or  obstacle, 
which  it  is  at  every  instant  surmounting  and  crush- 
ing down.  This  is  the  case  even  on  iron  rails, 
though  of  course  to  a  much  less  extent  than  on  any 
other  road.  Now,  for  overcoming  this  resistance, 
it  can  be  shewn,  on  the  principle  of  the  lever,  that  a 
large  wheel  has  the  advantage  over  a  small  one ; 
and  by  numerous  experiments,  the  fact  has  been 
fidly  established,  that  on  horizontal  roads  of  uniform 
quality  and  material,  the  traction  varies  directly  as 
the  load,  and  inversely  as  the  radius  of  the  wheel. 

The  best  direction  of  traction  in  a  two- wheeled 
carriage  is  not  parallel  to  the  road,  but  at  a  slight 
inclination  upward,  in  proportion  to  the  depth  to 
which  the  wheel  sinks  in  the  road. 

On  a  perfectly  good  and  level  macadamised  road, 
the  traction  of  a  cart  is  found  to  be  of  the  load  ; 
that  is,  to  draw  a  ton,  the  horse  requires  to  pull 
with  a  force  equal  to  75  lbs.  On  a  railway,  the 
tractior  is  reduced  to  Tj4ir  the  load,  or  to  8  lbs.  per 
t^n. 

While  friction  thus  acts  as  an  obstruction  to 
Siiotion,  and  wastes  a  portion  of  the  motive-power, 
it  has  also  important  uses.  It  is,  in  fact,  an  indis- 
pensable condition,  no  less  than  gravity,  in  the 
stability  of  every  structure,  and  in  every  mechanical 
motion  on  the  earth's  surface.  How  essential  it  is  to 
our  own  movements,  we  experience  when  we  try  to 
walk  on  ice.  Even  on  ice  there  is  still  considerable 
friction,  so  that  one  foot  can  be  slightly  advanced 
before  the  other ;  were  it  altogether  annihilated, 
we  could  not  stir  a  fraction  of  an  inch,  even  suppos- 
ing we  could  stand  upright.  Without  friction,  a 
ladder  could  not  be  planted  against  a  wall,  unless 
there  were  a  hole  in  the  ground  to  retain  the  foot. 
In  abort,  no  oblique  pressure  of  any  kind  could 


be  sustained.  The  advantage  of  railways  consistM 
chiefly  in  the  diminution  of  friction  ;  but  were  thia 
diminution  carried  much  further,  there  could  be  no 
motion  whatever,  at  least  by  means  of  locomotives. 
Without  considerable  frictioii,  the  driving-wheels 
of  the  locomotive  would  slide  round  on  the  rails 
without  advancing ;  and  this  sometimes  happens, 
when  particular  states  of  the  weather  render  the 
rails  as  if  they  were  greased. 

The  force  of  friction  is  often  directly  emploj'ed  in 
mechanics.  It  is  used,  for  instance,  to  communicate 
motion  by  means  of  belts,  chains,  &c.  It  is  the 
force  that  holds  a  knot.  It  is  specially  useful  when 
a  machine,  with  great  momentum,  has  to  be  checked 
or  arrested  in  its  motion.  The  best  example  of  this 
is  the  break  used  on  railways.  By  means  of  a 
system  of  levers,  blocks  of  wood  are  made  to  press 
against  the  circumferences  of  a  number  of  the  car- 
riage-wheels ;  and  thus  the  momentum  of  a  train 
weighing  hundreds  of  tons,  and  moving  with  a 
velocity  of  j^erhaps  50  miles  an  hour,  is  gradually 
destroyed  in  a  wonderfidly  short  space  of  time. 

Friction-wheels  are  employed  to  diminish  the 
friction  of  axles  on  their  supports.  Two  wheels, 
of  large  circumference  in  proportion  to  their  weight, 
are  placed  close  together,  parallel  to  each  other, 
and  so  that  the  one  seems  to  overlap  the  half  of  the 
other ;  in  the  notch  thus  formed  by  the  upper  cir- 
cumferences of  the  wheels  one  end  of  the  axle  rests ; 
a  similar  arrangement  being  made  for  the  other 
end.  The  friction,  which  formerly  acted  directly 
on  the  axle,  is  by  this  arrangement  referred  to  the 
axles  of  the  friction- wheels,  and  is,  by  the  laws  of 
mechanics,  reduced  in  the  ratio  of  the  circumfer- 
ence of  the  friction- wheel  to  the  circumference  of 
its  axle.  In  order  to  render  the  friction  of  th& 
friction- wheels  themselves  the  least  possible,  they 
are  made  as  light  and  as  large  as  is  practicable. 

FRIE'DLAND,  a  small  town  of  East  Prussia, 
in  the  circle  of  Konigsberg,  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Alle,  26  miles  south-east  of  Kiinigsberg, 
in  lat.  54°  26'  N.  and  long.  21°  E.  Pop.  2581,  who 
are  employed  in  linen- weaving.  F.  has  been  rendered 
famous  by  the  victory  obtained  there  by  Napoleon, 
14th  June  1807,  over  the  Russian  forces  rnder 
Bennigsen.  The  Russian  general  found  himself 
unable  to  cope  successfully  with  an  army  of  80,000 
men,  as  his  own  force  consisted  of  less  than  50,000 
horse  and  foot ;  and  he  was  forced  to  retire  after  a 
disastrous  battle.  He  fell  back  upon  the  town  of 
Tilsit,  on  the  Niemen,  where  the  treaty  between 
the  French  and  Russian  emperors  and  the  king  of 
Prussia,  known  as  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  was  drawn 
up. — Friedland  is  also  the  name  of  a  town  in 
Bohemia,  situated  on  the  Wittig,  near  the  Prussian 
border.  It  is  the  capital  of  a  district  or  duchy  of 
the  same  name,  from  which  the  famous  Wallenstein 
(q.  V.)  took  his  title  of  Duke  of  Friedland.  Pop,  oi 
the  town,  4400. 

FRIEDLAND,  Valentin,  generally  called,  from 
his  birthplace,  Trotzendorf,  and  indisputably  the 
greatest  educationist  of  his  age,  was  a  native  of 
Upper  Lusatia,  and  was  born  14th  February  1490. 
After  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1513,  he  went  to 
Leipsic,  where  he  studied  under  the  celebrated  Peter 
Mosellanus  and  Richard  Crocus,  acquiring  among 
other  things  a  knowledge  of  Greek.  On  the  dawn 
of  the  Reformation,  he  proceeded  to  Wittenberg, 
where  he  foi-med  a  close  intimacy  with  Luther  and 
Melancthon,  and  learned  Hebrew  from  a  converted 
Jew.  In  1523,  he  proceeded  to  Goldberg,  in  Sdesia, 
as  rector  of  the  gj'mnasium  there  ;  left  after  four 
years,  but  retm-ned  in  1531,  and  exliibited  the  greatest 
energy  in  improving  the  organisation  of  the  school 
Success  crowned  his  efforts.     The  gymnasium  of 


FRIENDLY  ISLANDS— FRIENDLY  SOCIETIES. 


Goldberg  acqiiired  a  rare  celebrity.  Not  only  from 
Silesia,  but  also  from  Poland,  Lithuania,  Austria, 
Bohemia,  Hungary,  and  Transylvania,  i)upils  sought 
it  in  great  numbers.  Often  more  than  1000  attended 
at  a  time,  who  all  dwelt  together  in  buildings  set 
apart  for  the  purpose,  and  were  admirably  super- 
intended and  drilled.  F.  had  a  most  wonderful 
belief  in  the  efficacy  of  knowledge,  and,  in  particidar, 
placed  so  high  a  value  on  clearness  of  thought  and 
e?:pression,  that  he  was  wont  to  affirm  that  only 
rogues  were  unintelligible,  and  that  an  obscure  and 
confused  diction  was  a  sure  sign  of  a  knavish 
disposition.  He  died  at  Liegnitz,  26th  April  1556. 
Compare  Pinzger's  Valenthi  Friedland,  genannt 
Trotzendorf  (Hirschberg,  1825). 

FRIENDLY  ISLANDS,  as  distinguished  from 
the  Fiji  Islands  (q.  v.),  generally  reckoned  a  part 
of  them,  are  otherwise  styled  tlie  Tonga  Group. 
They  stretch  in  S.  lat.  from  18°  to  23  ,  and  in  W. 
long,  from  172°  to  176°,  and  consist  of  about  32 
greater,  and  150  smaller  islands,  about  30  of  which 
are  inhabited.  The  great  majority  are  of  coral 
formation  ;  but  some  are  volcanic  in  their  origin,  and 
iu  Tofua  there  is  an  active  volcano.  The  princii)al 
member  of  the  archipelago  is  Tongatahu  or  Sacred 
Tonga,  which  contains  about  7500  inhabitants,  out  of 
a  total  population  of  about  25,000.  The  F.  I.  were 
discovered  by  Tasman  in  1643,  l)ut  received  their 
collective  name  from  Cook.  Both  these  navigators 
found  the  soil  closely  and  highly  cultivated,  and 
the  people  apparently  unprovided  with  arms.  The 
climate  is  salubrious,  but  humid  ;  earthquakes  and 
hurricanes  are  frequent,  but  the  former  are  not 
destructive.  Among  the  products  of  the  islands  are 
yams,  sweet-potatoes,  bananas,  cocoa-nuts,  bread- 
iruit,  sugar-cane,  the  ti,  hog-plum,  &c. ;  some  corn 
also  is  grown.  The  Flora  resembles  that  of  the 
Fiji  group;  but  the  native  animals  are  very  few. 

The  F.  1.  were  first  visited  by  missionaries  in 
1797.  In  1827  the  work  of  evangelisation  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Wesleyan  Methodists,  and  after 
a  lengthened  and  perilous  struggle  with  the  savage 
paganism  of  the  inhabitants,  it  was  crowned  witii 
success.  Almost  all  the  islanders  are  now  Christians; 
great  numbers  can  speak  English,  and,  in  addition, 
nave  learned  writing,  arithmetic,  and  geography  ; 
while  the  females  have  been  taught  to  sew.  The 
various  islands  used  to  be  governed  by  independent 
chiefs,  but  nearly  the  whole  of  them  are  now  under 
the  rule  of  one  chief,  called  King  George,  who  is 
not  only  a  Christian,  but  a  zealous  preacher  of  the 
gosi>el. 

FRIENDLY  SOCIETIES.  The  imcertainties 
of  human  life  and  health,  and  the  effects  of  these  on 
the  well-being  of  those  who  are  dependent  for  their 
subsistence  on  human  labour,  are  too  manifest  not 
to  have  arrested  the  attention  of  men  in  all  ages, 
and  to  have  taxed  their  ingenuity  to  guard  against 
them.  It  is  probable,  therefore,  that  traces  of  some 
sort  of  institution,  corresponding  more  or  less  closely 
to  the  friendly  societies  of  modern  Europe,  might 
be  found  wherever  mankind  have  not  depended  for 
their  means  of  li^'^ng  on  the  sjiontaneous  products  of 
the  soil.  At  all  events,  they  had  their  prototypes 
in  the  cases,  boxes,  and  chests,  or  kists — as  they 
were  called  in  Scotland  as  in  Germany— of  the 
guilds  and  corporations  of  medieval  Europe ;  which 
were  funds  not  only  for  maintaining  the  dignity  and 
m/nistering  to  the  conviviality  of  the  members,  but 
for  providing  for  the  aged  and  the  sick-  Mr  Turner 
finds  them  in  Anglo-Saxon  England,  and,  like  the 
other  institutions  connected  with  municipal  life,  they 
probably  formed  part  of  the  legacy  of  the  Romans 
to  the  Teutonic  conquerors  of  Europe.  Friendly 
feocieties  are  a  form  of  mutual  insurance,  and  like 
520 


all  insurances,  they  depend  on  the  principle  of  sab- 
stituting  the  certainty  which  attends  the  fortunes 
of  large  numbers  of  men  for  the  uncertainty  which 
belongs  to  the  fortune  of  each.  The  objects  which 
friendly  societies  usually  contemplate  are  the  secur- 
ing, in  virtue  of  a  small  periodical  pa^-ment  during 
health  and  vigour,  of  a  weekly  sum  during  sickness, 
and  of  a  pension  after  a  certain  age.  In  some  respects, 
and  for  some  cases,  joining  a  friendly  society  ia 
better  than  becoming  a  de2)ositor  in  a  savings-banl:. 
Sickness  may  come  before  the  savings  are  consider- 
able ;  or,  if  considerable,  they  may  be  melted  away 
by  a  long-continued  sickness ;  but  after  the  tirst 
weekly  payment  is  made  to  a  friendly  society,  the 
member  is  secure  of  succour,  however  long  his  illness 
may  continue,  besides,  perhaps,  other  advantages. 
It  is  possible,  on  the  other  hand,  that  a  difhculty 
may  be  experienced,  in  certain  circumstances,  in 
keeping  up  the  weekly  or  other  periodical  payments 
required  to  secure  the  benefits  of  friendly  societies. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that,  of  this  excellent  class 
of  institutions,  many  are  founded  upon  erroneous 
pi'inciples,  or  rather  upon  no  principles  at  all ; 
and  it  often  hap])ens,  therefore,  that  those  who 
trust  to  Ihera  are  disa])pointed,  the  funds  falling 
short  before  all  claims  are  satisfied.  This  was  at 
one  time  not  to  be  wondered  at,  as  no  proper 
calculations;  for  friendly  societies  existed  ;  but  such 
is  no  longe:..*  the  case,  sound  calculations  being  now 
attainable.  Nevertheless,  there  is  still  a  consider- 
able number  of  obscure  societies  scattered  through- 
out the  country,  proceeding  altogether  at  random, 
and  by  which  the  labouring-classes  are  induced  to 
missi)end  large  sums.  We  trust  that  what  we  have 
now  to  state  "Vv  ill  be  of  some  service  in  promoting 
the  establishment  of  sound  societies,  and  putting  an 
end  to  such  as  are  of  a  different  kind. 

One  great  mistake  in  the  formation  of  friendly 
societies  is  to  i.ssume  that  each  member  should  i)ay 
an  equal  sum,  whatever  his  age  may  be.  This  ia 
unjust  to  the  5  ounger  members,  who  have  a  less 
chance  of  becoLiing  burdensome  to  the  funds  than 
the  middle-aged ;  and,  indeed,  there  is  a  rising  scale 
of  probability  of  sickness  throughout  all  the  years  of 
a  man's  life.  The  Highland  Society  found  that, 
between  twenty  and  thirty,  men  are  liable,  at  an 
average,  to  be  half  a  week  indisposed  per  annum. 
Between  thirty  and  forty,  the  average  was  about 
two-thirds  of  a  week.  At  forty-six,  it  became  a  full 
week,  at  fifty-seven  two  weeks ;  at  seventy,  eleven 
weeks.  Various  other  partial  observations  exist ; 
but  as  it  has  been  found  that  sickness  varies  more 
considerably  than  mortality  with  the  salubrity  of 
the  localities  inhabited  and  the  occupations  of  the 
members,  no  absolute  reliance  can  be  placed  on  their 
results.  All  of  them,  however,  agree  in  this,  that 
increase  of  years  is  attended  by  increased  liability  to 
sickness.  Now,  a  rightly  constituted  friendly  society 
is  bound  to  advert  to  this  circumstance.  To  admit 
all  ages  at  an  equal  payment,  is  clearly  making  the 
younger  members  pay  for  the  elder,  who  should 
have  entered  at  an  earlier  age,  and  been  paying  all 
along. 

Another  great  error  in  the  constitution  of  benefit 
societies  is  in  making  them  for  a  year  only.  Yearly 
societies,  as  they  are  called,  usually  originate  with 
some  individual — often  the  keeper  of  a  tavern — who 
advertises  that  a  society  will  be  formed  in  his  house 
on  a  particidar  day.  Applicants  for  admission  pay 
one  shilling  as  entry-money,  which  goes  into  the 
pocket  of  the  originator  of  the  scheme  by  way 
of  rent.  The  objects  are  generally  threefold — 
namely,  a  fund  for  sickness  and  funeral  exj)eiises, 
a  deposit  fund,  and  a  loan  bank.  Towards  the 
first,  there  is  perhaps  a  weekly  payment  of  two 
pence,  or  more  if  necessary,  together   with  the 


FRIENDLY 


•SOCIETIES. 


Interest  arising  from  the  loan  of  money  to  the 
members.  Towards  the  deposit  fund,  there  is  a 
payment  ranging  generally  from  sixpence  to  two 
shillings,  the  acciimidations  being  received  back 
when  the  society  closes.  The  money  deposited  is 
employed  in  making  loans  to  snch  of  the  members 
as  desire  such  accommodation,  within  the  amount  of 
their  several  entire  deposits  for  the  year,  one  penny 
per  pound  per  month  being  charged  by  way  of 
interest.  The  surplus,  if  any,  of  the  twopenccs  and 
interest,  after  sick  and  funeral  money,  books,  and 
other  necessaries  are  paid,  is  divided  amongst  those 
members  who  may  be  clear  of  the  books  at  the 
close  of  the  society.  Some  such  societies  are  formed 
by  a  spontaneous  association  of  persons,  who  prefer 
renting  a  room  for  their  meetings,  and  thus  escape 
the  temptations  of  a  tavern  ;  but  none  of  them 
avoid  the  eri-ors  of  an  equality  of  payments  for  all 
ages,  and  the  yearly  dissolution.  Should  sickness 
befall  any  one  towards  the  close  of  the  year,  he  is 
left,  when  the  society  dissolves,  quite  unprovided 
for,  because  he  cannot  enter  another  society  in  a 
state  of  sickness.  Considered  as  a  deposit  for  sav- 
ings, the  yearly  society  is  strikingly  inferior  to  the 
savings-bank,  in  as  far  as  the  depositor  cannot  take 
out  money  without  paying  an  exorbitant  rate  of 
interest.  Finally,  these  societies  are  generally  imder 
the  care  of  obscure  persons,  who  can  give  no  security 
for  the  funds  placed  in  their  hands,  and  who  in  many 
instances  liecome  bankruj^t  or  abscond  before  the 
final  reckoning.  Yearly  societies  are,  indeed,  in 
every  point  of  view  a  most  objectionable  class  of 
institutions,  to  which  working-people  would  never 
resort  but  for  their  ignorance  and  unwariness,  and 
the  temptations  held  out  to  allure  them. 

A  well-constituted  friendly  society  involves,  in 
the  first  place,  the  principle  of  payments  appropriate 
to  particular  ages,  as  no  other  plan  can  be  considered 
equitaljle.  It  stands  forth  before  the  working- 
classes  as  a  permanent  institution,  like  the  life-assur- 
ance societies  of  the  middle  and  upper  classes,  and 
necessarily  requires  its  members  to  consider  the 
connection  they  form  with  it  as  an  enduring  one, 
because  its  grand  aioi  is  expressly  to  make  provision, 
at  one  period  of  life,  for  contingencies  which  may 
arise  at  another — youth,  in  short,  to  endow  old  age. 
By  a  yearly  society,  a  man  is  left  at  last  no  better 
than  he  was  at  first,  as  far  as  that  society  is  con- 
cerned ;  but  the  proper  friendly  society  contem- 
plates his  enjoying  a  comfortable  and  independent 
old  age,  from  the  results  of  his  own  well-bestowed 
earnings. 

It  is  essential  to  the  character  of  a  proper  benefit 
society  that  individuals  be  not  admitted  indiscri- 
minately. To  take  in  a  person  in  bad  health  or  of 
broken  constitution,  is  imjust  to  those  members  who 
are  healthy,  because  he  is  obviously  more  likely  to 
be  a  speedy  burden  to  the  funds.  Here,  as  in  life- 
assurance  societies,  it  is  necessary  to  admit  members 
only  upon  their  shewing  that  they  are  of  sound  con- 
Btitution  and  in  the  enjoyment  of  good  health.  And 
it  may  be  well  to  grant  no  benefits  until  after  the 
member  has  been  a  year  in  the  society.  By  these 
means,  men  are  induced  to  enter  when  they  are 
hale  and  well,  instead  of  postponing  the  step  until 
they  have  a  pressing  need  for  assistance,  when  their 
endeavour  to  get  into  a  benefit  society  becomes 
little  else  than  a  fraud. 

Government  has  thought  proper  to  lend  its  aid  in 
the  formation  of  friendly  societies,  though  not  com- 
pulsorily.  An  association  of  persons  forming  one, 
has  tlie  means  of  ascertaining  the  soundness  of  its 
priuci])les,  and  also  entitles  itself  to  dei>osit  funds 
in  savings-banks,  with  the  government  security, 
and  at  not  less  than  £3,  0.sf.  lOd.  per  cent,  per 
annum,  by  submitting  the  proposed  rules  to  the 


barrister  appointed  to  certify  them,  to  whom  a  fee 
of  a  guinea  is  payable.  Under  the  sanction  of 
government,  tables  have  been  formed  by  Mr  John 
Tidd  Pratt,  registrar  of  friendly  societies  in  Eng- 
land, and  by  Dr  Farr,  the  actuary  of  the  Englisn 
registrar-general — the  former,  together  with  useful 
instructions  in  the  book-keeping  of  friendly  societies 
are  embodied  in  the  reports  by  Mr  Pratt,  printed 
by  order  of  the  House  of  Commons  for  the  years 
1856 — 1857,  and  the  latter,  together  with  a  masterly 
essay  on  the  mathematical  treatment  of  the  subject 
are  contained  in  the  twelfth  report  of  the  registrar- 
general  formerly  referred  to.  On  the  imperative 
necessity  of  acting  on  correct  tables  for  such  a 
purjiose,  it  would  be  superfluous  to  dwell ;  and  the 
necessity  of  identifying  the  rates  of  any  society  with 
such  responsible  authority  is  the  more  apparent,  as 
we  are  told  by  Mr  Pratt  that  the  'duty  of  the 
registrar,  in  examining  the  rules  of  a  friendly  society, 
is  confined  to  the  consideration  of  their  being  in 
accordance  with  law  and  the  jirovisions  of  the  acts 
in  force  relating  to  such  an  institution ;  and  that, 
although  the  registrar  certifies  to  the  legality  of  the 
rules  of  a  friendly  society,  it  does  not  follow  as  a 
necessary  consequence  that  the  constitution  of  the 
society  is  based  on  good  principles,  or  that  the  rates 
of  payment  are  sufficient  in  amount  to  guarantee  the 
promised  benefits  and  allowances.'  Before  quoting 
any  of  these  tables,  we  shall  endeavour  to  explain 
how  they  are  formed. 

We  have  an  idea  of  a  benefit  society  in  its 
simplest  form,  if  we  supi:)ose  a  hundred  men,  of 
exactly  33  years  of  age,  to  associate,  and  make  such 
a  payment  at  first  as  may  be  sure  to  afi^ord  each 
man  that  shall  fall  sick  during  the  ensuing  ye^r 
one  shilling  a  day  during  the  term  of  his  sickness. 
Taking,  for  the  sake  of  illustration,  the  Scottish 
Tables,  we  find  that,  amongst  such  a  body  of  men, 
there  will  be  about  66  weeks  of  illness  in  the  course 
of  the  year.  This,  multiplied  by  7,  gives  the  whole 
sum  required,  £23,  2s.,  or  a  little  more  than  4s.  Qd. 
each,  which,  less  by  a  small  sum  for  interest,  w^ill 
accordingly  be  the  entry-money  of  each  man.  A 
society  of  individuals  of  difi"erent  ages,  each  paying 
the  sum  which  would  in  like  manner  be  found 
proper  to  his  age,  would  be  quite  as  sound  in  prin- 
ciple as  one  on  the  above  simple  scheme.  It  is 
only  a  step  further  to  equalise  each  man's  annual 
payments  over  the  whole  period  during  which  he 
undertakes  to  be  a  paying  member. 

A  point  for  consideration,  however,  is  the  rate  at 
which  the  funds  of  the  society  may  be  improved. 
In  most  cases,  we  believe,  it  is  best  for  such  societies 
to  rest  content  with  taking  advantage  of  the  privi- 
lege which  they  enjoy  by  act  of  parliament,  of 
depositing  their  money  in  the  funds  or  the  savings- 
banks,  in  M^hich  case  they  are  sure  to  obtain  for  it 
interest  at  a  rate  of  not  less  than  £3,  Os.  lOd. 
cent,  per  annum. 

Proceeding  upon  these  or  nearly  similar  groimda 
of  calculation,  Dr  Farr  suggests  the  following  plan 
for  insuring  lives  and  granting  pensions  to  the 
classes  who  live  on  wages,  by  combining  the  pro- 
vision for  insurance  payable  in  a  sum  at  death,  and 
for  annuity  to  begin  at  the  age  of  65.  This  union 
deprives  the  two  operations  of  their  chief  risks,  and 
there  is  Httle  loss  by  the  lives  being  better  or  worse 
than  the  average.  The  pohcies  of  insurance  and 
annuities  can  be  easily  valued  every  year.  It  woidd 
be  necessary  to  add  a  little  to  the  premiums  for 
expense  of  management  and  for  fluctuation  in 
interest  and  values  of  public  securities.  The  plan  is 
so  constructed  that  the  annual  premiimi  is  invaii- 
able,  that  depositors  can  at  any  time  discontinue 
their  premium  and  withdraw  their  deposits,  with- 
out invalidating  or  diminishing  the  amount  of  theil 


FEIENDLY  SOCIETIES— FRIEJNDS. 


policy,  or  that  they  can  leave  the  sum  in  the  guar- 
antee fund  as  an  insurance,  to  a  certain  extent,  on 
their  lives — a  great  advantage  to  persons  of  uncer- 
tain life  incomes.  The  table  is  calculated  for  3  per 
cent,  interest  on  the  deposits.    Proprietary  and 


mntual  life-offices  add  19—40  per  cent,  to  the  calcu- 
lated premiums  for  profits,  expenses,  and  bonuses; 
and  Dr  Farr  proposes  to  add  one-fifth — that  is,  20 
per  cent,  for  a  like  reason. 


Dr  Farr's  Plan  to  insure  the  Lives  and  grant  Penaio}i8  to  the  Working -classes. 

Annual  Premium  to  insure  the  Life,  £1  1  To  be  discontinued 

Annual  Premium  to  provide  a  Life-annuity,  £1  J     at  the  ago  of  G5. 


No.  of 
Yets%  or 
IftetLiiiimi 
Faid. 

Sum  of  Annual  Premiums  paid. 

Sumi  in  Dopoait. 

After  ttie  Premiums  in  columns  2  and  3  Eure  pmld, 
the  Depositor  ia  insured  in  tlie  following. 

For  Annuitj. 

Foi  Asiurance. 

On  Annuity  Account. 

On  Iniurance  Account. 

Sums  at  Death. 

Deferred  Annuity,  to 
begin  at  Age  6t. 

1 
f 

U 
15 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 
45 
Nof 

£ 

6 
10 
15 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 
45 

urther  premiu 

£ 

6 
10 
15 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 
45 

ms  paid. 

£«.<<. 

1    0  0 
5    8  0 
11  19  3 
20   0  1 
29  19  7 
4>  11  6 
58  U)  11 
80  10  0 
110  17  1 
ir.9  1  9 
Diminishing. 

£«.<(. 

1    0  0 
5   3  2 
10  14  10 
16  16  3 
23   8  8 
30  13  0 
38  10  1 
47   1  4 
66    6  7 
65  15  11 
Increasing. 

£    «.  d. 

2  16  9 
13  15  4 
26  10  1 
38   5  2 
49   1  10 
59   1  1 
68   4  5 
76  12  11 
84   7  9 
91  11  0 
Sum  insured  at  death 
remains  ccmstant. 

£«.(<. 

0  17  5 

4   0  11 

7  7  8 
10   2  8 
12   7  7 

14  4  0 

15  13  2 

16  16  3 

17  14  2 

18  7  5 
Payment  of 

Annuity  commt  ncca. 

The  table  reads  thus :  A  person  commencing  at 
the  age  of  20,  pays  £2  a  year  until  he  is  64,  and 
then  pays  the  last  premium.  He  will,  at  the  age  of 
65,  having  paid  45  premiums,  receive  £18,  Is.  5d., 
also  the  same  sum  annually  for  the  rest  of  his  life. 
At  his  death,  his  relatives  or  rejiresentatives  will  be 
entitled  to  £91,  lis. 

Should  he  wish  to  discontinue  the  annual  premium 
on  the  insurance  account  at  any  time.,  the  sixth 
cplumn  shews  his  position  from  that  time ;  thus, 
after  the  fifteenth  premium  is  paid,  his  life  will 
stand  insured  to  the  amount  against  15  in  column  1 
— namely,  £38,  5*'.  2cZ.,  the  amount  in  deposit  at 
that  time  being  £16,  16s.  3(/.,  which  is  the  iwesent 
value  of  his  interest  in  the  scheme,  and  which  he 
may  be  allowed  to  withdraw,  subject  to  any  con- 
ditional by-law  of  the  society. 

In  like  manner,  the  annual  premium  in  the 
annuity  account  may  be  discontinued,  and  the 
deposit  withdrawn.  Thus  the  same  member  having 
paid  15  premiums  of  £1,  is  secured  in  an  annuity  of 
£10,  2s.  8d.  per  anntim,  commencing  at  the  age  of 
65,  as  before,  the  present  value  thereof  in  deposit  on 
his  account  being,  per  column  4  of  table,  £20,  Os.  Id. 

The  importance  is  evident  of  commencing  the 
insurance  at  an  early  age,  and  of  combining  the 
insurance  with  a  deferred  annuity.  On  both  the 
insurance  and  annuity  account,  the  premiums  may 
be  doubled  or  trebled,  and  in  that  case  will  provide 
double  or  treble  the  sum  insured,  as  well  as  double 
or  treble  the  annuity.  With  equal  premiums,  the 
amount  in  deposit  on  the  two  accounts  is  little  less 
at  the  outset  than  the  sum  insured,  and  in  a  few 
years  exceeds  it. 

For  those  who  find  occasion  to  go  deeper  into  the 
Bubject  of  friendly  societies,  with  a  view  to  found- 
ing such  institutions,  we  would  recommend,  in 
addition  to  the  works  already  mentioned,  a  careful 
perusal  of  that  which  Mr  Charles  Ansell  prepared 
for  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Know- 
icd  ^e,  and  which  was  published  by  that  society  in 
18.35.  Much  benefit  might  also  be  derived  from 
Mr  William  Eraser's  papers  on  Friendly  Societies, 
published  in  Professor  Jameson's  Philosophical 
Journal  in  1827. 

The  importance  of  friendly  societies  came  to  be  so 
strongly  felt  in  this  country,  that  in  1793  they  were 
made  an  object  of  statutory  protection  and  regula- 
tion, and  very  numerous  enactments  have  since  been 
passed  regarding  them.  In  1855,  the  whole  of  the 
iubsisting  legislation  regarding  them  was  repealed 


and  consolidated  by  18  and  19  Vict.  c.  63.  By  thJa 
act,  three  registrars  are  appointed,  one  for  England, 
and  one  for  Ireland,  both  to  be  barristers,  and  one 
for  Scotland,  to  be  an  advocate  ;  all  of  not  less  than 
seven  years'  standing.  The  salary  of  the  English 
registrar  is  £800,  and  those  of  the  Scotch  and  Irish 
registrars  £150  resi)ectively.  Under  the  jn-o visions 
of  the  act,  any  number  of  persons  may  establish  a 
friendly  society,  l)y  subscriptions  or  donations,  for 
the  following  objects.  *  1.  For  insuring  a  sum  of 
money  to  be  paid  on  the  birth  of  a  member's  child, 
or  on  the  death  of  a  member,  or  for  the  funeral 
expenses  of  the  wife  or  child  of  a  m'ember.  2.  For 
the  relief  or  maintenance  of  the  members,  their 
husbands,  wives,  children,  brothers  or  sisters,  nephews 
or  nieces,  in  old  age,  sickness,  or  widowhood,  or  the 
endowment  of  members,  or  nominees  of  members,  at 
any  age.  3.  For  any  purpose  which  shall  be  author- 
ised by  one  of  her  Majesty's  principal  secretaries  of 
state,  or  in  Scotland  by  the  Lord  Advocate,  as  a  pur- 
pose to  which  the  powers  and  facilities  of  this  act 
ought  to  be  extended :  provided  that  no  member  sliall 
subscribe  or  contract  for  an  annuity  exceedmg  thirty 
pounds  per  annum,  or  a  sum  payable  on  death,  or 
on  any  other  contingency,  exceeding  two  hundred 
pounds.'  The  rules  of  the  proposed  society  must  bo 
transmitted  to  the  registrar,  whose  certificate  to  the 
effect  that  it  is  in  conformity  with  law  shall  consti- 
tute it  an  established  society  from  the  date  of  said 
certificate.  No  money  is  to  be  paid  on  the  death  of 
a  child,  without  a  copy  of  entry  of  the  registrar  of 
deaths ;  and  by  the  subsequent  act,  21  and  22  Vict, 
c.  101,  s.  2,  it  is  further  provided,  no  payment  shall 
be  made  on  an  insurance  on  the  death  of  a  child 
under  ten  years  of  age,  for  funeral  expenses,  without 
a  certificate,  signed  by  a  qualified  medical  practi- 
tioner, stating  the  probable  cause  death.  The 
sums  payable  for  the  fimeral  expenses'  of  a  child 
under  five  are  not  to  exceed  £6,  or  for  a  child  above 
five  and  under  ten,  £10. 

FRIENDS,  Society  of,  the  proper  designation 
of  a  sect  of  Christians,  better  known  to  the  general 
community  by  the  name  of  Quakers.    Their  foundet 
was  George  Fox  {q.  v.),  born  at  Drayton,  in  Leices 
tershire,  in  1624,  who  at  first  followed  the  occi'.pation 
i  of  a  shoemaker,  but  afterwards  devoted  himself 
I  to  the  propagation  of  what  he  regarded  as  a  mora 
I  spiritual  form  of  Christianity  than  prevailed  in  his 
I  day.    In  spite  of  severe  and  cruel  persecutions,  the 
!  Society  of  F.  succeeded  in  establishing  theinselvea 
!  both  in  England  and  America.    They  have,  indeed 


FRIENDS. 


never  been  numerically  powerful  (having  at  no 
time  exceeded  200,000  members)  ;  but  the  purity 
of  life  which  from  the  beginning  has  so  honourably 
distinguished  the»^  as  a  class,  has  unquestionably 
exei'cised  a  salutary  influence  on  the  public  at  large ; 
while  in  respect  to  certain  great  questions  affecting 
the  iiiterests  of  mankind,  such  as  war  and  slavery, 
they  have,  beyond  all  doubt,  originated  opinions  and 
tendencies  which,  whether  sound  or  erroneous,  are 
no  longer  confined  to  themselves,  but  have  widely 
leavened  the  mind  of  Christendom.  For  an  account 
of  the  more  eminent  representatives  of  the  Friends, 
Bee  the  biographies  of  Barclay,  Fox,  Penn,  &c. 
We  confine  ourselves  here  to  a  brief  notice  of  their 
doctrine,  practice,  and  discipline,  as  it  is  laid  down 
in  their  oa\ti  publications. 

1.  Doctrine. — It  is  perhaps  more  in  the  spirit  than 
in  the  letter  of  their  faith  that  the  Society  of  F. 
differ  from  other  orthodox  Christians.  They  them- 
selves assert  their  belief  in  the  great  fundamental 
facts  of  Christianity,  and  even  in  the  substantial 
identity  of  most  of  the  doctrinal  opinions  which  they 
hold  with  those  of  other  evangelical  denominations. 
The  Epistle  addressed  by  George  Fox  and  other 
Friends  to  the  governor  of  Barbadoes,  in  1673, 
contains  a  confession  of  faith  not  differing  materi- 
ally from  the  so-called  Apostles'  Creed,  except  that 
it  is  more  copiously  worded,  and  dwells  with  great 
difFuseness  on  the  internal  woi'k  of  Christ.  The 
Declaration  of  Christian  Doctrine  given  forth  on 
behalf  of  the  Society  in  1693,  expresses  a  belief  in 
what  is  usually  termed  the  Trinity,  in  the  atone- 
ment made  by  Christ  for  sin,  in  the  resurrection 
from  the  dead,  and  in  the  doctrine  of  a  final  and 
eternal  judgment;  and  the  Declaratory  Minute  of 
the  yearly  meeting  in  1829  asserts  the  inspiration 
and  divine  authority  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament, 
the  depravity  of  human  nature  consequent  on  the 
faU  of  Adam,  and  other  characteristic  doctrines  of 
Christian  orthodoxy,  adding  :  '  Our  religious  Society, 
from  its  earliest  establishment  to  the  present  day, 
has  received  these  most  important  doctrines  of  Holy 
Scripture  in  their  plain  and  obvious  acceptation.' 
It  is  nevertheless  certain  that  uniformity  of  theo- 
logical opinion  cannot  be  predicated  of  the  Friends, 
any  more  than  of  other  bodies  of  Christians.  As 
early  as  1668,  William  Penn  and  George  Whitehead 
held  a  puljlic  discussion  with  a  clergyman  of  the 
English  Church,  named  Vincent,  in  which  they 
maintained  that  the  doctrine  of  a  tri-personal  God, 
as  held  by  that  church,  was  not  found  in  the 
Scriptures,  though  in  what  form  they  accepted  the 
doctrine  themselves  does  not  appear ;  and  some 
time  later,  Penn  j^tublished  a  work  himself,  entitled 
the  Sandy  Foundation  Shaken,  in  which,  among 
other  things  he  is  said  to  have  shown  that  the 
doctrines  of  vicarious  atonement  and  of  imputed 
righteousness  did  not  rest  on  any  scriptural  foim- 
dation.  But  in  general,  the  Society  of  F.,  in  the 
expression  of  their  belief,  have  avoided  the  technical 
phraseology  of  other  Christian  churches,  restrict- 
Bag  themselves  with  commendable  modesty  to  the 
words  of  Scripture  itself,  as  far  as  that  is  possible, 
And  avoiding,  in  particular,  the  knotty  points  of 
Calvinistic  divinity  (see  Barclay's  Catechism  and 
Confession  of  Faith,  jniblished  in  1673,  where  the 
answers  to  the  questions — to  avoid  theological 
dogn^atism — are  taken  from  the  Bible  itself).  This 
habit  of  allowing  to  each  individual  the  full 
freedom  of  the  Scriptures,  has,  of  course,  rendered 
it  aU  the  more  difficult  to  ascertain  to  what 
extent  individual  minds,  among  the  Society,  may 
have  diffeied  in  their  mode  of  apprehending  and 
dogmatically  explaining  the  facts  ((f  Christianity. 
Their  principal  distinguishing  doctrine  is  that  of 
the  'Light  of  Christ  in  man,'  on  which  many  of 


their  outward  pccaliaritics,  a  religious  ho(\y, 
are  grounded.  The  doctrine  of  the  internal  light  \i 
founded  on  the  view  of  Chr'st  given  hy  St.  John, 
who,  in  tha  *irst  chapter  of  his  gospel,  descrihc-j 
Christ— the  Eternal  Logos — as  the  'life'  and  "light 
of  men,'  'the  true  light,'  'the  light  that  lighteth 
every  man  that  cometh  into  the  Avorld,'  etc.  Bar- 
clay taught  that  even  the  heathen  were  illumined 
by  this  light,  though  they  might  not  know — as, 
indeed,  those  who  lived  before  Christ  could  not 
know — the  historical  Jesus  in  whom  Christians 
believe.  In  their  case,  Christ  was  the  liglit  shining  m 
darkness,  though  the  darkness  comprehended  it  not. 
The  existence  of  'natural  virtue'  (as  orthodox  theo- 
logians term  it)  among  the  heathen  was  denied  by 
Barclay,  who  regarded,  all  such  virtue  as  Christian 
in  its  essence,  and  as  proceeding  from  the  light  of 
Christ  shining  through  the  darkness  of  pagan  super- 
stition. These  opinions  would  seem  to  be  somewhat 
freer  than  those  expressed  in  the  General  Epistle 
of  the  Society  published  in  1836,  wherein  they 
refuse  to  acknowledge  'any  principle  of  spintual 
light,  life,  or  holiness  inherent  by  nature  in  the 
mind  of  man,'  and  again  assert,  that  they  '  believe 
in  no  principle  whatsoever  of  spiritual  light,  life,  or 
holiness,  except  the  influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit  of 
God  bestowed  on  mankind  in  various  measiu-ea 
and  degrees  through  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord  ; '  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  in  a  little  treatise  published 
by  the  Society  in  1861,  it  is  affirmed  that  'the 
Holy  Spirit  has  always  been  afforded  in  various 
measures  to  mankind ; '  while  stress  is  also  laid  on 
the  statement  of  St  Paul,  that  'the  grace  of  God 
(understood  by  Friends  to  signify  the  'operation 
of  the  Divine  Spirit')  that  bringeth  salvation, 
hath  appeared  to  all  men;''  while  another  expo- 
nent of  their  views,  Mr  T.  Evans  of  Philadelphia 
(see  Cyclopaedia  of  Beligious  Denominations,  Lond., 
Griffin  «fc  Co.,  1853),  states  that  '  God  hath  granted 
to  all  men,  of  whatsoever  nation  or  country,  a  day 
or  time  of  visitation,  during  which  it  is  possible 
for  them  to  j^artake  of  the  benefits  of  Christ's 
death,  and  be  saved.  For  this  end,  he  hath  commu- 
nicated to  every  man  a  measure  of  the  light  of  hisr 
own  Son,  a  measure  of  grace  or  the  Holy  Spirit,  by 
which  he  invites,  calls,  exhorts,  and  strives  with 
every  man,  in  order  to  save  him  ;  which  light  or 
grace,  as  it  is  received,  and  not  resisted,  works  the 
salvation  of  all,  even  of  those  who  are  ignorant  of 
Adam's  fall,  and  of  the  death  and  sufferings  of 
Christ ;  both  by  bringing  them  to  a  sense  of  their 
own  misery,  and  to  be  sharers  in  the  sufferings  of 
Christ  inwardly ;  and  by  making  them  partakers 
of  his  resurrection,  in  becoming  holy,  pure,  and 
righteous,  and  recovered  out  of  their  sins.'  Hence 
it  may  be  safely  asserted  that  they  hold  a  broader 
(or,  as  others  woidd  say,  a  more  latitudinarian)  view 
of  the  Spirit's  working  than  any  other  Christian 
church  or  society.  In  America,  about  the  year 
1827,  Elias  Hicks,  a  Friend  of  very  remarkable 
powers,  created  a  schism  in  the  Society,  by  the 
])romulgation  of  opinions  denying  the  miraculous 
conception,  divinity,  and  atonement  of  Christ,  and 
also  the  authent'-ity  and  divine  authority  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures.  About  one-half  of  the  society  in 
America  adopted  the  views  of  Hicks,  and  are  known 
as  Hicksite  Friends  ;  their  opinions,  of  course,  are 
repudiated  by  the  rest  of  the  Society,  who  may 
be  described  as  Orthodox  Friends.  The  Hicksite 
schism  thoroughly  alarmed  the  latter,  both  in 
England  and  America,  and  a  movement  was  begun 
in  favour  of  education,  of  a  doctrinal  belief  morf 
nearly  allied  to  that  of  the  so-called  'Evangelical' 
party,  and  of  a  relaxation  in  the  formality  and 
discipline  of  the  Society.  The  leader  of  this  move- 
ment  was  Joseph  John  Gurney,  of  Norwich.  This 

023 


FRIENDS. 


new  tendency,  however,  excited  considerable  opposi- 
tion nnvonj^  some  of  the  Friends  in  America;  and  the 
consequence  was  a  division  among  the  Orthodox 
Friends  themselves,  a  hu'ge  portion  advocating  the  in- 
novations proposed  by  J.  J.  Gurncy  and  others,  while 
the  smaller  section  continue  firm  in  adherence  to  the 
doctrines  promulgated  by  early  Friends.  For  their 
Btrcnuous  adhesion  to  the  original  faith,  the  Friends 
of  rhihidclphia  have  been  ])eculiarly  noted.  Some 
marked  indications  of  theological  differences  have 
manifested  themselves  in  England  also. 

2.  Practice. — It  is  in  the  application  of  their 
leading  doctrine  of  the  'internal  light'  that  the 
"peculiarities  of  the  Friends  are  most  ai)parent. 
Relieving  that  it  is  the  Holy  Spirit,  or  the  indwell- 
ing Christ,  that  alone  maketh  wise  unto  salvation, 
illumining  the  mind  with,  true  and  spiritual  know- 
ledge of  the  deep  things  of  God,  they  do  not  con- 
sider 'human  learning  essential  to  a  minister  of 
the  gospel,  and  look  with  distrust  on  the  method 
adopted  by  other  churches  for  obtaining  such — viz., 
by  formally  training  after  a  human  fashion  a  body 
of  youths  chosen  on  no  principle  of  inward  fitness. 
They  believe  that  the  call  to  this  work  now,  as  of 
old,  is  '  not  of  men,  neither  by  man,  but  by  Jesus 
Christ,  and  God  the  Father ; '  and  that  it  is  bestowed 
irrespectively  of  rank,  talent,  learning,  or  sex.  Con- 
sequently, they  have  no  theological  halls,  professors 
of  divinity,  or  classes  for  '  students.'  Further,  as  fit- 
ness for  the  ministry  is  held  to  be  a  free  ^ift  of  God 
through  the  Holy  Spirit,  so,  they  argue,  it  ought  to 
be  freely  bestowed,  in  support  of  which  they  adduce 
the  precept  of  the  Saviour — '  Freely  ye  have  received, 
freely  give  ;'  hence  those  who  minister  among  them 
are  not  paid  for  their  labour  of  love,  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  whenever  such  are  engaged  from  home 
in  the  work  of  the  gospel,  they  are,  in  the  spirit  of 
Christian  love,  freely  entertained,  and  have  all  their 
wants  sxipplied  :  in  short,  the  Friends  maintain  the 
absolutely  voluntary  character  of  religious  obliga- 
tions, and  that  Christians  should  do  all  for  love, 
and  nothing  for  money.  It  also  follows  from  their 
view  of  a  call  to  the  work  of  the  ministry,  that 
women  may  exhort  as  well  as  men,  for  the  *  spirit  of 
Christ'  may  move  them  as  powerfully  as  the  other 
sex.  The  prophecy  of  Joel  as  applied  by  Peter  is 
cited  as  authority  for  the  preaching  of  women  :  '  On 
my  servants  and  on  my  handmaidens  I  will  pour 
out  in  those  days  of  my  spirit,  and  they  shall  j)ro- 
phesy.'  They  also  adduce  the  New  Testament 
examples  of  Tryphsena,  Tryphosa,  the  beloved 
Persis,  and  other  women  who  appear  to  have  laboured 
in  the  Gospel.  Their  mode  of  conducting  public 
worship  likewise  illustrates  the  entireness  of  their 
dependence  on  the  'internal  light.'  In  other  reli- 
gious bodies,  the  minister  has  a  set  form  of  worship, 
through  which  lie  must  go,  whether  he  feels 
devoutly  disposed  or  not.  This  seems  objectionable 
to  the  Friends,  who  meet  and  remain  in  silence 
until  they  believe  themselves  moved  to  speak  by 
the  Holy  Ghost.  Their  prayers  and  praises  are,  for 
the  most  ])art,  silent  and  inward.  They  prefer  to 
icake  melody  in  their  hearts  unto  God,  considering 
such  to  be  more  spiritual  than  the  outward  service 
of  the  voice. 

The  doctrine  of  the  *  internal  light '  has  also  led  the 
Friends  to  reject  the  ordinances  of  Baptism  and  the 
Lord's  Supper  as  these  are  observed  by  other  Chris- 
tians. They  believe  the  Christian  baptism  to  be  a 
spiritual  one,  and  not,  like  the  Jewish  and  heathen 
baptisms,  one  with  water;  in  support  of  which  they 
quote,  among  other  passages,  the  words  of  John  the 
Baptist  himself :  '  I  baptise  you  with  w  ater,  but 
there  cometh  one  after  me  who  shall  baptise  you 
with  the  Hdy  Ghost  and  with  fire.'  Similarly  do 
they  regard  the  rite  of  the  Eucharist :  It  is  say 

021 


they,  inward  and  spiritual,  and  consists  not  in  any 
symbolic  breaking  of  bread  and  drinking  of  wine, 
but  in  that  daily  communion  with  Chiist  through 
the  Holy  Spirit,  and  through  the  obedience  of  faith, 
by  which  the  believer  is  nourished  and  strengthened. 
They  believe  that  the  last  words  of  the  dying 
Redeemer  on  the  cross,  'It  is  finished,'  announced 
the  entire  abolition  of  symbolic  rites ;  that  under 
the  new  si)iriiiial  dispensation  then  introduced,  the 
necessity  for  such,  as  a  means  of  arriving  at  trutli, 
ceased,  and  that  their  i)lace  has  been  abundantly 
supplied  by  the  Comforter,  the  Holy  Ghost,  whose 
office  it  now  is  to  lead  and- guide  men  into  all  truth. 
The  true  Christian  supper,  according  to  them,  is  set 
forth  in  the  Revelations — 'Behold  I  stand  at  the 
door  and  knock  :  if  any  man  hear  my  voice  and 
open  the  door,  I  will  come  in  unto  him,  and  will  sup 
with  him  and  he  with  me.'  For  the  same  reason — 
viz.,  that  the  teaching  of  the  Spirit  is  inward  and 
spiritual— the  Friends  ignore  the  religious  observ- 
ance of  days  and  times,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Sabbath,  which  some  at  least  among  them  regard  as 
of  i)erpetual  obligation. 

The  taking  or  administering  of  oaths  is  regarded  by 
Friends  as  inconsistent  with  the  command  of  Christ, 
'  swear  nut  at  all,'  and  with  the  exhortation  of 
the  apostle  James — '  Above  all  things,  my  brethren, 
swear  not,  neither  by  heaven,  neither  by  the  earth, 
neither  by  any  other  oath :  but  let  your  yea  be 
yea ;  and  your  nay,  nay ;  lest  ye  fall  into  condem- 
nation.' They  have  also  refused  to  pay  tithes  for 
the  maintenance  of  what  they  hold  to  be  a  hireling 
ministry,  believing  that  Christ  put  an  end  to  the 
priesthood  and  ceremonial  usages  instituted  under 
the  Mosaic  dispensation,  and  that  he  substituted 
none  in  their  place.  In  consequence,  all  consistent 
Friends  have  been  regularly  mulcted  of  plate,  furni- 
ture, or  other  goods,  to  the  value  of  the  amount 
due.  The  recent  conversion  of  tithe  into  rent- 
charge,  however,  has,  in  the  opinion  of  many  Friends, 
largely  removed  objections  to  the  payment  to  this 
ecclesiastical  demand.  In  regard  to  the  civil  magis- 
tracy, while  they  respect  and  honour  it,  as  ordained 
of  God,  they  are  careful  to  warn  the  members  of 
their  Society  against  thoughtlessly  incuriing  its 
responsibilities,  involving  as  it  does  the  adminis- 
tration of  oaths,  the  issuing  of  orders  and  warrants 
in  reference  to  ecclesiastical  demands,  the  calling 
out  of  an  armed  force  in  cases  of  civil  commotion, 
and  other  duties  inconsistent  with  the  peaceful 
principles  of  the  Society.  The  Fiiends  have  likeAvise 
consistently  pi-otested  against  war  in  all  its  forms ; 
and  the  Society  has  repeatedly  advised  its  members 
against  aiding  and  assisting  in  the  conveyance  of 
soldiers,  their  baggage,  arms,  ammunition,  or  mih- 
tary  stores.  They  regard  the  profession  of  arms 
and  fighting,  not  only  as  diametrically  opposed  to 
the  general  spirit  of  Christ,  whose  advent  was  suug 
by  angels  in  these  words :  '  Glory  to  God  in  the 
highest,  and  on  earth  peace,  good- will  toward  men 
but  as  positively  forbidden  by  such  precepts  as — 
'  Love  your  enemies,  bless  them  that  curse  you,  do 
good  to  them  that  hate  you,  and  pray  for  them 
which  despitefully  use  you  and  persecute  you  ; '  also, 
'  Resist  not  evil :  but  whosoever  shall  smite  thee  cn 
thy  right  cheek,  turn  to  him  the  other  also ; '  and 
while  they  acknowledge  that  temporary  calamities 
may  result  from  adopting  this  principle  of  non- 
resistance,  they  have  so  strong  a  faith  in  its  being 
essentially  the  dictate  of  divine  love  to  the  Chris- 
tian heart,  that  they  believe  God,  by  his  wise  and 
omnipotent  providence,  could,  and  will  yet  make  it 
'  mighty  to  the  pidling  down  of  the  strongholds  of 
iniquity.'  The  world,  they  believe,  will  by  and  by 
confess  that  the  peace- makers  are  most  truly  tbij 
children  of  God. 


fkie: 


;nds. 


The  Fricnils  hnve  ever  been  strenuous  defenders  of 
the  rights  of  conscience,  and  consistent  advociites  of 
civil  liberty.  To  their  persistent  demands  for  liberty 
of  worship  and  patience  in  suffering,  the  world  is  in  a 
great  measure  indebted  for  the  reli^^ious  toleration 
which  now  prevails  almost  throughout  Christendom. 
The  Friends  also  gave  to  the  world  the  first  examples 
of  governments  based  on  Christian  principles,  and 
though  the  experiment  failed  through  the  oi)position 
of  the  adherents  to  error,  which  tlieir  libei-al  policy 
invited,  the  great  examples  have  not  been  lost  upon 
the  world.    See  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey. 

The  efforts  of  the  Society  for  the  abolition  of 
slavery  are  a  part  of  modern  history.  To  them  the 
merit  belongs  of  having  cultivated  the  moral  sense  of 
their  fellow-countrymen  in  regard  to  this  important 
question.  As  early  as  1652,  the  Friends  of  Warwick, 
li.  Island,  enacted  a  law  imposing  a  fine  upon  those 
who  refused  to  liberate  their  slaves,  or  who  should  sell 
them  into  bondage.  In  1688,  the  Friends  of  German- 
town,  Philadelphia,  presented  to  the  yearly  meeting  a 
memorial  against  slavery  and  the  slave  trade,  and  in 
1696,  that  body  adopted  measures  to  discourage  the 
introduction  of  slaves ;  and  it  was  Pennsylvania, 
where  the  principles  of  the  Society  had  made  a 
stronger  impression  on  public  opinion  than  in  any 
other  state,  that  first  broke  the  shackles  of  the  slave. 
In  1727 — 28,  the  Fi'iends  in  Ireland  and  England 
began  to  censure  the  traffic  in  slaves,  and  gradually 
warmed  in  their  opposition  until  the  nation  felt  the 
glow,  and  entered  with  enthusiasm  in  the  work  of 
abolition. 

The  Friends  have  ever  been  foremost  in  works  of 
philanthi-opy  arid  Christian  progress,  and  whether  we 
regard  them  as  defenders  of  the  rights  of  conscience 
and  the  liberties  of  the  people,  as  opposers  of  slavery, 
of  oaths  and  tithes,  of  the  abomination  of  war,  the 
cruel  treatment  of  the  aborigines,  of  criminals  and  the 
insane,  or  the  high  consideration  they  have  ever 
awarded  to  woman,  we  find  them  everywhere  in  ad- 
vance of  their  cotemporaries.  The  principle.,  of  free- 
dom that  were  promulgated  during  the  Revolutionary 
War  in  America,  and  embodied  in  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States,  are  directly  traceable  to  the  sound 
religious  and  civil  views  of  the  early  founders  of  the 
Society  of  Friends,  or  to  their  revival  of  the  principles 
and  practices  of  primitive  Christianity.  Finally,  it 
may  be  safely  asserted  that  mankind  is  more  largely 
indebted  to  '  Quakerism '  for  its  present  social  happi- 
ness and  moral  elevation  than  to  any  other  religious 
body  in  existence. 

In  respect  to  what  may  be  called  minor  points,  the 
Friends  are  very  scrupulous.  They  object  to  '  balls, 
gaming  places,  horse  races,  and  play  houses,  those 
nurseries  of  debauchery  and  wickedness,  the  burden 
and  grief  of  the  sober  part  of  other  societies  as  well  as 
of  our  own.'  The  Printed  Epistle  of  London  yearly 
meeting  of  1854  contains  a  warning  against  indulging 
in  music,  especially  that  which  goes  by  the  name  of 
'sacred  music,'  and  denounces  musical  exhibitions, 
Buch  as  oratorios,  as  essentially  a  'profanation' — the 
tendency  of  theso  things  being,  it  is  alleged,  '  to  with- 
draw the  soul  from  that  quiet,  humble,  and  retired 
franui  in  wdiich  prayer  and  praise  may  be  truly  offeretl 
with  the  spirit  and  with  the  understanding  also.' 
They  object,  besides,  to  *the  hurtful  tendency  of  read- 
ing plays,  romances,  novels,  and  other  pernicious 
books;'  and  the  yearly  meeting  of  1764  'recommends 
to  every  member  of  our  Society  to  discourage  and 
sup})ress  the  same.'  A  multitude  of  other  minute 
peculiarities,  which  it  would  be  tedious  to  note,  dis- 
tinguish the  Friends  from  their  fellow-Christians. 

3.  JJiHcipline. — By  the  term  discipline  the  Friends 
understand  'all  those  arrangements  and  regula- 
tions which  are  instituted  for  the  civil  and  religious 
benefit  of  a  Christian  church.'    The  necessity  for 


such  discipline  soon  began  to  make  itscll  felt,  and 
the  result  was  the  institution  of  certain  meetings  or 
assemblies.  These,  are  four  in  number :  the  first, 
the  Preparative  meetings  ;  second,  the  Moiitldy 
meetings  ;  third,  the  Quarterhj  meetings ;  and, 
fourth,  the  Yearly  meetings.  The  first  are  usually 
com[)osed  of  the  members  in  any  given  place,  in 
wliieh  there  are  generally  two  or  more  Friends  of 
each  sex.  wluj^e  duty  is  to  act  as  overseers  of  the 
meeting,  taking  cognizance  of  births,  marriages, 
burials,  removals,  &e.,  the  conduct  of  mem].)crs,  &c., 
and  re])orting  thereon  to  the  monthly  meetings,  to 
whom  the  executive  department  of  the  discipline 
is  chiefly  confided.  The  monthly  meetings  decide 
in  cases  of  violation  of  discipline,  aiul  have  the 
power  of  cutting  off  or  disowning  all  who  by  their 
improper  conduct,  false  doctrines,  or  other  gross 
errors,  bring  reproach  on  tlie  Society,  although  the 
accused  have  the  right  of  nppeal  to  the  quarterly 
meetings,  and  from  these  again  to  the  yearly,  whose 
decisions  are  final.  The  monthly  meetings  are  also 
empowered  to  approve  and  acknowledge  ministers, 
as  well  as  to  appoint  'serious,  discreet,  and  judicious 
Friends,  who  are  not  ministers,  tenderly  to  encourage 
and  help  young  ministers,  and  advise  others,  as  they, 
in  the  wisdom  of  God,  see  occasion.'  They  also 
execute  a  variety  of  other  important  duties.  The 
quarterly  meetings  are  composed  of  several  monthly 
meetings,  and  exercise  a  sort  of  general  supervision 
over  the  latter,  and  from  whom  they  receive  reports, 
and  to  whom  they  give  such  advice  and  decisions  as 
they  think  right.  The  yearly  meeting  consists  of 
representatives  of  the  quarterly  meetings  and  their 
members  generally.  Its  function  is  to  consider  the 
entire  condition  of  the  Society  in  all  its  aspects.  It  re- 
ceives in  writing  answers  to  questions  it  has  previously 
addressed  to  the  subordinate  meetings,  deliberates  upon 
them,  and  legislates  accordingly.  To  it  exclusively 
the  legislative  power  belongs.  Though  thus  consti- 
tuted someA\hat  according  to  Presbyterian  order,  yet 
any  member  of  the  Society  may  attend  and  take  part 
in  the  proceedings. 

Women  have  also  a  special  sphere  of  discipline 
allotted  to  them :  they  inspect  and  relieve  the 
wants  of  the  poor  of  their  owai  sex,  take  cognizance 
of  proposals  for  marriage,  deal  with  female  delin- 
quents privately,  and  under  certain  restrictions  may 
even  do  so  officially,  though  in  the  'testimony  of 
disownment '  they  have  always  the  assistance  of 
members  of  the  other  sex. 

The  Society  of  F.,  in  the  multitude  of  its  regula- 
tions, has  not  forgotten  the  poor  ;  charity  in  its 
narrower,  as  well  as  in  its  broader  sense,  has  always 
been  a  beautiful  feature  of  its  members.  The  care 
of  the  i)oor  was  one  of  the  earliest  evidences  which 
Christianity  afforded  to  the  Gentiles  of  the  supe- 
riority and  divine  character  of  its  principles  ;  and  it 
is  honourable  to  the  Society  that  a  similar  pro-snsion 
for  those  united  to  them  in  religious  fellowship 
appears  to  have  been  one  of  the  earliest  occasions  of 
their  meetings  for  discipline. 

There  are  fifteen  independent  yearly  meetings  of 
Friends,  and  members  of  the  Society  are  established 
in  G.  Britain  and  Ireland,  France,  Germany,  Norway, 
Canada,  the  United  States,  Australia,  and  New  Zea- 
land. The  total  number  is  estimated  at  about  120,000, 
of  whom  10,986  are  in  G.  Britain,  2908  in  Ireland, 
15,154  in  Canada,  and  the  remainder  chiefly  in  the  U. 
States. 

The  followers  of  Elias  Hicks  have  assumed  the 
name  of  Friends,  but  the  highest  tribunals  of  New 
Jersey  have  declared  that  they  are  Seceders,  and  that 
they  failed  to  make  it  appear  that  their  doctrines  cor- 
respond to  those  of  the  Religious  Society  of  Friends. 
(See  Hendrickson  vs.  Shotivell.) 

For  further  information  concerning  this  remarkable 

525 


FRIES— FRIGATE. 


body  of  Christians,  who  seem  to  have  been  raised  up 
to  prove  Christianity  practicable,  see  W.  Sewell,  JUh- 
tory,  etc.,  of  the  Quakers;  T.  Chirkson,  Portraiture, 
etc.,  of  the  Society  of  Friends  ;  K.  Barchiy,  Apology  for 
the  True  Christian  Divinity  ;  Journal  of  the  Life,  etc., 
of  George  Fox;  'The  Friend;  44  vols.,  Pliila.  1827— 
1870,  etc.;  The  Fricndu'  Library,  14  vols.,  Thila. 
1837 — 1850;  and  article  FRIENDS  in  Applcton's 
Annual  Cyclopedia  for  1869. 

FRIES,  Elias,  a  distinguished  Swedish  botanist, 
was  born  15th  Auy,ust,  1794,  in  the  district  of  Fcinsjo. 
In  1834,  lie  was  professor  of  practical  economics  at 
Upsala,  and  after  the  death  of  Professor  Wahlenberi^, 
in  1851,  the  chair  of  botany  was  conjoined.  F.'s  re- 
searches endtrace  the  entire  field  of  hotimy ,  pJianero- 
gamous  as  well  as  cryptogamous  plants,  and  he  was 
the  first  to  introduce  into  Sweden  the  morpholoj^ical 
theory,  the  basis  of  which  is  to  be  found  in  his  iSys- 
tema  Orbis  Vcgetabilis  (Lund,  1825).  Amon<^  liis 
numerous  and  able  works  are  a  Flora  of  Holland, 
1817;  Systema  Mycologicum,  3  vols.,  1821 — 29;  and 
Flora  Scanica,  1835,  and  Summa  Vegetabilium  Scan- 
dinavicc,  1845,  and  several  mono<>raphs.  Among  his 
monographs,  the  .Symbolcc  ad  Jlistoriam  Hierarcio- 
rum  (Upsala,  1848)  deserves  especial  mention.  He 
also  wrote  a  good  deal  on  the  Flora  of  Scandinavia, 
and  especially  his  Snmina  Vcgltabiliicm  Scandinavi(v 
(Upsala,  184i5,  et  seq.)  is  reckoned  one  of  his  best  pro- 
ductions. F.  is  greatly  admired  in  his  native  country, 
and  in  1851  was  appointed  director  of  the  Botanical 
Museum  and  Garden  attached  to  the  University  of 
Upsala,  and  in  1853  a  rector  of  the  University.  He 
was  one  of  the  eighteen  members  of  the  Academy  of 
Stockholm.    He  died  at  Upsala,  February  8,  1878. 

FRIES,  Jakob.  Fiiiedrich,  the  founder  of  a 
philosophic  school  in  Germany,  was  born  at  Barby,  in 
Prussian  Saxony,  23d  August,  1773,  studied  at  Leip- 
sic  and  Jena,  and  in  1805  went  to  Heidelberg,  as  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  and  mathematics.  In  1816  he 
accepted  a  call  to  the  chair  of  speculative  philosophy 
at  Jena,  and  in  1824  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of 
physics  and  mathematics,  wliich  he  occupied  till  his 
death,  10th  August,  1843.  F.'s  writings  are  very  nu- 
merous. Some  of  the  more  important  are  his  System 
der  Philosophie  als  evidenteWisse?ischaft  (Leip.  1804); 
N'eue  Oder  anthropologische  Kritik  der  Vcrnunft  (.3 
vols.  Heidelb.  1807;  2d  ed.  1828—1831);  System  der 
Logik  (Heidelb.  1811;  3d  ed.  1837);  llandbuch  der 
physischen  Anthropologie  (2  vols.,  Jena,  1820 — 1821  ; 
2d  ed.  1837—1839) ;  Die  Lehren  der  Liebe,  des  Glaub- 
ens,  und  der  Hoffnung  (Heidelb.  1823);  and  Oes- 
chichte  der  Philosophie  (2  vols.,  Halle,  1837 — 1840). 
In  his  philosophy,  F.  followed  the  method  of  Kant, 
but  sought  to  supplement  it  by  an  analytical  nature- 
doctrine  (analytischen  naturlehre)  of  the  human, 
soul,  which  he  designated  philosophic  anthi-opol- 
ogy.  His  Olaitbenslehre,  or  Doctrine  of  Faith,  by 
which  he  hoped  to  i-epair  the  ravages  which  the  criti- 
cal philosophy  had  made  upon  the  certainty  of  our 
knowledge,  resembles,  in  some  respects,  Jacobi's  doc- 
trine of  the  Intuition  of  the  Pure  Reason.  De  Wette 
adopted  it  as  the  basis  of  his  religious  philosophy. 
Some  of  his  disciples,  Apelt,  Schleiden,  Schlomilch, 
Friedrich  Francke,  and  Schmidt,  published  at  Leipsic 
in  1848 — 1849  several  philosophic  papers  entitled 
Abhandlungcn  der  Fries'  schen  Schicle. 

FRIE'SLAND  or  VRIESLAND  (ancient  Frisia). 
West  F.,  which  is  one  of  the  most  northern  and 
wealthy  provinces  of  Holland  (q.  v.),  has  an  area  of 
more  f  ban  1250  square  miles,  and  a  population  which, 
in  1869,  tmmbei-ed  292,354.  It  lies  between  lat.  52" 
40'  and  53"  30'  N.,  and  long.  5"  30'  and  6"  20'  E.,  and 
Is  bounded  to  the  N.  by  the  German  Ocean,  and  to  the 
W.  and  S.  W.  by  the  Zuyderzee.  The  land,  which  is 
flat,  and  in  some  parts  even  beb'v  the  level  of  the  sea, 


from  which  it  is  protected  by  dykes,  is  intersected  by 
canals  and  streams  in  every  direction,  and  abounds  in 
lakes  and  marshes.  From  4  to  5  million  pounds  o£ 
cheese  and  butter  are  annually  exported  from  F.,  while 
it  also  yields,  in  excess  of  its  consumption,  wheat,  rye, 
flax,  hemp,  clover,  etc.  F.  is  amply  endowed  with 
schools  and  charitable  institutions.  The  inhabitants 
are  principally  Calvinists.  The  chief  town  is  Leeu- 
warden.  East  F.,  which  lies  between  53"  8'  and  53'^ 
40'  N.  lat.,  and  6"  50'  and  8°  E.  long.,  Avith  an  area 
of  1000  square  miles,  and  population  (in  1867)  of 
195,801,  is  comprised  within  the  Hanoverian  district 
of  Aurich,  chief  town,  Emden.  It  is  bounded  (,n  the 
N.  by  the  (Jerman  Ocean,  W.  by  Holland,  S.  hj 
Arend)erg,  and  P^ast  by  Oldenburg.  Like  West  F., 
it  is  low  and  flat,  and  requires  the  protection  oi 
dykes  and  sluices.  Fishing  and  agriculture  ccn- 
stitute  the  chief  employment  of  the  inhabitants, 
who  are  the  descendants  of  the  ancient  Frisians. 
This  province  has  frequently  changed  owners  since 
1744,  when  the  family  of  Zirksena,  in  whose  posses- 
sion it  had  been  f(jr  .300  years,  became  extinct.  It 
was  first  ceded  to  Prussia,  next  incorporated  by 
Napoleon  with  Hollan<I  and  France  ;  in  1814  it  waa 
restored  to  Prussia;  in  the  following  year  it  was  ceded 
by  that  power  to  Hanover,  and  is  now  Prussian. 

FRIEZE,  in  classical  architecture,  the  central 
portion  of  the  ental)lature  (q.  v.).  It  is  also  called 
(by  Vitruvius)  the  Zophorus  (life-bearing)  from  ita 
being  frequently  ornamented  with  scidpture.  From 
the  same  cause,  the  term  frieze  is  sometimes  applied 
to  any  enriched  horizontal  band. 

FRIGATE  (probably  connected  with  the  Gothio 
fargod,  a  row-galley,  and  also  with  tlie  Latin 
aphractvji,  an  undecked  galley).  Formerly,  a  long 
narrow  vessel  propelled  by  oars  and  sails,  used  iu 
the  Mediterranean  on  occasions  when  speed  waa 
requisite.  The  name  then  came  to  be  applied  to 
men  of  war,  of  a  class  smaller  than  line-of-battle 
ships,  and  carrying  from  20  to  50  guns,  which  were 
employed  in  the  great  wars  of  the  18th,  and  early 
part  of  the  19th  centuries,  as  scouts  and  cruisers. 
I'he  frigate  was  usually  swift,  easily  managed,  and 


Frigate — First  Class,  50  guns. 


capable  of  beating  well  up  to  the  wind.  With  steam, 
and  the  growth  of  the  fleet  in  recent  times,  frigates  ha  vo. 
developed  more  than  any  other  men-of-war.  Many  of 
the  largest  ships  now  in  the  navy  belong  to  this  class. 
The  Americans  set  the  example  of  enormous  frigates 
in  the  Niagara,  a  pattern  the  British  have  outrun  in 
several  splendid  vessels,  such  as  the  Diadem,  Mersey 


FRIGATE  BIED— FRISIANS. 


Orhndo,  and  last,  the  magnificent  iron-plated 
Warrior,  of  6000  tons,  tliree  times  the  burden  of 
any  ship  in  Nelson's  fleet. 

FRIGATE  BIRD,  or  MAN-OF-WAR  BIRD, 
Tachy petes  aquilus,  or  Fregata  aquilus,  a  bird 
of  the  Pelican  family  {Pelecanidce),  the  only  well- 
ascertained  species  of  its  genus,  which  is  allied 
to  the  Cormorants.  It  is  a  large  bird  with  black 
plumage,  sometimes  measuring  ten  feet — some  say 
wen  fourteen  feet — from  tip  to  tip  of  its  extended 


Frigate  Bird  {Fregata  aquUm). 


wings.  It  is  a  bird  of  very  powerful  and  rapid 
flight,  and  there  seems  to  be  good  reason  for  believ- 
ing that  it  can  remain  on  wing  for  days  together. 
It  inhabits  the  intertropical  coasts,  both  of  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  often  flying  out  far 
to  sea,  but  returning.  Its  aerial  evolutions  are 
extremely  graceful,  and  it  soars  to  a  great  eleva- 
tion. It  is  said  never  to  dive  for  its  prey,  but  to 
seize  fishes  only  when  they  appear  at  the  surface 
or  above  it.  Flying  fishes  constitute  no  small  part 
of  its  food. 

FRINGE  TREE  [CMonantfius),  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  OJeacece,  consisting  of  small 
trees  or  large  shrubs,  natives  of  America,  the  West 
Indies,  Ceylon,  and  New  Holland.  The  Common 
Fringe  tree  or  Snowtlower  {O.  Virginica)  is  found 
in  the  United  States  from  lat.  39°  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  It  sometimes  attains  the  height  of  20  or 
30  feet,  but  is  rarely  more  than  8  or  10,  has  opposite 
oval  leaves  6  or  7  inches  long,  and  very  numerous 
snow-white  flowers  in  panicled  racemes.  The  limb 
of  the  corolla  is  divided  into  four  long  linear  seg- 
ments, whence  the  name  fringe  tree.  The  fruit  is 
an  oval  drupe.  The  tree  is  frequently  cultivated  as 
an  ornamental  plant. 

FRINGES.  In  optics,  those  coloured  bands  of 
diffraction  (q,  v.)  which  appear  when  a  beam  of 
light  passes  the  clean  edge  of  a  screen,  or  is 
transmitted  through  a  narrow  slit  or  hole,  are  called 
fringes. 

FRINGI'LLID^,  a  family  of  birds  of  the  order 
Inscssores,  tribe  Conirostres,  having  a  conical  or 
nearly  conical  bill,  sometimes  short  and  thick, 
Bometimes  comparatively  slender  and  elongated, 
8(jmetimes  convex  above,  below,  or  at  the  sides, 
the  commissure — line  of  juncti(>n  of  the  mandibles 
—  straight.  The  neck  is  short,  and  neither  the 
legs  nor  the  v/ings  are  long.  The  Fringillidse  are 
all  small  birds  ;  they  feed  chiefly  on  seeds — to  some 
extent  also  on  insects.  The  family  is  an  extromely 
numerous  one,  and  distributed  over  all  parts  of  the 
world;  represented  in  Britain  by  finches,  linnets, 
eprirrows,  grosl)eaks,  crossbills,  &c.,  and  including 
aJso  weaver-birds,  bob-a  links,  cardinal-birds,  why- 
dawa.  tanagers.  &c     Some  naturalists  extend  its 


limits  so  as  to  include  in  it  other  groups,  as  bunt- 
ings, larks,  &c.,  ofttn  regarded  as  forming  distinct 
families. 

FRISCHES  HAFF  ('  Fresh- water  Bay '),  a  large 

lagoon  on  the  coast  of  Prussia,  south-east  of  the  Gulf 
of  Dantzic.  It  is  rather  less  than  GO  miles  in  length 
from  north-east  to  south-west,  with  a  breadth  which 
varies  in  different  parts  from  4  to  12  miles,  and  an 
area  of  318  square  miles.  It  was  once  entirely  walled 
off  from  the  Baltic  by  the  Frische  Nehrung,  a  narrow 
spit  of  land  extending  for  about  40  miles  along  ita 
northern  shore.  In  1510,  however,  the  waters  of 
the  F.  H.  broke  over  the  Frische  Nehrung,  and 
formed  the  passage  called  the  '  Gatt,'  which  unites 
this  shore-lake  with  the  Baltic.  The  Gatt  is  only 
from  10  to  15  feet  in  depth.  All  large  vessels  load 
and  unload  at  Pillau,  which  is  situated  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Gatt,  on  the  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Dantzig. 
Cargoes  are  conveyed  to  and  from  the  ports  on  the 
F.  H.  by  means  of  lighters.  The  Pregel,  Frisching, 
Passarge,  and  two  arms  of  the  Vistula,  fall  into 
this  lagoon. 

FRI'SIANS.  The  Frisians  (Lat.  Frim),  were  an 
ancient  Teutonic  race  dwelling,  together  with  the 
Batavi,  the  Bructeri,  and  the  Chauci,  in  the  extreme 
north-west  of  Germany,  between  the  mouths  of  the 
Rhine  and  Ems.  They  became  tributaries  of  Rome 
under  Drusus,  and  for  a  time  remained  faithful 
to  the  Roman  alliance ;  but,  in  28  a.  d.,  they  were 
driven  to  hostilities  by  the  oppression  of  their  pro- 
tectors ;  and  although  partially  subdued,  they  again 
rose,  agamst  the  Romans  under  Civilis.  As  the 
Frankish  tribes  advanced  further  south,  the  Frisii 
spread  themselves  over  the  islands  which  are  formed 
by  the  embouchures  of  the  Rhine,  the  Maas,  and 
the  Scheldt,  and  gradually  merged  into  the  two 
branches  of  the  Frisii  majores  and  Frisii  minores, 
the  former  occupying  the  districts  west  of  the  Fly 
or  Zuyderzee,  and  the  latter  those  east  of  those 
waters.  In  the  5th  c,  a  band  of  the  Frisii  joined 
the  Saxons  and  Angles  in  their  invasion  of  Britain. 
At  a  later  period,  the  Frisii  of  the  south-west  were 
brought  under  the  Frankish  rule  by  Pepin  d'Her- 
istal,  w^ho  defeated  their  leader  in  689,  and  com- 
pelled him  and  his  people  to  embrace  Christianity. 
In  785  the  eastern  branch  of  the  tribe  was  bfought 
under  subjection  by  Charlemagne,  who  despatched 
Christian  teachers  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  them, 
and  who,  in  802,  defined  their  rights  by  the  Lex 
Frisionum.  Their  country  was  divided  into  three 
parts,  two  of  which  were  annexed,  in  the  partition 
of  the  Cailovingian  empire,  to  Louis  the  German, 
and  constituted  East  Friesland,  while  the  remainder, 
forming  West  Friesland,  fell  to  the  share  of  Charles 
the  Bald.  The  latter  of  these  provinces  was  au^v 
divided  in  the  10th  and  11th  centuries  into  the  here' 
ditary  countships  of  Holland,  Zealand,  Guelders  cum 
Zutphen,  and  the  bishopric  of  Utrecht  cum  Yssel; 
and  hence  the  districts  still  retaining  the  name  of 
Friesland  have  been  circumscribed  to  their  present 
limited  boundaries,  while  the  distinctive  national 
characteristics  of  the  F.  have  been  obliterated  by 
contact  with  their  neighbours,  and  their  history 
has  merged  in  that  of  Holland  and  Hsjiover. 

The  Frisian  language  occupies  a  place  interme- 
diate, in  some  respects,  between  Anglo-Saxon  and 
Old  Norse.  Of  all  the  Teutonic  dialects,  it  shews 
the  closest  aflinities  to  Enghsh.  There  is  a  Frisian 
literature  dating  from  the  12th  century.  Our 
knowledge  of  Old  Frisian  is  derived  from  coUec 
tions  of  laws,  of  which  each  '  Gau'  had  its  own  set 
written  down  m  its  own  dialect.  The  Asegabuchy 
a  set  of  laws  valid  for  aU  Frisians,  was  composed 
about  1200.  A  complete  collection  of  the  Fi-isian 
laws  still  eitant,  was  published  by  Richthofen 


FRIT— FRITILLAR"?. 


(Fries,  liecutsquellen,  Gott.  1840).  Since  the  15th 
c,  the  Frisian  has  been  encroached  upon  on  all 
sides  by  the  Dutch,  the  Low  and  High  German, 
and  the  Danish;  so  that  of  the  extensive  area  over 
which  it  orivje  prevailed,  it  now  siibsista  only  in 
isolated  spots,  such  as  the  islands  of  Wangeroge 
and  Heligoland,  the  district  about  Leeuwarden, 
Molquerum,  <fec.  This  Modern  Frisian  is  confined 
to  the  peasantry,  and  is  not  used  in  the  schools  or 
the  churches.  It  is  broken  up  into  endless  local 
dialects,  each  of  which  is  unintelligible  beyond 
the  circumscribed  district  in  which  it  is  spoken. 
Several  attempts  have  been  made  in  the  present 
century  to  revive  the  Frisian,  by  publishing  some 
of  the  older  specimens  of  its  literature.  Among 
these  we  may  instance  the  Friesche  Riimlenfe  of 
Gysbert  Japicx  (edited  by  Epkema,  1824);  Waatze 
Gribbe)-ts  brill  eft  (Leeuw.  1812) ;  and  It  Libben  fen 
Aagtje  Ysbrants  (Snoek,  1827).  Hettema  and  the 
brothers  Halljertsraa  are  noted  both  for  their 
original  compositions  in  Frisian,  and  for  their  com- 
mentaries on  Frisian  jurispmdence.  Among  Frisian 
vocabiilaries,  the  best  known  are  Wiarda's  Alt 
Fr.  Worferlmch  (1786)  ;  Rich thof en's  AlffriesJsches 
Worterbitch  (1840),  and  N.  Outzcn's  Glomrrium  der 
F.  Sprache  (Cop.  1837).  J.  Grimm  and  Rask  have 
vNTitten  on  Frisian  grammar,  and  the  Frisisk  Sprog- 
laere  of  the  latter  has  been  translated  into  Dutch  by 
Hettema  (Leeuw.  18.32). 

FRIT  [Oscinis  Frit,  or  CJdorops  Frit),  an  insect 
of  the  same  family  with  the  house-fly ;  an  active 
greenish-black  fly  of  the  size  of  a  large  flea,  which 
does  great  injiuy  to  barley  crops  in  some  parts  of 
the  north  of  Europe.  It  lays  its  eggs  in  the  flowers, 
and  its  larvc^  live  on  the  young  grains.  Linnieus 
affirms  that  a  tenth  part  of  the  barley  in  Sweden 
and  Lapland  is  annually  destroyed  by  it.  [t  is  not 
Known  in  Britain,  but  is  nearly  allied  to  the  insects 
called  corn- fly  and  wheat-fly. 

FRITH,  or  FIRTH  (Lat.  fretim,  Gr.  porthmos  ; 
from  the  same  root  as  Ferry,  q.  v.),  an  arm  or 
channel  of  the  sea  that  is  passed  or  crossed ;  the 
opening  of  a  river  into  the  sea. 

FRITH,  William  Powell,  R.A.,  an  eminent 
English  artist,  the  son  of  an  innkeeper  at  Harrogate, 
Yorksl^ire,  was  born  in  that  town  in  1820.  In 
1840,  he  first  exhibited,  at  the  Royal  Academy, 
London,  a  scene  from  Shakspeare's  Twelfth  NigM, 
*  Malvolio  before  the  Countess  Olivia,'  which  at 
once  attracted  attention,  as  giving  promise  of  future 
excellence.  In  1841,  his  painting  of  the  '  Parting 
Inter\'iew  of  Leicester  and  his  Countess  Amy, 
from  Scott's  Xenilworth,  evinced  a  marked  improve- 
ment in  his  style  and  manner.  Thenceforth  he  rose 
rapidly  in  public  estimation,  and  his  subsequent  pro- 
ductions amply  confirmed  the  high  anticipations  that 
had  been  formed  of  his  skill  and  power.  Among 
the  paintings  exhibited  by  him  in  successive  years 
were  the  following  :  '  My  Wife  M'oidd  bid  both 
stand  w-p  to  see  which  was  the  Tallest,'  a  scene  from 
the  Vicar  of  Wakefield,  in  1842;  'Mrs  Page,  Mr 
Ford,  Page,  Slender,  and  Falstaff,'  from  the  Merry 
Wives  of  Windsor,  in  1843  ;  'English  Merry-making 
a  Hundred  Years  ago,'  in  1847  ;  '  An  Old  Woman 
Accused  of  Witchcraft  in  the  Time  of  James  I.,' 
in  1848 ;  and  '  Coming  of  Age,'  in  1849 ;  &c.  F. 
was  elected  an  Associate  of  the  Academy  in 
1845,  and  a  Royal  Academician  in  1853.  In  1854, 
his  '  Life  at  the  Seaside '  was  one  of  the  leading 
features  of  the  Exhibition.  '  The  Derby  Day, 
exhibited  in  1858,  and  'Claude  Duval,'  in  1860, 
are  considered  two  of  the  most  successfid  of  his 
performances.  For  the  'Railway  Station'  (1862), 
his  latest,  and  probably  his  greatest  painting, 
be  is  sai'l  to  have  received  8700  guineas.  His 
»a6 


occasional  small  portraits  display,  alike  with  hi» 
larger  pieces,  his  complete  mastery  of  his  art. 

FRI'THJOF'S  SAGA,  which  was  probably  first 
written  down  at  the  end  of  the  13th  or  in  the 
beginning  of  the  14th  c.,  is  an  ancient  Icelaiadic 
myth,  which  records  the  life  and  adventures  of 
the  hero  Frithjof  (properly  Fridlithjofr  ;  i.e.,  'peace- 
destroyer,')  who  loved  tlie  beautiful  Ingeborg, 
the  daughter  of  a  petty  king  of  Norway.  After 
being  rejected  by  the  brothers  of  Ingeljorg,  and ' 
having  committed  various  acts  of  revenge  on  hia 
enemies,  he  comes  to  the  court  of  the  old  king 
Hriug,  to  whom  Ingeborg  has  been  married,  ana 
is  received  with  kindness.  At  the  death  of  her 
husband,  Ingeborg  is  married  to  her  lover  who 
acquires  with  her  hand  the  dominions  of  Hnng, 
over  which  he  ndos  prosperously  to  the  end  of 
his  days.  Frithjof  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in 
the  8th  c.  ;  but  some  writers  assign  to  him  a 
much  earlier  period.  Tliis  Saga  was  included  by 
Bjorner  in  his  collection  NordisJca  Kdmpadater 
(Stock.  1737) ;  and  by  Rafu  in  his  Fornaldar  Sogur 
j}iordhrlaiida  (Copen.  1829).  Attent^u  has  of  late 
years  been  more  especially  drawn  to  this  ancient 
Saga,  which  is,  in  fact,  merely  one  of  a  number 
of  similar  mythical  narratives,  in  consequence  o{ 
the  distinguished  Swedish  poet.  Bishop  Tegner, 
having  selected  it  for  the  groundwork  of  a  poem 
{FrMjof's  iS'aryrt),  whicli  was  published  in  its  complete 
form  in  1825,  and  at  once  became  the  most  popular 
poem  that  had  ever  appeared  in  Sweden,  and  raised 
its  author  tt  the  height  of  his  reputation.  Tegner 
follows  the  Saga  so  closely,  that  the  merits  of 
demerits  of  the  plan  of  the  story  must  be  ascribed 
more  to  the  original  than  to  himself ;  but  to 
foreigners  the  poem  scarcely  seems  to  present  the 
excellences  that  have  been  attributed  to  it  by 
Swedish  critics.  The  diversity  of  metre  employed 
in  the  24  cantos,  of  which  each  diflers  wholly  from 
the  others,  detracts  from  the  completeness  of  the 
whole,  and  produces  an  inharmonious  effect.  The 
Frithjof  s  Saga  of  Tegner  has  been  translated  into 
several  other  languages  ;  among  the  five  English 
translations,  we  may  instance  those  by  R.  G.  Latham 
(1838)  and  G.  Stephens  (1841). 

FRI'TILLARY  {Fritillaria),  a  genus  of  plant* 
of  the  natural  order  Liliacece,  herbaceous,  bulboug* 


Crown  Imperial  [Fritillaria  imperiatit),  ^ 

rooted,  with  bell-shaped  perianth  of  six  distinct 
segments,  each  having  a  conspicuous  honey-pore 


FRITILLARY— FROG. 


(nectary)  at  the  base.  About  twenty  speciea  are 
known,  natives  of  Europe  and  other  temperate 
regions  of  the  northern  hemisi)here.  All  of  them 
have  drooping  flowers  ;  some  of  them  are  beautiful. 
One  species  only  is  a  native  of  Britain,  the  Common 
F.  [F.  melearjris),  which  is  found  in  meadows  and 
jtastvu-es  in  the  east  and  south  of  England,  flowering 
m  April  or  May.  The  stem,  about  a  foot  high, 
bears  several  linear  leaves,  and  in  general  only  one 
flower,  which  is  flesh-coloured,  and  marked  with 
many  dark  spots.  Many  varieties  are  in  cultiva- 
tion.— This  genus  includes  the  Crown  Imperial 
{F.  imperialis),  a  native  of  Persia  and  the  north  of 
India,  a  well-known  ornament  of  our  gardens. 

FRITILLARY,  a  name  given  to  a  number  of 
species  of  butterfly,  some  of  which  are  common  in 
Britain,  from  the  rttsemblance  of  the  colouring  of 
their  wings  to  that  of  the  petals  of  the  common 
fritillary.  This  resemblance  appears  only  on  the 
upper  side  of  the  wings,  the  luider  side  being  often 
remarkable  for  metallic  brilliancy. 

FRIU'LI  (Ger.  Friaul ;  anc.  Forum  Julii),  for- 
merly the  name  of  a  district  in  the  extreme  north- 
east of  Italy.  It  constituted  one  of  the  36  duchies 
into  which  the  Longobards  divided  the  north  of 
Italy.  Its  first  duke  is  said  to  have  been  Graeulf 
(568 — 588  A.  D.),  nephew  of  the  Longobardian  King 
Alboin.  It  shared  in  all  the  incessant  vicissitudes 
of  the  Lombard  States  during  the  middle  ages. 
From  an  early  period,  F.  was  divided  into  Tyrolese 
and  Venetian  F.,  the  former  of  which  came  into 
the  possession  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian  in  1500, 
while  the  latter  remained  attached  to  Venice  till  the 
peace  of  Campo-Formio  (1797),  when  it  was  given 
to  Austria.  The  inhabitants,  called  Furlanl,  are 
for  the  most  part  Italian,  but  make  use  of  a 
peculiar  dialect.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  also  rich 
in  minerals  and  healing  springs. 

FRIVALDSZKY,  Emrich,  a  Hungarian  natur- 
alist, head-keeper  of  the  National  Museum  of 
Hungary,  was  born  in  1799  at  Satoraljaujhely,  in 
the  county  of  Zemplen.  In  1822,  F.  was  admitted 
a  member  of  the  College  of  Physicians  at  Pesth, 
and  soon  afterwards  appointed  assistant-keeper  in 
the  depaitment  of  natural  history.  F.'s  investi- 
gations have  lain  in  tracts  hitherto  little  known 
to  naturalists.  His  Monogram  of  the  parallel 
between  tlie  Korthei'n  Carpathians  and  the  alpine 
chain  of  the  Lower  Banat  was  presented  to  the 
Hungarian  Academy  in  1846.  The  sketches  from 
the  Natural  History  of  the  Olympus,  of  Asia 
Minor,  &c.,  contain  original  views,  and  are  distin- 
guished for  exactness.  F.'s  zeal  for  augmenting  the 
natural  treasiu-es  of  the  National  Museum,  and 
for  the  promotion  of  natural  science  in  general, 
are  known  far  beyond  the  boundaries  of  his  native 
country. 

FRIVOLOUS  AND  VEXATIOUS.    By  9  Geo. 

IV.  c.  22,  s.  15,  it  was  enacted,  that  if  the  Select 
Committee  of  the  House  of  Commons,  appointed  to 
try  a  petition  against  an  election,  should  be  of 
opinion  that  any  ground  of  objection  stated  against 
a  voter  was  friooious  or  vexatious,  they  should  find 
the  opposite  party  entitled  to  recover  the  full  costs 
incurred  by  reason  of  such  objection  ;  and  s.  40 
provides,  with  reference  to  petitions  in  general,  that 
tlie  committee,  at  the  time  that  they  inform  the 
House  of  their  final  determination  on  the  petition, 
shall  also  report  whether  it  did  or  did  not  appear 
to  them  to  be  frivolous  or  vexatious  ;  and  whether 
the  oj)i)osition  to  it  or  the  return  was  or  was  not 
vexatious  or  corrupt,  in  all  wliich  cases  the  parties 
frivolously  petitioning  or  objecting  are  burdened 
vitli  costs.  The  penalty  of  paying  costs  is  likewise 
imposed  by  5  and  6  Vict.  c.  102,  s.  15,  on  any  one 


who  shall  bring  forward  a  frivolous  or  vexatious 
charge  of  bribeiy.  See  Election.  Vexatioua 
indictments  for  various  crimes  are  prohibited  by 
22  and  23  Vict.  c.  17,  which  provides  that  no  indict- 
ment for  the  crimes  therein  mentioned  shall  be 
preferred  without  authorisation  from  one  or  other  of 
the  public  officers  therein  mentioned.  The  statute 
does  not  extend  to  Scotland.  As  to  frivolous  and 
vexatious  actions  at  law,  see  3  and  4  Vict.  c.  24,  by 
wliich  a  portion  of  43  Eliz.  c.  6  is  repealed  ;  4  and  5 
Vict.  c.  28,  which  again  repeals  a  portion  of  3  and 
4  Vict.  c.  24. 

FROBISHER,  Sir  Martin,  a  distinguished  naval 
adventurer  of  the  Elizabethan  period,  tlie  first 
Englishman  who  sought  to  discover  a  north-west 
passage  to  China,  was  a  native  of  Doncaster,  but  the 
year  of  his  birth  is  unknown.  For  many  years,  ho 
in  vain  laboured  to  impress  English  merchants  with 
an  idea  of  the  importance  of  a  north-west  passage ; 
but  at  length,  being  patronised  by  some  persons  of 
rank  and  fortune,  he  succeeded  in  raising  money 
enough  to  fit  out  two  small  vessels  of  25  tons  each, 
and  a  pinnace  of  ten  tons.  With  these  he  sailed 
from  Deptford  on  June  8,  1576,  the  queen,  who 
was  then  at  Greenwich,  bidding  them  God  speed  on 
their  venturous  way  by  '  shaking  her  hand  at  them 
out  of  the  window.'  Steering  their  course  north, 
they,  in  lat.  61°  N.,  sighted  the  southern  part  oi 
Greenland,  which  F.  took  to  be  the  Friesland  of 
Zeno,  on  the  11th  July,  to  the  east  point  of  which 
F.  gave  the  name  of  '  Queen  Elizabeth's  Foreland ; ' 
and  on  the  28tli,  they  sighted  Meta  Incognita.  On 
the  11th  of  August,  F.  entered  the  strait  which  bears 
his  name,  and  which  forms  one  of  the  entrances 
from  Davis'  Strait  into  Hudson's  Bay.  After  about 
a  fortnight's  exploration  of  the  coasts  and  islands, 
F. — having  lost,  through  the  treachery  of  the 
natives,  a  boat  and  five  men— returned  to  Eng- 
land- He  brought  with  him  some  ore  picked  up  on 
one  of  the  islands  he  discovered,  in  which  some 
gold  was  found.  Visions  of  immense  wealth  to  be 
derived  from  further  search  in  these  northern 
lands  floated  before  the  eyes  of  the  speculators 
of  the  time,  who  immediately  fitted  out  another 
and  better  appointed  expedition,  giving  the  com- 
mand to  Frobisher.  He  sailed  in  May  1577,  but 
his  discoveries,  hampered  as  he  was  by  the  gold- 
seeking  operations,  which  turned  out  comparatively 
trifling,  did  not  extend  further  than  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  strait  he  had  before  reached.  A  third 
expedition  was  sent  out  in  the  year  following ; 
but  geographical  science  appears  to  have  been  but 
little  benefited  by  it.  F.  afterAvards  served  undei 
Drake  in  the  West  Indies  ;  and  for  his  distinguished 
bravery  in  the  fight  with  the  Spanish  Armada, 
July  26,  1588,  he  received  the  honour  of  knight- 
hood. He  afterwards  commanded  a  squadron  sent 
out  to  ravage  the  Spanish  coast.  He  died  on 
November  7,  1594,  from  the  efi"ects  of  a  wound 
received  while  leading  an  attack  by  sea  against 
Brest. 

FROBISHER  STRAIT,  a  passage  between  the 
west  side  of  Davis'  Strait  and  the  north  side  of 
Hudson's  Strait,  is  140  miles  long,  with  an  average 
breadth  of  20.  It  extends  in  lat.  from  62°  to  64°  N., 
and  in  long,  from  65°  to  73°  or  74°  W.  It  is  not 
of  any  practical  value  as  a  channel  of  communica- 
tion ;  and,  in  fact,  it  has  been  very  seldom  visited 
by  vessels  boimd  either  westward  or  eastward, 

FROG  [Rana),  a  genus  of  Batrackia,  having  in 
the  adult  state  four  legs  and  no  tail,  no  gills,  four 
toes  on  each  of  the  fore-feet,  five  on  each  of  the  hind- 
feet,  the  feet  more  or  less  webbed ;  the  head  flat, 
the  muzzle  rounded ;  the  mouth  very  large,  a  row  of 
small  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  an  inten-upted 


FROG. 


transverse  row  on  the  middle  of  the  palate.  The 
young  (tadpoles)  breathe  by  means  of  gills  ;  external 
gills  forming  little  fringes  at  the  sides  of  the  neck 
when  they  are  very  young,  which,  however,  in  a  few 
days  disai)pear ;  the  gills,  which  remain  until  the 
tadpoles  undergo  their  final  metamorphosis  into 
frogs,  being  very  numerous  minute  crests  attached 
to  four  cartilaginous  arches  on  each  side  of  the  neck, 
in  a  cavity  to  which  the  water  enters  from  the 
mouth,  and  from  which  it  is  expelled  l)y  one  or  two 
small  orifices.  Tadpoles  have  no  legs,  and  the  body 
tapers  into  a  tail,  and  thus  has  a  lish-like  form,  very 
different  from  that  of  the  mature  F.,  the  tail  being 
furnished  with  a  membranous  border  like  a  hn. 
The  mouth  of  the  tadpole  is  a  horny  beak,  which 
falls  off  when  it  becomes  a  frog.  When  this  meta- 
morphosis takes  place,  the  hind-legs  grow  first,  and 
afterwards  the  fore-legs  begin  to  appear,  the  tail 
being  gradually  absorbed.  Tadpoles  are  capable  of 
living  in  water  only ;  but  the  mature  F.  visits  the 
water  only  occasionally,  although  generally  capable 
of  renuxining  long  immersed,  and  always  preferring 
moist  places.  In  respiration,  frogs  draw  in  air 
through  the  nostrils,  by  movements  of  the  muscles 
of  the  throat,  and  expel  it  by  contraction  of  those 
of  the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen.  The  thin  smooth 
ukiu  of  frogs  is  also  believed  to  be  subservient  to 
the  aeration  of  the  blood.    The  skeleton  is  destitute 


Frog: 

Snccessive  stages— in  the  order  of  the  nuir.hers— from  the  egg 
almost  to  the  perfect  form. 


of  ribs.  The  eye  is  large  and  very  beautifid.  The 
colours  are  often  pleasing,  and  the  general  aspect 
agreeable,  in  some  species  very  much  so,  forming  a 
strong  contrast  to  the  repulsive  appearance  pre- 
sented by  toads,  notwithstanding  the  close  affinity 
between  them  both  in  structure  and  habits.  The 
greater  pioportionate  length  and  strength  of  the 
hind-legs  enables  frogs  to  leap  to  a  distance  wouder- 
fid  for  creatures  of  their  size,  instead  of  crawling  as 
toads  do,  and  their  activity  and  liveliness  complete 
the  contrast.  The  males  have  on  each  side  of  the 
neck  a  delicate  membrane,  which  becomes  inflated 
with  air  when  they  croak.  The  power  of  voice  in 
the  females  is  much  inferior.  The  croaking  of 
numerous  frogs  in  marshy  places,  or  around  ponds 
and  ditches,  often  makes  an  amusing  and  curious 
coiicert ;  but  the  powers  of  voice  possessed  by  the 
frogs  of  Britain  are  not  to  be  comj^ared  with  those 
of  the  great  Bull-frogs  (q.  v.)  of  North  America  ; 
whilst  the  neighboiirhood  of  Rio  Janeiro  is  enlivened 
as  night  comes  on  by  the  Blacksmith  F.,  whiv.h 
croaks  so  sonoroiisly  that  the  noise  is  like  the 
clanging  of  a  hammer  on  an  anvil,  the  intermingled 
6ao 


voices  of  some  other  kinds  resembling  the  lowing  of 
cattle  at  a  distance  ;  and  in  Peru,  there  is  a  F.,  of 
large  dimensions,  which  has  acquired  the  name  of 
Trapichero,  or  Sugar-miller,  because  its  voice  haa 
a  grating  sound  like  that  produced  by  a  sugar-mill. 
The  confused  blending  of  the  voices  of  different 
species  of  frogs,  in  these  coimtries,  destroying  the 
stilhress  of  night,  is  one  of  the  things  most  cer 
tain  to  arrest  the  attention  of  the  stranger.  In 
colder  climates,  frogs  usually  bury  themselves  in 
mud,  and  spend  the  winter  in  torpidity.  In  dry 
weather,  they  conceal  themselves  under  shiubs  and 
in  tufts  of  herbage,  from  which  rain  quickly  caosea 
them  to  come  forth,  multitudes  often  apx)earing 
where  not  one  was  to  be  seen  before.  They  feed 
chiefly  on  insects,  slugs,  &c.  The  beaks  of  tadpoles 
are  adapted  to  the  eating  of  leaves  and  other  vege- 
table food,  on  which  Cuvier  says  they  entirely  sub- 
sist ;  but  the  younger  Buckland,  in  his  Curiosities  of 
Natural  History  (4th  ed.,  Lond.  1859,  pp.  2 — 4),  in 
an  amusing  account  of  the  habits  of  tadpoles,  more 
correctly  describes  them  as  shewing  a  great  avidity 
for  animal  food,  crowding  round  a  dead  kitten,  and 
nibbling  at  the  toes  of  little  boys  who  wade  in 
pools  where  they  abound.  The  spawn  of  frogs  is 
a  gelatinous  mass,  in  which  the  eggs  are  contained, 
and  which  swells  greatly  by  imbibing  moisture. 
Impregnation  takes  place  after  it  is  deposited,  as 
with  the  spawn  of  fishes. 

The  only  species  of  F.  certainly  known  to  be 
British  is  that  called  in  France  the  Red  F.  (i?. 
ieinporarla),  which  is  abundant  in  most  parts  of 
England  and  Scotland,  but  is  said  not  to  be  truly 
indigenous  to  Ireland,  and  to  have  been  introduced 
into  that  island  in  1696. 

Batrachia  having  much  the  general  appearance  and 
habits  of  frogs  may  have  little  real  relationship  to 
them.  Thus,  the  tailless  Batrachia  are  divided  into 
Aglossa  (without  tongue),  Bufoniformia  (without 
teeth),  Arcifera  (with  arched  sternal  cartilages),  and 
Raniformia  (with  solidly  united  sternal  pieces).  The 
Aglossa  belong  to  the  zoological  regions  of  the  South- 
ern Hemisphere,  and  the  Bufoniformia  (Toads)  are 
cosmopolite.  The  Arcifera  belong  to  Australia,  South 
and  (to  some  extent)  North  America.  The  Ranifor- 
mia (Frogs  proper)  to  the  old  continent  and  North 
America.  In  the  last  two  groups  are  to  be  found 
species  of  subterranean,  teri-estrial,  aquatic,  and  arbo- 
real habits.  Tree  fiogs  of  America  belong  to  the 
Arcifera ;  those  of  Asia  to  the  Raniformia.  They  have 
the  ends  of  the  digits  furnished  with  cushions,  Avhich 
secrete  a  viscid  fluid  which  enables  them  to  adhere  to 
vertical  surfaces. 

Th3  use  of  frogs  for  food  is  generally  regarded 
ydth  disgust  in  Britain,  but  it  is  very  common  in 
some  of  the  southern  countries  of  Europe,  and  they 
are  regarded  as  particidarly  delicate.  The  species 
chiefly  used  as  food  in  Europe  is  the  Geeen  F.  {liana 
escidenta),  already  mentioned,  which  greatly  abounds 
in  i)onds  and  slow  streams  in  France,  Southern 
Germany,  and  Italy.  It  feeds  chiefly  on  insects, 
after  which  it  darts  with  great  agihty  on  the  banks, 
and  may  often  be  seen  swimming  with  its  head 
above  water,  or  basking  in  the  sunsliine.  Frogs  are 
there  taken  for  the  market  by  nets,  and  by  a  kind 
of  rake.  In  Viemia,  they  are  kept  and  fattened  in 
preserves  adapted  to  the  purpose.  In  France,  the 
hind-quarters  alone  are  prepared  for  the  table ;  in 
Germany,  all  the  muscular  parts.  They  are  dressed 
in  various  ways,  aixd  with  various  sauces,  of  which 
a  great  part  often  consists  of  wine. — The  GRUNTiNa 
F.  [R.  grunniens)  of  the  West  Indies,  a  very  large 
species,  six  or  eight  inches  long,  capable  of  leaping 
over  a  five-feet  wall,  is  much  used  for  food,  its  flesh 
being  very  white  and  delicate,  and  is  often  fattened 
for  the  cable.    It  shews  a  considerable  capacity  for 


FROG-BIT- 


^— FEONDK 


domes'jrfttion,  and  readily  becomes  familiar. — A 
gptui33  cf  F.  {Pyxlcephalus  adsperms  of  Dr  Smith) 
is  mi'.cli  used  as  food  by  the  native  tribes  of  South 
Africa.  Dr  Livingstone  says  the  Bechuanas  siip- 
pose  it  to  fall  from  thunder-clouds,  because  the  pools 
suddenly  filled  with  water  after  a  thunder-shower 
become  instantly  alive  with  loud-croakiug  frogs, 
which  have  ])reY.fously  been  hidden  in  holes  at  the 
roots  of  bushes.  This  species  is  nearly  six  inches 
^ong,  and  when  cooked  resembles  chicken. 

FROG-BIT.    See  Hydrochaeibile. 

FROG-FIS7I  (Balrachus),  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the 
family  Lophiidce,  to  which  also  the  Angler  (q.  v.)  or 
Fishiuff  Frog  belongs.  They  are  remarkable  for 
excessive  ugliness.  The  head  is  larger  than  the 
body ;  flattened,  and  spiny  ;  the  mouth  is  very  large, 
with  man}'  teeth  ;  the  lips  are  often  furnished  with 
filaments  ;  the  pectoral  fins  are  supported  by  a  short 
stalk  or  wrist.  The  skin  is  naked  in  some  species, 
scaly  in  others.  The  species  are  numerous  and 
widely  distributed,  but  none  of  them  are  British.  B. 
tan  is  abundant  on  the  coast  of  New  Jersey,  and  is  as 
unattractive  as  its  congeners. 

FROGGED,  a  term  used  in  regard  to  uniforms, 
i.nd  applied  to  stripes  or  workings  of  braid  or  lace, 
as  ornaments,  mostly  on  the  breast,  on  the  plain 
cloth  01  which  a  coat  is  made. 

FBOISSART,  Jean,  a  French  poet  and  historian, 
vas  bom  at  Valenciennes,  in  the  year  1337.  Being 
destj'iied  for  the  chujt'ch,  he  received  a  liberal  educa- 
tion, but  soon  displayed  a  passion  for  poetry  and  the 
charms  of  knightly  society.  At  the  age  of  20,  he 
began  to  write  a  history  of  the  wars  of  his  time,  and 
made  several  journeys  to  examine  the  theatre  of  the 
events  he  was  about  to  relate.  The  composition 
of  this  work,  which  forms  the  first  part  of  his 
Chronicles,  occupied  him  about  three  years  (1357 — 
1360).  On  its  completion,  he  went  over  to  England, 
where  he  was  received  with  great  favour  by  Philippa 
of  Hainault,  wife  of  Edward  III.  In  1362,  she 
appointed  him  clerk  of  her  chapel  and  secretary. 
Two  years  afterwards,  he  visited  Scotland,  where 
he  became  the  guest  of  King  David  Bruce,  and 
also  of  William  Earl  of  Douglas.    Everywhere  the 

fay,  poetical,  quick-witted,  and  shrewdly  observant 
renchman  was  welcomed  and  honoured.  In  1366, 
he  accompanied  the  Black  Prince  to  Aquitaine  and 
Bordeaux.  He  afterwards  went  with  the  Duke  of 
Clarence  to  Italy.  F.,  along  with  Chaucer  and 
Petrarch,  was  present  at  the  maiTiage  of  this  prince, 
at  Milan,  with  the  daughter  of  Galeazzo  Visconti, 
and  directed  the  festivities  given  by  Amadeus  VI., 
of  Savoy,  in  honour  of  the  duke.  On  the  death  of 
Jiis  protectress  Philippa,  F.  gave  up  all  connection 
with  England,  and,  after  many  adventures,  entered 
the  service  of  Wenceslaus,  Duke  of  Brabant,  as 
private  secretary.  The  duke  was  himself  a  poet, 
and  F.  made  a  collection  of  his  verses,  to  which  he 
added  some  of  his  own,  and  entitled  the  whole 
Meliador,  or  the  Knight  of  the  Golden  Smi.  On  the 
death  of  Wenceslaus,  he  entered  the  service  of  Guy, 
Count  of  Blois,  who  encouraged  him  to  continue  his 
Chronicles.  He  now  took  a  journey  to  the  court  of 
Gaston  Phoebus,  Count  de  Foix,  that  he  might  hear 
from  the  lips  of  the  knights  of  Bearn  and  Gascony 
an  account  of  their  exploits.  F.  also  made  several 
other  journeys,  to  collect  information  for  his 
Chronicles.  In  1394  he  obtained  the  canonry  and 
treasurership  of  the  collegiate  church  of  Chimay ; 
in  the  following  year  visited  England,  where  he 
was  courteously  and  generously  entertained  by  King 
Richard  IT. ;  and  on  his  return  spent  the  remainder 
of  bis  life  in  completing  his  great  work.  He  died 
Bt  Chimay  in  1410.    R's  Clu-oniclea  embrace  the 


events  occurring  1326 — 1400.  They  are  valuable 
documents  for  illustrating  the  character  and  man- 
ners of  his  age.  The  pageantry  of  feudal  times 
brightens  his  i)ages  ;  the  din  of  arms,  the  shouting 
of  knights,  and  the  marshalling  of  troops,  is  ever 
and  anon  heard ;  while  '  visions  of  fair  women'  rise 
before  us  as  we  read.  The  gorgeous  feasts  and 
spectacles  in  which  F.  so  much  delighted  are  set 
forth  in  copious  details ;  and  though  F.  is  no  phil- 
osopher, his  shrewd  observations  and  richly  minute 
descriptions  have  helped  others  to  philosoi)hise. 
F.'s  Chronicles  first  appeared  at  Paris  aljout  the 
end  of  the  15th  c,  under  the  title  of  Chroniquea 
de  France,  d' Anr/lelerre,  d^Ecosse,  d^Espagne,  de 
Bretagne,  de  Gascogne,  Flandres  et  lieux  dulentour. 
The  best  edition  is  that  of  Buclion  (15  vols., 
Par.  1824 — 1826).  His  poems  have  likcAvise  been 
published  by  Buchon  (Par.  1829).  The  beautiful 
MS.  of  the  Chronicles  in  the  library  at  Breslau 
was  executed  in  1468,  and  was  secured  to  the 
town  in  a  separate  article,  when  Breslau  capitidated 
to  the  French  in  the  year  1806.  The  Chronicles 
have  also  been  translated  into  Latin  and  several 
modern  languages.  England  has  two  versions : 
one  execxited  in  1523 — 1525  by  Bom-chier  Lord 
Berners  (reprinted  in  1812)  ;  and  the  other  in 
1803 — 1805  by  Thomas  Johnes  (rej)rinted  by  Bohn 
in  1845).  The  latter  is  the  more  exact ;  but  the 
former,  according  to  Sir  Walter  Scott,  is  the  more 
artless  and  lively. 

FROME,  or  FROME  SELWOOD,  a  parliament- 
ary  and  mimicipal  borough,  in  the  east  of  Somerset- 
shire, on  the  Frome,  a  branch  of  the  Avon,  12  miles 
south-south-east  of  Bath.  The  surromiding  country 
is  very  picturesque,  and  the  town,  until  modernised 
early  in  the  present  century  by  the  formation  of 
two  wide  thoroughfares,  was  a  strange  old  place, 
with  narrow,  crooked,  and  steep  streets  and  lanes, 
many  of  which  stiU  remain.  It  has  manufactures 
of  fine  woollens,  hats,  silk,  and  cards  for  dressing 
woollen  cloth.  Pop.  (1871)  9753.  It  returns  one 
member  to  parliament.  The  once  celebrated  forest 
of  Selwood  was  in  the  vicinity,  and  part  of  it,  within 
the  parish,  remains  in  its  original  state. 

FROND,  in  Botany,  a  term  often  used  to  desig- 
nate the  leaves  of  cryptogamous  plants.  It  was 
originally  introduced  as  distinctive  of  organs  in 
which  the  functions  of  stem  and  leaf  are  combined, 
and  was  applied  to  the  leaves  of  palms,  &c.  The 
term  leaf  is  now  very  generally  used  even  as  to 
mosses,  ferns,  &c.,  and  the  term  thallus  is  employed 
as  to  lichens.  In  the  case  of  many  Algce,  the  term 
F.  is  often  used  to  designate  the  whole  plant  except 
its  organs  of  reproduction. 

FRONDE,  the  name  given  to  a  political  faction 
in  France  during  the  minority  of  Louis  XIV.,  which 
was  hostile  to  the  coui-t  and  the  prime  minister, 
Mazarin,  and  caused  great  domestic  troubles  froaai 
the  year  1648  to  1654.  The  grasping  and  despotic 
policy  of  Mazarin,  to  whom  Anne  of  Austria,  the 
queen- regent,  had  abandoned  the  reins  of  govern- 
ment, had  given  offence  to  all  classes.  The  princes 
and  nobles  saw  themselves  excluded  from  all  high 
offices  in  the  state,  and  their  place  supplied  b}' 
foreigners  ;  the  parliament  was  threatened  in  its 
political  rights,  and  the  people  groaned  imder  the 
burden  of  taxes  and  administrative  abuses.  Parlia- 
ment, therefore,  commenced  a  course  of  determined 
opposition,  refusing  to  register  the  royal  edicts, 
more  especially  the  disgracefid  financial  measures. 
Although  the  young  king,  then  only  nine  years  old, 
was  obliged  by  several  'Beds  of  Justice'  (q.v.)  to 
compel  the  registration  of  the  edicts,  and  to  forbid 
the  opposition  of  the  parliament,  the  latter  did  not 
on  that  account  change  its  bearing  towards  the 


FRONTINUS— FROSINONE. 


court.  Mazarin,  thereWe,  adopted  violent  measures. 
On  the  26th  August,  1648,  he  ordered  the  president, 
Potier  de  Bhvncmenil,  and  the  councillor,  Peter 
Broussel,  to  be  arrested.  ITie  people  took  up  arms, 
dispersed  the  Swiss  guard,  and  on  the  27th  August 
Ua  journee  des  barricades),  erected  barricades  in 
the  streets  around  the  Palais  Eoyal.  The  court 
now  yielded,  repealed  several  taxes,  and  promised  a 
better  administration  of  justice.  This  victory  gave 
parliament  courage  ;  those  members  who  continued 
to  k»;ep  a  sharp  look-out  on  the  court  measures,  and 
were  styled  by  the  adherents  of  Mazarin  frondeurs 
— i.  e.,  censurers  (literally,  'slingers') — formed  the 
majority.  The  court  now  resolved  to  sup])res3  the 
movement,  in  which  the  poi)ulace  of  the  capital  had 
also  taken  part,  by  force  of  arms,  and,  on  the  6th 
January  1649,  removed  secretly  to  St  Germain, 
leaving  Paris  to  be  blockaded  by  the  Prince  of  Conde 
with  7000  men.  The  parliament,  whose  cause  was 
now  publicly  espoused  by  the  Prince  of  Conti,  the 
Dukes  of  Longueville,  Beaufort,  Orleans,  Bouillon, 
Elbeuf,  Vendome,  Nemours,  the  Cardinal  De  Retz, 
and  the  Marechal  de  la  Mothe,  called  upon  the 
people  to  resist,  and  even  negotiated  ^vith  the  stadt- 
holder  of  the  Netherlands  for  an  auxiliary  corps.  In 
this  critical  position,  the  coui-t,  on  the  1 1th  March, 
concluded  a  comi)act  at  Puel,  in  which  both  parties 
missed  their  object.  After  the  return  of  the  court 
to  Paris  in  August,  a  new  turn  was  given  to  the 
contest,  the  princes  of  the  l>lood  disputing  the  power 
with  Mazarin.  This,  on  the  18th  January  1650, 
led  to  the  sudden  aiTest  of  Conde,  Longueville, 
and  Conti.     This  arbitrary  proceeding  roused  the 

f)rovinces.  Marshal  Turenne  assumed  the  title  of 
ieutenant-general  of  the  royal  army  for  the  libera- 
tion of  the  princes,  united  himself  with  the  Arch- 
duke Leopold,  and  took  several  fortified  towns, 
but  was  finally  completely  defeated  by  ISIazarin's 
troops  at  Ehetel,  on  the  15th  December.  Mazarin 
returned  in  triumph  to  Paris,  but  found  all  parties 
against  him,  and  his  removal  was  insisted  upon  so 
m'gently,  that  he  was  obliged  to  release  the  princes, 
and  flee  to  the  Netherlands.  A  disgraceful  system 
of  intrigue  was  now  substituted  for  force  of  arms, 
which  totally  changed  the  position  of  parties,  and 
converted  the  contest  which  had  begun  for  the 
interests  of  the  people  into  a  court  cabal.  Turenne 
was  gained  over  by  the  queen -regent,  De  Eetz  by 
Cardinal  Mazarin,  and  Conde  was  obliged  to  flee  for 
safety  into  Guienne.  Meanwhile,  Louis  XIV.,  who 
had  now  attained  his  14th  year,  endeavoured  to 
induce  the  Prince  of  Cond6  to  return ;  but  the  latter, 
mistrusting  these  overtures,  repaired  to  Bordeaux 
in  1651,  where  he  had  many  adherents,  whence  he 
commenced  a  regular  war  against  the  court,  which 
might  have  had  dangerous  consequences,  had  not 
Tr;renne  opposed  the  prince.  On  the  2d  July  1652, 
an  engagement  took  place  between  the  two  parties 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Paris.  Conde  was  on  the 
eve  of  being  defeated,  when  the  gates  of  Paris  were 
opened  to  him  by  the  courage  and  zeal  of  his  sister, 
the  Duchess  of  Longueville,  and  thus  a  new  turn 
was  given  to  the  contest.  Paris  itself,  weary  of 
thuse  fruitless  dissensions,  now  entered  into  negotia- 
tions with  the  court,  demanding  the  final  removal 
of  Mazarin,  who  had  meanwhile  returned.  This 
demand  was  complied  with  by  Louis  XIV.,  and  a 
general  amnesty  proclaimed.  Conde,  who  refused 
to  enter  into  the  compact,  relying  upon  an  army  of 
12,000  men  placed  at  his  disposal  by  Charles,  Duke 
of  Lorraine,  quitted  Paris  on  the  15th  October  1652, 
and  repaired  to  Champagne ;  and  finally,  finding  no 
one  disposed  to  take  up  arms  in  his  cause,  entered 
the  Spanish  service,  for  which  he  was  declared  a 
1 1  aitor.  Soon  after,  Mazarin  returned  to  Paris,  and 
waa  again  intrusted  with  the  reins  of  government. 
^32 


Thus  the  royal  power  came  forth  victorious  from 
this  long  contest,  which,  though  it  seemed  to  com- 
mence for  the  popular  interests,  gradually  changed 
into  a  miserable  party  strife  among '  the  nobles. 
Compare  Ste-Aulaire's  Ilistoire  de  la  Fronde  (3  vols., 
Par.  "1827). 

FRONTI'NUS,  Sex.  Julius,  a  Roman  author 
who  flourished  in  the  second  half  of  the  first  cen- 
tury. In  75  A.  D.  he  was  sent  to  Britain  as  governor 
of  that  island,  and  obtained  a  great  reputation  by 
his  conquest  of  the  Silures,  and  his  vigorous  main- 
tenance of  the  imperial  authority.  He  appears  to 
have  been  twice  consul  in  the  course  of  his  life,  and 
to  have  held  several  other  important  offices.  He 
died  about  105  A.  D.  Several  works  are  attributed 
to  F.,  only  two  of  which  are  certainly  genuine,  the 
Sfratef/ematicon,  a  treatise  on  the  Art  of  War,  in 
four  books  ;  and  the  De  AqucEdudibus  Urbis  Horace, 
in  two.  The  best  edition  of  the  first  is  that  of 
Oudendorp  (reprinted  with  emendations  in  1 770) : 
of  the  second,  that  of  Dederich  (Wesel,  1841).  The 
De  Aquoiductibus  is  an  important  contribution  to 
the  history  of  architecture. 

FRO'NTISPIECE,  the  name  generally  given  to 
an  engraved  and  decorated  title-page  of  a  volume,  or 
an  engraving  placed  opposite  the  title-page.  ITio 
term  is  also  sometimes  used  to  denote  the  front  or 
principal  face  of  a  building. 

FRONTO,  M.  Cornelius,  was  bom  at  Cirta,  in 
Numidia,  and  came  to  Rome  in  the  reign  of  the 
Emperor  Hadrian,  where  he  soon  obtained  a  high 
reputation  as  a  teacher  of  eloquence.  Antoninus 
Pius  intrusted  to  him  the  education  of  JNLarcus 
Aurelius  and  Lucius  Verus,  both  of  whom  always 
retained  the  warmest  admiration  of  their  pre- 
ceptor. F.  gradually  I'ose  to  the  highest  offices  of 
the  empire,  became  very  wealthy,  and  died,  it  ia 
thoudit,  about  170  a.  d.  Until  recently,  nothing 
was  known  of  F.  as  an  author,  exce])t  from  a  few 
fragments  of  a  grammatical  treatise  [De  Dijferentiis 
Vocabuloruyn)  ;  but  in  the  year  1814,  Angelo  Mai 
discovered  in  the  Ambrosian  Library  at  "Milan  a 
palimpsest,  which  being  deciphered,  was  found  to 
contain  a  considerable  number  of  F.'s  letters  with 
some  short  essays.  These  were  published  by  Mai 
in  1815 ;  and  in  the  following  year  an  edition  was 
published  at  Berlin  by  Niebuhr,  who  wrote  a 
critical  preface,  and  also  printed  the  commentories 
of  Buttmann  and  Heindorf.  A  few  years  afterwards, 
Mai  found  in  the  library  of  the  Vatican  at  Rome 
another  palimpsest  containing  more  than  100  of 
F.'s  letters.  The  result  was  a  new  edition  of  F.  by 
Mai  (Rome,  1823),  embodying  the  new  discoveries, 
which  was  republished  at  Celle  in  Germany  (1832). 
The  contents  of  these  letters  are  on  the  whole  unim- 
portant, although  they  help  to  confirm  the  good 
opinion  which  history  has  formed  of  the  Emperor 
Marcus  Aurelius ;  and  the  style  is  vapid  and 
declamatory. 

FRO'SCHDORF  (originally,  Crottendorf),  called 
by  the  French  Frolisdorf,  is  the  name  of  a  village  in 
Lower  Austria,  rather  more  than  30  miles  from 
Vienna,  and  not  far  from  the  frontiers  of  Hungary, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Leitha.  It  is  cele- 
brated for  its  splendid  castle,  which  in  recent 
times  has  acquired  a  kind  of  political  importance, 
from  having  been  after  1844  the  residence  of 
the  Duchess  of  Angoulfime  and  the  rendezvous  of 
the  elder  Bourbon  party.  After  the  death  of  the 
duchess  it  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Comte 
de  Chambord  (q.  v.),  who  has  greatly  beautified  the 
interior. 

FROSINO'NE  (the  Frusino  of  the  Volsoans) 
is  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  former  States  of  the 


FROST-BITE— FROUDE. 


niitirch,  bailt  on  the  slope  of  a  hill  above  the  junc- 
tion of  \L<t  livvr  Cossa  with  the  Sacco,  about  48 
miles  east  sovith-east  of  Rome,  on  the  high-road 
betveen  Rome  and  Naples.  It  is  the  capital  of  a 
delegation  of  the  same  name,  which  is  notorious 
for  brigandage.  The  only  interesting  edifices  are 
the  palace  of  the  papal  delegate  and  the  remains 
of  an  ancient  amphitheatre.  The  costumes  of  F. 
are  among  the  most  admired  of  Italy.  Pop.  about 
8000. 

FJIOST-BITE  is  caused  by  cold  depressing  the 
vitality  of  a  part  or  the  whole  of  the  body.  The 
frost-bitten  part  is  at  first  blue  and  puffy,  from  the 
current  of  blood  through  it  being  suspended  ;  then, 
should  the  cold  be  continued,  it  becomes  pallid,  and 
the  painful  tingling  gives  place  to  numbness  and 
insensibility,  and  finiilly  to  actual  death  or  mortifi- 
cation. Although  a  auddeu  violent  application  of 
cold  may  cause  death  of  the  tissues,  by  reducing  the 
temperature  to  a  degrvoe  incompatible  with  animal 
life,  the  most  common  cause  of  the  destructive 
eftects  of  frost-bite  is  undoubtedly  the  excessive 
reaction  which  occurs  on  sudden  removal  of  the  cold, 
or  the  application  of  heat ;  this  is  especially  the 
case  with  moist  cold. 

Baron  Larrey  believed  that  *  cold  was  merely 
the  predisposing  cause  of  frost-bite,  and  mentions 
that  after  the  battle  of  Eylau  the  French  soldiers 
did  not  experience  any  painful  sensations  diu-ing 
the  severe  cold  varying  frorn  10°  to  15°  below  zero 
of  Reaumur's  thermometer ;  but  when  the  tem- 
perature rose  from  18°  to  20',  they  felt  the  first 
sensations  of  cold,  and  applied  for  succour,  com- 
plaining of  acute  pains  in  their  feet,  and  of  numb- 
ness, heaviness,  and  prickings  in  the  extremities. 
The  parts  were  scarcely  swollen,  and  of  an  obscure 
red  coloiu-.  In  some  cases,  a  sEght  redness  was 
perceptible  about  the  roots  of  the  toes,  and  on 
the  back  of  the  foot ;  in  others,  the  toes  were 
destitute  of  motion,  sensibility,  and  warmth,  being 
already  black,  and,  as  it  were,  dried.'  Those 
of  the  men  who  indulged  in  the  warmth  of  the 
oivouac  fires  suffered  from  frost-bite  in  much  larger 
proportion  than  their  more  hardy  comrades. 

In  this  country,  most  cases  of  frost-bite  are  very 
trifling,  the  most  common  being  Chilblains  (q.  v.). 
Occasionally,  in  severe  winters,  more  severe  cases 
present  themselves  at  the  hospitals  in  the  persons  of 
houseless,  ill-nourished  unfortunates,  whose  consti- 
tutions have  in  many  instances  been  enfeebled  by 
spirit-drinking. 

The  treatment  of  frost-bite  consists  in  coaxing 
back  by  degrees  the  vitality  of  the  part ;  this  is 
most  prudently  effected  by  friction,  at  first  with 
snow,  then  with  water  at  ordinary  temperature, 
no  warmth  being  applied  for  some  time.  As  the 
coldness  subsides,  the  painful  tingling  returns,  then 
redness  and  heat ;  in  a  short  time,  the  latter  will 
be  above  the  natural  standard,  and  if  not  moderated, 
the  part  will  inflame,  and  perhaps  mortify.  It  is 
well  to  remember  that  the  part  need  not  have 
been  actually  frozen  for  these  symptoms  to  occur. 
The  person  with  languid  circulation  who,  coming 
home  with  cold  wet  feet,  places  them  before  the 
fire,  or  in  warm  water,  may  be  'frost-bitten'  to  all 
intents  and  purposes. 

FROTH-FLY,  FROTH-HOPPER,  FROG- 
FLY,  or  FROG-HOPPER,  the  common  names  of 
ttiose  insects  of  which  the  young — larvae  and  pupae 
-  are  found  in  a  frothy  exudation  on  plants.  They 
form  the  family  Cercopidce  of  the  order  Homoptera, 
and  are  allied  to  Aphides,  and  still  more  nearly  to 
Cicadas  and  Lantern-flies.  The  larvae  and  pupa; 
differ  little  in  appearance  from  the  perfect  insect 
except  that  it  possesses  wings,  Avhich  are  four  in 


number,  and  large.  The  frothy  exudations  in  which 
they  live  are  produced  from  the  juices  of  the 
plants  on  which  they  are  found  ;  and  as  they  are 
often  in  great  numbers,  crops  of  various  kinds  are 
not  unfrequently  destroyed  or  much  injured  by 
them,  the  plants  being  weakened  by  loss  of  sap. 
They  have  a  proboscis  adapted  for  piercirg  the 
bark  of  the  plants  on  which  they  feed.  They  are 
all  small  insects.    They  have  considerable  leapin^j 


Frog-Hopper  {Cicada  spumaria) : 
a,  larva;  &,  perfect  insect,  with  wing-covers  closed;  c,  perfect 
insect,  in  the  act  of  flight ;  d,  the  froth  on  a  plant. 

powers.  Cicada  spumaria  is  an  extremely  com- 
mon species  in  Britain.  The  frothy  exudation  ia 
sometimes  called  Cuckoo-spit,  sometimes  Frog- 
spittle,  from  fancies  entertained  as  to  its  origin. 
It  is  sometimes  so  abundant,  particularly  on  willow- 
trees,  that  persons  walking  beneath  are  wetted  by 
its  continual  dropping.  In  tropical  countries,  the 
Cercopidm  are  still  more  plentiful.  Some  of  the 
tropical  insects  of  this  family  are  remarkable  for 
their  extraordinary  forms,  resulting  from  peculiar 


Bocydium  Ci*uciatum.  Bocydium  Globulare. 

developments  of  the  first  segment  of  the  thorax 
This  is  particularly  the  case  in  the  genus  Bocydiiimi 
of  which  two  species  are  here  figured. 

FROUDE,  James  Anthony,  an  English  historian, 
was  born  at  Totness,  in  Devonshire,  in  the  year 
1818;  studied  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  where  he 
took  his  degree  in  1840;  and  in  1842  was  elected 
a  fellow  of  Exeter  College.  Ha\'ing  abandoned  his 
original  intention  of  entering  the  church,  he  pub- 
lished, in  1847,  a  volume  of  stories,  entitled  T^is 

633 


FROZEN  STRAIT— FRUIT. 


Shadows  of  the  Clouds;  and  two  years  later,  The 
Nemesis  of  Faith,  a  work  in  which  the  solemnity 
and  sadness  of  religious  scepticism  are  relieved  hy 
a  singularly  tender  and  earnest  humanity.  The 
book  was  written  with  great  and  evert  startling 
power,  and  not  only  cost  F.  his  fellowship,  but 
also  a  situation  to  which  he  had  just  been  appointed 
in  Tasmania.  F.,  for  the  next  few  years,  employed 
himself  in  writing  for  Fraser's  Magazine  and  the 
Westminster  Review.  His  History  of  Encjland  from 
the  Fall  of  Wolsey  to  the  Defeat  of  the  Hpaiiish  Ar- 
mada appeared  from  1856  to  1869.  The  peculiarity 
of  this  work,  regarded  as  history^  consists  in  the  use 
it  makes  of,  and  the  value  it  places  upon,  the  state 
documents  of  the  time.  The  study  of  these  documents 
has  led  F.  to  reverse  not  a  few  historical  verdicts, 
espe(dally  that  which  has  been  passed  upon  Henry 
VIII.  His  Short  Studies  on  Great  Subjects  appeared 
in  1867.  He  was  elected  Rector  of  St.  Andrew's  Uni- 
versity in  1869,  and  received  the  degree  of  LL.D. 
For  a  short  time,  F.  was  editor  of  Fraserlf  3f(i(/azitie, 
a  position  which  he  resigned  in  1871.  In  1872  be  vis- 
ited the  United  States,  where  he  delivered  a  series  of  lec- 
tures. The  EiKjlish  in  Ireland  in  the  Ei<jJdeenth  Cen- 
tury, in  three  vols.,  was  published  in  1872—1874. 

FROZEN"  STRAIT,  a  passage,  if  passage  it 
can  be  called,  leading  north-westward  from  Fox's 
Channel  towards  Repulse  B/iy.  It  sei)arates  South- 
ampton Island,  in  the  north  of  Hudson's  Bay,  from 
Melville  Peninsula,  which  stretches  northward  to 
the  strait  of  the  Fury  and  Hecla.  Its  narrowness, 
for  it  is  only  fifteen  miles  wide,  renders  it,  even 
in  the  66th  degree  of  latitude,  almost  constantly 
impervious  to  navigation. 

FRUCTED.  Trees  when  represented  as  bearing 
fruit  are  said  heraldically  to  be  fructed. 

FRUCTIDOR  (Eng.  '  fruit -month ')  was  the 
name  given  in  the  republican  calendar  of  France 
to  the  period  extending  from  the  18th  of  August  to 
the  16th  of  September.  The  18th  Fructidor  of 
the  year  5  (or  the  4th  September  1797)  is  cele- 
brated as  the  day  on  which  Barras,  Rewbel,  and 
Lepaux,  members  of  the  Directory,  by  a  coup 
cCetat,  saved  the  republic  from  the  machinations  of 
the  Royalists,  who  had  got  the  upper  hand  in  the 
Council  of  Five  Hundred.  The  execution  of  the 
*K>-up  d^etat  was  intrusted  to  General  Augereau. 

FRUCTIFICA'TION  (Lat.  the  producing  of 
fruit),  a  term  frequently  employed  in  cryptogamic 
botany,  sometimes  to  denote  the  whole  reproductive 
Bj'stem,  and  sometimes  the  fruit  itself. 

FRUCTOSE,  or  FRUIT-SUGAR,  known  also  as 
Inverted  Sugar,  a  mixture  of  an  equal  number 
of  atoms  of  dextro-glucose  and  Isevo-glucose,  and 
occurs  with  cane-sugar,  in  many  ripe  acidulous 
fruits.  In  its  composition,  and  in  most  of  its 
properties,  it  closely  resembles  glucose,  from  which, 
however,  it  differs  (1)  in  being  incapable  of  crystalli- 
zation ;  and  (2)  in  its  action  on  polarized  light ; 
while  both  glucose  (or  grape-sugar)  and  cane-sugar 
exert  a  right-handed  rotation  upon  a  ray  of  polarized 
light,  this  variety  of  sugar  exerts  a  left-handed  rota- 
tion ;  and  hence  the  term  inverted  has  been  applied 
to  it. 

The  composition  of  Isevo-glucose  is  represented  by 
the  formula  CeHuOe.  When  boiled  with  dilute  acids, 
fructose  combines  with  the  elements  of  water,  and 
passes  into  glucose.  A  similar  passage  of  this  sub- 
stance into  glucose  sometimes  occurs  spontaneously, 
as  is  seen  in  the  gradual  crystallization  of  the  sugar 
in  dried  fruits. 

It  appears  to  be  procurable  only  from  cane-sugar 
(or  sucrose)  by  the  action  either  of  acids  or  of  a 


peculiar  albuminous  ferment  which  exists  in  the 
juice  of  many  ripening  fruits. 

FRUGO'NI,  Carlo  Innocenzo,  a  much  admired 
and  versatile  Italian  poet,  was  born  at  Genoa  in 
1692,  and  educated  for  the  church.  In  1716  ho 
began  to  teach  rhetoric  at  Brescia,  at  which  time 
he  had  already  acquired  the  reputation  of  being  an 
elegant  writer  of  prose  and  verse,  both  in  Latin 
and  Italian.  In  1719  he  taught  in  Genoa,  and 
STibsequently  at  Bologna.  At  the  court  of  Parma, 
tlirough  the  patronage  of  the  Cardinal  Bentiv.glic, 
he  was  appointed  poet  laureate,  the  stated  and 
prescribed  compositions  of  which  post  were  highly 
uncongenial  to  his  original  and  discursive  muse ; 
nevertheless  the  Dukes  of  Parma  shewed  particular 
favour  to  the  poet,  who  returned  to  Genoa  on 
the  death  of  Duke  Antonio,  and  the  accession  of 
the  Spanish  Infante.  In  1733,  Pope  Clement 
XII.  released  F.  from  his  spiritual  vows,  which 
had  at  all  times  been  highly  distasteful  to  him. 
A  grand  ode,  in  celebration  of  the  capture  of  Or^a 
by  the  Spaniards,  and  some  other  poetic  addresses 
to  the  king  and  queen  of  Spain,  reinstalled  the 
poet  in  his  former  post  at  the  Parmese  court.  He 
died  in  1768.  His  numerous  writings  were  pub- 
lished at  Parma,  1779,  and  a  complete  edition  at 
Lucca,  1779.  A  selection  from  his  works  appeared 
at  Brescia,  1782, 

FRUIT  (fnictus),  in  the  botanical  use  of  the  term, 
in  phanerogamous  i)lants,  is  a  mature  ovary  con- 
taining a  seed  or  seeds  ;  and  in  cryptogamous  plants, 
a  spore-case  {sporamjium  or  theca)  containing  spores. 
Other  parts  of  the  flower,  most  frequently  the  calyx, 
sometimes  remain  after  flowering  is  over,  undergo  a 
further  development,  become  incorporated  with  the 
ovary,  and  form  part  of  the  fruit.  The  development 
of  the  fruit  in  phanerogamous  plants  depends  upon 
the  fertilisation  of  the  ovules,  and  when  this  has 
not  taken  place,  the  flow  of  sap  to  the  ovary  usually 
soon  ceases,  and  it  drops  off  with  all  the  other 
remains  of  the  flower ;  although  there  are  excep- 
tional cases  of  seedless  fruits,  as  seedless  oranges, 
bananas,  grapes,  barberries,  &c.,  in  which,  however, 
it  may  be  supposed  that  fertilisation  takes  i)lace, 
and  that  unknown  causes  afterwards  operate  to  pre- 
vent the  development  of  the  seed,  and  to  direct  the 
flow  of  sap  more  exclusively  to  the  nourishment  of 
the  succulent  parts,  which  are  thus  increased  and 
improved.  This  supposition  is  rendered  more  prob- 
able by  the  circumstance  that  the  production  of 
seedless  fruits  appears  to  be  at  least  sometimes  a 
consequence  of  age  and  diminished  vigour  in  trees. 

The  frait,  like  the  ovary,  may  be  composed  of  one 
carpel,  or  of  more  than  one.  But  the  fruit  some- 
times differs  from  the  ovary,  through  the  develop- 
ment of  some  of  the  parts,  and  the  non-development 
or  obliteration  of  others ;  so  that  an  ovary  with 
several  cells  may  be  converted  into  a  one- celled 
fruit ;  and  of  several  ovules,  all  but  one  may  become 
abortive,  so  as  to  produce  a  one-seeded  fruit.  Thus 
the  three-celled  ovary  of  the  oak  and  of  the  hazel, 
with  two  ovules  in  each  cell,  becomes,  by  the  non- 
development  of  two  cells  and  five  ovules,  a  fruit 
with  one  seed  ;  and  the  two-celled  ovary  of  the  ash, 
and  the  three-celled  ovary  of  the  cocoa-nut,  likewise 
produce  one-celled  and  one-seeded  fruits.  Some- 
times also  false  dissepiments  are  formed,  which 
produce  in  the  fruit  a  greater  number  of  cells  than 
existed  in  the  ovary.  More  generally,  however,  the 
fruit  agrees  with  the  ovary  in  the  number  of  its 
cells  and  seeds.  But  not  unfrequently,  the  struc- 
ture of  the  fruit  is  rendered  comi>aratively  difficult 
to  determine,  through  the  development  of  succulent 
matter  or  i)ulp,  sometimes  in  one  part  and  sometiinea 
in  another. 


FRUIT. 


All  that  is  external  to  the  proper  integuments  of 
the  seed  in  the  ripe  fri  it  is  called  the  pericarp  (Gr. 
peri,  around ;  and  karpos,  fruit) ;  and  this,  which 
varies  extremely  in  size  and  other  characters,  usually 
consists  of  three  layers,  tlie  outermost  of  which  is 
called  the  epicarp  (Gr.  ejn,  upon) ;  the  middle  one, 
the  mesocarp  (Gr.  mesos,  middle),  or  sometimes  the 
sarcocorp  (Gr.  sa/xc,  flesh)  ;  and  the  innermost,  the 
endoojrp  (Gj  endon,  within).  These  parts  exhibit 
great  variety,  'jut  it  is  generally  the  mesocarp  which 
Becomes  succulent  or  fleshy,  as  in  the  peach,  cherry, 
plum,  and  other  drupes ;  and  in  the  pear,  apple,  and 
other  pomes.  In  drupes,  or  stone-fruits,  the  endocarp 
b  the  hard  sheU  which  unmediately  covers  the  seed ; 


Drupe  (section  of  a  Peach), 

in  pomes,  it  is  the  scaly  lining  of  the  seed-bearing 
cavities  in  the  centre ;  in  both  drupes  and  pomes, 
the  epicarp  is  the  outer  skin.  So  in  melons,  cucum- 
bers, and  gourds,  the  succulent  part  is  the  mesocarp, 
greatly  developed,  with  a  thin  epicarp  and  a  thinner 
endocarp.  In  the  orange,  however,  and  all  of  that 
family,  the  epicarp  and  mesocarp  together  form  the 
rind,  whilst  the  pulpy  cells  belong  to  the  endocarp. 
In  berries,  as  the  gooseberry,  grape,  &c.,  the  pulpy 
matter  does  not  belong  to  any  of  the  layers  of  the 
pericarp,  but  is  formed  from  the  placentas  of  the 
seeds. 

When  the  fruit,  as  the  fully  developed  ovary,  is 
considered  as  a  modified  leaf  or  leaves,  the  epicarp 
is  viewed  as  representing  the  epidermis  of  the  lower 
surface,  the  endocarp  the  epidermis  of  the  upper 
surface,  and  the  mesocarj)  the  substance  {paren- 
chynia)  of  the  leaf.  The  midrib  of  the  leaf  is  traced 
in  the  dorsal  suture  of  the  fruit  or  of  each  com- 
ponent carpel,  and  the  ventral  suture  is  formed  by 
tts  folding  together  and  the  conjunction  of  its  edges. 
The  dorsal  and  ventral  sutures  are  very  obvious  in 
the  pods  of  pease,  beans,  &c, ;  and  even  in  fruits 
formed  of  several  carpels  intimately  combined,  they 
often  become  very  apparent  when  the  ripened  fruit 
opens  to  allow  the  escape  of  the  seeds.  The  opening 
or  dehiscetice  (Lat.  dehisco,  to  open)  of  fruits  takes 
place  in  various  ways  ;  thus,  the  fruit  sometimes 
resolves  itself  into  its  original  carpels  by  separation 
through  the  dissepiments,  which  divide  into  two 
plates  forming  the  sides  of  the  valves,  and  the 
carpels  further  open  by  their  sutures ;  the  pericarp 
sometimes  splits  at  once  by  the  dorsal  sutures  of 
the  carpels  ;  sometimes  it  divides  transversely,  and 
throws  off  a  lid  ;  sometimes  it  opens  more  partially 
by  pores,  &c.  Many  fruits,  however,  are  indehiscent, 
some  of  which  are  fruits  having  a  very  hard  peri- 
carp, as  nuts,  and  some  are  fruits  havmg  a  soft 
pericarp  and  much  pulp.  The  decay  of  the  pericarp 
18  in  these  cases  necessary  to  the  liberation  of  the 
seeds,  unless  when  this  is  accomplished  by  such 
means  as  the  fruit  becoming  the  food  of  animals,  by 
which  also  the  seeds  of  plants  are  often  widely  dis- 
tributed. The  decay  of  the  pericarp  seems  intended, 
in  many  cases,  to  provide  the  first  nourishment  for 
the  young  plants  which  spring  from  the  seeds. 


A  classification  of  the  different  kinds  of  fruits  ia 
extremely  difiicult,  altliough  they  afford  characters 
of  great  importance  in  dciscriptive  and  systcinutic 
botany.  A  convenient  primary  division  of  fruits  is 
into  those  which  are  formed  from  one  flower,  and 
those  which  are  formed  by  incorporation  of  the 
ovaries  of  man}-  flowers.  Fruits  fovnied  from  one 
flower,  by  far  ihe  most  numerous  of  these  two 
classes,  are  divided  into  apocarpous  and  syncarpoiu 
or  into  apocarpous,  aggre(jate,  and  syacaipous.  Apo- 
cai*pous  fruits  are  formed  of  one  carpel,  and  are 
either  dry  or  succulent,  dehiscent  or  indehiscent, 
one-seeded  or  many-seeded.  Aggregate  fruits,  some- 
times included  among  the  apocai-jious,  are  formed  of 
several  or  maiy  free  carpels;  sometimes  dry,  some- 
times succident;  sometimes  arranged  on  a  convex  or 
elevated  receptacle ;  which  becomes  succulent  in  the 
strawberry,  and  constitutes  the  edible  part  of  the 
fruit ;  sometimes  within  a  concave  receptacle  covered 
by  the  enlarged  tube  of  the  calyx,  as  in  the  rose. 
Syncarpous  fruits  are  formed  of  several  carpels^ 
intimately  united  in  their  mature  state,  so  as  ta 
form  a  berry,  capsule,  pome,  silique,  &c.  Syncarpous 
fruits  sometimes  so  completely  resolve  themselves 
into  their  original  carpels,  that  these  may  be 
regarded  as  becoming  separate  achenia.  Fruits 
formed  by  incorporation  of  the  ovaries  of  many 
flowers  (collective  or  anthocarpous  fruits)  are  some- 
times dry,  as  the  cones  of  firs  ;  sometimes  succu- 
lent, as  the  pine-apple,  the  mul])erry,  and  the  fig. 
For  further  notice  of  different  kinds  of  fruits,  we 
must  refer  to  particular  articles  in  which  they  are 
described,  as  achenium,  berry,  capsvde,  drupe,  nut, 
pome,  pod,  silique,  &c,,  and  to  articles  on  the  plants 
which  produce  them. 

A  few  plants,  particularly  the  Coniferce  and 
Cycodacece,  produce  seeds  really  naked  or  destitute 
of  pericarp.  Many  other  seeds  were  formerly  often 
described  as  naked,  in  Avhich  the  pericarp  exists  inti- 
mately incorporated  with  the  seed,  as  the  seeds  of 
grasses,  Boraginece,  Labiata?,  Umbelliferce,  etc.  Their 
real  nature  is  often  made  apparent  by  some  trace  of 
the  style. 

The  production  of  ripe  fruit  is  exhaustive  to  the 
energies  of  a  plant,  and  plants  ordinarily  annual 
may  be  preserved  in  life  for  several  years  by  pre- 
venting it.  Very  young  fruit  trees  generally  fail  t<i 
bring  fruit  to  perfection,  and  the  first  flowers  of 
melons  and  gourds  are  often,  for  a  similar  reason, 
abortive ;  whilst  on  the  contrary,  any  circumstance 
that  favours  an  accumulation  of  sap  in  a  particular 
season,  tends  to  render  fruit  trees  unusually  produc- 
tive in  the  next,  as  when  the  whole  blossoms  of  a 
year  are  killed  by  frost,  or  when,  from  the  coldness 
of  the  previous  summer,  flower-buds  have  not  been 
formed  in  abundance.  Whilst  the  vital  energies  of 
a  plant  are  directed  mainly  towards  the  increase  of 
its  size,  flower-buds  are  sparingly  formed  or  not  at 
all,  as  is  often  the  case  with  fruit  trees  growing  very 
luxuriantly,  and  various  modes  are  adopted  to  cause 
the  production  of  flower-buds  and  of  fruit  by  check- 
ing this  luxuriance  of  growth,  as  by  root-pruning, 
by  cutting  into  the  stem  of  wall  trees  to  a  moderate 
depth,  or  by  taking  off  portions  of  the  bark  of  the 
stem.  Grafting  (q.  v.)  is  also  of  use  in  this  respect, 
as  well  as  for  the  propagation  of  improved  varieties 
of  fruit  trees,  the  qualities  of  which  would,  in  all 
probability,  not  be  found  exactly  the  same  in  their 
offspring  by  seed. 

In  a  very  immature  state,  fruits  are  in  general 
green  and  soft,  and  decompose  carbonic  acid  gas  in 
the  sunlight,  absorbing  the  carbon,  and  setting  free 
the  oxygen,  like  leaves  and  other  green  parts  of 
plants.  As  they  advance  towards  matiurity,  some 
of  them  become  externally  dry  and  hard,  and  ceas« 
to  perform  by  tneir  surface  these  functions  of 

53b 


FRUIT. 


vegetation ;  otliers,  as  they  become  more  succulent, 
change  their  colour,  and  instead  of  absorbing  carbon 
and  lil)erating  oxj^gen,  absorb  oxygen  from  the 
atmosphere,  and  exhale  carbonic  acid- 
It  would  not  be  easy  to  enumerate  the  peculiar 
substances  which  are  produced  in  fruits.  Different 
l)arts  of  the  same  fruit  are  often  extremely  different 
from  one  au  other,  as  the  milk  and  the  kernel  of 
the  cocoa-nut,  its  hard  shell,  and  its  fibrous  husk. 
Seeds  are  indeed  generally  very  different  in  all  their 
qualities  from  the  pericarp  or  the  pulp  by  which 
they  are  surrounded,  and  the  integuments  of  the 
seed  often  not  less  different  from  the  embryo,  of  aU 
which  a  ready  illustration  may  be  found  in  the  apple 
or  the  grape.  The  most  different  chemical  products 
of  vegetation  are  sometimes  to  be  foxmd  in  different 
parts  of  the  same  fruit,  giving  them  the  most  varied 
qualities,  as  wholesome  and  poisonous  ;  the  succu- 
lent part  of  the  fruit,  from  the  kernel  of  which 
strycluiia  is  obtained,  is  said  to  be  harmless,  and  the 
seeds  of  j)lums  contain  so  much  hydrocyanic  acid, 
that  to  eat  many  of  them  woidd  be  dangerous ;  the 
capsule  of  the  poppy  yields  opium,  but  its  seed 
contains  nothing  of  the  kind,  and  is  bland  and 
nutritious,  abounding  in  a  wholesome  fixed  oil. 
The  value  of  fruits  to  man — which  may  safely  be 
asserted  to  exceed  that  of  all  other  parts  of  plants 
— sometimes,  as  in  the  corn-plants,  chiefly  depends 
on  the  farinaceous  matter  of  their  seeds,  containing 
starch,  gluten,  &c.  ;  sometimes,  as  in  the  banana 
and  bread-fruit,  on  the  starchy  matter  of  the  pidpy 
part ;  sometimes,  as  in  nuts,  on  fixed  oils  ;  some- 
times, as  in  many  succulent  fruits,  on  sugar  and 
various  acids,  with  gum,  pectine,  &c.  Other  fruits, 
or  parts  of  the  same  fruits,  are  valuable  for  the 
volatile  oils  which  they  yield,  and  for  peculiar 
principles  capable  of  application  to  medicinal  and 
other  uses,  or  making  them  capable  of  being  used 
as  condiments,  perfmnes,  &c.  Coffee,  cocoa,  pepper, 
vanilla,  and  many  other  articles  of  commerce,  are 
obtained  from  fruits. 

Whilst  some  fruits  are  of  the  highest  value  as 
articles  of  food,  others  are  generally  regarded  rather 
as  articles  of  luxury ;  yet  the  abundance  of  succu- 
lent fruits  in  tropical  climates  is  a  bountiful  pro- 
vision for  real  wants,  contributing  much  to  the 
health  of  the  inhabitants.  The  coolness  of  succulent 
fruits  renders  them  peculiarly  gratefid  amidst  the 
heat  of  the  ti^oj^ics  ;  their  temperature,  when  newly 
gathered,  being  much  below  that  of  the  surrounding 
atmosphere. 

Cultivated  Fruits. — In  its  popular  use,  the  term 
fruit  sometimes  has  almost  the  same  signification  as 
in  the  language  of  botanical  science  ;  sometimes  it 
is  employed  as  almost  exclusively  designating  the 
edible  succulent  fruits.  We  cannot  attempt  an 
enumeration  of  edible  fruits ;  many  will  be  found 
noticed  in  other  botanical  articles ;  we  can  only  here 
observe  that  they  belong  to  many  and  very  different 
natural  orders,  both  of  endogenous  and  exogenous, 
but  chiefly  of  exogenous  plants.  We  propose,  how- 
ever, to  conclude  this  article  by  an  enumeration  of 
the  principal  cultiv^ated  succulent  fruits,  including 
^?"9se  which  are  important  as  articles  of  food  or  of 
e^^uunerce. 

ENDOGENOUS  PLANTS. 

Musacece.  Plantain  and  Banana. 

BromeliacecB.  Pine-apple. 
Palmce.  Date. 


Moracea. 


Artocarpacem. 
Lauracece. 


EXOGENOUS  PLANTS. 

Fig. 

Sycamore. 
Mulberry. 
Bread-fruit. 
Avocado  Pear. 


Solanacece.        Love-apple,  or  Tomato. 

Egg-plant. 
Sapotaceoe,        Mammee  Sapota. 

Sapodilla. 
Star-apple. 
Ebenacece.         Date  Plum. 

Kaki. 

Oleacece.  Olive.  [Differs  very  much  in  ita 

nature  and  uses  from  all  tlie 
other  fruits  here  enumerated.] 
Vacciniacece.  Cranberry. 
Cornacece.  Cornel. 
Myrtacece.  Rose-apple. 

Malay  Apple. 
Ugni. 
Guava. 
Pomegranate. 
Orossulariacece.  Goosebeny. 

Hed  (and  White)  Currant. 
Black  Currant. 
Cactacece.         Prickly  Pear,  or  Indian  F^. 
Cucurbitaccce.  Melon. 

Water-melon, 
Cucumber. 
Pumpkin.  * 
Squash. 
Gourd. 

PassifloracccB.  Granadilla. 
JPapamcecB.  Papaw. 
Hosacece.  Apple. 

Pear. 
Quince. 
Medlar. 
Loquat. 

Peach  and  Nectarir.o. 
Apricot. 
Plum. 
Cherry. 
Raspberry. 
Strawberry. 
Tamarind. 
Cashew-apple. 
Mango. 
Hog-plum. 
Ofcalieite  Apple. 
Jujube. 
Carambola. 
Grape. 
Akeq. 
Litchi. 
Longan. 
Rambutan. 
Honey  Berry. 
Barbadoes  Chenj, 
Mammee  Apple. 
Mangosteen. 
Orange. 
Lemon. 
Citron. 
Shaddock. 
Forbidden  Fruit. 
Lime. 
Wampee. 
Marmelos. 
StercuUacece.  Durion. 
AnonacecB.        Custard  Apple. 

Nuts,  and  along  with  them  some  fruits,  'rlil(9» 

although  not  botanically  nuts,  resemble  them  in 
qualities  and  uses,  will  be  noticed  in  a  separate 
article. 

Chemical  Composition  of  Fruits. — Our  principal 
knowledge  of  the  composition  of  different  kinds 
of  fruit  is  due  to  the  recent  investigations  of 
Fresenius,  which  are  published  in  the  Annalen  der 
Chcmie  und  Pharmacie  for  1857.  In  that  memoir, 
he  gives  the  I'esults  of  upwards  of  fifty  analyses  of 
different  fruits,  including  gooseberries,  currants, 
strawberries,  raspberries,  mulberries,  grapes,  cher 
ries,  plums,  apricots,  peaches,  apples,  and  pears. 
We  select  the  following  analyses  as  representing 
the  composition  of  some  of  our  most  important 


Leguminosce. 
Anacardiacece. 


Rhamnaceos. 
Oxalidece. 
VitacecB. 
Sapindacece. 


MalpighiacecB. 
Clusiacece. 

Aurantiacece. 


FRUIT. 


fruits — viz.,  (1)  the  gooseberry ;  (2)  the  grape  ;  (3) 
the  cherry ;  (4)  the  peach  ;  (5)  the  apple  ;  and  (6)  the 
pear.    For  the  purpose  of  comparison,  the  free  acid 


which  is  present,  whether  it  be  malic,  citric,  or 
tartaric  (all  of  which  occur  in  fruits),  is  calculated 
as  hydrated  malic  acid. 


1. 

3. 

s. 

4. 

& 

aL 

85-36 

79-98 

79-70 

8201 

85  04 

83-95 

Solid  Constituents,  

14-64 

2002 

20-30 

1789 

14-96 

16  05 

Glucose  and  Fruit-iugar  

751 

13-78 

10  70 

1  53 

7.58 

700 

1-33 

I  02 

0-56 

0-77 

1-04 

007 

!l 

Albuminous  Substances,  .       ,       .  , 

0  37 

0  83 

1-01 

0-39 

022 

0-26 

Soluble  Pectine,  Gum,  &c.,  .       •  . 
.Soluble  Mineral  Constituents,  ,       ,  . 

2-1] 

0  50 

0-67 

9-28 

2-72 

3-28 

0-24 

0-46 

0-60 

076 

0-44 

0-28 

'  Stone  or  Seeds,  ) 

208 

2-59 

5-73 

321 

0  38 

039 

skin  and  Cellulose,)     *       *      *  * 

0-37 

0-94 

1-42 

3  42 

11 

Pectose,  

0-96 

0-94 

0-66 

1-00 

1  16 

1  34 

^Insoluble  Mineral  Constituents,  . 

017 

012 

0-08 

010 

003 

0  05 

Glucose  and  fruit-sugar  or  fructose,  are  described  in 
the  articles  devoted  to  these  subjects.  Under  the 
headmg  'Soluble  Pectine,  Gum,  &c.,'  are  included 
colouring  matters,  fatty  or  oily  matter  in  a  state  of 
suspension,  and  organic  acids  in  combination  with 
bases.  We  shall  endeavour  to  explain  briefly  the 
nature  of  the  substances  designated  in  these  analyses 
as  pectine  and  pectose.  The  term  pectine  matters  is 
applied  to  a  very  widely  distributed  class  of  sub- 
stances occurring  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  and 
especially  abundant  in  fleshy  fruits  and  in  rooU, 
but  whose  properties  and  composition  require  further 
investigation.  The  substance  termed  pectose,  which 
is  insoluble  in  water,  occurs  in  plants,  which  likewise 
possess  a  ferment  in  solution  which  converts  pectose 
mto  pectine,  which  is  soluble  in  water,  and  is  the 
main  constituents  of  api)le  and  other  fruit  jellies. 
(According  to  Fremy,  pecdc  acid,  which  is  closely 
alUed  to  pectine,  is  formed  in  fruits  that  yield  jellies  : 
he  has  assigned  formulas  to  both  these  substances, 
but  they  are  not  generally  accepted.) 

The  ratio  in  which  the  free  acid  stands  to  the 
sugar  varies  extremely.  For  a  unit  of  free  acid,  the 
sugar  is  represented  by  1-63  in  plumis,  by  3"00  in 
cmTants,  by  4"37  in  strawberries,  by  4*93  in  goose- 
berries, by  7'03  in  damsons,  by  11 -16  in  apples,  by 
17'29  in  sweet  cherries,  by  20*18  in  grapes,  and  by 
94-6O  in  pears ;  the  percentage  of  sugar  is  least 
(1*57  per  cent.)  in  peaches,  and  greatest  (14-93  per 
cent.)  in  grapes  ;  while  the  percentage  of  free  acid 
is  least  in  pears  (0*07  per  cent.),  and  greatest  in 
currants  (2-04  per  cent.). 

Fresenius  observes,  that  as  all  the  fruits  contain 
albuminous  or  protein  e  matters,  they  are  serviceable 
as  tissue-forming  food ;  but  the  albuminous  matters 
are  pi^esent  in  such  small  quantity,  that  these 
fruits  will  not  serve  without  other  nitrogenous  food 
to  keep  the  body  in  health.  Thus,  to  obtain  an 
amount  of  albuminous  matter  equivalent  to  the 
contents  of  one  egg,  we  must  eat  more  than  a  pound 
of  cherries,  nearly  a  pound  and  a  half  of  grapes, 
two  pounds  of  strawberries,  more  than  two  pounds 
and  a  half  of  apples,  or  four  pounds  of  pears.  They 
are,  however,  of  more  use  as  respiratory  or  heat- 
giving  foods.  Fresenius  calciilates  that  1  pound  of 
starch  (which  is  equivalent  to  about  0'5  pounds  of 
potatoes)  may  be  replaced  by  5*4  pounds  of  grapes, 
6-7  of  cherries  or  apples,  10-8  of  currants,  or  12-3 
of  strawberries.  Fruits  are,  however,  taken  not  so 
much  for  their  amount  of  material  nourishment, 
as  for  their  vegetable  salts  (which  are  of  great 
therapeutic  utility),  and  for  their  agreeable  flavour. 
In  tracing  the  connection  between  the  flavour 
and  the  cliemical  composition  of  fruits,  Fresenius 
finds  that  the  former  depends  (1)  on  the  ratio  in 
which  the  acid  stands  to  the  sugar,  gum,  pectine, 
etc.  (the  last-named  substances  masking  the  ratio 
in  which  the  acid  stands  to  the  sugar) ;   (2)  on 


the  presence  and  delicacy  of  the  aroma ;  (3)  on 
the  ])roportions  between  the  soluble  matters,  the 
insoluble  matters,  and  the  water ;  thus,  we  usually 
attach  the  highest  value  to  those  fruits  which  con- 
tain the  largest  amount  of  soluble,  and  the  smallest 
amount  of  insoluble  matters— a  peach  or  a  green- 
gage almost  melts  in  the  mouth,  because  these 
fruits  are  relatively  poor  in  cellulose  and  pectose; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  bilberries  represent  the 
opposite  extreme,  and  are  rich  in  insoluble  ingre- 
dients; (4)  on  cultivation,  which  is  found  to  cause 
an  increase  in  the  quantity  of  sugar,  and  a  diminution 
of  the  amount  of  free  acid  and  of  insoluble  matters  ; 
(5)  and  on  favourable  seasons,  which  augment  the 
sugar  and  other  soluble  constituents. 

The  different  berries  contain,  as  a  general  rule,  a 
larger  proportion  of  free  acid  than  stone-fruit  or 
apples  and  pears ;  and  their  acidity  is  the  more 
obvioiis  to  the  taste  from  their  containing  relatively 
small  quantities  of  gum  and  pectine.  The  following 
remarks  on  some  of  our  common  varieties  of  fruits 
are  of  practical  value. 

In  gooseberries,  we  recognise  an  agreeable  propor- 
tion between  the  sugar  and  the  acid,  the  ratio  being 
as  6  to  1  in  the  sweeter  kinds,  and  4  to  1  in  less  sweet 
varieties  of  this  fruit.  The  yellow  kinds  are  far 
richer  in  soluble  ingredients  than  the  red. 

Currants  are  so  acid  to  the  taste,  that  they  are 
almost  always  eaten  with  stigar ;  the  ratio  of  the 
sugar  to  the  acid  being  about  3  to  1. 

In  strawberries,  it  is  the  aroma  that  M'e  chiefly 
prize.  The  ratio  of  the  sugar  to  the  acid  varies 
with  the  season  and  the  species  from  2  to  1  to 
6*7  to  1  (in  the  jiine-apple  strawberry). 

A  similar  remark  applies  to  raspberries.  In  wild 
raspberries,  the  ratio  is  as  low  as  1*8  to  1,  while  in 
cultivated  kinds  it  is  as  high  as  3*5  to  1. 

Grapes  exceed  all  other  fruits  in  their  amount  of 
sugar,  which  is  seldom  less  than  12,  and  sometimes 
reaches  26  per  cent.  In  good  kinds,  and  in  favour- 
able seasons,  the  ratio  of  the  sugar  to  the  acid  is  as 
29  to  1 ;  in  inferior  kinds,  and  in  ordinary  seasons, 
it  is  as  16  to  1 ;  when  the  ratio  falls  to  10  to  1,  the 
grapes  are  unripe  and  acid.  In  other  fruits,  tliia 
would  be  a  high  ratio,  and  they  would  be  regarded 
as  sweet.  The  anomaly  may  be  thus  explained- 
In  unripe  grapes,  the  skins  are  very  thick,  and 
contain  an  extremely  acid  juice,  which  overcomes 
the  sitgar  contained  in  the  interior  of  the  berry. 
The  juice  of  such  grapes  is  found  to  be  far  sweeter 
than  the  grapes  themselves. 

From  their  large  amount  of  sugar,  and  from  the 
fact  that  their  acidity  for  the  most  part  depends  on 
the  acid  tartrate  of  potash,  which  is  almost  entirely 
precipitated  from  the  wine,  grapes  are  incomparably 
superior  to  any  other  fruits  in  the  preparation  of 
wines  ;  and  in  their  fermentation,  difi"orent  varieties 
of  ether  of  a  delicate  odour  are  formed,  which,  in 

537 


FRUIT— FRUIT-GARDEN. 


associated  with  volatile  oils  that  are  also  present, 
communicate  to  the  more  valued  wines  their  special 
bouquet. 

The  ratio  of  the  acid  to  the  sugar  in  the  must 
(the  expressed  juice  before  the  connnenccment  of 
fermentation)  afi'ords  the  best  evidence  of  the  season. 
Thus,  in  the  very  bad  wine-year  of  1847,  the  ratio 
was  1  :  12  ;  in  the  better  wine-year  of  1854,  it  was 
1  :  16 ;  wliile  in  the  good  wine-year  of  1848  it  was 
1  :  24,  the  same  kind  of  grape  being  experimented 
npon  in  all  the  cases. 

Apricots  and  peaches  consist  almost  entirely  of 
juice,  their  solid  constituents,  after  the  removal  of 
the  stone,  being  only  1  or  2  per  cent.  These  fruits 
are  esteemed  both  for  their  juicy  and  tender  flesh, 
and  for  their  powerful  but  delicate  aroma. 

In  apples  and  pears,  we  have  an  increased  quan- 
tity of  cellulose  and  pectine,  and  consequently  a 
relative  preponderance  of  the  insoluble  constituents. 
The  cellulose  contributes  to  the  firmness  or  hardness 
of  these  fruits,  while  it  is  to  the  i)ectine  that  they 
owe  their  property  of  gelatinising  wdien  boiled. 
The  w^ell-marked  differences  of  taste,  &c.,  presented 
by  different  kinds  of  apples  and  pears,  are  due  to 
the  very  varying  relations  that  occur  between  the 
acid,  the  sugar,  and  the  pectine,  to  the  greater  or  less 
abundance  of  cellulose,  and  to  the  varying  nature  of 
the  aroma.  For  equal  quantities  of  sugar,  pears 
contain  less  acid  than  apples.  In  the  different 
kinds  of  dessert  apjdes,  the  ratio  of  the  sugar  to  the 
acid  ranges  between  12  to  1  and  22  to  1,  while  in 
choking- apples  it  averages  not  more  than  8  to  1. 

The  chemical  changes  which  take  place  in  the 
fruit  during  the  process  of  ripening  are  described  in 
the  article  Physiology,  Vegetable. 

Keeping  of  Fruit. — Many  of  the  finest  fruits 
undergo  very  speedy  decomposition;  and  on  this 
account,  some  of  those  most  highly  esteemed  in  the 
countries  which  produce  them,  have  never  liecome 
articles  of  commerce,  and  are  only  to  be  enjoyed — 
except  in  the  state  of  jam  or  preserves—  (\.\\r'n\g  the 
season  of  their  ripening.  Decomposition  takes  place 
most  rapidly  when  fruits  are  exposed  to  the  air, 
and  particidarly  to  stagnant  air,  when  there  is  any 
dampness  about  them,  and  when  they  are  subjected 
to  considerable  or  frequent  changes  of  temperature. 
Grapes  are  imported  into  Britain  from  the  south  of 
Europe,  packed  in  saw-dust.  Unripe  gooseberries 
are  kept  for  making  tarts  in  winter,  in  bottles  or 
jars,  filled  up  with  perfectly  dry  sand,  saw-dust, 
bran,  or  the  like,  closely  corked  and  sealed,  after  a 
gentle  heat  has  been  applied  to  expel  moisture  as 
much  as  possible,  and  placed  in  a  moderate  and 
equable  temperature,  which  is  sometimes  accom- 
plished by  burying  them  to  some  depth  in  the  earth. 
A  similar  method  may  be  employed  with  many 
other  fruits.  Pears,  the  finest  kinds  of  w^hich  are 
very  apt  to  rot  almost  immediately  after  they  reach 
their  perfect  maturity,  may  be  kept  for  months  in 
glazed  earthen-ware  jars,  very  closely  covered,  and 
placed  in  a  cool,  airy  situation,  out  of  the  reach  of 
frost.  The  layers  of  fruit  are  separated  by  the 
substance  used  for  filling  up  the  interstices,  and  the 
pears  of  the  same  layer  are  likewise  kept  apart,  that 
rottenness  in  one  may  not  infect  the  rest,  which, 
with  every  kind  ot  fruit,  is  very  apt  to  take  place. 
Another  method  is  to  keep  them  in  drawers,  the 
temperature  being  carefully  regulated.  Large  gar- 
dens are  often  provided  with  a  fruit-room,  in  which 
Bhelves  and  drawers  are  allotted  to  the  different 
kinds  of  fruit.  A  moderate  and  equal )le  tempera- 
ture, dryness,  and  careful  ventilation,  are  the  prin- 
cipal requisites  of  the  fruit-room.  Fruit  intended 
for  keeping  should  be  carefully  gathered,  when 
almost  quite  ripe,  and  all  bniising  avoided.  Pears 
or  apples  shaken  from  the  tree  cannot  be  expected 
das 


to  keep  so  well  as  those  gathered  by  the  hand.  Of 
all  the  succulent  fruits  produced  in  Britain,  tho 
apple  keeps  best,  and  is  therefore  most  generally 
used.  Fruit  intended  for  keej)ing  is  sometimes 
sweated  before  being  placed  in  the  jars  or  shelves; 
being  laid  in  heaps  for  a  short  time— varying  accord- 
ing to  the  kind  of  fruit,  and  extending,  in  the  case 
of  winter-apples  to  a  fortnight  or  more — that  some 
of  the  juice  may  exude  through  the  skin ;  but  the 
I)ropriety  of  this  practice  is  doubtful.  Some  kinds 
of  winter  pears  and  a])ples  can  scarcely  bo  said  to 
be  ripened  till  after  they  are  placed  in  the  fruit- 
room  ;  and  medlars  are  not  fit  for  use  till  they  have 
reached  a  state  of  incipient  decay. 

FRUIT-GARDEN.  Some  kinds  of  fruits  have 
been  cultivated  from  the  earliest  historic  ages.  To 
say  nothing  of  the  garden  of  Eden,  and  the  vine- 
yard which  Noah  planted  after  the  Deluge,  we  find 
in  the  books  of  Moses  evidence  that  the  cultivation 
of  fruits  was  much  practised  in  Egypt  before  the 
time  of  the  exode  of  the  Israelites  ;  and  amongst  the 
Babylonians,  the  Persians,  the  Chinese,  and  the 
inhabitants  of  India,  it  can  in  like  manner  be  traced 
back  to  the  most  remote  antiquity.  The  Greeks 
and  Romans  probably  derived  their  knowledge  of 
the  ai-t,  as  well  as  many  of  their  finest  varieties  of 
fruit-trees,  from  the  East ;  Charlemagne  recpiired 
attention  to  be  paid  to  it  throughout  his  wide 
dominions,  and  contributed  much  to  its  extension 
in  regions  of  Europe  i)reviously  too  rude  for  its 
prevalence;  and  during  the  middle  ages  it  was 
most  successfidly  prosecuted  by  the  monks  in  the 
gardens  of  the  monasteries. 

The  grape,  the  fig,  the  melon,  and  the  i)ome- 
granate,  are  among  the  first  fruits  of  which  we  find 
any  jjarticular  notice  in  history.  The  cultivation  of 
the  apple,  the  pear,  and  some  others,  is  also  unques- 
tionably of  very  great  antiquity.  Interesting  i)ai'ti« 
cidars  concerning  the  most  important  kinds  of  fruit, 
will  be  found  under  their  respective  heads. 

The  cultivation  of  fruits  is  generally  carried  on  in 
connection  with  that  of  culinary  vegetables,  flowers, 
and  other  objects  of  the  gardener's  care ;  and  the 
fruit-garden  is  almost  necessarily  more  or  less  com- 
bined with  the  kitchen-garden,  etc.  The  term  fruit- 
garden  is  generally  used  when  the  ground  between  the 
fruit  trees  is  regularly  tilled  and  made  to  jjroduce 
other  garden  crops ;  the  term  Orchard  (q.  v.),  when 
it  is  laid  down  in  grass,  or  cultivated  for  grain  and 
other  agricultural  crops.  The  latter  method  is  prac- 
ticable only  with  some,  and  these  the  more  hardy, 
kinds  of  fruit  trees. 

Fruit  trees,  in  England,  are  cultivated  either  as 
wall  trees,  espalier  trees,  or  standards.  The  walls 
intended  for  fruit-trees  are  eithei  of  brick  or  stone, 
the  former,  however,  being  preferable,  and  are 
generally  from  ten  to  fourteen  feet  high.  Walls 
serve  not  only  for  protection  from  winds,  but  for 
the  radiation  of  heat,  and  thus  counterbalance  in 
part  the  disadvantages  of  cold  climates.  The  train- 
ing of  wall-trees  wdll  be  noticed  in  a  separate  article. 
See  Wall-trees.  Espaliers  (q.  v.)  serve  in  an 
inferior  degree  the  purposes  of  walls.  Walls  are 
sometimes  flued  and  artificially  heated,  by  which 
means  early  ripening  is  secured,  and  varieties  of 
fruit  are  produced  which  could  not  otherwise  in  the 
same  locality  be  grown  in  the  open  air.  The  pro- 
duction of  fiuits  belonging  to  warm  climates  is  also 
effected  in  the  colder  parts  of  the  world  by  means 
of  Hothouses  (q.  v.),  in  wdiich  the  trees  are  generally 
trained  either  as  w^all-trees  or  on  frames  stretched 
almost  horizontally,  both  methods  being  commonly 
adopted  in  the  same  hothouse.  Standard  trees, 
which  receive  no  other  training  than  mere  pruning, 
or  the  occasional  tying  of  a  principal  branch,  to 
guide  it  in  a  particular  direction,  are  ruriher 


FEUIT-PIGEON— FRUITS. 


distingiiished  according  to  the  height  of  their  stem 
before  branching,  as  full  standards,  with  stems  six 
or  seven  feet  high,  more  common  in  orchards  where 
cattle  are  sometimes  allowed  to  graze,  than  in 
gardens  ;  ludf-standards,  with  stems  three  to  live 
feet  high  ;  and  dwa^-f  standards,  which,  being  other- 
wise also  of  small  dimensions,  and  often  bearing 
very  fine  fruit,  and  in  great  abundance,  are  par- 
ticidarly  suitable  for  many  situations,  and  for  small 
gardens.  The  height  of  the  stem  is  determined  in 
the  nursery,  before  grafting ;  but  much  depends 
upon  the  kind  of  tree  ;  and  all  the  varieties  of  some 
kinds  may  be  permanently  dwarfed  by  grafting  on 
pai-ticvdar  kinds  of  stock,  as  apple-trees  by  grafting 
on  paradise  stocks.  Other  means  of  still  further 
dwarfing  are  practised  as  to  trees  intended  for 
Forcing  (q.  v.),  and  to  a  remarkable  extent  by  the 
Chinese  in  the  cidtivation  of  the  Dwarfed  Trees  (q.  v.), 
for  which  they  are  famous. 

The  soil  of  the  fruit-garden  requires  particular 
attention.  Different  kinds  of  fruit-trees  differ, 
indeed,  as  to  the  soils  to  which  they  are  specially 
adapted,  or  in  which  they  wall  succeed ;  but  a  rich 
and  rather  open  soil  is  the  most  generally  suitable. 
This  soil  must  be  of  the  depth  of  at  least  two  feet, 
and  it  is  better  that  it  should  be  three  or  more  ;  it 
must  extend  to  a  distance  of  at  least  eight  or  twelve 
feet  from  the  trees,  if  they  are  not  very  dwarf.  If 
the  roots  reach  a  bad  subsoil,  such  as  gravel  or  till, 
canker  is  almost  sure  to  ensue.  The  care  bestowed 
on  the  pre2)aration  of  the  soil  for  fruit-trees  by  the 
monks  of  the  middle  ages  has  seldom  been  equalled, 
and  never  exceeded  in  modern  times.  The  whole 
soil  of  large  gardens  appears  in  some  instances  to 
have  been  artificially  prepared ;  and  the  descent  of 
the  roots  to  an  ^^nfavourable  subsoil  was  prevented 
by  pavements.  It  is,  of  course,  absolutely  requisite 
that  a  fruit-garden  be  thoroughly  drained.  Manur- 
ing is  sometimes  imavoidable,  but  is  apt,  when 
injudiciously  applied,  to  cause  diseases  in  the  trees  ; 
and  when  the  soil  requires  to  be  enriched,  road- 
scrapings,  the  scourings  of  ditchos,  rotten  leaves,  &c., 
are  to  be  preferred.  The  use  of  guano  and  other 
artificial  manures  requires  great  caution.  Where 
full  crojjs  of  culinary  vegetables  are  taken  from  the 
soil  around  the  trees,  there  is  less  danger  of  injury 
from  manures,  although  the  practice,  however  neces- 
sary in  many  cases,  is  not  the  best  either  for  the 
quality  of  the  vegetables  or  the  fruit. 

The  fruit  trees  cultivated  in  N.  America  are  almost 
always  grafted  or  budded  on  seedling  stocks,  either  of 
the  same  or  a  nearly  allied  species.  See  Grafting. 
The  raising  and  grafting  of  these  stocks  are  generally 
carried  on  in  the  Nursery  (q.  v.).  Some  kinds  of  trees 
are  propagated  by  layers  or  by  suckers,  and  some  by 
cuttings,  the  common  method  of  propagating  the 
varieties  of  gooseberries  and  currants.  In  warmer 
climates,  ungrafted  seedlings  are  more  frequently 
allowed  to  become  trees,  and  to  produce  their  natural 
fruit. 

Besides  fruit  trees,  properly  so  called,  some  shrubs 
or  bushes  are  much  cultivated  for  the  fruit  which  they 
produce,  particularly  the  gooseberry,  the  currant,  the 
raspberry,  and  blackberry.  In  many  parts  of  the  U. 
States,  the  very  warm  summers  permit  the  ripening  of 
th3  peach,  of  the  water-melon,  citron-melon,  and  in 
the  extreme  southern  states,  th«  orange  and  the  banana 
attain  a  measure  of  perfection. 

Fruit-gardens  in  the  northern  United  States  should 
je  sheltered  on  the  north,  north-west,  and  north- 
eastern sides  by  high  fences,  walls,  or  hedges  of  ever- 
greens. To  the  drying  effects  of  our  northern  Avinds 
during  winter  are  to  be  ascribed  much  of  the  irregu- 
larity in  the  fruiting  of  more  tender  kinds,  and  even 
of  the  apple,  while  exposure  to  winds  from  the  north- 
Bast,  when  the  fruit  is  in  an  immature  state,  is  a  very 


common  cause  of  entire  loss  of  the  apple  and  pear 
croj),  especially  on  the  Atlantic  border.  The  exten- 
sive removal  of  the  dense  forests  of  the  northern  states 
has  rendered  the  apple  croj)  exceedingly  precarious. 
See  Transplanting,  Pruning. 

FRUIT- PIGEON  (Carpojihaoa),  a  genus  of 
ColumbidcB  (q.  v.)  having  the  bill  considerably 
depressed  at  the  base,  compressed  and  moderately 
arched  at  the  tip,  the  membrane  in  which  the 
nostrils  are  pierced  little  prominent  or  swollen,  the 
forehead  low,  and  the  feathers  advancing  on  the  soft 
part  of  the  bill,  the  wings  moderately  long,  the  feet. 


Fruit  Pigeon  {Carpophaga  Oceamca). 


and  particularly  the  hinder  claw,  large,  and  formed 
for  grasping.  During  the  breeding-season,  a  curioua 
gristly  knob  grows  on  the  base  of  the  upper  man- 
dible of  some  of  the  species,  and  soon  after  dis* 
appears.  They  are  birds  of  splendid  plumage, 
natives  of  the  forests  of  India,  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago, the  warmer  parts  of  Australia,  and  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Their  food  consists  of 
fruits. 

FRUITS,  in  Law.  The  fruits  of  the  soil,  in  theii 
legal  aspects,  fall  under  various  categories,  and  follow 
different  destinations  according  to  their  nature,  and 
the  situation  in  which  they  are  placed.  If  not  yet 
separated  from  the  soil  which  produced  them,  they 
are  said  to  be  pendentes,  and  as  parts  of  the  soO 
{partes  soli),  pass  to  the  heir  on  the  death  of  the 
ancestor,  or  are  carried  by  a  sale  to  the  purchaser. 
To  this,  however,  there  is  an  exception  in  the  case 
of  industrial  fruits  {fructus  industriale^) ,  such  aa 
growing  corn,  and  all  those  other  fruits  which 
require  yearly  seed  and  industry.  These  are  called 
in  England  emblements,  and  '  though  still  in  union 
M'ith  the  soil,  follow  nevertheless,  in  several  parti- 
culars, the  nature  of  personal,  as  distinguished  from 
real  estate.' — Stephen's  Com.  ii,  227.  The  rule  is 
the  same  in  Scotland,  but  it  is  strictly  construed, 
and  does  not  include  trees  or  planting,  natural  grass, 
or  even  fruit  not  yet  plucked  from  the  tree.  To 
this  again,  however,  there  is  an  exception  in  horti- 
cultural subjects,  in  favour  of  nursery-trees  and 
plants,  not  of  larger  or  longer  growth  than  such  as 
are  usually  dealt  in  by  nurserymen.  See  Fixtcjres. 
Fruits  that  are  separated  from  the  soil  {/i-uctus 
percejJti),  on  the  other  hand,  are  the  projierty  of  the 
possessor  who  separated  them  in  good  faith  ;  of  the 
tenant  or  former  proprietor  in  the  case  of  a  sale ;  and 
of  the  personal  representatives  of  the  deceased  in 
case  of  death,  and  not  of  the  heir  of  his  real  s>t 
heritable  estate. 


FRUIT-TRADE-FRY. 


The  act  7  and  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  30,  '  for  consolidating 
and  amending  the  laws  of  England  relative  to 
malicious  injuries  to  property,'  applies  to  trees,  sap- 
lings, shrill )s,  and  underwood;  to  plants,  fruits,  and 
vegetable  productions  in  gardens,  orchards,  nursery- 
grounds,  hothouses,  green-houses,  or  conservatories ; 
and  to  various  kinds  of  cultivated  roots  and  jilants 
not  growing  in  a  garden,  orchard,  or  nursery-ground. 
The  punishments  are  proportioned  to  the  injury 
done,  whipping  in  certain  cases  being  added  to  the 
statutory  punishments  in  the  case  of  males,  by  16 
and  17  Vict.  c.  99,  and  20  and  21  Vict.  c.  3.  This 
statute  (7  and  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  30)  is  limited  to  Eng- 
land, but  there  is  an  Irish  statute  in  some  respects 
conespondiiig  to  it  (16  and  17  Vict.  c.  38).  In 
Scotland,  the  trees  of  an  orchard  fall  under  the 
act  for  preserving  planting  (1698,  c.  16),  and 
several  still  earlier  enactments  ;  and  the  breaking 
of  orchards  is  an  offence  punishable  by  the  sheriff 
(Ersk.  i.  4,  4).  See  Orchard,  Plantation.  Injuries 
done  to  trees  or  other  fruits  of  the  soil  are  punish- 
able at  common  law,  independently  of  all  statutory 
provisions,  as  mahcious  mischief,  both  in  England 
and  in  Scotland. 

FRUIT-TRADE.  The  trade  in  fruit  is  divided 
into  two  distinct  branches — the  fresh  and  the  dried 
fruits.  Fresh  fruits,  such  as  those  which  grow 
abundantly  in  England,  are  sold  for  London  con- 
sumption almost  entirely  at  Covent  Garden  Market ; 
the  sales  at  Spitalfields,  the  Borough,  Portman,  and 
other  markets  being  comparatively  small.  There  are 
many  fruit-gardens  Avithin  twenty  miles  of  the 
metropolis  which  depend  almost  wholly  on  London 
consumption  ;  but  since  the  extensive  spread  of  rail- 
way accommodation,  fruit  can  now  be  brought  up 
from  distant  parts  of  England  with  great  facility  ; 
and  provincial  towns  and  the  metropolis  can  alike 
be  well  supplied.  Rapid  conveyance  and  prompt 
sale  and  delivery  are  essential  conditions  to  this 
kind  of  trade,  owing  to  the  tendency  of  the  fruit 
to  spoil  by  keeping.  The  higher  the  qiuality  of  the 
fruit,  the  more  certain  is  the  sale  in  London.  There 
are  in  the  island  of  Jersey  pear-orchards,  the  ])ro- 
duce  of  which  is  contracted  for  at  very  high  prices 
by  some  of  the  Covent  Garden  dealers.  The  orange 
and  lemon  trades  are  managed  in  rather  a  peculiar 
manner  ;  the  produce  is  brought  to  England  in  very 
swift  vessels,  and  is  mostly  consigned  to  fruit- 
merchants  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Lower  Thames 
Street,  who  sell  it  to  the  fruiterers  and  the  street- 
dealers,  as  well  as  to  the  markets. 

Dried  fruit  comprises  raisins,  currants,  figs,  and 
the  like.  Grown  and  dried  in  foreign  countries, 
chiefly  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean,  these  kinds 
of  fruit  mostly  arrive  in  cases  and  casks ;  and  the 
dealings  connected  with  them  are  conducted  much 
in  the  same  way  as  those  with  what  is  called  colonial 
produce,  such  as  gi'ocerj'. 

Of  raisins,  currants,  oranges,  and  lemons,  the 
quantity  imported  into  G.  Britain  in  1858,  1859,  and 
1867  was  as  follows: 

1858,          1859.  1867. 
Raisins,       .       .      160,484       837,133         384,112  Cwts. 
Currants,       .        .    182,240       225,056      1,002,366  Cwts. 
Oranges  and  Lemons,  72,781       156,381       1,453,566  Bush. 

We  present  the  numbers  for  these  three  years  to 
shew  how  greatly  the  crojis  of  these  fruits  vary  in 
different  seasons.  Of  other  kinds  of  fruit,  the 
official  tables  present  the  follovdng  quantities,  in 
round  numbers,  imported  in  1859 — Almonds,  34,744 
c^rts.  ;  apples,  385,046  bushels ;  figs,  46,040  cwts. ; 
grapes,  19,557  bushels ;  chestnuts,  57,048  bushels  ; 
cocoa-nuts,  2,484,423  no.  ;  hazel-nuts,  220,386 
bushels ;  walnuts,  68,363  bushels ;  pears,  61,055 
bushels ;  plums  (French),  8702  cwts. ;  prunes,  16,030 
cwts. ;  tamarinds,  634,697  lbs. 
6«( 


The  imports  of  fruit  of  all  kinds  into  the  United 
States  in  1869  were  valued  at  $7,954,278.  The  do- 
mestic fruit  trade  of  the  United  States  has  attained 
gigantic  dimensions.  The  orchard  products  of  the 
State  of  New  York  alone  have  been  valued  at  $6,000,- 
000.  The  peach  product  of  Maryland  and  Dehiware 
reaches  an  enormous  amount  in  favorable  seasons. 
The  vineyards  of  Lake  Erie  and  the  minor  lakes  of 
New  York  have  l)een  exceedingly  profitable,  while  the 
small  fruits  of  Maryland  and  N.  Jersey  have  con- 
tributed to  the  comfort  of  thousands  in  the  great 
cities  of  the  seaboard. 

FRUME'NTIUS,  St,  apostle  of  Ethiopia  and  the 
Abyssinians,  born  in  Phanicia  towards  the  begin- 
ning of  the  4th  century.  At  a  very  early  age,  he 
and  another  youth,  named  (Edesius,  accompanied 
their  uncle  Meropius,  a  Greek  philosopher  from 
Tyre,  on  a  voyage  undertaken  for  mercantile,  or, 
according  to  others,  for  scientific  purposes.  On 
their  return,  they  landed  on  the  coast  of  Abys- 
sinia or  Ethiopia,  to  procure  fresh  water;  but  the 
savage  inhabitants,  under  the  i)retext  of  their 
hostility  with  the  Romans,  made  an  onslaught 
upon  them,  and  murdered  Meropius  and  the  whole 
crew,  sparing  only  the  two  boys,  whom  they  foxmd 
sitting  under  a  tree  and  reading.  They  were  taken 
as  slaves  into  the  service  of  the  king ;  and 
made  themselves  so  beloved  that  (Edesius  was  soon 
raised  to  the  office  of  cupl)earer,  while  the  more 
sagacious  F.  became  the  king's  private  secretary 
and  accountant.  After  the  death  of  the  monarch, 
F.  was  appointed  instructor  to  the  young  Prince 
Aizanes,  and  in  this  capacity  he  obtained  a  still 
greater  influence  on  the  administration  of  the 
state  affairs.  He  aided  the  Christian  merchants 
who  sought  these  parts,  in  founding  a  church,  and 
gradually  paved  the  way  for  the  formal  introduction 
of  the  new  creed.  In  326,  he  went  to  Alexandria — 
(Edesius  having  returned  to  Tyre,  w^here  he  was 
made  presbyter — and  convinced  Athanasius,  who 
had  recently  been  nominated  Bishop  of  Alexandria, 
of  the  necessity  of  appointing  a  special  ecclesiastical 
dignitary  for  Abyssinia,  who  should  carry  out  vigor- 
ously the  work  of  conversion.  Athanasius,  in  full 
synod,  and  with  its  unanimous  approbation,  conse- 
crated F.  himself  Bishop  of  Axum  (Auxuma).  The 
new  bishop  repaired  to  Abyssinia,  and  succeeded  iu 
prosel}i;ising  large  numbers.  He  is  also  supjiosed 
to  have  translated  the  Bible  into  Ethiopian.  See 
Ethiopia.  On  his  subsequent  theological  disputa- 
tions with  Theophilus  the  Arian — F.  himself  being 
in  all  probability  an  Athanasian — we  camiot  enlarge 
here.  F.  died  about  360,  and  his  day  is  celebrated 
by  the  Latins  on  the  27th  of  October,  by  the  Greeks 
on  the  30th  of  November,  and  by  the  Abyssinians 
on  the  18th  of  December. — Socrates,  L  15 ;  Rufin, 
Hist.  Eccl.  i.  9  ;  Theodoret,  L  22 ;  Ludolf,  Hint, 
jEth.  iii.  7,  17,  &c. 

FRUSTUM,  in  Geometry,  is  the  part  of  a  solid 
next  the  base,  left  on  cutting  off  the  top  by  a  plane 
parallel  to  the  base.  The  frustum  of  a  sphere  or 
spheroid,  however,  is  any  part  of  these  solids  com- 
prised between  two  circular  sections  ;  and  the  middle 
frustum  of  a  sphere  is  that  whose  ends  are  cxjnal 
circles,  having  the  centre  of  the  sphere  in  the 
middle  of  it,  and  equally  distant  from  both  ends. 

FRY,  Elizabeth,  an  eminent  female  philan- 
thropist and  preacher  of  the  Society  of  Friends 
third  daughter  of  John  Gurney,  Esq.  of  Earlhara 
Hall,  near  Norwich,  was  born  May  21,  1780.  Her 
active  and  untiring  exertions  in  the  cause  of  suffer- 
ing humanity,  unparalleled  in  one  of  her  own  sex, 
acquired  for  her  in  her  lifetime  the  name  of  '  the 
female  Howard.'  When  not  more  than  eighteen  years 
of  age,  she  estabhshed  a  school  for  eighty  poo' 


FRYING—FUAD-MEHMED. 


children  in  her  father's  house,  with  his  entire  sanction. 
In  1800,  at  the  age  of  twenty,  she  married  Joseph 
Fry,  Esq.,  of  Uptoa,  Essex,  then  engaged  in  business 
in  London,  to  whom  she  had  a  family  of  eight 
children.  In  the  year  1813,  the  deplorable  condition 
of  the  female  prisoners  in  Newgate  attracted  her 
attention,  and  she  resolved  upon  visiting  them. 
Alone  and  unprotected,  she  entered  the  part  of  the 
prison  where  160  of  the  most  disorderly  were 
immured,  and  addressed  them  with  a  dignity,  power, 
and  gentleness  which  at  once  fixed  their  attention. 
She  then  read  and  expounded  a  portion  of  Scrip- 
ture, many  of  those  unhappy  beings  having  on  that 
occasion  heard  the  word  of  God  for  the  first  time. 
It  was  not,  however,  till  about  Christmas  1816  that 
she  commenced  her  systematic  visits  to  Newgate, 
being  then  particularly  induced  thereto  by  the 
reports  of  the  gentlemen  who,  in  1815,  originated 
the  '  Society  for  the  Improvement  of  Prison  Disci- 
pline.' She  instituted  a  school  within  the  prison 
walls,  provided  work  for  the  females,  and  the 
means  of  Cliristian  instruction,  and  established  a 
committee  of  ladies  for  the  reformation  of  female 
prisoners.  The  almost  immediate  result  was  order, 
sobriety,  and  neatness,  in  the  place  of  the  riot,  licen- 
tiousness, idleness,  and  filth,  which  had  previously 
prevailed.  In  1818,  her  exertions  were  directed 
to  making  provision  for  the  benefit  of  female  con- 
victs sentenced  to  transi)ortation.  For  the  relief  of 
females  in  foreign  prisons,  she  made  frequent  conti- 
nental journeys.  She  also  interested  herself  in  the 
abolition  of  slavery,  the  advancement  of  education, 
and  the  distribution  of  Bibles  and  tracts.  Her 
labours  for  the  improvement  of  British  seamen,  by 
furnishing  the  ships  of  the  Coast  Guard  and  the 
Koyal  Navy  with  libraries  of  religious  and  instruc- 
tive books,  received  the  sanction  and  assistance  of 
government.  To  the  poor  and  helpless,  her  charities 
were  unbounded.  As  a  preacher  among  her  own 
sect,  she  was  held  in  high  estimation  ;  and  she 
often  engaged  in  gospel  missions,  not  only  through- 
out England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  but  to  various 
countries  on  the  continent.  She  died  at  Ramsgate, 
October  12,  1845,  aged  sixty-five.  Soon  after  her 
death,  a  public  meeting  was  held  in  London,  the 
lord  mayor  in  the  chair,  for  establishing,  as  the 
best  monument  to  her  memory,  '  The  Elizabeth  Fry 
Refuge,'  for  affording  temporary  food  and  shelter 
to  destitute  females,  on  their  discharge  from  metro- 
politan prisons.  Compare  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of 
Elizabeth  Fry,  2  vols.  (Lond.  1847),  published  by 
her  daughters. 

FRYING.    See  Food  and  Drink. 

FRYXELL,  Anders,  a  Swedish  historian,  was 
boni  in  1795  at  Hesselskog,  in  Dalsland ;  studied  at 
Upsala ;  took  priest's  orders  in  1820  ;  and  in  1828, 
becAiie  rector  of  St  Mary's  School,  Stockholm.  F. 
first  acquired  a  reputation  by  his  Berdttelser  ur 
S^enska  Historien  (Corrections  of  Swedish  History, 
rols.  i. — xviii.,  Stockh.  1832 — 18.52).  These  narra- 
tives, strung  together  on  something  of  the  same 
plan  as  Sir  Walter  Scott's  Tales  of  a  Grandfather, 
are  marked  not  only  by  their  patriotic  sentiment, 
but  by  their  fresh  and  natural  conce})tion,  their 
richness  of  biographic  detail,  their  naive  and  viva- 
cious execution,  and  soon  obtained  a  wade  popidarity 
in  Sweden.  The  first  volumes  of  this  tridy  national 
work  have  been  repeatedly  published,  and  have 
been  translated  into  almost  all  European  languages ; 
for  example,  into  English  by  Schoultz  (2  vols., 
Lond.  1844),  and  into  German  by  Homberg  (2  vols., 
Stockh.  1843).  The  part  devoted  to  the  history  of 
Gustaw-iB  Adolphus  has  also  been  translated  into 
German  by  Homberg  (2  vols.,  Leip.  1842—1843), 
.rtc  French  by  Mile.  N.  du  Puget  (Paris,  1839), 


and  into  Dutch  by  Radija  (Utrecht,  18-14) ;  and 
that  devoted  to  the  history  of  Gustavus  Vaea  into 
German  by  Ekendahl  (1831).  F.'s  Characterutiai  oj 
the  Period  from  1592  to  1600  in  Svjeden  detained  a 
prize  offered  by  the  Swedish  Academy.  Another 
work,  entitled  Om  Ariatokratfordovumdet  i  Sven^ka 
Historien  (4  vols.  Upsala,  1845 — 1850),  in  which  he 
endeavours  to  clear  the  Swedish  aristocracy  from 
the  accusations  urged  against  them  by  Geijer  and 
others,  involved  him  in  a  keen  controversy  ^vith  the 
democratic  liberal  party  in  Sweden.  F.  has  also 
addicted  himself  to  poetry  and  music ;  and  au 
opera  of  his,  called  WermlaiuVs  Flickan  (or  '  The 
Lass  of  Wermland'),  has  proved  very  attractive  to 
his  countrymen,  on  account  of  its  fine  national 
melodies. 

FUAD-MEHMED,  Pasha,  a  Turkish  states- 
man and  litterateur,  was  born  at  Constantinoi)le  in 
1814.  He  is  the  son  of  the  celebrated  poet,  Izzet- 
EfFendi-Kitchegizade,  better  known  under  the  name 
of  Izzet-Mollah,  and  nephew  of  Leila  Khatun,  one 
of  the  very  few  Turkish  i)oetesses.  Having  received 
an  education  more  literary  than  that  of  the  majority 
of  young  men  destined  for  piiljlic  aff'airs  in  Turkey, 
he  began  to  make  himself  known  as  an  author, 
when  the  exile  of  his  father,  who  had  fallen  into 
disgrace  with  the  Sultan  Mahmud,  and  the  confis- 
cation of  the  paternal  property,  compelled  him  to 
choose  a  profession.  He  betook  himself  to  medicine, 
and  studied  at  Galata-Serai  from  1828  to  1832. 
In  1834  he  was  appointed  Admiralty  physician,  and 
accom])anied  the  grand  admiral  in  his  expedition 
against  Tripoli ;  but  on  his  return  to  Constantinople, 
he  abruptly  forsook  medicine,  and  entered  the  more 
imquiet  arena  of  politics.  For  several  years,  ho 
employed  himself  in  the  study  of  diplomacy,  history, 
modern  languages,  the  rights  of  nations,  and  poli- 
tical economy.  In  1840,  he  became  first  secretary 
to  the  Turkish  embassy  at  London,  where  his  skill 
and  sagacity  first  made  themselves  conspicuous. 
In  1843  he  was  named  second  dragoman  of  the 
Sublime  Porte,  and  shortly  after  was  chosen  to 
proceed  to  Spain  to  felicitate  the  queen  of  that 
country  on  her  accession  to  the  throne.  F.  •  waa 
very  popular  at  the  court  of  j\Iadrid.  It  was  almost 
impossible  to  believe  him  to  be  a  Turk.  He  spoke 
French  marvellously  well,  made  hon-mots  like 
Talleyrand,  and  shewed  himself  as  gallant  as  an 
Abencerrage.  Curiously  enough,  although  a  Moliam- 
medan,  he  obtained,  while  in  Spain,  among  other 
honours,  the  Grand  Cord  of  Isabella  the  Catholic 
Here  also  he  composed  a  poem  on  the  Alhambra, 
which  Turkish  critics  praise  highly  for  its  novel 
and  interesting  refiections.  On  his  return  to  Con- 
stantinople, he  was  appointed  to  discharge  the 
funccions  of  grand  interpreter  to  the  Porte,  which 
brought  him  into  contact  with  the  Duke  of  Mont- 
pensier,  who  arrived  at  Constantinople  in  1845,  and 
who,  on  his  return  to  France,  invested  him  wdth 
the  cross  of  Commander  of  the  Legion  of  Honour. 
In  1850  he  went  on  a  mission  to  St  Petersburg, 
and  in  1853  on  another  to  Egy])t.  On  his  return 
from  the  first  of  these,  he  became  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  under  the  grand  viziership  of  Aali 
Pasha  (August  1852).  On  the  question  of  the 
'Holy  Places,'  F.,  by  his  attitude,  and  by  a  brochure 
very  hostile  to  the  pretensions  of  Riissia,  entitled 
La  Verite  sur  la  Question  des  Lieux  Saints,  gave 
great  dissatisfaction  to  the  czar.  In  1854,  F.  went 
to  Epirus  along  ^vith  Omar  Pasha,  acting  sometimes 
as  a  diplomatist  and  sometimes  as  a  general.  In 
the  following  year  he  received  the  title  of  Pasha, 
and  was  again  appointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs, 
but  superseded  in  1866.  He  was  made  foreign  minis- 
ter in  1867,  and  died  in  February,  1863.  To  him 
Turkey  owes  the  hatti-sherif  of  1856,  ordering  the 

641 


FUCA— FUCHSIA. 


consolidation  of  the  external  defences  of  the  Porte 
and  the  institution  of  telegraphs  and  light-houses. 

"When  the  Turkish  Academy  of  Science  and 
Belles -Lettres  was  established  in  1851,  F.  was  one 
of  the  first  members,  and  in  the  following  year  he 
published  a  Turkish  Grammar,  which  is  highly 
esteemed  by  native  scholars.  He  has  been  loaded 
with  distinctions  by  European  sovereigns. 

FUCA,  Strait  of,  a  passage  separating  Washing- 
ton Territory  in  the  United  States  from  Vancouver's 
Island,  and  connecting  the  Pacific  Ocean  witli  the 
Gulf  of  Georgia,  has  its  outer  or  western  entrance  in 
lat.  48°  10'  N.,  and  long.  124°  W.  It  contains  several 
islands,  one  of  which,  San  Juan,  became,  in  1859, 
the  subject  of  a  dispute  between  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States  ;  the  question  being,  whether  it 
was  to  be  regarded  as  an  appendage  of  Washington 
Territory,  or  British  Columbia.  This  question  was 
submitted,  in  1872,  to  the  Eniperor  of  Germany  as 
arbiter,  and  he  decided  that  the  line  of  boundary 
should  be  run  througli  tlie  Strait  of  Ilaro  west  of 
San  Juan,  thus  awarding  that  island  to  the  United 
States. 

FUCA'CEvE,  according  to  Lindley,  a  natural 
order  of  Acotyledonous  plants  ;  but  more  generally  \ 
regarded  by  botanists  as  a  sub-order  of  Algee.  | 
The  species  are  numerous,  about  500  being  known,  i 
mostly  growing  in  salt  water.  They  are  distin-  I 
guished  from  the  other  algaj  by  their  organs  of  ; 
reproduction,  which  consist  of  spores  and  antheridia, 
contained  in  common  chambers  or  conceptacles, 
which  are  united  in  club-shaped  receptacles  at  the 
end  or  margins  of  the  fronds.  The  antheridia 
coataui  phytozoa.  The  frond  is  sometimes  a  stalk 
expanding  into  a  broad  blade,  and  sometimes 
exhibits  no  such  expansion,  and  is  either  simple  or 
variously  branched.  Many  of  the  F.  are  ])ro^'ided 
with  vesicles  containing  air,  by  the  aid  of  which 
they  are  enabled  to  float  in  the  water.  Some  attain 
a  great  size — Macrocystis  'pyrifera  is  said  to  have 
fronds  of  500  to  1500  feet  in  length ;  its  stem  not 
being  thicker  than  the  finger,  and  the  upper  branches 
as  slender  as  pack-thread.  Most  of  the  F.  contain 
iodine  in  very  considerable  quantity,  and  some  of 
them  are  therefore  much  used  for  the  manufacture  of 
Kei,p  (q.  v.),  particularly  different  species  of  Fucus, 
or  Wrack,  and  Laminaria,  or  Tangle.  On  account 
of  the  soda  which  they  contain,  they  are  also 
valuable  as  a  manure.  Some  of  them  are  eatable, 
containing  large  quantities  of  gelatinous  matter,  as 
the  Dulse  (q.  v.),  Tangle  (q.  v.),  and  Badderlocks 
(q.  V.)  of  the  British  coasts,  and  certain  species  of 
Sargassuyn  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  The  medi- 
cinal uses  of  some  of  them  seem  to  depend  upon 
the  iodine  which  they  contain,  and  which  it  is 
LOW  considered  preferable  to  exhibit  in  other  forms, 
after  it  has  been  extracted. 

FU-CHOW-FOO  (Happy  City),  a  city  and  port 
of  China,  and  capital  of  the  province  of  Fuh- 
koen.  It  is  beautifully  situated  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Min,  25  miles  distant  from  the  mouth  of 
that  river,  in  lat.  26°  3'  N.,  long,  about  119°  50' 
E.,  and  was  opened  to  foreign  commerce  by  the 
treaty  of  1842.  The  walls  of  the  city  are  about 
30  feet  in  height,  and  8  miles  in  circumference, 
and  have  seven  gates,  the  gateways  of  which  are 
constructed  of  bricks,  resting  on  a  foundation  of 
granite.  The  most  important  public  buildings  are 
the  vice-regal  palace  and  government  yamuns,  the 
temples  of  Confucius,  of  the  god  of  war,  and  of  the 
goddess  of  mercy.  The  beautiful  bridge  of  200 
arches  over  the  river  Min  is  12  feet  wide,  and  about 
12,000  feet  long.  Both  sides  are  crowded  with 
stalls,  which  narrow  the  bridge-path  to  8  feet.  A 
Buddhist  monastery  has  been  converted  into  the 
£12 


British  consulate,  which  overlooks  the  town  from  a 
height  of  several  hundred  feet.  The  sturdy  peasant- 
women  of  F.,  who  are  neat  in  their  dress,  and 
healthy  in  appearance,  do  most  of  the  carrying 
work,  and  leave  their  feet  as  nature  made  them. 
The  lacquered  ware  of  F.  is  said  to  be  of  special 
excellence.  It  sends  us  tea  to  the  extent  of  fifty 
millions  of  pounds  annually ;  but  timber  comprises 
9-llths  of  the  export  trade.  The  population  of  the 
city  has  been  estimated  at  500,000. 

FU'CHSIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Onaqraceoi,  containing  a  large  number  of 
species,  natives  of  South  America  and  of  the  southern 
parts  of  North  America.  They  are  half-shrubby 
plants,  shrubs,  sometimes  climbers,  and  small  trees, 
and  have  generally  pendulous  red  fiowers  ;  of  which 
the  calyx  is  funnel-shaped,  4-cleft,  finely  coloured ; 
the  corolla  4-petaled  :  the  fruit  is  a  4-celled  berry ; 
the  leaves  are  opposite  ;  the  fiower-stalks  1 -flowered, 
springing  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  or  some- 
times forming  racemes  at  the  top  of  the  branches. 
Some  of  the  si)ecies,  as  F.  coccinea,  F.  gracilis,  F. 
glohosa,  F.  fahieus,  F.  macrostemon,  F.  longijiora,  are 
much  cultivated  in  gardens  and  greenhouses  for  the 
beauty  of  their  fiowers.  Most  of  tne  species  are 
too  delicate  for  the  climate,  at  least  of  the  northern 
parts  of  Britain  ;  but  some  of  them,  although  killed 
to  the  ground  every  winter  by  frost,  spring  again 
from  the  root,  and  flower  beautifully  in  autumn. 
A  little  protection  around  the  root  is  of  great  use  in 


Seedling  Fuchsia,  {Colossus)*. 

Grown,  in  1S43,  at  Bagshot. 

preserving  them  in  vigour.  All  of  them  are  propa- 
gated with  extreme  facility  by  cuttings,  which  has 
no  doubt  contributed  to  their  present  abundance, 
even  in  the  gardens  and  windows  of  the  poor.  No 
flowering  shrubs  of  recent  introduction  into  Britain 
have  become  nearly  so  popular  as  those  of  this 
genus ;  and  new  varieties  and  hybrids  have  been 
produced  in  vast  numbers,  of  which  those  with 
white  flowers  are  particularly  prized.  The  berries 
of  a  number  of  the  sjiecies  are  eaten  in  South 
America,  and  preserved  with  sugar ;  and  they  are 
occasionally  used  in  both  these  ways  in  Britain, 
although  in  Scotland  the  fruit  even  of  the  most 
hardy  ripens  only  in  favourable  situations,  for  the 
most  part  on  the  west  coast.  "Where  the  climate 
admits  of  it,  a  F.  hedge  is  extremely  ornamental. 


FUCHS  S  SOLUBLE  GLASS-FUEL. 


The  wood  of  some  species  is  employed  in  their 
native  legions  for  dyeing  black.  The  genus  is 
named  in  honour  of  Leonhard  Fuchs,  one  of  the 
fathers  of  modern  botany,  born  in  Swabia  in  1501, 
died  at  Tubingen,  where  he  was  a  professor,  in  1565. 

FUCHS'S  SOLUBLE  GLASS  is  a  peculiar 
eihcate,  which  is  prepared  by  melting  together  8 
parts  of  carbonate  of  soda,  or  10  parts  of  carbonate 
of  potash,  with  15  of  pure  quartz  sand,  and  1  part  of 
charcoal,  which  is  added  to  facilitate  the  decom- 
position of  the  alkaline  carbonate.  A  black  glass  is 
thus  obtained,  which  is  not  soluble  in  cold  water, 
but  dissolves  in  about  six  times  its  weight  of  boiling 
water.  Fuchs  commenced  his  experiments  on  this 
subject  in  1825,  and  has  continued  and  varied  them 
ever  since.  The  above  is,  however,  we  believe,  the 
most  approved  formida.  The  practical  uses  of  the 
soluble  glass  to  which  he  especially  directed  his 
attention  were  two — viz.  (1),  as  a  varnish,  which, 
applied  in  the  fluid  form  to  stone  surfaces,  would 
harden  into  a  glass,  and  prevent  the  ordinary  effects 
of  atmos})ueric  influences  ;  and  (2)  as  a  means  of 
fixing  fresco-colours  by  the  process  known  as 
stereochromy.  At  the  request  of  the  late  Prince 
Consort,  Dr  Fuchs  gave  a  summary  of  all  that  he 
had  done  in  this  department  in  a  paper  which  he 
read  before  the  Society  of  Arts  in  1859.  See 
Fresco. 

It  may  be  mentioned  that  Professor  Kuhlmann  of 
Lille  has  been  long  working  at  the  same  subject ; 
and  in  1857,  published  his  method  of  producing  a 
stone-protecting  silicate  ;  and  that  our  own  country, 
man,  Mr  Ransome  of  Ipswich,  has  not  only  employed 
concentrated  solutions  of  silicate  of  potash,  or  of 
fioda,  as  a  cement  for  consolidating  silicious  sand 
into  a  very  hard,  durable,  artificial  sandstone,  callable, 
before  it  is  lired,  of  being  moulded  into  any  desired 
form,  but  has  likewise  jjroduced  a  vitreous  varnish, 
consisting  of  silicate  of  potash,  after  which  he 
applies  a  coating  of  a  solution  of  chloride  of  calcium  : 
a  silicate  of  lime  is  thus  formed,  which  is  stated 
to  be  very  successfid  in  protecting  the  surface  of 
Btone  from  extei'nal  influence.  Wood  that  has  been 
painted  with  these  varieties  of  soluble  glass  is 
rendered  nearly  if  not  quite  fire-proof. 

FUCrNO,  Lake  of,  or  Lago  di  Colano  (ancient 
Fncinus  Lacus),  a  lake  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of 
Abruzzo  Ultra  II.,  remarkable  as  the  only  one  of 
any  extent  found  in  the  Central  Apennines.  It  is 
indeed  the  largest  lake  in  Central  Italy,  being  10 
miles  long  by  7  broad ;  and  is  situated  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  2176  feet  above  the  sea-leveL  It  is  subject 
to  sudden  risings  ;  and  in  ancient  times,  by  order 
of  the  Emperor  Claudius,  a  magnificent  subter- 
ranean channel  more  than  three  miles  in  length, 
to  carry  off  the  surplus  waters,  was  cut  partly 
through  the  solid  rock  of  Monte  Salviano,  rising 
1000  feet  above.  This  tunnel  became  obstructed 
in  the  middle  ages,  and  long  remained  so,  notwith- 
standing many  attempts  to  clear  it.  In  recent  times 
the  surrounding  country  has  been  often  submerged. 
In  1855,  operations  were  commenced  for  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Claudian  Aqueduct,  and  in  1862  the  work 
was  completed.  The  principal  stream  it  receives  is  the 
Giovenco. 

FUCUS.    See  Fucace^  and  Wrack. 

FUEL.  This  term  is  generally  applied  to  com- 
bustibles used  for  the  production  of  heat ;  also,  less 
frequently,  to  combustibles  such  as  oil,  Paraffine 
Oil  (q.  v.),  used  for  lighting.  Under  articles  Coal, 
Coke,  &c.,  will  be  found  details  of  the  physical 
proj^ei-ties  and  chemical  composition  of  the  various 
fuelf ;  the  folloAving  observations  bear  chiefly  on 
their  economical  application  as  sources  of  motive 
power. 


The  two  elementary  bodies  to  which  we  owe  the 
heating  powers  of  all  our  fuels,  natural  and  artificial, 
are  carbon  and  hydrogen.  Coke,  wood  charcoal,  peat 
charcoal,  and  anthracite,  contain  little  or  none  of 
the  latter  element,  and  may  be  regarded  as  purely 
carbonaceous  fuels.  But  wood,  peat,  and  most 
varieties  of  coal,  contain  hydrogen  as  well  as  car- 
bon ;  and  in  their  combustion,  these  two  substances 
combine  to  i)roduce  volatile  and  combustiljle  hydro- 
carbons, which  are  volatilised  previous  to  being 
consumed,  while  a  jnirely  carbonaceous  fuel  evolves 
no  volatile  matter  until  combustion  has  been 
effected. 

These  hydrocarbons  are  numerous  and  varied  in 
composition  (see  Carboiiydrogens)  ;  but  when  com- 
bustion is  perfect,  the  amount  of  heat  produced 
by  any  hydrocarbon  is  exactly  what  would  hav^ 
been  produced  had  the  hydrogen  and  carbon  beeu 
burned  separately.  It  will  be  of  advantage,  there- 
fore, to  study  these  two  elementary  combustibles  in 
succession,  in  order  to  estimate  subsequently  the 
coml)ined  effect  where  they  come  together  in  the 
same  fuel. 

The  heating  power  of  a  combustible,  or  the 
amount  of  heat  generated  hy  it,  is  usually  expressed 
in  degrees  Fahrenheit  on  so  many  pounds'  weight  of 
water.  But  in  estimating  the  temperature,  or 
intensity  of  heat  produced,  we  have  to  keep  in  view 
that  different  substances  have  different  capacities 
for  heat — that  of  water  being  generally  assumed  as 
unity.  The  number  expressing  this  capacity  is 
called  the  specific  heat  of  the  substance.  Water 
1000,  carbonic  acid  221,  imply  that  while  1000 
units  of  heat  are  required  to  elevate  the  temperature 
of  water  any  given  number  of  degrees,  only  221 
units  are  required  to  elevate  to  the  same  temi)eraiRire 
an  equal  weight  of  carbonic  acid. 

Carbon  as  Fuel. — 1.  Amount  of  air  required  for 
combustion. — Burned  in  air,  carbon  combines  with 
the  oxygen  to  form  carbonic  acid  (CO  ,),  mingled 
with,  nitrogen,  the  other  atmospheric  element. 
The  chemical  change  may  be  thus  represented, 
atomically : 


Products  of  Combuitlott. 


Carbon, 

Air  ,69  6)  I 

\  Nitrogen, 


6-0- 
16-0  _ 

536 


^Carbonic  acid, 
Nitrogen, 


Or,  assuming  carbon  as  unity : 


Carbon, 

Air  fll-6)  /C>xygen, 


1-  000 

2-  607- 
8  933 

12-600 


i  Carbonic  acid, 
Nitrogen, 


22-0 
53-6 
75-6 


3-667 

8-933 
1-2-6U0 


Carbon,  therefore,  requires  about  twelve  times  its 
own  weight  of  air  for  perfect  combustion. 

2.  Amount  of  Heat  produced. — Andrews  found 
that  1  lb.  carbon  produced  heat  equal  to  1°  F.  in 
14,220  lbs.  of  water.  Other  observations  agree  very 
closely.  This  may  be  otherwise  stated  thus :  1  lb. 
carbon  wiU  raise  from  freezing  to  boiling  point  (32* 

142'>0 

to  212°  =  180°)  -f^  =  79  lbs.  water;  from  mean 
loO 

temperature  to  boiling-point  (60°  to  212°  =  152") 
14220 

— =  93 "5  lbs.  water;  will  boil  off  in  steam  from 

mean  temperature  (60°  to  212°  =  152°,  add  latent 

142*^0 

heat  in  steam,  965°  =  1117"),  -yjjy  =  1273  lbs. 

water ;  and  will  boil  off  in  steam  from  boiling- 

14220 

point  (latent  heat  in  steam,  965°)       -  —  14-74  lbs. 

3.  Utmost  Temperature  or  Intensitij  of  Heat  from 
Carbon. — Here  we  suppose  the  combustion  effected 
in  a  space  enclosed  by  non-conducting  material,  so 
that  aU  the  heat  produced  by  1  lb.  carbon  is 

543 


FUEL. 


retained  by  the  products  of  its  combustion.  Caloric 
sufficient  to  raise  14,220  lbs.  water  1  F.  is  thus 
compressed,  as  it  were,  into  12-G  lbs.  of  carbonic 
acid  and  nitrogen.  To  determine  the  temperature 
thus  produced,  we  require  to  know  the  specific  heat 
of  this  gaseous  compound,  that  of  water  being  1. 

3 -607  lbs.  carbonic  acid.  Spocifle  heat,  -2210 

S9Xi  n    nitrogen.  »       n  "2754 

12  000  //    products  of  combustion.  Mean  sp.  n  •2.j96 

14,220°  on  water  at  1  "000  specific  heat,  will  give 
64,770°  on  these  products  per  pound- weight.  Dis- 
tributed over  12'C  lbs.,  this  heat  will  raise  the 
54776 

temperature  to  =  4347'  F.,  which  is  there- 

fore the  utmost  intensity  of  heat  attainable  in 
burning  carbon,  supposing  no  loss  by  absor2)tion  or 
radiation. 

4.  Effect,  of  Excess  of  Air. — Excess  of  air  has  been 
proved  to  have  no  efiVct  on  the  quantity  of  heat 
produced  where  combustion  is  perfect ;  but  the 
mtensity  of  temjierature  is  diminished.  Suppose 
two  equivalents  of  air  ad'iiitted;  we  then  have  as 
the  products  of  combustion — 


3-fi67  lbs.  carbonic  acid. 

8-933   »  nitrogen. 
Jl-6'00  //   air  in  excess. 
24 '200  H  products. 


Specific  heat,  -2210 

//        It  -2754 

»         »  •26()9 

Mean  sp.  u  <2G31 


14,220**  on  water  =  54,048°  on  this  new  mixture  of 
gases.    But  the  heat  is  now  diffused  over  24*2  lbs. 

matter  instead  of  12-6  lbs.,  =  2347°  F. :  the 

utmost  temperature  produced  by  carbon  burned 
ir    wo  equivalents  of  air. 

^e  r  '-.niost  temperatures  attainable,  with  various 
proportions  of  air,  are  given  below,  and  also  the 
apT)earance  which  the  interior  of  the  furnace  would 
exhibit.  Flame  at  these  temperatures  will  present 
the  same  differences  in  colour. 


Weight. 

Ratio  of 

1 

HiphMt 

Appearance  of  a  Body 

i  uel  to 

Possible 

exposed  to  sucli 

Carbon. 

Air. 

Air. 

Temperature. 

Temperature. 

IN. 

lbs. 

1- 

116 

1  to  1 

43470 

Intensely  brilliant. 

1- 

17-4 

1  n  U 

2951 

Dazzling  white. 

!• 

23-2 

1  w  2 

2233 

Bright  ignition. 

I- 

290 

1  n  2^ 

1797 

Full  cherry  red. 

1- 

34-8 

1  w  3 

1503 

Commencing  cherry  rod. 

1- 

68- 

1  //  5 

908 

Incipient  red. 

1- 

1  ti  6 

758 

Black. 

5.  Effect  of  Defciency  of  Air. — If,  before  reaching 
the  upper  layers  of  carbon  or  cinder,  the  air  has 
parted  with  all  its  oxygen  to  form  carbonic  acid 
with  the  production  of  heat,  then  the  carbonic  acid 
combines  with  part  of  the  remaining  carbon  to 
form  Carbonic  Oxide,  CO  (q.  v.),  but  without  pro- 
ducing heat.  The  loss  may  amount,  therefore,  to 
one-half  of  the  fuel :  some  have  stated  it  as  high  as 
three- fourths.  If  this  oxide,  when  it  gets  above 
the  fuel,  meet  with  air  before  cooling,  it  burns  with 
a  pale  blue  fiame,  restoring  part  of  the  lost  heat ; 
but  to  what  extent  has  not  yet  been  determined. 

6.  Effect  of  Water  Present. — Passing  into  vapour, 
water  absorbs  both  sensible  and  latent  heat,  and 
thus  diminishes  the  temperature.  Heating  power  is 
also  lost,  as  products  of  combustion  are  generally 
passed  into  the  atmosphere  at  a  high  temperature. 

Hydrogen  as  Fuel. — 1.  Air  recpdred. — Hydrogen 
combines  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air  to  form  vapour 
f  water,  mingled  with  nitrogen  : 

Products  of  Combaidon. 

Hydrogen, 


26  8 
358 


.Vapour  of  water, 
Nitrogen. 


26-8 
3fi-8 


1  lb.  hydrogen  therefore  requires  34  "8  lbs.  air, 
while  1  lb.  carbon  requires  only  11  -6  lbs. 

2.  Amount  of  Heat  Produced. — The  amount  of 
heat  produced  from  hydrogen  is  much  greater 
than  that  from  carbon ;  the  caloric  from  1  lb. 
heating  60,840  lbs.  water  1°  F.  Part  oi  this  is, 
however,  latent  in  the  water- vapour,  and  must  be 
deducted  in  calciilating  intensity  of  heat,  and  also 
heating  eff'ect  under  all  ordinary  circumstances. 
This  deduction  amounts  to  9  lbs.  water  x  965° 
latent  ^  8685°,  leaving  52,155°  as  the  effective 
heating  power  of  1  lb.  hydrogen. 

3.  Utmost  Temperature  or  Intensity  of  Heat. — Thia 
is  less  than  in  the  case  of  carbon,  from  the  high 
specific  heat  and  greater  quantity  of  the  products. 
We  have — 


Vapour  of  water, 
Nitrogen,  . 


9-  lbs. 
26  8  » 
35-8  » 


Specific  heat,  -8470 
II        II  -275i 
Mean  sp.  n  •4191 


52,155°  on  water  will  be  124,445°  on  these  products  ; 
124445 

and  -^gTg-   lbs.  =  3476°,  is  the  utmost  possible 

temperature. 

4.  Effect  of  Excess  of  A  ir. — As  in  the  case  of  carbon, 
the  intensity  of  heat  is  diminished,  as  under  : 


Weight 

Ratio  of 

niphe«t 

Fuel  to 

Possible 

Hydrogen. 

Air. 

Air. 

Tempcratui*. 

bi. 

Ibi. 

1- 

34  8 

1  to  1 

3476» 

1- 

69-6 

1  //  2 

2187 

1- 

104-4 

1  //  3 

1591 

1- 

139-2 

1  //  4 

1250 

5.  Effect  of  Deficiency  of  Air. — No  new  product 
is  the  result  of  deficiency  of  air,  as  in  combustion  oi 
carbon  ;  the  hydrogen  simply  escapes  imconsumed. 

6.  Effect  of  ivater-vapour  present  is  diminution  of 
intensity  and  ultimate  loss  of  heat  in  application,  as 
in  the  case  of  carbon. 

Temperature  of  Ignition  of  Carbon  and  Hydrogen. 
— These  substances  must  be  themselves  heated 
before  they  can  burn.  Hydrogen  begins  to  burn 
at  or  below  300°,  while  carbon  requires  a  red  heat 
(800°  to  1000°  F.),  and  even  at  that  temperature 
burns  very  slowly.  Consequently,  where  they  are 
combined,  as  in  common  coal,  the  temperature 
present  is  often  sufficiently  high  to  ignite  and 
consume  the  hydrogen,  while  the  carbon  remains 
unchanged  as  cinder,  or  passes  away  as  smoke, 
unconsumed  in  either  case. 

All  that  has  been  said  above,  of  carbon,  as  to 
air  required,  heating  power  or  value,  utmost  tem- 
perature, temperature  of  ignition,  effect  of  water 
present,  and  of  excess  or  deficiency  of  air,  applies, 
without  modification,  to  one  class  of  fuels — the 
purely  carbonaceous,  including  anthracite,  coke 
from  coal,  charcoal  from  wood  and  peat,  and  the 
cinder  of  any  description  of  fuel.  The  incom- 
bustible ash  must  be  allowed  for  in  calculating 
heating  power  or  value ;  and  also  the  volatile 
bodies — nitrogen,  sulphur,  &c. — the  latter  of  Avhich 
frequently  renders  the  fuel  unsuitable  for  many 
purposes  in  the  arts  and  manufactures. 

Peat,  wood,  and  coal,  with  the  exception  of 
anthracite,  contain  hydrogen  to  an  extent  rareljr 
exceeding  5  per  cent.  We  have  seen  that,  com- 
pared with  carbon,  hydrogen  requires  three  times  as 
much  air,  and  generates  nearly  four  times  as  much 
heat,  but  produces  20  per  cent,  less  intensity  of 
heat,  and  ignites  at  a  much  lower  temperature ; 
and  the  comlmstion  of  wood,  coal,  &c.,  is  in  these 
resjiects  modified  according  to  the  proportion  o\ 
hydrogen  present  in  them. 


FUEL. 


Table  snovnNO  the  Relatite  Properties  and  Economic  Value  op  the  Leading  Classes  op  Coal;  from  the  RESEARcnaa  or 

JOUNSON,  De  la  BECHE  AND  PLAYFAIR,  IIaYES  AND  JiOOERS. 


Evaporation. 

water 
from 

al. 

water 
to  1 
rale. 

o  2  «- 

Hinds 

7.40 

69.85 

9.54 

61  .S2 

8.93 

61.16 

9.46 

81.83 

9.58 

62.93 

9.58 

88.92 

9.46 

65.46 

9.98 

70.85 

8.94 

84.50 

8.07 

59.80 

8.05 

71.56 

7.77 

81.40 

K 

li 

Karnes  of  Coals. 


Hard  Anthracites: 

Rhode  Isliind  

Beaver  Meadow  , 

Lehigh  

Welsh  Anthracite  

Pennsylvania,  4  varieties 
&mi- Anthracites : 

Zerbes'  Run  

Lykens  Valley  

Semi- Bituminous  : 

Cumberland,  Md  , 

Welsh,  5  varieties  

Bituminous : 

Richmond,  Va.,  11  varie's, 

Foreign  Coals,  6  kinds.... 

West  of  Alleghany  Mts... 


Density. 


1.79 
1.55 
1.59 
1.37 
1.50 

1.40 
1.39 

1.35 
1.33 

1.34 
1..34 
1.26 


&£3 


55.06 
55.32 
58.25 
53.23 

53.73 
48.56 

53.13 
58.60 

49.25 
50.U0 
47.23 


40.03 
40.50 
37.23 
42.02 

41.69 
46.13 


45.71 
44.86 
47.43 


Composition. 


3.00 
2.52 
5.28 
5.50 
3.09 

7.31 


14.20 
13.40 

29.43 
31.81 
30.28 


77.00 
90.20 
89.15 
91.44 
89.45 

84.25 
83.84 

73.95 
81.88 

58.10 
57.66 
56.68 

E 


16.00 
6.13 
5.56 
1.52 
5.61 

6.11 
9.25 

10.41 
4.72 

10.90 
8.44 
6.02 

F 


Conditions  of  Combustion. 


10.00 
1.00 
l.OS 


1.03 


3.45 
4.40 


3.12 


4.89 
4.20 
1.28 


10.90 

9.35 
7.22 
9.58 
8.12 

11.70 
12.24 

10.70 


11.78 
8.71 
6.68 

II 


1" 
(S.2S 


9.44 
6.48 
6.95 
8.65 
6.60 


6.92 
7.10 


o"2 


3.15 
3.27 


3.10 


2.63 
1.45 


1..33 
0.93 
0.50 


Rank. 


^%  -  1 


3403.80 
3383.31 


3349.8 


4777.40 
3973.68 


376^.26 


2946.15 
3.578.00 
3844.50 

M 


From  columns  A,  B,  and  C  of  the  above  table  it 
appears  that,  though  the  average  specific  gravity  of 
the  hard  anthracites  of  Pennsylvania  exceeds  that  of 
the  semi-anthracites  in  the  ratio  of  1..50  to  1.40,  their 
weight  per  cubic  foot  in  the  broken  state  is  very  nearly 
the  same,  their  capacity  for  storage  being  in  the  near 
proportion  of  41.69  to  42.  The  densest  Beaver  Meadow 
requires  40  cubic  feet  to  the  ton,  and  the  least  compact 
bituminous  takes  rather  more  than  47.5,  or  nearly  19 
per  cent,  in  excess  of  bulk  above  the  first.  By  column 
D  it  will  be  seen  that  the  anthracite,  semi-anthracite, 
and  bituminous  show  a  regular  augmentation  in  the 
average  percentage  of  volatile  combustible  matter,  be- 
iug  31.81  in  the  highest,  and  but  2.52  per  cent,  in  the 
Beaver  Meadow  anthracite.  The  useful  values  of  coals 
are  variously  influenced  by  the  presence  and  nature  of 
their  volatile  combustible  part,  and  ultimate  analysis 
shows,  almost  invariably,  a  larger  amount  of  carbon 
(E)  than  is  left  in  the  form  of  coke  from  distillation. 
One  effect  of  a  large  excess  of  volatile  matter  in  a  coal 
is  to  impair  seriously  its  heating  powers.  On  compar- 
ing the  average  volatile  combustible  matter  with  the 
average  weight  of  water  evaporated  (K),  the  full  bitu- 
minous kinds  display  a  power  of  less  than  8  pounds  to 
more  than  9.5  pounds  for  the  other  three  varieties ; 
and  it  has  become  a  prevailing  opinion  that  the  total 
evaporative  efficacy  of  a  bituminous  coal  is  no  greater 
than  that  of  the  coke  or  fixed  carbon  it  contains.  The 
special  qualities  of  the  different  bituminous  and  semi- 
bituminous  coals  depend  in  good  degree  upon  their 
coking  and  open-burning  qualities,  even  more  than  on 
their  proportions  of  bituminous  matter.  The  cause 
of  the  inferior  heating  power  of  bituminous  coals 
is  found  in  the  larger  portion  of  heat  consumed 
in  changing  the  volatile  portions  from  the  solid 
to  the  gaseous  condition ;  also,  to  a  waste  of  car- 
bon through  the  flues  from  imperfect  combustion. 
Column  J  exhibits  the  respective  times  required  for 
getting  the  boiler  into  full  action  ;  and  we  perceive 
that  the  differences  in  the  rapidity  of  kindling  are 
much  more  marked  than  those  of  the  rates  of  sus- 
tained :»mbustion.  Column  L  denotes  the  relations 
of  coal3  as  respects  their  rate  of  burning  and  evapo- 
rating effect  from  equal  weights,  or  their  activity  and 
strength,  and  expresses  more  justly  than  any  other 
column  the  relative  practical  values.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  anthracites,  semi-bituminous  and  bituminous 
coals,  bux-ned  in  the  same  apparatus  and  under  condi- 
tions adapted  to  the  two  latter  classes,  display  evapo- 
rating rates  in  the  ratios  of  62.93,  77.19,  and  70.92 
pounds  of  steam  per  hour  to  each  square  foot  of  grate. 
Column  M  is  the  result  of  multiplying  the  three  ratios 


found  in  columns  C,  K,  and  L — portability,  strength, 
and  activity — and  exhibits  the  relative  total  values 
compounded  of  all  these  elements.  It  thus  appears 
that  the  semi-bituminous  coals  surpass  somewhat  the 
bituminous,  and  that  these  exceed  the  true  anthracites. 
See  Johnson,  W.  R.,  Report  to  the  Navy  Depay'tment 
on  America7i  Coals,  Washington,  1844;  Hayes,  A.  A, 
and  H.  D.  Rogers,  Reports  on  the  Combustible  Quali- 
ties of  the  Semi-Anthracites  of  the  Shamokin.  Coal 
Fields,  Boston,  1851  ;  and  Rogers,  H.  D.,  The  Oeol- 
<>gy  of  Pennsylvania,  2  vols.,  Philadelphia,  1858.  See 
Steam  Engine,  and  Smoke,  Consumption  o^. 

The  abundance  or  scarcity  of  fuel  has  a  great 
effect  on  the  general  interests  of  a  country  apd  the 
comfort  of  its  inhabitants.  The  wealth  and  pros- 
perity of  Britain  must  be  attributed  in  no  small 
degree  to  the  abundance  of  coal  in  those  districts 
both  of  England  and  Scotland  in  which  iron-stone 
is  most  abundant,  and  in  which,  therefoi'e,  the  coal 
is  required  as  fuel  for  smelting  it.  But  even  foi 
the  most  ordinary  uses  of  domestic  economy,  the 
scarcity  of  fuel  in  some  parts  of  the  world  causes 
much  hardship  to  their  inhabitants,  whilst  ita 
abundance  in  others  is  one  of  their  greatest  natural 
advantages.  Coal,  wood,  and  peat  are  the  three 
kinds  of  fuel  principally  used ;  coal  being  indeed 
the  vegetation  of  former  ages — or  rather  of  furmer 
geological  periods — the  product  of  their  sxmshina 
and  their  showers,  treasured  up  for  the  present; 
peat,  a  recent  formation.  Coal  may  be  said  in 
general  to  be  of  about  twice  the  value  of  wood  aa 
fuel,  weight  for  weight,  in  its  heating  power.  In 
those  parts  of  the  world  in  which  coal  is  not  found, 
or  to  which  it  cannot  be  easily — or  as  yet  profitably 
— conveyed,  the  preservation  of  forests  is  of  great 
importance  ;  and  trees  are  not  unfrequently  planted, 
as  in  some  parts  of  Europe,  in  hedgerows  and  other- 
wise, chiefly  in  order  to  provide  a  supply  of  fueL 
For  the  same  reason,  pollarding  is  resorted  to,  the 
branches  being  used  as  fuel,  and  the  tniiili  left  to 
produce  new  branches.  Only  some  kinds  of  treea 
are  adapted  to  this  mode  of  treatment.  In  some 
regions,  as  on  some  of  the  steppes  of  Asia  and  other 
treeless  plains,  the  dried  dung  of  herbivorous 
animals  is  much  used  as  fuel.  In  cases  of  less 
extreme  necessity,  all  kinds  of  vegetable  refuse  are 
used.  Thus,  in  many  parts  of  the  continent  of 
Europe,  things  are  carefully  gathered  up  for  fuel 
which  in  any  part  of  Britain  would  most  probably 
be  burned  on  the  field,  to  get  them  out  of  the  way. 
But  it  is  not  easy  to  compute  the  benefit  derived 
by  many  parts  even  of  Britain,  particularly  the 

545 


FUENTE  DE  OVEJtJNA—FUERTE VENTURA. 


inland  parts,  from  the  recent  great  increase  of  the 
facilities  of  communication  and  of  the  trade  in 
coal. 

FUENTE  DE  OVEJUNA  (The  Sheep-well), 
a  small  walled  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of 
Cordova,  and  44  miles  north-west  of  the  town  of 
that  name,  is  situated  on  the  crest  and  sides  of  a 
oouical  hill,  between  two  of  the  upper  branches 
of  the  Guadiata.  At  the  foot  of  the  hill,  and  on 
lis  western  side,  are  the  wells  from  which  this 
to^vn  has  derived  its  name.  It  has  manufactures 
of  linens,  woollens,  and  leather.  Coal-seams  occur 
in  the  vicinity.    Pop.  about  5500. 

FUE'NTES  DE  ONORO  (The  Fountains  of 
Honour),  a  small  village  of  Salamanca,  Spain,  on 
the  Portuguese  frontier,  14  miles  west  of  Ciudad 
Rudrigo,  is  well  known  as  the  scene  of  one  of  the 
important  battles  of  the  Peninsular  War,  between 
the  Englisli  under  Wellington,  and  the  Frencli  under 
Masseua.  Wellington,  who  had  resolved  to  abide 
battle,  drew  up  his  forces  between  the  Coa  and  the 
Agueda,  his  line  extending  north  and  south  for  about 
seven  miles,  and  his  right  wing  stretching  two 
miles  south  of  F.  de  Onoro.  On  the  3d  May  1811, 
this  village  was  fiercely  attacked  by  a  strong  body 
of  French  troops,  who  forced  the  English  from  the 
Btreets,  and  were  not  dislodged  until  the  English, 
reinforced  by  three  regiments,  drove  them  by  a 
terrific  charge  from  their  position,  with  a  loss  in 
all  of  300  men.  On  the  5th,  the  battle  proper  com- 
menced. The  French,  much  stronger  than  their 
enemies  both  in  cavalry  and  infantry,  assailed  Wel- 
lington's right  with  overwhelming  numbers,  and 
although  prodigies  of  valour  were  performed  by  the 
English — as  in  the  case  of  R;imsey's  brigade  of  horse- 
artillery,  which  cut  its  way  through  a  solid  body 
of  cavalry— their  right  wing  was  turned,  and  their 
position  lost.  Never  during  the  war  were  the  English 
forces  more  perilously  situated.  Meanwhile,  at  F. 
de  O.,  on  which  Wellington's  left  \nng  now  rested, 
a  fierce  battle  was  being  fought.  The  three  English 
regiments  who  had  been  left  in  occupation  made  a 
desperate  resistance  against  assailing  multitudes. 
The  fight  lasted  here  till  evening,  reinforcements 
having  been  brought  up  ou  both  sides  ;  and  the 
night  closed  upon  the  English  holding  the  crags 
above  the  town,  and  the  retiring  regiments  of  the 
French.  The  loss  of  the  allies  amounted  to  1500, 
while  that  of  the  French  was  stated  at  the  time  to 
be  nearly  5000,  and  was  certainly  greater  than 
that  of  the  allies.  Neither  army  could  claim  a 
decided  advantage  in  this  battle ;  but  its  result 
was,  that  on  the  10th,  the  French  were  forced 
across  the  Portuguese  frontier ;  and  thus  ended 
the  French  invasion  of  Portugal 

FU'ERO,  a  Spanish  word  derived  from  Lat. 
foi-um,  signifies  strictly,  the  seat  of  justice,  jurisdic- 
tion. In  this  last  sense,  it  was  transferred  to  collec- 
tions of  laws,  and  specially  to  the  civic  rights 
granted  by  the  kings  to  individual  cities,  the  most 
Famous  of  which  were  the  fuero  of  Leon  and 
that  of  Naxera.  As  these  city  charters  contained 
for  the  most  part  special  liberties,  concessions,  and 
privileges,  the  word  fuero  became  current  chiefly 
in  this  sense,  and  was  particularly  so  apphed  to 
designate  the  body  of  privileges  and  liberties  that 
made  up  the  constitution  of  Navarre,  and  of  the 
three  Basque  provinces  of  Biscaya,  A  lava,  and 
Guipuzcoa.  These  are  the  fueros  the  maintenance 
of  which  gave  rise  to  wars  in  the  Basque  provinces 
in  1833.  The  fueros  of  other  provinces  and  cities 
of  Spain  have  been  long  extinct. 

These  Basque  fueros  are  grounded  on  the  old 
laws  of  the  Visigoths,  and  grew  ap  in  the  period 
between  the  irruption  of  the  Moora  into  the  Spanish 
646 


peninsula  and  the  consolidation  of  the  Spaniah 
monarchy  under  the  House  of  Hapsburg.  The  same 
was  the  case  in  the  half-Basque  province  of  Navarre, 
which  formed  an  independent  kingdom  iinder  its 
own  sovereigns.  The  fueros  are  thus  the  product  of 
the  ancient  Gothic  laws — those  fertile  sources  of 
modern  rights — and  the  new  circumstances  in  which 
they  were  i)laced.  They  resulted  by  degrees,  here  as 
elsewhere,  in  a  struggle  between  the  people  and  the 
princes ;  and  their  development  forms  an  interesting 
chapter  in  the  history  of  modern  constitutionalism. 
They  were  at  first  only  privileges  and  statutory 
rights  granted  to  single  places,  and  from  theso 
were  extended  to  others.  By  the  introduction  of  Ihe 
representative  element  of  the  Cortes,  and  extensiott 
over  whole  provinces,  they  were  then  transformed,  in 
virtue  of  the  j^eneral  law  of  custom,  into  constitu- 
tional  rights  ot  these  provinces  ;  and  were  in  time 
collected  and  forma,lly  embodied  and  sanctioned  as 
such.  It  Avas  in  this  way  that  the  fueros  of  Navarre, 
which  had  been  growing  into  consistency  for  cen- 
turies previously,  were,  in  1236,  during  the  contests 
between  King  Theobald  and  his  Cortes,  collected 
and  recorded,  and  remain  yet  under  the  title  of 
Cartularh  del  Reij  Tibaldo.  Ferdinand  the  Catholic, 
who  united  Navarre  wdth  the  crown  of  Castile, 
maintained  the  fueros,  adapting  them  to  the  new 
relation  to  Castile.  Their  leading  provisions  are 
these  :  The  Cortes,  chosen  for  three  years,  and  con- 
sisting of  the  three  estates  of  clergy,  nobles,  and 
commons,  are  to  meet  yearly ;  and  without  their 
consent,  no  law  can  be  passed,  or  anything  of  import- 
ance undertaken.  The  government  consists  of  the 
viceroy,  who  presides  in  the  Cortes  and  Great  Council ; 
the  Great  Council  of  Navarre  (a  body  similar  to  the 
old  French  parliaments) ;  and  the  Contaduria,  before 
which  all  accounts  of  revenue  and  expenditure  must 
be  laid.  There  is  no  custom-house  or  toll  but  at  the 
frontier,  and  except  the  trifling  grant  of  170,000 
reals,  nothing  flows  into  the  royal  treasury.  All 
these  fueros  the  king  must  bind  himself  by  a  ?'oyai 
oath  to  maintain. 

In  the  lordship  (Senorio)  of  Biscaya,  the  fueros 
grew  up  in  the  contests  of  the  inhabitants  with 
their  counts.  They  were  first  collected  into  a  code 
by  Count  Juan  in  1371,  which,  after  the  final  union 
of  Biscaya  with  Castile,  was  recast  (1526),  completed, 
and  confirmed  by  King  Charles  I.  (the  German 
emperor  Charles  V.).  According  to  this  charter  of 
rights,  every  new  '  Lord  '—for  only  so  do  the  Biscay- 
ans  style  the  king  of  Spain  as  their  i)rince — fourteen 
years  old,  must  come  into  the  coimtry  within  a  year, 
and  take  the  oath  to  uphold  the  fueros  in  certain 
jilaces  appointed  for  that  purpose.  The  government 
consists  of  a  corregidor,  ai)pointed  by  the  '  Lord,' 
and  two  deputies ;  these,  aided  by  six  regidores, 
and  forming  the  regimiento,  conduct  the  administra- 
tion. But  the  supreme  power  resides  in  the  General 
Assembly  (Junta  General),  which  meets  yearly  undei 
the  tree  at  Guernica,  and  regulates  all  the  affairs  of 
the  lordship,  and  appoints  the  deputies  and  regi- 
dores. Justice  is  administered,  in  the  first  instance, 
by  the  lieutenants  (Tenentes)  of  the  corregidor ;  in 
the  second,  by  the  corregidor  and  deputies ;  and  in 
the  third,  by  the  royal  court  at  Valladolid.  Other 
privileges  are,  that  every  Biscayan  of  pure  blood  is 
counted  noble ;  that  except  the  post-ofllice  there  is 
to  be  no  royal  governing  board  in  the  province  ;  that 
Biscayans  are  not  bound  to  serve  in  the  Spanish 
army,  nor  to  receive  Spainsh  troops.  The  fueros  of 
Alava  and  Guipuzcoa  are  of  analogous  origin  and 
character,  but  differing  in  details.  These  fueros 
were  almost  entirely  abolished  by  Espartero,  but 
were  restored  by  Queen  Isabella  in  1844.  Soa 
Spain. 

FUE'RTEVENTU'RA.   See  Canaries. 


FUGITIVE  SLAVE  LAW. 


FVG  JE.    See  Meditatio  Fuq  je. 

FTJGA'RO,  tbe  name  of  a  well-known  stop  of 
the  flute  kind  in  continental  organs  of  4-feet 
pitch,  and  sometimes  of  8-feet  pitch,  of  a  small 
scale,  made  of  wood  or  tin  ;  in  tone  it  is  as  piercing 
as  the  gamba,  but  much  clearer. 

FUGGER,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  families 
in  Germany,  which,  rising  by  industry  and  com- 
merce, has  founded  numerous  lines  of  counts,  and 
even  princes.  The  ancestor  of  the  family  was  John 
F,,  master-weaver  in  Graben,  near  Augsburg.  His 
eldest  son,  John  F.,  acquired  by  man-iage,  in  1370, 
the  freedom  of  Augsburg,  and  began  to  carry  on  a 
trade  in  Hnen  along  with  weaving.  By  a  second 
maiTiage,  in  1382,  with  the  daughter  of  a  councillor, 
he  had  two  sons  and  four  daughters.  This  John  F. 
was  one  of  the  council  of  twelve  (Ger.  Die  Zwol/er, 
*the  twelvers ')  in  the  weaver-guild,  and  an  assessor 
of  the  famous  Fehmgericht  (q.  v.)  or  secret  tribunal 
of  Westphalia.  He  died  in  1409,  and  left  what  was 
a  large  fortune  for  the  time— 3000  guldens  or  florins. 

His  eldest  son,  Andrew  F.,  made  such  good  use  of 
his  share  of  the  inheritance  that  he  got  the  name 
of  'the  Rich  Fugger,'  By  marriage,  he  founded  a 
noble  line,  which,  however,  died  out  in  1585.  John's 
second  son,  Jacob  F.,  who  died  in  1469,  was-  superior 
and  '  twelver '  of  the  weaver- guild,  and  a  man  held 
in  high  esteem  by  his  fellow-citizens  ;  he  was  the 
first  of  the  Fuggers  that  had  a  house  in  Augsburg, 
and  he  already  carried  on  an  extensive  commerce. 

Of  his  seven  sons,  three,  Ulrich,  George,  and 
Jacob  II.,  by  means  of  industry,  ability,  and  integ- 
rity, extended  their  business  to  an  extraordinary 
degree,  and  laid  the  foundation  for  the  palmy 
days  of  the  family.  They  married  into  the  noblest 
houses,  and  were  raised  by  the  Emperor  Maximilian 
to  the  rank  of  nobles.  The  emperor  mortgaged  to 
them,  for  70,000  gold  guldens,  the  county  of  Kirch- 
berg  and  the  lordship  of  Weisseuhorn,  and  received 
from  them  afterwards,  through  the  mediation  of 
Pope  Julius  II.,  170,000  ducats,  to  assist  in  carrying 
on  the  war  against  Venice.  Ulrich  F.,  born  1441, 
died  1510,  devoted  himself  specially  to  the  commerce 
that  he  opened  i;p  with  Austria,  and  there  was 
almost  no  object  that  did  not  enter  into  his  specula- 
tions ;  even  the  master-pieces  of  Albert  DUrer  went 
through  his  hands  to  Italy.  Jacob  F.,  born  1459, 
died  1525,  engaged  in  mining ;  he  farmed  the  mines 
in  Tyrol,  and  accumidated  immense  wealth  ;  he  lent 
to  the  Archduke  of  Austria  150,000  guldens,  and 
built  the  magnificent  castle  of  Fuggerau,  in  Tyrol. 
Thus  the  wealth  of  the  Fuggers  went  on  increasing. 
Their  wares  went  to  all  lands,  and  scarce  a  road  or 
sea  but  bore  their  wagons  or  ships. 

Biit  it  was  under  Charles  V.  that  the  House 
attained  its  greatest  splendour.  Jacob  having  died 
childless,  and  the  family  of  Ulrich  being  also 
extinct,  the  fortunes  and  splendour  of  the  house 
rested  on  the  sons  of  George  F.,  who  died  in  1506. 
At  his  death,  he  left  three  sons,  one  of  whom, 
Marcus,  entered  the  church ;  the  two  younger, 
Eaimund  and  Antony,  carried  on  the  business, 
and  became  the  founders  of  the  two  chief  and  still 
flourishing  lines  of  the  House  of  Fugger.  The  two 
brothers  were  zealous  Catholics,  and  with  their 
wealth  supported  Eck  in  his  opposition  to  Luther. 
During  the  diet  held  by  Charles  V.  at  Augsbiirg,  in 
1530,  the  emperor  lived  in  Antony  F.'s  splendid 
house  in  the  Wine  Market.  On  this  occasion,  he 
raised  both  brothers  to  the  rank  of  coiints,  and 
invested  them  with  the  still  mortgaged  properties 
of  Kirchl)erg  and  Weissenhorn ;  and  a  letter  under 
the  imperial  seal  conferred  on  them  the  rights  of 
princes.  For  the  suiii)ort  they  afforded  him  in  his 
expedition  against  Algiers  in  153.5,  they  received 


the  right  of  coining  money.  Antony  F.,  at  his  death, 
left  six  millions  gold  crowns  in  ready  money,  besides 
jewels  and  possessions  in  all  parts  of  Euroije  and  in 
both  Indies.  It  is  of  him  that  the  Emperor  Charlea 
is  said  to  have  remarked  while  being  shewn  the 
royal  treasury  in  Paris  :  *  There  is  a  linen- weaver 
in  Augsburg  that  could  pay  all  that  out  of  hia  own 
pursc.^ 

The  Emperor  Ferdinand  II.  raised  the  splendour 
of  the  House  of  F.  still  higher  while  confiming 
the  imperial  letter  of  Charles,  by  conferring  greatj 
additional  privileges  on  the  two  oldest  of  tho 
family.  Counts  John  and  J erome.  The  Fuggers  con* 
tinned  still  as  nobles  to  carry  on  their  commerco, 
and  further  increased  their  immense  wealth.  They 
attained  the  highest  posts  in  the  empire,  and  several 
princely  houses  prided  themselves  on  their  alliance 
with  the  House  of  Fugger.  They  possessed  the  most 
extensive  libraries  and  collections  of  objects  of  art, 
maintained  painters  and  musicians,  and  liberally 
encouraged  art  and  science.  Their  houses  and 
gardens  were  master-pieces  of  the  architecture  and 
taste  of  the  times.  There  is  thus  nothing  incredible 
in  the  story  that  Antony  F.,  on  one  occasion  when 
Chai-les  V.  was  his  visitor,  lighted  a  fire  of  cinna- 
mon wood  with  the  emperor's  bond  for  money  lent 
him. 

While  thus  indulging  in  splendour,  they  were  not 
less  bent  on  doing  good.  Ulrich,  George,  and  Jacob, 
the  sons  of  the  beneficent  Jacob,  bought  houses  in 
one  of  the  suburbs  of  Augsburg,  pulled  them  down, 
and  built  108  smaller  houses,  which  they  let  to  poor 
citizens  at  a  low  rent.  This  was  the  origin  of  tho 
'Fuggerei,'  which  still  remains  under  the  same 
name,  with  its  own  walls  and  gates.  Many  other 
benevolent  institutions  were  set  on  foot  by  Antony 
F.  and  his  sons.  It  is  questionable  if  we  are  to 
rank  among  their  benefactions  their  calling  the 
Jesuits  to  Augsburg,  and  giving  them  buildings  and 
revenues  for  a  college,  church,  and  school.  The  race 
is  still  continued  in  the  two  pi'incipal  lines  of 
Raimund  and  Antony,  besides  collateral  branches. 
The  domains  are  chiefly  in  Bavaria.  A  collection  of 
portraits  of  the  most  important  members  of  this 
great  house,  executed  by  Domiu,  Custos  of  Ant- 
werp, appeared  at  Augsburg  (1593  et  seq.).  This 
collection  (increased  to  127,  with  genealogies  %vritten 
in  Latin)  was  rei)ublished  by  the  brothers  Kilian 
(Augsburg  1618)  ;  and  in  1754,  a  new  edition  of  the 
work,  still  further  improved,  and  containing  139 
portraits,  was  published  at  Ulm,  under  the  title 
Pinacotheca  Fuggerorum. 

FUGITA'TION.  A  sentence  of  fugitation  in 
Scotland  corresponds  to  outlawry  in  a  criminal 
process  in  England,  and  is  pronounced  where  a 
person  fails  to  appear  to  answer  to  a  criminal  pro- 
secution against  him.  Amongst  other  consequenceg» 
it  entails  the  escheat  of  his  whole  movable  propei  fc^ 
to  the  crown.    See  Escheat. 

FUGITIVE  SLAVE  LAW.  Slaves  being 
regarded  as  property,  things  and  not  persons,  as  the 
Roman  law  puts  it,  the  existence  in  every  state  in 
which  slavery  exists  of  a  law  recognising  the  right 
of  the  master  to  reclaim  his  property  follows  as  a 
logical  consequence.  Accordingly,  the  constitution 
of  the  United  States  of  America  having  oi-iginally 
recognized  slavery,  or  *  service,'  as  termed  by  Amer- 
ican writers,  necessarily  contained  a  number  of  en- 
actments for  its  enforcement.  By  art,  4,  s.  2  of 
that  document,  it  is  declared  that  persons  held  to 
service  or  labour  in  one  state,  under  the  laws  there- 
of, and  escaping  into  another,  shall  be  delivered  up, 
on  claim  of  the  party  to  whom  such  service  or  lar 
hour  may  be  due.  In  furtherance  of  this  provision, 
the  laws  of  New  York  provided  for  the  arrest  of 


FUGLEMAN— FUGUE. 


such  fugitives  on  habeas  corpus,  founded  on  due 
proof,  and  for  a  certificate  in  favour  of  the  right  of 
the  claimant,  and  delivery  of  the  fugitive  to  him, 
to  be  removed.  This  obsolete  law,  as  narrated  in 
the  latest  edition  of  Kent,  seems  to  be  the  follow- 
ing* The  act  of  1793,  providing  for  the  reclama- 
tion of  fugitives  from  justice  and  from  service, 
has,  so  far  as  relates  to  the  latter,  been  amended, 
and  to  a  considerable  extent  superseded  by  the 
act  of  September  18,  1850.  The  judicial  duties 
imposed  by  the  latter  act  are  to  be  performed  by 
thd  United  States  commissioners,  who  may  have 
the  power  of  arresting  or  imprisoning  for  offences 
against  tho  United  States,  by  the  judges  of  the 
circuit  and  district  courts  of  the  United  States,  and 
of  the  superior  courts  of  territories,  and  by  such 
special  commissioners  as  the  respective  coiirts  may 
appoint.  It  is  the  duty  of  all  United  States 
marshals  to  obey  and  execute  all  warrants  and 
process  of  such  judges  and  commissioners ;  and 
after  the  arrest  of  any  fugitives,  such  officers  are 
liable  for  an  escape  with  or  without  their  assent. 
When  any  fugitive  has  escaped  into  another  state  or 
territory,  the  owner,  or  his  duly  authorised  agent, 
may  pursue  and  personally  arrest  said  fugitive,  or 
may  demand  a  warrant  and  arrest  from  the  officer 
having  due  authority.  The  fugitive  is  then  to  be 
taken  before  a  commissioner  or  judge,  whose  duty  it 
is  to  hear  and  determme  the  complaint  in  a  sum- 
mary manner.  Should  he  be  satisfied  of  the  validity 
of  the  claim  and  the  identity  of  the  slave,  it  is  his 
duty  to  deliver  to  the  claimant  a  certificate  of  the 
proceeding  had,  with  authority  to  remove  the  fugi- 
tive to  the  place  from  which  he  fled.  The  testimony 
of  the  fugitive  is  not  admissible.  Any  assistance 
rendered  to  a  fugitive  to  enable  him  to  escape  from 
the  claimant,  or  any  obstruction  offered  to  his 
arrest,  is  penal,  and  also  subjects  the  party  to 
damages  at  the  suit  of  the  owner.  AU  citizens  of 
the  United  States  are  required,  when  called  upon, 
to  render  the  officers  personal  assistance  in  the  per- 
formance of  their  duties.  These  pro\'isions  api)ly  to 
all  the  states,  or  did  so,  at  least,  previously  to  the 
war,  whether  slavery  was  recognised  by  their  special 
laws  or  not ;  the  principle  being,  that '  the  constitu- 
tion and  laws  of  the  United  States  secure  the  right 
to  reclaim  fugitive  slaves  against  state  legislation.' 
In  some  of  the  slave-holding  states,  it  was  held,  that 
if  a  slave  from  such  a  state  go  lawfully  into  a  non- 
slave-holding  state,  and  acquire  a  domicile  there 
with  liis  master,  or  was  emancipated  there  by  his 
master,  he  became  emancipated,  and  ceased  to  be  a 
slave  on  his  return :  but  if  he  were  carried  there  for 


a  temporary  purpose  and  returned,  his  state  of  slavery 
was  resumed.  These  provisions  had  no  influence  on 
the  condition  of  the  fugitive  slave  (Kent,  ut  sup.  ii. 
p.  297). 

FU'GLEMAN,  (properly,  Flugehnan,  from  tho 
German  Jlugel,  a  wing),  an  intelligent  soldier  posted 
in  front  of  a  line  of  men  at  drill^  to  give  the  tima 
and  an  example  of  the  motions  in  the  manual  and 
platoon  exercises.  He  ori  dually  stood  in  front  of 
the  right  wing,  and  hence  the  name. 

FUGUE,  in  Music,  is  the  name  of  a  composition 
wherein  the  parts  do  not  all  begin  at  once,  but 
follow  or  pursue  one  auother  at  certain  distances; 
thence  the  name,  Fuga,  a  flight  or  chase,  each  part 
successively  taking  up  the  subject  or  melody.  Any 
of  the  parts  may  begin  the  fugue,  but  the  others 
follow  according  to  fixed  rules.  The  subject  is 
generally  a  few  bars  of  melody,  which  is  given  out 
in  the  principal  key  by  the  part  which  begins.  The 
next  part  which  enters  repeats  the  same  melody, 
but  a  fifth  higher  or  a  fourth  lower,  and  is  called 
the  answer.  The  third  part  follows  with  the  subject 
again  in  tLe  principal  key,  but  an  octave  higher  or 
lower  than  the  first  part,  and  is  answered  by  tho 
fourth  part  iu  the  same  manner  as  the  second  ])art 
answers  the  first.  After  the  subject  is  completed, 
the  melody  which  follows  it,  so  as  to  form  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  part,  is  called  the  counterpoint,  iu 
the  construction  of  which,  facilities  for  ingenious 
double  counterpoints  of  various  kinds  are  afforded. 
When  the  subject  and  answer  have  been  introduced 
in  all  the  parts,  the  first  section  of  the  fugue  is  said 
to  be  completed;  an  intermediate  harmony  of  a 
few  bars  then  follows,  sometimes  in  its  form  like 
part  of  the  subject,  and  with  a  modulation  into  a 
nearly  related  key.  The  subject  and  answer  are 
again  brought  forward,  but  following  in  a  difi*erent 
order  from  the  first  section  ;  while  at  the  same  time 
all  the  parts  are  continued,  and  in  some  of  them 
the  original  counterpoint  appears  either  simply  or 
inverted,  the  subject  and  answer  forming  the  pre- 
dominating idea  throughout  the  whole  composition, 
and  towards  the  end  appearing  in  a  variety  of  forms, 
intervals,  and  modifications.  When  the  subject 
does  not  extend  in  compass  beyond  the  half  of  an 
octave,  the  answer  is  invariably  made  in  the  other 
half ;  and  to  avoid  modulation  out  of  the  key,  the 
progression  of  a  fifth  is  answered  by  a  fourth.  A 
fugue  consisting  of  one  subject  with  a  counteqioint 
throughout,  is  called  a  strict  fugue,  as  in  the  follow- 
ing example  by  J.  Sebastian  Bach,  in  which  the 
first  progression  of  a  fifth  is  answered  by  a  fourth  ; 


Subject. 


i 


27 

Answer. 


When  a  second  subject  is  introduced  in  the  middle  I  the  first  subject,  it  is  then  called  a  fugue  on  twC 
of  the  composition,  and  afterwards  worked  up  with  j  subjects,  as  in  the  following  from  Grauu's  Tod  Jtm- 


FUH-HE-FUH-KEEN. 


1st  Subject. 


&c. 


Christus  hat    uns  ein  Vor-bild  ge  -  las 


2d  Subject. 


BEfct. 


m 


auf  dass  wir  sol  -  • 

len  nach-fol  - 

-  -  gen    sei  -  nen  I 

uss  -  ta 

Both  subjects  united. 

#iftfcs=-  

J J  an 

h  ^^£f-^^ 

A  double  fugue  begins  at  once  with  two  subjects  in  I  throughout,  as  in  the  following  from  Mozart's 
different  parts,  both  of  which  are  strictly  treated  I  Requiem: 


2d  Subject 


Christe   e  -  le 


1st  Subject. 


Ky  -  ri  -  e 


IS  -  on, 
&c. 


e  -  le 


A.  free  fugue  is  that  in  which  the  subject  and 
counterpoint  are  not  strictly  treated  throughout, 
but  mixed  up  with  intermediate  harmonies  and 
ideas  not  connected  with  the  subject,  while  the 
rules  of  the  fugue  are  not  rigidly  adhered  to. 

The  fugue  has  always  been,  and  will  continue  to 
be,  esteemed  by  every  sound  musician,  not  from  its 
being  the  most  difficidt  style  of  composition,  but 
from  its  not  being  subject  to  caprice  and  fashion. 
The  fugues  of  Bach,  Handel,  and  other  composers 
possess  the  same  interest  for  the  present  time  as 
they  have  done  for  generations  past.  Although  the 
fugue  is  held  by  many  to  be  a  mere  mechanical 
study,  which  can  be  composed  or  written  purely  by 
rule  and  calculation,  still,  it  undoubtedly  holds  out 
to  a  composer  of  genius  a  wide  field  for  great  and 
beautiful  effects,  as  well  as  peculiar  artistic  com- 
binations. The  best  works  on  the  fugue  are  by 
Marpurg,  AJbrechtsberger,  Kirnberger,  and  the  late 
Professor  S.  W.  Dehn  of  Berlin. 

FUII-HE,  or  FUH-HE-SHE,  the  first  of  the 
6ve  emperors  of  China  that  flourished  in  the 
mythological  period.  He  instructed  the  people  in 
the  art  of  rearing  cattle,  and  invented  the  pd-kwd, 
or  -  tight  combinations  of  four  strokes,  to  express  the 
changes  of  nature.  His  chief  invention,  however, 
was  that  of  letters,  by  drawing  up  the  two  linear 
tflb^ea  called  Ho-too  and  Lo-shoo,  which  he  copied 


from  the  l»ack  of  a  dragon  rising  from  the  deep. 
According  to  another  account,  knotted  cords,  20 
inches  long,  were  used  for  writing,  till  Tsang-ke, 
the  minister  of  F.,  conceived  the  idea  of  characters 
from  seeing  the  footprints  of  birds  on  the  sands. 
F.  instituted  marriage,  invented  the  musical  instru- 
ment called  kin,  and  taught  the  art  of  fishing.  It 
is  clear  that  he  personifies  a  condition  of  society. 
He  had  a  head  with  projections  like  the  horns  of 
an  ox,  and  the  body  of  a  dragon. — San-tsze-kiug, 
1.  21,  22;  Kang-keen-e-che-luh,  i.  p.  6;  Gutzlaff, 
Sketch  of  Chinese  History,  i.  p.  119. 

FUH-KEEN,  or  FU-KIAN  (Happy  Establiehed, 
or  The  Consummation  of  Hapjiinoss),  one  of  the 
eastern  maritime  provinces  of  China.  It  lies  to 
the  south  of  Che-keang,  between  the  parallels 
of  23°  35'  and  28°  47',  and  is  backed  by  the  great 
southern  range  of  mountains  that  separates  South- 
eastern China  from  the  inland  provinces.  Together 
with  the  provinces  of  Keang-se,  Kwang-tung,  and 
a  portion  of  Hu-nam  and  Hu-pih,  F.  forms  the 
hilly  portion  of  China  Proper.  It  is  a  black-tea 
district,  and  produces  barley  and  wheat.  The 
principal  fruits  are  the  orange,  lemon,  and  mulberry. 
On  its  coast  are  situated  the  ports  of  Fu-chow 
(the  capital),  and  Amoy,  or  Hia-mvma  (the  gate  or 
harbour  of  Hia),  opened  by  the  treaty  of  Nankin, 
29th  August  1842.    See  China.    The  island  ol 

m 


FUHNEN— FULHAM. 


Formosa  and  the  Pang-hoo  group  are  included  in 
rhis  province.  Area,  53,480  square  miles ;  population 
38,888,432. 

FUHXEN  (Dan.,  Fyen),  the  largest  of  the  Danish 
islands  after  Seeland,  is  bounded  on  the  W.  by  the 
Little  Bolt,  which  separates  it  from  Jutland  and 
Slesvig ;  on  the  N.  by  the  Odensee  Fjord ;  on  the 

E.  by  the  Great  Belt ;  and  on  the  S.  by  the  Little 
Belt,  and  by  the  island  of  Langeland,  which  is 
incorporated  with  it  in  one  circle,  or  sti/t,  of  the 
kingdom.  The  area  of  tliis  province  is  nl)ont  1280 
square  miles,  jind  the  population  in  1870  wns  236,311. 
The  const  is  generally  rugged,  and  much  indented 
with  hnys  or  fjords;  but  the  interior  is  fl«t,  except 
towiu-ds  the  south  and  west,  ^\llere  there  is  a 
rangt!  of  hills  rising  to  about  500  feet.  The  land, 
which  is  well  watered  by  several  small  streams, 
is  fruitfid  and  well  cultivated,  producing  abundant 
crops  of  Qcreals.  Barley,  oats,  buckwheat,  rye, 
flax,  and  hemp  are  grown  in  larger  quantities  than 
are  required  for  home  consum})tion.  Honey  is  also 
largely  ex])orted.  The  F.  horses,  are  in  great 
request,  and  large  numbers  of  these  animals,  and 
of  a  fine  breed  of  horned  cattle,  are  annually  sent 
out  of  the  island.  The  province  of  F,  is  divided 
into  the  two  bailiwicks  of  Odensee  and  Svendl)org. 
The  principal  towns  are  Odensee  (q.v.),  Svendborg 
(q.  v.),  and  Nyborg  (pop.  .5000),  a  ft^rtitied  town  on 
the  east  coast,  and  the  most  direct  port  of  com- 
mimieation  with  Seeland,  and  memorable  as  having 
been  the  seat  of  the  annual  Danehof,  or  meeting 
of  the  States,  instituted  in  L354  l)y  Valdemar  IV., 
and  for  the  \nctory  gained  in  1659  by  the  Danes 
and  their  allies  over  the  Swedes. 

FULAHS  [properly,  Ffdhe  (sing.  Pidlo),  called 
also  Fellani  (sing.  Bafellanchi),  Fellata,  and  Fullan], 
the  name  of  a  widely  spread  negro  people  in  Upper 
Sddan,  regarding  whose  origin  there  is  much 
diversity  of  opinion.  M.  Eichwaldt  (see  Journal  de 
la  Societe  Ethnologlque,  1841,  vol.  i.  p.  2,  et  seq.) 
has  endeavoured  to  connect  them  with  the  Malays 
in  the  far  East,  but,  according  to  Dr  Barth,  '  none 
of  his  arguments  are  of  any  consequence.'  Yet  Dr 
Barth  himself  is  of  opinion  that  '  their  origin  is  to 
be  sought  for  in  the  direction  of  the  East ;  hwt  this,' 
he  adds,  '  refers  to  an  age  which  for  us  is  enveloped 
in  impenetrable  darkness.'  The  F.  first  emerge  into 
the  light  of  history  about  the  beginning  of  the  14th 
c,  when,  as  we  learn  from  Ahmed  Baba's  History  of 
Siiddn,  two  members  of  the  tribe  went  on  a  reli- 
gious mission  from  Melle,  on  the  borders  of  Sene- 
gambia,  to  the  king  of  Bornu.  The  importance  of 
this  incident  lies  in  the  fact,  that  it  shews  that 
in  the  dawn  of  their  histoiy — as  has  invariably 
been  the  case  in  later  times— the  course  of  the 
tribe  was  from  west  to  east,  and  also,  that  at  the 
early  period  referred  to,  they  were  distinguished 
for  that  religious  learning  which  still  characterises 
them.     After  the  14th  c,  successive  swarms  of 

F.  appear  to  have  left  the  kingdom  of  Melle,, or  the 
mDuntainous  region  of  Fuladu,  and  to  have  spread 
themselves  over  the  greater  portion  of  Stidan, 
•absoi'bing  and  incorporating  with  themselves 
different  and  quite  distinct  national  elements,  which 
iha"e  given  to  their  community  a  rather  varying 
and  undecided  character.'  Hence  originate  the  con- 
flicting accounts  of  travellers,  some  of  whom  speak 
of  the  F.  as  differing  little  from  the  negroes;  others, 
as  having  their  features  and  skulls  cast  in  the 
Euro])ean  mould;  while  Bowen  describes  those  of 
Yoruba  as  being  some  black,  some  almost  white, 
and  many  of  a  mulatto  colour,  varying  from  dark 
to  very  bright.  Many  other  triljeS;  which  have  not 
been  quite  absorbed  by  the  F.,  are  yet  so  far 
blended  with  them,  that  they  have  lost  their  native 

660 


idiom  altogether,  and  speak  the  language  of  the 
predominant  race,  which  is  tenned  the  Fulflilda 
The  F.  are  not  all  under  one  rider ;  they  are  a  race, 
not  a  nation;  and  have  founded  many  kingdoms, 
such  as  those  of  Sokoto,  Gando,  Timbo,  &c.  The 
endless  tribes  belonging  to  their  stock  are  gcinerally 
divided  into  four  groups  or  families,  the  Jel,  the 
B'aa,  the  So,  and  the  Berl.  Most  of  them  became 
converted  to  Mohammedanism  about  the  rciddle  of 
the  18th  c,  and  in  1802,  under  the  Imam  Othman, 
commenced  a  religious  war  on  the  surrounding, 
pagans,  which  terminated  prosperously  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  great  Fulah  empire  of  Sokoto. 
Othman  died  in  a  sort  of  fanatical  ecstasy  or 
madness  in  1818.  The  F.  are  industrious  and 
inclined  to  trade;  they  work  iron  and  silver,  manu- 
facture with  great  neatness  articles  in  wood  and 
leather,  and  weave  various  durable  fabrics.  They 
are  by  far  the  most  intelligent  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Stidan,  and  have,  besides  mosques,  schools  in 
almost  all  their  towns. 

FU'LCRUM,  in  INIechanics,  is  the  prop  or  fixed 
point  on  which  a  lever  moves.    See  Levkr. 

FL''LDA,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  electorate 
of  Hesse-Cassel,  54  miles  south  of  Cassel,  is 
pleasantly  situated  on  a  rising-ground  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Fulda,  a  considerable  stream,  which, 
rising  from  the  western  base  of  the  Rhongebirge,  in 
Bavai  ia,  flows  northward  through  Hesse-Cassel,  and 
unites  with  the  Werra  on  the  Hanoverian  border, 
after  a  course  of  110  miles.  It  is  a  pretty  town, 
surrounded  by  old  walls,  and  has  a  market-place, 
two  squares,  and  eight  suburbs.  One  of  the  chief 
buildings  is  the  cathedral,  the  fourth  church  that 
has  been  built  on  this  site.  It  is  a  handsome 
modern  structure,  and  covers  the  shrine  in  which 
the  body  of  St  Bonifacius  was  deposited  after  his 
murder  by  the  Frisians  in  754.  The  other  notable 
structures  are  the  palace,  formerly  the  residence  of 
the  prince-bishops  of  F. ;  the  church  of  St  Michael, 
founded  in  822 ;  a  gymnasium,  schools  of  art  and 
manufactures,  and  a  ])ublic  library.  F.  has  acquired 
a  reputation  for  its  linen  manufactures;  it  has 
also  extensive  establishments  for  the  manufacture 
of  vinegar  and  beer;  with  dye-works,  tanneries,  and 
weaving.  Pop.  10,112.  mostly  Roman  Catholics. 
The  province  of  Fulda,  of  which  F.  is  the  capital, 
forms  part  of  what  was  formerly  the  grand-duchy 
of  Fidda.  This  territory  was  incorporated  with 
the  grand-duchy  of  Frankfurt  by  Napoleon  in  1810, 
and  ceded  to  Prussia  in  1815,  but  immediately 
afterwards  was  made  over  to  Hesse-CasseL 

FU'LGORA.    See  Lanterx-fly. 

FU'LGURITES  (Lat.,  fulgur,  lightning),  tubes 
formed  of  vitrified  sand,  which  are  found  in  sand- 
banks, and  in  soils  consisting  chiefly  of  silicious 
sand,  and  are  attributed  to  the  action  of  light- 
ning melting  and  vitrifying  the  sand.  They 
were  first  discovered  in  1711  by  the  pastor 
Herman,  at  Massel,  in  Silesia,  and  have  since  been 
found  in  many  places;  but  their  origin  was  first 
pointed  out  by  Dr  Hentzen  in  1805.  They  are 
from  a  quarter  of  an  inch  to  two  inches  and  a  half 
in  diameter,  their  internal  surface  of  a  perfectly 
glassy  substance,  hard  enough  to  scratch  glass, 
and  to  give  fire  with  steel.  They  are  usually,  but 
not  always,  placed  vertically  in  the  sand,  become 
narrower  downwards,  and  sometimes  divide  and 
subdivide  into  branches. — The  efl"ects  of  lightning 
seem  to  be  exhibited  also  in  some  places  on  rocks 
by  vitrification  and  the  production  of  a  sort  ui 
enamel,  sometimes  assuming  the  form  of  beads. 

FULHAM,  formerly  a  village,  but  now  a  suburb 
of  London,  in  the  south  of  Middlesex,  on  the  left 


PULICA— FULLER'S  EARTH. 


bank  of  the  Thames,  six  miles  south-west  of  St 
Paul's. 

FU'LICA.    See  Coot. 

FULI'GULA.    See  Pochard. 

FULLER,  Andrew,  an  eminent  Baptist  minister, 
and  theological  and  controversial  writer,  the  son  of 
a  small  farmer,  was  born  at  Wicken,  Cambridge- 
shire, I'ebruary  6,  1754.  He  received  the  rudiments 
cf  his  education  at  the  free  school  of  Soham,  and  in 
his  y<nith  was  princiiially  engaged  in  agricultural 
labours.  In  his  1 7th  year,  he  became  a  member  of 
a  Baptist  church  at  Soham,  and  in  1775  he  was 
cboser.  pastor  of  a  congregation  at  that  place.  His 
small  stipend  of  £21  per  annum  he  endeavoured  to 
increase  by  keeping,  tii'st  a  small  shop,  and  then  a 
school.  In  1782,  he  removed  to  Kettering,  North- 
amptonshire, to  take  the  pastorate  of  a  congregation 
there.  On  the  formation,  in  1792,  of  the  Baptist 
Missionary  Society  by  Dr  Carey,  himself,  and  eleven 
other  ministers,  he  was  appointed  its  secretary,  and 
the  whole  of  his  future  life  was  devoted  to  the 
admuiistration  of  its  affairs.  In  1794  he  published 
a  controversial  treatise,  entitled  The  Calviaistic  and 
Socinian  Systems,  examined  and  comjmred  as  to 
their  Moral  Tendency  (Lond.  8vo).  This  work  was 
attacked  by  Dr  T(ndmia  and  Mr  Kentish,  and  F. 
replied  in  a  pamphlet,  entitled  Socinianism  Indefen- 
sible (Lond.  1797,  8vo).  His  other  principal  publica- 
tions are  The  Gospel  itsoion  Witness  (Clipstone,  1797), 
and  Expository  Discourse  on  the  Book  of  Genesis  (2 
vols.  8vo,  Lond.  1806).  He  was  also  the  author  of 
a  variety  of  single  sermons  and  pamphlets.  The 
sense,  sagacity,  and  thoroughly  practical  knowledge 
of  mankind  which  these  writings  display,  have 
won  for  F.  the  title  of  '  the  Franklin  of  Theology.' 
He  died  May  7,  1815.  Three  collected  editions  of 
his  works  have  been  published,  besides  American 
reprints  ;  the  first  in  10  vols.  8vo,  the  second  in 
6,  and  the  third  in  1  royal  8vo.  A  volume  of 
his  treatises  was  republished  in  Bohn's  Standard 
Librar}^  with  a  Memoir  by  his  son.  F.'s  Memoir 
of  the  Rev.  Samuel  Pearce  of  Birmingham  is  much 
esteemed  as  a  religious  biography. 

FL^LLER,  Sarah  Margaret,  Marchioness 
OssoLi,  an  American  lady,  whose  talents,  rare  indi- 
viduality of  character,  and  untimely  death,  give  to 
her  history  a  j)eculiar  and  tragic  interest,  was  born 
at  Cambridgeport,  in  Massachusetts,  in  1810.  Under 
the  care  of  her  father,  a  lawyer  and  member  of 
Congress,  she  was  early  and  thoroughly  instructed 
in  the  classics.  It  is  related  that  he  used  to  say  of 
her,  while  still  a  child,  that  she  *  knew  more  Latin 
and  Greek  than  half  the  professors.'  At  a  very 
early  age,  she  had  also  made  great  proficiency  in 
French  and  Italian.  After  the  death  of  her  father 
in  1835,  she  became  teacher  of  languages  in  Boston, 
and  suVjseqnently  principal  of  a  school  at  Provi- 
dence, Rhode  Island.  In  1839,  she  published  a  trans- 
lation of  Eckermann's  Conversations  with  Goethe. 
She  became,  in  1840,  editor  of  the  Dkd,  a  periodical 
in&tituted  for  the  advocacy  and  diffusion  of  Trans- 
cendentalism in  America,  and  for  which  she  wrote  a 
nmnber  of  admirable  articles  on  literature  and  art. 
Her  ■yritique  on  Goethe  especially,  in  the  second 
volume  of  the  Dial,  has  been  greatly  and  deservedly 
praised.  '  Nowhere,'  says  Mr  Emerson,  '  did  Goethe 
find  a  braver,  more  intelligent,  or  more  sympa- 
thetic rea/ler.'  Her  Summer  on  tite  Lakes,  a  vivid 
and  truthful  picture  of  prairie-life,  was  published  in 
1843.  Soon  after,  she  took  charge  of  the  litorary 
dejiai-tmeufc  of  the  New  York  Tribune.  In  1846, 
she  visited  Enghand,  where  she  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Carlyle  and  other  eminent  men.  From 
London,  she  journeyed  through  France  to  Italy. 
At  R<.me,  she  accidentally  became  acquainted  with 


the  Marquis  Ossoli,  to  whom,  though  many  years 
younger  than  herself,  she  was  married  in  Decem- 
ber, 1847.     She  took  the  deepest  interest  in  the 
cause  of  Italian  liberty ;  and  during  the  siege  of 
Rome,  in  1849,  devoted  herself  with  untiring  assi- 
duity to  the  care  of  the  sick  and  wounded.    In  May, 
j  1850,  she  and  her  husband  set  sail  for  America; 
I  but  a  violent  storm  having  arisen  wlien  tliey  were 
'  near  the  coast  of  the  United   States,  the  vessel 
I  struck  on  Fire  Island  Beach,  Long  Island,  in  the 
:  morning  of  the  16th  of  July,  and  a  few  hours 
!  after  went  to  pieces.    Among  those  who  perished 
j  were  the  Marquis  and  Marchioness  Ossoli  and  their 
I  child. 

FULLER,  Thomas,  D.D.,  an  eminent  English 
i  historian  and  divine,  was  born  in  1608  at  Aldwinkle, 
j  Northamptonshire,  of  which  parish  his  father  was 
'  rector.    He  was  educated  at  Queen's  College,  Cam- 
]  bridge,  and  greatly  distinguished  himself  by  hia 
I  application  to  study.    He  took  the  degree  of  A.R 
I  in  1624,  and  that  of  A.M.  in  1628.    He  stood  so 
i  high  in  the  esjtiraation  of  his  college  that,  before  he 
!  was  23  years  of  age,  he  was  appointed  to  St  Benets, 
j  Cambridge,  and  acquired  graat  popularity  as  a 
I  preacher.    Soon  after,  he  was  collated  to  a  prel^end 
j  in  Salisbury  Cathedral,  and  ol)tained  a  fcllovvship 
in  Sidney  Sussex  College.     His  lirst  publication 
was  a  poem,  entitled  Davids s  Heinous  Sin,  Hearty 
Repentance,  and  Heavy  Punishments  (1631,  8vo). 
He  was  next  presented  to  the  rectory  of  Broad 
Windsor,  Dorsetshire  ;  published  his  History  of  the 
Holy  War  at  Cambridge   in  1639 ;  and  in  'l640 
removed  to  London,  where  he  was  chosen  lecturer 
at  the  Savoy  Church  in  the  Strand.     The  same 
year,  he  was  a  member  of  the  Convocation  at 
Westminster,  and  one   of   the   select  committee 
appointed  to  draw  up  new  canons  for  the  better 
government  of  the  church.     During  the  civil  war 
he  adhered  firmly  to  the  royal  cause  ;  and  shared  in 
its  reverses.     In  1646,  however,  he  was  chosen 
lecturer,  first,  at  St  Clement's  Lane,  Lombard  Street, 
and  afterwards  at  St  Bride's.    About  1648,  he  was 
presented  to  the  living  of  Waltham,  in  Essex.  In 
1650,  he  published  a  geographical  aceoiirt  of  the 
Holy  Land,  entitled  A  Plsgah  Sight  of  Palestim 
and  the  Confines  thereof  (folio,  with  ma]>s  and 
views),  and  Abel  Redivivus,  a  collection  of  lives  ot 
modern  divines.     In  1655,  he  published  at  London 
The  Church  History  of  Britain,  from  the  Birth 
of  Jesus  Christ  imtll  the  year  1648  (folio).  In 
1658,  he  received  the  living  of  Cranford,  jNIiddle- 
sex,  and  at  the  Restoration  he  was  reinstated 
in  his  prebend  of  Salisbury,  of  which  he  had  been 
deprived  by  the  Parliamentarians.    He  was  also 
appointed  chaplain  extraordinary  to  the  king,  and 
created  D.D.  at  Cambridge  by  royal  mandamus. 
He  died  August  16,  1661.    His  principal  work^ 
Tlte  Worthies  of  England,  was  published  at  Lon- 
i  don  in  1662  (folio).     Valuable  for  the  informa- 
]  tion  it  contains  on  pro\ancial  history,  it  abounds 
I  in  biographical  anecdote,  witty  remark,  and  acute 
observation  on  men  and  manners.    A  new  edition, 
I  with  his  life  prefixed,  appeared  in  1810  (2  vols.  4to). 
!  His  Holy  and  Profane  States  were  republished 
I  in  America  in  1831.     Quaint  humour  is  one  of 
j  F.'s  peculiar  characteristics ;  but  his  writmgs  are 
1  no  less  remarkable  for  wisdom,  imagination,  and, 
I  when  occasion  demands,  even  for  pathos.    '  Next 
j  to  Shakspeare,'  says  Coleridge,  '  I  am  not  certain 
j  whether  Thomas  Fuller,  beyond  all  other  WTiters, 
i  does  not  excite  in  me  the  sense  and  enudation  of 

j  the  marvellous  He  was  incomjiarably  the 

most  sensible,  the  least  prejudiced  great  man,  in 
an  age  that  boasted  of  a  galaxy  of  great  men.' 

1     FULLER'S    EARTH,    a    mineral  consisting 

651 


ifULMAE^FULMINATE  OF  SILVER. 


fhiefly  of  silica,  alumina,  and  water,  with  a  little 
magnesia,  lime,  and  peroxide  of  iron.  The  silica  is 
about  50,  the  alumina  20,  and  the  water  24  per 
cent,  of  the  whole.  It  is  regarded  as  essentially  a 
hydrous  bisdicate  of  alumina.  It  occurs  in  beds, 
associated  with  chalk,  oolite,  &c. ;  is  usually  of  a 
greenish-brown  or  a  slate-blue  coloiir,  sometimes 
white  ;  has  an  uneven  earthy  fracture,  and  a  dull 
appearance;  its  specific  gravity  is  from  IS  to  2"2; 
?t  is  soft  enough  to  yield  readily  to  the  nail;  is 
very  greasy  to  the  touch ;  scarcely  adheres  to  the 
tongue;  fals  to  pieces  in  water,  l)ut  does  not 
become  })lastic.  It  has  a  remarkal)le  power  of 
svbsorbing  oil  or  grease ;  and  was  formerly  very  nuich 
used  for  fulling  cloth  (see  Woollen  Manufactuke), 
for  which  pur])ose  it  was  considered  so  valuable,  that 
the  exj)ortation  of  it  from  England  was  prohibited 
under  severe  penalties ;  it  is  stdl  used  to  a  consider- 
able extent.  Tlie  annual  consum])tion  in  England 
is  said  to  have  at  one  time  exceeded  GOOO  tons.  It 
is  found  at  Nutfield,  near  Keigate,  in  Surrey,  in 
cretaceous  strata;  where  there  are  two  distinct  beds, 
the  ui>per  one  of  a  greenish  colour,  and  5  feet  thick, 
resting  on  the  other,  which  has  a  bluish  tint,  and  is 
11  feet  tltick.  It  is  also  found  in  Bedfordshire,  Not- 
tinghamshire, and  Kent;  and  on  the  continent  in 
Saxony,  Bohemia,  and  near  Aix-la-Chapelle.  There 
is  a  considerable  de})osit  of  it  at  Bath,  where  the 
gi'oup  of  associated  blue  and  yellow  clays  and  marl 
has  received  the  name  of  '  the  Fuller's  Earth 
Scries.'    It  is  also  found  at  Maxton,  in  Scotland. 

FULMAR,  or  FULMAR  PETREL  {Procdlaria 
or  Fulmams),  a  genus  of  birds  generally  referred 
to  the  gull  family  {Laridct),  and  containing  some 
of  the  most  strictly  oceanic  birds.  See  Petrel. 
The  bill  is  not  longer  than  the  head — large,  strong, 
and  subcylindrical ;  the  upper  mandible  suddenly 
hooked  at  the  point ;  the  lower  mandible  with  the 
ti])  curved  ujiwards  ;  the  tips  of  both  mandibles 
appearing  as  separate  pieces  firmly  joined  to  the 
straight  part  of  the  bill,  which  is  marked  by 
longitudinal  grooves ;  the  nostrils  enclosed  in  a 
tube  o\)en  at  the  extremity,  and  extending  along  the 
ridge  of  the  upper  mandible.  The  tarsi  are  com- 
pressed; the  hind- toe  rudimentary,  a  mere  claw. 


Northern  Fulmar  {Procdlaria  glacialis). 


Tlie  tail  is  short,  and  slightly  rounded ;  the  wangs 
are  long. — The  Common  or  Northern  F.  {P.  or  F. 
glacialis)  is  a  bird  about  the  size  of  a  duck,  gray 
above,  white  beneath,  the  head  and  neck  pure 
wliite,  th(;  tail  white,  the  bill  yellow ;  the  young 
orowuish  gray.     It   inJiabits  the  most  northern 


seas,  in  which  its  numbers  aro  prodigioxis ;  breedj 
on  the  rocky  shores  of  the  Fariie  Islands,  Iceland 
Greenland,  Si)itzbergen,  <&c.,  on  the  grassy  shelves 
of  the  precii)ices,  making  a  slight  nest  or  a  mere 
excavation,  in  which  it  lays  one  egg.    It  is  rarely 
to  be  seen  on  the  southern  coasts  of  Britain,  but 
more  frequently  m  Orkney  and  Shetland,  where, 
[  however,  it  is  said  never  to  breed,  although  it  breeds 
I  in  great  numbers  in  St  Kilda  and  the  adjacent 
j  islets  of  Borrera  and  Soa.    It  frequents  these  isles 
I  in  vast  numbers,  and  is  of  great  importance  to  tbj 
;  inhabitants  of  St  Kilda,  who  esteem  its  egg^  abovo 
i  those  of  any  otlier  bird,  and  seek  them  in  the 
j  most  perilous  manner,  descending  by  ropes  from 
j  the  summit  of  the  precipices.    The  fulmars  are  also 
!  valued  for  their  feathers,  for  their  down,  and  for 
:  their  oil,  which  'is  one  of  the  j>rincii)al  producta 
I  of  St  Kilda,  and  is  obtained  from  their  stomachs. 
The  old  are  said  to  feed  the  young  with  it ;  and 
j  when  they  are  caught  or  assailed,  generally  lighten 
]  themselves  by  disgorging  it.    It  is  amber-coloured, 
and  has  a  peculiar  and  very  disagreeable  odour, 
Fidmars  feed  on  all  animal  sxibstances  which  come 
j  in  their  way,  giving  an  evident  preference  to  fat,  and 
I  delighting  in  the  blubber  of  whales.    They  pursue 
I  whales  to  prey  on  the  cirrhopods  which  are  attached 
!  to  them,  or  imbedded  in  their  skin.    Multitudes  of 
I  them  soon  gather  around  a  dead  whale,  and  they 
;  are  so  bold  as  to  advance  within  a  few  yards  of  the 
men  who  are  cutting  it  up.    When  food  is  abimd- 
ant,  they  often  glut  themselves  till  they  are  unable 
to  tiy.    They  follow  the  greasy  track  of  a  whaler, 
and,  indeed,  some  of  them  are  always  in  attendance 
on  ships  immediately  after  they  pass  north  of  the 
Shetland  Islands,  ready  to  seize  any  garbage  that 
may  be  thrown  overboard.    Sailor-boys  often  amuse 
themselves  in  catching  them  by  means  of  lines  and 
hooks  baited  with  fat. 

Another  species  of  F.  [P.  or  F.  Pac'fca)  exists  in 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  the  Mother  Carey's  Coo.sb 
of  sailors,  a  large  bird  of  the  southern  seas,  ia 
sometimes  referred  to  the  same  genus. 

FU'LMINATE  of  MERCURY,  or  FUI^- 
MINATING  MERCURY  (C2N2Hg202),  is  best 
prepared  by  dissolving  .3  parts  of  mercury  in  .3tf 
of  nitric  acid  of  specific  gravity  1'34,  without  the 
application  of  heat,  in  a  flask  capable  of  holding 
18  times  the  bulk  of  the  acid.  The  solution  is 
then  to  be  poured  into  a  large  vessel  containing 
17  parts  of  alcohol  of  specific  gravity  0*830,  and 
immediately  to  be  re- transferred  to  the  flask, 
which  is  still  fidl  of  nitrous  vapours,  and  with 
which  it  must  be  well  shaken,  in  order  to  effect 
their  absorption.  Effervescence  commences  in  a  few 
mimxtes,  and  soon  becomes  extremely  violent ;  and 
at  the  same  time  there  is  a  deposit  of  metallic 
mercury,  which  is  gradually  re-dissolved.  The 
reaction  must  be  moderated  by  the  gradual  additioo 
of  17  parts  more  of  alcohol ;  and  on  cooling,  crystals 
of  the  fulminate,  amounting  to  4*6  parts,  are  depo* 
sited.  These  must  be  washed  with  cold  water,  and 
dried  at  100°  F.  Fidminate  of  mercury  fonns  w  hite 
sUky  needles.  It  may  be  handled  \Hthout  muoli 
danger  when  moist ;  but  when  diy,  it  explodei 
with  violence  when  struck  by  a  hard  body,  or  when 
touched  with  nitric  or  strong  sidphuric  acid.  A 
mixture  of  1  part  of  this  salt  Avith  6  ])arts  of  nitre, 
or  of  3  parts  of  the  fulminate,  5  of  chlorate  of  potash, 
1  of  sulphur,  and  1  of  groimd  glass,  is  employed  aa 
the  priming  of  percussion-cai)S.  It  is  applied  aa  a 
dry  powder,  and  is  made  to  adhere  to  the  cap  by 
the  application  of  a  drop  of  shell-lac  varnish. 

FULMINATE  OF  SILVER,  or  FULMINAT- 
ING  SILVER  (C2N2Ag022),  is  prepared  in  nearly 
the  same  manner  as  the  fulminate  of  mercury; 


FULMINIC  ACID 


»— FUMARIACE^ 


It  is  more  powerfully  explosive  than  the  last-named 
salt.  Even  when  moist  or  under  water,  pressure 
with  a  hard  ])ody  will  cause  its  explosion ;  and 
when  quite  dry,  the  slightest  friction  between  two 
hard  bodies  produces  a  similar  result. 

The  preparation  of  the  fulminates  is  attended 
with  \cry  considerable  danger,  and  should  be 
attempted  by  none  but  professed  chemists. 

FULMI'NIC  ACID  has  never  been  isolated  in 
the  hydrated  form,  but  from  the  composition  of  its 
salts,  its  formula  doubtless  is  C2N2n202,  the  hydro- 
gen acting  the  part  of  a  base.  Fulmiiiic  acid  may 
be  separated  from  the  oxide  of  mercury  and  sil- 
ver, and  combined  with  other  bases,  such  as  pot- 
ash ;  and  all  such  compounds  are  more  or  less 
explosive. 

FULTOIS',  EoBEET,  a  celebrated  American  engi- 
neer and  inventor,  born  near  Lancaster,  in  Penn- 
Bylvauia,  in  1765.  When  a  mere  child,  he  mani- 
fested that  taste  for  mechanics  which  he  cultivated 
with  so  much  success  in  after-life.  While  other 
boys  of  his  age  were  engaged  in  play,  he  found  his 
amusement  in  visiting  the  workshops  of  Lancaster 
When  he  was  about  seventeen  years  of  age,  he 
Bet  up  as  a  painter  of  portraits  and  landscapes  in 
Philadelphia ;  he  was  so  successful,  that  he  not 
only  supported  himself  and  his  widowed  mother, 
but  was  able,  in  a  few  j  ears,  to  lay  by  a  sum  sufH- 
cient  to  purchase  a  small  farm.  In  178G,  he  visited 
London,  where  he  pursued  the  study  of  his  art  under 
the  tuition  of  his  celebrated  countryman.  West. 
He  afterv/ards  resided  for  some  time  in  Devonshire, 
and  became  acquainted  with  the  Duke  of  Bridge- 
water  and  Lord  Stanhope,  through  whose  influence, 
as  it  would  appear,  his  attention  was  turned  from 
his  former  pursuit  to  mechanics  and  civil  engineering. 
In  1793,  he  was  associated  in  a  project  to  improve 
inland  navigation  :  he  was  already  famihar  with 
the  idea  of  using  steam  as  a  propelling  power  for 
boats.  About  this  time,  he  invented  a  machine  for 
Bpinning  flax,  and  another  for  making  ropes,  for 
which  he  obtained  patents  in  England.  In  1796, 
he  published  a  treatise  on  the  improvement  of 
canal  navigation.  From  1797  to  180-1,  he  resided 
In  Paris  with  Mr  Joel  Barlow,  the  American 
representative  at  the  French  court.  During  this 
period,  he  invented  a  submarine  or  plunging  boat, 
called  a  Torpedo,  designed  to  be  used  in  naval 
warfare.  He  invited  the  attention  of  the  French 
government  to  his  invention,  and  Bonajiarto,  then 
First  Consul,  a])pointed  Volney,  La  Place,  and 
Monge  as  a  commission  to  examine  it.  Several 
experiments  were  made  in  1801  in  the  harbour  of 
Brest.  He  could  easily  descend  to  any  depth,  or 
rse  to  the  surface  ;  and  where  there  was  no  strong 
current,  the  boat  was  quite  obedient  to  her  helm 
while  xiuder  water.  On  one  occasion,  he  remained 
in  the  tori)cdo  several  feet  below  the  surface  for 
f  more  than  four  hours ;  but  the  motion  of  the  boat 
I  while  submerged  was  very  slow,  and  it  was  clearly 
unequal  to  the  stemming  of  a  strong  current.  The 
French  government  declined  to  patronise  the  pro- 
ject, and  F.  accepted  an  invitation  from  the  English 
ministry,  who  also  aj^pointed  a  commission  to  test 
the  merits  of  his  torpedo.  He  appears,  however, 
to  have  received  but  little  encouragement,  and  in 
1806  he  returned  to  the  United  States.  Having 
been  su|)i)lied  with  the  necessary  funds  by  Robert 
Livingston,  who  had  been  American  ambassador 
at  Paris,  F.  had  the  satisfaction  of  proving,  in  1807, 
that  steam  could  be  applied  to  the  propulsion  of 
'  vessels  with  entire  success.  His  achievement  excited 
i  universal  admiration,  and  from  that  time  steam- 
bouts  were  rapidly  multiplied  on  the  waters  of  the 
-L'nited  States.     His  lirst  boat,  the  Clermont^  made 


regular  trips  between  New  York  and  Albany  at  the 
rate  of  five  miles  an  hour ;  but  this  rate  was  soon  in- 
creased by  improved  machinery.  F.  had  married,  ic 
1806,  Harriet,  the  daughter  of  Walter  Livingston.  In 
the  midst  of  his  triumphs  and  in  the  height  of  hia 
fame  he  died,  on  the  24th  of  February,  181.5.  He 
left  four  children. 

Others  had  previously  conceived  the  idea  of  using 
the  power  of  steam  in  navigation.  As  early  as  1 78.5, 
John  Fitch,  of  Philadelphia,  constructed  a  model  of  a 
steamboat,  and  petitioned  the  legislatures  of  Pennsyl 
vania,  N.  Jersey,  and  Virginia  for  aid  without  success 
In  1786,  1787,  and  1788,  his  steamboats  navigated  tht. 
Delaware,  and  in  1790,  one  plied  as  a  passenger  boat 
at  the  rate  of  about  7  miles  per  hour.  See  Steam 
Navigation.  This  experiment  was  known  to  F.,  but 
to  him  is  unquestionably  due  the  credit  of  being  the  first 
to  carry  the  idea  into  practice  with  complete  success. 

FUM,  or,  more  properly,  FUNG — the  first  being 
the  Portuguese  pronunciation  of  the  word ;  the 
Chinese  Phoenix — one  of  the  four  symbolical  ani- 
mals supposed  to  preside  over  the  destinies  of  tlie 
Chinese  empire.  Its  appearance  indicates  an  age  of 
universal  virtue,  the  influence  of  which  has  extended 
throughout  creation.  It  is  supposed  to  originate 
from  the  element  of  fire,  and  to  be  born  in  the 
Tan-heug,  or  Hill  of  the  Fiery  Halo  of  the  Sun ;  to 
have  the  forepart  of  a  goose,  hind-quarters  of  a 
stag,  neck  of  a  snake,  fish's  tail,  fowl's  forehead- 
down  of  a  duck,  dragon's  marks,  the  back  of  a  tor- 
toise, face  of  a  swallow,  and  beak  of  a  cock,  with 
beak,  claws,  and  feathers  of  various  colours,  red 
crest,  and  golden  beak.  It  is  about  six  cubits  high, 
and  comes  from  the  East.  In  mystical  language, 
it  is  called  the  Leih-kwan,  or  '  mandarin  of  time,' 
and  it  is  said  to  have  a  forehead  like  heaven,  eyes 
lilce  the  sun,  back  like  the  moon,  wings  like  the 
wind,  feet  like  earth,  and  a  tail  like  the  planets. 
On  its  body  are  inscribed  the  five  cardinal  virtues. 
According  to  some  authors,  it  only  perches  on  the 
woo-tung  tree,  and  eats  the  seeds  of  the  bamboo ; 
others  describe  it  as  swallowing  small  carp.  Other 
accounts  say  it  eats  no  living  insect,  and  treads  on 
no  growing  plant.  Its  voice  is  said  to  be  hke  a 
flute,  drum,  or  even  thunder.  When  seen,  it  is 
followed  by  birds.  According  to  Chinese  history,  it 
has  occasionally  appeared  ;  and  a  celel»rated  female 
flute-player,  named  Lung-yti,  is  said  to  have  enticed 
it  from  heaven  with  her  music,  and  then  fled  away 
with  it.  Like  the  phoenix  of  the  Egyptians  and 
roc  of  the  Arabs,  the  bird  may  have  had  a  historical 
origin,  subsequently  disflgured  by  fiction.  It  is  often 
represented  on  Chinese  works  of  art,  under  the 
form  of  a  gallinaceous  bird,  and  is  embroidered  on 
the  dresses  of  mandarins  of  a  certain  rank.  It  is 
mentioned  by  some  modern  English  poets. — Kidd, 
History  of  Chi/ia,  p.  267 ;  Ching-tsze-tunj,  1/2 
sect.  ;  Yuen-keen-luy-han,  148  sect. 

FU'MAGE,  in  the  Law  of  England,  was  properly 
smoke-farthings,  or  a  customary  payment  for  e  ery 
house  that  had  a  chimney  or  fire-hearth.  TJiis  tax 
is  mentioned  in  Domesday  as  paid  by  custom  to  tha 
king  for  every  chimney  in  the  house.  Edvi  ard  th'^ 
Black  Prince  is  said  to  have  imposed  a  tax  t.f  b 
florin  for  every  hearth  in  his  French  dominious- 
The  first  statutory  enactment  on  the  subject  iu 
England  is  by  13  and  14  Car.  II.  c.  10,  whereby  a 
tax  of  2s.  on  every  hearth  in  all  houses  paying  to 
church  and  poor  was  granted  to  the  king  for 
ever.  This  tax  was  abolished  1  William  and  Alary, 
St.  1.  c.  10. 

FUMARIA'CE^,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants ;  herbaceous,  with  a  watery  juice ;  tiieir 
leaves  alternate,  much  divided  ;  the  calyx  of  two 
deciduous  sepals ;  the  corolla  of  four  very  irregalat 

65S 


FUMARIC  ACID— FUNCTIONS. 


petals;  the  stamens  sometimes  four  and  distinct, 
more  generally  six,  and  in  two  bundles;  the  ovary 
free,  one-celled,  onc-secded,  or  many-seeded ;  the 
Bt;eds  having  large  albumen.  The  F.  are  regarded 
as  in  their  botanical  characters  approaching  most 
nearly  to  the  Papaveraccce  (Foppy,  etc.) ;  but 
their  general  aspect  is  very  different,  and  they  do 
not  possess  the  same  powerful  properties.  Both 
the  foliage  and  flowers  of  some  have  consider- 
ftl)ie  beauty.  Dielytra  spectahilis  is  a  well-known 
favourite  in  gardens  and  green-houses.  More  than 
one  hundred  species  are  known,  mostly  natives  of 
temperate  climates  in  the  northern  hemisphere. 
Several  species  of  Fumaria  and  Corydalis  are 
natives  of  Britain.  The  Common  Fumitory 
iPiimaria  officinalis)  is  a  very  frequent  weed  in 


Common  Fumitory  {Fumaria  officinal  is). 


gardens  and  cornfields,  but  of  rather  delicate 
jind  beautiful  appearance.  It  is  annual,  and  easy 
of  extirpation,  where  it  springs  up  in  excessive 
abundance.  It  was  formerly  much  employed  in 
medicine,  having  a  high  reputation  as  a  tonic  and 
diaphoretic,  and  although  disused  in  Britain,  is 
still  esteemed  in  France  as  a  remed}'-  in  scorbutic 
affections,  chronic  eruptions,  &c.  Some  of  the  other 
sj^ecies  of  fumitory  possess  similar  properties.  The 
leaves  have  an  intensely  bitter  saline  taste. 

FUMA'RIC  ACID,  known  also  as  Boletic 
Acid  (C4H4O4)  is  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the 
vegetable  kingdom.  It  was  first  obtained  by 
Braconnot  from  a  species  of  boletus,  and  has  since 
been  found  in  many  other  fungi,  in  nimierous 
lichens,  in  various  species  of  Fumaria,  in  Corydalis 
bulbosa,  &c. 

Furaaric  acid  may  also  be  obtained,  in  association 
Tvil.h  malseic  acid,  by  heating  Malic  Acid  (q.  v.)  to 
550°  F. 

It  crystallises  in  prisms,  which  have  a  very  acid 
iastO;  are  only  slightly  soluble  in  w^ater,  but  dis- 
solve readily  in  alcohol  and  ether.  At  a  tempera- 
ture of  392°  F.,  it  volatilises  without  fusing,  and  is 
converted  into  the  malasic  acid  already  mentioned, 
which  possesses  the  same  composition  as  fumaric 
acid,  but  difierent  properties.  If  malseic  acid  is 
ex[)osed  for  a  long  time  to  a  temperature  of  266°,  it 
again  passes  into  fumaric  acid,  so  that  these  acids 
are  mutually  convertible. 

Kekule  has  recently  shewn  {An7ialen  d.  Chemie, 
1861)  that  both  fumaric  acid  and  maloeic  acid  com- 
oine  directly  with  bromine,  and  produce  crystals  of 
654 


dibromo-succinic  acid  ;  nr.d  further,  that  if  fumaritt 
acid  be  dissolved  in  water,  and  digested  with  an 
amalgam  of  sodium,  the  nascent  hydrogen  frora  the 
decomposed  water  combines  with  the  acid,  and 
converts  it  into  succinic  acid.  Its  compounds  are 
of  no  special  interest. 

FU'MIGATING  PA'STILS  are  composed  of 
various  ingredients,  which,  by  their  smouldering 
combustion,  evolve  agreeable  odours.  The  following 
recipe  for  their  composition  is  given  in  the  Wurtem- 
berg  I%armacopoeia :  Take  of  benzoin  and  di^ 
balsam  of  Peru,  each  16  ])ai't3 ;  of  yellow  sandal- 
wood, 4  parts ;  of  labdanum,  1  part ;  of  charcoal 
from  lime-tree  wood,  96  parts  ;  of  nitrate  of  potash, 
2  parts  ;  and  of  mucilage  of  tragacanth,  enough  to 
form  the  mixture  into  a  paste,  frorn  which  coaicM 
pastils  are  to  be  made  by  a  small  mould. 

The  'Kibbon  of  Brages'  is  also  employed  for 
aromatic  fumigation  in  the  same  manner  as  i)astil8. 
It  is  prepared  as  follows  :  Dissolve  two  ounces  of 
nitrate  of  potash  in  a  i)int  of  waiter ;  in  this  fluid, 
steep  good  undressed  cotton-tape,  and  hang  it  up  to 
dry.  Prei)are  a  tincture  composed  of  s])irit,  half  a 
pint ;  musk,  half  an  ounce ;  otto  of  roses,  one  drachm; 
benzoin,  four  ounces  ;  myi-rh,  half  an  ounce  ;  orris- 
root,  half  a  pound.  When  this  tincture  has  stood 
for  a  month,  steep  the  prepared  tape  in  it.  The 
tape  when  dried  ia  fit  for  use.  Light  it,  blow  out 
the  flame ;  and  as  it  smoulders,  a  fragrant  vapour 
will  rise  into  the  air.  For  further  information 
on  this  and  allied  subjects,  see  Piesse's  Art  of 
Perfumery. 

FUMIGA'TION  (Lat.  fumigatio,  from  fumus^ 
smoke),  the  cleansing  or  medicating  of  the  air  of  an 
apartment  by  means  of  vapours,  employed  chiefly 
for  the  purpose  of  detaching  infectious  poisons 
from  clothing,  fm-niture,  &c.  See  Contagion, 
Infection.  Most  of  the  methods  of  fumigation 
formerly  employed  have  little  real  value;,  and  are 
to  be  looked  on  chiefly  as  grateful  to  the  senses ; 
as,  for  instance,  the  burning  of  frankincense,  cam- 
phor, &c.  The  really  active  processes  are  noticed 
under  the  article  Disinfectants. 

FUNCHA'L,  the  capital  and  the  only  tc-\vn  of 
the  island  of  Maderia  (q.  v.),  is  situated  on  the  south 
side  of  the  island,  and  consists  chiefly  of  one  street, 
extending  for  about  a  mile  along  the  shore,  and  of 
numerous  streets  and  lanes  at  right  angles  with  the 
main  street,  and  leading  up  the  hill  which  backs 
the  town.  Its  roadstead  is  open,  and  its  anchorage 
rocky  and  uneven.  F.  has  a  cathedral,  numeroui 
churches,  and  small  convents,  and  is  defended  by 
four  'brts.  From  it  all  the  produce  of  the  island  is 
expoued.    Pop.  30,000. 

FUNCTIONS,  a  mathematical  term.  When 
two  or  more  variables  are  combined  with  constants 
in  the  equation,  and  are  such  that  a  change  of  value 
of  one  implies  a  corresponding  change  of  value  of 
one  or  more  of  the  others,  then  such  variables  are 
said  to  depend  on,  and  to  be  functions  of  each 
other;  and  the  expression  of  the  mode  of  depend- 
ence is  said  to  be  a  function  of  such  variables. 
If  such  an  expression  involves  but  one  varial)le,  it 
is  said  to  be  a  function  of  one  variable;  if  two 
are  involved,  to  be  a  fnnction  of  two  variables; 
and  so  on.  Thus  sin  a;,  e"^,  log.  x,  V  a'^  —  x^  are 
functions  of  one  variable — viz.  oi  x;  Tan 
(ax+hy)^  x^,  are  functions  of  two  »ariables,  x  and 
so  xyz^  X  -\-y^  +  z  are  functions  of  three  variables, 
and  so  on.  Functions  are  denoted  by  the  symbols 
F,  /,  0,  V',  Thus  F(a;)  means  a  function  of  one 
variable,  x,  combined  with  constants  or  not,  as  the 
case  may  be;  tj'ixyz)  a  function  of  three  variables. 
These  functional  symbols  are  general^  and  their 


i'UNCTIONS-rUND. 


specific  forms  are  the  particular  functions  which 
arise  from  operations  in  algebra,  trigonomet*y,  &c. 

Functions  are  implicit  or  explicit.  When  one 
variable  is  expressed  in  terms  of  others,  it  is  said  to 
be  an  explicit  function  of  them ;  but  when  all  the 
variables  remain  involved  in  one  expression,  the 
function  is  said  to  be  implicit.    Thus,      -\-  if  — 

o  is  an  implicit  function  of  two  variables,  but 
y  =  /\/r'  —  is  an  explicit  function  of  one  variable. 
In  <jxplicit  functions,  the  variable  which  is  expressed 
in  terms  of  the  others  is  called  the  dependent 
V&riable,  and  the  others  the  independent  variables. 
Explicit  functions  are  usually  written  in  the  form 
S  =  f^pcy)  ;  implicit  in  the  form  u  =  l^{xyz)  =  o. 
Yunctions,  again,  are  algebraical  or  transcendental. 
Algebraical  functions  are  those  which  involve  the 
operations  of  addition,  subtraction,  &c.,  and  of 
involution  and  evolution.  Transcendental  functions 
are  those  where  the  operations  symbolised  are  such 
as  e%  logg.  X,  sin  x,  &c. — i.  e.,  exponential,  logar- 
ithmic, or  circular.  Functions,  also,  are  simple  or 
compound  according  as  they  involve  one  or  several 
operations.  ?/  =  sin  cc  is  a  simple  function ;  but 
y  =  log.  sin  x  is  compound.  Further,  functions  are 
divided  into  the  continuous  and  the  discontinu- 
ous, the  circulating  and  the  periodic.  Continuous 
functions  are  such  as  are  subject  to  the  following 
conditions  :  1.  As  the  variable  gradually  changes, 
the  function  must  gradually  change  ;  2.  The  law 
Bymbolised  by  the  functional  character  must  not 
abruptly  change.  Circulatino;  functions  are  those 
whose  values  lie  within  certain  limits  for  all  values 
of  the  variables.  y  — -  sin  x  is  an  example  at  once 
of  a  continuous  and  of  a  circulating  function.  A 
function  is  said  to  be  periodic  when  it  takes  the 
form  f"{x)  =  X,  signifying  that  if  on  x  the  operation 
/be  performed  n  times,  the  resulting  value  will  be 

X.    Thns,f[x)  =  z-^ —  is  a  periodic  function  of  the 
1  —  X 

third  order.  For  performing  the  operation  indicated 
by/ the  second  time  on          as  the  variable,  we  have 


,          =  :  and  the  third  time 

1  —  X  X 

we  have/^(x)  =  ,  —p: — 

I  -     -  X  \     ^    rpj^g  functional 
X  / 

calculus  ia  a  recent  growi;h  of  the  transcendental 
analysis.  The  object  of  the  Differential  Calculus 
(q.  V.)  is  generally  to  ascertain  the  changes  in  func- 
tions arising  from  the  continuous  and  infinitesimal 
variation  of  their  subject  variables.  The  object  of 
the  new  functional  calculus  is,  speaking  generally, 
to  investigate  the  forms  of  fimctions  and  their 
growth,  when  they  are  subject  to  a  continuous 
end  infinitesimal  change  as  to  form.  According 
to  Mr  Price  (treatise  on  the  Infinitesimal  Calculus), 
aa  the  differential  calculus  investigates  jiroperties 
of  continuous  numbers,  so  does  the  new  calculus 
tie  properties  of  continuous  functions  ;  and  as  there 
is  an  integral  calciUus  of  numbers,  so  there  is  an 
in7erse  calculus  of  functions.  Of  the  new  calculus, 
the  Calculus  of  Variations  (q.  v.)  may  be  considered 
the  main  branch.  It  includes,  of  course,  the  subject 
of  functional  equations.  Functional  equations  are 
those  in  which  it  is  required  to  determine  from 
equations  the  forms  of  functions  entering  them  : 
e.  g.,  what  is  the  function  of  x  and  y  which  satisfies 
the  equation  f{x)  x  f{y)  =  J\x  +  y)  ?  See  article 
Oalculus  of  Functions  in  the  Encydopcedia  Metro- 

FUND,    FUNDING    SYSTEM.  Fund 


(Lat.  fundus,  ground,  fovindation)  means  a  supply  of 
money  or  a  source  whence  money  may  be  obtained 
When  we  speak  of  '  the  funds '  in  this  country, 
we  mean  that  great  organisation  for  buying  and 
selling  the  right  to  become  a  public  creditor,  and 
receive  a  share  of  the  interest  of  the  national  debt. 
See  Debt,  National.  When  money  has  in  this 
country  been  borrowed  for  public  purposes,  and  it 
has  been  found  that  it  cannot  be  repaid  as  a  tem- 
porary loan,  the  resolution  to  hold  it  as  a  perpetual 
loan  at  a  certain  interest  has  been  called  '  funding 
it ;  and  hence  we  read  from  time  to  time  that 
certain  obligations  were  converted  from  floating  into 
funded  debts. 

FUND,  Sinking,  a  plan  pursued  for  a  consider- 
able period  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  money 
for  the  payment  of  the  national  debt  of  Great 
Britain.  It  was  begun  in  1716  by  Sir  Robert 
Walpole.  Certain  taxes  which  had  previously  been 
laid  on  for  limited  periods  were  then  rendered  per- 
petual, for  the  jmrpose  of  paying  the  interest  of  tho 
funded  debt.  They  produced  more  than  enough 
for  this  purpose,  and  the  surplus  was  laid  aside,  that 
it  might  accumulate  into  a  fund  for  extinguishing 
the  debt.  It  appeared  to  operate  well,  since,  in 
1728,  after  it  had  existed  for  twelve  years,  debt  was 
wiped  off  to  the  extent  of  £6,648,000.  It  Avas  not 
observed  that,  during  the  wiping  off,  new  debt  had 
been  created  to  about  the  same  extent,  so  that  the 
nation  was  just  in  the  position  in  which  it  would 
have  been  had  it  neither  borrowed  nor  repaid.  It 
is  supposed  that  Sir  Robert  may  have  seen  tho 
fallacy  of  the  sinking  fund,  since  in  1732  he  took 
half  a  million  from  it  to  meet  the  expenditure  of  the 
year,  instead  of  raising  a  new  loan.  It  was  in  1786, 
however,  that  the  system  was  established  on  a 
great  scale  by  the  younger  Pitt,  who,  notwithstand- 
ing his  great  practical  abilities,  was  entirely  misled 
by  the  theories  of  Dr  Price  in  his  work  on  Annuities. 
The  system  continued  to  be  conducted  on  an 
enormous  scale,  until  another  student  of  economy 
and  figures  conclusively  proved  it  to  be  useless ; 
this  was  accomplished  in  1813  by  Dr  Hamilton,  iu 
his  Inquiry  concerning  the  Rise  and  Progress,  the 
Redemption  and  Present  State,  and  the  Management 
of  the  National  Debt  of  Great  Brii'ain.  The  fallacy 
which  Dr  Hamilton  shewed  to  pervade  a  sinking 
fund  may  be  best  explained  by  a  sini})le  example. 
Suppose  that  one  requires  to  borrow  £100,  and  lays 
by  £5  a  year  as  a  fund  to  pay  it  up  with.  Accu- 
mulating at  compound  interest,  this  fund  ^yill  pay 
back  the  loan  in  about  fifteen  years.  The  borrower 
will,  however,  gain  no  more  by  the  process  i:han  if 
he  paid  the  £5  a  year  to  his  creditor,  for  his  debt 
would  be  diminishing  to  precisely  the  same  extent 
as  the  fund  to  pay  it  off  would  be  increasing 
Suppose  that  while  requiring  only  £100,  the  bor- 
rower raises  £200,  and  lends  o\.t  one  of  them, 
accumulating  the  interest  until  the  whole  amounts 
to  £200 ;  the  borrower  will  no  doubt  be  receiving 
interest  on  £100,  but  he  wiW  be  at  the  same  time 
paying  interest  on  £200 ;  and  he  would  repay  his 
debt  at  the  same  cost  and  with  more  simplicity 
if,  instead  of  borrowing  the  second  hundred  at  5 
p^r  cent.,  he  paid  over  £5  a  year  to  his  creditor. 
In  these  instances,  nothing  is  lost  by  the  sink- 
ing fund.  But  suppose  that  in  the  last  case  the 
creditor  had  agreed  to  lend  the  £100  at  5  per  cent., 
but  in  consideration  of  the  greater  risk,  would 
not  lend  the  £200  at  less  than  6  per  cent.,  while  the 
borrower  can  only  get  5  i)er  cent,  for  the  half  which 
he  relends — here  the  transaction  would  cause  a  dead 
loss  of  £2  a  year  over  the  plan  of  repaying  by 
instalments.  This  was  exactly  the  case  with  th© 
British  sinking  fund.  The  more  money  the  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer  wanted,  the  higher  were  the 

526 


FUNDAMENTAL  BASS— FUNFKIRCHEN. 


Cerms  demanded  by  the  lenders,  and  the  addition  to 
each  loan  for  setting  aside  a  sinking  fund  increased 
the  rate  of  interest  paid  on  it. 

FUNDAME'NTAL  BASS,  in  Music,  is  the  root 
oi  fundamental  note  of  the  harmony.  See  Harmony. 

FUNDI,  or  FUNDUNGI  {Paspalum  exile),  a 
kind  of  grain  much  cultivated  in  the  west  of  Africa. 
It  is  allied  to  the  millets,  and  still  more  nearly  to 
Bome  of  the  kinds  of  grain  cultivated  in  India.  See 
Paspalum.  It  is  wholesome  and  nutritious,  and 
has  been  recommended  to  attention  in  Britain  as  a 
light  and  delicate  food  for  invalids.  The  natives  of 
"W  tfitern  Africa  throw  it  into  boiling  water,  })our  ofT 
the  water,  and  add  palm-oil,  butter,  or  milk.  By 
Euiopeans  and  negroes  in  Sierra  Leone,  it  is  much 
ttsed  with  stewed  meat,  and  sometimes  made  into 
porridge  with  milk. 

FUNDY,  Bay  of,  an  arm  of  the  Atlantic,  separ- 
ates Nova  Scotia  from  New  Brunswick  apd  the 
state  of  Maine.  With  an  average  breadth  of  35 
miles,  it  extends  180  miles  in  length  from  north- 
east to  south-west.  It  forks,  at  its  head,  into 
two  inlets,  the  northern,  called  Chignecto  Bay,  and 
the  southern,  Minas  Channel,  which  are  divided 
by  narrow  necks  of  land  from  the  Gulf  of  St 
Lawrence.  Along  its  north-west  side,  reckoning 
downwards,  it  receives  the  St  John,  which  is  the 
principal  river  of  New  Brunswick,  and  the  St 
Croix,  which,  through  its  entire  course,  forms  the 
international  boundary.  The  navigation  is  rendered 
perilous  by  the  peculiarity  of  the  tides,  which  are 
said  to  rise  aud  fall  fully  70  feet. 

FUNERAL  EXPENSES,  in  Law.  If  limited 
to  the  degree  and  quality  of  the  deceased,  funeral 
expenses  are  a  privileged  debt,  allowed  before  all 
other  debts  and  charges,  both  in  England  (3  Inst. 
202)  and  in  Scotland  (Stair,  iv.  35,  3).    If  the  parties 

Erimarily  liable  neglect  the  duty  of  giving  decent 
urial  to  the  dead,  a  stranger  may  do  so,  and  claim 
reimbursement  out  of  his  effects  before  all  others 
having  right,  whether  heirs  or  executors.  The  amount 
of  expenditure  which  a  court  of  law  will  consider 
reasonable  varies  so  entirely  with  the  circumstances, 
that  it  is  needless  to  attempt  to  define  it  otherwise 
than  by  saying  that  it  must  be  in  accordance  with 
common  custom  and  common  sense.  In  Scotland, 
it  is  held  (Buchanan  v.  Ferrier,  14th  February  1822) 
that  mourning  for  the  widow  and  such  of  the  children 
of  the  deceased  as  were  present  at  the  fimeral  is  a 
valid  charge ;  but  the  reverse  is  the  case  in  England, 
it  having  been  decided  (Johnson  v.  Baker,  2  C.  and 
P.  207)  that  the  widow  has  no  claim  for  moiuniings 
either  against  the  executor  or  the  creditors  of  her 
husband.  All  along  there  seems  to  have  been  rather 
greater  liberality  in  this  matter  in  Scotland  than  in 
England,  where  Lord  Holt  held  that  nothing  was 
allowable  ac;aiust  a  creditor  except  for  the  coffin, 
ringing  the  bell,  parson  and  clerk  (1  Salk.  296). 

FUNEKAL  RITES.  The  methods  of  disposing 
of  the  dead  have  been  so  various,  and  connected 
with  so  many  ceremonial  observances  dictated  by 
affection,  religious  conviction,  or  superstition,  that 
a  fuU  consideration  of  the  subject  would  occupy  a 
volume  Under  the  article  Burial  will  be  found  a 
descri}>tiou  of  the  principal  modes  of  interment,  and 
the  accompanying  funeral  rites  of  the  ancients. 

With  the  spread  of  Christianity  came  the  decorous 
interring  of  the  dead  with  religious  ceremonials 
indicative  of  lio})es  of  a  blessed  resurrection.  From 
tlie  moment  of  death  until  interment,  the  body  is 
the  object  of  solemn  ceremonial  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  At  death,  a  crucifix  is  placed 
in  the  hand,  or  at  the  feet,  and  holy- water  is 
Bprinklcd.  The  chief  funeral  rites  are  solemnised 
in  the  church,  into  which  the  coffin  is  borne  and 
«50 


placed  on  a  bier.  Throughout  France,  the  Nether- 
lands, and  continental  Europe  generally,  the  ordinary 
cortiige  of  a  funeral  is  a  hearse  with  a  bier,  on 
which  is  the  coffin,  covered  with  a  pall,  followed 
by  carriages  all  in  black,  with  black  horses.  The 
same  arrangement  is  pursued  in  England,  but  the 
hearse,  sometimes  over- decorated  with  dark  plumes, 
is  closed  instead  of  being  open.  In  the  more  com- 
mon class  of  funerals,  the  coffin,  shrouded  in  a 
paU,  is  borne  on  spokes,  or  on  the  shoulders  of 
bearers.  All  the  attendants  are  in  black.  A  certain 
etiquette  as  to  pall-bearers  (parties  who  hold  ribbo.i3 
attached  to  the  ])all)  is  observed;  the  relatives  d 
the  deceased  taking  their  place  nearest  the  head  in 
tbe  degree  of  consanguinity,  and  the  same  arrange- 
ment is  maintained  in  lowering  the  coffin  by  cords 
into  the  grave.  Only  in  exceptional  cases  are  bodies 
put  in  leaden  colli  ns  and  deposited  in  vaults ;  the 
common  sense  of  the  people  now  appreciating  tho 
propriety  of  allowing  corpses  to  dissolve  and  mingle 
with  the  earth  of  the  grave ;  aud  for  this  prac- 
tice, the  numerous  new  cemeteries  offer  facilities. 
Scottish  Presbyterians,  as  is  the  case  with  some 
English  dissenters,  have  no  funeral-service,  unless 
we  reckon  as  such  a  prayer,  and  occasionally  the 
reading  of  a  chapter  of  Scripture,  by  a  clergyman 
before  the  body  is  borne  from  the  house ;  but  in 
other  respects  the  Scottish  ceremonial  differs  little 
from  the  English.  Formerly,  in  the  case  of  import- 
ant personages,  the  hearse  was  preceded  by  a  class 
of  undertaker's  men  to  clear  the  way,  designated 
sauUes,  and  gumpheon-men — these  last  bearing  a 
pole  shrouded  at  the  top  with  black  silk,  called 
a  giunpheon  {r/onfalone,  a  banner),  being  a  relic 
of  an  ancient  heraldic  ceremonial ;  but  this  custom 
has  nearly,  if  not  altogether,  disappeared.  At 
Scotch  funerals,  the  relatives,  and  in  some  cases 
the  friends  of  the  deceased,  wear  white  cambric 
weepers  at  the  wrists.  Till  within  the  present 
century,  there  was  a  practice  of  giving  a  series 
of  expensive  entertainments  to  guests  at  Scottish 
funerals,  beginning  with  the  lykwake,  and  ending 
with  the  dredgy  (dirge) ;  but  all  this  is  gone,  or 
nearly  so.  The  giving  of  costly  entertainments  was 
not,  however,  contined  to  Scotland,  or  to  Ireland. 
Taking  its  rise  in  ancient  customs  which  were 
perpetuated  by  the  Anglo-Saxons,  the  practice  of 
consuming  meat  and  drink  in  a  species  of  gloomy 
festivity  at  funerals  was  common  in  England,  and 
carried  to  an  extravagant  length  at  the  decease  of 
persons  of  distinction,  on  which  occasion  Doles  (q.  v.) 
were  also  given.  It  had  even  its  counterpart  in 
the  usages  of  the  ancients.  The  nekrodeqmon,  or 
funeral- banquet,  is  mentioned  by  Lucian  and 
Cicero.  It  was  always  celebrated  in  the  house 
of  the  nearest  relative  of  the  deceased,  and 
Demosthenes,  the  patriot  orator  of  Greece,  tells  us 
in  his  Oration,  On  the  Crown,  that  the  relatives 
of  those  who  were  slain  at  Chaeroneia,  were  enter- 
tained by  him  in  his  own  mansion,  as  if  he  were 
the  nearest  kinsman  of  the  fallen  heroes.  Tho 
nehrodeipnon  is  often  represented  on  funeral  monu- 
ments. For  some  curious  information  respecting 
old  funeral  entertainments,  we  refer  to  Brand's 
Pojmlar  Antiquities,  edited  by  Ellis.  Without 
losing  as  regards  decorum,  funeral  arrangements 
have  been  greatly  cheapened  in  most  large  towns 
in  England  and  Scotland  by  means  of  funeral- 
conducting  estabhshments  belonging  to  societies  or 
private  speculators.  w.  C. 

FUNFKIRCHEN  (' Five  Churches ; '  Himgarian, 
Pecs),  an  important  to^vn  of  Hungary,  capital  of 
the  county  of  Baranya,  is  situated  on  the  southern 
slope  of  the  Mecseg  Mountains,  near  the  Slavonian 
boundary,  105  miles  south-south- west  of  Pestl;, 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  is  one  of  the  oldest, 


PUNFKIRCHEN— FUNGI. 


as  well  as  one  of  the  most  pleasantly  situated 
and  beautiful  towns  of  Hungary.  It  formerly 
possessed  a  university.  The  most  important  of  its 
buildings  are  the  large  and  imposing  cathedral, 
the  bishop's  palace,  an  Italian  structure,  the 
town-house,  lyceum,  gymnasium,  seminarj'-,  and  the 
churches,  which  are  numerous  and  beautiful.  It  has 
important  tanneries,  woollen  and  flannel  weaving 
and  silk-spinning  ;  produces  wine,  fruit,  and  tobacco, 
has  coal-mines  and  ironworks,  and  a  flourishing 
trade  in  hogs  and  gall-nuts.    Pop.  (1869)  23,863. 

FUN^GI,  an  order  of  acotyledonous  or  crypto- 
gamous  plants,  containing  a  very  great  number  of 
species,  nearly  5000  being  known,  whilst  it  is  prob- 
able that  the  whole  number  existing  is  very  much 
greater.  They  are  amongst  the  lowest  forms  of  vege- 
table life,  and  some  naturalists  of  no  mean  reputation 
have  entertained  the  notion  that  they  spring  into 
existence  in  certain  circumstances,  not  from  germs 
previously  existing,  but  from  a  mucus  capable  of 
organisation,  or  through  changes  in  the  cells  of  more 
highly  organised  plants,  and  of  animals  in  states  of 
disease  or  of  decay ;  an  opinion  which,  however,  is 
more  generally  rejected  as  having  no  foundation  in 
accurate  observation,  as  not  necessary  to  explain 
the  readiness  with  which  certain  fiingi  almost  inva- 
riably spring  up  in  certain  circumstances — from 
which  is  derived  the  chief  argument  in  its  favour, 
as  opposed  to  all  analogy  of  ascertained  facts,  and 
as  rendered  improbable  by  the  abundant  provision 
which  all  the  fungi  possess  for  the  perpetuation  and 
diffiision  of  the  species.  Fungi  are  cellular  plants, 
the  cells  sometimes  elongated  so  as  to  become 
filaments.  They  consist  of  a  thallus,  which  spreads 
m  a  matrix,  and  is  nourished  by  it,  and  from 
which  stems  are  thrown  up  into  the  air,  bearing 
the  fructification.  The  organs  connected  with 
fnictilication  are  often  the  principal  part  of  fungi, 
and  the  thalhis  very  small,  consisting  of  a  few 
cottony  threads,  or  closely  compacted  cells,  or  even 
altogether  undiscernible.  Not  imfrequently,  how- 
ever, the  proportion  of  the  thallus  is  compara- 
tively great,  and  in  circumstances  unfavourable  to 
the  development  of  the  organs  of  fructification,  it 
extends  itself  greatly  in  the  matrix,  as  in  the  case  of 
Dry  Rot,  Ergot,  &c.  (q.  v.),  and  even  of  the  common 
mushroom.  The  thallus  of  fungi  is  called  myceliuon 
(Gr.,  myTces,  a  mushroom),  and  in  mushrooms  and 
some  other  kinds  is  fm'ther  popularly  known  as 
the  spawn.  Fungi  are  nearly  related  to  alga^  and 
to  lichens,  but  difi'er  from  both  in  deriving  their 
nouiishment  from  the  earth  or  from  the  bodies  upon 
which  they  grow,  not  from  the  medium  by  which 
they  are  surrounded.  They  differ  also  from  lichens 
in  their  generally  much  softer  substance  and  their 
fucracious  character ;  also  in  being  quite  destitute  of 
gieeu  granules  {(jonidia)  in  the  thalhis,  which  are 
chai-acteristic  of  that  order.  They  differ  from  algse 
in  not  living  immersed  in  water  or  other  liquid,  but 
producing  their  fructification  in  air.  The  lowest 
forms  of  fungi,  and  the  lowest  forms  of  alg£B,  are 
sometimes,  however,  not  easily  distinguished;  and 
tho  mycelium  of  some  fungi  is  capable  of  spreading 
in  a  liquid,  and  assuming  a  modified  appearance 
extremely  resembling  that  of  some  algje.  It  is 
supposed  to  be  the  presence  of  the  mycelium  of 
certain  fungi  which  makes  liquors  *  mothery ; '  and 
to  a  similar  cause  is  ascribed  the  ropiness  of  the 
dough  in  some  bakehouses,  an  evil  not  easily  cured. 
—From  other  plants  in  general,  fungi  differ  in  their 
chemical  composition,  which  is  remarkably  nitro- 
genous, and  assimilates  them  to  animal  organisms ; 
whilst  imlike  other  plants,  they  do  not  absorb  car- 
bonic acid  from  the  air,  and  give  out  oxygen,  but, 
like  animals,  absorb  oxygen,  and  give  out  carbonic 
Rcid;  so  that  some  naturalists  have  proposed  to 


constitute  for  them  a  distinct  kingdom  of  naturi 
intermediate  between  the  animal  and  the  vegetable. 

Fungi  are  very  various  in  size,  many  being  scarcely 
visible  without  a  microscope,  whilst  others  are  some 
feet  in  diameter.  Even  the  same  species,  however 
often  exhibits  great  variety,  not  only  in  size,  but  in 
other  particidars,  according  to  the  different  circum 
stances  of  its  growth,  causing  great  difficidty  to  the 
botanist,  whilst  further  difficulty  arises  from  the 
modifications  of  imperfectly  developed  mycelium, 
of  which  many  spurious  genera  have  been  consti- 
tuted. A  great  resemblance  in  general  appearance 
to  fungi  is  sometimes  exhibited  by  diseased  portions 
of  leaves,  &c.,  and  by  the  secretions  caused  by  the 
attacks  of  insects. — When  the  spore  (seed)  of  a 
fungus  germinates,  it  sends  cut  radiating  filaments, 
which  generally  branch  and  interlace,  and  portions 
of  this  mycelium  removed  to  another  favourable 
situation,  grow  there,  so  that  fungi  are  propagated  by 
this  means  as  higher  plants  are  propagated  by  their 
tubers  or  by  the  division  of  their  roots.  The  fungi 
of  simplest  structure  or  lowest  organisation  consist 
of  nothing  more,  when  they  have  reached  their  fullest 
development,  than  masses  of  spheroidal  cells,  spores, 
breaking  up  into  a  fine  powder,  as  in  some  of  the 
small  parasitic  species  which  are  very  injurious  to 
corn.  Sometimes  these  cells  are  united  into  jointed 
threads.  In  species  of  rather  higher  organisation, 
the  plant  consists  of  jointed  threads,  but  the  spores 
are  formed  in  the  enlarged  terminal  joints,  and  are 
dispersed  by  their  bursting.  In  the  higher  kinds, 
the  spores  are  produced  in  or  on  peculiar  organs  of 
extremely  various  shape  and  chai\acter.  In  some,  as 
j)uff-balls,  the  whole  interior  of  the  plant  is  filled 
with  the  fructification.  In  agarics,  boleti,  morels, 
&c.,  the  fructification  takes  place  on  a  particxdar 
membrane,  a  part  of  the  external  surface  of  the 
plant,  called  the  hymeiilum,  variously  situated  (in 
agarics  on  the  imder  side  of  the  pileus  or  cap), 
the  extent  of  which  is  often  greatly  increased  by 
wrinkles,  plates  or  gills,  pits,  pores,  &c.  These  form 
the  highest  division  of  fungi,  called  HymenomyceieSy 
in  the  system  of  Fries,  the  greatest  continental 
authority  in  mycology,  as  this  department  of  botany 
is  sometimes  termed.  Berkeley,  who,  without  any 
near  rival,  occupies  the  first  place  among  the  myco- 
logists of  Britain,  divides  fungi  into  tAvo  '  classes  ; ' 
the  first  class  not  having  the  spores  enclosed  in 
tubular  sacs  {asci)  or  vGsicles,  and  containing  the 
'  orders^  Hymeno7nyceies  (agarics,  boleti,  &c.),  GasterO' 
mycetes  (puff'-balls,  &c.),  Coniomycetes  (rust,  smut, 
&c.),  Hyphomycetes  (mould,  mildew,  botrytis,  oidlum^ 
&c.) ;  the  second  class  containing  two  orders,  AscO' 
mycetes  (morels,  truffles,  &c.),  in  which  the  spores 
are  definitely  arranged  in  asci,  and  Physamycetes 
(some  kinds  of  moidd,  plants  which  grow  on  fer- 
menting substances,  and  some  of  the  minute  pests  of 
cvdtivated  plants)  in  which  the  spores  are  in  vesicles 
without  definite  arrangement. 

Fungi  generally  grow  in  damp  situations,  hut  there 
are  many  which  occur  chiefly  on  dry  soils  or  on 
dry  siibstances ;  and  some  appear  in  their  gi-eatest 
perfection  in  the  finest  summer  weather,  although 
many  are  most  abundant  in  the  colder  and  moistei 
seasons  of  the  year.  It  has  been  commonly  asserted 
that  they  abound  more  in  the  colder  parts  of  the 
world  than  within  the  tropics,  but  it  is  not  improb- 
able that  this  opinion  has  its  origin  merely  in  imper- 
fect observation  of  tropical  species.  The  extreme 
rapidity  of  their  growth,  the  briefness  of  their  whole 
existence,  the  readiness  "with  which  they  pass  iato 
decomposition,  and  the  difficulty  of  i)reserving  most 
of  them  in  a  fonn  fit  for  examination,  have  been 
great  obstacles  to  their  scientific  study.  It  is  knoM-n, 
however,  that  some  species  are  of  veiy  wide  geo- 
graphic distribution,  whilst  others  are  comparatively 

557 


FUNGL 


very  limited.  Some  species  grow  in  earth,  others  in 
various  kinds  of  putrescent  or  fermenting  animal  or 
vegetable  matter,  many  in  decaying  parts  of  trees 
or  on  dead  wood,  others  on  diseased  animal  and 
vegetable  tissues,  &c.  It  appears  to  be  the  office  of 
many  of  them  to  hasten  the  decomposition  of  animal, 
and  more  particularly  of  vegetable  substances.  Some 
of  the  minute  kinds  ai>5)ear  to  be  the  cause  of  disease 
in  the  higher  kinds  of  plants  which  they  attack,  and 
are  ff»>-inidable  to  the  farmer  and  the  gardener. 
Some  are  in  like  manner  destructive  to  animal  life, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  Muscardine  (q.  v.)  or  Silk- worm 
Hot,  and  certain  species  of  Sphceria  which  grow 
from  living  caterpillars.    See  Entopiiytes. 

Some  fungi  are  remarkably  phosphorescent.  Thus 
the  undeveloped  mycelium  of  some  kind  produces 
a  very  beautiful  luminosity  in  some  German  coal- 
mi  ups  ;  and  a  species  of  agaric  {Agaricus  Gardneri), 
growing  on  palms  in  Brazil,  shines  brightly  in  the 
night.  Agaricus  olearius,  a  native  of  the  south  of 
Eui-ope,  is  also  luminous. 

The  chemical  examination  of  fungi  yields  in  large 
quantity  a  substance  called  Fungine,  which,  how- 
ever, is  now  regarded  as  consisting  of  cellulose  and 
fatty  matter,  several  other  nitrogenous  substances, 
an  acid  called  Fungic  Acid,  a  kind  of  sugar,  &c. 
Tlie  poisonous  properties  of  some  are  ascribed  to 
an  alkaloid  called  Amanitine.  Others  appear  to 
owe  their  poisonous  character  to  an  acrid  vola- 
tile substance.  Many  of  the  smaller  fungi  are 
important  because  of  the  injury  which  they  cause 
to  crops,  timber,  &c.  A  few  species  are  used  in 
medicine,  of  which  the  only  one  really  important 
is  Ergot  of  Rye.  One  or  two  are  used  as  tinder 
(see  Amadou),  Moxa  (q.  v.),  &c.  The  smoke  pro- 
duced by  burning  the  dust  (spores)  of  ripened 
pufF-balls  has  anjesthetic  properties,  and  is  used 
for  stupifying  bees.  Poh/porus  squamoms  cut  into 
slices  makes  the  best  of  razor-strops.  But  the 
chief  economical  use  of  fungi  is  for  food,  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  sauce  called  Ketchup  (q.  v.). 

Edible  Fungi. — Many  fungi  of  the  sub-orders 
Hymenomycetes,  Owiteromycetes,  and  Ascomycetes  are 
edible ;  and  some  of  them  are  much  esteemed  as 
delicacies,  whilst  in  many  countries  they  constitute 
an  important  part  of  the  food  of  the  people.  In 
Britain,  very  few  are  used,  many  of  those  species 
which  are  most  esteemed  on  the  continent  of  Europe 
being  utterly  disregarded,  and  indeed  classed  in 
popular  estimation  with  toad-stools  as  poisonous. 
The  truth  appears  to  be,  not  that  the  greater  number 
are  poisonous,  and  only  a  few  edible,  but  that  the 
noxious  species  are  comparatively  few,  the  principal 
danger  arising  from  the  similarity  of  some  of  the 
poisonous  and  some  of  the  edible  agarics,  and  from 
the  liability  of  some  of  the  edible  species  to  acquire 
poisonous  properties  in  particular  situations  and 
cii'cumstances.  This  is  notably  the  case  with  the 
common  mushroom  {Agaricits  campestris),  which  is 
far  more  generally  used  in  Britain  than  any  other 
edible  fungus,  but  of  which  some  varieties  are 
unsafe,  apparently  in  consequence  of  the  circum- 
stances of  their  growth.  From  the  markets  of 
Rome,  and  other  cities  of  Italy,  where  numerous 
species  of  fungi  are  extensively  sold,  this  species  is 
rigorously  excluded.  So  important  an  article  of 
food  are  fungi  in  Italy,  that  in  the  market  of  Rome 
alone  they  are  supposed  to  be  sold  to  the  value  of 
about  £4000  a  year.  For  weeks,  both  in  spring  and 
in  autumn,  fungi  form  the  principal  and  almost  the 
sole  food  of  multitudes  of  the  poor  in  Italy,  Ger- 
many, and  France ;  and  besides  those  which  are  eaten 
fresh,  great  quantities  are  used  dried  or  preserved 
in  oil,  vinegar,  or  brine.  The  soaking  of  fungi  in 
vinegar  or  brine  takes  away  the  acrid  qualities  of 
■ome  which  are  dangeroua  when  fresh ,  and  renders 
658 


them  perfectly  safe.  So  valuable  are  fungi  esteemed, 
that  some  species  are  frequently  cultivated.  The 
cultivation"  of  the  Common  Mushroom  (q.  v.)  ia 
familiar  to  us  in  Britain,  but  other  species  of 
Agaricus,  Boletus,  &c.,  are  plentifully  raised  in  some 
parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  by  watering  the 
ground  in  places  appropriate  for  them  with  water  in 
which  mature  plants  abounding  in  spores  have  been 
bruised ;  others  are  obtained  by  merely  placing  ia 
favourable  circumstances  substances  in  which  tlicir 
spores  are  already  contained.  Thus,  a  species  of 
Folyporus,  much  esteemed,  is  procured  in  Italy  by 
moistening  a  porous  stone  (Ital.,  Fietra  funglio  kb) 
over  which  a  little  earth  has  been  scattered ;  another 
species  of  Folyporus  by  slightly  charring  and  then 
watering  blocks  of  the  wood  of  the  common  hazel ; 
a  species  of  Agaricus,  by  cutting  off  and  then 
watering  the  heads  of  black  poplar  trees ;  and 
another  Agaricus,  by  placing  the  grounds  of  coffee 
in  circumstances  favourable  for  its  growth. 

It  is  a  common  notion,  but  utterly  destitute  of 
foundation,  that  dangerous  fungi  may  be  distin- 
guished from  those  which  it  is  safe  to  eat  by  their 
discolouring  a  silver  spoon  if  they  are  stirred  with 
it  whilst  they  are  being  cooked.  Nor  is  greater 
dependence  to  be  placed  on  the  rule  that  the  more 
readily  deliquescent  f  ungi  are  poisonous ;  nor  on 
peculiarities  of  colour  of  tlie  flesh  or  juice,  except  in 
so  far  as  these  characters  may  avail  for  the  discrimi- 
nation of  particular  species,  the  qualities  of  which 
are  known.  The  edible  fungi  have  generally  an 
agreeable  smell  and  taste,  whilst  some  of  the  poison- 
ous kinds  are  offensive  both  to  the  nostrils  and  the 
palate,  but  no  trustworthy  general  rule  can  be  laid 
down  on  these  points  ;  and  some  of  those  which  are 
very  pungent  and  acrid  when  raw,  become  bland 
and  wholesome  when  cooked,  their  acridity  being 
dissipated  by  heat. 

Among  the  most  important  edible  fungi  are  : 
Hymenomycetes. — The  Common  Mushroom,  Cham- 
pignon, and  numerous  other  agarics  and  fungi  closely 
allied  to  true  agarics,  as  species  of  Cortinaria,  Can- 
tharellus,  &c.  These  will  be  noticed  in  the  article 
MusnROOM. 

A  number  of  species  of  Boletus  (q.  v.),  and  of  Foly- 
porus. See  Amadou.  Fistulina  hepatica.  See  Fis- 
TULINA.  Several  species  of  Hydnuni  (q.  v.).  Several 
species  of  Clavaria,  some  of  which  are  found  in 


Clavaria  Botrytis. 


Britain ;  beautiful  fungi,  with  a  thickish  stem  which 
divides  into  numerous  small  branches.  It  is  said  that 
all  the  species  of  this  genus  are  esculent,  although 
some  are  very  superior  to  the  rest  in  flavour  and 
dehcacy.  One  species  {C.flava)  is  popiUarly  known 
in  Germany  as  Ziegenhart  or  Goat's-beard.  They 
grow  on  the  ground  in  woods  and  })astures. 

Gasteromyretes.—DitlQXQnt  kinds  of  Buff-ball  (q. 
v.),  in  a  young  state,  and  whilst  still  fleshy  through- 

^  Ascomycetes.— Di^QVGni  species  of  Morel  (q. 


FUNGIBLES— FUK  AOT  FURRIERY. 


Helvdla  (q,  v.),  Verpa,  Peziza,  &c.  The  Common 
Truffle  (q.  v.);  and  allied  species.  Cyttaria  Dar- 
winii,  wLjch  grows  on  living  branches  of  South 
American  beeches,*  and  forms  a  principal  part  of 
the  food  of  the  natives  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  during 
some  months  of  the  year. 

*  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  poisonous  properties 
of  mushrooms  vary  with  climate,  and  probably  with 
the  season  of  the  year  at  which  they  are  gathered. 
Another  circumstance  deserving  of  notice  is,  that 
by  idiosyncracy  some  individuals  are  liable  to  be 
seriously  affected  even  by  those  species  which  are 
usually  regarded  as  innocent.  Some  species  which 
are  jioisonous  in  this  country,  are  used  freely  by  the 
Russians ;  it  appears  they  are  in  the  habit  of  salt- 
mg,  boiling,  and  compressing  them  before  they  are 
eaten;  and  this  may  in  some  instances  suffice  to 
account  for  their  having  no  noxious  effects. 

^Symptoms  and  Effects. — The  noxious  species  of 
mushrooms  act  sometimes  as  narcotics,  at  others  as 
irritants.  It  would  appear  from  the  reports  of 
several  cases,  that  when  the  narcotic  symptoms  are 
excited,  they  come  on  soon  after  the  meal  at  which 
the  mushrooms  have  been  eaten,  and  that  they  are 
chiefly  manifested  by  giddiness,  dimness  of  sight, 
and  debility.  The  person  appears  as  if  intoxicated, 
and  there  are  singular  illusions  of  sense.  Spasms 
and  convulsions  have  been  occasionally  witnessed 
among  the  symptoms  when  the  case  has  proved 
fatal.  In  some  instances,  the  symptoms  of  poison- 
ing have  not  commenced  until  thirty  hours  after 
the  meal;  and  in  these,  narcotism  followed  the 
symptoms  of  irritation.  It  might  be  supposed  that 
these  variable  efi'ects  were  due  to  different  pro- 
perties in  the  mushrooms,  but  the  same  fungi  ha^^e 
acted  on  members  of  the  same  family,  in  one  case 
like  irritants,  and  in  another  like  narcotics.  In 
most  cases,  recovery  takes  place,  especially  if  vomit- 
ing be  early  induc(;d.  In  the  few  instances  which 
have  proved  fatal,  there  has  been  greater  or  less 
inflammation  in  the  stomach  and  bowels,  with 
congestion  of  the  vessels  of  the  brain. 

'  Treatment. — The  free  use  of  emetics  and  castor 
oil' — Taylor  On  Poisons. 

The  esculent  fungi  of  England  are  the  subject  of 
a  work  by  Dr  Badham,  who  enthusiastically  recom- 
mends them  to  more  general  use. 

FU'NGIBLES.  In  the  law  of  Rome,  the  contract 
ol  loan  was  divided  into  mutuuni  and  co7nmodatam, 
a  division  which  has  been  adopted  by  the  law  of 
Scotland,  and  by  most  of  the  continental  systems 
which  are  founded  on  the  civil  law.  The  former 
had  reference  to  objects  which  admitted  of  being 
estimated  by  weight,  measure,  or  number,  or  which 
could  not  be  used  without  being  given  away  or  con- 
sumed. These  objects,  consisting  of  money,  corn, 
ydnc,  oil,  and  the  like,  coxdd  be  used  only  by  him 
who  possessed  the  full  right  of  ownership,  and  con- 
sequently the  contract  of  mutuum  transferred  the 
ownership  to  the  borrower,  who  became  bound  to 
return,  not  the  object  borrowed,  but  its  equivalent. 
Objects  of  this  nature,  from  the  fact  that  they  were 
got  rid  of  one  for  another  (fungantur),  were  called 
fungibles.  The  other  class  of  movable  objects,  again, 
to  which  the  Roman  contract  of  commodatum,  or 
hire,  properly  so  called,  applied,  were  transferred  to 
the  borrower  on  condition  that  he  shoidd  return 
the  same  individual  objects  to  the  lender. 

FUNGUS  (Lat.  a  mushroom)  is  a  term  applied 
in  pathology  and  surgery  with  several  significations. 
Thus,  any  excrescence  from  a  surface  of  skin,  or 
mucous  membrane,  or  even  from  deeper  parts,  is 
sometimes  called  a  fungus,  more  especially  if  it  have 
ft  soft  mushroom-like  character,  and  a  broad  short 
pedicle.    When  the  pedicle  is  long  and  narrow,  it  is 


called  Polypus  (q.  v.).  The  growths  to  which  the 
term  fungus  is  chiefly  aj)i)lied  are  those  wliich  have 
the  characters  of  Cancer  (q.  v.) ;  especially  fanrpia 
hcematddes,  a  very  dangerous  variety.  But  fungus 
has  yet  another  application  in  pathology,  to  those 
minute  incrustations  and  alterations  of  the  skiu 
which  are  dei)endent  upon  the  growth  of  vegetable 
parasiteg,  as  Favus,  Ringworm  (q.  v.),  &c. 

FUi^KEL  (Lat.  /undo,  to  pour),  in  steam-vessels, 
is  the  iron  tube  designed  to  convey  away  above  the 
deck  the  smoke  and  gases  set  at  liberty  duriEg  tho 
combustion  of  fuel  in  the  boiler- flues,  and  also,  fron» 
its  height,  to  afford  a  sufficient  draught  to  tho 
furnaces.  In  large  ships,  the  funnel  is  of  great 
size  ;  and  in  men-of-war,  usually  telescojnc,  so  that, 
by  simple  mechanism,  it  may  be  withdrawn  durir^ 
an  action  from  the  chance  of  injury  by  cannon-shot. 

FUNNEL,  a  conical  vessel  terminating  in  a  tube, 
and  used  for  pouring  liquids  into  narrow-mouthed 
vessels,  and  in  laboratories  for  filtering.  See  Filter, 
For  common  purposes,  they  are  made  of  tin-plate  or 
copper,  but  when  for  corrosive  liquids,  they  are  made 
of  glass  or  earthenware.  In  some  parts  of  Great 
Britain,  as  in  the  midland  counties  of  England, 
a  funnel  is  called  a  'tun-dish;'  in  other  parts,  a 
'fiUer.' 

FUR  is  the  term  applied  to  the  incrustation 
which  is  formed  in  the  interior  of  vessels  (tea- 
kettles, boilers  of  steam-engines,  &c.)  when  calca- 
reous water  has  been  for  a  considerable  time  boded 
in  them.  Many  spring  waters  contain  carbonate  of 
lime  held  in  solution  by  carbonic  acid.  When  this 
water  is  boiled,  the  acid  is  expelled,  and  the  car- 
bonate is  deposited,  often  in  association  with  a  Kttle 
sulphate,  forming  a  lining  more  or  less  coherent 
upon  the  sides  of  the  vessel.  In  steam-boilers, 
this  may  be  prevented  by  the  addition  of  a  smaU 
quantity  of  sal-ammoniac  (hydrochlorate  of  ammonia) 
to  the  water ;  double  decomposition  takes  place, 
carbonate  of  ammonia  being  formed  and  volatilised, 
whde  chloride  of  calcium  remains  in  solution. 

FUR  AND  FURRIERY.  The  skins  of  animals, 
having  hair  or  fur  as  a  coating,  have  been  used  iu 
Europe  as  an  article  of  clothing  for  many  centuries. 
Since  European  countries,  however,  have  become 
more  and  more  cleared  and  inhabited,  fur-bearing 
animals  have  nearly  disappeared ;  and  the  supply  is 
now  chiefly  obtained  from  other  regions,  especially 
North  America. 

All  the  chief  fur-bearing  animals  will  be  found 
described  under  their  proper  headings :  we  shall 
do  little  more  here  than  barely  enumerate  them. 
Ermine  fur  is  of  a  pure  white,  except  che  tip  of 
the  tail,  which  is  black.  The  spotted  appearance  of 
this  fur  is  not  natural ;  it  is  produced  by  sewing 
the  black  tail-tips  on  the  white  fur  at  certain  spots. 
Stoat  fur  is  a  kind  of  inferior  ermine.  Sable  fur, 
obtained  chiefly  from  Northern  Russia  and  Siberia, 
is  valued  in  proportion  to  the  darkness  of  its  colour. 
Marten  fur,  especially  that  of  a  rich  dark-brown 
olive  colour,  is  much  sought  for.  Fiery -fox  fur, 
brought  chiefly  from  the  north-eastern  part  of  Asi% 
is  admired  both  for  its  brilliant  fiery  colour  and  for 
its  fineness.  Red- fox  fur,  differing  in  some  parti- 
cidars  from  the  kind  just  named,  is  much  sought 
after  by  the  Chinese  for  trimmings,  luiings,  and  robes. 
Silver-fox  fur  has  a  peculiar  lustrous  silver- gray 
coloiu'.  Nutria  fur,  belonging  to  the  animal  called 
the  coypou,  is  brought  largely  from  South  America, 
chiefly  as  a  cheap  substitute  for  beaver.  Sea-otter 
fur  has  been  kno-^ni  in  Europe  about  a  centxuy  and 
a  haK,  being  obtained  from  the  otters  which  frequent 
the  seas  washing  the  Asiatic  shores  of  the  Russian 
dominions ;  it  varies  from  a  beautifid  brown  to  jet- 
black,  and  is  very  fine,  soft  and  glossy.    Seal  fur  ia 


FUEFURAMIDE— FURLOUGH. 


obtained  from  the  seals  frequenting  various  coasts, 
chieHy  in  the  Southern  Ocean.  Beaver  fur  was 
once  much  in  request  for  the  manufacture  of  hats ; 
but  the  growing  scarcity  of  the  animal,  and  the 
substitution  of  silk  hats  for  beaver  hats,  has 
lessened  its  importance.  The  fur  of  various  other 
animals  is  similarly  valued,  either  for  its  warmth  or 
its  beauty  ;  such  as  that  of  the  bear,  racoon,  baiUjer, 
minx,  lynx,  musquash  or  musk-rat^  rabbit,  hare, 
nquirrel,  and  chinchilla. 

For  manufacturing  purposes,  furs  are  classified 
into  felted  and  dressed.  Felted  furs,  such  as  beaver, 
nutria,  hare,  and  rabbit,  are  used  for  hats  and  other 
felted  fabrics,  in  which  the  hairs  or  filaments  are 
made  so  to  interlace  or  entangle  as  to  form  a  very 
strong  and  close  plexus.  The  quality  of  the  fur  is 
better  when  the  skin  is  taken  from  the  animal  in 
winter  than  in  any  other  season,  giving  rise  to  the 
distinction  between  'seasoned'  and  'unseasoned' 
skins.  The  removal  of  the  fur  from  the  pelt  is 
a  necessary  preliminary  to  the  preparation  of  fur 
for  felting  purposes.  In  many  kinds  of  skin,  such 
as  that  of  the  hare,  the  fur  is  of  two  kinds — a  close 
short  layer  of  felting  fur  next  the  pelt,  and  longer 
outer  hairs  of  unfelting  fur.  The  removal  of  these 
two  is  clfccted  separately.  The  long  hairs  are  cut 
off  by  a  kind  of  shears ;  and  the  tnie  fur  is  then 
removed  by  the  action  of  a  knife,  bearing  some 
»'esemblance  to  a  cheese-cutter,  requiring  much  care 
in  its  management.  In  some  sorts  of  skin,  the  long 
hairs  are  removed  by  pulling  instead  of  shearing  ;  in 
others,  the  greasiness  of  the  pelt  renders  necessary 
a  cleansing  process  before  the  shearing  can  be  con- 
ducted, with  the  aid  of  soap  and  boiling  water ;  and 
in  others,  both  pelt  and  fur  are  so  full  of  grease  as 
to  require  many  repetitions  of  cleansing.  For  beaver 
skins,  a  machine  of  very  beautiful  construction  is 
em})loyed  in  cutting  the  fur  from  the  pelt.  When 
the  coarse  hairs  have  been  removed  to  form  a 
stuffing  for  cushions,  the  skin  is  })laced  in  a  machine 
containing  a  broad  keen  blade  equal  in  length  to  the 
width  of  the  skin.  This  blade  has  a  peculiar  reci- 
procating movement  given  to  it,  producing  a  Idnd  of 
chopping  effect  on  any  substance  to  which  it  is 
applied,  by  coming  nearly  in  con\%ct  with  another 
l)lade  placed  parallel  with  it.  The  skin  is  guided 
between  rollers  into  the  space  between  the  two 
blades ;  and  then  the  action  of  the  upper  blade 
crops  off  the  fur  from  the  pelt  in  a  very  complete 
manner — every  particle  being  removed,  and  yet  the 
pelt  is  not  cut.  The  fur  falls  upon  an  endless  apron, 
w^hich  carries  it  to  a  chest,  or  trunk,  containing 
a  bloAving-machine ;  this  machine  separates  the 
fur  into  three  or  four  qualities,  by  blowing  to  the 
furthest  distance  the  lightest  and  most  valuable 
filaments,  leaving  the  heavier  and  coarser  to  be 
deposited  sooner. 

Furs  have  their  felting  property  sometimes 
increased  by  the  process  of  carroti.ng,  in  which  the 
action  of  heat  is  combined  with  that  of  sulphuric 
acid.  The  chief  employment  of  felted  fur.s  is 
di^scribed  under  Hat  Manufacture. 

Dressed  furs  are  those  to  which  the  art  of  the 
furrier  is  applied  for  making  muffs,  boas,  and  fur- 
trimmings  to  garments.  The  fur  is  not  separated 
from  the  pelt  for  these  purposes ;  the  two  are  used 
together ;  and  the  pelt  is  converted  into  a  kind  of 
leather  to  lit  it  for  being  so  employed.  The  fur- 
hiuiters  always  exercise  great  care  in  drying  the 
skins  after  removing  them  from  the  animals,  seeing 
that  any  putrefactive  action  would  ruin  the  i\\x. 
When  brought  to  England  the  skins  undergo 
certain  cleansing  processes.  They  are  steeped  and 
scoured  in  a  bath  of  bran,  alum,  and  salt,  to  remove 
gi-easiness  from  the  pelt ;  and  then  in  a  bath  of 
soaj)  and  soda,  to  remove  oiliness  from  the  fur. 
560 


When  thoroughly  washed  and  dried,  it  is  found 
that  the  pelt,  by  the  action  of  the  alum.  Las  been 
converted  into  a  kind  of  tawed  or  kid  leather. 

When  the  skins  are  cleansed*  and  dried,  they  aro 
made  up  into  garments  and  trimmings  by  sewing 
through  the  pelt.  The  skins,  however,  are  very 
irregular  in  shape,  and  often  differ  much  in  colour  in 
different  parts  ;  they  require  to  be  cut  up  into  pieces, 
matched  according  to  tmt,  and  sewn  together  edge 
to  edge.  This  requires  much  skill,  esi)ecially  where 
the  furs  are  of  a  valuable  sort.  A  fm*  garment  or 
trimming,  appearing  to  the  eye  as  if  it  were  one 
uniform  piece,  is  thus  generally  made  up  of  many 
curiously  shaped  pieces.  The  shai>iug  for  use,  and 
the  lining  wdth  silk  and  other  materials,  call  for 
no  descrii)tion. — The  great  source  of  furs  is  tho 
Hudson's  Bay  Territory  (q.  v.). 

FURFU'RAMIDE,  FU'RFURINE,  and  FU'R- 
FUROL.  When  starch,  sugar,  or  bran  is  acted 
upon  by  dilute  sulphuric  acid  and  peroxide  of  man- 
ganese, the  distillate  contains  not  only  Formic 
Acid  (q.  v.),  but  a  small  quantity  of  an  essential 
oil,  which,  after  being  purified  by  redistillation,  ia 
colourless,  has  a  fragrant  odour  somewhat  resem- 
bling that  of  bitter  almonds,  and  when  dissolved  in 
cold  sulphuric  acid,  forms  a  beautiful  pur})le  liquid. 
This  oil  is  termed  Furfurol,  And  its  com]josition  id 
represented  by  the  formula  C5H4O2. 

If  furfurol  be  treated  with  ammonia,  it  is  converted 
into  Furfuramide  (C4NII3O2),  which  occurs  in  colour- 
less crystals,  insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble  in  alcohol, 
and  perfectly  neutral. 

If  furfuramide  is  boiled  with  a  solution  of  potash, 
it  dissolves,  its  elements  assume  a  new  arrange- 
m3nt,  and  the  solution  on  cooling  deposits  long 
silky  needles  of  a  powerfidly  alkaline  base,  Fur- 
f urine,  which  is  isomei'ic  with  furfuramide.  It  is 
dissolved  by  dilute  acids,  and  completely  neutralises 
them  ;  and  on  adding  ammonia  to  these  solutions, 
the  alkaloid  is  precipitated  unchanged.  It  was  dis- 
covered by  the  late  Professor  Fownes  ;  and  as  the 
first  vegeto-alkali  artificially  formed,  its  production 
was  regarded  as  a  great  step  in  organic  chemistry. 

FURipPU'R,  a  town  of  Bengal  Proper,  capital 
of  a  district  of  the  same  name,  stands  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Ganges,  here  called  the  Podda,  in 
lat.  23"  36'  N.,  and  long.  89"  50'  E.  It  is  115 
miles  to  the  north-east  of  Calcutta.  Excepting  the 
pul)lic  establishments,  which  it  possesses  as  the 
capital  of  the  district  of  its  own  name,  the  place  is 
mainly  a  scattered  series  of  native  villages  ;  and,  in 
fact,  it  claims  notice  chiefiy  as  having  at  one  time 
been  a  nest  of  river-pirates.    Pop.  8593. 

FURIDPU'R,  or  DACCA  JELALPUR,  the  dia- 
trict  mentioned  in  the  preceding  article,  stretches 
in  N.  lat.  between  23°  3'  and  24°  5',  and  in  E. 
long,  between  89°  30'  and  90°  15',  containing  2052 
square  miles,  and  1,012,589  inhabitants.  It  is  every- 
where intersected  by  branches  or  feeders  of  the 
Ganges,  which,  as  the  surface  barely  rises  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  are  all,  unless  in  the  dry  season, 
well  adapted  to  navigation.  The  soil  is  in  genera) 
rich;  and  the  climate,  more  particularly  from  the 
beginning  of  March  to  the  middle  of  June,  ia 
excessively  hot. 

FURIES.   See  Ettmenides. 

FURLONG  (the  length  of  a  furrow),  a  measure 
of  length,  the  eighth  part  of  a  mile,  or  220  yards. 
See  Yard. 

FU'RLOUGH,  a  military  term  signifying  leave 
of  absence.  Non-commissioned  officers  and  private 
soldiers  on  furlough  must  be  provided  with  a  pass, 
or  they  are  liable  to  seized  and  dealt  with  afl 
deserters. 


FURNEAUX— FURST. 


FTJRNEAUX,  the  name  of  an  English  navigator, 
who  was  second  in  oommand  on  Cook's  second 
royage,  indicates  various  localities  in  the  southern 
hemisphere. —  1.  Furneaux  Strait  separates  the 
Middle  and  South  islands  of  the  New  Zealand 
chain. — 2.  Furneaux  Island,  in  the  open  Pacific, 
lias  in  lat.  17°  S.,  and  in  long.  143°  6'  W.— 3.  Fur- 
neaux Islands  are  a  group  in  Bass's  Strait  (q.  v.). 
They  are  numerous,  the  largest  measuring  35 
miles  by  10.  The  soil  is  sandy,  and  the  vegetation 
scanty.  The  centre  of  the  cluster  is  about  lat. 
40°  S.,  and  long.  148°  E. 

FURIES,  a  small  town  of  Belgium,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  West  Flanders,  is  situatei  in  a  marshy  and 
unheal  -ihy  district,  4  miles  from  the  sea,  and  27  miles 
west-swth-west  of  Bruges.  At  this  town,  four 
important  hues  of  canal  meet.  F.  is  well  built,  has 
a  town-house,  a  fine  Gothic  structure,  richly  orna- 
mented with  carvings,  and  has  interesting  remains 
of  the  former  Abbey  of  St  Willebrod.  It  has  a  great 
trade  in  horses,  cattle,  hops,  and  cheese  ;  and  has 
three  annual  fairs,  at  which  large  quantities  of  linen 
are  sold.    Pop.  5000. 

FU'RNITURE,  the  name  of  an  organ-stop  or 
register,  consisting  of  two  or  more  ranks  of  pipes  to 
each  note,  aU  of  a  higher  pitch  than  the  15th  stop, 

FURNITURE,  Household,  Hiring  of.  If 
a  man  lets  out  furniture  for  immediate  use,  there  is 
an  implied  warranty  that  it  is  fit  for  use,  and  free 
from  all  defects  inconsistent  with  the  reasonable 
and  beneficial  enjoyment  of  it.  Sutton  v.  Temple, 
12 ;  Meason  and  Welsby,  60.  The  hirer  must  use  the 
furniture  for  a  proper  purpose.  If  it  is  applied  to  a 
purpose  inconsistent  with  the  terms  of  the  contract, 
or  if  it  is  sold  by  the  hirer,  the  owner  is  entitled  to 
maintain  an  action  for  its  value.  These  general 
rules  may  be  regarded  as  prevailing  both  in  England 
and  Scotland.  In  case  of  wilful  injury  done  to  fur- 
niture by  a  tenant  within  the  metropolitan  police 
district,  it  is  provided  by  2  and  3  Vict.  c.  71,  s.  38, 
that  the  police  magistrate  may  award  compensation 
to  the  amount  of  £15.  In  England  as  well  as  Scot- 
land, the  use  of  furniture  for  hfe  is  often  made  the 
subject  of  a  bequest ;  and  in  this  case,  allowance 
will  be  made  for  ordinary  wear  and  tear  in  the  use 
of  the  furniture. 

Lien  on  Furniture  for  Rent. — As  a  general  rule, 
all  furniture  found  on  the  premises,  whether  the 
property  of  the  tenant  or  of  a  third  party,  may 
be  distrained  for  rent,  on  the  princijile  that  the 
landlord  has  a  lien  over  it  in  respect  of  the  place 
in  which  it  is  found,  and  not  in  respect  of  the 
person  to  whom  it  belongs.  To  this  rule  there  are 
some  exceptions  in  favour  of  trade,  as  of  tools  in 
actual  use,  &c.  In  Scotland,  the  landlord  has  a 
similar  right  over  the  furniture  in  a  house,  so  that 
hired  furniture  may  be  seized  ;  but  furniture  lent 
without  payment  of  rent  does  not  fall  under  this 
Hypothec  (q.  v.).  Even  where  furniture  has  been 
sold,  the  landlord  has  a  claim  over  it  while  it 
remains  on  the  premises. 

FURRUCKABA'D  (Happy  Residence),  a  city 
of  the  Doab  (q.  v.),  stands  near  the  right  bank 
of  the  Ganges,  in  lat.  27°  24'  N.,  and  long.  79°  40'  E. 
It  is  a  handsome,  cleanly,  and  healthy  place,  570 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  with  a  considerable 
trade,  and  a  popidation  of  (1871)  73,110.  Inde- 
pendently of  its  position  on  the  grand  artery  of 
the  country,  F.  is  within  20  miles  of  the  great 
route  between  Calcutta  and  Delhi.  Here  Lord  Lake 
defeated  the  troops  of  Holkar  in  1805. 

FURRUCKABAD,  the  district  of  which  the 
city  of  the  same  name  is  the  capital,  stretches  in 
N.  lat.  between  26°  46'  and  27°  43',  and  in  K  long, 
between  78°  57'  and  80°  2'.  With  a  population  of 
m 


(1871)  918,784,  it  contiiins  only  19U9  {-qiiiiro  iiilies, 
scarcely  one-twelfth  of  the  area  being  beyond  the  liinits 
of  the  Doab.  The  coumicrcial  crops  are  i)riii(  ipally 
cotton,  tobacco,  and  indigo. 

FURS,  in  Heraldry.  Shields  being  often  covered 
with  the  skins  ol  wild  animals,  on  which  the  fur 
was  left,  there  came  to  be  certain  kinds  of  fur  which 
were  used  in  coat-armour,  as  well  as  in  trimming 
and  lining  the  robes  of  knights  and  nobles,  and  the 
mantles  which  were  represented  as  surrounding  tlieir 
shields.  The  principal  heraldic  furs  are — 1.  Ermine 
of  Miiich  the  field  is  white,  and  the  spots  black  ; 
2.  Ermines  of  which  the  field  is  black,  and  the  spot? 
white ;  3.  Erminois  which  has  the  field  gold,  with 
black  spots  ;  4.  Vair,  which  consisted  of  i)ieces  ol 
the  shape  of  little  glass  pots  (Fr.  verves,  of  which 
the  word  is  a  corrupt  spelling).  It  is  said  that  the 
furriers  used  such  glasses  to  whiten  furs  in,  and 
because  they  were  commonly  of  an  azure  (blue) 
colour,  the  fur  in  question  came  to  be  blazoned 
argent  and  azure  ;  whilst  counter- vair,  in  which  the 
cups  are  represented  as  placed  base  against  base, 
in  place  of  edge  to  base,  as  in  vair,  was  or  and  azure. 


Furs. 


Potent.       Counter-vair.        Vair.  Ermine. 


5.  Potent  and  counter-potent,  which  are  supposed  to 
resemble  the  heads  of  crutches,  j^laced  ditferently, 
but  having  the  same  tinctures — viz.,  azure  and 
argent. 

FURST,  Julius,  a  distinguished  orientalist 
of  Jewish  parentage,  was  born  i2th  May  1805,  at 
Zerkowa,  in  the  grand-duchy  of  Posen,  Prussia, 
where  his  father  was  Lecturer  on  Circumcision  in 
the  synagogue.  F.  was  educated  for  the  rabbinical 
profession,  and  displayed  at  a  very  early  age  a  most 
remarkable  power  of  acquiring  knowledge.  He 
studied  at  Berlin,  where  the  German  philosojihy 
made  sad  havoc  of  his  j)revious  convictions.  The 
conflict  in  his  mind  between  science  and  rabbinical 
lore  ended,  in  1829,  in  the  defeat  of  the  latter,  and 
F.  immediately  proceeded  to  Breslau,  where  he 
continued  his  oriental,  theological,  and  antiquarian 
studies,  which  were  completed  at  Halle  in  1831, 
under  Gesenius,  Wegscheider,  and  Tholuck.  In 
1833  he  went  as  a  teacher  of  languages  to  Leijisic, 
where  he  still  lives.  Among  his  numerous  and 
valuable  writings  may  be  mentioned  LeltrgehdmU 
der  ArGmdischen  Id  tome  (System  of  Aramaic  Idioms, 
Leip.  1835),  a  work  which  brought  the  Semitic 
languages  within  the  sphere  of  comparative  gram- 
mar, then  in  its  infancy,  and  which,  besides,  sought 
to  establish  a  system  of  analytico-historic  investi- 
gation in  regard  to  these  languages  themselves ; 
Perlenschnure  Aramdischer  Gno/nen  und  Lleder 
(Pearl-strings  of  Aramaic  Gnomes  and  Songs,  Leip. 
1836),  with  elucidations  and  glossary  ;  Concurdanthe 
Librorum  Sacrorum  Veteiis  Testamenti  Hehraice  et 
Chaldaice  (Concordances  of  the  Sacred  Books  of 
the  Old  Testament  in  Hebrew  and  Chaldee,  Leij). 
1837 — 1840),  a  work  of  indefatigable  industry  and 
careful  research,  which  has  obtained  for  its  author 
a  great  reputation  both  in  Germany  and  other  coun- 
tries ;  Art  Nohem  (Leip.  1840),  a  polemical  treatise 
on  the  genuineness  of  the  Sohar  and  the  worth  of 
the  Cabbala ;  Die  Spriiche  der  Vnter  (The  Savings 
of  the  Fathers,  Leip.  1839)  ;  Die  I si-aelitischt  Bibel 
(The  Hebrew  Bible,  Berlin,  1838),  translated  into 


FURSTENWALDE— FUSEL. 


German  from  the  original,  by  himself,  in  conjunction 
with  other  scholars ;  Der  Orient ;  Berichte,  Studien  nnd 
Kritiken  far  Judische  Oeschichte  und  Literatur  (The 
East ;  Notices,  Studies,  and  Criticisms  in  connection 
with  Jewish  History  and  Literature,  Leip.  1840) ; 
Die  Judischen  Religionsphilosophen  des  Mittelalters 
(The  Jewish  Religious  Philosophers  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  Leip.  1845) ;  Gescldchte  der  Juden  in  Asien 
(History  of  the  Jews  in  Asia,  Leip.  1849) ;  Biblio- 
theca  Judaica  (1849 — 1853)  ;  and  Hehrdisches  und 
Chalddisches  Ilandwdrterbuch  (Hebrew  and  Chaldee 
Manual,  Leip.  1851 — 1854),  preceded  by  a  history 
of  Hebrev/  lexicography.    He  died  in  1873. 

FU'RSTENWALDE,  a  small  walled  town  of 
Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Brandenburg,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Spree,  30  miles  east- south-east 
of  Berlin.  It  has  a  brick  church  of  the  14th  c,  the 
MariHiikircli,  which  contains  a  fine  Gothic  Sacra- 
mentjikduschen  (or  pyx  for  keeping  the  host),  built  of 
sandstone,  and  dating  from  1510.  F.  manufactures 
linens  and  woollens,  and  carries  on  some  trade  by 
river.    Pop.  (1871)  8197. 

FURTH,  a  flourishing  manufacturing  town  of 
Bavaria,  in  Middle  Franconia,  is  situated  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Rednitz  and  the  Pegnitz,  about 
5  miles  north-west  of  Nurnberg,  with  which  it 
is  connected  by  a  railway,  laid  out  in  1835,  and 
the  first  that  w^as  completed  in  Germany.  It  has 
numerous  churches,  synagogues,  a  town-hall,  theatre, 
&c.  It  is  the  most  industrious  and  most  prosperous 
manufacturing  town  of  Bavaria ;  its  mirrors,  chande- 
liers, snuff-boxes,  lead-pencils,  its  brass  and  wood 
wares,  and  its  articles  of  dress,  are  famous.  The 
making  of  metallic  leaf,  and  the  manufacture  of 
articles  in  bronze,  are  most  important  branches  of 
industry.  F.  also  produces  pinchbeck  rings,  watch- 
keys,  brass  nails,  spectacles  and  optical  instruments, 
in  great  abundance.  An  annual  fair,  lasting  four- 
teen days,  takes  place  at  Michaelmas.  Pop.  24,569. 
of  whom  2500  are  Jews,  and  the  rest  Protestants. 
F.  first  appears  in  history  about  the  beginning  of 
the  10th  c,  when  it  belonged  to  the  archbishops 
of  Bamberg.  Subsequently  it  acknowledged  the 
authority  of  the  Burgrafs  of  Nuremberg.  In  1634, 
during  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  the  Austrian  Croats 
burned  it  to  the  ground.  In  1680  a  great  fire 
almost  laid  it  in  ashes  again.  It  first  began  to 
attain  impoi-tance  as  a  seat  of  manufactures  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  last  century. 

FURY  AND  HECLA  STRAIT,  lying  in  lat.  70° 
N.,  and  long,  from  82°  to  86°  W.,  separates  MeH-ille 
Peninsvda  on  the  south  from  Cockburn  Island  on  the 
north,  and  connects  Fox's  Channel  on  the  east  with 
the  Gulf  of  Boothia  on  the  west.  It  is  of  no  value 
whatever  as  a  means  of  communication,  nor  is  ever 
likely  to  be  so,  its  western  entrance  having  been 
ascertained  by  Captain  Parry,  who  discovered  it,  on 
his  second  voyage,  to  be  impenetrably  closed  from 
shore  to  shore  by  the  accumulated  ices  of  many 
years.  It  is  traversed  from  west  to  east  by  a  strong 
current,  which  passes  down  Fox's  Channel  into 
Hudson's  Strait. 

FURZE  {Ulex),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Leguminosoe,  sub-order  PapiUonacece,  distin- 
guished by  a  two-leaved  calyx  with  a  small  scale  or 
bractea  on  each  side  at  the  base,  stamens  all  united 
by  their  filaments,  and  a  turgid  pod  scarcely  longer 
than  the  calyx.  The  Common  F.  {U.  Europceus), 
also  called  Whin  and  Gorse,  is  a  shrub  about 
two  or  three  feet  high,  extremely  branched ;  the 
branches  green,  striated,  and  terminating  in  spines  ; 
the  leaves  few  and  lanceolate ;  the  flowers  numer- 
ous, solitary,  and  yellow.  It  is  common  in  many 
of  the  southei-n  parts  of  Europe  and  in  Britain, 
although  it  does  not  reach  any  considerable  elevation 


on  the  British  mountains,  and  often  Buffers  from 
the  frost  of  severe  winters ;  whereas  in  mild 
seasons  its  flowers  may  be  seen  all  winter,  so  that 
there  is  an  old  proverb,  '  Love  is  out  of  season  when 
the  furze  is  out  of  blossom.'  It  is  scarcely  known 
in  any  of  the  northern  parts  of  Europe ;  and 
Linnseus  is  said  to  have  burst  into  exclamations  of 
grateful  rapture  when  he  flrst  saw  a  common  covered 
with  F.  bushes  glowing  in  the  profusion  of  their 
rich  golden  flowers.  P.  is  sometimes  jilanted  for 
hedges,  but  is  not  well  suited  for  the  purpose,  occu- 
pying a  great  breadth  of  groimd,  and  not  readily 
acquiring  sufficient  sti*ength ;  besides,  it  dees  not, 
when  cut,  tend  to  acquire  a  denser  habit.  It  is 
usefid  as  affording  winter  food  for  sheep,  and  on  this 
account  is  burned  down  to  the  ground  by  sheep- 
farmers  when  its  stems  become  too  high  and  woody^ 
so  that  a  supply  of  green  succulent  shoots  may  be 
secured.  In  some  parts  of  Wales,  F.,  chopped  and 
briused,  forms  the  principal  part  of  the  w  inter  fodder 
of  horses.  In  some  places,  it  is  sown  to  yield  green 
food  for  sheep  or  other  animals,  hwt  is  f  referable  to 
other  green  crops  oidy  on  dry  sandy  soils,  where 
they  could  not  be'  advantageously  cultivated.  It 
is  most  extensively  cultivated  in  Flanders.  It  la 
chopped  and  bruised  by  means  of  a  mallet,  one 
end  of  which  is  armed  with  knife-blades ;  or  by 
means  of  a  simple  machine,  called  a  gorse-mill. — A 
double-flowering  variety  is  common  in  gardens.  A 
very  beautiful  variety,  called  Irish  F.,  because 
originally  found  in  Ireland  [U.  strictus  of  some 
botanists),  is  remarkable  for  its  dense,  compact, 
and  erect  branches.  A  dwarf  kind  of  F.  ( U.  nanus) 
occurs  in  some  places,  and  is  perhaps  also  a  mere 
variety  ;  if  so,  there  is  only  one  species  known. 

In  fox-hunting  countries,  F.  is  encouraged  on 
account  of  the  excellent  cover  it  affords.  It  is  also 
a  favourite  cover  for  rabbits. 

FUSE,  FUSEE,  a  tube  of  wood  or  metal,  per- 
forated down  the  side  with  a  vertical  row  of  holes, 
and  used  for  firing  shells.  The  tube  is  filled  with 
a  comijosition  of  nitre,  sulphur,  and  gunpowder, 
which  will  burn  gradually.  The  distance  between 
each  hole  representing  a  second,  the  range  and 
time  of  flight  are  computed,  and  that  hole  is  left 
open  which  will  communicate  the  fire  in  the  fuse  to 
the  loaded  shell  at  the  moment  the  latter  touches 
the  ground  after  being  discharged.  Of  course,  when 
combustion  reaches  this  aperture,  the  shell  is 
burst  by  the  explosion  of  the  contained  gunpowder, 
and  scattered  around  in  munerous  fragments.  Fuses 
constructed  on  a  similar  j^rinciple  are  used  in 
exploding  military  mines  (q,  v.). 

FUSEL  or  FOUSEL  OIL,  known  also  as 
Potato  Spirit,  is  a  frequent  imimrity  in  spirits 
distilled  from  fermented  potatoes,  barley,  rye,  &c., 
to  which  it  communicates  a  pecidiar  and  offensive 
odour  and  taste,  and  an  unwdiolesome  jjroperty. 
Being  less  volatile  than  either  alcohol  or  water,  it 
accumulates  in  the  last  portions  of  the  distilled 
liquor.  According  to  Liebig,  it  is  principally  formed 
in  the  fermentation  of  alkaline  or  neutral  liquids, 
while  it  never  occurs  in  acidulous  fermenting  fluids 
which  contain  tartaric,  racemic,  or  citric  acid.  It 
mainly  consists  of  a  substance  to  which  chemists 
have  given  the  name  of  amylic  alcohol,  whose  compo- 
sition is  now  represented  by  the  formula  C5H12O. 
It  is  a  colourless  limpid  fluid,  which  has  a  persist- 
ent and  oppressive  odour  and  a  burning  taste.  It 
is  only  sparingly  soluble  in  water,  but  may  be  mixed 
with  alcohol,  ether,  and  the  essential  oils  in  all 
proportions.  Any  spirit  which  produces  a  milky 
appearance,  when  mixed  with  four  or  five  times  its 
volume  of  water,  may  be  suspected  to  contain  it. 

Fusel  oil  is  principally  sold  in  this  country  for  the 


FUSELI— FUSTIC. 


purpose  of  yielding  pear  essence  for  the  so-called  | 
jargonelle-drops  ;  it  nas  likewise  been  patented  as 
a  soh'ent  for  quinine  ;  and  according  to  Liebig,  it  is 
sometimes  employed  in  lighting  distillery  buildings,  i 

FUSE'LI,  Henry,  the  second  son  of  John  Caspar  I 
Fuseli,  or  Fuessh,  a  portrait-painter,  and  author  of 
Lives  of  the  Swiss  Painters,  was  born  at  Zurich 
in  1742.  He  studied  in  his  native  town  and  at  Berlin, 
travelled  with  Lavater  in  1761,  and  then  went  to 
England,  where,  by  Reynolds's  advice,  he  devoted 
hmiself  to  art.  In  pursuance  of  this  object,  he 
proceeded  to  Italy  in  1770,  where  he  remained  for 
eight  years,  studying  in  particular  the  works  of 
Michael  Angelo,  and  in  1778  returned  to  England. 
In  1790  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Academy,  where,  nine  years  later,  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  painting.  He  died  at  Putney  Hill,  near 
Loudon,  16th  April  1825,  and  was  buried  beside 
his  friend,  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  in  St  Paul's.  His 
most  remarkable  works  are  '  The  Ghost  of  Dion,' 
from  Plutarch  ;  '  Lady  Macbeth  ; '  '  Hercules  and  the 
Horses  of  Diomedes ; '  and  his  '  Milton's  Gallery,' 
comprising  47  designs  from  Paradise  Lost.  F.'s 
imagination  was  bold,  but  coarse  ;  he  had  more 
genius  than  art ;  and  his  execution  was  often  spas- 
modic in  the  extreme.  His  art-criticism,  however, 
Btrange  to  say,  ranks  among  the  best  in  the  lan- 
guage. His  literary  works,  with  a  narrative  of  his 
hfe,  w^re  published  by  Knowles  (3  vols.,  London, 
1831). 

FUSIBI'LITY.  With  few  exceptions,  all  solids 
which  can  bear  a  high  temperature  without  under- 
going chemical  change,  may  be  melted.  Many  sub- 
Btances  which  are  popularly  regarded  as  infusible 
— as,  for  example,  platinum  and  flint — readily  fuse 
befoi3  the  oxyhydrogen  blow-pipe,  or  between  the 
pohis  of  a  powerful  galvanic  battery ;  even  carbon 
has  been  partially  fused  by  the  last-named  means. 
There  are  many  substances  which  cannot  be  melted 
because  they  are  decomposed  by  the  action  of  heat. 
Thu3,  wood  and  many  other  organic  compounds  are 
decomposed  into  certain  gases,  which  escape,  and 
into  carbon  and  fixed  salts,  which  are  left.  Simi- 
larly, carbonate  of  lime  (chalk)  is  decomposed  into 
carbonic  acid  gas  and  lime  at  a  temperatiu-e  below 
its  fubing-point.  If,  however,  we  prevent  the  gas 
from  escaping  by  confining  the  carbonate  of  lime 
in  a  hcfmetically  closed  gun-barrel,  it  can  be  melted 
at  a  high  furnace-heat. 

A  table  of  '  The  Order  of  Fusibility  of  the  Metals' 
is  given  by  Miller  in  his  Elements  of  Chemistry,  2d 
edition,  rol.  ii.  p.  294. 

FUSIBLE  METAL.  Fusible  metal  is  composed 
of  2  pai-ta  of  bismuth,  1  of  lead,  and  1  of  tin.  It 
fuses  at  201 '  F.,  becoming  pasty  before  it  completely 
melts.  It  expands  in  a  very  anomalous  manner ; 
its  bulk  increases  regularly  from  32°  to  95° ;  it 
then  contracts  gradually  to  131 ' ;  it  then  expands 
rapidly  till  it  reaches  176°,  and  from  that  point  till 
it  melts,  its  expansion  is  uniform.  The  facidty  of 
expanding  as  it  cools,  while  still  in  a  comparatively 
Boft  state,  renders  the  alloy  very  serviceable  to  the 
die-sinker,  who  employs  it  to  test  the  acciu-acy  of 
his  die,  every  line  I'eing  faithfully  reproduced  in 
the  cast  made  of  the  alloy.  The  proportions  of 
the  three  metals  are  sometimes  varied,  and  another 
formida  is  given  in  the  table  in  Fusing  *  and 
Freezing  Points. 

FUSIL  {Fr.  fusee,  a  spindle)  is  represented 
heraldically  as  longer  and  more  acute  than  a 
liozenge  (q.  v.). 

FUSILIE'RS  were  formerly  soldiers  armed  with 
a  lighter  fusil  or  mvsket  than  che  rest  of  the  army  ; 
but  at  present  aU   regiments  of  foot  carry  the 


.     —  S9° 

Alloy  (lSn,2Hi),  . 

2S6'» 

—30° 

f,  (3Sn,2Pb), 

9°-.5 

Tin, 

4ol° 

14° 

Bismuth,  . 

612» 

32° 

Nitrate  of  soda,  . 

591° 

91° 

Lead,  . 

620° 

.  111°5 

Nitrate  of  potash,  , 

642° 

136° 

Zinc,  . 

773» 

.  143°-6 

Antimony,  (about) 

900» 

158 

Silver, 

1773° 

.  207°-7 
3Sn, 

Copper,  , 

1996° 

Gold,  . 

201G° 

212° 

Cast  iron, 

2786° 

226°-4 

Wrought  iron,  higher 

239° 

than  . 

3280° 

Enfield  rifle.  Fusilier  is  therefore  simply  a  historical 
title  borne  by  a  few  regiments,  viz.:  the  Scots  Fusil- 
ier Guards,  the  5th  Northumberland,  7th  Royal, 
21st  North  British,  2.3d  Welsh,  87th  Irish,  101st  and 
104th  Bengal,  102d  Madras,  and  103d  Bomljay  Fusil- 
iers. 

FUSING  AND  FREEZING  POINTS  are 
terms  applied  to  the  temperature  at  which  solids 
assume  the  liquid  form,  and  liquids  become  soli<L 
The  following  table  gives  some  of  the  best  deter- 
minations of  the  fusing-point : 

Mercury,  . 
Oil  of  vitriol, 
Biomlne, 
Oil  of  turpentine, 
Tee,  . 
Lard,  . 
Phosphorus,  . 
Potassium,  .  . 
Yellow  wax,  . 
Stearic  acid, 
Sodium,  .  . 
Fusible  metal  (5F 

8Bi),  . 
Iodine,  , 
Sulphur, 

We  see  from  this  table  that  alloys  may  have  a 
fusing-point  far  below  that  of  any  of  the  metals 
which  enter  into  their  composition.  Similarly, 
mixtures  of  various  silicates  fuse  at  a  temperature 
far  below  that  which  is  required  to  melt  any  one 
of  them,  and  the  same  remark  applies  to  mixtures 
of  various  chlorides,  carbonates,  &c. 

Most  solids,  when  heated  to  their  fusing-point, 
change  at  once  into  perfect  liquids ;  but  some — as, 
for  example,  platinum,  iron,  glass,  phosphoric  acid, 
the  resins,  and  many  others — pass  through  an 
intermediate  pasty  condition  before  they  attain 
perfect  fluidity,  and,  in  these  cases,  it  is  difficult,  if 
not  impossible,  to  determine  the  exact  fusing-point. 
This  intermediate  condition  is  termed  vitreous  fusion^ 
because  it  is  a  characteristic  property  of  glass.  It 
is  in  this  intermediate  state  that  glass  is  worked, 
and  iron  and  platinum  forged. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  freezing-point  is  the  same 
as  the  fusing-point — that  is  to  say,  if  a  substance  in 
the  liquid  form  be  cooled  below  the  fusing-point,  it 
again  becomes  solid ;  but  there  are  cases  in  which 
we  can  cool  a  liquid  several  degrees  below  its  fusing- 
point  ;  thus,  by  keeping  water  perfectly  stiU,  we 
can  cool  it  to  5",  or  even  to  1°"4  before  it  freezes. 
If,  however,  we  drop  a  solid  body  into  water  in  this 
condition,  or  if  we  shake  the  vessel  containing  it, 
congelation  begins  at  once,  and  the  temperature 
rises  to  32°.  This  phenomenon  is  exhibited  to  a 
still  greater  degree  in  viscid  fluids,  like  the  oils. 
It  is  well  known  that  the  freezing-point  of  water 
is  depressed  by  the  presence  of  salts.  Thus,  sea- 
water  freezes  at  about  26  •6,  and  a  saturated 
solution  of  common  salt  must  be  cooled  as  low  ajj 
4"  before  freezing.  Despretz  has  given  the  freezing- 
points  of  various  saline  solutions  at  different  degrees 
of  concentration  in  the  fourth  volume  of  the  Compiea 
Rendus,  p.  435. 

FU'STIAN,  a  cotton  fabric  having  a  pile  like 
velvet,  but  shorter,  and  which  is  manufactured  in 
nearly  the  same  manner  as  velvet — viz.,  by  leaving 
loops  standing  upon  the  face  of  the  fabric,  and 
then  cutting  them  through  so  as  to  form  upright 
threads,  which  are  afterwards  smoothed  by  shearing, 
singeing,  anc  brushing.    See  Velvet. 

FUSTIC,  a  name  given  to  two  kijids  of  dye-wood 
used  for  producing  a  yellow  colour,  and  with  chemi- 
cal additions,  other  colours,  such  as  browm,  clive, 
and  green.  The  name  seems  to  be  derived  from  the 
French  Fudet,  the  name  of  the  Venice  Sumach 
{Rhus  cotinus,  see  StniACH),  a  shrub  found  in  tha 

563 


FUSUS-FUTTYGURH. 


south  of  Europe ;  and  to  have  been  transferred  to 
a  very  different  plant,  the  Mcbclura  tinctoria  of  Don, 
or  Morus  tinctoria,  a  tree  of  the  natural  order 
Moracece,  a  native  of  the  West  Indies,  Mexico,  Brazil, 
Columbia,  &c.  The  fustic  is  a  large  and  handsome 
tree,  the  wood  is  of  a  greenish-yellow  colour,  and  is 
sometimes  used  in  mosaic  cabinet-work  and  turning, 
but  chiefly  in  dyeing.  About  10,000  tons  are 
imported  annually  into  Britain.  The  tree  is  particu- 
larly abundant  in  Campeachy.  The  wood  contains 
a  great  quantity  of  colouring  matter,  which  foims 
the  most  durable  of  vegetable  yellow  dyes ;  but 
as  the  colour  is  rather  dull,  it  is  more  used  for 
producing  other  colours.  The  name  Old  Fustic 
13  »3metimes  given  to  it,  and  Young  Fustic  to 
the  wood  of  J^/ius  cotinhs.  These  terms  began 
to  be  employed  about  the  beginning  of  last  century, 
from  the  mistaken  notion  that  the  one,  in  small 
pieces,  was  the  wood  of  the  young  tree,  and  the 
other,  in  com])aratively  large  logs,  of  the  same  tree 
in  a  more  mature  state. — The  Osage  Orange  (q.  v.) 
of  North  America  {Madura  attrantiaca)  is  nearly 
allied  to  old  fustic,  and  its  wood  also  affords  a 
yellow  dye. 

Old  Fustic,  or  Yellow  Wood,  is  employed  for 
dyeing  woollens  yellow,  and  also  to  impart  to  them 
green  and  olive  colours  when  mixed  with  indigo 
and  salts  of  iron.  It  furnishes  a  yellow  colouring 
matter,  which  may  be  obtained  in  crystals  by 
evaporating  its  watery  solution.  This  substance 
is  tenned  moritannic  acid,  and  its  composition  is 
represented  by  the  formula  CjoHicOgo'  The 
bichromates  of  potash  and  of  lead  have  to  a  great 
degree  superseded  the  use  of  Old  Fustic. 

Young  Fustic  is  the  wood  of  Ifhus  cotinus  or 
Venetian  sumach.  It  contains  a  yellow  colouring 
matter,  to  which  the  name  Fvsteric  has  been  given. 
It  is  generally  used  in  combination  Avith  other 
dyes,  in  order  to  strike  some  jiarticular  tint. 

FUSUS  (Lat.  a  spindle),  a  genus  of  gasteropodous 
molluscs  nearly  allied  to  Miirex  (q.  v.),  having  a 
spindle-shaped  shell,  with  a  very  elevated  spire,  the 
tirst  whorl  often  much  dilated,  and  a  straight  elon- 
gated canal.  The  whorls  are  not  crossed  by  varices, 
as  in  Murex.  The  species  were  formerly,  however, 
included  in  that  genus.  About  100  existing  species 
have  been  described,  and  more  than  three  times  that 
number  of  fossil  ones.  The  existing  species  are  dis- 
tributed over  the  whole  world,  living  generally  on 
muddy  and  sandy  sea-bottoms  at  no  great  depths. 


Roaring  Buckie,  as  used  by  the  Zetlandera. 


F.  antiquns  is  known  in  the  south  of  England  as 
the  Red  Whelk,  and  in  Scotland  as  the  Roaring 
Buckie,  from  the  continuous  sound — as  of  waves 
breaking  on  the  shore — heard  when  the  empty  shell 
is  applied  to  the  ear.  In  the  cottages  of  Zetland, 
the  shell,  generally  about  six  inches  long,  is  used  for 


a  lamp,  being  suspended  horizontally  by  a  cord,  its 
cavity  containing  the  oil,  and  the  wick  passina 
through  the  canal.  This  mollusc  is  often  dredged 
up  with  oysters.  It  is  eaten  by  the  poor,  but  is 
more  generally  used  as  bait  for  cod,  skates,  &c. 

This  genus  makes  its  first  appearance  in  the 
Oolite,  in  which  10  species  have  been  noticed.  The 
numbers  increase  to  35  in  the  Cretaceous  rocks, 
to  100  in  the  Eocene,  and  to  150  in  the  Miocene  and 
Pliocene. 

FUTA'K,  a  town  of  Lower  Hungary,  in  the 
county  of  the  Lower  Bacs,  is  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Danube,  in  lat.  45°  15'  N.,  and  long. 
19"  42'  W.  It  has  a  beautiful  castle  and  gardea 
and  the  inhabitants  grow  vegetables  and  tobaccc 
extensively.  F.  has  a  great  trade  in  corn,  and  has 
a  fair  in  November,  frei^uented  by  merchants  froa 
Turkey,  Greece,  and  Armenia.    Pop.  4642. 

FUTEHGU'NGE  (in  English,  Victori/  Market 
is  the  name  of  two  places  in  Rohilcund,  the  scentj 
respectively,  as  the  name  implies,  of  two  battlt  j 
gained  by  the  British  over  the  Rohillas. — 1.  Eastet  n 
F,  a  town  of  the  district  of  Bareilly,  is  situated  neir 
the  right  bank  of  the  Bhagal,  in  lat.  28'  4'  N.,  and 
long.  79°  42'  E.  The  action,  from  which  this  spot  is 
designated,  was  fought  in  1774,  giving  to  the  Na,wa,b 
of  Oude,  then  an  ally  of  the  English  East  India 
Company,  a  large  part  of  Rohilcund  ;  and  it  was,  in 
fact,  to  commemorate  that  event,  that  Eai,tern  F. 
was  built  by  that  prince. — 2.  Western  F.,  a  town 
also  of  the  district  of  Bareilly,  is  situated  in  lat.  28° 
28'  N.,  and  long.  79°  24'  E.  The  conflict  that  dis 
tinguished  this  locality  occurred  in  1796.  The  only 
eminence  in  the  neighbourhood,  the  moat  hotly  con- 
tested point  in  the  struggle,  bears  twoto'd  testimony 
to  the  story,  in  the  memorials  of  ihoAi  who  fell — a 
plain  and  simple  monument  of  foiirteen  .  British 
officers,  and  a  carved  and  minaretod  tomb  of  two 
Rohilla  chieftains. 

FUTTEHPU'R,  a  to\\ni  of  fne  Doab,  on  the 
great  trunk-road  between  Calcutta  and  Delhi,  stands 
in  lat.  25°  57'  N.,  and  long.  80*  54'  E.,  70  miles 
north-west  of  Allahabad,  and  50  miles  to  the  south- 
east of  Cawnpore.  It  is  a  thxiving  place,  with 
(1871)  20,478  inhabitants.  besides  the  buildings 
belonging  to  the  civil  estabTtshment  of  the  district 
of  its  own  name,  it  contains  a  small,  but  very 
elegant  mosque. 

FUTTEHPUR,  the  district  of  which  the  town 
of  the  preceding  article  is  the  capital,  lies  wholly 
within  the  Doab,  and  ocoapies  its  entire  breadth 
from  Jumna  to  Ganges.  It  extends  immediately  to 
the  west  of  the  district  of  Allahabad,  in  lat.  from 
25°  25'  to  26^  13'  N.,  and  in  long,  from  80"  12' 
to  81°  23'  E.,  containing  1583  square  miles,  and 
663,817  inhabitants.  It  yields  large  quantities  of 
cotton,  and  by  means  of  its  bordering  rivers,  and  a 
branch  of  the  Ganges  Canal,  it  possesses  consider- 
able facilities  for  inland  navigation. 

FUTTUHA,  or  FUTWA,  a  town  of  12,000 
inhabitants,  in  the  district  of  Patna,  and  sub-presi- 
dency of  Bengal,  stands  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Punpun  and  the  Ganges,  in  lat.  25°  30'  N.,  and 
long.  85°  22'  E.  As  the  Ganges  is  here  deemed 
peculiarly  sacred,  F.  is,  at  certain  seasons  of  the 
year,  the  resort  of  vast  numbers  of  pilgrims. 

FUTTYGU'RH,  the  military  cantonment  of 
Fumickabad,  stands  about  three  miles  to  the  east 
of  that  city,  on  the  o])posite  or  left  bank  ol  the 
Ganges,  being  in  lat.  27°  22'  N.,  and  Jong.  79 '  41' 
E.  its  name  became  peculiarly  fam  nis,  or  rather 
infamous,  in  the  mutiny  of  1857,  less,  however,  for 
the  outbreak  that  occurred  on  the  spot,  than  fd 


FUTTYPUR— FYZABAD. 


the  iinpaxalleled  sufferings  of  the  hapless  fugitives 
— men,  women,  and  children.    Pop.  (1871)  10,335. 

FUTTYPU'R,  a  town  in  the  district  of  Saugor 
and  Nerbudda,  and  sub-presidency  of  the  North- 
west Provinces,  stands  on  the  Unjon,  a  tributary 
of  the  Nerbudda,  about  20  miles  from  the  point  of 
junction,  being  in  lat.  22°  3S'  N.,  and  long.  78°  38'  E. 
It  is  a  place  of  some  importance,  as  being  the 
residence  of  three  Gond  rajahs. 

FUTURE  DEBT  is  a  debt  wherein  the  obliga- 
tion to  pay  and  the  time  for  payment  is  fixed  and 
certain,  but  the  day  for  performance  has  not  arrived. 
Of  such  a  debt,  it  was  said  in  the  civil  law  dies  cedit 
etsi  nondum  venerii ;  and  it  was  distinguished  from 
a  contingent  debt,  i.  e.,  h  debt  payable  on  the  per- 
formance of  a  condition  which  was  uncertain,  in 
which  it  was  said  dies  nec  cedit  nec  venit.  Thus,  an 
obligation  to  pay  six  months  hence  is  a  future  del)t ; 
AH  obligation  to  pay  '  if  my  ship  returns  from  Spain,' 
is  contingent.  In  the  event  of  the  death  or  bank- 
ruptcy of  a  person  having  large  commercial  trans- 
actions, it  is  often  of  great  importance  that  the  right 
of  the  holders  of  such  securities  should  be  accurately 
fixed.  In  Rome,  on  the  death  or  bankruptcy  of 
a  citizen,  a  creclitor  holding  a  claim  for  a  future 
debt  was  entitled  to  payment,  deducting  a  per- 
centage proportionate  to  the  date  at  which  his  debt 
was  payable  ;  but  a  contingent  creditor  only  received 
a  security  for  payment  in  case  his  debt  shoidd 
become  payable.  This  general  principle  has  been 
introduced  into  the  legal  systems  of  modern  states. 
In  Holland  and  in  France,  the  rights  of  creditors 
baving  claims  not  immediately  payable  are  based 
upon  the  rule  of  the  civil  law.  In  England,  a  future 
debt,  in  order  to  found  a  valid  claim,  must  be  in 
WTiting,  but  it  may  be  constituted  by  bond,  bill,  or 
note  or  other  security.  By  common  law,  such  a 
claim  could  not  be  enforced  untd  the  actual  time 
for  payment  has  arrived ;  and  formerly,  in  case  of 
bankruptcy,  a  creditor  on  a  debt  of  this  kind  was  not 
all'twed  to  insist  in  his  claim.  At  the  same  time, 
the  bankrupt's  discharge  was  held  not  to  release 
him  from  a  debt  which  had  not  been  admitted  to 
claha  in  the  process  ;  and  hence  debtors  were  some- 
times incarcerated  for  years  on  debts  which  they 
were  wholly  unable  to  discharge.  See  Imprison- 
ment FOR  Debt.  This  state  of  things  was  pro- 
ductive of  manifest  injustice  on  both  debtor  and 
creditor ;  on  the  latter,  by  excluding  him  from 
insisting  in  his  claim  at  a  time  when  he  might  have 
obtained  a  partial  payment ;  on  the  former,  by 
punishing  him  for  his  default  when  he  was  deprived 
of  the  means  of  making  any  return.  The  subject 
was  frequently  discussed  in  parliament  before  a 
remedy  was  applied.  At  last,  by  6  Geo.  IV.  c.  16, 
8.  51,  it  was  enacted  that,  in  cases  of  bankruptcy, 
where  a  debt  was  not  immediately  payable,  the 
creditor  ahoiild  be  entitled  to  prove  his  debt,  and 


receive  a  dividend,  deducting  interest  Jit  .'i  per  3cnt. 
for  the  period  which  was  to  elapse  before  the  date 
when  the  debt  was  payable  in  due  course.  By  s.  56, 
debts  payable  on  a  contingency  might  be  valued, 
and  a  dividend  paid  on  the  estimated  value.  Similar 
provisions  were  inserted  in  the  12  and  13  Vict.  c. 
196,  ss.  172  and  177.  By  the  last  bankruptcy  act, 
24  and  25  Vict.  c.  134,  s.  153,  it  is  enacted  that  a 
parson  having  a  claim  for  unliquidated  damages, 
which  are  of  the  nature  of  a  future  debt,  may  have 
his  claim  assessed  by  a  jury  either  in  the  court  of 
equity,  or  before  a  common-law  judge,  or,  in  case 
of  agreement  between  the  parties,  by  the  ccurt 
without  a  jury. 

By  the  common  law  of  Scotland,  the  rule  of  the 
civil  law,  as  to  the  rights  of  creditors  having  a 
future  claim,  has  always  been  recognised.  In  the 
event  of  bankruptcy,  creditors  in  both  future  and 
contingent  debts  are  allowed  to  rank,  but  the  latter 
only  to  the  extent  of  receiving  a  security  until  the 
condition  is  purified.  But  by  19  and  20  Vict.  c.  79, 
s.  53,  which  is  now  the  ruling  statute  as  to  bank- 
ruptcy in  Scotland,  contingent  creditors  may  have 
their  debts  valued,  and  may  vote  in  the  Sequestra- 
tion (q.  v.),  and  draw  dividends  proportionate  to  the 
valuation.  It  is  also  enacted,  s.  14,  that  all  creditors 
whose  debts  are  not  continrjent  may  concur  in  the 
petition  for  bankruptcy.  But  the  Scotch  law  affords 
to  future  debtors  a  further  privilege,  unknown  to 
the  system  of  the  sister-country — viz.,  that  of 
arrestment  in  security,  whereby  a  creditor  having  a 
future  claim  is  enabled,  in  case  his  debtor  seem  to 
be  wilfidly  diminishing  his  means  of  discharging  his 
debt,  to  attach  the  goods  of  the  debtor  as  a  security 
for  the  payment  of  his  debt.    See  Arrestment. 

FYNE,  Loch,  an  arm  of  the  sea  running  north 
and  north-east  from  the  Sound  of  Bute,  in  the  south 
of  Argyleshire,  to  beyond  Inverary,  in  the  north,  and 
is  bounded  by  the  district  of  Cowal  on  the  E.,  and 
by  those  of  Argyle,  Knapdale,  and  part  of  Cantire 
on  the  W.  It  is  43  miles  long,  2  to  10  miles  broad, 
and  40  to  70  fathoms  deep.  Its  shores  are  deeply 
indented,  and  bordered  by  low  bare  hills,  which 
rise  higher  and  are  wooded  near  Inverary.  On  the 
west  side,  it  sends  off  a  small  branch  leading  to 
the  Crinan  Canal.  Loch  F.  is  celebrated  for  its 
herrings. 

FYZABA'D,  a  rapidly  decaying  city  of  Oude, 
stands  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ghogra,  here  a 
havigable  river,  in  lat.  26°  47'  N.,  and  long.  82°  10'  E. 
Originally  an  appendage,  as  it  were,  of  Ayodha  or 
Oude,  the  ancient  capital  from  which  the  country 
took  its  name,  F.  became,  in  1730,  itself  the  seat 
of  government.  But  in  1775,  immediately  after  the 
annexation  of  part  of  Rohilcund  (see  Futehgunge), 
it  was  supplanted  by  Lucknow,  which  lay  about  9(i 
miles  to  the  west,  in  the  direction  of  the  neTly 
acquired  territory.    Pop.  (1871)  37,804. 


G 


THE  seventh  letter  in  the  Roman 
al})habet,  and  in  the  modern  alphabets 
derived  from  it.  For  the  history 
of  the  chai-acter,  see  Alphabet  and 
letter  C.  The  original  and  proper 
sound  of  G  (corresponding  to  Gr.  y)  is 
that  heard  in  gun,  (jive,  glad.  But  the 
same  natural  process  which  turned  the 
^--sound  of  c  before  e  and  i  into  that  of  s 
(see  C),  produced  a  similar  change  on  G,  so 
that  before  e  and  i  it  came  to  be  ])ronounced 
by  the  Latins  like  dzh.  The  sibilation  of  the 
letter  g  before  i  followed  by  a  vowel,  had  begun  as 
early  as  the  4th  c.  A.  D.,  as  is  evident  from  the 
misspelling  in  inscriptions ;  in  the  case  of  c,  the 
change  can  be  detected  much  earlier.  From  the 
Latin,  the  f/s/i- sound  of  g  i)assed  into  the  Romanic 
tongues,  and  also  into  English.  As  a  general  rule 
in  English,  in  words  derived  from  the  classical  and 
Romanic  languages,  g  has  the  hissing  sound  before 
e,  i,  and  y ;  it  has  its  natural  sound  in  all  words 
before  a,  o,  and  u;  and  it  retains  it  in  Teutonic 
words  even  before  e  and  i. 

G,  in  its  proper  power,  belongs  to  the  order  of 
gutturals,  k  or  c,  g,  ch,  gh;  of  the  two  'bare' 
gutturals,  g  is  the  Jlat  (or  medial),  and  k  the 
sharp;  while  gh  and  ch  are  the  corresponding 
Aspirates  (q.  v.). 

The  following  are  some  of  the  interchanges 
between  g  and  other  letters :  Lat.  ager,  Gr.  agros, 
Eng.  acre,  Ger.  acker;  Gr.  triakonta,  Lat.  triginta ; 
Gr.  gonu,  Lat.  genu.  Eng.  knee  ;  Lat.  {g)nosco,  Gr.  gi- 
gnosco.  Eng.  know ;  Lat.  genus.  Eng.  kin ;  Gr.  chen, 
Ger.  gans.  Eng.  goose  and  gander ;  Lat,  hesternus, 
Ger.  gestern,  Eng.  yester  (day) ;  Lat.  germajius.  Span. 
hermano.  The  convertibility  of  g  and  y  is  seen 
in  the  old  English  participles  in  y,  as  yclad,  corrc; 
spending  to  Sax.  and  Ger.  ge- ;  in  Ger.  gelb,  Eng. 
yellow;  Ger.  tag.  Eng.  day;  Ger.  mag,  Eng.  may; 
yate  for  gate;  yard  for  garden,  Lat.  hortus.  In 
Italian,  gi  is  substituted  for  j,  as  Giulio  for 
Julius  ;  and  in  French,  which  has  no  to,  that  letter 
is  represented  by  gu,  as  guerre,  guarder,  for 
Eng.  war,  ward  or  guard.  G  has  been  frequently 
dropt  out,  as  Lat.  nosco  for  gnosco ;  Eng.  enough, 
compared  with  Ger.  genug ;  agone,  with  ge-gangen  ; 
Lat.  magister,  Fr.  maistre  or  maUre,  Eng.  master. 
May,  Lat.  Mains,  contracted  from  Magius,  is  from 
H  root  mag,  or  (Sans.)  mah,  to  grow :  so  that  May  is 
j'lst  the  season  of  growth. 

G,  in  Music  is  the  fifth  sound  of  the  natural 
diatonic  scale  of  C,  and  the  eighth  sound  of  the 
clrromatic  scale.  It  stands  in  proportion  to  C  as  2 
to  3  ;  is  a  perfect  fifth  above  C,  and  the  second 
harmonic  arising  from  C  as  a  fundamental  note. 
In  the  solmisation  of  Guido  Aretinus,  the  note  G 
was  called  Sol,  Re,  or  Ut,  according  as  the  hexa- 
chord  began  with  C,  F,  or  G.  G  major  as  a  key 
has  one  sharp  at  its  signature,  viz.,  F  sharp.  G 
minor  has  two  flats  at  its  signature,  viz.,  B  flat  and 
£  flat. 

GAAL,  JozsEF,  a  Hungarian  author,  was  bom  at 


Na^  Karoly  in  1811,  studied  at  the  college  of 
Buda,  and  at  the  university  of  Pesth,  and  entered 
soon  afterv\-ards  the  administrative  career,  being 
attached  to  the  Hungarian  Council  of  Lieutenancy. 
G.  began  writing  early,  and  proved  equally  success- 
ful when  gossii)ing  in  the  columns  of  Kossuth's 
famous  Pesti  Jlirlap,  and  when  engaged  in  translat- 
ing a  masterpiece  of  Cervantes,  filling  the  periodicals 
with  tales  and  novels,  or  furnishing  original  works 
f()r  the  National  Theatre.  The  sketches  of  country- 
life  as  it  was,  and  as  it  still  continues  on  the 
vast  plains  of  Hungary,  are  nowhere  to  be  found 
more  vividly  and  more  tridy  exhibited  than  in  G.'s 
comedies  and  tales.  The  folloA\ang  are  some  of 
G.'s  oritrinal  compositions  :  Szirmay  Ilotia,  a  novel 
in  2  vols.  (Pesth,  1836);  Peleskei  Notariiis  (The 
Notary  of  Peleske,  Pesth,  1838),  a  comedy  in  four 
acts— rnight  be  called  the  Hungarian  comedy  par 
excellence ;  Szvatopluk^  a  tragedy  in  five  acts. 
Tales :  Pusztai  Kaland  (An  Adventure  on  the 
Hungarian  Prairies)  ;  Tengeri  Kaland  a,z  Alfoel- 
doe.n  (Seafaring  Adventures  in  Lower  Hungary) ; 
Hortobdgyi  ejszaka  (A  Night  on  the  Heath  ot 
Hortobagy).  During  the  sojourn  of  the  Hungarian 
Diet  at  Debreczin  (1849),  G.  was  editor  of  a  journal 
combating  extreme  radical  views. 

GA'BBRO,  the  name  given  by  Italian  geologists 
to  a  variety  of  greenstone  composed  of  felspar  and 
diallage.  It  is  equivalent  to  euphotide  or  diallage 
rock. 

GABELENTZ,  Hans  Conon  von  der,  a  distin- 
guished German  philologist,  was  bom  at  Altou- 
burg,  13th  October  1807,  and  educated  at  the 
universities  of  Leipsic  and  Gottingen.  In  1833,  he 
published  his  Elements  de  la  Grammaire  3Iandschoue, 
a  new  grammar,  in  which  the  entire  idiomatic 
character  of  that  language  was  develojped  in  concise 
rides.  He  had,  moreover,  a  share  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  journal  devoted  to  Oriental  fxience 
[Zeitschrift  fiir  die  Kunde  des  Morgenlande^t),  and 
contributed  to  it  some  interesting  papers  on  the 
Mongolian  language.  Along  with  J.  Lobe,  he  also 
published  a  critical  edition  of  the  Gothic  translation 
of  the  Bible  by  Ulfilas,  with  a  Latin  translation, 
and  with  a  Gothic  glossary  and  grammar  appended 
(Leipsic,  1843 — 1846).  G.  was  also  the  first  phil- 
ologist in  Germany  who  iindertook  a  scientific  treat- 
ment of  the  dialects  of  the  Finnish- Tartar  stem. 
Besides  a  Syr  j  an  grammar  [Grundzuge  der  Syrjdn- 
ischen  Grammatik,  Altenburg,  1841),  he  furnished 
contributions  to  periodicals  on  the  Mordvinian  and 
Samoyed  languages.  He  has  since  published  oorae 
contributions  to  the  science  of  language  (Beitrdgt 
zur  Sprachenkunde).  The  first  three  parts  -^rero 
issued  in  1852,  and  the  first  volume  of  a  collection 
of  his  Philological  Fragments  {Sprachurissencchaft' 
liche  Fragmente)  appeared  in  1859,  and  a  Disserta- 
tion on  the  Passive  Voice  ( U eber  das  Passivum,  Eint 
Sprachvergleichejide  Abhandlung)  in  1860. 

GABELLE,  a  French  word,  derived  horn  the 
German  Gabe,  gift  or  tribute,  and  ori^ginallv  used  in 


GABION— GABRIEL. 


Gabion. 

of  security  can 


a  general  way  to  designate  every  kind  of  indirect 
tax,  Vnt  more  especially  the  tax  upon  salt.  This 
impost,  ^irst  established  in  1286,  in  the  reign  of 
Philippe  J  v.,  was  meant  to  be  oidy  temporary, 
but  was  declared  perpetual  by  Charles  V.  It 
varied  in  the  different  provinces.  Those  that  were 
most  heavily  taxed  were  called  pays  de  (jrande 
gabelle,  and  those  that  were  least  heavily  taxed,  j^ays 
de  petite  gabelle.  It  was  unpopidar  from  the  very 
first,  and  the  attemjit  to  collect  it  occasioned  fre- 
quent disturbances.  It  was  finally  suppressed  in 
1789.  The  name  gabelous  is,  however,  still  given  by 
the  common  people  in  France  to  tax-gatherers. 

GABION"  (Ital.  gabbia,  related  to  Lat.  cavea, 
hollow),  a  hollow  cylinder  of  basket-work,  employed 
in  field  or  tem])orary  fortification,  and  varying  in 
size  from  a  diameter  of  20  inches  to  6  feet,  with  a 
height  of  from  2  feet  9  inches  to  6  feet.  In  con- 
structing it,  stout  straight  stakes  are  placed  upright 
in  the  ground  in  a  circle  of  the  required  diameter, 
and  are  then  wattled  together  with  osiers  or  green 
twigs,  as  in  the  formation  of  baskets.  The  appa- 
ratus being  raised,  when  completed,  from  the  ground, 
the  ends  are  fastened,  and  the 
gabion  is  ready  to  be  rolled  to 
any  place  where  it  is  desirable  to 
form  a  breast-work  against  the 
enemy.  Placed  on  end,  and 
filled  with  earth,  a  single  row 
of  gabions  is  proof,  excejit  at 
the  points  of  junction,  against 
musketry  fire,  and  by  increasing 
the  number  of  rows,  any  degree 
be  obtained.  The  gabion  has 
the  advantage  of  being  highly  portable,  from  its 
shape,  wiiile  with  its  aid  a  parapet  can  be  formed 
with  far  less  earth,  and  therefore  in  less  time,  than 
in  cases  when  allowance  has  to  be  made  for  the 
slopes  on  both  sides,  which  are  necessarily  present 
in  ordinary  earthen  walls.  The  sap-i-oller  consists 
of  two  concentric  gabions,  one  4  feet,  the  other  2 
feet  8  inches  in  diameter,  with  the  space  between 
them  wedged  full  of  pickets  of  hard  wood.  In 
sapping  (see  Mines),  these  serve  as  substitutes  for 
mantlets. 

Stuffed  gabions  are  gabions  rammed  full  of  broken 
branches  and  small  wood  ;  being  light  in  weight, 
they  are  rolled  before  soldiers  in  the  trenches,  and 
afford  some,  though  not  a  very  efficient,  protection 
against  musketry  fire. 

Gabionnade  is  a  line  of  gabions  throwoi  up  by 
troops  as  a  defence,  after  bein^  driven  back  from 
other  more  solid  positions.  In  carrying  a  well- 
defended  fortress,  gabionnade  after  gabionnade  has 
sometimes  to  be  stormed  before  the  besieged  can  be 
compelled  to  surrender. 

GABLE,  the  triangular  part  of  an  exterior  wall 
of  a  building  between  the  top  of  the  side-walls  and 
the  slopes  of  the  roof.  The  whole  wall  of  which 
the  gable  forms  the  top  is  called  a  gable-end  ;  party- 
walls,  or  the  walls  which  separate  two  contiguous 
aouses,  and  which  belong  equally  to  both  houses, 
are  called  in  Scotland  '  mutual  gables.' 

The  gable  is  one  of  the  most  common  and 
characteristic  features  of  Gothic  architecture.  The 
end  walls  of  classic  buildings  had  Pediments  (q.  v.), 
which  foUowed  the  slope  of  the  roofs,  but  these 
were  always  low  in  pitch.  In  medieval  architecture, 
gables  of  every  angle  are  used  with  the  utmost 
freedom,  and  when  covered  with  the  moulded  and 
crocketed  copes  of  the  richer  periods  of  the  style,  gave 
great  variety  and  beauty  of  outline. 

O ablets,  or  small  gables,  are  used  in  great  profusion 
in  the  more  decorative  parts  of  Gothic  architecture, 
Buoh  as  canopies,  pinnacles,  etc.,  where  they  are 


introduced  in  endless  variety  along  with  tracery,  crock- 
ets, and  other  enrichments. 

The  towns  of  the  middle  ages  had  almost  all  tho 
gables  of  the  houses  towards  the  streets,  jjroducing 
great  diversity  and  picturcsqueness  of  elfect,  as  may 
still  be  seen  in  numy  towns  which  have  been  little 
modernized.  The  towns  of  Belgium  and  Germany 
especially  still  retain  this  medieval  arrangement. 
In  the  later  Gothic  and  the  Penaissance  periods, 
the  simple  outline  of  the  gable  became  stepped 
and  broken  in  the  most  fantastic  manner.  So© 
Corbie  Steps. 

In  Scottish  law,  a  mutual  gal>le  or  party -wall, 
though  i>artly  built  on  the  adjoining  property, 
belongs  to  the  builder,  and  he  can  prevent  his 
neighbour  from  availing  himself  of  it  for  the  sujjport 
of  his  house,  until  he  has  paid  half  the  expense  of 
building  it.  For  the  law  of  England  on  this  subject, 
see  Party- WALL. 

GABOO'N  RIVER,  The,  takes  its  rise  in  the 
Crystal  Mountains,  a  chain  in  Western  Africa,  nm- 
ning  almost  directly  east  and  west,  parallel  to,  and 
about  80  or  100  miles  distant  from,  the  coast.  Flow 
ing  first  in  the  direction  of  north  to  south,  it 
afterwards  curves  toward  the  north,  and  empties 
itself  into  the  Atlantic  in  lat.  about  0°  30'  N.,  and 
long.  9°  10'  E.  Its  mouth  forms  a  bay  of  some  10 
or  12  miles  in  length,  with  a  breadth  varying  from 
7  to  15  miles.  The  total  length  of  the  river  is  said 
to  be  about  120  miles.  The  G.  is  deep  and  sluggish, 
the  mass  of  its  waters  being  tidal ;  60  miles  from 
its  mouth  the  tide  rises  to  a  height  of  from  seven  to 
nine  feet.  The  climate  is  unhealthy;  but  the  profits 
of  the  trade  in  ivory,  which  is  obtained  alnindantly 
in  the  territories  through  which  the  river  flows, 
induced  a  French  colony  to  settle  and  build  a  fort  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river  in  1842  or  1843.  In  the  same 
year,  an  American  mission,  which  still  continues  in 
active  operation,  was  established  at  Baraka,  about 
eight  miles  up  the  river.  The  Gaboon  country, 
besides  ivory — of  which,  when  the  home  demand  is 
brisk,  it  yields  about  80,000  pounds  annually — pro- 
duces ibar-wood,  a  dye-wood  from  which  a  dark- 
red  dye  is  obtained,  ebony,  and  copal  of  inferior 
quality.  The  banks  of  the  river,  from  its  source 
to  the  ocean,  are  occui)icd  by  about  a  dozen  tribes, 
chief  of  which  is  the  Mpongeve,  who  hold  its 
mouth.  This  division  of  territory  renders  the 
ivory  much  more  costly  than  it  otherwise  would  be, 
the  first  owners  in  the  interior  not  being  allowed  to 
take  it  direct  to  the  white  trader  at  the  coast,  but 
compelled  to  transmit  it  through  the  hands  of  t^^o 
intervening  tribes,  each  of  whom  makes  a  profit. 

GABRIEL  (Heb.  the  man  or  mighty  one  of  God) 
is,  in  the  Jewish  angelology,  one  of  the  seven  arch- 
angels. He  appears  in  the  book  of  Daniel  as  the 
interpreter  of  the  proj)het's  vision  (chap,  vdii.),  and 
announces  the  future  appeai'ance  of  the  Messiah 
(chap.  ix.  21 — 27).  In  the  New  Testament,  he 
reveals  to  Zacharias  the  birth  of  John  the  Baptist 
(Luke,  i.  11),  and  to  the  Vii'gin  Mary  the  birth  of 
Christ  (Luke,  i.  26).  According  to  the  Rabbins, 
he  is  the  angel  of  death  for  the  people  of  Israel, 
whose  souls  are  intrusted  to  his  care.  The  Tal- 
mud describes  him  as  the  i)rince  of  fire,  and  as 
the  spirit  M^ho  presides  over  the  thunder  and  the 
ripening  of  fniits.  When  Nebuchadnezzar  besieged 
Jerusalem,  G.  is  believed  to  have  entered  the  Temple, 
by  command  of  Jehovah,  before  the  Assyi'iaa 
soldiery,  and  burned  it,  thereby  frustrating  their 
impious  intentions.  G.  has  also  the  reputation 
among  the  Rabbins  of  being  a  most  distinguished 
linguist,  having  taught  Joseph  the  70  languages 
spoken  at  Babel,  and  being,  in  addition,  the  only 
angel  who  could  speak  Chaldee  and  S^Tiac.  Thi 

m 


GACHARD— GAELIC  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 


Mohammedans  hold  G.  in  even  greater  reverence  than 
t  ie  Jews,  and  regard  him  as  the  chief  of  the  most 
favoured  angels  who  form  the  council  of  God  ;  he  is 
called  the  spirit  of  truth,  and  is  believed  to  have  dic- 
tated the  Koran  to  Mohammed. 

GACHAIiD,  Louis  Prosper,  principal  archivist 
of  Belgium,  was  born  in  France  about  the  year  1800. 
Ife  was  originally  a  compositor ;  but  having  removed 
to  Belgium,  he  took  part  in  the  revolution  of  1830,  and 
was  naturalised  in  1831.  In  the  same  year  he  was 
appointed  to  the  useful  and  honourable  post  which 
he  still  retains  (1873).  G.  has  spent  much  time  in 
examining  the  documents  relating  to  Belgian  history, 
which  are  to  be  found  in  the  national  archives  and 
in  those  of  Spain.  His  principal  writings  are,  Ana- 
Ipctes  Behjiqves  (1830) ;  Documents  Poliliques  et  Di})lo- 
matiques  sar  la  lievolalion  Behje  de  1790  (1831) ; 
Memoires  sur  les  Bollandides  et  leurs  Travaux  depuis 
1773  jusqu^en  1789  (1847)  ;  Correspondance  de  Guil- 
laume  le  Tciciturne  (1847 — 1851) ;  Correspondance  de 
PhUlpjje  II.,  mr  les  Affaires  des  Pays-Bas  (1848  — 
1851) ;  Correspondance  du  Due  cFAlbe  sur  l' Invasion 
du  Comte  Louis  de  Nassau  en  Frise  (1850) ;  Betruite 
et  Mort  de  CJiarles-Quint  (1854),  and  Relation  das 
Troubles  de  Gand  sous  Charles-Quint  (1856).  Pres- 
cott  speaks  higlily  of  his  history  of  Charles  V.  In 
1859,  G.  published  a  series  of  Instorical  docunients 
bearing  unfavourably  upon  the  characters  of  Counts 
Egniont  and  Horn,  which  luul  the  cflPcct  of  stopping 
proceedings  in  regard  to  the  erection  of  n  national 
monument  to  these  two  noblemen.  He  issued  in  1863 
Don  Carlos  et  Philippe  II.  ;  in  1866,  Aetes  des  Etats 
Generaiix  des  Pays  Bns ;  in  1867,  Cnrrespo7idance 
de  Marguerite  d'Autriche  avec  Phili2>l)e  II.  ;  in  1869, 
Jeanne  la  Folic. 

GAD,  the  first-born  of  Zilpah,  Leah's  maid,  was 
the  seventh  son  of  Jacob.  His  name  is  differently 
explained. — The  tribe  of  Gad  numbered  in  the 
wilderness  of  Sinai  more  than  40,000  fighting-men. 
Nomadic  by  nature,  and  possessing  large  herds  of 
cattle,  they  preferred  to  remain  on  the  east  side  of 
Jordan,  and  wxre  reluctantly  allowed  to  do  so  by 
Joshua,  on  condition  of  assisting  their  countrymen 
in  the  conquest  and  subjugation  of  Canaan.  Their 
territory  lay  to  the  north  of  that  of  Reid)en,  and 
comprised  the  mountainous  district  known  as  Gilead, 
through  which  flowed  the  brook  Jabbok,  touching 
the  Sea  of  Galilee  at  its  northern  extremity,  and 
reaching  as  far  east  as  Rabbath-Ammon.  The  men 
of  Gad — if  we  may  judge  from  the  eleven  warriors 
who  joined  David  in  his  extremity — were  a  race  of 
Btalwart  heroes  ;  'men  of  might,  and  men  of  war 
tit  for  the  battle,  that  could  handle  shield  and 
buckler,  whose  faces  were  like  the  faces  of  lions,  and 
were  as  swift  as  the  roes  upon  the  mountains' 
(1  Chron.  xii.  8).  Jephthah  the  Gileadite,  Barzillai, 
Elijah  the  Tishbite,  and  Gad  '  the  seer,  were  also  in 
all  probability  members  of  this  tribe. 

GADA'MES,  or  more  accurately  GH  AD  AMES 
(the  Cydamus  of  the  Romans),  the  name  of  an  oasis 
<and  town  of  Africa,  the  centre  of  divergent  routes 
to  Tunis,  Tripoli,  Ghat,  and  Tidikelt,  is  situated  on 
the  northern  border  of  the  Sahara,  in  lat.  30°  9'  N., 
long.  9°  17'  E.,  on  the  south-western  boundary  of 
the  pashalic  of  Tripoli,  and  310  miles  south-west  of 
the  town  of  that  name.  It  contains  six  mosques 
and  seven  schools  ;  but  the  education  offered  to  the 
young  is  limited  to  the  reading  of  the  Koran  and 
a  little  Arabic  writing.  The  gardens  of  G.  grow 
dates,  barley,  wheat,  millet,  &c.,  and  are  watered 
6y  the  hot  spring  (89°  Fah.),  from  which  the  town 
had  its  origin.  The  climate  is  dry  and  healthy, 
though  very  hot  in  summer.  The  revenue  of  G., 
fietimated  at  10,000  mahboobs  (£1700),  is  derived 
from  annual  tributes  levied  on  property,  and  from 
568 


custom  dues  and  tolls.  It  is  an  important  entrepot 
for  manufactures  and  foreign  goods  from  Tripoli  to 
the  interior,  and  for  exports  of  ivory,  bees-wax, 
hides,  ostrich-feathers,  gold,  &c.,  from  the  interior 
to  Tripoli.  Previous  to  1856,  about  500  slaves, 
principally  females,  were  annually  imported  at  G.; 
but  in  that  year  a  decree  was  issued  by  the  sultan, 
peremptorily  forbidding  the  traflBc,  which  accord- 
ingly has  been  completely  abolished.  Pop.  4000 
who  are  devoted  Mohammedans. 

GAD-FLY.    See  Box  and  Tabanus. 

GA'DID^,  an  important  family  of  malacopteroae 
fishes,  having  a  moderately  elongated  body  covered 
with  small  soft  scales,  the  head  naked,  the  fins  all 
soft  and  destitute  of  spines,  the  ventral  fins  placed 
under  the  throat  and  pointed,  one  dorsal  fin  or  more, 
the  air-bladder  large.  Some  of  the  species  are  small, 
but  others  attain  a  la;  size.  To  this  family  belong 
the  Cod,  Ling,  Hakv,  Dorse,  Haddock,  Whiting, 
Coal-fish,  Burbot,  &c.  The  si)ecies  are  widely  distri- 
buted. Most  of  them  are  marine.  A  few,  as  the 
Burbot,  are  fresh-water  fishes.  The  more  important 
species  are  separately  noticed. 

GA'DWALL  [Anas  strepera,  or  Chauliodus 
strepera),  a  species  of  duck,  not  quite  so  large  as  the 
mallard,  a  rare  visitant  of  Britain,  but  abundant  in 
many  parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  equally 
so  in  Asia  and  in  North  America.  It  is  also  found 
in  the  north  of  Africa.  Being  a  bird  of  passage,  it  is 
a  native  both  of  arctic  and  of  tropical  regions.  The 


Gadwall  {Anas  strepera). 


G.  breeds  in  marshes,  and  lays  from  seven  to  nine 
eggs.  Except  at  the  breeding  season,  it  is  usually 
seen  in  small  flocks,  and  an  individual  is  sometimes 
to  be  found  in  a  flock  of  other  ducks.  Its  voice  is 
loud  and  harsh.  It  is  much  esteemed  for  the  table, 
and  is  common  in  the  London  market,  being  imported 
chiefly  from  Holla.id. 

GJEA,  or  GE,  according  to  the  Greek  mythology, 
the  goddess  of  the  earth,  appears  in  Hesiod  as  the 
first-born  of  Chaos,  and  the  mother  of  Uranus, 
Pontus,  and  many  other  gods  and  titans.  As  th» 
vapours  which  were  supposed  to  produce  divine 
inspiration  rose  from  the  earth,  it  was  natural  that 
G.  should  be  regarded  as  an  oracular  divinity  ;  and, 
in  fact,  the  oracles  at  Delphi  and  Olympia  were 
believed  to  have  belonged  to  her  in  the  earlier  ages 
of  their  history.  Her  worship  extended  over  all 
Greece,  and  she  had  temples  or  altars  in  most  of 
the  important  cities.  At  Rome,  G.  was  worshipped 
under  the  name  of  Tellvs. 

GAELIC  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 
The  term  Gaelic  (Gwyddelian  or  Ghadhelic)  is  used 
in  two  senses.    In  its  wider  signification,  it  designates 


GAELIC  LANGUAGE 


AND  LITERATURE. 


the  uoi-thern  branch  of  the  Celtic  languages, 
com^trehending  the  Irish,  the  Highland-Scottish, 
and  the  Manx.  See  Celtic  Nations  and  Irish 
Language  and  Literature.  In  its  narrower  signi- 
tication,  it  designates  the  Highland-Scottish  dialect, 
also  known  by  the  name  of  Erse  or  Irish.  Mr  W. 
F.  Skene,  one  of  the  latest  and  best  informed 
writers  on  the  subject,  holds  that  the  differences 
between  the  language  spoken  by  the  Scotch  High- 
landers and  the  language  spoken  by  the  native  Irish 
are  (1)  'partly  in  the  pronunciation,  where  the 
accentuation  of  the  language  is  different,  where  that 
peculiar  change  in  the  initial  consonant,  produced 
by  the  influence  of  the  previous  word,  and  termed 
by  the  Irish  grammarians  eclipsis,  is  unknown 
except  in  the  sibilant,  where  the  vowel  sounds  are 
different,  and  there  are  even  traces  of  a  consonantal 
permutation  ;  (2)  partly  in  the  grammar,  where  the 
Scottish  Gaelic  prefers  the  analytic  form  of  the 
verb,  and  has  no  present  tense,  the  old  present 
being  now  used  for  the  future,  and  the  present 
formed  by  the  auxiliary  verb,  where  the  plural  of 
one  class  of  the  nouns  is  formed  in  a  peculiar  man- 
ner, resembling  the  Anglo-Saxon,  and  a  different 
negative  is  used ;  (3)  pai-tly  in  the  idioms  of  the 
language,  where  a  greater  j^reference  is  shewn  to 
express  the  idea  by  the  use  of  substantives,  and  the 
verb  is  anxiously  avoided  ;  and  (4)  in  the  vocabulary, 
which  varies  to  a  considerable  extent,  where  words 
DOW  obsolete  in  Irish  are  stiU  living  words,  and 
others  are  used  in  a  different  sense.' — The  Dean  of 
Lismore's  Booh,  introd.  pp.  xiv.  xv.  (Edin.  1862). 

The  origin  of  the  differences  thus  described  is 
a  question  still  in  dispute.  Mr  Skene  contends 
that  they  are  ancient,  and  enter  into  the  organisa- 
tion of  the  language.  The  Irish  scholars,  on  the 
other  hand,  hold  that  they  are  comparatively  modem 
and  unimportant,  and  little  more  than  provincial 
corruptions  of  the  mother-langiiage  of  Ireland.  The 
late  Mr  Richard  Garnett,  one  of  the  most  learned 
of  English  philologists,  is  on  the  Irish  side,  holding 
'that  Irish  is  the  parent  tongue,  that  Scottish 
Gaelic  is  Irish  stripped  of  a  few  inflections,  and 
that  Manx  is  merely  Gaelic  with  a  few  peculiar 
words,  and  disguised  by  a  corrupt  system  of  ortho- 
graphy ; '  and,  again,  that  the  language  of  the 
Scottish  Highlands  '  does  not  differ  in  any  essential 
point  from  that  of  the  opposite  coast  of  Leinster 
and  Ulster,  bearing,  in  fact,  a  closer  resemblance 
than  Low  German  does  to  High  German,  or  Danish 
to  Swedish:— Philological  Essays,  pp.  202,  204 
(Lond.  1859).  That  the  north  of  Ireland,  and  the 
Scottish  Highlands  and  West  Islands,  were,  at  an 
early  period,  peopled  by  the  same  race,  or  races,  is 
admitted  on  both  sides.  Mr  Skene  further  admits, 
that  from  about  the  middle  of  the  12th  c.  to  about 
the  middle  of  the  16th  c,  Ireland  exercised  a 
powerful  literary  influence  on  the  Scottish  High- 
lands ;  that  the  Irish  sennachies  and  bards  were 
heads  of  a  school  which  included  the  West  High- 
lands ;  that  the  Highland  sennachies  were  either 
of  Irish  descent,  or,  if  they  were  of  native  origin, 
resorted  to  bardic  schools  in  Ireland  for  instruction 
in  the  language  and  the  accomplishments  of  their 
art ;  that  in  this  way  the  language  and  literature 
of  the  Scottish  Highlands  must  have  become,  by 
degrees,  more  and  more  assimilated  to  the  language 
and  literature  of  Ireland  ;  and  that  it  may  well 
be  doubted  whether,  towards  the  middle  of  the 
16th  c,  there  existed  in  the  Scottish  Highlands 
the  means  of  acquiring  the  art  of  writing  the 
language  except  in  Ireland,  or  the  conception  of  a 
written  and  cultivated  literature,  which  was  not 
identified  with  the  language  and  learning  of  that 
island.  Mr  Skene  holds,  at  the  same  time,  that  a 
rernai  ular  Gaelic,  preserAdng  many  of  the  independert 


features  of  a  native  language,  existed  among  the  Scot- 
tish Highlanders  as  a  spoken  dialect ;  and  that  a  pop- 
ular and  unwritten  literature  existed  in  that  native 
and  idiomatic  Gaelic,  in  the  poetry  handed  down  by 
tradition,  or  composed  by  native  bards  innocent  of  all 
extraneous  education  in  the  written  language  of  Ire- 
land. 

The  first  books  printed  for  the  use  of  the  Scottish 
Highlanders  were  a  translation  of  Knox's  Prayer 
Book  in  1567,  by  John  CarseweU,  Bishop  of  the 
Isles  ;  a  translation  of  Calvin's  Catechism,  in  1631 ; 
a  translation  of  the  Psalms  of  David,  begun  in  1659 
and  completed  in  1694 ;  and  a  translation  of  the 
Bible,  published  by  the  Rev.  Robert  Kirke,  minister 
of  Balquhidder,  in  1690.  All  these  works  are  in 
the  Irish  orthography  and  Irish  dialect ;  the  lact- 
mentioned  work,  indeed,  is  nothing  more  than  a 
reprint  of  Bishop  Bedell's  Irish  version  of  the  Bible, 
M'ith  a  short  vocabulary  of  Scottish  Gaelic  words, 
to  adapt  it  to  the  use  of  the  Scottish  Highlanders. 

The  first  translations  into  the  Scottish  Gaelic 
were  of  Baxter's  Call  to  the  Unconverted,  published 
in  1750;  of  the  Psalms  of  David,  in  1753,  in  1787, 
and  in  1807  ;  of  the  New  Testament,  in  1767  and 
1796;  of  Alleine's  Alarm,  in  1781;  of  the  Old 
Testament,  in  1783 — 1787,  and  in  1820;  and  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments,  in  1826. 

Vocabularies  of  the  Scottish  Gaelic  were  published 
in  1690,  in  1702,  in  1741,  in  1795,  and  in  1815.  The 
first  Dictionary,  by  R.  A.  Armstrong,  appeared  in 
1825 ;  the  largest  and  best  was  published  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Highland  Society  of  Scotland, 
in  two  quartos,  in  1828.  The  best  grammar  is  that 
oE  the  Rev.  Alexander  Stewart,  minister  at  Ding- 
wall, published  in  1801,  and  reprinted  in  1812. 

The  oldest  written  poetry  in  the  Scottish  Gaelic 
is  preserved  in  77ie  Dean  of  Lismore's  Book, 
written  between  1511  and  1551,  by  Sir  Jamea 
Macgregor,  \acar  of  Fortingall,  and  Dean  of  Lismore. 
It  is  now  in  the  Advocates'  Library  at  Edinburgh. 
Selections  from  it  have  been  published  at  Edinburgh 
during  the  present  year  (1862),  with  translations  by 
the  Rev.  Thomas  M'Lauchlan,  as  well  into  English 
as  into  modern  Scottish  Gaelic,  and  with  a  prelimi- 
nary dissertation  by  Mr  W.  F.  Skene.  The  volume 
contains  nine  pieces  ascribed  to  '  Ossian,  the  sou  of 
Finn,'  who  speaks  of  himself  as  contemporary  with 
St  Patrick,  and  pieces  by  later  and  less  known 
writers,  including  a  few  of  knightly  or  noble  rank, 
such  as  Gerald  Fitzgerald,  fourth  Earl  of  Desmond, 
in  Ireland ;  Isabella  Campbell,  wife  of  the  first 
Earl  of  Argyle  ;  and  'Dimcan  MacCailein,  the  Good 
Knight,'  believed  to  be  Sir  Duncan  Ciimpbell  of 
Glenurchy.  The  literary  merit  of  the  compositions 
is  very  slender. 

The  bibliography  of  the  scanty  literature  of  the 
Scottish  Gaelic  will  be  found  in  Reid's  Bihliothena 
Scoto-Ctltica  (Glasg.  1832).  The  modern  names  of 
most  note  are  those  of  Robert  Calder  Mackay,  or 
Robb  Donn,  as  he  is  more  commonly  called  in  his 
native  Suthei'land,  whose  poems  were  published  at 
Inverness  in  1829 ;  and  Duncan  Ban  Mclntyre,  of 
Glenorchy,  whose  poems  were  published  at  Glasgow 
in  1834.  The  former  was  born  in  1714,  the  latter 
in  1724 ;  both  were  self-educated.  The  traditional 
prose  literatiu-e  has  been  collected  and  illustrated 
by  Mr  J.  F.  Campbell  of  Islay,  in  three  pleasing 
volumes.  Popular  Tales  of  tlie  West  Ilighlanda 
(Edin.  1860—1862). 

Mr  Skene  has  very  clearly  and  fairly  stated  tne 
long-disputed  question  as  to  the  authenticity  of  the 
famous  Poems  of  Ossian,  published  first  in  English, 
and  afterwards  in  Gaelic,  by  Mr  James  Macphersoru 
The  conclusions  arrived  at  are :  1.  That  the  char- 
acters introduced  into  Macpherson's  poems  were 
not  invented  by  him,  but  were  really  the  subjects 


GAETA— GAGE. 


of  ti-adition  in  lihe  highlands ;  and  that  poems 
certainly  existed  which  might  be  called  Ossianic, 
as  relating  to  the  persons  and  events  of  that  mythic 
age.  2.  That  such  poems,  though  usually  either 
entire  poems  of  no  very  great  length,  or  fragments, 
had.  been  handed  down  from  an  unknown  period  by 
oral  recitation,  and  that  there  existed  many  persons 
in  the  Highlands  who  could  repeat  them.  S.  That 
Buch  poems  had  likewise  been  committed  to  writing, 
and  were  to  be  found  to  some  extent  in  manuscripts. 
4.  That  Macpherson  had  used  many  such  poems  in 
hia  work  ;  but  by  joining  separated  ]neces  together, 
and.  by  adding  a  connecting  narrative  of  his  own, 
Siad  woven  them  into  longer  poems,  and  into  the 
BJ-called  epics. 

The  Scottish  Gaelic  speech  is  everyAvhere  gradu- 
ally, and  in  some  places  rapidly,  losing  ground ; 
but  it  is  still  used,  wholly  or  partially,  in  the  public 
religious  services  of  about  180  out  of  about  1000 
congregations  of  the  Church  of  Scotland. 

GAETA  (ohe  Cajeta  of  the  Latins),  a  strongly 
fortified  maritime  town  of  the  Neapolitan  province 
Terra  di  Lavoro,  is  picturesquely  situated  on  an 
abinipt  promontory  projecting  into  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  connected  with  the  mainland  by  a 
low  and  narrow  isthmus  protected  by  solid  walls. 
On  the  summit  of  the  promontory  stands  the 
circidar  tower  D'Orlando,  said  to  be  the  ancient 
mausoleum  of  Lucius  Munatius  Plancus,  the  friend 
of  Augustus,  The  beauty  of  the  l)ay  of  G.,  which 
almost  rivals  that  of  Naples,  has  been  celel)rated 
by  Homer,  Virgil,  and  Horace.  Cajeta,  the  ancient 
name  of  G.  derives  its  origin,  according  to  Virgil, 
from  its  being  the  burial-place  of  Cajeta,  the 
nurse  of  vEneas.  On  the  dismemberment  of  the 
Roman  empire,  G.  became  a  centre  of  ciN^lisation 
and  commercial  prosperity,  and  reached  still  further 
importance  after  the  decadence  of  the  eastern 
empire.  In  the  growth  of  this  early  municipality 
is  foreshadowed  the  commercial  life  and  grandeur 
of  the  later  Italian  republics.  Both  in  ancient 
and  modern  times,  G.  has  sustained  remarkable 
sieges,  and  recently  it  has  been  the  theatre  of 
several  interesting  events.  In  1848,  it  became  the 
refuge  of  Pope  Pius  IX.,  when  tlie  revolution  at 
Eome  compelled  him  to  retire.  In  1860,  after  the 
defeat  of  the  Neapolitans  on  the  Volturno  by  the 
forces  of  Garibaldi,  G.  was  the  last  stronghold  of 
the  Bourbon  dynasty  of  Naples,  and  surrendered 
after  a  protracted  siege  to  General  Cialdini.  Many 
interesting  classic  remains  have  been  found  in  G., 
including  a  fine  marble  vase  by  the  Athenian 
sculptor  Salpione.  Its  vicinity  abounds  in  remains 
of  Roman  vdlas,  &c.  The  citadel,  which  is  of  great 
strength,  contains  in  its  tower  the  tomb  of  the 
Constable  Bourbon,  killed  at  the  takmg  of  Rome  in 
1527.  The  inhabitants  of  G.,  w^ho  number  about 
16,000,  derive  their  chief  profits  from  the  fisheries 
and  their  coasting-trade  in  oil,  wine,  and  fruit — the 
chief  productions  of  the  surrounding  country. 

G^TU'LIA,  an  ancient  country  of  Africa,  situated 
oouth  of  Mauritania  and  Numidia,  and  embracing 
tlie  w&stern  part  of  the  desert  of  Sahara.  Its  inha- 
bitants belonged  to  the  great  aboriginal  Berber 
family  of  North  and  North-western  Africa;  they 
were  not  in  general  black,  though  a  portion  of 
them  dwelling  in  the  extreme  south,  towards  the 
Niger,  had  ap]iroximated  to  this  colour  through 
intermixture  with  the  natives  and  climatic  causes, 
and  were  called  MelanogcetuU,  or  '  Black  Gaitulians  ' 
(see  Ptol.  iv.  6,  s.  16).  The  Gsetulians  were  savage 
and  warlike.  They  came  into  collision  with  the 
Romans  for  the  first  time  during  the  Jugurthine 
war,  when  they  served  as  light-horse  in  the  army 
of  tlie  Nimiidian  king.  Cornelius  Cossus  Lentulus 
670 


'  led  a  force  against  them,  and  for  his  succfeaa 
obtained  a  triumph  and  the  surname  of  Gaetulicua 
(6  A.  D.).  The  ancient  Gffltulians  are  believed  to 
be  represented  in  modern  times  by  the  Tuaricks  or 
Tawareks. 

GAFF,  in  a  ship  or  boat,  the  spar  to  which  the 
head  of  a  fore-and-aft  sail  is  bent,  such  sail  having 
its  foremost  side  made  fast  by  rings  to  the  mast,  and 
its  lower  edge,  in  most  instances,  held  straight  by  a 
boom.  The  thick  end  of  the  gaff  is  constructed  with 
'jaws'  to  pass  half  round  the  mast,  the  other  haU 
being  enclosed  by  a  rope  ;  this  serves  to  keep  it 
close  when  the  sail  is  hoisted  or  lowered.    A  griif 


A,  Gaff;  B,  Gaff-topsail-yard;  C,  Boom;  D,  Sheet; 
E,  Gaff- topsail. 

with  the  sail  called  'driver'  or  'spanker,*  at»d  the 
gaff-topsail,  which  is  a  small  sail  carried  on  th^  top- 
mast above  the  gaff,  are  shewn  in  the  accompapying 
j  illustration. 

j     GAFFLES,  a  name  applied  to  the  leverw  by 
j  means  of  which  cross-bows  were  bent. 
I     GAGE,  THoaiAa,  an  English  general,  who  became 
!  governor  of  Montreal  in  1760,  and  in  1763  succe»^ded 
I  general  (afterwards  Lord)  Amherst  as  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  British  army  in  America.    In  1774, 
when  the  difficulties  between  the  colonies  and  Great 
j  Britain  had  already  become  very  serious,  Geixeral 
j  G.  Avas  appointed  governor  of  Massachusetts.  In 
peaceful  times,  his  administration  might  in  all 
i  probability  have  been  popular  and  successful ;  but 
I  he  was  unequal  to  the  exigencies  of  that  trying 
period.    It  may  indeed  be  doubted  whether  any 
j  one,  whatever  his  abilities,  could,  while  restricted 
I  to  the  rigorous  policy  of  the  home  government,  have 
1  succeeded  in  preserving  the  colony  to  the  English 
i  crown.    In  April  1775,  General  G.  sent  an  expedi- 
tion to  seize  the  military  stores  at  Concord,  and  thus 
provoked  the  battle  of  Lexington,  the  first  explosion 
of  the  American  revolution.    Soon  after  (May  5) 
the  provincial  congress  resolved  that  '  no  obedience 
was  in  future  due  to  him  [Gage],  and  that  he  ought 
to  be  guarded  against  as  an  unnatural  and  inveterate 
enemy.'    According  to  Bancroft,  '  Gage  was  neither 
fit  to  reconcile  nor  to  subdue.'    He  was  recalled, 
and  sailed  for  England  in  the  autump  of  1775.  He 
died  in  1787. 

GAGE  (Lat.  vadium  or  ivadiiim)  signifies  a  pawn 
or  i^ledge,  and  is  derived,  says  Cowel,  from  the 
French  (jager.  Hence,  by  changing  g  into  w,  we 
have  wage  and  wager;  as  'wager  of  law,'  *\mget 
of  battle,'  wherein  a  person  gave  his  pledge  th  At  he 
would  sustain  his  affirmation ;  and,  in  the  letter 
case,'  the  glove  was  sent  as  a  material  pledge  *J» 


GAGE— GAGERN. 


he  redeemed  by  mortal  combat.  Hence  also  in 
England 

Estate  in  Gage,  wliicli  was  of  two  kinds — vivum 
vadium,  and  mortuum  vadium.  See  Mortgage. 
Vivum  vadium  was  where  an  estate  in  lands  was 
given  in  security  of  a  debt,  on  condition  that  the 
estate  should  remain  with  the  lender  until  he  had 
made  good  the  sum  lent  out  of  the  profits  of  the 
land.  So  as  in  this  case  neither  money  nor  land 
dieth  or  is  lost,  and  therefore  it  is  called  vivu':i 
vadium  (Co.  Litt.  205  a).  This  mode  of  giving 
pecm-ity  has  long  gone  out  of  use  ;  yet  there  is  no 
doubt  that  it  was  the  original  method  in  observance 
before  the  transaction  assumed  the  form  of  a  mort- 
gage. It  exactly  corresponds  with  the  Scotch  form 
of  a  pure  Wadset  (q.  v.). 

GAGE,  or  GAUGE,  an  apparatus  for  measuring 
any  sjjecial  force  or  dimension  ;  thus  we  have 
pressure-gage,  wind-gage  (see  Anemometer),  raiii- 
gage  (q.  v.),  wire-gage,  button-gage,  &c.  The  simj^lest 
form  of  gag 3  of  dimension  is  the  common  wire- 
gage,  by  which  the  diameter  of  wire  is  measured. 
It  is  simply  an  oblong  plate  of  steel,  with  notches 
of  different  widths  cut  upon  the  edge  ;  these  are 
numbered,  and  the  size  of  the  wire  is  determined 
by  trying  it  in  the  different  notches  until  the 
one  is  found  which  it  exactly  fits.  The  thickness 
of  sheet- metal  is  tried  by  the  same  gage.  There 
is  a  great  want  of  uniformity  in  these  gages — the 
Birmingham  gage  for  iron-wire,  sheet-iron,  and 
steel  differing  from  that  used  for  brass,  silver,  gold, 
&c. ;  and  these  again  from  the  Lancashire  gages. 
It  has  been  proposed,  m  order  to  obtain  uniformity, 
and  to  enable  definite  descriptions  and  orders  to 
be  given  with  accuracy  and  certainty,  that  instead 
of  the  ai'bitrary  numbers  of  varying  signification 
now  in  use,  decimal  parts  of  an  inch,  tenths,  hun- 
dredths, thousandths,  or  still  smaller  fractions,  if 
necessary,  be  used,  and  that  these  be  used  for  all 
diameters  and  thicknesses,  such  as  wires,  sheet- 
metals,  buttons,  watch-glasses,  &c. ;  but  such  a  scale 
has  not  yet  come  into  general  use.  The  gage  com- 
monly used  for  buttons,  watch-glasses,  and  such  lilce 
large  diameters,  is  a  rule  with  a  groove  cut  length- 
wise down  the  middle.  Another  metal  rule,  with  a 
brass  head,  slides  in  this,  and  by  mean*  of  a  thumb- 
in,  may  be  pushed  out  at  pleasure.  The  object  to 
e  measured  is  placed  between  a  and  b  (fig.  1),  and 
the  width  of  this  s])ace  is  measured  by  graduations 
nn  the  middle  metal  slide. 


Fig.  1.  Fig.  2. 

A  very  elegant  and  delicate  gage  has  recently  come 
into  use  for  measuring  watch-glasses,  and  is  applicable 
to  many  other  purposes.  On  an  oblong  piece  of 
sheet-metal,  two  straight  metal  ridges  are  fixed  in 
such  a  manner  that  they  shall  be  inclined  at  Sl  given 


angle  to  each  other,  as  ab  and  cd  (fig.  2).  Now 
let  us  suppose  the  angle  to  be  such  that  the 
distance  between  a  and  c  is  2  inches,  and  that 
between  b  and  tZ  is  1  inch,  while  the  lengths  ab  and 
cd  are  10  inches.  It  is  evident  tliat  for  every  inch 
of  descent  from  a  and  c  towai'^ls  b  and  d,  there  will 
be  a  narrowing  equal  to  of  an  inch  ;  and  for  every 
tenth  of  an  hich  of  such  descent,  there  will  be  a 
narrowing  of  -j-J-^-  of  an  inch,  and  so  on  :  thus  we 
may,  by  graduating  downwards  from  ac  to  bd, 
measure  tenths  by  iinits,  hundredths  by  tenths,  and 
so  on  to  still  finer  quantities  if  required.  This  is 
ai)plicable  to  lengths  as  well  as  diameters.  By 
means  of  fine  screws  with  large  graduated  heads, 
Messrs  Whitworth  have  measured  small  pieces  of 
steel  to  the  one-millionth  of  an  inch  (see  Micro- 
meter). Pressure-gages,  M'ind-gages,  &c.  wdl  be 
treated  under  the  special  subjects. — In  railways, 
the  gauge  means  the  distance  between  the  rails. 
See  Railway. 

GAGERN,  Heinrich  Wilhelm  August, 
Freiherr  von,  was  born  at  Baireuth,  20th  August 
1799,  and  educated  at  the  military  school  of  Munich. 
On  Napoleon's  return  from  Elba,  G.  entered  the 
army  of  Nassau,  and  served  as  lieutenant  at 
Waterloo.  After  the  peace,  he  devoted  liiniself  to 
the  study  of  law  at  the  universities  of  Heidelberg, 
Gottingen,  Jena,  and  Geneva.  On  returning  home 
in  1821,  he  entered  political  life  under  the  govern- 
ment of  Grand-ducal  Hesse,  and  after  passing 
through  several  public  offices,  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  Second  Chamber  in  1832,  in  which  position 
he  vigorously  opposed  the  politics  of  the  govern- 
ments and  of  the  Federal  Diet.  In  1835,  rhe 
government  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  majority, 
but  G.  continued  to  be  re-elected;  until,  at  the 
close  of  the  following  year,  seeing  the  fruitless- 
ness  of  his  opposition  to  the  governmental  politics, 
he  declined  re-election,  and  took  a  lease  of  his 
father's  estate  at  Monsheim,  with  a  view  to  the 
practical  study  of  agriculture.  In  1846,  G.  again 
appeared  before  the  public  in  a  work  against  the 
government  of  electoral  Hesse,  which  had  been 
legislating  in  defiance  of  the  constitution  of  the 
electorate.  In  the  following  year,  he  was  elected 
into  the  Chamber  agam  as  representative  of  Worms, 
and  his  return  to  public  life  gave  such  a  fresh 
impulse  to  liberal  politics,  that  in  1848  the  elections 
returned  more  opponents  of  the  governraent  than 
they  had  done  since  1832.  The  life  of  'i.  became 
now  inseparably  connected  with  the  memorable  Ger- 
man movement  of  1848.  He  took  the  l'=*ad  on  27th 
February,  by  introducing  a  motion  into  the  Chamber 
to  promote  the  representation  of  the  Ge^'iiiau  i)eople 
in  the  Frankfort  Diet.  When  the  preparatory 
convention  of  delegates  {das  Vorparlament)  from 
the  German  states  assembled  at  Frankfort  on 
31st  March,  G.  took  the  most  prominent  part  in  its 
deliberations,  and  on  the  meeting  of  the  parliament 
(28th  May)  (see  Germany),  he  was  appointed  pre- 
sident, and  continued  to  be  re-elected  every  month 
till  he  was  called  to  the  perpetual  presidenc}'. 
Displaying  more  of  the  qualifications  of  a  pra<!tical 
statesman  than  were  possessed  by  most  of  the 
leading  men  who  joined  in  this  movement,  G. 
struggled  on  amid  all  the  divisions  into  which  hia 
party  separated,  and  all  the  difficulties  presented 
by  the  governments.  But  unable,  on  the  one  hand, 
to  sympathise  ^vith  the  violence  of  the  democratic 
party,  and,  on  the  other,  to  come  to  an  uuderstand- 
ing  with  the  governments,  he  abandoned  the  move- 
ment altogether  on  the  20th  May  1849.  In  1850 
he  served  as  major  in  the  Sles\ag-Holstein  war, 
and  when  the  campaign  was  over,  retired  to  the 
Monsheim  estate,  which  had  now  come  into  his 
possession  by  his  father's  death.     In  1852  he  sold 

571 


GAGING— GAIUS. 


his  estate,  and  removed  with  his  family  to  Heidelberg, 
whei'e  he  has  since  resided. 

GAGING,  or  GAUGING.  Wlien  this  term  is 
used  without  qualification,  it  refers  specially  to  the 
gaging  of  the  contents  of  casks ;  and  in  many 
places,  the  popular  name  for  the  excise  officer  who 
measures  the  contents  of  casks  containing  excis- 
able liquors  is  'ganger.'  Sliding  scales,  which  are 
graduated  according  to  the  mathematical  rules  for 
determining  the  solid  contents  of  regular  solids 
approximating  to  the  form  of  the  casks,  are  used, 
but  considerable  practice  and  skill  are  required  to 
apply  them  with  accuracy. 

GAILLAC,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  Tani,  and  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  of  that 
name,  is  situated  in  a  fertile  vine-growing  district, 
32  miles  north-east  of  Toulouse.  It  is  ill  built, 
and  has  no  public  building  of  any  imjjortance 
except  the  communal  college.  Distilling,  tanning, 
Bhip-building,  and  a  brisk  trade  in  wine  and  brandy 
are  carried  on.    Top.  (1872)  5694. 

GAILLARD,  Gabriel  Henri,  a  French  historian, 
was  born  at  the  village  of  Ostel,  near  Soissons,  2Gth 
March  17'26.  He  was  educated  for  the  bar,  but 
Boon  abandoned  it  for  literature,  and  afterwards 
turned  his  attention  exclusively  to  history.  His  first 
work  was  entitled  Essai  de  lihelori/jU£,  Fran(;aise  d 
V  Usage  des  jeunes  Demoiselles,  &c.  (1745),  and  the 
favourable  reception  which  it  met  with  induced 
him  to  publish  his  Poetk/ue  FranQa'ise  cl  V  Usage  des 
Dames.  In  1757  appeared  his  Histoire  de  Marie 
de  Bourgogne,  Fille  de  Charles  le  Temeraire ;  which 
was  followed,  in  1766,  by  the  Histoire  de  Fran^'ois 
/,,  and  in  1782  by  the  Histoire  de  Charlenuigne, 
precedee  de  Considerations  sur  la  premiere  Race, 
mivie  de  Considerations  sur  la  seconde  Race,  et  con- 
tenant  VEloge  du  Premie^'  President  de  Lamoignon. 
In  a  diffuse,  one-sided,  and  rhetorical  style,  he 
represented  the  relations  of  France  to  England  and 
Spain  in  his  Histoire  de  la  Rivalite  de  la  France  et 
de  VAngleterre  (1771 — 1777)  (which  procured  his 
admission  into  the  French  Academy),  and  Histoire 
de  la  Rivalite  de  la  France  et  de  VEspagne.  G.  was 
the  aathor  of  many  other  -works.  He  wrote  eloges 
on  Malesherbes  (his  intimate  friend),  Descartes, 
Charles  V.,  Henry  IV.,  Oorneille,  Moli^re,  &c.  He 
died  13th  February  1806. 

GAI'NSBOROUGH,  a  market-town  and  seaport 
of  England,  in  the  county  of  Lincoln,  is  situated  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Trent,  about  20  miles  above 
the  embouchure  of  that  river  in  the  Humber 
mouth,  and  16  miles  north-west  of  Lincoln.  It  is 
a  well-built  town,  consisting  mainly  of  one  long 
street,  running  parallel  with  the  river,  which  is  here 
spanned  by  a  fine  stone  bridge  of  three  elliptical 
arches.  It  was  constituted  a  port  in  1841.  The 
most  interesting  of  the  buildings  of  G.  is  that  called 
the  Old  Hall,  a  curious  structure  composed  of  oak 
timber  framing,  and  forming  three  sides  of  a  quad- 
rangle. It  is  said  to  have  been  occvipied,  or  held  in 
property,  by  the  several  lords  of  the  manor  of  G. 
<sver  since  the  Saxons  established  themselves  in  this 
neighboiu-hood.  Among  the  other  public  buildings 
are  the  parish  church — which,  with  the  exception 
of  a  fine  old  tower,  dating  from  the  12th  c,  was 
rebuilt  in  1736,  and  the  town-halL  There  are  also 
a  grammar  school,  established  in  1589,  and  other 
educational  institutions;  a  literary  institute,  and 
several  libraries.  G.  is  favourably  situated  in  a 
cor.imercial  point  of  view,  sea-going  vessels  of  200 
tons,  and  drawing  12  feet  of  water,  being  able  to  reach 
its  wharfs  by  the  river  Trent,  while  by  means  of  the 
Keadby,  the  Chesterfield,  and  other  canals,  it  main- 
tains commnnication  with  the  interior  of  the  country. 
Gainsborough  has  important  manufactures  of  linseed 


oil,  and  carries  on  malting,  rope-making,  and  ship- 
building extensively.  Top.  (1871)  of  pari,  borough, 
8724;  of  township,  7564. 

GAINSBOROUGH,  Thomas,  one  of  the  most 

eminent  English  landscape-painters,  was  born  at 
Sudbury,  in  the  county  of  Sufi"olk,  1727,  and  early 
displayed  a  decided  talent  for  painting.  '  Nature,'  it 
has  been  said,  '  was  his  teacher,  and  the  woods  his 
academy,  where  he  would  pass  his  mornings  alone, 
making  sketches  of  an  old  tree,  a  marsh,  brook,  a 
few  cattle,  a  shepherd  and  his  flock,  or  any  other 
objects  that  casually  came  in  view.'  At  14  years  ol 
age,  he  was  sent  to  London,  where  h<r  ^'as  for  some 
time  with  Mr  Gravelot,  the  engraver,  and  afterwards 
with  Hayman.  At  19,  he  married,  and  set  up  in 
Bath  as  a  portrait-painter,  in  which  capacity  he  was 
very  successful ;  but  his  genius  first  found  adequate 
expression  in  the  delineation  of  the  rich  and  quiet 
scenery  of  his  native  country,  and  to  this  he  mainly 
devoted  himself  after  leaving  Bath  for  London,  in 
1774.  On  the  institution  of  the  Royal  Academy, 
G.  was  chosen  one  of  the  first  members,  but  never 
took  much  interest  in  its  proceedings.  He  died 
August  2,  1788,  of  a  cancer  in  the  neck.  His  last 
words  exhibited  more  the  enthusiasm  of  the  painter 
than  the  logic  of  the  theologian  :  *  We  are  all  going 
to  heaven,  and  Vandyck  is  of  the  ])arty.'  G.'a 
portraits  are  remarkable  as  '  striking  likenesses,' 
but  are  not  carefully  finished.  The  best  are  those 
of  the  Royal  Family,  of  Abel  the  composer,  and 
Quin  the  actor.  His  fame,  however,  rests  chiefly 
on  his  landscapes  ;  in  these,  he  shews  himself  a 
faithful  adherent  to  nature,  as  he  knew  it  in  his 
own  beautifid  island.  He  is,  in  fact,  to  be  regarded 
as  the  first  truly  original  English  painter,  and,  in 
the  opinion  of  Sir  Joshuc  Reynolds,  fit  to  be  the 
head  of  an  English  school.  Among  his  finest 
productions  are,  '  The  Shepherd's  Boy,  '  The  Fight 
between  Little  Boys  and  Dogs,'  '  The  Seashore,' 
and  '  The  Woodman  in  the  Storm.'  His  most  cele- 
brated picture  is  '  The  Blue  Boy,'  in  the  Devonshire 
Gallery. 

GAIUS,  a  Roman  jurist,  most  probably  of  the 
age  of  the  Anto nines,  and  the  chief  source  of  our 
knowledge  of  Roman  law  prior  to  Justinian.  Con- 
sidering the  important  place  which  he  holds  in 
ancient  legal  literature,  it  is  strange  that  his  per- 
sonal history  should  be  almost  entirely  unknov/n, 
and  that  almost  every  circumstance  connected  wdth 
him  should  be  a  subject  of  controversy.  The  dis- 
cussion as  to  whether  the  name  is  properly  Gains  or 
Caius  is  a  mere  verbal  dispute ;  but  the  questions 
regarding  his  country,  his  condition,  and  even  his 
religion,  have  been  canvassed  at  considerable  lengtli. 
From  his  being  uniformly  called  by  the  single  appel« 
lation  G,  it  has  been  infei'red  that  he  was  either 
a  foreigner  or  a  freedman  :  from  his  familiarity  with 
the  Greek  language,  some  have  argued  that  he  wa  i 
of  Greek  origin ;  from  his  being  cited  as  '  our '  G. 
by  Justinian,  who  was  a  native  of  Illyricura,  it  is 
argued  by  some  that  G.  must  have  been  an  lUyrian 
by  birth ;  while  others,  arguing  from  the  same  fact, 
and  from  other  equally  inconclusive  data,  have  even 
set  him  down  as  a  Christian.  That  the  last  inference 
is  a  false  one,  cannot  admit  of  a  moment's  doubt ; 
the  others,  even  if  it  were  possible  to  settle  them 
definitively,  are  of  no  practical  importance.  As  to 
the  precise  age  of  G,  thus  much  is  certain,  that 
before  the  revision  of  the  Roman  laws,  and  the 
reform  of  the  legal  studies  by  Justinian,  the  Insti' 
tutions  of  G.,  as  well  as  four  other  of  his  treatises, 
were  the  received  text-books  of  the  schools  of  law. 
His  Institutions,  moreover,  formed  the  groundwork 
of  the  Institutions  of  Justinian.  From  his  being 
thus  preferred  to  Ulpian  or  Papinian,  it  is  not  to  be 


GALA  WATER-GALAGO. 


■  inferred  that  he  lived  after  them,  but  only  that  his 
work  was  more  popular.  The  latest  jurist  whom  he 
cites  is  Salvius  Julianus,  who  lived  under  Hadrian, 
ftnd  the  latest  imperial  edict  is  one  of  Antoninus 
Pius,  whence  it  may  fairly  be  concluded  that  he 
BiiTvived  Antoninus,  and  probably  wrote  under  his 
successor. 

The  works  of  G.  were  largely  used  in  the  com- 
pilation of  the  Digest,  which  contains  no  fewer 
than  535  extracts  from  his  writings.  The  principal 
are,  the  Edictum  Provinciale,  in  thirty-two  books ; 
the  Aurea,  in  seven;  the  Edictum  Urhicum ;  On 
Trusts;  On  Mortgages ;  and,  above  all,  the  Insti- 
tutions, in  four  books.  The  last-named  work  is 
that  by  which  G.  is  chiefly  kno^vn,  and  it  was 
probably  the  earliest  complete  and  systematic  text- 
book of  Koman  law.  Although  it  was  the  basis  of 
Justinian's  Institutions,  both  as  to  its  matter  and 
its  division,  yet  it  was  completely  superseded  by 
that  work,  and  after  a  time  was  entirely  lost,  the 
only  knowledge  of  it  which  remained  being  that 
which  was  gathered  from  the  detached  extracts  in 
the  Digest,  and  from  the  Breviarium  Alarlcianum, 
or  code  of  the  Visigoths,  which  was  known  to  be 
derived  from  it.  The  recovery  of  this  long  lost 
"work,  therefore,  woidd  in  any  circumstances  be 
considered  a  fortunate  event ;  but  the  Institutions 
of  G.  draw  additional  interest  from  the  remark- 
able manner  in  which  it  has  been  restored  to  litera- 
ture. It  had  long  been  known  that  the  MSS.  in 
the  library  of  the  chapter  of  Verona  were  specially 
curious  in  the  matter  of  jurisprudence;  and  in 
1816,  Niebuhr,  while  on  his  way  to  Rome,  dis- 
covered, in  a  palimpsest  MS.,  the  later  writing  of 
which  was  a  copy  of  St  Jerome's  epistles,  portions 
of  the  work  of  some  ancient  jiirisconsult,  the  value 
of  which  he  at  once  recognised,  and  the  specimen 
page  of  which,  as  copied  by  him,  was  soon  after- 
wards pronounced  by  Savigny  to  be  a  portion  of 
the  Institutions  of  Gains.  On  the  publication  of 
his  report,  the  Berlin  Academy  of  Sciences  commis- 
sioned two  German  scholars,  Goschen  and  Hollweg, 
in  1817,  to  make  a  copy  of  the  entire  palimpsest, 
which  consists  of  127  sheets.  It  was  a  work  of 
immense  labour.  The  original  writing  had  been 
very  carefully  washed,  and  in  many  pages  scraped 
out ;  the  lines  of  the  second  writing  did  not  cross 
the  original,  as  often  happens  in  palimpsests,  but 
ran  in  the  same  direction,  and  frequently  over  it ; 
while  G3  pages  of  the  palimpsest  had  actually  been 
written  three  times,  G.  having  been  erased  to  make 
room  for  a  theological  treatise,  which  in  its  tiu'n  was 
scraped  -out  to  make  room  for  St  Jerome  !  It  reflects 
no  small  credit  on  the  skill  and  patience  of  the 
copyists  that  they  succeeded  in  recovering  so  much 
as  nine-tenths  of  the  entire  work,  which  was 
published  in  1821  by  Goschen,  au<l  again,  after  a 
fresh  collation  of  the  MS.  by  Blume,  in  1824 ;  a 
tliird  and  much  improved  edition,  by  Lachmann, 
apjwared  in  1842.  A  comparative  edition  of  the 
Institutions  of  G.  and  of  Justinian,  by  Klenze  and 
Booking,  had  appeared  at  Berlin  in  1829. 

The  InHtltutions  of  G.  are  divided  into  four  books, 
of  which  the  flrst  is  devoted  to  the  law  of  persons, 
the  second  and  third  to  the  law  of  things,  and  the 
fourth  to  the  law  of  actions.  The  first  book  was 
translated  into  German  in  1824  by  Von  Brockdorlf, 
and  the  entire  work  has  been  translated  into  French 
three  several  times — by  Baulet  in  1826,  by  Domenget 
in  1843,  and  by  Pellat  in  1844.  In  England,  it  has 
attracted  but  little  notice,  except  in  a  few  of  the 
critical  journals,  and  there  chiefly  as  a  literary 
curiosity ;  nor  has  any  English  translation  of  the 
Work  hitherto  appearefL 

The  Lex  Bomana  Wisigothorum,  or  Bi'etnarium 
Alouricianum^  is  in  substance  a  recast  of  the  Institu-  \ 


tions  of  G.,  published  in  50G  by  Alaric  for  the  use 
of  the  Roman  subjects  of  the  west  Gothic  kingdom. 
It  is  chiefly  curious  as  illustrating  the  analo^^ies  and 
the  discrepancies  of  Roman  and  barbarian  law,  and 
as  supplying  the  germ  of  many  of  the  medieval  insti- 
tutions by  which  Roman  practice  was  supplanted. 
See,  in  addition  to  the  editions  of  the  Institutiom 
enumerated  above,  Huschke,  Zur  Kritt/c  und  Inter- 
pretation von  Gains  Institutionen,  in  his  Studien  dea 
Romischen  Redds;  also  Mackeldey's  Lehrbuch  dea 
Romischen  Redds  ;  and  Savigny,  System  des  Jteutigen 
Rom.  Rechts. 

GALA  WATER,  a  small  river  of  Scotland,  21 
miles  in  length,  rises  among  the  Moorfoot  Hill?  in 
Edinburghshire,  flows  in  a  south-south-east  direc- 
tion through  a  beautiful  and  romantic  country, 
and,  forming  in  the  lower  portion  of  its  course  the 
boundary  between  Selkirk  and  Roxburgh  shires, 
unites  with  the  Tweed  near  Abbotsford. 

GALA'CTIC  CIRCLE  (see  Galaxy).  This 
circle  is  to  sidereal  what  the  invariable  ecliptic  is 
to  planetary  astronomy,  the  ground  plane  of  the 
sidereal  system. 

GALACTODENDRON.    See  Cow-tree. 

GALACTO'METER,  or  LACTOMETER,  a  very 
simple  instrument  for  testing  the  richness  of  milk ; 
it  consists  of  a  glass- tube,  graduated  to  100  parts. 
New  milk  is  poured  in  up  to  the  top  of  the  graduated 
part,  and  allowed  to  stand ;  and  when  the  cream 
has  completely  separated,  the  value  of  its  quan- 
tity is  shewn  by  the  number  of  parts  in  the  100 
which  it  occupies.  Another  form  of  instrument  was 
invented  by  Doeff"el,  consisting  of  a  small  hydro- 
meter with  a  scale  two  inches  long  divided  into  20 
degrees,  the  zero  being  ])laced  at  the  point  which 
the  instrument  sinks  in  M'ater,  and  the  20th  degree 
corresponding  with  the  density  1  -0383.  This  instru- 
ment is  preferred  by  the  continental  chemists  ;  and 
14°  is  held  to  shew  milk  undiluted  with  water. 

GALACZ,  an  important  town  of  Moldavia,  and 
the  only  port  of  the  province,  is  situated  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Danube,  about  three  miles  below 
the  confluence  of  the  Sereth  with  that  river. 
Though  it  has  better  hovises  than  most  Moldavian 
towns,  it  cannot  be  said  to  be  well  built.  It  has 
numerous  churches,  a  large  bazaar,  always  well 
filled  with  merchandise,  and  a  great  mmiber  of  store- 
houses for  grain  and  other  produce.  It  was  made 
a  free  port  in  1834,  and  is  the  chief  entrepot  for 
the  commerce  carried  on  between  Germany  and 
Constantinople.  Steamers  passing  G.  ply  regidarly 
between  Vienna  and  ConstantinoiJe,  and  vessels  of 
300  tons  come  close  up  to  the  town.  The  ]>rincipal 
articles  of  export  are  maize,  wheat,  rye,  tallow, 
wool,  masts  and  spars,  timber,  and  preserved  meat ; 
and  the  imjiorts  are  chiefly  British  manufactures 
and  twist,  sugar,  raisins,  and  figs,  oil,  coal,  iron,  and 
tobacco.  The  increase  in  the  commerce  of  G.  during 
the  last  20  years  has  been  very  great.  In  1852  the 
total  value  of  the  exports  amounted  to  £567,000,  and 
of  the  imports  to  £442,000;  while,  according  to  the 
Consular  Report  for  1871,  the  average  value  of  the  ex- 
ports and  imports  of  G.  and  Brahilov  for  the  five  yeai'S 
preceding  that  date  (of  which  at  least  one-half  must 
be  assigned  to  G.)  was  about  £3,000,000.  Fop.  of  G. 
(consisting  of  Moldavians,  Greeks,  Jews,  Armenians, 
Italians,  French,  English,  and  Germans),  about  80,000. 

GALA'GO  {Galago  or  Otalicnus),  a  genus  of 
mammalia  of  the  Lemur  family,  remarkable  for  the 
great  length  of  the  hind-legs  and  the  great  size  of 
the  ears,  which  are  membranous,  and  capable  of 
being  folded  down  as  in  bats.  The  head  is  rounded, 
the  muzzle  short,  the  eyes  very  large ;  all  the  feet 
have  five  toes ;  all  the  nails  are  flat,  except  those  of 


GALANGALE— GALATIANS. 


the  first  digits  of  the  hind  feet,  which  are  armed 
with  sharp  claws ;  the  tail  is  very  long,  and  almost 
bushy.  The  species  are  natives  of  Africa  and 
Madagascar,  varying  from  the  size  of  a  rabbit  to 
that  of  a  rat,  more  or  less  nocturnal  in  their  habits, 
very  lively  and  active,  feeding  partly  on  fruits  and 
partly  on  insects ;  one  of  them  {G.  Senegaleiisis)  is 
known  in  Senegal  as  the  gum  animal,  from  living 
much  in  acacias,  and  feeding,  or  being  supposed  to 
feed,  on  their  gum.    '  These  pretty  animals  have  all 


Qalago  Moholi  (from  Routledge's  Natural  History). 

the  acti\'ity  of  birds,  leaping  from  bough  to  bough. 
Xhey  watch  insects  flitting  among  the  leaves,  listen 
fco  the  fluttering  of  the  moth  as  it  darts  through 
the  air,  lie  in  wait  for  it,  and  s])ring  with  the 
rapidity  of  an  arrow,  seldom  missing  tlieir  prize, 
which  is  caught  by  their  hands.'  When  they  leap, 
they  always  seize  with  their  hands  the  branch  on 
which  they  intend  to  rest.  They  make  nests  of 
grass  and  leaves  for  their  young  in  the  branches 
of  trees.  They  are  a  favourite  article  of  food  in 
Senegal 

GALA'NGALE  (Alpima),  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Zingiberacece  or  Scitayninece, 
having  perennial  stems  with  terminal  inflorescence 
and  succulent  fruit.  The  root-stocks  possess  stimu- 
lating properties  similar  to  those  of  ginger.  The 
true  G.  is  the  produce  of  A.  galanga,  a  native  of 
the  Eastern  Archipelago,  and  cultivated  there ; 
having  a  stem  six  or  seven  feet  high,  broad  leaves, 
and  a  branched  panicle  of  greenish-white  flowers. 
The  root- stock,  when  young,  yields  a  kind  of  arrow- 
root, and  is  used  as  an  article-of  food ;  it  acquires 
pungency  and  aromatic  properties  as  it  becomes 
older.  G.  is  much  used  in  the  East  for  the  same 
purposes  as  ginger ;  it  is  also  used  to  a  very  con- 
siderable extent  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  but 
very  little  in  Britain.  Inferior  kinds  are  obtained 
from  several  species  of  Alpinia;  and  from  a  plant 
of  an  allied  genus,  Kaemjjferia  Galanga,  the  root- 
stock  of  which  is  commonly  sold  in  the  bazaars  of 
Northern  India. 

GALA'NTHUS.    See  Snow-drop. 

GALAPAGOS  ISLANDS  (so  named  fr-m  gald- 
X>ago,  the  Spanish  word  for  tortoise)  are  a  volcanic 
group  in  the  Pacific,  situated  on  or  near  the 
equator,  and  in  long,  between  89°  and  92°  W. 
They  are  thirteen  in  numl^er,  the  largest  measuring 
GO  miles  by  15,  with  an  elevation  of  4000  feet. 
They  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  peopled,  being  visited 
chiefly  for  their  turtles,  which  are  of  enormous 
size.  The  ten  principal  members  of  the  cluster 
a)e  Allx'marle,  Tvdefatigable,  Chatham,  Charles, 
674 


James,  Narborough,  Hood,  Barrington,  Birtdloes, 
and  Abingdon. 

GALASHIE'LS,  a  flourishing  manufacturing 
town,  and  burgh  of  barony,  of  Scotland,  is  situated 
on  both  banks  of  the  Gala,  about  one  mde  from  its 
jxmction  with  the  Tweed,  and  is  partly  in  Selkirk- 
shire and  partly  in  Roxburghshire.  It  is  32  miles 
south  from  Edinburgh  by  road,  and  33.^  by  railway. 
The  town  is  of  comparatively  modern  erection,  the 
greater  part  of  it  having  been  built  within  the 
last  30  years.  The  superior  of  the  barony  is  Hugh 
Scott  of  Gala.  The  government  of  the  town  ia 
under  the  Police  Act  of  13  and  14  Vict.  cap.  23, 
and  for  all  purj)0scs  of  the  act  the  burgh  is  held 
to  be  wholly  in  Selkirkshire.  The  town  is  gener- 
ally well  built,  particularly  the  modern  houses  in 
the  suburbs,  and  the  new  factories ;  but  it  is 
unhappily  much  crowded.  The  staple  trade  is  the 
manufacture  of  woollen  goods,  known  as  '  tweeds ' 
and  plaidings.  A  few  shawls  are  still  occasionally 
made.  There  are  IG  woollen  factories,  all  of  which, 
with  the  exception  of  two,  are  driven  either  by 
steam  or  steam  and  water-power  combuied.  The 
total  number  of  '  sets  of  machines '  in  these  is  60, 
which  turn  out  goods  annually  to  the  value  of 
£300,000.  Pop.  within  the  l)urgh  in  1871,  9678.  G. 
has  a  flourishing  grain  market,  held  every  Tuesday. 
The  mills  employ  u[)\vards  of  2200  hands. 

GALATA,  a  suburb  of  Constantinople  (q.  v.). 

GALA'TIA  was  in  ancient  times  the  name  of 
a  country  of  Asia  Minor,  and  was  so  called  from 
a  body  of  Gauls  who  settled  there.  In  the  3d 
c,  great  hordes  of  Gauls,  under  Brennus,  invaded 
Greece.  Some  of  tliem  took  possession  of  Byzan- 
tium and  the  Propontis,  passed  the  Hellespont  on 
the  invitation  of  Nicomcdes,  king  of  Bitliynia,  in 
the  year  278  B.C.,  siibdued  Troas  and  the  north 
of  Phrygia,  and  were  flrst  checked  by  Attains, 
king  of  Pergamus,  in  a  great  battle  about  the 
year  239  b.  c,  and  compelled  by  him  to  settle 
permanently  within  certain  limits.  The  state  of 
G.,  which  hitherto  had  had  no  accurately  defined 
boundaries,  was  now  confined  between  Paphla- 
gonia,  Pontus,  Cappadocia,  Lycaonia,  Phrygia,  and 
Bithynia.  It  was  also  called  Gallogrsecia,  and  was 
peopled  by  numbers  of  Phrygians,  Greeks,  and 
Pai)hlagonians,  as  well  as  Gauls  or  Celts.  The 
form  of  government  was  at  first  purely  aristocratic, 
but  at  a  later  period  the  twelve  tetrarchs  who  shared 
the  government  among  them,  in  conjunction  with 
a  senate  of  300  members,  succeeded  in  making  their 
dignity  hereditary.  At  length  one  of  them  (30  b.  c), 
supported  by  Pompey,  assumed  the  title  of  king. 
After  his  death,  the  kingdom  descended  to  Amanitas, 
but  was  shortly  after  conquered  by  the  Romans, 
and  converted  into  a  Roman  province,  divided  under 
Theodosius  into  Galatia  prima,  with  the  capital 
Ancyra,  and  Galatia  secitnda,  with  the  cai)ital 
Pessinus.  The  majority  of  the  Gauls  of  G.  retained 
their  old  Celtic  language  as  late  as  the  time  of 
Jerome  (4th  c),  who  says  that  they  spoke  the  same 
dialect  as  the  people  about  Treves ;  and  as  Jerome 
had  himself  lived  there,  and  was  a  good  scholar,  he 
may  be  regarded  as  an  aiithority  on  the  subject. 
G.  was  twice  visited  by  the  Apostle  Paid. 

GALA'TIANS,  Epistle  to  tiie.  This  epistle 
was  written  by  the  Apostle  Paul  during  his  resi- 
dence at  Ephesus,  prol)ably  about  the  year  56  a.  d., 
and  is  generally  reckoned  the  third  or  fourth  of  the 
Pauline  epistles  in  the  order  of  time.  The  circum- 
stance which  called  it  forth  w^as  the  diffusion, 
throughout  the  Galatian  churches,  of  Judaistic 
practices  and  notions,  chief  among  which  stood  the 
famous  rite  of  circumcision,  regarded  by  Paid  as  the 
symbol  of  all  that  was  exclusive,  external,  merely 


GALATmA.-G  ALBA  f^UM. 


ethnical,  aid  therefore  thoroughly  antagonistic  to 
the  unive>i3ality  of  the  gospel.  Paul  had  himself 
been  the  f'rst  to  preach  Christ  in  this  region,  and 
as  the  majority  of  his  converts  were  Gentiles, 
it  ^v^ould  naturally  vex  him  all  the  more  keenly 
to  see  them  lapsing  into  practices  inconsistent 
with  their  new  faith,  and  for  which  they  had  not 
even  the  excuse  that  might  have  been  proffered 
lor  the  Jews,  viz.,  that  antiquity  had  made  such 
customs  venerable.  It  would  also  appear  that  the 
Judaising  adversaries  of  Paid  had  been  circulating 
injurious  reports  concerning  himself,  hinting  that 
he  was  no  divinely  appointed  apostle,  but  at  best 
a  mere  messenger  of  the  church  of  Jerusalem, 
that  he  had  quarrelled  with  Peter,  the  great  apostle 
of  the  circumcision,  and  that  he  could  play  'fast 
and  loose'  on  this  very  question  of  circmncision 
itself.  In  his  reply  to  the  underhand  attacks 
of  his  calumniators.  Paid  asserts  the  truth  of  his 
gospel,  passionately  declai'ing  that  he  would  pro- 
nounce a  curse  on  the  very  angels  from  heaven,  if 
they  would  dare  to  preach  another,  vindicates  his 
ajjostleship,  and  gives  the  true  version  of  the  story 
of  his  variance  with  Peter.  He  then  proceeds  to 
discuss  the  relation  of  Judaism  to  Christianity,  and 
closes  with  a  series  of  exhortations  and  admoni- 
tions, the  first  of  which  is  the  well-known  '  Stand 
fast  therefore  in  the  liberty  wherewith  Christ  hath 
made  us  free,  and  be  not  entangled  again  with  the 
yoke  of  bondage'  (v.  1).  The  commentaries  on 
Galatians  are  very  numerous  ;  among  others  may 
be  mentioned  those  of  Luther,  Winer,  RUckert,  De 
Wette,  Meyer,  EUicott,  and  Alford. 

GALATI'J^A,  S.  PiETKO  in  Galatina,  a  town  in 
the  south  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Otranto,  is 
Bituated  in  a  fertile  but  unhealthy  plain,  13  miles 
south  of  the  town  of  Lecce.  Some  maintain  that 
it  is  a  very  ancient  place,  but  there  seems  no  his- 
torical ground  for  the  assertion.  G.  is  a  thriving 
commercial  town,  and  possesses  fine  public  edifices 
and  handsome  churches.  Pop.  8400.  Raimondo 
Orsino,  Prince  of  Taranto,  and  Lord  of  Galatina, 
surrounded  the  town  with  ramparts,  as  a  tribute 
to  the  citizens  for  having  ransomed  him  from  the 
Turks  for  12,000  ducats. 

GALATO'NE,  a  very  ancient  town  in  the  south 
of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Otranto,  about  nine 
miles  north-east  of  Gallipoli,  is  situated  in  a  very 
rich  but  insalubrious  plain.  Pop.  5500.  In  the 
struggle  between  Joanna  Queen  of  Naples  and 
Alfonso,  G.,  having  declared  for  the  former,  was 
besieged  by  Alfonso,  and  its  ramparts  destroyed.  It 
has  been  possessed  by  several  illustrious  families. 

GA'LAXY,  The  (Gr.  gala,  galaktos,  milk),  or 
the  Milky-Way,  is  the  great  luminous  band  which 
nightly  stretches  across  the  heavens  from  horizon  to 
horizon,  and  which  is  found,  when  carefully  traced, 
to  form  a  zone,  completely  encircling  the  whole 
sphere  ajmost  in  a  great  circle.  At  one  part  of 
its  course,  it  opens  up  into  two  branches,  one  faint 
and  interrupted,  the  other  bright  and  continuous, 
which  do  not  reunite  till  after  remaming  distinct 
for  about  150°.  This  great  zone  has  occupied  the 
same  position  in  the  heavens  since  the  earliest  ages. 
The  reader  will  find  its  course  mapped  out  on  any 
celestial  globe,  and  a  verbal  account  of  it  in  Sir  John 
Ilerschel's  Outlines  of  Astronomy,  by  which  he  may 
test  the  accuracy  of  the  chart.  That  course,  as 
traced  by  the  naked  eye,  following  the  line  of  its 
greatest  brightness,  conforms  nearly  to  that  of  a 
great  circle,  called  the  Galactic  Circle,  inclined  at  an 
angle  of  about  G3°  to  the  equinoctial,  and  cutting 
that  circle  in  0  hours  47  minutes,  and  12  hours  47 
minutes  right  ascension.  Throughout  the  space 
where,  as  above  stated,  it  is   divided  into  two 


branches,  this  great  circle  is  intermediate  to  the  two, 
lying  nearer  that  which  is  the  brighter  and  more 
continuous.  The  most  casual  survey  of  tlie  Galaxy 
shews  that  it  is  wanting  in  regularity  of  outline. 
Besides  the  two  great  Ijranches  into  wliich  it  divides, 
it  has  many  smaller  ones  whicli  spring  out  fr-^m  it. 
At  one  j)yiut,  it  diffuses  itself  very  ljioa<lly,  and 
opens  out  into  a  fan-like  expanse  of  interlacing 
branches  nearly  20  in  brea<lth.  At  the  same  \mm 
the  branches  terminating  aVjruptly,  a  wide  gap 
presents  itself  in  the  zone,  on  the  opi)osite  side  of 
which  it  recommences  its  course  with  a  similar 
assemblage  of  branches.  At  other  points,  its  course 
is  described  by  Sir  John  Herschel  as  '  irregular, 
patchy,  and  winding;'  while  at  more  than  ono 
point,  in  the  midst  of  its  brightest  parts,  broad  dark 
si)aces  occur.  One  of  these,  known  from  early  times 
among  navigators  as  the  '  coal-sack,'  is  a  singular 
pear-shaped  vacancy  of  about  8°  in  length,  and  5° 
broad,  occurring  in  the  centre  of  a  bright  area  over- 
lying portions  of  the  constellations  of  the  Cross  and 
Centaur.  The  '  coal- sack  '  occupies  about  half  the 
breadth  of  this  bright  space,  and  presents  only  one 
star  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  though  it  contains 
many  telesco2)ic  stars.  Its  blackness,  which  attracts 
the  most  superficial  observer,  is  thus  due  to  the 
contrast  with  the  brilliant  ground  by  which  it  is 
surrounded. 

The  Galaxy  was  examined  by  Sir  William  Herschel 
with  his  powerful  telescope,  and  found  to  be  com- 
posed entirely  of  stars.  How  a  collection  of  stars 
can  assume  such  appearances  as  are  presented  in 
the  Galaxy,  is  explained  in  the  article  Stars  (q.  v.), 

GALEA,  Servius  Sulpicius,  Roman  emperor 
from  June  68  a.d.  to  January  69,  was  born  24th 
Decemljer  3  b.  c,  of  a  respectable  family.  He  waa 
raised  to  the  consulship  in  33  A.  D. ;  and  in  the 
administration  of  the  province  of  Aquitania  under 
Tiberius,  of  Germany  under  Caligula,  of  Africa 
under  Claudius,  and  of  Hispania  Tarraconensis 
under  Nero,  he  distinguished  himself  for  bravery, 
strictness,  and  justice.  His  friends  had  urged  him, 
on  the  death  of  Caligula,  to  take  possession  of  the 
throne,  but  he  continued  faithful  to  Claudius,  and 
therefore  stood  high  in  his  favour.  In  68,  Julius 
Vindex  rose  with  the  Gallic  legions  against  Nero, 
and  called  on  G.  to  assume  the  imperial  dignity, 
and  thus  rid  the  earth  of  its  oppressor.  G.,  who 
had  been  informed  that  Nero  was  contriving  his 
death,  came  forward  against  him  at  first  as  the 
legate  of  the  Roman  people,  and  it  was  only  when 
he  heard  of  Nero's  death  that  he  jiroceeded  to  Rome 
to  take  possession  of  the  throne  offered  him  by  the 
Prffitorians.  G.  was  now  Tipwards  of  70  years  old, 
and  it  soon  appeared  that  his  character  had  dete- 
riorated, as,  indeed,  had  already  been  manifested 
in  his  later  administrations.  Indulgence  to  greedy 
favourites,  ill-timed  severity,  above  all,  avarice, 
which  led  him  to  withhold  the  usual  donatives  to  the 
troops,  made  him  unpopular.  The  legions  in  Upper 
Germany  called  on  the  Praitorians  t-o  choose  another 
emperor  ;  G.  thought  to  soothe  them  by  adopting 
Piso  as  his  coadjutor  and  successor ;  but  he  thus 
offended  Otho,  who,  as  administrator  of  Lusitania, 
had  supported  G.,  and  looked  to  be  rewarded. 
The  Prretorians,  who  had  received  no  donative  otj 
occasion  of  Piso's  adoption,  were  easily  excited  to 
insurrection  by  Otho,  and  the  emperor  ha-\4ng 
gone  out  to  quell  the  rebellion,  Avas  cut  down  by 
the  soldiers  as  he  crossed  the  forum. 

GA'LBANUM,  a  gum  resin  used  in  medicine  in 
the  same  cases  as  assafffitida.  It  is  principally 
employed  in  chronic  catanh,  and  has  been  given 
(especially  by  the  Germans)  in  amenorrhoea  and 
chronic  I'heumatism.    It  is  generally  administered 


GALE— GALENA. 


in  the  form  of  the  compound  fjalbanum  pill,  which 
contains  galbanum,  sagapenum,  assafo'tida,  myrrh, 
and  soft  soap.  It  is  sometimes  ai)plied  exter- 
nally in  plasters  as  a  mild  stimidaut  in  indolent 
•jwellings.  It  is  brought  from  the  Levant,  and 
appears  in  commerce  either  in  tears  or  in  large 
masses.  It  is  soft,  ductile,  whitish,  or,  when  long 
kept,  yellowish  in  colour ;  has  a  peculiar  balsamic 
odour,  and  an  acrid,  bitter  taste.  Although  it  has 
been  known  from  the  earliest  ages,  and  is  men- 
tioned by  Moses  (Exod.  xxx.  34)  under  the  name 
chelbenak  (translated  galbanum  in  the  English 
Bible),  it  is  still  uncertain  from  what  plant  it  is 
derived.  Galbanum  officinale,  Ferula  galbanifera, 
and  Opoidia  galbanifera,  all  of  the  natural  order 
Umbelliferos,  have,  on  various  grounds,  been  sup- 
posed to  be  the  source  of  galbanum  ;  and  the  con- 
fidence with  which  they  have  been  so  represented 
has  perhaps  ])revented  travellers  from  making 
that  inquiry  into  the  subject  which  otherwise  they 
might  have  made.  It  is  highly  i)robable  that 
galbanum  is  the  produce  of  an  umbelliferous  i>lant. 
Babon  Galbanum,  a  plant  of  this  order,  found  at 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  yields  a  gum  resin  very 
similar  to  galbanum. 

GALE,  or  SWEET  GALE  [Myrka  gale),  a  small 
shrub  of  the  same  genus  with  the  North  American 
Candleberry  (q.  v.),  and  very  nearly  allied  to  it — 
a  native  of  all  the  northern  parts  of  the  world, 
growing  in  bogs  and  in  moist  gravelly  soils,  very 


Gale  {Myrica  gale) : 
a,  a  scale  of  the  catkin,  inside ;  ft,  stamens ;  c,  an  anther. 

abundant  in  some  parts  of  Britain,  but  very  local. 
It  has  small  lanceolate  slightly  serrated  leaves, 
which  are  sprinkled  with  resinous  dots,  and  emit 
a  most  agreeable  fragrance.  Its  berries  are  small, 
and  sprinkled  with  golden  resinous  dots.  The 
northern  nations  formerly  used  this  plant  instead 
of  hops.  The  leaves  were  also  employed  as  a 
remedy  for  itch,  and  have  the  power  of  keeping 
away  moths.  A  decoction  of  them  is  efl&cacious 
against  bugs.  By  distillation  they  yield  a  yellow 
essential  oik  In  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  beds 
are  often  made  of  the  twigs  of  gale,  which  is  there 
called  nodh. 

GALEN,  Christoph  Beenhard  von.  Bishop  of 
Mtinster,  and  one  of  the  greatest  generals  of  his  time, 
was  born  at  Bispink,  in  Westphalia,  15th  October 
1600.  After  completing  his  studies  in  the  Jesuit 
college  of  Munster,  and  at  the  universities  of  Cologne, 
Mayence,  Louvain,  and  Bordeaux,  he  held  several 

576 


political  offices,  and  was  at  last  made  Bishop  of 
Munster,  14th  November  1650.  The  vigour  of  his 
administration  immediately  began  to  ai)pear  in 
restoring  church-discipline,  in  allaying  a  famine 
which  prevailed  at  the  time,  in  promoting  trade, 
and  ridding  the  countrj'  of  '  reign  troops.  He  soon, 
however,  fell  into  disagreements  with  the  inhabitants 
of  MUnster,  who,  on  api)lying  to  Holland,  received 
25,000  guilders  to  assist  them  against  him  ;  but  with 
the  support  of  1200  cavalry  from  the  emperor,  the 
bishop  reduced  the  town  into  submission  in  1660, 
and  continvied  to  maintain  his  ascendency  by  severe 
measures.  In  1664,  on  being  appointed,  along  with 
the  Markgraf  of  Baden,  director  of  the  military 
affairs  of  the  Khenish  alliance,  he  proceeded  with 
most  of  his  own  troops  to  the  seat  of  the  war  against 
the  Turks.  After  his  return,  he  entered  into  alliance 
with  England  against  the  Netherlands,  but  the  war 
was  soon  concluded,  in  consequence  of  the  treaty 
brought  about  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1666,  according  to 
whicTi  the  States-genci-al  promised  the  restoration 
to  the  bishop  of  all  his  lands.  A  dispute,  however, 
afterwards  arose,  and  in  1672,  G.  again  went  to  war 
with  the  Dutch  in  alliance  with  France.  After  son  o 
successes  obtained  in  union  with  T\irenue,  he  siit- 
fered  such  a  heavy  loss  during  the  siege  of  Coevordeii, 
by  a  storm  which  i)laced  his  camp  under  water,  that 
he  willingly  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  allies  in 
1674,  in  which  he  promised  to  give  up  all  his  con- 
quests in  the  Netherlands.  In  the  following  year, 
he  changed  sides,  and  entered  into  alliance  with  tho 
emperor  against  the  French.  By  taking  part,  also, 
with  the  king  of  Denmark  and  the  elector  of  Bran- 
denburg in  the  war  with  Sweden,  he  added  tlio 
duchy  of  Bremen  and  other  places  to  his  possession  s. 
In  1678,  he  detained  considerable  i)ecuniary  cora- 
pensation  for  bein^  drawn  into  war  with  East 
Friesland ;  but  while  the  peace  negotiations  we  re 
going  on  he  died,  19th  September.  The  family  of  G. 
IS  one  of  the  oldest  in  Westphalia,  and  is  at  present 
represented  by  Count  Matthias  von  Galen,  whoue 
brother.  Count  Ferdinand,  has  distinguished  himself 
in  the  Prussian  service  as  an  able  diijlomatist. 

GALE'NA,  or  LEAD-GLANCE,  a  mineral  which 
is  essentially  a  sulphuret  of  lead,  the  proportions 
being  13*3  sidphur  and  867  lead;  but  usually  con- 
taining a  little  silver,  and  sometimes  copper,  zinc, 
antimony,  or  selenium.  It  is  of  a  lead-gray  colour, 
with  a  metallic  lustre,  is  found  massive,  or  some- 
times granular,  or  crystallised  in  cubes  or  octahe- 
drons. It  is  very  easily  broken,  and  its  fragments 
are  cubical.  It  occurs  in  veins,  beds,  and  imbedded 
masses,  often  accomijanying  other  metallic  ores,  in 
primitive  and  secondary  rocks,  but  most  of  all  in 
what  is  known  as  transition  or  mountain  hme- 
stone.  It  is  found  very  abundantly  in  Missouri,  Illi- 
nois, Iowa,  and  Wisconsin.  Almost  all  the  lead  of 
commerce  is  obtained  from  it.  It  sometimes  contains 
so  much  silver  that  the  separation  of  that  metal  is 
pi'ofitably  carried  on.  The  lead  is  extracted  from  it 
by  a  very  simple  process.    See  Lead. 

GALENA,  a  thriving  city,  capital  of  Jo  Daviess 
CO.,  111.,  near  the  north-west  corner  of  the  state,  situated 
on  both  sides  of  the  Galena  river,  three  miles  from  its 
junction  with  the  Mississippi.  It  is  450  miles  north 
of  St.  Louis,  250  miles  north-north- west  of  Spring- 
field, and  172  miles  west  by  north  of  Chicago.  The 
city,  owing  to  the  irregularity  of  the  ground  on  which 
it  is  built,  has  a  bold  and  picturesque  appearance. 
In  and  around  the  town,  high  bluflFs,  rising  frequently 
to  a  height  of  more  than  200  feet,  everywhere  occur. 
The  streets  rise  in  terraces,  one  above  another,  com- 
municating by  flights  of  steps.  Among  the  public 
buildings  are  numerous  churches  and  schools  (includ- 
ing a  normal  school),  a  convent,  and  a  custom-house. 


GALENICAL,  GALEN  1ST— GALENUS. 


G.  owes  its  origin  and  rapid  growth  to  the  rich  mines 
of  lead  which  surround  it.  Copper  is  also  found, 
though  not  in  great  quantity.  G.  has  manufactures 
of  pottery,  soap,  and  candles ;  it  has  also  lend  fur- 
naces, iron  foundries,  and  machine-shops;  breweries, 
carriage-manufactories,  and  numerous  mills.  Besides 
lead,  it  exports  horses,  cattle,  porU,  and  agricultural 
produce.  One  daily,  1  tri-weekly,  and  4  weekly  news- 
papers are  published  here.  G.  is  on  the  line  of  the 
Illinois  Central  Railroad,  17  miles  S.  of  Dunlcith. 
In  1819  the  first  house  was  built  at  G. ;  in  1870  it 
contained  7019  inhabitants. 

GALE'NICAL,  GA'LENIST,  two  words  having 
reference  to  the  controversies  of  the  period  of  the 
revival  of  letters,  when  the  authority  of  Galen  was 
strongly  asserted  against  all  innovations,  and  parti- 
cularl}^  against  the  introduction  of  chemical,  or  rather 
alchemical  ideas  and  methods  of  treatment  into 
medicine.  The  Galenists  adhered  to  the  ancient 
formulas,  in  which  drugs  were  prescribed,  either  in 
substance  or  in  the  form  of  tinctures  and  extracts, 
&c. ;  while  the  chemists  professed  to  extract  from 
them  the  essences,  or  quintessences  [qidnta  essentia, 
the  fifth  essence,  supposed  to  be  particularly  pure, 
as  requiring  five  processes  to  extract  it),  i.  e.,  sub- 
stances in  small  bulk,  presumed  to  contain  the  whole 
virtues  of  the  original  drugs  in  a  state  of  extreme 
concentration,  or  purified  from  all  gross  and  per- 
nicious, or  superfluous  matter.  There  can  be  no 
doubt,  now-a-days,  that  upon  both  sides  of  this 
controversy  there  was  a  great  deal  of  V^lind  error 
and  rash  dogmatism,  which  on  the  side  of  the 
chemists,  as  in  Paracelsus,  took  the  form  of  quackery 
and  mysticism ;  while  the  Galenists,  on  the  other 
hand,  were  the  supporters  of  tradition  and  all  its 
encumbrances,  and  too  often  the  envenomed  par- 
tisans of  old  blunders  or  misconceptions,  as  opposed 
to  new  forms  of  truth.  But  the  original  idea  of 
those  ivho  afterwards  became  identified  with  the 
sect  of  the  Galenists,  was  rather  to  free  the  ancient 
medicine  from  the  irrational  dogmas  and  methods 
of  cure  with  which  it  had  been  overlaid  by  the 
Arabians  and  the  monks,  than  to  insist  upon  mere 
antiquity,  or  upon  Galen's  aiithority  in  particxdar, 
as  demanding  the  blind  assent  of  mankind  in  oppo- 
sition to  new  truth.  Now  that  chemistry  has  really 
given  us  new  methods  of  preparing  drugs,  which 
supersede  many  of  those  that  have  been  used  from 
time  immemorial,  it  is  still  customary  with  some  to 
call  preparations  by  the  latter  methods  Galenical, 
as  contrasted  with  the  crystalline  alkaloids,  or  the- 
perfectly  pure  acids  and  bases,  which  contain  the 
virtues  of  most  of  our  most  valuable  vegetable 
medicines.  See  Ga.len,  Paracelsus,  Alchemy,  and 
the  several  articles  on  the  materia  medica. 

GALE'N US,  CLATTDrcs,  commonly  called  Galen, 
a  very  celebrated  physician,  born  at  Pergamus,  in 
Mysia,  130  a.d.  In  his  17th  year,  his  father,  Nicon, 
who  had  hitherto  destined  him  to  be  a  philosopher, 
in  consequence  of  a  dream,  chose  for  him  the  pro- 
fession of  medicine.  This  subject  he  first  studied 
at  Pergamus,  afterwards  at  Smyrna,  Corinth,  and 
Alexandria.  He  returned  to  his  native  city  in  his 
21>th  year,  and  was  at  once  appointed  physician 
to  tl.e  school  of  gladiators.  In  his  34th  year,  he 
went  to  Rome,  where  he  stayed  for  about  four 
years,  and  gained  such  a  reputation,  that  he  was 
offered,  but  declined,  the  post  of  physician  to  the 
emperor.  He  returned  to  his  native  coimtry  in  his 
S8th  year,  and  had  scarcelj'  resumed  his  ordinary 
course  of  life,  when  he  received  a  summons  from 
the  Emperors  M.  Aurelius  and  L.  Verus  to  attend 
them  in  the  north-eastern  frontier  of  Italy,  whither 
they  had  gone  to  make  preparations  for  a  war  with 
the  northern  tribes.  He  joined  the  camp  towards 
193 


the  end  of  the  year  169  ;  but  a  pestilence  breaking 
out,  the  emperors  and  their  court  set  off  for  Rome, 
whither  G.  accompanied  or  followed  them.    On  the 
return  of  M.  Aurelius  to  the  seat  of  war,  G.  obtained 
permission  to  be  left  at  Rome,  alleging  that  such 
was  the  will  of  ^sculapius,  as  revealed  to  him  in  a 
dream.  Plow  long  G.  stayed  at  Rome  on  this  second 
occasion  is  not  known,  but  we  ascertain  from  his 
works  that  he  attended  M.  Aurelius  and  hirt  two 
sons,  Commodus  and  Sextus,  and  that  at  about  the 
end  of  the  2d  c.  he  was  employed  to  compound  a 
celebrated  medicine  called  Theriaca  for  the  Empersr 
Severus.    If  the  statement  of  one  of  his  Arabic 
I  biographers  be  correct,  who   expressly   says  that 
I  G.  was  only  twice  at  Rome,  we  must  infer  thas 
j  the  gi-eater  part  of  his  middle  and  more  advanced 
I  life  was  spent  in  that  city.    The  place  and  date  of 
:  his  death  are  not  known  with  certainty,  but  it  ia 
j  believed  that  he  died  in  Sicily  about  the  year  201. 
I     The  works  that  are  still  extant  under  the  name  of 
j  G.  consist,  according  to  Choulant,  in  his  Ilandlmch 
!  der  Buclieyhmide  fur  die  aeltere  Medicin,  of  83 
treatises  ajknowledged  to  be  genuine;  19  whose 
genuineness  has  been  questioned ;  45  undovibtedly 
spurious ;  19  fragments  ;  and  15  commentaries  on 
different  works  of  Hippocrates.    Besides  these,  ha 
wrote  a  great  number  of  works  whose  titles  only 
are  preserved,  and  altogether  it  is  believed  that 
the  number  of  his  distinct  treatises  cannot  havo 
been  less  than  500. 

We  may  divide  his  works  into  (1)  those  on 
anatomy  and  physiology ;  (2)  those  on  dietetica 
and  hygiene  ;  (3)  those  on  pathology  ;  (4)  those  on 
diagnosis  and  semeiology ;  (5)  those  on  pharmacy 
and  materia  medica ;  (6)  those  on  therapeutics, 
including  surgery ;  (7)  his  commentaries  on  Hippo- 
crates ;  and  (8)  his  philosophical  and  miscellaneous 
works.  We  have  most  of  these  works  in  Greek, 
the  language  in  which  they  were  originally  written  ; 
bome  are,  however,  preserved  only  in  Latin  trans- 
lations, and  a  few  only  in  Arabic.  His  most 
important  anatomical  and  physiological  works  are 
— De  Anatomicis  Administrationibus,  and  De  Usu 
Par  Hum  Corporis  Humani.  Of  the  latter,  Dr 
Greenhill  (Smith's  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Biography)  remarks  that  'it  is  no  less  admirable 
for  the  deep  religious  feeling  with  which  it  ia 
written,  than  for  the  scientific  knowledge  and 
acuteness  displayed  in  it.'  For  a  good  general 
account  of  G.'s  anatomical  and  physiological  know- 
ledge, we  may  refer  to  a  memou-  published  by  the 
late  Professor  Kidd  of  Oxford  in  the  sixth  volume 
of  The  Transactions  of  the  Provincial  Medical  and 
Surgical  Association,  entitled  'A  Cursory  Analysis 
of  the  Works  of  Galen,  so  far  as  they  relate  to  Ana- 
tomy and  Physiology,'  and  Daremberg's  Exposition 
des  Connaissances  de  Galien  snr  V Anatomic,  la  PAy- 
siologie,  et  la  Pathologie  du  Systeme  Nerveux  (Paris, 
1841),  may  also  be  consulted  with  advantage.  His 
anatomical  and  physiological  Avritings  are  by  far  the 
most  valuable  of  his  works.  They  contain  undoubted 
evidence  of  his  familiarity  with  practical  anatomy; 
but  whether  he  derived  his  knowledge  from  dissec- 
tions of  human  bodies  or  those  of  the  lower  animals, 
is  uncertain.  The  latter  is  the  most  probable  view 
— (1)  because  he  frequently  recommends  the  dis- 
section of  apes,  bears,  goats,  &c. ;  and  (2)  because 
he  mentions,  as  something  extraordinary,  that  those 
physicians  who  attended  the  Emperor  M.  Aurelius 
in  his  Avars  against  the  Germans  had  an  oppoi-tunity 
of  dissecting  the  bodies  of  the  barbarians.  Much 
curious  information  regarding  G.'s  \news  on  dietetica 
and  hygiene  will  be  found  in  Adams's  Commentai-y 
on  the  First  Book  of  Paulus  jEgineta.  His  path- 
ology was  very  speculative  and  imperfect.  In  hia 
diagnosis  and  prognosis,  he  laid  great  stress  on  the 


GALEHITES— G  ALIANL 


piiLsie,  on  which  subject  he  may  be  considered  as 
the  first  and  greatest  authority,  for  all  subsequent 
writers  adopted  his  system  without  alteration.  He 
likewise  placed  great  confidence  in  the  doctrine  of 
critical  days,  which  he  believed  to  be  influenced  by 
the  moon.  In  materia  medica,  his  authority  was 
not  so  high  as  that  of  Dioscorides.  Numerous  ingre- 
dients, many  of  which  were  probably  inert,  enter 
into  most  of  his  prescriptions.  He  seems  to  place 
a  more  implicit  faith  in  amulets  than  in  medicine, 
and  he  is  supposed  by  Cullen  to  be  the  author  of 
tS3  anodyne  necklace,  which  was  so  long  famous 
in  England.  We  cannot  attempt  to  enter  into  his 
system  of  therapeutics.  We  may,  however,  observe, 
that  his  practice  is  based  on  two  fundamental 
principles — (1)  that  disease  is  something  contrary 
to  nature,  and  is  to  be  overcome  by  that  which  is 
contrary  to  the  disease  itself ;  and  (2)  that  nature 
is  to  be  preserved  by  that  which  has  relation 
to  nature.  Hence  arise  two  general  indications 
of  treatment — the  one  taken  from  the  affection 
contrary  to  nature,  which  affection  requires  to 
be  overcome  ;  the  other  from  the  strength  and 
natural  constitution  of  the  body,  which  reqmres 
to  be  preserved. 

Before  d.'s  time,  the  medical  profession  was 
divided  into  several  sects,  who  were  always  dis- 
puting with  one  another ;  as,  for  example,  the 
Dogmatici,  Empirici,  Eclcctici,  Pneumatici,  and 
Episynthetici.  After  his  time,  all  these  sects  seem 
to  have  merged  in  his  followers.  The  subsequent 
Oreek  and  Koman  medical  writers  were  mere  com- 
pilers from  his  writings  ;  and  as  soon  as  his  works 
were  translated  (in  the  9th  c.)  into  Arabic,  they 
were  at  once  adopted  throiighout  the  East,  to  the 
exclusion  of  all  others.  In  short,  G.  reigned  para- 
mount throughout  the  civilised  world  till  within 
the  last  300  years.  The  records  of  the  London 
College  of  Physicians  afford  a  striking  illustration 
of  this  fact,  in  so  far  as  England  is  concerned. 
In  ]  559,  Dr  Geynes  '  was  cited  before  the  college 
for  impugning  the  infallibility  of  Galen.  On  his 
acknowledgment  of  his  error  and  humble  recan- 
tation, signed  with  his  own  hand,  he  was  received 
into  the  college.' 

The  Greek  text  has  been  pubHshed  four  times. 
The  first  edition  was  the  Aldine,  printed  in  1525,  in 
6  folio  volumes  ;  the  latest  and  most  accessible 
edition  is  that  of  C.  G.  Klihn,  in  20  octavo  volumes, 
the  publication  of  which  extended  from  1821  to 
1833.    A  good  critical  edition  is  still  required. 

GA'LEB.ITES  {galerus,  a  cap),  a  genus  of  fossil 
eea-urchins,  peculiar  to  and  abimdant  in  the  Chalk 
measures.    The  generic  name,  as  well  as  that  popu- 
larly given  to  them  in  the 
districts  where  they  abound, 
viz.,   '  Sugar-loaves,'  is  des- 
criptive of  the  elongated  and 
more  or  less  conical  shape  of 
their  shell.     The  body  in 
breadth  is  nearly  circular  or 
polygonal.  The  under  surface 
is  entirely  flat,  and  has  the 
mouth  x^l^i-ced  in  its  centre, 
Galerites  Albogalerus.  with  the  vent  near  the  margin. 

There  are  five  avenues  of 
pores  reaching  from  the  mouth  to  the  summit. 
These  fossils  are  often  foimd  silicified.  The  species 
figured  is  one  of  the  most  abundant ;  it  has 
received  its  specific  name  from  its  resemblance  to 
the  white  caps  worn  by  the  priests  of  Jupiter. 

GALE'RIUS,  VAr,ERius  Maximiantjs,  a  Roman 
emperor   of  humble   parentage,   was   born  near 
Sardica,  in  Dacia,  entered  the  imperial  army,  and 
rose  from  one  grade  of  rr^litarv  rank  to  another, 
678 


until  Diocletian  conferred  on  him,  along  with  Con- 
stantius  Chlorus,  the  title  of  Ciesar  (292  A.D.),  and 
gave  him  his  daughter  in  marriage.  On  the  abdi- 
cation of  Diocletian  (305  A.D.),  he  and  Constantiua 
hecame  Aug usti,  or  joint-rulers  of  the  Koman  empire. 
On  the  death  of  Constantius  at  York  (306  A.  D.),  the 
troops  in  Britain  and  Gaid  immediately  declared 
their  allegiance  to  his  son,  Constantine  (afterwards 
Constautine  the  Great),  much  to  the  chagrin  of  G., 
who  expected  the  entire  sovereignty  of  Heme  to 
fall  into  his  hands.  He  died  in  311  A.  D.  G.  was  a 
brave  soldier  and  a  skilful  commander,  but  appears 
to  possess  no  other  claims  to  the  respect  of  posterit)'. 
He  hated  the  Christians  '  with  a  ])erfect  hatred ; ' 
and  it  is  believed  that  it  was  he  who  forced 
Diocletian  to  issue  his  famoiis  edict  against  them, 
which  caused  the  last  of  the  imperial  persecution's. 
His  mother,  an  ignorant  pagan  fanatic,  is  said  to 
have  exercised  much  influence  over  him ;  but  it  is 
highly  probable  that  his  treatment  of  the  adherents 
to  the  Christian  faith  was  also  determined  by  a 
politic  opposition  to  Constantius  and  his  son,  who 
tolerated,  and  even  respected  the  new  opinions  and 
practices. 

GALIA'NI,  Ferdinando,  an  Italian  savant,  was 
bom  in  Chieti,  a  province  of  the  Abruzzi,  in  1728, 
and  exhibited  at  an  early  i)eriod  an  extraordinary 
aptitude  for  learning.  Philosophy,  history,  arclise- 
ology,  and  more  especially  the  science  of  political 
economy,  were  his  favourite  studies ;  but,  neverthe- 
less, he  first  attracted  notice  by  a  clever  squib  on 
the  death  of  the  public  executioner.  This  consisted 
of  a  collection  of  essays  eulogistic  of  the  deceased, 
in  which  the  style  of  the  president  and  leading 
members  of  the  Neapolitan  Academy  was  admir- 
ably imitated.  It  was  entitled,  A  Collection  oj 
Papers  in  honour  of  Domenico  Jannacone,  Public 
Executioner,  revised  and  issued  hj  the  President  of 
the  Academy,  Gian  Antonio  Sergio,  Advocate,  and 
excited  universal  comment  in  Naples.  The  young 
delinquent  was  condemned  to  a  period  of  seclusion, 
prescribed  for  penitential  exercises.  His  next  pub- 
lication, Delia  Moneta,  was  more  deserving  of  his 
pen,  and  evinced  his  great  learning  and  powers  of 
reflection.  It  must  be  regarded  as  a  valuable  con- 
tribution to  the  science  of  political  economy.  The 
leading  principle  which  it  seeks  to  establish  is,  that 
coin  is  a  merchandise,  and  that  its  value  and  interest 
ought  to  be  left  free  like  other  goods.  By  the 
adoption  of  the  sage  monetary  doctrines  propounded 
by  an  economist,  who  barely  numbered  20  years, 
the  financial  ruin  of  Naples  is  said  to  have  been 
then  averted.  In  1751,  he  visited  the  chief  cities 
of  Italy,  and  was  everywhere  honourably  received. 
From  Pope  Benedict  XIV.  he  received  repeated 
proofs  of  favour  and  confidence.  Having  contracted 
during  his  travels  intimate  friendships  with  some  of 
the  most  famous  naturalists  of  his  country,  he  imme- 
diately entered  with  enthusiasm  into  their  pursuits, 
and  on  his  return  to  Naples  collected  a  rich  assort- 
ment of  the  stones  and  volcanic  matter  of  Vesuvius, 
which  he  subsequently  presented  to  the  pope, 
accompanied  by  a  leai'ned  thesis.  On  one  of  the 
stone  specimens,  he  engraved  the  following  sugges- 
tive inscription,  ^  Beatissime  pater,  fac  ui  lapides  iisti 
panes  fiant;''  and  received,  by  way  of  answer,  the 
rich  prebend  of  Amalfi,  for  which  he  had  previously 
qualified  himself  by  entering  into  holy  orders.  In 
1759,  he  became  secretary  to  the  Neapolitan  Embassy 
at  Paris,  where  his  wit,  Advacity,  and  learning  made 
him  a  imiversal  favourite.  In  1767,  he  visited 
England,  whose  social  and  political  institutions 
he  studied  deeply.  On  his  return  to  Paris,  he 
wrote  another  treatise  on  political  economy,  entitled 
Dialoghi  sul  Commercio  del  Grano  (Dialogues  upon 
the  Trade  in  Corn),  in  which  he  argues  against  both 


GALIOIA— GALILEI. 


the  extreme  protectionists  and  the  pure  free-traders. 
Being  recalled  to  Naples,  he  was  successively 
appointed  to  various  posts  of  trust  and  importance. 
He  died  at  Naples  in  1787,  leaving  behind  him  rare 
collections  of  musical  MSS.,  ancient  coins,  sculptures, 
medals,  precious  stones,  cameos,  &c. 

GALrCIA,  formerly  a  province  in  the  north- 
west of  Spain,  having  an  area  of  11,195  square 
miles,  but  divided,  since  1833,  into  the  minor  prov- 
inces of  Coruna,  Lugo,  Orense,  and  Pontevedra, 
whose  joint  population  in  1870  was  1,933.722.  The 
eoiintry  is  mountainous,  being  covered  by  several 
offsets  of  the  Asturian  chain,  rising  in  their  highest 
peaks  to  the  height  of  about  6000  feet.  Capes 
Ortegal  and  Finisterre  project  into  the  Atlantic 
The  numerous  rivers  form  liias,  or  small  estuaries 
at  their  mouths,  and  aiford  secure  havens  and 
roads.  The  principal  river  is  the  Minho,  which, 
with  its  feeders,  the  Sil  and  the  Avia,  is  navigable 
as  it  approaches  the  sea.  G.  is  one  of  the  most 
fruitful  portions  of  Europe,  and  has  a  mild  nourish- 
ing climate.  Rich  meadows  and  dense  forests  occur 
everywhere,  but  the  soil  is  more  suited  to  the  culti- 
vation of  garden-produce  than  of  corn.  The  inhabit- 
ants, who  are  called  Gallegos,  are  a  robust,  vigorous, 
and  industrious  race.  They  visit  various  parts  of 
the  country,  and  are  employed  in  Madrid  as  water- 
carriers,  porters,  &c.  Fishing  and  navigation  are  the 
occupations  most  largely  followed.  Linen  manufac- 
tures have  been  recently  established.  The  principal 
towns  are  St  Jago  di  Compostella,  and  the  two 
strongly  fortified  seaports  Coruna  and  FerroL 

GALICIA,  a  crown-land  belonging  to  the 
Austrian  monarchy,  including  the  former  king- 
doms of  Galicia  and  Lodomeria,  the  duchies  of 
Auschwitz  and  Zator,  and  the  grand-duchy  of 
Cracow.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Poland  and 
Russia,  on  the  E.  by  Russia,  on  the  S.  by  the 
Bukow^na  and  Hungary,  and  on  the  W.  by 
Silesia.  It  has  an  area  of  29,941  square  miles,  and 
its  population  in  1869  amounted  to  5,444,689,  the 
great  body  of  whom  are  Roman  CathoHcs.  The 
country  is  a  high  terrace,  situated  at  the  northern 
base  of  the  Carpathians.  The  northern  portion 
forms  an  extensive  plain,  broken  only  by  low  ranges 
of  hills.  There  are  many  large  rivers — those  in 
the  west  being  feeders  of  the  Vistula,  those  in  the 
east,  of  the  Danube  and  Dniester.  The  climate  of 
G.  is  colder  than  that  of  any  other  portion  of  the 
Austrian  empire ;  the  soil,  with  the  exception  of 
bome  sandy  and  marshy  districts,  is  fertile,  and 
produces  corn,  which  is  exported  in  considerable 
quantities.  Flax,  hemp,  tobacco,  hops,  &c,,  are 
likewise  cultivated.  Horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  are 
raised  in  considerable  numbers.  Wolves  and  bears 
are  still  found  in  the  mountainous  districts.  Salt  is 
the  most  important  minerah  Industry  has  lately 
made  marked  progress.  Commerce  is  on  the  increase. 
The  roads  are  good ;  and  a  railway  has  been 
recently  constructed.  For  administrative  purposes, 
G.  has  been  divided  into  three  governments — viz., 
Lemberg,  Cracow,  and  Stanislawow.  G.  takes  its 
name  from  the  old  fortress  and  town  of  Halicz,  on 
the  Dniester.  The  original  Slavonic  inhabitants,  the 
Ruthenes,  were,  towards  the  end  of  the  9th  c,  con- 
quered by  the  Russians  of  Kiew.  The  western  por- 
tion of  the  country  had  already  become  dependent 
on  Poland,  and  afterwards  on  Hungary.  In  1382 
it  was  restored  to  Poland,  and  continued  to  belong 
^  that  country  till  the  partition  of  1773,  when  G. 
tecame  one  of  the  crown-lands  of  Austria.  In  184G, 
Cracow,  with  the  territory  belonging  to  it,  was,  by 
a  treaty  of  the  three  powers  (Austria,  Russia,  and 
Prussia),  given  up  to  the  emperor  of  Austria,  and 
bv  him  annexed  to  the  crown-land  of  Galicia. 


GALICZ.    See  Halicz. 

GA'LILEE,  the  name  applied  to  a  porch  or  chapel 
placed  at  the  entrance  to  a  church,  beyond  which 
women  were  not  permitted  to  pass.  In  abbeys,  for 
example,  the  monks  came  to  the  galilee  to  sec  their 
female  relatives.  A  portion  of  the  nave  was  some- 
times marked  off  by  a  stej),  or,  as  at  Durham,  by  a 
line  of  blue  marble,  to  mark  the  boundary  to  which 
women  were  limited.  Th^re  are  fine  specimens  of 
galilees  at  Lincoln,  Ely,  and  Durham. 

GALILEE  (Heb.  Galil,  a  'circle'  or  *  circuit')  is 
the  name  originally  applied  to  a  small  district 
belonging  to  the  Jewish  tribe  of  NaphtaU  (see 
Josh.  XX.  7).  Here  were  situated  the  20  towns 
which  Solomon  gave  to  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  for 
his  assistance  in  building  the  temple.  Phoenician 
colonies,  in  consequence,  appear  to  have  establi  ihed 
themselves  here,  or  the  towns  perhaps  reverted  by 
some  chance  to  their  original  Canaanitish  occu- 
pants, for  at  a  later  period  we  find  Isaiah  (ix.  1) 
speaking  of  the  district  as  '  Galilee  of  the  nations.' 
These  '  nations,'  or  Gentiles,  appear  to  have  greatly 
increased  in  numbers,  and  to  have  finally  spread 
themselves  over  aU  the  surrounding  country,  until, 
in  the  time  of  our  Lord,  the  name  '  Galilee ' 
embraced  the  whole  northern  portion  of  Palestine 
from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Jordan.  As  early 
as  the  time  of  the  Maccabees  (book  I.  chap.  v. 
verses  20 — 23),  the  number  of  Jews  in  G.  was 
very  small ;  Strabo,  a  contemporary  of  Christ, 
states  that  in  his  day  it  was  mainly  inhabited  by 
Syrians,  Phoenicians,  and  Arabs,  to  whom  Josephus 
adds  Greeks.  The  principal  towns  at  the  dawn  of 
Christianity  were  Tiberias,  Tarichaa,  and  Sepphoris ; 
those  that  figure  in  the  gospels  are  Cana,  Caper- 
naum, Nazareth,  and  Nain.  The  Jewish  inhabitants 
of  G.  spoke  a  broader  and  coarser  dialect  than 
their  southern  brethren  of  Judsea,  and  were  held  in 
low  estimation  by  the  latter,  partly  on  account  of 
their  more  liberal  sentiments  in  regard  to  religion. 
It  has  been  thought  likely  that  this  liberality,  the 
existence  of  which  is  indisputable,  was  owing  to 
their  intercourse  with  their  different  heathen  neigh- 
bours. Every  one  of  the  disciples  was  a  Galilean 
either  by  birth  or  residence,  and  consequently 
may  not  have  been  a  Jew  at  all  in  the  strict 
sense  of  the  term ;  i.  e.,  in  being  able  to  boast  of 
having  'Abraham  for  his  father.'  The  first  three 
gospels  are  chiefly  taken  up  with  records  of  the 
Saviour's  ministrations  in  this  pro\'ince.  Aft-er 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  the  despised  G.,  as 
if  retributively,  became  the  refuge  of  the  proud 
doctors  of  Jewish  law,  and  the  city  of  Tibenas 
the  seat  of  Rabbinical  learning.  The  ruins  of 
many  fine  synagogues  are  still  extant  in  the  old 
towns  and  villages  of  this  region.  At  present, 
G.  belongs  to  the  pashalic  of  Damascus,  in  the 
Turkish  province  of  Syria  or  Soristan,  and,  as 
of  yore,  is  remarkable  for  its  beauty  and  fertility. 
It  still  has  a  considerable  number  of  Jewish 
inhabitants. 

GALILEI,  Galileo,  the  creator  of  experi- 
mental science,  was  born  at  Pisa  on  the  15th  of 
February  1524.  He  belonged  to  a  Florentine 
family  more  ancient  than  opulent.  G.,  by  desire 
of  his  father,  exclusively  directed  his  early  studies 
to  medicine,  and  the  prevailing  Aristotelian  phil- 
osophy, the  dogmas  of  which  he  soon  ventured  to 
disbelieve  and  despise.  At  the  age  of  eighteen 
he  made  one  of  his  most  important  discoveries. 
Happening  on  one  occasion  to  observe,  in  the 
cathedral  of  Pisa,  the  oscillation  of  a  lamp  casually 
set  in  motion,  G.  was  struck  with  the  apparent 
measured  regidarity  of  its  vibrations;  and  having 
tested   the   correctness    of    this   observation  by 


GALILEI. 


compurin*^  the  beat  of  his  own  pulse  uith  the 
action  of  the  pendulum,  he  concluded  that  by 
means  of  this  equality  of  oscillation  a  simple 
pendulum  (q.  v.)  might  become  an  invaluable  agent 
in  the  exact  measurement  of  time.  This  discovery 
he  subsequently  utilised  by  the  successful  appli- 
cation of  the  pendulum  in  constructing  a  clock 
for  astronomical  purposes.  G.'s  irrepressible  bias 
towards  mechanical  constructions  and  experimental 
Ecieuce  received  a  new  impulse  from  his  intercourse 
with  a  friend  of  his  father's,  Ostilio  Riccio,  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics,  who,  in  compliance  with  the 
youth's  entreaties,  initiiited  him  into  tb.e  principles 
of  mathematics.  Such  was  G.'s  absorption  and 
delight  in  his  new  studies,  that  his  father  at 
length  sanctioned  his  abandonment  of  the  art  of 
medicine,  in  order  that  he  might  concentrate  his 
powers  on  his  chosen  sciences.  The  first  fruit  of 
Lis  geometrical  investigations  was  the  invention  of 
a  hydrostatic  balance,  by  which  the  specific  gravity 
of  solid  bodies  might  be  ascertained  with,  the 
nicest  accuracy.  In  1589,  the  fame  of  G.'s  extraor- 
dinary learning  having  reached  the  Grand  Duke  of 
Tuscany,  this  enlightened  prince  appointed  him 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  university  of  Pisa, 
where  he  covertly  inculcated  many  of  those  great 
innovations  in  physical  science  which  have  since 
added  such  lustre  to  his  memory.  About  this  period 
he  turned  his  attention  to  the  then  very  imperfectly 
conq)rchended  laws  of  bodies  in  motion  ;  and  in 
opposition  to  all  received  systems,  he  propounded 
the  novel  theorem,  that  all  falling  bodies,  great  or 
Bmali,  descend  with  equjil  velocity.  This  soon  led 
him  to  the  discovery  of  '  the  three  laws  of  motion,' 
and  the  law  regulating  the  motion  of  falling  bodies, 
which  is  ex])ressed  by  the  formula  S  =  ^  ft-.  This 
theory  of  falling  bodies  was  proved  correct  by 
several  experiments  which  were  made  from  the 
S'ammit  of  the  leaning  tower  of  Pisa,  greatly  to 
the  chagrin  of  the  Aristotelians,  whose  enmity  to 
G.  now  grew  more  decided.  In  consequence,  he 
deemed  it  prudent  to  relmquish  his  chair  at  Pisa, 
and  retired  to  Padua,  where  he  accepted  the  ofi"er 
of  the  Venetian  senate  to  lecture  on  mathematics 
in  the  university  for  the  space  of  six  years.  It  is 
also  said,  however,  that  G.  lost  his  chair  at  Pisa, 
from  having  ridiculed  the  mechanical  pretensions 
of  John  de  Medici,  son  of  Cosmo  I.  G.'s  engage- 
ment at  Padua  was  eventually  prolonged  to  the 
term  of  18  years  ;  but  so  urgent  was  his  desire  to 
retiu-Q  to  his  birthplace,  that  he  sought  a  restoration 
to  his  former  post  at  Pisa,  and  was  gratified  by  an 
assent  being  eagerly  accorded  by  Cosmo  de'  Medici, 
with  lixemption  from  any  but  a  voluntary  exercise 
of  the  duties  of  the  ])rofessorship.  During  his 
Bojourn  at  Padua,  his  course  of  lectures  enjoyed 
extraordinary  popularity ;  crowds  of  pupils  flocked 
to  hear  him  from  all  parts  of  Europe  ;  and  he 
was  the  first  to  adapt  the  Italian  idiom  to  philo- 
sophical instruction.  Among  the  various  and  noble 
discoveries  with  which  he  enriched  science,  may  be 
noticed  a  species  of  thermometer,  a  proportional 
cojnpass  or  sector,  and  more  imj)ortaut  than  all, 
the  construction  of  the  refracting  telescope  for 
astronomical  investigation.  In  1609,  he  ofi"ered 
his  first  complete  telescope  to  the  Doge  of  Venice, 
Leonardi  Deodati,  by  whom  it  was  tested  from  the 
tower  of  St  Mark  v/ith  equal  surprise  and  delight. 
In  the  same  year  he  constructed  a  microscope ;  and 
then  this  indefatigable  interpreter  of  the  mysteries 
of  nature  commenced  his  astronomical  researches 
by  means  of  his  own  telescope.  He  speedily  con- 
cluded that  the  moon,  instead  of  being  a  self- 
luminous  and  perfectly  smooth  sphere,  owed  her 
illumination  to  reflection,  and  presented  an  unequal 
Buiface,  deeply  furrowed  by  valleys  and  mountains 
580 


of  great  extent.  The  Milky  Way  he  i)ronounced  a 
track  of  countless  separate  stars ;  and  these  dis' 
coveries  were  crowned  by  a  still  more  important 
series  of  observations,  which  led  to  the  discovery 
of  the  fotir  satellites  of  Jupiter  on  the  night  of 
the  7  th  of  January  1610  (though  it  was  not  till 
the  13th  of  the  same  month  that  he  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  they  were  satellites,  and  not  fixed 
stars),  which  he  named  the  Medicean  stars,  in  honour 
of  his  constant  protectors  in  that  family.  He  also 
was  the  first  to  note  movable  spots  on  the  disc  ol 
the  sun,  from  which  he  inferred  the  rotation  of  thaij 
orb.  Encircled  by  the  lustre  of  these  sublime  dis- 
coveries, he  departed  from  Padua,  and  returned  to 
Tuscany  in  1610,  where  renewed  quarrels  with  the 
Aristotelians  disquieted  and  embittered  his  exist- 
ence. In  1611,  he  visited  Home,  and  was  received 
w^th  great  distinction,  being  enrolled  a  member 
of  the  Lincei  Academy ;  but  four  years  later,  on 
repeating  the  visit,  his  reception  was  widely  diff'erent, 
as  by  that  time  in  his  work  on  the  solar  spota 
he  had  openly  advocated  the  Copemican  system, 
and  was  in  consequence  denoimced  as  a  propoiuider 
of  heretical  views.  He  repaired  again  to  Rome,  to 
demand  an  experimental  inquiry  into  the  soundness 
of  his  views ;  but  the  grand  duke  apprehending 
inquisitorial  dangers  for  his  favourite,  summoned 
him  back  to  Tuscany ;  at  the  same  time  the  pope, 
through  the  famous  Cardinal  Bellarmine  (a  sincere 
friend  of  G,'s),  commanded  him  to  abstain  from  all 
future  advocacy  of  his  heretical  doctrines.  Some 
time  after,  he  MTote  his  most  famous  work  in  the 
form  of  a  dialogiie  between  three  fictitious  interlocu* 
tors,  the  one  in  favour  of  the  Copemican  system, 
the  second  an  advocate  of  the  Ptolemaic,  and  the 
third  a  rabid  supporter  of  the  Aristotelian  school. 
Of  course,  the  whole  weight  of  the  proof  falls  into 
the  Copemican  scale  ;  and  nothing  can  exceed  the 
classic  beauty  of  this  composition,  or  the  com- 
pactness of  the  chain  of  its  argument.  In  1630, 
G,  contrived  to  obtain  the  papal  imprimatur, 
which  was  subseqiiently  revoked ;  but  having  got 
a  similar  authorisation  at  Florence,  he  published,  in 
1632,  this  exponent  of  his  opinions  under  the  title 
of  Un  Dialogo  intorno  i  due  Massimi  Slstemi  del 
Mondo.  Hardly  had  the  work  been  issued,  when 
it  was  given  over  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Inqui- 
sition. Pope  Urban,  previously  Cardinal  Barberini, 
and,  until  now,  a  friend  and  eulogist  of  G.,  was 
led  to  believe  that  G.  had  satirised  him  in  this 
work  under  the  title  of  SimpUcio,  as  one  who  is 
careless  about  scientific  truth,  and  who  timidly 
adheres  to  the  saws  of  antiquity.  He  resolved 
to  punish  the  audacious  jihilosopher.  In  spite  of 
his  70  years  and  heavy  infirmities,  G.  was  sum- 
moned before  the  Inquisition  to  answer  for  his 
heresies.  After  a  wearisome  trial  and  incarceration, 
his  judges  condemned  G.  to  abjure  by  oath  on  his 
knees  the  sublime  truths  of  his  scientific  creed.  This 
he  was  weak  enough  to  do.  His  latest  biographer, 
M.  Philarfete  Chasles,  however,  denies  that  G. 
was  put  to  the  torture,  and  j^ronounces  the  letter 
of  G.  to  Ileinecci,  from  which  Tiraboschi  quotes  to 
prove  it,  a  forgery.  His  famous  whisper,  E  pur 
si  imiove  ('But  nevertheless  it  does  move'),  is  also 
in  danger  of  being  regarded  as  a  fiction.  G.  was 
sentenced  to  an  indefinite  term  of  imprisonment  in 
the  Inquisition,  which  was  soon  commuted  by  Pope 
Urban,  at  the  request  of  Ferdinand  the  Grand, 
Duke  of  Tuscany,  into  permission  to  reside  at  Siena, 
and  finally  at  Florence,  shoidd  the  prisoner's  health 
require  the  change. .  In  his  retreat  at  Arcetri, 
he  continued  with  unflagging  ardour  his  learned 
researches,  even  when  hearing  grew  enfeebled  and 
sight  was  extinguished.  He  died  on  the  8th  ol 
January  1642,  at  the  age  of  78,  and  was  iuteired 


GALINGALE— GALL. 


by  ducal  orders  in  tlie  cathedral  of  Santa  Croce, 
where  a  majestic  monument  symbolises  his  great 
achievements.  His  disposition  was  truly  genial ; 
he  enjoyed  with  keenness  the  social  wit  and  banter 
of  his  chosen  friends,  and  the  generous  pleasures 
of  the  banquet ;  and  the  readiness  with  which  he 
offered  or  accejited  atonement,  modified  a  some- 
what irascible  disposition.  The  great  deficiencies 
in  his  character  were  a  want  of  tact  to  keep  out  of 
difficulties,  and  a  want  of  moral  courage  to  defend 
himself  when  involved  in  them.  His  biting  satirical 
turn,  more  than  his  physical  discoveries,  was  the 
cause  of  his  misfortunes.  The  dignitaries  of  the 
church  who  persecuted  G.,  warned  liim  beforehand 
in  the  friendliest  way  to  be  '  more  prudent.'  Their 
conduct  in  persecuting  opinion,  or  rather,  in  G.'s 
case,  demonstrated  fact,  is  of  course  utterly  inex- 
cusable ;  but  that  is  no  reason  why  we  should  run 
to  the  other  extreme,  and  declare  G.  to  be  a  martyr. 
No  great  man  had  ever  less  claim  to  the  title.  It 
is  also  right  to  add,  that  the  congregation  of  the 
Inquisition  by  which  G.  was  condemned,  is  not 
believed  by  Koman  Catholics  to  speak  with  the 
plenary  authority  of  the  Catholic  Church,  nor  are 
its  decisions  regaixled  as  infallible  even  by  the  most 
extreme  ultramontanes.  G.  was  of  small  stature, 
but  of  a  robust  and  healthy  frame ;  liis  counte- 
nance was  attractive,  and  his  conversation  cheerful. 
He  loved  art,  and  cultivated  especially  music 
and  i)oetry.  Ariosto  he  knew  almost  by  heart, 
and  appreciated  keenly  the  beauties  of  this  great 
classic.  Tasso,  on  the  other  hand,  he  unduly 
depreciated,  and  inflicted  much  pain  on  the  sen- 
sitive spirit  of  the  poet  by  his  severe  criticism 
entitled  Consider azioni  al  Tasso.  His  own  style 
is  nervous,  flowing,  and  elegant.  His  collected 
works  have  been  published  in  13  volumes,  8vo 
(Milan,  1811),  and  at  various  other  places.  His 
devoted  pupil,  Viviani,  has  wi'itten  a  life  of  G. ;  see 
also  Drinkwater  in  the  Library  of  Useful  Knoiv- 
ledge ;  Sir  David  Brewster  in  Lardner's  Cabinet 
Cyclopcedia ;  and  M.  Phllar&te  Cbasles's  Galileo 
Galilei :  sa  Vie,  son  Proces,  et  ses  Contemporains, 
d^apres  les  Documents  Originaux  (Paris,  1862).  We 
may  briefly  recapitulate  G.'s  most  important  con- 
tributions to  physical 
science  under  the  follow- 
ing heads  :  1.  The  rela- 
tion between  space  and 
time  in  the  case  of  falling 
bodies,  also  the  'three 
laws  of  motion ; '  2.  The 
path  of  projectiles  is  a 
parabola ;  3.  The  iso- 
chronism  of  the  pen- 
dulum ;  4.  That  air  has 
weight,  also  partial  dis- 
covery that  suction  is 
owing  to  the  pressure 
of  the  atmosphere  ;  5. 
The  re-invention  of  Aris- 
totle's theory  respecting 
sound;  6.  The  invention 
of  the  telescope;  7.  The 
discovery  of  the  satel- 
lites of  Jupiter,  phases 
of  Venus,  and  spots  on 
the  sun.  For  the  nature 
of  these  discoveries, 
see  Pendulum,  Falling 
Bodies,  Projectiles,  &c, 
GALINGALE,  a  name 
often  applied  to  the  tubers 
.,  ,  ,  .  „  of  Ciiperus  lonrius,  and 
rf.aspikdet;  6,  a  single  flower;  +o  tliP  whnlp 

fl,  pistil ;  d,  eu^J  of  hi.ikelet  in  sometimes  to  tne  wnoie 


Galingalc  (Cyperns  longus) ; 


fruit. 


plant.    See  Cyperus. 


GALIPEA.    See  Angostura  Bark. 
GALIUM.    See  Bedstraw. 

GALL.  A  synonym  for  bile,  the  secretion  of  the 
Liver  (q.  v.). 

GALL,  Franz  Joseph,  the  founder  of  phren 
ology,  was  born  at  Tiefenbrunn,  near  Pforzheim,  on 
the  borders  of  Baden  and  Wurtemberg,  9th  March 
1758.  He  studied  medicine  at  Vienna,  and  settling 
there,  became  known  as  a  jjractical  physician,  ana 
by  the  publication  of  his  Pldlosophisch-Medicinischt 
Untersucliungen  uber  Natur  und  Kunst  ir.i  gesunden 
und  kranken  Zustande  des  Menschen  (Vienna,  1791). 
But  he  acquired  a  much  more  extended  reputation 
by  his  lectures  on  the  structure  and  functions  of 
the  brain,  which  he  began  to  deliver  in  1796.  See 
Phrenology.  His  views  were  so  subversive  of 
received  doctrines  on  the  subject  of  mind,  that  a 
spu'it  of  opposition  was  excited,  and  the  lectures 
were  prohibited  in  1802  by  the  Austrian  govern- 
ment. Along  with  his  pupil  Dr  Spurzheim  (q.  v.), 
who  became  his  associate  in  1804,  G.  quitted 
Vienna  in  1805,  and  during  his  travels  through 
Germany,  Holland,  Sweden,  and  Switzerland, 
expounded  his  views  in  many  of  the  luiiversities 
and  principal  cities,  where  he  found  many  adherents 
as  well  as  ojiponents.  In  1807,  he  settled  as  a 
physician  in  Paris,  and  there  began  lecturing  and 
writing  for  the  propagation  of  his  opmions.  As  a 
foreigner  teaching  science  to  the  French,  he  was 
discountenanced  by  Napoleon.     On   14th  March 

1808,  he  and  Spurzheim  presented  to  the  Institute 
of  France  a  Memoir  of  their  discoveries,  on  which  a 
committee  of  the  members  of  that  body  (includmg 
Pinel,  Portal,  and  Cuvier)  drew  up  an  unfavourable 
Report.  Of  this  there  is  a  translation  in  the  Edin- 
burgh Medical  and  Surgical  Journal  for  January 

1809.  G.  and  Spurzheim  thereu[)on  published  their 
Memoir,  with  a  reply  to  the  Rejwr-t,  in  a  volume 
entitled  Recherches  sur  le  Systeme  Nerveux  en  general, 
et  sur  celui  du  Cerveau  en  particulier  ;  suivi  d' Obser- 
vations sur  le  Rapport,  &c.  (Paris,  1809,  4to).  This 
was  followed  by  their  larger  work,  Anatomie  et 
Physiologie  du  Systeme  Nerveux,  &c.  (Paris,  1810 — 
1819,  4  vols.  4to),  with  an  Atlas  of  100  plates  ;  but 
the  two  phrenologists  ha\T.ng  parted  in  1813,  the 
name  of  G.  alone  is  prefixed  to  vols.  3  and  4  ;  and 
it  alone  is  borne  by  a  reprint  of  the  physiologdcal 
portion  of  the  work,  entitled  Sur  les  Fonctions  du 
Cerveau,  et  sur  celles  de  chacune  de  ses  Parties  (Paris, 
1825,  6  vols.  8vo).  Of  the  contents  of  that  edition, 
there  is  a  summary  in  the  Phrenological  Journal,  x. 
459.  A  German  translation  of  it,  entitled  Voll- 
standige  Geisteskunde,  &c.,  appeared  at  Nuremberg  in 
1833  ;  and  an  indiff"erent  English  version  by  Dr 
Winslow  Lewis,  junior,  at  Boston,  United  States,  in 
1835  (6  vols.  12mo).  A  translation  of  the  chapters 
On  the  Functions  of  the  Cerebellum  is  included  in  a 
volume  with  that  title,  published  by  G.  Combe 
(Edin.  1838,  8vo).  In  answer  to  accusations  of 
materialism  and  fatalism  brought  against  his  s^^stem, 
G.  had  early  published  a  part  of  the  work  under 
the  title  of  Des  Dispositions  innees  de  VAme  et  de 
V Esprit,  &c.  (Paris,  1812).  He  continued  to  practise 
medicine  and  pursue  his  researches  at  Montrouge, 
near  Paris,  tdl  his  death,  22d  August  1828.  A 
catalogue  of  his  collection  of  skulls,  &c.,  is  printed 
in  the  Phrenological  Journal,  vols.  vi.  and  vii.  As  a 
thinker,  he  was  original  and  independent ;  as  an 
observer,  mdustrious  and  persevering";  as  a  writer 
and  lecturer,  forcible  and  clear.  Even  those  who 
reject  his  system  as  insufficiently  borne  out  by  facts, 
aUow  that  he  has  conferred  signal  service  on  science 
by  his  discoveries  in  the  anatomy  and  physiology 
of  the  brain,  and  that  by  stirring  to  the  bottom 
many  questions  regarding  mind,  and  the  organic 


GALL. 


tonditioiis  by  which  its  phenomena  are  affected, 
ne  has  contributed  to  deepen  the  foundations  of 
psychology,  and  to  render  it  applicable  to  human 
affairs.  It  is  long  since  the  apprehension  of  danger 
to  religion  and  morality  from  his  doctrines  died 
away  among  the  intelligent  and  well  informed.  In 
Great  Britain,  phrenology  became  known  less  through 
G.'s  writings  than  through  those  of  Spurzheim,  who 
came  over  to  England  in  1814.  So  early,  however, 
as  1803  it  had  been  criticised  in  the  Udinhwgh 
Review,  ii  147.  See  further.  Transactions  of  the 
Phrenological  Society,  p.  1  (Edin.  1824) ;  Pltrenological 
Journal,  vols.  5,  8,  9,  11,  15,  16,  17,  and  19;  a 
Historical  Notice  of  tlie  Discovery  of  the  Anatomy 
of  the  Brain,  appended  to  G.  Combe's  Phrenology 
Applied  to  Painting  and  Sculpture,  p.  151  (Lond. 
1855)  ;  Professor  Laycock  on  Mind  and  Brain,  ii. 
164,  168  (Edin.  1860). 

GALL,  St,  one  of  the  most  important  manufac- 
turing towns  of  Switzerland,  ca])ital  of  the  canton 
of  the  same  name,  is  pleasantly  situated  on  tlie  left 
bank  of  the  Steinach,  at  an  elevation  of  2081  feet 
above  sea-level,  and  is  distant  40  miles  from  Zurich 
in  a  straight  line  east-north-east.  It  is  a  well-built 
town,  surrounded  by  old  walls  ;  but  the  ditch  has 
been  filled  up  and  converted  into  garden -grounds. 
Among  the  principal  buildings  are  the  Abbey 
Church,  which  was  completely  modernised  in  the 
course  of  last  century  ;  the  monastery,  portions  of 
which  are  now  occui)ied  by  public  government 
offices,  and  by  the  convent  library,  containing  1506 
MSS.,  and  among  them  several  of  the  classics, 
that  were  at  one  time  thought  to  have  been  lost. 
See  Gall,  St,  Abbey  of.  The  greatest  building  is 
the  schoolhouse,  which  contains  a  natural  history 
museum  and  the  town  library.  The  manufactures 
of  St  G.  consist  chiefly  of  cotton  goods,  particularly 
of  Swiss  muslins.  It  has  also  linen  manufactures, 
carries  on  bleaching  and  embroidery  extensively, 
and  is  the  great  mart  for  the  produce  of  Appenzell 
and  Thurgau.    Pop.  in  1870,  16,675. 

GALL,  St  (Ger.  St  Gallen),  Abbey  of,  a  cele- 
brated Swiss  Benedictine  monastery,  which  gives 
its  name  to  the  canton  in  which  it  is  situated.  It 
was  founded  early  in  the  7th  c.  by  St  Gall,  or 
Gallus,  an  Irish  monk,  a  disciple  of  Columbanus, 
and  one  of  that  distinguished  band,  who  in  that 
age,  from  the  various  monasteries  of  Ireland  and  the 
kindred  establishment  of  lona,  carried  the  elements 
of  learning  and  civilisation  over  a  large  portion  of 
the  continent  of  Europe.  Gallus  had  accompanied 
Cohmibanus  to  Aiiegray  and  Luxeuil,  and  ulti- 
mately himself,  in  company  with  a  few  followers, 
repaired  to  Switzerland,  where,  in  a  hermitage  on 
the  banks  of  the  Steinach,  he  acquired  such  fame 
for  sanctity  by  his  teaching  and  example,  that  on 
his  death,  there  arose,  in  honour  of  his  memory, 
what,  in  progi-ess  of  time,  became  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  many  magniflcent  establishments 
of  the  Benedictine  order.  The  succession  of  abbots 
from  the  days  of  Gallus  is  carefully  chronicled,  and 
the  share  which  each  of  them  had  in  the  erection 
and  enlargement  of  the  monastic  buildings.  It 
will  be  enough  to  say  that,  through  the  piety 
and  munificence  of  the  faithful,  the  abbey  of  St 
G.  gradually  became  one  of  the  master-pieces  of 
medieval  architecture  ;  and  that  the  genius  and 
skill  which  were  lavished  on  its  construction,  and 
on  the  decoration  of  its  halls  and  cloisters,  had  a 
large  share  in  developing  the  Christian  art  of  the 
l)eriod.  The  monks  of  St  G.,  too,  may  be  reckoned 
among  the  best  friends  and  ])reservers  of  ancient 
literatvire.  They  were  indefatigable  in  the  collec- 
tion and  transcription  of  MSS. — biblical,  patristic, 
*acred  and  profane  history,  classical,  liturgical,  and 

S82 


legendary.  Some  of  the  MSS.  which  are  still  ehe  wn  in 
the  library  are  monuments  of  the  skill  and  induritry 
of  the  copyists ;  and  several  of  the  classics,  especially 
Quintilian,  Silius  Italicus,  and  Ammianus  Marcel- 
linus,  have  been  preserved  solely  through  the  MSS. 
of  St  Gall.  For  a  time,  the  abbey  was  subject  to 
the  Bishop  of  Constance,  and  an  animated  dispute 
was  for  a  long  time  maintained  between  that  prelate 
and  the  monks  as  to  the  right  of  electing  the 
abbot.  It  ended,  however,  in  the  recognition  of  the 
right  of  free  election ;  and  ultimately,  from  the 
growth  of  the  monastic  possessions,  and  the  impor- 
tant position  which  the  abbot  held,  the  monastic 
domain,  which  comprised  a  great  part  of  Northern 
Switzerland,  became  a  distinct  jurisdiction,  within 
which  the  abbot,  like  many  of  his  brethren  in  the 
great  Benedictine  monasteries,  exercised  all  the 
rights  of  a  suzerain.  For  several  centuries,  the 
abbey  of  St  G.  held  one  of  the  highest  places  in 
the  order.  Its  schools  enjoyed  wide  reputation. 
Its  members  held  a  distinguished  place  among  the 
scholars  of  medieval  Germany  ;  and  many  of  them, 
as,  for  example,  Notker,  are  known  to  have  culti- 
vated not  only  the  ordinary  learning  of  the  schools, 
but  also  i)hysic,  mathematics,  and  astronomy.  The 
school  of  St  G.,  too,  was  one  of  the  most  eminent 
for  the  cultivation  of  music,  and  its  MSS.,  preserved 
in  its  library,  have  been  extensively  made  use  of 
by  fhe  restorers  of  ancient  ecclesiastical  music. 
A  town  of  considerable  imi)ortance  grew  up  around 
the  monastery,  and  was  called  by  the  same  name ; 
and  as  the  wealth  and  influence  which  attached  to 
the  dignity  of  the  abbot  began  to  make  it  an  object 
of  ambition  to  the  rich  and  powerful  families,  we 
find  the  succession  of  abbots,  in  the  13th  and  14th 
centuries,  sadly  degenerated  from  their  pious  and 
learned  predecessors  in  the  office.  A  stringent 
reform  was  enforced  about  the  time  of  the  council 
of  Constance ;  but  the  burghers  of  St  G.  had  grown 
dissatisfied  under  this  rule  ;  and  on  the  outbreak 
of  the  Reformation  in  1525,  they  threw  off  their 
subjection,  and  embraced  the  new  doctrines.  At 
the  close,  however,  of  the  religious  war  in  1532,  the 
Catholic  religion  was  re-established,  and  the  abbot 
reinstated,  though  with  diminished  authority,  in 
his  ancient  dignity.  At  the  French  Eevolution, 
the  abbey  of  St  G.  was  secularised  (1798),  and  ita 
revenues  were  soon  afterwards  sequestrated  (1805). 
By  a  later  ecclesiastical  arrangement,  the  abbacy 
of  St  G.  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  bishopric, 
which,  in  1823,  was  united  to  that  of  Chur.  They 
were  afterwards,  however,  separated ;  and  in  1847, 
St  Gallen  was  erected  into  a  bishopric,  with  a 
distinct  jvirisdiction. 

GALL,  St,  Canton  of,  a  Swiss  canton,  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  Thurgau  and  the  Lake  of  Constance, 
E.  by  the  Vorarlberg,  S.  by  the  Grisons  and 
Glarus,  and  W.  by  Zurich  and  Schwytz.  The 
country  is  for  the  most  part  mountainous ;  the 
general  slope  of  the  siu-face  being  towards  the 
north  and  north-west.  Several  of  the  summits 
attain  a  height  of  6000  or  7000  feet,  one  (the 
Gallanda)  a  height  of  8800,  and  one  (Schirbe)  that 
of  9000.  The  Khine  touches  the  canton  of  St  G. 
near  Pfeffers,  and  for  about  50  miles  forms  ita 
eastern  boundary.  The  chief  rivers  that  intersect 
the  canton  are  the  Seez,  the  Tamina,  and  the  Thur* 
Portions  of  the  Lakes  of  Constance,  Zurich,  and 
Wallenstadt,  lie  within  its  boundaries.  The  chief 
produce  of  the  canton  consists  of  fruit,  especially 
apples  and  cherries,  wine,  kirschwasser,  corn,  maize, 
and  potatoes.  The  amount  of  corn  produced  is  but 
trifling,  and  a  considerable  part  of  the  land  is 
devoted  to  pasture.  Iron  is  found  in  Jionsiderable 
abundance,  and  of  good  quality,  at  Gunzenberg; 
and  coal,  as  also  peat,  is  raised  within  the  cantos 


GALLA  OX-GALLAS 


The  manufactures  are  of  liiien,  muslin,  cotton,  lace, 
embroidery,  and  glass ;  and  wax-bleaching  and 
tanning  are  also  extensively  carried  on.  The  linen- 
trade  IS  of  very  old  standing.  Its  seat  is  the  town 
of  St  Gall,  wliich  was  celebrated  for  its  linens  as 
early  a.6  the  13th  c,  but  it  has  in  later  times  been 
almost  entirely  replaced  by  the  manufacture  of 
cotton. 

The  erection  of  St  G.  into  a  distinct  canton  is 
«x>mpM'atively  of  recent  date.  It  was  formed  upon 
the  secularisation  of  the  domain  of  the  abbot  by 
the  union  of  the  abbey  territory  with  several  dis- 
tricts previously  subject  to  the  older  cantons — viz., 
the  Rheinthal,  Sargans,  Werdenberg,  Sax,  Gaster, 
Utznach,  together  with  the  town  of  JLlapperschwyl ; 
BO  that  the  new  canton  of  St  G.  actually  encloses 
upon  all  sides  the  canton  of  Appenzell,  which  forms, 
as  it  w,::'e,  an  island  within  the  new  district.  The 
language  is  a  Swabian  dialect  of  German.  The 
canton  of  St  G.  sends  eight  members  to  the  National 
Coimcil.  Its  government  is  one  of  the  most  demo- 
cratic in  Sv/itzerland.  It  consists  of  a  Great  Council, 
the  members  of  which  are  chosen  for  two  years  by 
the  votes  of  all  citizens  above  21  years  ;  and  who 
appoint  from  among  themselves  for  four  years 
an  executive,  called  the  Lesser  Council,  consisting 
of  seven  members.  The  local  prefects  and  other 
district  officers  are  elected  annually  in  their  several 
districts.  The  area  of  the  canton  is  772  square 
miles.  Pop.  (1877)  197,872,  of  whom  about  120,000 
were  Catholics,  and  the  rest  chiefly  Calvinists.  Chief 
town,  St.  Gall  (q.  v.). 

GALLA  OX,  or  SA"N"GA,  a  remarkable  species 
or  variety  of  ox  inhabiting  Abyssinia.  The  chief 
peculiarity  is  the  extraordinaiy  size  of  the  horns, 
which  rise  from  the  forehead  with  an  outward,  and 
then  an  inward  curve,  producing  a  very  perfect 
fi^e  of  a  lyre,  and  finally  curve  a  little  outwards 


Gail*  Ox  (copied  from  Vasey's  work  on  The  Ox). 

at  the  tip,  to  T/hich  they  taper  gradually.  In  a 
specimen  presented  by  Mr  Salt  to  the  Museum  of 
the  College  of  Surgeons  in  London,  the  length  of 
each  horn  measured  round  the  outer  side  is  three 
feet  ten  and  a  half  inches,  the  circumference  of  each 
at  the  base  is  one  foot  three  inches,  the  distance 
between  the  tips  three  feet  four  inches.  A  space  of 
about  three  or  four  inches  between  the  horns  is 
occupied  by  a  tuft  of  hair.  Bruce  represents  the 
enormous  growth  ot  the  horns  as  a  kind  of  dis- 
ei^e  or  monstrosity,  accompanied  with  emaciation 
of  the  animaL    Salt  controvei-ts  this  account,  but 


figures  the  animal  so  as  rather  to  confinu  it  The 
G.  0.,  however,  differs  from  tne  cunimon  ox  in 
having  a  hump  on  the  shoulders,  in  the  ay)ru]it 
descent  of  the  back  towards  the  tail,  in  the  greater 
leng-th  of  the  legs,  and  in  the  narrower  space 
between  the  horns. 

GALLAND,  Antoine,  a  French  orientalist  and 
numismatist,  was  born  in  1G4G  at  llollot  near 
Montdidier,  in  Picafdy.  In  1070  he  accomi)anied 
the  French  ambassador,  Nointel,  to  Constantinople, 
when  he  visited  Jerusalem  and  other  places.  He 
returned  to  Fravice  in  1675,  but  subsequently  made 
two  voyages  to  the  East.  Col])ert  and  Louvois  inter- 
ested themselves  on  his  behalf,  and  procured  him 
the  means  of  devoting  himself  to  study.  In  1701,  he 
was  made  a  member  of  the  Academic  des  Inscriptions, 
and  in  1709,  professor  of  Arabic  in  the  College  de 
France.  He  died  17th  February  1715.  The  greatest 
part  of  G.'s  writings  relate  to  Numismatics  and  the 
East,  but  the  thing  which  has  secured  him  the 
most  imperishable  reputation,  is  his  translation  of 
the  Arabian  Nights  in  12  vols.  {Mille  et  Une  Nuits, 
Contes  Arabes,  Paris,  1704—1708).  This  was  the 
first  translation  of  these  grotesque  and  gorgeous 
stories  ever  made  into  any  laugxiage  of  Christen- 
dom, and  for  a  good  while  G.  got  the  credit  of 
being  himself  the  author  as  well  as  the  translator. 
Among  his  other  writings,  we  may  mention  Paroles 
remarqiiables,  bons  Mots,  et  Maximes  des  Orientaux 
(Paris,  1694),  and  Les  Contes  et  Fables  Indiennes  de 
Bldpai  et  de  Lokman  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1724). 

GALLAS  ('invaders'),  a  race  inhabiting  the 
south  and  east  of  Abyssinia.  The  general  name  by 
which  the  tribes  designate  themselves  is  Oronia 
{orma,  men).  Although  generally  belonging  to  the 
negro  race,  they  are  not  purely  negroes,  but  form 
with  the  Fulahs,  Mandingoes,  and  Nubas,  as  it 
were,  the  transition  to  the  Semitic  variety,  and 
seem  to  belong  to  that  great  family  inhabiting 
the  east  of  Africa,  from  the  frontiers  of  the  Cape 
land  to  Abyssinia,  and  usually  denominated  the 
Kafirs.  They  are  a  vigorous,  well-formed  people, 
of  a  dark-brown  colour,  with  hair  frizzled,  but  not 
quice  woolly,  roimd  faces,  and  small  sharp  eyes, 
and  are  distinguished  not  less  by  their  energy  and 
warlike  spirit,  than  by  their  mental  capacities. 
They  first  appear  in  history  in  the  16th  c,  as  a 
barbarous  people,  extending  their  conquests  from 
the  interior  of  Africa,  laying  waste,  by  constant 
incursions,  the  countries  of  Eastern  Africa,  to  the 
mountains  of  Abyssinia,  gradually  subduing  or 
expelling  the  original  inhabitants  (hence  their 
name),  occupying  great  part  of  Abyssinia,  and 
advancing  as  far  as  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of 
Aden.  It  is  only  of  late  years  that  their  power  in 
Abyssinia,  and  their  incursions  into  that  coimtry, 
have  been  partially  checked,  chiefly  by  the  vigorous 
government  of  the  king  of  Shoa,  who  has  subdued 
some  of  the  G.  tribes,  and  induced  them  to  pro- 
fess such  Christianity  as  exists  in  Abyssinia.  They 
still,  however,  occupy  many  districts  of  Abyssinia, 
and  extend  their  j^ower  to  an  indefinite  extent 
over  the  countries  situated  south  and  south-west 
of  it.  Politically,  the  G.  do  not  form  a  single 
nation,  but  are  divided  into  numerous  tribes, 
forming  separate  kingdoms  and  states,  which  are 
frequently  at  war  with  each  other.  Most  of  the  G. 
follow  pastoral  avocations.  Some,  however,  through 
intei'course  with  the  semi-christian,  semi-civilised 
Abyssinians,  have  become  tillers  of  the  soil.  The 
wandering  G.  are  mainly  engaged  in  hunting  and 
the  slave-trade.  The  larger  number  of  the  G.  are 
still  heathens,  though  Mohammedanism  has  lately 
made  great  progress  among  them.  Their  rehgion 
bears  a  rasemblance  to  that  of  the  Kafirs. — Compo-re 


GALLATIN— I 


GALL-FLY. 


Jomsxi'd,  N'olices  stir  les  G alias  (raris,  1839);  Beke, 
On  the  Origin  of  the  Q alias  (Loudon,  1 848). 

GALLATIN,  Albert,  an  eminent  tinancier  and 
diplomatist,  was  born  29th  January,  1761,  at  Geneva, 
and  educated  at  the  university  of  that  city.  In  1780 
he  emigrated  to  the  United  States  ;  and  was  for 
A  short  time  teacher  of  Frencli  in  Harvard  College 
at  Cam!  ridge,  Massachusetts.  In  178G  he  settled 
in  the  western  part  of  Pennsylvania,  and  was  a 
rspresentative  from  that  state  in  tiie  Federal  Con- 
gress from  1795  to  1801.  He  soon  became  one  of 
the  ablest  debaters  in  that  body,  and  was  for  several 
years  the  recognised  leader  of  the  Republican  party. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  almost  every  question 
before  Congress,  and  was  especially  distinguished 
for  his  ready  and  i)rofound  knowledge  of  political 
economy  and  finance.  The  first  formation  of  the 
*  Committee  of  Ways  and  Means  '  was  due  to  his 
suggestion.  In  1801,  President  Jefferson  a])pointed 
G.  secretary  of  the  Treasury,  which  office  he  fillpd 
with  eminent  ability  during  a  period  of  twelve  years. 
He  had  an  im])ortant  share  in  the  negotiations 
for  peace  with  England  in  1814,  and  signed,  with 
Adams,  Clay,  and  the  other  commissioners,  the 
treaty  concluded  at  Ghent  on  the  14th  of  December 
of  that  year.  From  1816  to  1823,  G.  was  minister 
resident  of  the  United  States  at  Paris.  In  1826,  he 
was  sent  to  England  as  ambassador  extraordinary, 
for  the  purpose  of  settling  the  disputed  boundary 
between  the  United  States  and  the  British  posses- 
Bions,  and  other  important  questions.  On  his  return 
from  Euiope  in  1827,  he  retired  from  public  employ- 
ment, and  became  a  resident  of  New  York  city. 
In  1843,  he  was  elected  president  of  the  New 
York  Historical  Society,  which  position  he  held  till 
his  death.  He  was  one  of  the  founders,  and  the 
first  president  of  the  American  Ethnological  Society. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  valuable 
miblications  on  the  currency  and  other  subjects. 
He  made  the  languages  and  characteristics  of  the 
native  tribes  of  North  America  a  subject  of  pro- 
found study,  and  published  several  papers  on  this 
department  of  ethnology.  G.  died  12th  of  August 
1849,  in  his  89th  year. 

GALL-BLADDER.    See  Liver. 

GALLE'GO,  one  of  the  principal  affluents  of  the 
Ebro,  rises  at  the  southern  base  of  the  Pyrenees  in 
the  province  of  Huesca,  flows  south,  and  after  a 
course  of  about  90  mdes,  joins  the  Ebro  a  mile 
below  Zaragoza. 

GA'LLEON  (augmentative  of  Galley),  a  name 
formerly  applied  to  ships- of -war  of  three  or  four 
gun-decks,  but  subsequently  transferred  to  the  large 
merchant-vessels  which  every  year  brought  to  Spain 
the  gold,  silver,  and  other  wealth  contributed  by 
its  Mexican  and  South  American  colonies.  They 
were  armed,  but  being  heavy  unmanageable  vessels, 
and  of  immense  value,  were  eagerly  sought  after  as 
prizes  whenever  a  war  broke  out. 

GA'LLERY,  in  a  mUltarrj  sense,  is  a  covered 
|;>assage,  cut  through  the  earth  or  masonry  in  a  forti- 
hcation,  either  as  a  means  of  communication,  or  as 
a  position  whence  a  musketry-fire  can  be  maintained 
through  loopholes.  For  the  latter  purpose,  galleries 
are  formed  occasionally  in  the  counterscarps  of  dry 
ditches,  where  their  defenders  exercise  a  flanking 
fire  upon  the  ditch.  With  regard  to  listening 
galleries,  see  Mines,  Military. 

In  a  naval  signification,  a  gallery  is  a  sort  of 
balcony  projecting  from  the  stern  and  stern-quarters 
of  large  ships.  As  an  adjunct  to  the  principal 
cabins,  galleries  form  an  agreeable  resort  during  fine 
•w  eather.  Under  the  article  I^AVJT,  the  gallery  of  a 
tnau-of-w  ar  is  shewn. 

584 


GALLERY,  a  word  with  several  applications  iu 
architecture.  A  long  passage  or  corridor  is  called 
a  gallery.  A  long  room,  such  as  is  frequently 
used  for  exhibiting  pictures — a  raised  floor  in  any 
apartment,  supported  on  j)illars — a  long  passage  in 
the  thickness  of  the  wall,  or  suj)ported  on  canta- 
livers  (as  the  Whispering  Gallery  of  St  Paul's) : 
all  these  are  called  galleries.  They  were  of  very 
frequent  use  in  the  buildings  of  the  middle  ages. 
The  Roodloft  (q.  v.)  is  a  gallery  running  across  a 
church  at  the  entrance  to  the  choir,  and  supporting 
a  large  cross.  Organ  galleries  are  also  frequent, 
either  in  the  position  of  the  roodloft,  or  at  one  end 
of  the  nave  or  transept,  or  corbelled  out  from  the 
side-wall. 

In  old  baronial  halls,  the  end  next  the  door  w  as 
usually  screened  off  for  the  domestics,  and  above 
the  screen  was  almost  invariably  a  gallery  for 
musicians. 

In  the  older  German  and  French  clmrclies,  the 
side-aisles  were  divided  into  two  stories — the  upper 
forming  a  gallery  said  to  be  for  the  exclusive  use  of 
the  women. 

The  arrangement  of  galleries  in  tiers  one  over  the 
other;  now  so  much  used  in  churches,  theatres,  &c., 
is  entirely  modern,  dating  from  the  17th  century. 

GALLEY,  a  long,  low-built,  narrow  ship  with  one 
deck,  much  used  in  the  Mediterranean  prior  to  the 
introduction  of  steam,  and  still  extant  there.  Galleys 
are  propelled  by  sails  and  numerous  oars,  the  latter 
being  usually  worked  hy  convicts  or  galley-slaves, 
who  are  chained  to  them.  The  largest  vessels  of 
this  class  were  those  of  the  Venetians,  some  reaching 
a  length  of  162  feet,  and  carrying  12  guns  :  of  these, 
half-(jallej/s  and  quarter- galleijs  were  diminutives. 
From  their  small  elevation  above  the  sea  and  swift 
movement,  they  were  formidable  enemies,  even  to 
much  Larger  vessels,  when  smooth  water  gave  play 
to  their  evolutions.  During  the  great  French  war, 
numberless  galleys,  fitted  as  gun-boats,  were  ready 
to  issue  from  the  Mediterranean  ports  of  Spain  and 
France  whenever  a  British  ship  was  becalmed  or 
disabled  near  the  shore.  The  celebrated  Algerine 
corsairs  committed  most  of  their  piracies  in  swift 
galleys,  which  were  commonly  rowed  by  the  forced 
labour  of  Christian  slaves. 

On  board  an  English  ship,  the  galley  is  the  place 
where  the  cooking  is  carried  on  for  the  whole  ship's 
company ;  it  is  on  one  of  the  lower  decks,  in  the  fore- 
part of  the  vessel. 

Galley  is  likewise  applied  to  some  of  the  boats  of 
a  ship-of-war ;  the  captain's  galley  being  usually 
a  swift  and  elegant  boat  propelled  by  six  alternate 
oars. 

GALLEY  HALFPENCE.  These  were  coins 
of  Genoa,  brought  into  England  by  the  galley-men, 
or  men  that  came  up  in  the  galleys  with  wine  or 
merchandise,  and  thence  called  galley  halfpence. 
They  were  broader  than  the  English  halfpenny, 
but  not  so  thick,  and  probably  base  metal,  because, 
by  11  Hen.  IV.  c.  5,  and  13  Hen.  IV.  c.  6,  galley 
halfpence  were  prohibited  as  a  legal  tender.  The 
galleys  unloaded  at  the  east  end  of  Lower  Thames 
Street,  thence  called  Galley  Quay,  where,  in  the 
17th  c,  were  struck  tradesmen's  tokens,  thereof 
called  Galley  Quay  halfpence  (Timbs). 

GALLEY-SLAVE.    See  Bagnes. 

GALL-FLY  [Cynips),  a  Linnsean  genus  of  insects, 
now  forming  the  family  OallicoUn  (Lat.  gall-inhab- 
iting) of  entomologists,  and  belonging  to  the  order 
Hymenoptera  (q.  v.),  section  Terehrantia  (Latin, 
l)oring),  which  section  is  characterized  by  the 
females  being  furnished  with  an  ovipositor.  Gall- 
flies are  nearly  allied  to  ichneumons,  but  principally 


GALLIARD— GALLICAI^  CHURCH. 


differ  from  tliein  iu  depositing  their  eggs  not  in  the 
bodies  of  the  larvae  of  other  insects,  nor  in  their 
nests,  hut  in  j)lants,  on  the  juices  of  which  their 
larviB  are  nourished.  The  ovipositor  of  the  female 
is  long,  slender,  in  part  spirally  rolled  up  when  not 
in  use,  and  lodged  in  a  groove  on  the  under-side  of 
the  ahdomen,  near  the  origin  of  which  it  is  attached ; 
it  has  at  its  extremity  lateral  teeth  forming  a  kind 
of  saw.    By  means  of  this  organ,  the  insect  roaJies 


Bedeguar  gall  of  Wild  Eose. 


a  minute  puncture  where  she  is  to  deposit  her  o.gg, 
which  is  sometimes  in  a  leaf,  and  then  generally  in 
one  of  the  ribs  of  the  leaf,  sometimes  in  a  young 
shoot  or  twig,  sometimes  in  a  bud,  or  in  some  other 
part  of  a  plant,  not  excepting  the  roots ;  each  species 
of  gall-liy  choosing  some  particular  plant,  and  some 
pavticidar  part  of  the  plant,  to  which  it  confines  its 
attacks.  An  irritant  flvdd  is  supposed  to  be  lodged 
in  the  puncture  along  Avith  the  miuu.te  egg,  as  a 
tumour  immediately  Vegiias  to  form,  becoming  an 
excrescence  known  as  a  (jdll.  The  egg  itself  increases 


Various  kirds  of  Galls : 
«,  oak  apple  pall;  6,  6,  berry-shape'l  galls  on  oak  leaf; 
c,  currant  galls  ;  d,  gall  ily,  magnified. 


In  »ize  before  it  is  hjitched ;  the  gall  very  rapidly 
att-'tins  its  full  dimensions  ;  and  within  it  the  larva 
of  the  gall-fly  feeds  on  the  juices  of  the  plant  in 
their  most  concentrated  form  ;  for  galls  are  found 
to  contain  the  peculiar  principles  of  the  plants  on 
which  they  grow  in  greater  abundance  than  the 
adjoining  or  other  parts.  It  is  not  until  the  larva 
has  undergone  its  transformations,  first  into  the 
pupa,  and  then  into  the  perfect  insect,  that  it  eats 
its  way  out  of  the  gall  in  which  it  has  previously 
exist«^d.    See  Galls. 

GAliL-IARD  (from  the  French  gaillard,  and  that 


again  from  gai,  sprightly)  is  the  name  of  a  Hvelj 
dance,  the  same,  according  to  Brossard,  as  the 
Romanesca,  a  favourite  dance  with  the  Italians.  Tha 
air  is  mostly  in  f  or  f  time,  but  sometimes  also  in 
I  or  ^  time.  The  tempo  is  also  quick  and  lively, 
with  a  flowin.^  melody.  A  writer  in  NoIpa  and 
Queries  (voL  vii.  pages  216,  217)  says  that  he  knows 
at  least  a  hundred  different  galliard  tunes,  which 
are  distinguished  by  different  names,  probably  to 
indicate  witli  whom  they  were  favourites,  such  a3 
The  King  of  DenmarISs  Galliard  ;  TIlc  Earl  of  Eaaexe!* 
Galliard;  &c. 

GALLIC  ACID  (CrlleOs)  occurs  in  the  forn: 
of  colourless,  silky  needles  which  lose  their  watei 
of  crystalization  at  212'^;  they  dissolve  slightlj 
in  cold  water,  but  require  only  three  parts  of  boiling 
water  for  their  solution,  and  they  are  freely  soluble 
in  alcohol.  Solutions  of  gallic  acid  have  an  acid 
reaction  and  a  sour  astringent  taste ;  with  the  per- 
salts  of  iron  they  yield  a  deep  „due  colour,  and  no 
apparent  reaction  occurs  when  they  are  mixed 
with  a  solution  of  gelatine.  The  gaUates  of  the 
alkalies,  especially  if  an  excess  of  the  base  ha  present, 
speedily  absorb  oxygen,  and  become  brown  when 
ex2:)osed  to  the  air;  and  hence  they  may  be  usefully 
employed  in  Eudiometry.  Gallic  acid  possesses  the 
property  of  reducing  the  salts  of  gold  and  silver, 
and  it  is  on  this  account  that  it  has  been  employed 
in  photograjihy. 

Gallic  acid  exists  ready  formed  in  small  quantity 
in  gall-nuts,  in  valonia  (the  acorn-cup  of  Quercua 
cegilops),  in  divi-divi  (the  pod  of  Coisaljnna  coriaria), 
in  sumach,  and  other  vegetables.  It  is  formed  in 
association  with  glycose  from  Gallotannic  Acid  (q.  v.), 
when  the  latter  is  boiled  with  dilute  sulphuric  or 
hydrocldoric  acid  ;  it  is  likewise  produced  by  boiling 
a  solution  of  gallotannic  acid  with  caustic  alkalies, 
or  (more  slowly)  by  simply  exposing  a  solution  of 
gall-nuts  to  the  air,  the  process  of  oxygenation  being 
apparently  favoured  by  the  presence  of  a  ferment 
contained  in  the  gall-nut. 

To  obtain  gallic  acid,  we  mix  powdered  gall-nuts 
with  water,  and  expose  them  freely  and  for  a  long 
time  to  the  air  at  a  temperature  of  70°  or  80°.  The 
tannin  or  gallotannic  acid  becomes  gradually  con- 
verted into  gallic  acid.  We  pour  away  the  super- 
natant brown  fluid,  and  take  up  the  gallic  acid 
from  the  residue  with  boiling  water,  decolorise  with 
animal  charcoal,  and  crystallise. 

When  gallic  acid  is  exposed  to  a  temperature  of 
from  410°  to  420°,  it  is  converted  into  carbonic  acid 
and  Fyrogallic  Acid  (q.  v.)  (CeHeOs),  which  is  sub- 
limed, 31  or  32  parts  of  the  latter  acid  being  yielded 
by  100  of  gallic  acid.  The  reaction  is  represented  by 
the  formula — 

Gallic  Acid.    Carbonic  Acid.   Pyiogallic  Acid. 

CtH^     =    CO2    +  Sl^Oa 

If  gallic  acid  is  mixed  with  five  times  its  weight 
of  oil  of  vitriol,  a  crimson  solution  is  formed,  which, 
if  gradually  dropped  into  water,  deposits  a  red  sub- 
stance, partly  in  granules  and  partly  in  crystals. 
The  crystals  are  Ruf  gallic  acid  (Ci4H403,2H0). 

Gallic  acid  is  used  in  medicine  as  an  astringent 
Xhe  late  Dr  Todd  regarded  it  as  the  best  styptic 
that  we  possess  in  all  cases  of  internal  haemorrhage, 
whether  haemoptysis,  hsematemesis,  or  hfematuria. 
The  symptoms  of  Bright's  disease  of  the  kidney 
have  also  been  much  alle^dated  by  its  use.  It  may 
be  given  in  doses  of  from  three  to  ten  grains  three 
or  four  times  a  day.  As  a  topical  agent  in  arresting 
haemorrhage  from  external  wounds,  it  is  greatly 
inferior  to  tannin. 

GA'LLICAN  CHURCH,  «he  Church  of  France, 
1  less,  however,  considered  under  the  relation  oi 


GALLICAN  CHUECH. 


geographical  boundaries  thr.n  in  its  constitution  and 
principles  of  church  government.  The  Christian 
faith  was  widely  diffused  in  France,  even  during  the 
lifetime  of  the  apostles ;  and  it  especially  flourished 
among  the  descendants  of  the  Greek  colonies  of  the 
Bouth,  and  in  the  numerous  towns  and  cities  upon 
the  Rhone  and  its  confluent  rivers.  In  the  perse- 
cutions to  which  the  early  professors  of  Christianity 
were  subjected,  the  Christians  of  these  churches 
had  their  full  share ;  and  one  of  the  most  touching 
momiments  of  early  Christian  literature,  is  the 
letter  of  the  Christians  of  Lyon  and  Vienne  to 
their  brethren  in  Asia,  on  the  martyrs  of  these 
churches,  which  Eusebius  has  preserved  in  his  Ecde- 
sioiitical  History  (book  v.  c.  1).  Although  sharing 
in  the  general  literary  inferiority  to  their  eastern 
brethren  which  characterises  Western  ecclesiastics 
during  the  early  period,  the  church  of  Gaid  numbers 
several  eminent  names  in  the  literature  of  the  3d, 
4th,  and  5th  centuries.  The  works  of  Irenceus, 
Bishop  of  Lyon,  are  among  the  most  important  for 
the  history  of  doctrine  of  all  the  early  ])atristic 
:jremains  ;  and  in  the  following  centiiry,  Sulpicius 
Severus,  Hilary  of  Poitiers,  Hilary  of  Aries,  Vincent 
of  Lerins,  Prosper,  Victor,  Euclierius,  8aivian,  and 
other  writers,  combine  to  form  a  body  of  literature 
of  which  the  later  modern  representatives  of  the 
French  Church  are  not  unreasonably  })roud.  The 
hierarchical  organisation,  also,  of  the  church  of 
Gaid  was,  at  a  very  early  peiiod,  among  the  most 
complete  and  regular  throughout  the  churches  of 
western  Christendom;  and  in  the  council  held  at 
Aries  in  314,  we  even  recognise  the  titles  of  many 
bishops  of  sees  which  are  still  represented  in  the 
catalogue  of  the  French  episcopacy. 

But  the  history  of  the  G.  C,  so  far  as  regards 
the  development  of  those  peculiar  principles  which 
have  acquired  a  distinctive  name  and  status  in 
Roman  Catholic  theology,  begins  at  a  much  later 
period.  We  shall  see  elsewhere  the  origin  and 
progress  of  the  temporal  power  of  the  papacy.  See 
Papacy.  It  will  be  enough,  in  this  place,  to  observe, 
that,  from  circumstances  which  are  differently 
viewed  by  the  opposite  schools  of  theology,  the 
Roman  pontiffs  began,  from  the  very  date  of  the 
establishment  of  the  Western  Empire,  to  exercise  a 
large  and  widely  extended  influence  over  the  civil  as 
well  as  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  the  several  European 
kingdoms.  On  the  other  hand,  owing  to  the  iiiti- 
mate  connection  between  the  church  and  state  in 
most  of  these  kingdoms,  and  especially  to  the  feudal 
relations  between  the  crown  and  the  church  digni- 
taries, most  of  whom  held  the  temporalities  of  their 
benefices  under  the  crown  by  the  ordinary  feuda- 
tory tenure,  the  crowni  also  asserted  a  correlative 
claim  to  certain  privileges  in  respect  of  ecclesiastical 
affairs.  The  satisfactory  adjustment  of  these  con- 
flicting claims  was  the  great  problem  of  medieval 
polity  ;  and  the  alternations  of  the  struggle  between 
them  form  the  staple  of  medieval  history.  More  than 
one  of  the  French  sovereigns  engaged  in  a  conflict 
vith  the  Roman  see  as  to  the  respective  authority 
<ci  the  two  powers ;  these  conflicts  naturally  called 
\mt  a  division  of  opinion  among  the  members  of  the 
church  of  France,  one  party  supporting  the  papal 
claims,  and  the  other  maintaining  the  adverse  pre- 
rogatives of  the  French  crown,  and  the  privileges 
of  the  national  church  of  France.  The  latter 
party,  professing  to  represent  the  rights  of  the  G. 
C.,  have  given  a  name  to  the  principles  which  they 
profess  ;  and  the  appellation  of  Gallicanism  has  come 
to  designate,  in  general,  that  system  in  Roman 
Catholic  theology  which,  while  it  recognises  the 
primacy  of  the  Roman  pontiff,  by  divine  right,  over 
the  universal  church,  yet  asserts  the  independence 
of  national  churches  in  many  details  of  self-govern- 
686 


ment  and  of  local  discipline,  and  limits  the  exercise 
of  the  papal  prerogatives  by  canons  and  decrees  of 
general  councils  and  by  the  laws  of  the  universal 
church.  It  must  be  added  that,  while  the  Galilean 
theory  to  this  extent  claims  an  exemption  from 
dependence  u])on  the  authority  of  the  Roman 
pontiff,  it  ac'juiesces,  on  the  other  hand,  to  an 
almost  proportionate  degree,  in  the  assumption  of 
ecclesiastical  authority  on  the  part  of  the  state. 
Gallicanism,  in  truth,  in  many  of  its  details,  falls 
into  the  grossest  form  of  Erastianism. 

We  can  recognise  the  working  of  these  principles 
in  the  opposition  which  the  so-called  Isidorian 
Decretals  (see  Isidorian  Decretals,  Hincmar  oi 
RiiEiMs)  encountered  in  France ;  and  although  the 
l)ody  of  the  clergy  stood  aloof,  they  were  carried  to 
their  most  extreme  extent  by  Philippe  the  Handsome 
in  his  contest  with  Boniface  VIII.  The  conflicting 
claims  of  the  rival  popes  in  the  Western  Schism  (see 
Western  Schism)  tended  still  more  to  weaken  the 
papal  authority ;  and  the  expedient  which  was  then 
adopted  for  the  extinction  of  the  schism — viz.,  that 
of  convening  a  general  council  to  pronounce  upon 
the  respective  claims  of  the  pretenders  to  the  pa])acy 
gave  prominence  and  significancy  to  what  has  since 
been  regarded  as  one  of  the  leading  dogmas  of  Galli- 
canism— the  superiority  in  point  of  authority  of  a 
eneral  council  to  the  pope.  The  details,  too,  of  the 
iscii)li nary  enactments  of  the  councils  of  Constance 
and  Basel,  which  were  drawn  uj)  in  this  spirit, 
were  mainly  directed  towards  the  limitation  of  the 
papal  authority  in  the  exercise  of  church  patronage 
within  the  limits  of  the  national  church ;  and  these 
enactments  were  in  the  main  embodied  into  the 
French  law  by  the  celebrated  Pragmatic  Sanction 
of  1438.    See  Pragmatic  Sanction. 

The  Pragmatic  Sanction  was  superseded  in  1512 
by  the  concordat  of  Leo  X.  with  Francis  I.  The 
lar^e  share  in  the  dispensation  of  church  patronage 
which  the  French  crown  enjoyed  under  that  con- 
cordat had  the  effect  of  still  further  nationalising 
the  French  Church,  and  increasing  the  jealousy  of 
the  crown  as  to  the  papal  interference.  The  great 
jl^^ists,  Pithou  and  Duping,  in  asserting  the  libertiea 
of  the  church,  equally  enforced  the  privileges  of 
the  crown.  In  the  develojoment  of  the  absolutism 
of  the  monarchy,  \vhich  reached  its  height  under 
Louis  XIV.,  the  ecclesiastical  prerogative  of  the 
crown  was  enlarged  as  much  as  its  political 
authority;  and  a  contest  which  arose  between 
this  monarch  and  Innocent  XL,  on  the  right  of 
the  crown  to  the  so-called  Droit  de  Resale  (see 
Regalia),  led  to  the  well-known  declaration  of 
the  French  clergy  in  1682,  which  has  since  been 
regarded  as  the  charter  of  Gallicanism.  This  formu- 
lary emanated  from  an  assembly  of  the  French 
clergy,  held  by  royal  authority  in  1682,  at  which 
the  celebrated  Bossuet  was  present.  It  consists  o£ 
four  articles.  The  first  declares  that  '  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  St  Peter  and  his  successors  in  the  Roman 
see  as  vicars  of  Christ  on  earth,  although  divinely 
bestowed,  is  confined  to  things  spiritual  and  apper- 
taining to  salvation,  and  does  not  extend  to  civil 
or  temporal  affairs.'  The  article  therefore  declares 
'that  princes  are  not  subject  in  temporal  things  to 
any  ecclesiastical  authority ; '  that  they  cannot  be 
deposed  '  either  directly  or  indirectly  by  the  power 
of  the  keys,  and  that  their  subjects  cannot  be  dis- 
pensed from  their  subjection  or  released  from  their 
allegiance.'  The  second  article  renews  the  declara- 
tion of  the  council  of  Constance  with  regard  to  the 
superiority  of  a  general  coimcil  over  the  pope,  and 
declares  that  that  article  is  not  to  be  restricted  in 
its  application  to  a  ppnod  of  schism  such  as  existed 
at  the  time  of  the  council.  The  third  asserts  that 
the  authority  of  the  pope  is  'to  be  restricted  by  the 


GALLIENUS— GALLIJ^ACEOUS  BIRDS. 


canous  Df  the  universal  church,'  and  that  '  the  rules, 
customs,  and  institutions  of  the  Gallican  kingdom 
and  church  remain  in  full  force.'  This  is  tlie  article 
■which  asserts  the  celebr  ated  '  Gallican  Liberties.' 
The  fourth  article,  while  it  concedes  to  the  pope 
*  the  chief  part  in  questions  of  faith,'  and  professes 
that  '  his  decrees  extend  to  each  and  every  church,' 
nevertheless  maintains  '  that  his  judgment  is  not 
iiTeformal)le,  unless  it  shall  have  been  conlirmed  by 
the  consent  of  the  entire  church.'  The  chief  ndes, 
customs,  and  institutions  of  the  G.  C.  referred  to 
ia  the  third  article  are,  tliat  the  G.  C.  does  not 
receive  aU  the  decrees  of  councils  and  of  po2)es  in 
matters  of  discipline,  and  that  those  only  are  in 
force  wliich  are  so  received ;  that  the  G.  C.  holds 
itself  free  to  receive  or  reject  the  rules  of  the 
Roman  chancery;  that  the  Roman  pontiif  cannot 
levy  any  imjiost  from  the  French  clergy  without 
their  own  consent ;  that  he  cannot  bestow  of  his 
own  motion  on  a  foreigner  any  benefice  within  the 
French  Church;  that  neither  he  nor  his  legates  can 
hear  French  causes  in  '  the  first  instance,'  and  that 
even  in  cases  of  appeal  he  is  bound  to  assign  native 
judges  to  hear  the  aj)peal,  even  when  the  appellant 
shoidd  be  a  metropolitaii  or  primate ;  that  the 
French  bishops  shall  not  be  required  to  attend  any 
general  councd  unless  with  the  permission  of  the 
crown.  The  last  of  these  '  customs,'  as  also  those 
which  make  the  receiving  or  not  receiving  the 
general  canons  of  discipline  optional  in  France, 
and  which  practically  tlirow  the  decision  into  the 
hands  of  the  civil  power,  have  been  with  much 
show  of  reason  denominated  the  '  Slaveries '  rather 
than  the  '  Liberties '  of  the  Gallican  Church. 

This  'Declaration'  was  strenuously  enforced  by 
Louis  XIV.  It  was  imposed  iipon  the  universities 
and  all  public  ecclesiastical  bodies,  and  its  accept- 
ance was  made  a  condition  of  appointment  to  offices 
in  the  cliurch;  but  it  was  in  the  same  proportion 
distasteful  to  the  popes.  It  was  condemned  by 
Alexander  VIII.  in  1690,  by  Clement  XL  in  1706, 
and  again  by  Pius  VL  in  1794;  but  both  the 
acceptance  of  the  articles  by  the  French  clergy,  and 
the  condemnation  of  them  by  the  Roman  pontiffs, 
are  understood  to  be  with  certain  reservations  as  to 
the  particidar  doctrines.  Within  the  present  cen- 
tury, and  especially  since  the  late  collision  between 
the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  authority,  the  opinions 
of  the  French  clergy  have  undergone  a  decided 
change.  The  Gallican  doctrines  are  now  much  less 
commonly  held,  and  in  a  less  extreme  form.  The 
same  doctrines  were  also  adopted  in  other  national 
churches,  and  especially  in  the  ecclesiastical  princi- 
palities of  Germany  (see  Febroniantsm),  and  in  the 
German  empire  under  Joseph  11.  Here,  also,  they 
have  fallen  into  discredit  with  the  church  party. 

The  G.  C.  underwent  very  extensive  modifications 
at  the  close  of  the  18th  and  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century,  not  merely  by  the  enactment  of 
what  was  called  the  '  civil  constitution  of  the 
clergy,'  and  which  introduced  into  the  constitution 
of  tiie  church  a  large  infusion  of  the  presl^yterian, 
and  even  the  democratic  element,  but  by  the  con- 
cordat of  Pius  VII.  with  Bonaparte  as  First  Consul, 
which  reduced  the  number  of  sees,  brought  the 
ecclesiastical  divisions  of  the  country  into  harmony 
with  its  new  political  distribution  into  departments, 
diminished  the  number  of  festivals,  and  confirmed 
the  suppression  of  the  ancient  religious  establish- 
ments, and  the  confiscation  of  the  church  property 
throughout  trance.  Under  the  present  emperor, 
the  Church  of  France  has  recovered  somewhat  of 
her  old  external  prestige.  Compare  De  Maistre's 
De  VEglise  Gallicane  ;  Dupin,  Les  Liberies  de  VEglise 
Oallicane  (Paris,  1824) ;  and  Fraysinous,  L&s  Vrais 
Pnndpea  de  VEgLiae  Gallicane 


GALLIE'NUS,  Publius  Lkunius,  a  Roman 
emi)eror  from  the  year  259  A.  ix — when  his  father 
Valerian,  who  had  made  him  co- regent  with  liimstlf. 
was  taken  prisoner  })y  the  Persians — to  268  A.D 
His  authority  was  limited  almost  entirely  to  Italy 
for  throughout  the  provinces  the  legions  for  the 
most  part  revolted,  and  raised  their  commanders  to 
the  dignity  of  Caesars.  Hence  the  period  is  known 
in  history  as  the  Time  of  the  Thirty  Tyranta.  In 
the  East,  the  honour  of  the  Roman  arms  was  main- 
tained by  Aurelian,  Probus,  and  others,  who  found 
a  useful  ally  in  Odenathus,  ruler  of  Palmyra,  and 
his  wife  Zenobia  (q.  v.),  to  whom  G.  intrusted  the 
care  of  the  war  against  the  Persians.  In  the  West, 
however,  dangers  thickened  about  him.  Aureolus 
was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  legions  of  Illyricum, 
and  having  marched  into  Italy,  seized  Milan,  and 
proceeded  towards  Rome.  The  war  between  the 
two  was  cariied  on  for  some  time  with  undecided 
success,  but  G.,  while  besieging  his  adversary  in 
Mediolanum  (Milan),  was  murdered  by  somti  of  his 
officers,  263  A.  d.   He  was  succeeded  by  Claudius  11. 

GALLI1N"A'CE0US  birds  (Lat.  gallus,  a  cock), 
or  RASORES  (Lat.  scrapers),  an  order  of  birds,  more 
generally  valuable  to  man  than  any  other  order,  con- 
taining at  once  the  most  important  species  domes- 
ticated as  poultry,  and  those  most  sought  after  as 
game.  The  common  Domestic  Fowl  may  be  regarded 
as  the  type  of  the  order.  Like  it,  the  gallinaceous 
birds  in  general  have  a  small  head ;  a  rather  short 
bill,  with  the  upper  mandible  a  little  arched ; 
nostrils  placed  on  the  sides  of  the  bill,  and  usually 
in  a  soft  membriinous  space  at  its  base  ;  the  figure 
bulky ;  the  wings  short,  and  not  governed  by  })ower- 
fid  muscles,  nor  adapted  for  long  or  rapid  fiight; 
the  feet  with  three  toes  before,  and  one  behind — • 
which  is  articulated  higher  than  the  others,  and  ia 
sometimes  wanting — adapted  for  walkmg  on  the 
ground  and  for  scraping,  which  is  much  resorted  to, 
in  order  to  procure  food  and  for  other  purposes ;  the 
digestive  organs  complex,  the  crop  large,  the  gizzard 
very  muscular,  the  intestine  long,  with  two  very 
large  coeca.  The  head,  at  least  of  the  males,  is  very 
generally  fu.rnished  with  appendages,  as  a  crest, 
comb,  wattles,  &c.  The  feet  of  the  males  are  also 
often  furnished  with  spurs,  and  at  least  during  the 
breeding  season  the  males  are  very  quarrelsome. 
The  males  of  many  species  are  birds  of  splendid 
plumage ;  that  of  the  females  is  sober,  but  females 
of  very  advanced  age  often  assume  a  plumage  similar 
to  that  of  the  males.  Some  of  the  gaUinaceous  birds 
are  polygamous,  some  pair  at  the  breeding  season  ; 
the  nest  of  all  of  them  is  artless,  and  the  males  take 
no  part  in  incubation,  nor  in  the  rearing  of  the 
young.  The  young  are  comparatively  feathered 
when  hatched,  and  are  immediately  able  to  run 
about  and  pick  up  food  for  themselves,  but  are  for 
some  time  most  affectionately  tended  and  protected 
by  their  mother,  and  by  her  the  proper  food  is 
sought  for  them  and  pointed  out  to  them,  or  broken 
into  siifficiently  small  pieces,  and  laid  before  them. 
The  gallinaceous  birds  have  immelodious  A'oices. 
Except  the  curassows,  they  make  their  nests  on  the 
ground.  Some  of  them  are  found  in  almost  all  parts 
of*  the  world.  Besides  those  already  named,  guans, 
pheasants,  gro\ise,  i)artridges,  quails,  ptarmigans, 
peacocks,  turkeys,  guinea-fowls,  tragopans,  and  tina- 
mous,  may  be  mentioned  as  examples  of  this  order. 
Pigeons  are  generally  ranked  in  it  by  ornithologists, 
but  rather  doubtfuUy,  as  they  differ  not  a  little 
from  the  true  gallinaceous  birds.  See  Columbid^ 
Interesting  analogies  have  been  pointed  out  between 
this  order  of  birds  and  the  order  of  Ruminanta 
among  Mammals,  in  the  complexity  of  the  digestive 
organs,  bulkiness  of  the  frame,  low  intelligence, 
easy  domestication,  usefulness  to  man,  and  prctneneas 


GALLINULE -GALLON. 


to  variation  from  tlie  influence  of  external  circum- 
Btances,  giving  rise  to  dififerent  breeds. 

GA'LLINULE  {Gallinula),  a  genus  of  birds  of 
the  family  Rallidji,  closely  allied  to  the  Coots  (q.  v.), 
and  having  the  upper  mandible  similarly  extending 
on  the  forehead  in  a  naked  soft  plate,  but  the  toes 
f  lu-nished  Math  an  undivided  narrow  marginal  mem- 
brane. This  membrane,  however,  and  the  great 
length  of  the  toes,  enable  the  gallinules  to  swim  well, 
and  all  of  them  are  aquatic.  The  species  are  pretty 
numerous,  some  of  them  confined  to  tropical  regions. 
One  only  is  found  in  Britain,  the  Common  G.  [G. 
cJdoropus),  also  known  as  the  Water-iien,  or  Moor- 
hen. It  is  a  very  widely  diffused  species,  being 
found  in  most  parts  of  the  world.  The  G.  is  about 
13  inches  in  length,  the  tail  very  short ;  the  general 
colour  of  the  plumage  deep  olive  brown  on  the 
upper  parts,  blackish  gray  Ijcncath,  the  ridge  of  the 
wing  and  the  under  tail-coverts  white.  The  bill  is 
red  at  the  base,  and  yellowish  green  at  the  tip ;  the 
legs  and  toes  green.  In  situations  favourable  for 
them,  such  as  artificial  ])onds,  gallinules  may  often 
be  seen  in  consideral^le  numbers  together,  swinmiing 
with  a  peculiar  nodding  motion  of  the  head.  They 
Beek  their  food  both  on  the  surface  of  the  water  and 
by  diving,  i)artly  also  among  the  grass  of  meadows 
and  river-banks.  A  frequent  jerking  of  the  tail  is 
very  characteristic  of  them.  When  alarmed,  they 
sometimes  seek  safety  by  flight,  but  more  frequently 
by  liiding  among  rushes  or  reeds.  They  make 
tlieir  nests  near  the  water  which  tliey  frequent, 
and  usually  on  the  ground  among  stumps,  roots, 
and  reeds  ;  the  nest  contains  from  seven  to  ten 
eggs.    The  flesh  of  the  G.  is  well  flavoured. 

GA'LLIOT,  a  Dutch  vessel  carrying  a  main  and 
»  mizzen  mast,  and  a  large  gafl"-mauisaiL  GaUiota — 


Dutch  Galliot  (from  the  Bot/s  Own  Book  of  Boats). 

strong-built,  flat-bottomed  ships — of  400  to  500  tons 
burden,  were  formerly  used  also  as  bomb- vessels. 

GALLI'POLI  (the  CalUpoUs  of  the  Greeks),  an 
important  commercial  town  of  Italy,  in  the  Neapo- 
litan province  of  Terra  di  Otranto,  is  beautifully 
situated  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Taranto, 
on  a  steep  insulated  rock  in  the  sea,  connected 
with  the  mainland  by  a  fine  arched  bridge  of 
stone.  It  has  a  good  harbour,  although  somewhat 
difficult  of  access,  owing  to  the  rocks  surrounding 
its  entrance,  and  in  time  of  war  is  an  irapoi-tant 
position,  being  strongly  protected  by  fortifications 
and  a  castle,  as  well  as  l)y  the  peculiarity  of  its 
site.  G.  is  remarkable  for  its  oil-tanks,  excavated 
in  the  solid  limestone  in  which  the  famous  oil  of 
Puglia  is  deposited  for  exportation.  Population  9208. 
588 


It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop.  In  1834,  the  revenue 
from  the  oil-trade  amounted  to  8,187,355  francjj. 
Other  interesting  features  of  the  place  are  the 
ancient  fountain,  a  fine  monument  of  antiquity, 
and  adorned  with  antique  figures  in  bas-relief;  the 
castle,  erected  by  Charles  of  Anjou,  commanding 
the  poi't  and  bridge,  and  possessing  considerable 
defensive  strength  ;  and  the  cathedral,  erected  in 
1G29  by  Francesco  Bischettini,  and  containing  snme 
fine  paintings  of  Coppola. 

It  is  said  that  Christianity  was  introduced  here  as 
early  as  44  A.  d.  In  450,  the  town  was  sacked  by 
the  Vandals ;  in  1284,  it  was  destroyed  and  almcsi 
dejio]>ulated  by  Charles  of  Anjou;  and  duriug 
subs(M(uent  centuries,  sufi'ered  severely  from  the 
Venetians,  French,  Spaniards,  and  Turks.  See 
Vlaggi  in  Sicllia  ed  in  Oallipoli,  by  Baron  lliedesel. 

GALLIPOLI,  Peninsula  of  (the  ancient 
Thracian  Chersonesus),  a  i)ortion  of  the  province  of 
llumili,  in  Euroj)ean  Turkey,  is  situated  between 
40°  3'  and  40°  38'  N.,  and  separates  the  strait  of 
Dardanelles  on  the  east  from  the  Gulf  of  Saros  on 
the  west.  It  extends  in  a  south-west  direction,  is 
about  55  miles  in  length,  and  varies  from  4  to  13 
miles  in  breadth.  The  principal  town  on  tbe 
peninsula  is  Gallipoli  (q.  v.). 

GALLIPOLI,  an  important  town  and  seaport  of 
Turkey  in  Europe,  in  the  province  of  llumili,  is 
situated  on  the  peninsula  of  the  same  name,  at  the 
north-eastern  extremity  of  the  strait  of  the  Dar- 
danelles, and  is  90  miles  south  of  Adrianople,  and 
about  130  miles  west-south- west  of  Constantinople. 
It  was  once  fortified,  but  its  only  defence  now  is  '  a 
sorry  square  castle  with  an  old  tower.'  G.  is 
poorly  and  irregularly  built,  its  houses  miserable, 
and  its  streets  dirty,  but  its  bazaars  are  extensive 
and  well  stocked.  It  is  the  most  important  town 
on  the  Hellespont,  has  two  ports,  and  numerous 
fountains  and  mosques;  and  its  inhabitants,  com- 
prising merchants  of  all  nations,  carry  on  a  flourishing 
trade  in  corn,  wine,  oil,  etc.    Pop.  (estimated)  11,000. 

G.  is  the  see  of  a  Greek  bishop.  In  the  town  and 
neighbourhood  are  seen  many  remains  of  ancient 
sculpture  and  architectm-e,  the  most  noteworthy  of 
which  are  the  magazine  and  cellars  built  by 
Justinian.  The  town  was  taken  by  the  Turks  in 
1357,  and  fonned  the  earliest  Turkish  possession  in 
Europe. 

GA'LLIPOT,  the  name  given  to  a  pot  painted 
and  glazed,  commonly  used  for  medicine.  The 
origin  of  the  name  is  uncertain,  some  deriving  it 
from  the  Dutch  gleije,  clay,  or  glei,  glaze,  and 
others  from  the  Spanish  gala.  There  seems  to  be 
some  doubt  whether  the  word  'galley'  does  not 
apply  to  the  shape.  Glazed  coloui-ed  tiles,  however, 
were  called  '  galletyles.'  The  earliest  mention  of 
gallipots  is  in  Sir  T.  Howard's  Household  Book  of 
the  year  1465,  edited  by  th«  Hoxburghe  Club, 
Archceol.  Jour.  1861,  p.  138. 

GA'LLIVATS,  large  row-boats,  formerly,  and 
stiU  to  some  degree,  used  in  easter^j  waters.  They 
rarely  exceed  seventy  tons,  carry  two  masts  with 
high  triangular  sails,  and  are  generally  armed  "with 
a  few  small  s^^-ivel  guns,  fastened  on  the  bidwarks. 
The  Malay  pirates  employ  these  swift  but  some* 
what  fragile  vessels. 

GALLOMA  NIA.   See  Anglomania. 

GALLON,  the  standard  measure  for  liquids  and 
dry  goods  throughout  the  United  Kingdom.  It  has 
existed  as  a  measure  from  the  earliest  times,  and,  in 
consequence,  has  undergone  many  changes.  In  the 
time  of  Henry  III.  it  was  enacted  that  the  gallon 
should  be  8  lbs.  of  12  ounces  each,  an  ounce  being 


f 


GALLOON— GALLOWAY. 


the  weight  of  640  dry  grains  of  wheat  from  the 
middle  of  the  ear. 

In  1650,  there  were  three  distinct  gallon  measures 
— viz.,  1,  the  gallon  measure  in  common  nse,  which 
contained  about  231  cubic  inches  :  2,  the  customary 
standard  at  the  Guildhall,  which,  though  not  a 
legal  standard,  was  frequently  referred  to  as  such, 
eyen  by  the  law-officers  of  the  crown ;  and  though 
generally  estimated  at  231  cubic  inches,  in  reality 
contained  only  224:  3,  there  was  also  the  legal 
standard  measiu-e,  preserved  at  the  Treasury,  which 
contained  282  cubic  inches. 

Besides  these  three,  there  was  another  gallon 
measure  frequently  employed  for  measuring  corn, 
called  the  Winchester  gallon.  This  measure,  though 
directed  in  William  III.'s  reign  to  contain  269  cubic 
inches,  was  soon  afterwards  changed  to  272^  cubic 
inches,  at  which  value  it  remained  for  a  long 
period. 

In  1706,  the  gallon  of  231  cubic  inches  was  made 
the  standard  wine  gallon. 

These  measures  were  gradually  changed  in  value, 
and  appropriated  to  the  measurement  of  particular 
substances,  till,  in  1825,  just  before  the  passing  of 
the  '  Act  for  Ascertaining  and  Establishing  Uni- 
formity of  Weights  and  Measures,'  they  stood  thus  : 

In  old  dry  or  corn  measure,  the  gallon  =  ?68  f)  cubic  inches. 
In  old  wine  ineasure,  ii       it   =230  85     it  it 

In  old  ale  and  be.r  measure,       it       it   =282        n  tt 

In  January  1826,  when  the  above-mentioned  act 
came  into  operation,  all  these  measiires  were 
abolished,  and  it  was  enacted  that  the  standard 
measure  of  capacity  for  all  liquids  and  for  dry 
goods  not  measured  by  heaping,  shall  be  a  gallon 
containing  10  lbs.  av.  of  distilled  water,  weighed 
in  air  (the  barometer  being  at  30  inches,  and  the 
thermometer  at  62°). 

This  gives  27 7 '274  cubic  inches  for  the  imperial 
gallon,  and  by  subdivision  or  multiplication  of  this 
standard,  the  other  measures  can  easily  be  found. 
See  Weights  and  Measures. 

GALLOO'N",  a  narrow  fabric  composed  of  silk 
or  worsted,  or  of  both.  It  is  usually  employed  for 
binding  garments,  curtains,  &c.  The  small  band 
worn  round  gentlemen's  hats  is  an  example. 

GALLOTA'NNIC  ACID  (C2TH22O17)  is  the 
most  important  of  the  various  forms  of  tannin  or 
tannic  acid.  It  usually  occurs  as  a  spongy,  light, 
inodorous,  colourless,  or  faintly  yellow  mass,  which 
is  easily  reduced  to  a  fine  powder,  which  possesses 
a  strongly  astringent,  but  not  a  bitter  taste.  It 
is  freely  soluble  in  water,  the  solution  reddening 
litmus  paper,  and  dissolving  the  carbonates  with 
clfervescence.  With  the  persalts  of  iron,  gallotannic 
acid  gives  a  blackish  blue  precipitate  of  gjillotannate 
of  iron,  and  even  when  the  iron  solution  is  extremely 
ililute,  a  \'iolet  tint  is  evolved.  This  gallotannate 
of  iron  is  the  basis  of  ordinary  writing  ink  (q.  v.)  ; 
and  the  reaction  that  w'e  have  described  is  so 
Bcnsitive,  that  gallotannic  acid  is  employed  in  the 
laboratory  as  a  test  for  the  detection  of  the  persalts 
of  iron.  Gallotannic  acid  likewise  precipitates  tartar 
emetic,  nearly  all  the  vegetable  alkaloids  (mori:)hia, 
quinia,  &c,),  the  albuminates,  and  gelatine.  If  a  piece 
of  raw  hide,  freed  from  hair,  be  immersed  in  a 
solution  of  gallotannic  acid,  the  gelatigenous  tissue 
and  the  acid  combine,  and  leather  is  formed ;  and  if 
the  skin  be  of  sufficient  size,  all  the  gallotannic  acid 
is  removed  from  the  solution. 

Gallotannic  acid  fuses  when  exposed  to  heat,  and 
at  a  temperature  of  about  120°  it  is  decomposed, 
and  yields  pyrogallic  acid  (C6H6O2)  and  meta- 
gallic  acid  (C6H4O2),  while  Avafcer  and  carbonic 
acid  are  expelled.  When  a  watery  solution  of 
gallotannic  acid  is  excluded  from  the  air,  it  remains 


unchanged ;  but  if  tlie  air  is  allowed  free  acctisa 
to  it,  a  fungous  or  mouldy  growth  is  develoj/cd, 
oxygen  is  absorbed,  carbonic  acid  is  given  off,  and 
the  gallotannic  acid  becomes  decomposed  into  Gallic 
Acid  (q.  V.)  and  sugar.  The  same  decomposition  is 
more  rapidly  induced  by  the  action  of  dilute  sul[)huric 
acid,  the  reaction  being  exhibited  in  the  folk^ving 
formula: 

Gallotannic  Acid.        Water.  Gallic  Acid.  Sugar, 

C^^h5)?7  +  8110  =  3(QI1^0j)  +  (UUuOx 
On  boiling  gallotannic  acid  in  a  concentrated  solution 
of  potash,  gallic  acid  is  also  formed. 

The  composition  of  the  salts  of  this  acid  is  but  im- 
perfectly known,  but  the  acid  is  generally  considered 
as  tribasic.  None  of  the  salts  crystallize,  and  when 
in  solution  or  in  a  moist  state  they  rapidly  absorb 
oxygen,  and  become  decomposed. 

Gallotannic  acid  occurs  in  large  quantity  in  the 
gall  nut,  which  contains,  according  to  Pelouze,  as 
much  as  40  per  cent,  of  this  acid,  and  3.5  per 
cent,  of  gallic  acid  (Guibourt  has  found  that  som« 
nuts  contain  as  much  as  65  per  cent,  of  gallotannic 
acid)  ;  it  is  likewise  found  in  all  parts  of  the  gall 
or  dyer's  oak  {Quercus  infedoria),  in  sumach  [Rhus 
coriaria),  and  in  green  tea. 

The  best  method  of  obtaining  it  is  from  powdered 
gall-nuts,  by  extraction  with  commercial  ether 
(which  contains  about  10  per  cent,  of  water),  in  the 
percolation  or  displacement  apparatus. 

Gallotannic  acid  is  emplo,yed  in  medicine,  in 
chemistry,  and  in  the  arts.  Its  uses  in  medicine 
are  due  to  its  powerful  astringent  action.  It  is 
employed  topically  as  a  styptic  in  wounds,  bleeding 
gums,  piles,  &c.,  and  internally  as  an  astringent  in 
haemorrhage  from  the  lungs,  stomach,  bowels,  &c.; 
as  we  know  that  it  becomes  converted  into  gallio 
acid  in  its  passage  through  the  system,  it  is  probably 
the  latter  acid  which  acts  on  remote  parts  when 
gallotannic  acid  is  administered.  Internally,  it  may 
be  given  in  doses  of  from  three  to  ten  grains,  three 
or  four  times  a  day,  in  pills  or  in  solution.  It  may 
be  used  as  an  astringent  gargle  or  lotion,  in  the 
form  of  a  watery  solution  containing  three  or  more 
grains  to  the  ounce.  The  compound  ointrnent  oj 
galls,  which  is  the  best  topical  remedy  for  pUea 
without  haemorrhage,  owes  its  efficacy  to  the  gallo* 
tannic  acid  contained  in  the  powdered  galls. 

In  chemistry,  it  is  used  in  solution  as  a  test  for 
gelatine,  persalts  of  iron,  &c. ;  and  in  the  arts,  it 
serves  various  useful  processes,  especially  in  relation 
to  the  preparation  of  leather,  and  the  manufacture 
of  white  wines. 

GA'LLOWAY,  the  name  of  an  ancient  province 
in  the  south  of  Scotland,  still  employed  to  designate 
the  counties  of  Kirkcudbright  and  Wigton.  The 
extent  and  early  history  of  G.  are  alike  obsciu'e. 
By  some  historians,  it  has  been  asserted  to  have 
comprehended,  in  addition  to  Kirkcudbright  and 
Wigton,  Nithsdale,  Annandale,  Teviotdale,  Canick, 
Kyle,  Cunningham,  and  Renfrewshire ;  but  the 
evidence  for  such  assertion  is  not  satisfactory. 
Gallwegia  is  mentioned  in  1124,  in  a  charter  grai  ted 
by  David  I.  of  Scotland  to  the  monks  of  Selkirk, 
and  at  that  time  its  dimensions  appear  to  have 
been  no  larger  than  those  the  modem  application  of 
the  name  implies.  Of  the  eight  tributary  princes 
who  are  said  to  have  waited  upon  Edgar  king  of 
England  at  Chester,  in  973,  one  was  '  Jacobus  rex 
Gaiwalliie.'  The  name,  however,  must  have  coma 
into  use  after  the  time  of  Bede  the  historian  (died 
735),  for  in  speaicing  of  the  province,  which  then 
formed  pp.rt  of  the  Bernician  or  Korthumbrian 
kingdom,  he  makes  no  mention  of  it.  Its  origin 
is  doubtfid,  but  has  obA-ious  reference  to  the  GacUo 

5S!) 


GALLOWAY— GALLS. 


people  by  whom  it  was  possessed.  The  original 
inhabitants,  of  the  country  ai)i)ear  to  have  been  of 
Celtic  origin  ;  they  are  believed  to  liave  formed  two 
distinct  ti-ibes,  the  Selgovae  and  Novantes — the 
former  holding  the  country  east  of  the  Dee,  along 
with  a  portion  of  Dumfriesshire,  while  the  latter 
held  the  portion  lying  to  the  west.  After  the 
departure  of  the  Romans,  in  the  first  half  of  the 
5th  c,  G.  was  overrvm  by  the  Anglo-Saxons  of 
Northumbria,  by  whom,  however,  the  native  Celtic 
inhabitants  do  not  appear  to  have  been  ever 
thoroughly  subdued.  About  the  12th  c,  G.  is 
upoken  of  by  English  writers  as  'the  land  of  the 
Picts,'  and  its  inhabitants  as  '  the  Picts.'  In  Scottish 
charters,  the  inhabitants  were  called  simply  '  Gallo- 
vidienses,'  or  men  of  Galloway.  G.  was  now  ruled 
by  its  own  princes  and  its  own  laws,  the  kings  of 
Scotland,  however,  exercising  a  nominal  sovereignty 
over  it.  It  was  not  until  the  reign  of  Alexander 
XL  that  the  power  of  these  great  chieftains  was 
com})letely  broken  by  the  cro^\^l.  The  last  of  them, 
.Alan  of  Galloway,  constable  of  Scotland,  died  in 
1233,  when  his  great  i)OSsessions  were  divided  among 
his  three  daughtei's.  For  the  extent,  population, 
natural  productions,  &c.,  of  G.,  see  Kirkcudbright- 

BHIRE  and  WiGTONSHIRE. 

GALLOWAY,  Mull  of,  a  rocky  headland,  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  peninsula  called  the 
Riuns  of  Galloway,  in  Wigtonshire,  is  the  most 
southern  point  of  Scotland,  It  is  mile  long,  and 
I  of  a  mile  broad.  On  this  headland,  in  lat.  54° 
38'  N.,  and  long.  4'  52'  W.,  is  a  light-house,  325  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  the  light  of  which  is  seen 
at  the  distance  of  21  nautical  miles. 

GALLOWS,  Pit  and  G.  See  Fossa  et  Furca  ; 
also,  Execution,  Hanging. 

GALLOWS-BITS,  the  name  applied  on  board 
ehip  to  two  strong  frames  of  oak,  on  which  the  spare 
topmasts  and  yards  are  lashed. 

GALLS,  or  GALL-NUTS,  are  of  various  shapes, 
but  the  oak-galls  chieflj'^  used  in  commerce  are 
nearly  globular,  with  slightly  pointed  excrescences 
sparingly  placed  on  their  surface.  They  are 
remarkable  for  containing  a  peculiar  acid  called 
gallic,  which  is  only  an  altered  condition  of  tannic 
acid,  and  their  value  is  entirely  due  to  the  gi-eat 
accumulation  of  this  principle  in  the  diseased  con- 
dition of  the  vegetable  tissue  which  constitutes  the 
galL  This  gallic  acid  (q.  v.)  is  easily  separated  in 
the  form  of  beaiitifid  white  acicular  crystals,  which, 
after  a  little  exposure,  become  pale  yellow.  It  is 
in  extensive  demand  as  a  fixing  agent  for  photo- 
graphic pictures.  Until  this  demand  was  created, 
only  three  or  four  kinds  of  galls  were  known  in  com- 
merce, and  these  were  almost  wholly  employed  for 
dyeing  purposes,  a  small  quantity  of  the  common 
Turkish  galls  being  also  used  medicinally ;  now, 
several  others  are  imported  in  considerable  quan- 
tities.   The  following  are  the  chief  : 

1.  The  Turkish  galls,  of  two  kinds,  blue  and  white; 
these  are  by  far  the  most  common  in  use.  They  are 
chiefly  imported  from  Constantinople  and  Smyrna, 
from  which  places  the  average  impoi-ts  of  the  last 
live  years  have  amounted  to  300  tons— an  enormous 
quantity,  when  we  consider  how  they  are  produced, 
and  the  industry  necessary  to  collect  so  vast  a 
quantity.  They  are  each  about  the  size  of  a  round 
nutmeg,  and  the  blue,  which  are  the  best,  are  entire, 
being  gathered  before  the  escape  of  the  insect. 
The  so-called  white  galls  are  of  a  yellowish-brown 
colour,  and  each  is  perforated  with  a  small  round 
hole,  about  the  sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
whence  the  insect  has  escaped.  These  galls  are 
produced  by  a  species  of  Cynips  {C.  quercus-galli) 
on  the  dyer's  oak  {Quercus  infedoria),  a  native  of 
590 


Asia  Minor,  from  the  Bosphonis  to  Syria,  and  from 
the  Grecian  Archipelago  to  the  frontiers  of  Persia. 
Of  this  kind  of  gall,  several  varieties  are  known 
in  commerce,  as  the  Aleppo  galls ;  the  Syrian  or 
Mosul  galls,  which  are  the  best  known  ;  the  Tripoli 
Taraplus  or  Tarablous  galls,  obtained  from  Con- 
stantinoi)le  ;  and  the  Smyrna  galls. 

2.  The  small  Aleppo  or  coriander  gall,  which  ia 
generally  about  the  size  of  a  large  pea.  They  are 
always  perforated  or  empty  gaUs,  and  are  of  a 
brownish-yellow  colour,  round,  and  with  small  blunt 
spines.  The  quantity  used  in  this  country  is  not 
very  large. 

3.  The  large  Bassorah,  Bussorah,  or  Mecca  gaUs, 
which  are  the  largest  galls  known  in  commerce; 
they  are  as  large  as  an  Orleans  plum,  smooth,  except 
a  ring  of  curious  slightly  raised  excrescences  some- 
times found  round  the  middle,  dividing  the  gall  into 
two  hemispheres.  They  are  reddish  browm,  and  are 
said;  when  on  the  trees  {Quercus  infectoria),  to  be 
coloured  as  brightly  as  apples.  These  are  the 
apples  of  Sodom,  or  the  Dead  Sea  apples,  bright  to 
the  eye,  but  filled  with  a  gritty  astringent  matter, 
which  is  likened  to  ashes ;  it  is  formed  on  the 
Quercus  infectoria  by  Cynips  insana.  These  are 
not  extensively  imported. 

4.  The  acorn  gall,  Knoppem,  Knobben,  Hun- 
garian, or  German  gall.  This  is  found  chiefly  in 
Hungary,  and  is  much  used  by  the  German  dyers ; 
it  is  also  occasionally  used  in  this  country.  It  is  a 
curious  in-egular-shaped  brown  gall,  deeply  fur- 
rowed, and  covered  with  angular  excrescences.  It  ia 

reduced  on  the  common  oak  [Quercus  pedunculata) 
y  Cynips  Querciis  cahjcis. 

5.  The  small  East  Indian  ^alls  called  Mahee,  and 
Sumrut-ool-toorfa,  are  obtained  from  the  Indian 
Tamarisk  [Tamarix  Tndica).  They  are  very  small, 
about  the  size  and  coloiu"  of  tares,  and  are  so  rough 
and  iiTcgular  in  form,  that  they  look  rather  like 
little  lumps  of  dried  garden-soil. 

6.  The  Chinese  galls,  or  Woo-pei-tsze.  These 
very  curious  vegetable  excrescences  were  regarded 
only  as  curiosities  ten  years  since,  but  they  now 
form  regular  articles  of  commerce.  They  are  of  a 
very  irregular  shape,  branching  out  sometimes  like 
fingers.  Their  length  seldom  exceeds  two  inches ; 
they  are  rarely  more  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in 
diameter  at  the  base,  where  they  spring  from  the 
tree,  but  they  spread  out  as  much  sometimes  as  an 
inch  and  a  half  to  two  inches.  When  broken,  they 
are  found  to  consist  of  a  thin  shell,  not  thicker  than 
a  walnut-shell,  of  a  dark-yellowish  or  reddish-brown 
colour  internally,  and  semi-transparent ;  but  exter- 
nally they  are  covered  with  very  fine  down,  and 
consequently  look  like  the  young  horns  of  a  stag 
when  just  budding.  They  are  produced  on  the 
Rhus  semi-alata  (see  Sumach),  by  an  insect  not 
yet  known  to  science.  Since  the  Japanese  porta 
have  been  opened  to  British  commerce,  considerable 
imports  of  these  curious  gaUs  have  been  received 
from  that  country.  They  are  rather  more  branched, 
the  branches  or  lobes  being  smaller  than  in  the 
Chinese  variety,  but  in  all  other  respects  they  are 
identical. 

A  very  great  many  galls  are  known  in  most  parts 
of  the  world,  and  in  our  own  country  the  oaks  yield 
numerous  species,  but  those  above  enumerated  are 
the  galls  of  commerce :  few  others  have  ever  been 
found  to  pay  the  expense  of  collecting.  GaUs  are 
extensively  used  in  dyeing,  chiefly  for  the  produc- 
tion of  black  colours,  with  logwood  and  the  salts  of 
iron,  either  for  dyeing  in  the  piece,  or  printing 
patterns  ;  in  each  case,  the  material  is  first  submitted 
to  the  action  of  a  solution  of  the  galls,  and  afterwarda 
to  another  of  the  dye-wood  and  iron  salt.  They  are 
also  an  important  constituent  in  writing-ink  (see 


GALL-STONE— GALVANL 


Ink),  and  are  used  in  tanning  the  finer  kinds  of 
fancy  leathers. 

GALL-STONE.    See  Calculus. 

GALOCHES.    See  Goloshes. 

GALT,  John,  a  distinguished  Scottish  novelist, 
"was  born  in  Irvine,  on  the  2d  May  1779.  His  father, 
who  was  a  captain  of  a  ship  in  the  West  Indian 
trade,  left  Ayrshire  in  1780,  and  fixed  his  residence 
in  Greenock.  In  that  town,  G.  received  his  educa- 
tion, and  was  then  placed  in  the  custom-house.  He 
remained  there  till  1804,  when,  panting  after  literary 
distinction,  he  proceeded  to  London  with  an  epic 
poem  on  the  battle  of  Largs  in  his  portmanteau.  On 
reaching  the  metropolis,  lie  printed  his  epic,  but 
becoming  dissatisfied  with  its  merits,  he  ultimately 
withdrew  it  from  the  market.  After  a  few  years,  his 
health  began  to  fail,  and  he  was  obliged  to  seek  relief 
in  a  more  genial  climate.  At  Gibraltar,  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Lord  Byron — flushed  with  his  first 
success  in  the  English  Bards  and  Scotch  Revieivers 
— and  his  friend  Mr  Hobhouse,  and  the  three 
travellers  became  fellow- voyagers.  Separating  from 
his  new  friends,  G.  visited  Sicily,  then  Malta,  and 
finally  repaired  to  Greece,  where  he  again  renewed 
his  acquaintance  with'  Byron,  and  had  an  interview 
with  Ali  Pacha.  He  then  proceeded  to  Constan- 
tinople, and  afterwards  to  the  shores  of  the  Black 
Sea.  On  one  occasion,  when  detained  by  quarantine, 
he  sketched  six  dramas,  which  were  afterwards 
given  to  the  world.  On  his  return,  he  published 
Letters  from  the  Levant  with  considerable  success, 
but  first  displayed  the  possession  of  distinct  and 
individual  power  in  The  Ayrsldre  Legatees,  which 
was  published  in  Blackwood's  Magazine  in  1820. 
The  Annals  of  the  Parish,  a  far  superior  work, 
appeared  the  year  after,  and  met  with  unquestion- 
able success.  Having  hit  on  the  true  vein,  he 
worked  it  assiduously,  and  produced  Sir  Andrew 
Wylie,  The  Entail,  The  S team-boat,  and  The  Pro- 
tost,  with  great  rapidity.  He  then  diverged  into 
the  walk  of  historical  romance,  and  published 
Ringan  Gilhaize,  a  tale  of  the  Covenanters ;  The 
Spaewife,  JRothelan,  and  The  Omen.  These  works, 
although  full  of  striking  scenes,  and  abounding  in 
powerful  writing,  were  not  so  successful  as  his  earlier 
and  less  ambitious  performances.  G.,  whose  hands 
were  always  equally  full  of  literary  and  commer- 
cial undertakings,  was  now  busily  engaged  in  the 
formation  oi"  the  Canada  Company ;  but  before  he 
left  England  for  his  distant  scene  of  labour,  he 
gare  to  the  world  The  Last  of  tlie  Lairds. 

He  departed  for  Canada  in  1826,  but,  disap- 
pointed in  his  expectations,  he  returned  to  England 
m  the  course  of  a  year  or  two,  and  recommenced 
his  literary  labours  with  his  usual  rapidity.  In  a 
short  time,  he  published  a  novel,  Lawrie  Todd, 
which  was  followed  by  Sonthennan,  a  romance  of  the 
days  of  Queen  Mary ;  and  this  by  a  Life  of  Lord 
Byron,  which  ran  through  several  editions,  but 
which  was  roughly  handled  by  the  critics.  In  1834, 
he  published  JAterary  Miscellanies  in  three  volumes. 
He  now  returned  to  Scotland,  utterly  broken  in 
health  and  spirits ;  and  after  suff'ering  several 
attacks  of  paralysis,  he  expired  at  Greenock  on  the 
11th  of  April  1839. 

G.  was  a  voluminous  and  unequal  writer ;  but 
while  several  of  his  productions  are  already  for- 
gotten, others  of  them  will  perish  only  with  the 
language.  In  depicting  provincialism,  in  repre- 
senting life  as  it  flows  on  in  smaU  towns  and 
villages— communities  in  which  the  successful  shop- 
keeper may  aspire  to  be  the  chief  magistrate,  and 
in  which  the  minister  is  the  most  important  per- 
Bonage — he  is  without  a  rival.  He  has  founded  a 
•chool  of  writers  in  Scotland,  but  as  yet  his  followers 


have  produced  no  work  equal  to  Tlve  Provost  or  7'k6 

Annaltt  of  the  Parish. 

GALT,  a  thriving  town  in  the  county  of  AVater- 
loo,  Canada  West,  principally  built  of  stone.  It 
stands  on  both  sides  of  tiie  Grand  River,  about  55 
miles  from  its  entrance  into  Lake  Erie.  Tlie  eastern 
and  western  parts  of  the  town  are  connected  by 
two  wooden  bridges,  resting  on  massive  stone  piers. 
The  environs  of  the  town  are  noted  for  their  beauty. 
The  first  house  of  G.  was  built  in  181 G,  amid  a 
dense  forest  of  pines,  which  then  covered  its  site. 
The  inhabitants  now  number  about  4000,  the 
majority  being  of  Scotch  descent.  It  contains  ten 
places  of  public  worship,  four  being  Presbyterian, 
three  Methodist,  one  Ei)iscoi)al,  one  Roman  Catholic, 
and  one  Baptist ;  the  last-named  belongs  to  the 
coloured  popidation.  It  sui)ports  one  grammar  and 
one  common  school :  the  average  attendance  at 
the  latter  being  about  500 ;  and  has  an  extensive 
library  and  public  reading-room  in  connection  with 
a  mechanics'  institute.  Among  its  industrial  estab- 
lishments are  several  woollen  manufactories  and  iron 
foundries.  The  manufacture  of  edge-tools  is  carried 
on  to  a  large  extent.  The  trade  of  the  town  is 
greatly  promoted  by  the  Great  Western  Railway,  a 
branch  of  which  passes  through  Gait.  The  local 
affairs  of  G.  are  managed  by  a  mayor  and  council 
of  fifteen  members. 

GALVA'NI,  LuiGi,  a  famous  physician  and 
anatomist,  was  born  at  Bologna,  9th  September 
1737.  At  an  early  age,  he  evinced  a  strong  inclina- 
tion to  devote  himself  to  a  monastic  life,  and  hia 
studies  in  the  university  of  Bologna  were,  with 
this  view,  chiefly  directed  to  scholastic  philosophy, 
rather  than  to  general  science.  Swayed,  however, 
by  the  persuasion  of  his  friends,  he  relinquished 
his  intention  of  entering  the  church,  and  deter- 
mined to  follow  the  profession  of  medicine,  select- 
ing for  special  investigation  the  departments  of 
physiology  and  comparative  anatomy.  At  this  time, 
he  enjoyed  the  benefit  of  studying  under  some 
of  the  most  eminent  medical  professors  of  the  day 
— Beccaria,  Tacconi,  and  Galeazzi,  whose  talented 
daughter  he  subsequently  married.  So  distinguished 
by  his  knowledge  and  ability  did  he  soon  become, 
that  in  1762  he  was  elected  professor  of  anatomy 
in  the  institute  of  his  native  city,  when  his  lectures, 
although  not  remarkable  for  eloquence,  were  clear, 
accurate,  and  comprehensive,  and  enjoyed  much 
popularity.  His  writings  are  not  numerous,  but  all 
contain  valuable  scientific  matter,  and  are  charac- 
terised by  a  rare  precision  and  minuteness  of 
details.  Two  treatises,  which  added  considerably  to 
his  reputation,  are — Considerations  on  the  Urinary 
Organs,  and  On  the  Organs  of  Hearing  of  Birds. 
But  to  a  purely  casual  discovery  C.  owes  the  wide 
celebrity  attached  to  his  name.  Many  versions  of 
this  circumstance  have  obtained  credence ;  but  the 
simple  fact  seems  to  be,  that  G.'s  wife,  a  woman  of 
penetrating  intellect,  happened  one  day  to  witness 
with  surprise  the  convulsive  muscular  movements 
produced  in  a  skinned  frog  by  its  inanimate  body 
having  been  accidentally  brought  into  contact  with 
a  scalpel  which  lay  on  the  table,  and  had  become 
charged  by  contact  with  an  adjoining  electrical 
machine.  She  hastened  to  communicate  the  inter- 
esting phenomenon  to  her  husband,  who  at  once 
instituted  a  prolonged  series  of  experiments.  See 
Galvanism,  and  Electricity,  Animal.  G.  died 
4th  December  1798.  Some  time  previously,  he  had 
lost  in  his  wife  a  cherished  companion,  and  was 
deprived  of  all  his  public  emoluments,  in  conse- 
quence of  his  refusal  to  take  the  oaths  prescribed 
by  the  Cisalpine  RepubHc,  of  which  Bologna  then 
formed  a  part.     His  writings  have  been  chietiy 


GALVANISED  IRON-GALVANISM. 


pab/ished  in  the  memoirs  of  the  Bologna  Institute 
of  Sciences,  including  the  most  remarkable  produc- 
tion of  his  pen,  the  treatise  entitled  De  Viribus 
Eledricitatis  in  Motu  Musculari  Commentarius. 

GALVANI'SED  IRON.  This  name  is  given  to 
plates  of  iron  coated  with  zinc,  without  any  refer- 
ence, as  its  name  would  imply,  to  galvanism.  Most 
probably,  it  was  applied  by  its  French  inventor  for 
the  special  purpose  of  misleading,  and  for  concealing 
the  real  nature  of  the  manufacture. 

Thft  value  of  giving  a  thin  coating  to  iron,  of 
Bome  easily  fusible  metal  much  less  liable  to  oxida- 
tion than  itself,  has  been  long  known  and  acted  upon, 
as  in  the  case  of  tinned  iron,  or  tin,  as  it  is  com- 
monly called;  but  this  could  not  be  applied  on  a 
very  large  scale,  such  as  for  roofing,  or  for  large  iron 
structures,  such  as  liave  of  late  been  extensively 
erected  for  various  purposes. 

It  is  not  known  exactly  when  zinc  coating  was 
first  used  in  France,  where  it  was  invented ;  but  the 
first  English  patent  was  taken  out  in  1837  by  Mr  H. 
W.  Crawfurd,  who  applied  it  chiefly  to  sheets  of 
corrugated  iron,  or  sheet-iron,  bent  by  a  peculiar 
process  into  alternate  semicircular  elevations  and 
depressions  ;  and  this  soon  became  extensively 
employed  for  roofing  purposes,  especially  for  rail- 
way sheds,  which  were  then  beginning  to  be  in 
great  request. 

The  process  employed  by  Mr  Crawfurd  was  first 
to  remove  the  rust  and  scale  from  the  iron,  by 
immersing  it  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  either  hot  or 
cold;  but  the  former  state  was  preferred;  and  for 
this  purjiose  the  acid  was  kept  warm  in  a  large 
leaden  bath,  sunk  in  the  ground  for  easier  access. 
After  the  sheets  or  other  articles  of  iron  have  been 
acted  upon  by  the  acid  for  a  few  minutes  more 
or  less,  according  to  their  requirements,  they  are 
plunged  into  cold  water,  to  remove  the  acid,  and 
afterwards  scoured  with  sand,  and  again  washed 
clean  with  wr.ter.  The  iron  being  now  ready  to 
receive  its  coating  of  zinc,  it  is  plunged  into  a  bath 
of  that  metal,  which,  previous  to  its  being  melted, 
is  coated  with  a  thick  layer  of  dry  sal-anunoniac 
(hydrochlorate  of  ammonia) ;  this  melts  also,  and 
forms  a  viscid  coating  over  the  metal,  which  prevents 
that  rapid  oxidation  to  which  the  molten  metal  is 
otherwise  liable.  The  bath  itself  is  constructed  of 
fire-clay,  and,  in  some  of  the  large  works  visited  by 
the  writer,  contains,  when  fiilly  charged,  from  a  ton 
and  a  half  to  two  tons  of  molten  zinc.  The  iron  is 
simply  dipped  into  the  zinc  bath,  or  made  to  pass 
through,  and  when  pulled  out  is  effectually  coated. 

The  enormous  dema,nd  which  has  arisen  for 
galvanised  iron,  especially  in  the  form  of  sheets, 
telegraph  wire,  and  bolts  for  ships,  has  led  to 
improvements  in  its  preparation;  these  have  been 
chiefly,  however,  in  the  application  of  machinery  to 
aid  the  workmen. 

Muriatic  acid,  as  well  as  sul])huric  acid,  is  exten- 
sively used  in  the  pickling  or  first  process,  and  for 
the  coarser  materials  the  scouring  vnt\i  sand  is 
usually  dispensed  with.  The  sheets  are  made  to 
pass  ])etween  two  iron  rollers  in  the  zinc  bath,  and 
are  thus  more  easily  drawn  through  and  kept 
perfectly  smooth.  Ships'  bolts,  nails,  screws,  chains, 
&c.,  are  dipped  in,  in  bundles,  or  in  the  case  of  nails, 
&c.,  in  iron  strainers ;  when  removed,  the  zinc 
makes  them  adhere  together ;  and  to  effect  their 
separation,  they  have  to  be  placed  in  a  crucible 
with  poAvdered  charcoal,  in  which  they  are  heated 
to  redness,  and  repeatedly  shaken  as  they  cool ;  by 
this  means,  they  are  easily  separated. 

The  important  article  of  telegraph  wire,  of  which 
the  single  firm  of  Messrs  Johnston  &  Co.,  Man- 
chester, annually  tirrns  out  some  thousands  of  mdes, 
ifl  managed  entirely  by  machinery.  The  iron  wire 
A9a 


is  brought  from  the  drawing-mill,  and  after  pickling 
in  dilute  muriatic  acid,  is  passed  through  a  pij>6 
kept  at  white  heat  by  passing  through  a  furnace ; 
this  furnace  having  a  row  of  such  pipes  set  like 
the  tubes  of  a  boiler,  but  all  at  the  same  level,  and 
open  at  each  end,  so  that  the  wire  has  a  clear 
passage  through.  The  machinery  being  started,  the 
wire  is  slowly  drawn  through,  and  becoming  red 
hot  in  the  pipes,  is  immediately  deflected  down- 
wards into  the  zinc  bath  between  grooved  rollers, 
whence  it  rises,  and  is  drawn  forward;  and  by  tho 
time  it  is  sufficiently  cooled,  reaches  the  coiling 
reels,  and  is  made  up  into  coils  ready  for  use. 

There  is  a  variety  of  galvanised  iron  called 
fjalvanised  tinned  iron.  This  was  introduced  hy 
Messrs  Morewood  and  Rogers,  who  combined  several 
patents  to  complete  their  process,  which  is  aa 
follows  :  A  large  wooden  bath,  sufficiently  large  to 
hold  the  largest  sheets  of  iron,  is  prepared,  and  the 
sheets  or  other  articles,  after  being  pickled,  and 
scoured,  and  washed,  as  in  the  usual  process,  are 
transferred  to  it.  On  the  bottom  of  the  bath  is 
first  placed  a  layer  of  finely  granulated  zinc,  then  a 
sheet  of  the  iron,  then  another  layer  of  granulated 
zinc,  and  so  on  as  far  as  convenient ;  and  the  bath 
is  filled  up  with  a  diluted  solution  of  muriate  of  tin, 
of  the  strength  of  two  quarts  of  the  muriate  to  three 
hundred  gallons  of  water.  The  alternate  arrange- 
ment of  zinc  and  iron  constitutes  a  sort  of  galvanic 
battery,  which  is  called  into  activity  by  the  liquid, 
and  a  thin  deposit  of  tin  takes  place  all  over  the 
iron,  which  process  is  usually  completed  in  about 
two  hours.  The  plates  are  then  removed  from  the 
bath,  and  after  being  drained  for  a  short  time,  are 
taken  to  the  zinc  bath  prepared  exactly  as  in  the 
ordinary  process,  where  they  are  dipped  or  pas^sed 
through  the  rollers.  By  this  process,  a  very  eveo 
deposit  of  zinc  is  produced,  which  in  coolingj 
crystallises  all  over  the  surface  very  beautifully; 
but  it  is  too  expensive  for  the  ordinary  puj-posea 
to  which  galvanised  iron  is  applied. 

Experience  has  shewn  that  this  material  cannot 
always  be  used  economically;  the  action  of  steam 
upon  it  produces  very  rapid  decomposition;  there- 
fore it  is  particularly  unsuitable  for  railway  stations 
or  sheds  iinder  which  the  locomotives  stand  and 
discharge  their  steam.  It  was  extensively  employed 
for  public  urinals  in  Liverpool,  and  so  rapid  was 
their  decay,  that  at  the  end  of  three  months  hardly 
one  was  left  standing.  But  if  not  exposed  to  a 
certain  class  of  deleterious  chemical  influences,  it  is 
by  far  the  most  economical  means  of  employing  iron 
for  covering  buildings,  as  it  requires  no  paint,  and 
withstands  the  action  of  the  atmosphere  for  a  very 
considerable  length  of  time. 

GA'LYANISM  is  that  branch  of  the  science  of 
electricity  whieli  treats  of  the  electric  currents 
arising  from  chemical  action,  more  particularly 
from  that  attending  the  dissolution  of  metals.  It  is 
sometimes  called  Dynamical  Electricity,  because 
it  deals  with  current  electricity,  or  electricity  in 
motion,  and  is  thus  distinguished  from  Frictiona] 
Electricity  (q.  v.),  which  is  called  Statical  in  conse- 
quence of  its  investigating  the  electric  condition  of 
bodies  in  which  electricity  remains  insulated  or 
stationary.  These  terms,  although  in  the  main  thus 
properly  applied,  are  in  all  strictness  applicable  to 
both  sciences,  Frictional  electricity,  though  small 
in  quantity,  can  pass  in  a  sensible  current,  and 
galvanic  electricity,  though  small  in  tension,  can  be 
made  to  manifest  the  attractions  and  repidsions  of 
stationary  electricity.  Thus  the  series  of  discharges 
which  are  transmitted  in  a  wire  connecting  tha 
prime  conductor  of  a  machine  in  action  with  the 
ground,  possesses,  though  feebly,  the  characteristics 
of  a  galvanic  current ;  and  the  insulated  poles  of  » 


GALVANISM. 


many-celled  galvanic  battery,  manifest  before  the 
current  begins  the  electric  tension  of  the  friction 
machine.  The  other  branches  of  current  elec- 
tricity will  be  found  under  Induction  of  Electric 
Currents,  Magneto-electricity,  and  Thermo- 
electricity. 

Historical  Sketch. — The  science  of  galvanism  dates 
from  the  close  of  the  18th  century.  In  the  year 
1780,  Galvani,  in  making  investigations  on  the  nerv- 
ous irritability  of  cold-blooded  animals,  discovered 
by  accident  that  the  limbs  of  a  recently  killed  frog, 
when  hung  by  the  crural  nerve  on  a  metal  support 
near  an  electric  machine,  contracted  convulsively 
at  the  recurrence  of  each  spark.  This  he  properly 
accounted  for  by  the  back-stroke.  See  Electricity. 
Six  years  afterwards  (1786),  in  experimenting  on 
atmospheric  electricity  Avith  frog  limbs  as  delicate 
electroscopes,  he  obtained,  also  accidentally,  the 
same  convulsions  by  bringing  the  copper  hook  on 
which  the  nerve  hung,  and  the  limb  itself,  simul- 
taneously in  contact  with  an  iron  railing.  The 
similarity  of  the  result  led  him  to  attribute  it  to  the 
same  cause — \iz.,  electricity  either  existing  in  the 
limb  itself  or  produced  in  the  conducting  arc  of 
metal.  On  consideration,  he  adopted  the  former  hypo- 
thesis, and  looked  upon  the  limb  as  a  self-charging 
Ley  den  jar,  with  the  nerve  as  the  brass  knob  and 
wire ;  the  interior  of  the  miiscle  as  the  inner  coat- 
ing, its  exterior  the  outer  coating,  and  the  metal 
arc  as  the  discharging  tongs.  See  Electricity, 
Ammal.  He  first  published  his  researches  in  1791. 
Volta,  1792,  discarded  the  account  given  by  Galvani 
of  his  experiment ;  and  from  the  fact  that  the  con- 
vulsions in  question  took  place  with  more  energy 
when  there  were  two  metals  in  the  conducting  arc 
instead  of  one,  attributed  the  source  of  electricity 
to  the  heterogeneity  of  the  metals  employed.  He 
maintamed  that  at  the  surface  of  contact  of  two 
different  metals  an  electric  force  arising  from  their 
heterogeneity  is  generated,  which  throws  them  into 
different  tensions.  This  doctrine  forms  the  funda- 
mental principle  of  the  contact  theory  of  galvanism. 
In  reply  to  Volta,  Galvani  proved  incontestably  that 
the  contraction  in  the  limbs  of  the  frog  took  place 
when  only  one  metal  was  employed,  and  even  when 
the  conductor  was  not  of  metal  at  all.  Subsequent 
discovery  has  proved  Galvani  to  be  partly  right  in 
attributing  the  cause  of  these  couvidsions  to  animal 
electricity,  and  Volta  also  to  be  partly  right  in  attri- 
buting them  to  electricity  generated  in  the  metal 
arc,  for  both  causes  may  be  at  work  in  producing 
th(j  result.  Volta's  theory  of  contact  is  now,  how- 
ever, generally  considered  erroneous,  and  a  chemical 
theory  better  attested  by  experiment  has  been 
originated,  which  attributes  the  source  of  galvanic 
electricity  to  the  chemical  action  of  a  liquid  on  a 
metal  coupled  with  another  metal  less  easily  acted 
on  than  itself.  Fabroni,  a  professor  at  Florence, 
was  the  first  (1792)  to  suggest  chemical  action  as 
one  of  the  causes  at  work  in  Galvani's  experiment. 
Volta  did  not  accept  of  Galvani's  vindication,  but 
supported  his  theory  by  several  apparently  con- 
clusive experiments.  In  1799,  he  constructed,  as  the 
croAvning  evidence  of  the  truth  of  his  reasoning,  his 
pile,  and  with  it  properly  begins  the  history  of 
galvanism.  To  Galvani  is  thus  due  the  merit  of 
discovering  a  new  manifestation  of  electricity;  to 
Volta  is  due  the  merit  of  displaying  in  it  a  source 
of  power  of  incalculable  importance,  and  which, 
but  for  his  genius,  might  have  remained  among  the 
barren  curiosities  of  science.  Hence  it  becomes  a 
question  of  some  difiiculty  to  decide  to  which  of 
the  two  the  science  we  are  discussing  owes  its 
origin — whether  it  is  to  be  called  Galvanism  or 
Voltaism.  Priority  of  discovery  has  led  men  generally 
to  decide  in  favour  of  Galvani,  although  Volta  has 
194 


almost  equal  claim  to  have  bis  name  attaolied  to 

the  science. 

The  first  account  of  Volta's  pile  reached  Enjj 
land  in  a  letter  to  Sir  Josej)h  Banks  by  the  in  • 
ventor  (1800).  A  few  weeks  afterwards  Carlisle  and 
Nicholson  decomposed  water  with  it,  and  afterwards 
several  salts.  They  were  the  first  to  use  platinum 
electrodes.  Davy,  in  the  same  year,  traced  the  elec- 
tricity of  the  pile  to  chemical  action.  Wollaf,ton 
(1801)  reiterated  the  same  theory,  and  went  the 
length  of  attributing  even  frictional  electricit;/  to 
chemical  action.  He  proved  likewise  the  identity  of 
the  two  electricities,  and  shewed  that  by  diminish- 
ing the  electrodes  to  mere  points,  the  electricity  of 
the  machine  could  produce  the  same  chemical  eficcts 
as  that  of  the  pile.  In  1802,  Cruikshank  improved 
the  construction  of  the  pile  by  disposing  the  platen 
horizontally  in  a  trough  instead  of  veitically  in 
column.  The  main  features  of  electro-chemical 
decomposition  were  discussed  by  Da\'y  in  his 
famous  Bakerian  lecture  of  1806.  In  1807,  the 
same  j^hilosopher  obtained,  for  the  first  time  by 
galvanic  agency,  the  metals  potassium,  sodium, 
barium,  strontium,  calcium,  and  magnesium.  Deluo 
(1809)  first  made  dry  piles  of  gold  and  silver 
paper,  and  these  were  altered  and  improved  by 
Zamboni  (1812).  In  1813,  Davy  discovered  the 
electric  light  and  voltaic  arc  (see  Electric  Light) 
by  means  of  the  colossal  battery  then  placed 
at  his  disposal  at  the  Royal  Institution.  (Ersted 
(1820)  first  observed  the  action  of  the  current  on 
the  magnetic  needle ;  and,  a  few  months  after- 
wards. Ampere  discovered  the  law  of  this  action, 
and  originated  an  electric  theory  of  magnets  which 
has  proved  wonderfidly  fertile  in  practical  results. 
In  the  same  year  Schweigger  invented  the  galvan- 
ometer. In  1825,  Becquerel,  with  the  aid  of  hii 
differential  galvanometer,  investigated  the  conducti- 
bility  of  metals.  Kemj),  in  1826,  first  used  amab 
gamated  zinc  for  the  galvanic  battery.  In  1827, 
Ohm  gave  a  mathematical  theory  of  the  pile,  rigidly 
deduced  from  Volta's  fundamental  principle,  and  in 
perfect  keeping  with  experiment.  Faraday  (1831 — ■ 
1832)  published  his  discoveries  of  the  induction  ol 
electric  currents,  and  of  the  evolution  of  electricity 
from  magnets,  which  have  since  enriched  the  sciencti 
with  the  Induction  Coil  (q.  v.)  and  the  Magneto- 
electric  Machine  (q.  v.).  This  distinguished  elec- 
trician discovered  (1833 — 1834)  the  definite  natm'6 
of  electro-chemical  decomposition,  and  proved  thtit 
electro-chemical  and  chemical  equivalents  were  iden- 
tical. In  1836,  Daniell  constructed  his  constarit 
battery.  Spenser  in  England,  and  Jacobi  in  Russi;i, 
made,  simultaneously  (1837),  the  discovery  of  electro- 
metallurgy.  Grove  (1839)  constructed  his  nitrio 
acid  battery.  Faraday  (1840)  proved,  apparently 
beyond  dispute,  the  truth  of  the  chemical  theon'. 
Smee's  battery  dates  also  from  this  year.  In  184.1 
Wheatstone,  by  means  of  his  rheostat  and  resistanc«i 
coils,  investigated  the  resistances  oflered  by  various 
conducting  substances  to  the  current.  In  the  same 
year  Bunsen  introduced  his  carbon  battery. 

The  rivalry  which  has  all  along  existed  between 
the  advocates  of  the  chemical  and  contact  theories 
has  been  higlily  conducive  to  the  advancement  of 
the  science,  each  party  calling  in  the  aid  of  inven- 
tion and  discovery  to  support  the  truth  of  their 
statements.  Among  the  more  distinguished  con- 
tact-theorists may  be  mentioned  Volta,  Hitter, 
Pfaff,  Biot,  Deluc,  Ohm,  and  Fechner;  and  among 
the  chemical  theorists,  Fabroni,  DaA-y,  Wollaston, 
Parrot,  De  La  Rive,  and  Faraday.  Daxy  latterly 
maintained  a  theory  of  distribution  and  equili- 
brium of  electricity  midway  between  the  two,  which 
numbered  among  its  supported  Jseger,  Berzelia's 
Ermann,  and  Prechth 


GALVANISM. 


Ga.lv  A  NIC  Pair. — When  two  plates  of  copper  and 
amalgamated  zinc  (zinc  whose  surface  has  been 
rubbed  over  with  mercury)  are  placed  in  a  vessel 
(iig.  1)  containing  water  to  which  a  small  quan- 
tity of  sulphuric  acid  has  been  added,  so  long  as 


Fig.l. 


they  are  kept  from  touching,  either  within  or  with- 
out the  liquid,  they  remain  apparently  unaffected. 
If,  however,  they  be  made  to  touch,  bubbles  of 
hydrogen  gas  are  formed  in  abimdance  at  the  copper 
plate,  and  their  formation  continues  \intil  the  plates 
are  again  separated.  If  the  contact  be  main- 
tained for  some  time,  and  the  plates  and  liquid  be 
afterwards  examined,  it  is  found  that  the  copper 
plate  weighs  exactly  the  same  as  before,  that  the 
zinc  plate  has  lost  in  Aveight,  and  that  the  liquid 
contains  the  lost  zinc  in  solution  in  the  form  of 
the  sulphate  of  that  metal.  The  contact  need  not 
be  affected  by  the  plates  themselves.  If  wu*es  of 
copper,  or  any  other  conductor  of  electricity,  be 
Boldered  to  the  plates,  or  fixed  to  them  by  binding 
screws,  and  be  made  to  touch,  the  changes  just 
mentioned  take  place  as  if  the  plates  were  in  con- 
taot.  When  the  wires  are  thus  joined,  and  so  to 
8peak,  form  one  connecting  wire  betv/een  the  plates, 
they  exhibit  very  peculiar  properties.  If  a  portion 
of  the  connecting  wire  be  placed  parallel  to  a  mag- 
netic needle,  and  the  needle  brought  near,  its  north 
end  no  longer  points  to  the  north,  but  to  a  point 
either  to  the  east  or  west  of  it,  and  this  deviation 
ceases  with  the  separation  of  the  wires.  It  is  not 
even  necessary  that  the  wires  be  in  contact,  for  if 
their  ends  be  put  into  a  vessel  containing  a  con- 
ducting liquid,  the  same  changes  occur,  though  to 
a  diminished  extent,  the  contact  being  completed 
through  the  liquid.  The  ends  of  the  wires,  when  so 
Immersed,  shew  strong  chemical  afl&nities.  If  the 
conducting  liquid  were  a  solution  of  the  sulphate  of 
copper,  the  wire  from  the  zinc  becomes  coated  with 
the  copper  of  the  solution  whilst  the  other  attracts 
its  oxygen  and  sulphuric  acid,  and  wastes  away 
in  entering  into  combination  with  them.  The 
connecting  wires  are  found,  therefore,  in  actual 
or  Ani-tual  combination,  to  possess  very  marked 
magnetic  and  chemical  properties.  The  arrangement 
jwst  describee?  constitutes  a  galvanic  pair,  which  may 
06  generally  defined  to  be  hvo  dissimilar  conducting 
•plates  immersed  in  a  liquid  which  can  act  chemically 
on  one  of  them,  and  capable  of  being  plo^ced.  in  con- 
ducting connection ;  and  the  properties  just  referred 
to,  form   the    characteristic   powers  of  galvanic 


electricity.  These  properties  arise  from  the  wires  in 
connection  being  the  seat  of  a  constant  discharge  or 
flow  of  electricity,  for  they  are  possessed,  though  to 
a  very  feeble  extent,  by  the  electricity  of  the  fric- 
tion electric  machine.  If  the  prime  conductor  of  a 
powerful  electric  machine  (see  Electricity)  be  con- 
nected with  one  of  the  binding  screws  of  an  insulated 
galvanometer,  and  a  wire  connected  with  the  ground 
be  fixed  into  the  other,  the  plate  on  being  turned 
causes  a  current  of  electricity  to  pass  from  the 
machine  to  the  ground  through  the  coil  of  the  gal- 
vanometer, the  needle  of  which  will  then  shew  a 
deviation  of  one  or  two  degrees.  The  deviation,  bo 
far  as  direction  is  concerned,  is  the  same  as  that 
which  would  be  produced  by  placing  the  wires 
coming  from  the  copper  and  zinc  respectively  in  the 
same  binding  screws  as  those  connected  with  the 
machine  and  the  ground.  This  would  indicate  that 
the  copper  j)late  stands  electrically  in  the  same  rela- 
tion to  the  zinc  plate  as  the  prime  conductor  of  the 
machine  to  the  ground.  The  electricity  of  the  con- 
ductor is  positive,  and  that  of  the  ground  by  induc- 
tion negative ;  so  that  in  the  galvanic  pair  tlie  copper 
plate,  by  analogy,  gives  off  positive  electricity,  and 
the  zinc  plate  negative.  Again,  let  the  wire  from 
the  machine  end  in  an  insulated  <^essel  containing  a 
solution  of  the  sulphate  of  copper,  and  let  the  end 
of  a  fine  platinum  wire  connected  with  the  ground 
be  made  to  dip  below  the  surface  of  the  solution, 
and  let  the  machine  be  kept  in  action  so  as  to 
send  a  current  of  electricity  through  the  wires  and 
liqiiid,  at  the  end  of  some  minutes  the  point  of  the 
platinum  wire  will  be  covered  with  a  minute  quan- 
tity of  copper.  The  wii'e  connected  with  the  zinc 
in  the  galvanic  pair  and  that  connected  with  the 
ground,  are  thus  shewn  to  display  the  same  chemical 
])ower;  and  this,  again,  shews  us  that  the  zinc  plate, 
like  the  ground  in  the  above  experiment,  is  the  seat 
of  negative  electricity.  The  electric  condition  of 
the  plates  before  contact  reveals,  with  the  aid  of  the 
condenser,  the  presence  of  positive  electricity  in  the 
copper  plate  and  negative  in  the  zinc  plate.  If  the 
wire  joined  to  the  zinc  plate,  or  as  we  may  ymie  it 
shortly,  zinc  wire  (not,  however,  necessarily  a  zinc 
wire),  be  connected  with  the  ground,  and  the  insu- 
lated copper  wire  be  made  to  touch  the  lower  plate 
of  a  condenser  whilst  the  finger  touches  the  upper, 
on  both  being  wdthdrawn,  the  leaves  of  the  electro- 
scope diverge  wdth  the  positive  electricity  sent  to 
it  from  the  copper  plate.  It  can  be  shewn,  more- 
over, that  the  current  is  not  confined  to  the  con- 
necting wire,  for  if  a  magnetic  needle  be  suspended 
between  the  plates  when  they  lie  north  and  south, 
slightly  above  the  surface  of  the  liquid,  it  will 
deviate  from  its  usual  position  when  the  wires  are 
joined,  and  in  the  opposite  way  to  that  which  it 
shews  when  held  above  the  ynve  placed  in  the  same 
direction.  The  current  thus  passes  within  the  liquid 
from  the  zinc  to  the  copper  the  opposite  way  to  that 
in  which  it  runs  in  the  connecting  wires,  so  that  it 
makes  a  complete  circuit.  Hence  we  may  conclude, 
generally,  that  in  the  galvanic  pair  a  current  of  elec- 
tricity runs  within  the  liquid  from  the  chemically 
active  to  the  chemically  passive  plate,  and  without  tht 
liquid,  from  the  chemically  passive  to  the  chemically 
active  plate,  making  a  complete  circuit ;  and  that  5 
the  connection  be  interrupted  the  pair  shews  electric 
polarity,  the  cliemically  passive  plate  being  the  posi- 
tive pole,  arid  the  cliemically  active  plate  the  negative 
pole. 

The  theory  of  the  action  of  the  galvanic  pair 
may  be  thus  given.  When  the  two  plates  are  put 
into  the  water  and  sulphuric  acid,  they  assume 
opposite  electric  states.  There  is  developed  at  the 
surface  of  the  zinc  an  electric  force  arising  from  its 
affinity  for  the  oxygen  of  the  water,  wh'ch  throwa 


GALVANISM. 


the  "whole  arrangement  into  a  state  of  polarity. 
This  is  rouglily  shewn  in  fig,  2.  The  zinc  plate 
^'ith  its  wire  becomes  polarised,  shewing  nega- 
tive electricity  at  the  extremity  furthest  from  the 


Fig.  2. 

liquid,  and  positive  electricity  at  the  extremity 
next  the  liquid.  The  copper  plate  with  its  wire  is 
polarised  in  the  opposite  way,  being  positive  at  its 
outer  end,  and  negative  at  its  end  next  the  liquid. 
The  compound  molecules  of  water  (HO),  consist- 
ing of  oxygen  (0)  and  hydrogen  (H),  are  likewise 
polarised,  but  the  polarisation  takes  place  in  the 
mdividual  molecules.  It  appears,  moreover,  to  have 
reference  to  their  compound  nature,  and  we  may 
imagine  them  placed  in  series  such  as  the  one 
in  the  figure,  A^ath  their  oxygen  or  negative  pole 
toward  the  zinc,  and  their  hydrogen  or  positive  pole 
toward  the  copper.  The  positive  parts  are  dis- 
tinguished from  the  negative  parts  in  the  figure 
by  being  shaded.  When  the  ends  of  the  wires 
are  brought  near  each  other,  we  might  anticipate 
in  these  circumstances  that  a  spark  discharge,  as 
with  frictional  electricity,  would  restore  quiescence. 
This,  however,  is  not  the  case,  for  the  electric 
tension  is  so  low  that  nothing  short  of  contact  can 
effect  a  discharge.  When  the  discharge  thus  takes 
place,  the  polarity  of  the  circuit  for  the  instant 
ceases ;  the  tendency  to  union  of  the  zinc  with  the 
atom  of  oxygen  next  it  is  completed  by  the  forma- 
tion of  the  oxide  of  zinc.  But  in  order  to  accom- 
phsh  this,  the  hydrogen  of  the  molecule  of  water 
next  the  zinc  thus  set  free  imites  wdth  the  oxygen  of 
the  neighbouring  molecule  to  re-form  water,  and 
the  same  transference  and  union  is  continued  along 
the  whole  series  until  the  hydrogen  of  the  molecule 
next  the  copper  is  thrown  on  the  copper,  where, 
being  unable  to  unite  chemically  with  it,  it  assumes 
its  iioktural  gaseous  state.  In  this  way  the  chemical 
action,  although  only  manifested  at  the  plates,  is 
not  confined  to  them,  but  takes  place  throughout 
the  liquid  between  all  the  contiguous  molecules 
giving  passage  to  the  current.  The  oxide  of  zinc 
formed  on  the  zinc  plate  is  i7\stantly  dissolved  by 
the  sulphuric  acid  present  in  the  water,  leaving  the 
plate  as  clean  as  before.  After  the  first  discharge, 
therefore,  the  whole  arrangement  resumes  its  first 
condition,  so  that  a  second  polarisation  and  discharge 
instantly  follows,  which  is  succeeded  by  a  third, 
and  so  on.  An  uninterrupted  series  of  discharges  is 
thus  transmitted  along  the  completed  circuit,  con- 
stituting what  is  termed  a  current  of  electricity. 

Nature  of  tJce  Galvanic  Circuit. — In  a  wire  where 
a  current  of  galvanic  or  frictional  electricity  is 
passing,  there  is  no  point  which  forms  the  seat 
of  positive  or  negative  electricity,  but  it  appears 
electrically  homo^jeneous  throughout.    It  exerts  no 


Fig.  3. 


statical  inductive  action  on  surrounding  objects, 
neither  attracting  nor  repelling  tnem,  for  the 
electric  action  being  more  easily  i)ropagated  along 
the  wire  than  in  any  other  direction,  takes  plac.-e 
only  in  it.  The  laws  of  induction  and  distri- 
bution applicable  to  frictional  statical  electricity 
hold  true  in  current  electricity  only  at  the  section 
of  the  wire  or  conductor  along  wliicli  the  acti()a 
is  transmitted.  As  tested  by  the  magnetic  needle 
there  is  no  part  of  the  circuit  which  possesses 
more  power  than  another.  This  homogeneity  giveg 
rise  to  the  hypothesis,  that  every  molecule  of  the 
circuit,  whether  solid  or  liquid,  acts  in  the  trans- 
mission of  the  electric  force,  and  is  similarly  affected 
in  its  passage.  In  this  way  the  plates  and  connect- 
ing wires  shew  the  same  molecular  polarity  as  tho 
liquid,  only  the  discharge  does  not  effect  an  inter- 
change among  the  molecules,  but  leaves  them  in  tha 
same  condition 
as  before.  Each 
molecule  of  the 
connecting  wire 
may  be  viewed,  / 
as  in  fig.  3,  to  / 
be  the  seat  of  ,  / 
electric  polarity  * 
and  discharge 
with  its  negative 
faces  turned  towards  the  copper,  and  its  positive 
towards  the  zinc ;  whenever,  therefore,  we  go 
with  the  current,  we  meet  each  molecule  on  its 
negative  side,  and  whenever  we  go  contrary  to  the 
current,  we  meet  each  molecule  on  its  positive 
side.  Any  portion  of  the  circuit  such  as  that 
represented  in  the  figixre,  shews  its  negative  face 
to  the  approaching  current,  and  its  positive  face  at 
the  other  extremity.  A  break  in  the  connecting 
wire  thus  separates  two  contiguous  molecules  ;  that 
ending  the  copper  wire  shews  itself  positive,  and 
that  ending  the  zinc  wire  negative.  This  is  in 
perfect  keeping  with  experiment,  for  wherever  a 
break  or  change  of  medium  is  made  in  the  circuit 
without  stopping  the  current — as  in  the  electric 
light,  chemical  decompositions,  the  visible  passage 
of  electricity  in  vacuous  tubes,  and  the  Hke — the 
ends  or  poles  exhibit  opposite  pov/ers,  from  the 
pole  meeting  the  current  discharging  negative,  and 
the  other  positive  electricity.  The  polarity  dis- 
played at  such  inteiTuptious,  or  visible  passages 
of  the  current,  is  necessarily  different  from  the 
polarity  of  frictional  electricity,  for  the  dynamical 
manifestation  of  electric  force  cannot  be  the  same 
as  the  statical ;  in  the  same  way  that  motion,  for 
instance,  the  dynamical  manifestation  of  the  force 
of  gravity  is  essentially  different  from  weight,  its 
statical  manifestation.  Within  the  galvanic  pair  itself 
the  same  polarity  is  shewn ;  the  zinc  plate,  without 
the  liquid  or  the  wire  connected  with  it,  is  found  to 
act  as  a  negative  pole,  and  the  similar  copper  plate 
and  wire  as  a  positive  pole ;  but  witliin  the  liquid 
of  the  cell,  the  zinc  plate  shews  the  same  chemical 
affinities  as  the  exterior  positive  pole,  and  the 
similar  copper  plate  acts  as  the  exterior  negative 
pole.  The  tcT-^ns  positive  and  negative  poles  are 
merely  relati^  for  every  molecule  or  series  of 
molecules  would  thus  appear  to  have  its  opposite 
poles.  They  serve,  however,  conveniently  to  express 
the  relations  of  two  consecutive  parts  of  the  circuit. 
Considerable  confusion  sometimes  arises  from  speak- 
ing of  the  zinc  plate  as  at  once  the  positive  element 
and  negative  pole,  and  the  copper  the  negative 
element  and  positive  pole  of  the  galvanic  pair,  and 
such  expressions  seem  even  inconsistent.  The  truth 
is,  that  the  zinc  and  copper  plates  must  have  each 
both  poles  from  the  very  nature  of  the  circuit; 
but  as  the  outer  poles  only  of  these  plates  are  of 


GALVANISM 


practical  importance,  these  are  considered  to  be  the 
Doles. 

According  to  the  one-fluid  theory  of  electricity,  a 
force  is  developed  at  the  seat  of  t]ie  action,  whieli 
has  the  pow  er  of  liberating  the  electric  tiuid,  and 
of  maintaining  it  in  motion  throughout  the  circuit, 
constituting  a  current  in  the  true  sense  of  the 
term.  According  to  the  two-fluid  theory,  two 
Buch  currents,  one  of  the  i)ositive  the  other  of 
the  negative  fluid,  are  made  to  move  in  opposite 
directions  throughout  the  circuit.  The  proijelling 
force  is  coDsequently  termed  electro-motive,  and  the 
galvanic  pair  is  called  the  electromotor.  The  terms 
current  and  electro-motive  have  their  origin  in  the 
supposed  fluidity  of  electricity,  but  being  quite 
definite  in  their  application,  they  may  be  used  with- 
out any  sucli  admission.  A  current — or,  according 
to  the  two-fluid  theory,  a  positive  current — may  be 
taken  to  signify,  apart  from  all  supposition,  simply 
the  peculiar  electric  condition  of  the  conductor, 
which  forms  the  line  of  discharge  between  a  positive 
and  a  negative  source  of  electricity,  and  electro- 
motive force  may  be  used  simi)ly  to  denote  that 
which  propagates  and  maintains  this  discharge.  In 
the  same  way,  when  we  speak  of  the  direction  of 
the  current,  M^e  only  use  a  convenient  way  of 
shewing  at  which  end  the  positive  and  negative 
electricities  arise,  the  current  being  always  repre- 
sented as  moving  from  the  positive  to  the  negative. 
The  greater  the  electromotive  force  is,  the  more 
powerfully  is  the  discharge  eff"ected,  and  the  more 
is  it  able  to  force  its  way  through  imperfect  con- 
ductors. The  measure,  thei-efore,  of  electro-motive 
force  is  the  tension  of  the  electricity  which  it 
generates. 

Orhjin  of  Galvanic  Electricity. — It  is  now  generally 
admitted  that  the  source  of  the  electro-motive  force 
in  the  galvanic  pair  is  the  chemical  action  which 
takes  i^lace  at  the  zinc  plate.  It  must  appear,  even 
to  the  most  ciirsory  observer,  highly  probable  that 
the  seat  of  the  most  active  cLange  going  forward  in 
the  pair  is  likewise  the  origin  of  the  force  accom- 
pan3dng  it.  It  is  found,  moreover,  when  we  tax  the 
galvanic  current  with  electro- chemical  work,  that  the 
amount  of  work  done  by  it  is  -exactly  proportion- 
ate to  the  quantity  of  zinc  dissolved.  These  and 
snnilar  considerations  seem  to  argue  strongly  that 
galvanic  action  has  its  source  in  chemical  action. 
V  olta,  however,  and  several  of  the  most  eminent 
authorities  in  the  science,  maintain  that  the  electro- 
motive force  has  its  seat  at  the  surface  of  contact  of 
heterogeneous  metals,  and  that  chemical  action  is 
not  the  cause,  but  the  manifestation  of  it.  This 
view  of  the  origin  of  galvanic  electricity  is  called  the 
contact  theorij,  as  distinguished  from  the  chemical 
theory,  the  one  we  have  hitherto  followed.  The 
contact  theory  supposes  that  at  the  surfaces  of  con- 
tact of  two  heterogeneous  substances,  an  electro- 
motive force,  invariable  in  direction  and  amount,  is 
generated  and  subject  to  modification  only  by  the 
resistance  off"ered  by  the  conducting  circuit.  The 
galvanic  pair  (fig.  1)  is  accounted  for  by  this  theory 
*n  the  following  way.  Let  us  suppose,  for  tlie  sake 
of  explanation,  that  both  zinc  and  copper  plates  are 
connected  by  copper  wires.  The  seat  of  electro- 
motive force  is  at  the  junction  of  the  copper  wire 
with  the  zinc.  At  this  point  the  two  metals  assume 
opposite  el ectn cities — the  copper  the  negative,  and 
the  zinc  the  positive  ;  and  since  a  conducting  cir- 
cuit through  wires,  plates,  and  liquid  is  established, 
these  electricities  travel  in  opposite  directions,  and, 
meeting,  neutralise  each  other  within  the  liquid, 
to  give  place  to  succeeding  similar  discharges  of 
electrieit}'.  The  discharge  within  the  liquid  takes 
J'iace  electrolytically.  The  theor}'-  is,  in  this  case, 
sufficient  and  consistent,  but  it  must  be  kept  in 

5Qfi 


mind,  that  in  a  circuit  so  perfectly  homogenet)ua, 

the  source  of  force  may  be  placed  anywhere  without 
altering  its  conditions.  The  fmidamental  evidence 
of  the  contact  theory  consists  in  an  exjjerinient 
like  the  following :  A  piece  of  zinc  is  made  to  touch 
the  lower  brass  or  coi)per  plate  of  a  condenser,  \ehile 
the  finger  rests  on  the  upper.  After  the  zinc  and 
finger  are  removed,  and  the  upper  plate  lifted,  the 
gold  leaves  diverge  with  negative  electricity.  Here 
the  mere  contact  of  metals  appears  to  give  rise  t-i 
electricity.  The  positive  electricity  of  the  zinc  goes 
to  the  ground,  and  the  negative  electricity  of  the 
copper  is  insulated  in  it — the  electro-motive  force 
originating  at  the  surface,  where  the  copper  and 
zinc  meet.  If  this  experiment  were  capable  only 
of  this  interi)retation,  it  would  be  decisive  of  the 
question  at  issue.  It  is  found,  however,  that  in 
order  to  succeed  well  with  it,  the  fingers  must  bo 
moist,  and  that  no  electricity  can  be  obtained  if  it 
be  conducted  in  a  gas  where  no  free  oxygen  ia 
present — such  as  nitrogen  or  carbonic  acid.  Hence 
it  appears,  that  even  in  the  testing  experiment 
of  the  contact  theory,  where  it  is  supi)osed  that 
contact  alone  can  give  any  explanation,  chenucal 
action,  arising  from  the  sweat  of  the  fingers  and 
oxygen  of  the  air  acting  on  the  zinc,  is  preit;nt. 
Faraday's  experimental  researches  seem  to  jJace 
beyond  dispute  the  truth  of  the  chemical  theory. 
We  shall  here  quote  two  of  his  many  beautiful 
experiments  illustrative  of  the  subject,  which  are 
of  themselves  quite  convincing.    Let  (fig.  4)  A  and 


Fig.  4. 


B  be  two  glass  vessels  containing  sulphuret  of  pcta* 
slum.  Two  platinum  i)lates,  P  and  P',  are  put  into 
the  vessel  A,  and  an  iron  i)late  F,  with  a  platinum 
plate  P''  in  B.  To  the  platinum  plate  P'  a  platinum 
wire  p,  and  to  the  iron  plate  F  an  iron  wire  f,  are 
attached.  From  P  and  P",  wires  proceed  to  the 
galvanometer  G.  The  sulphuret  of  potassium  is,  for 
a  liquid,  a  good  conductor  of  electricity,  but  ia 
chemically  inactive  when  associated  with  platinum 
and  iron  in  a  circuit.  "When  the  v/ires  p  and  /  are 
joined,  if  an  electro-motive  force  were  developed  at 
their  surface  of  contact,  all  the  conditions  necessary 
for  a  circuit  being  present,  a  current  would  be 
generated,  which  would  deflect  the  needle  of  the 
galvanometer.  This  last,  however,  gives  not  the 
slightest  evidence  of  a  current.  If  zinc  be  interposed 
at  the  junction  of  p  and  /,  the  galvanometer  ia 
equally  unafiected ;  but  if  a  i)iece  of  pajjer  moistened 
with  sulphuric  acid  be  placed  between  the  ends  of 
these  wires,  a  decided  deflection  ensues,  and  the  iron 
becomes  the  positive  element  of  a  platinum-iron 
pair.  We  have  thus  conclusive  evidence,  that  th« 
simple  contact  of  the  iron  and  the  platinum  is 
unattended  by  electro-motive  force,  and  that  this  ia 
developed  only  by  the  chemical  action  upon  the  iron 
of  an  interjiosed  liquid.  Again,  into  one  of  the 
vessels  just  referred  to,  let  two  jjlates.  one  of  copper, 
the  other  of  silver,  be  placed,  and  let  communication 
be  established  between  them  and  the  galvanometer 
The  needle  at  first  deflects  briskly  in  a  directior 
which  shows  that  the  copper  is  the  positive  element 


GALVANISM. 


01  t.be  pair,  it  then  gradually  returns  to  its  first 
position,  and  again  deflects  in  the  opposite  direction  ; 
shewing  that  the  silver  is  now  the  positive  element. 
After  some  time  it  returns,  and  again  deflects  in  the 
original  direction,  and  goes  on  thus  changing.  If 
the  plates  be  examined  during  these  changes,  it  is 
observed  that  sulphuret  of  copper  is  formed  when 
the  copper  is  positive,  and  sulphuret  of  silver  when 
the  silver  is  positive  ;  the  alternate  action  being 
attributable  to  the  relative  condition  of  the  plates 
when  coated  with  then-  suli)hurets.  The  electro- 
motive force  of  a  silver  copper  pair  is  thus  shewn 
to  be  not  invariable  in  direction  as  the  contact 
theorists  maintain ;  but  to  change  its  du'ection 
with  the  seat  of  chemical  action. 

Chemical  conditions  of  the  Galvanic  Pair. — We 
Lave  hitherto  sui)posed  that,  in  the  galvanic  pair, 
the  zinc  alone  had  affinity  for  the  oxygen  of  the 
water,  but  chemistry  teaches  us  that  copper  likewise 
has  the  same  affinity,  though  to  a  less  degree. 
Hence  we  must  conclude  that  there  originates  at 
the  copper  an  electro-motive  force  acting  contrary 
to  that  of  the  zinc;  and  that  the  electro-motive 
force  of  the  pair  is  the  difference  of  these  oi)posing 
forces.  Were  v.'e  to  take  two  similar  plates  of  zinc 
instead  of  one  of  zinc,  and  the  other  of  copper, 
we  should  thus  have  two  equal  forces  tending 
to  p»ropel  two  equal  currents  in  opposite  directions. 
In  this  case  the  two  forces  w^ould  equilibrate  each 
other,  and  electrical  and  chemical  inaction  would 
be  the  consequence,  a  conclusion  quite  in  keeping 
with  experiment.  It  therefore  becomes  necessary  to 
couple  the  zinc  with  a  metal  such  as  copper,  less 
oxidable  than  itself.  In  keeping  with  this  theory,  it 
is  found  that  if  the  zinc  be  coupled  with  a  metal 
less  oxidable  still  than  copper,  the  resultant  electro- 
motive force  is  increased.  A  pair  consisting  of  zinc 
and  silver  gives  an  electricity  of  higher  tension,  and 
consequently  a  more  powerful  current  than  one  of 
zinc  and  copper,  and  one  of  zinc  and  platinum  a 
stronger  current  still ;  silver  being  less  oxidable 
than  copper,  and  platinvim  less  than  sdver.  As  zinc 
forms  the  principal  element  of  expense  in  main- 
taining the  current,  a  platinum-zinc  pair  is  more 
economical  than  either  of  the  other  two  just  named, 
because,  for  the  same  quantity  of  zinc  dissolved,  it 
gives  the  best  electrical  result.  The  gi-eater,  then, 
the  dispai'ity  in  oxidability,  or  in  liability  to  be 
aff"ected  by  the  exciting  liquid  of  the  metals  of  the 
pair,  the  greater  is  its  power. 

In  the  galvanic  cell  we  have  foimd  that  not  only 
the  metals,  but  likewise  the  elements  of  the  liquid, 
act  as  if  they  assumed  opposite  electricities.  The 
zinc  is  positive  with  reference  to  the  copper,  and  the 
hydrogen  stands  in  the  same  relation  to  the  oxj'-gen. 
In  the  '  Electro-chemical  order  of  the  Elements ' 
(q.  v.),  the  elements  are  approximately  arranged 
according  to  the  part  they  would  play  if  associated 
iu  a  galvanic  pair,  beginning  with  potassium,  the 
most  electro-positive,*  and  ending  with  oxygen,  the 
most  electro-negative ;  each  being  positive  to  the 
one  succeeding,  and  negative  to  the  one  preceding  it. 
Chemically  speaking,  electro-positive  has  much  the 
same  meaning  as  oxidable.  We  may  here  repeat 
the  more  common  elements  iu  the  same  order : 
Potassium,  sodium,  magnesium,  zinc,  iron,  lead, 
copper,  silver,  platinum,  hydrogen,  carbon,  chlorine, 
Bidphur,  oxygen.  If  it  were  proposed  to  ascertain 
from  this  list  the  action  of  a  platinum-iron  pair 
immersed  in  a  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid  (HCl), 
we  should  proceed  to  argue  thus  :  Iron,  preceding 
platmum,  is  positive  in  relation  to  it.  Chlorine 
succeeds    hydrogen,   and   is   relatively  negative. 

•  According  to  Biuisen,  the  new  metal,  caesuira,  is 
th€  most  electi  ^-rositive  substance  yet  known. 


Chlorine,  the  negative  element  of  the  liquid,  would 

accordingly  be  discharged  at  the  electro-positive 
iron,  and  the  proto-chloride  of  iron  (FeCl)  would 
be  formed.  The  electro- positive  hydrogen  would 
be  disengaged  at  the  electro- negative  jdatinum. 
The  interpolar  current,  consequently,  proceeds 
from  the  jjlatiimm  to  the  iron.  If,  however,  no 
chemical  afflnity  existed  between  iron  and  chlorine, 
no  electricity  would  be  generated,  as  chemical  ia 
essential  to  galvanic  action.  From  such  a  list 
alone  we  cannot  predict  the  result  of  any  supposed 
combination.  The  metals  tliemselves,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  frecjuently  change  their  relative  posi- 
tions, according  to  the  action  of  the  liquid  in  which 
they  are  put,  so  that  the  order  given  is  by  no 
means  absolute.  The  electro-negative  plate  remains 
in  presence  of  the  electro-positive  totally  unaffected, 
and  more  so  than  if  it  were  placed  by  itself  in  the 
exciting  liquid.  Hydrochloric  acid,  for  instance, 
readily  attacks  iron  ;  but  if  a  piece  of  zinc  be  put 
into  the  liquid,  and  be  made  to  touch  it,  the  iron 
will  remain  untouched  until  the  zinc  has  been  first 
dissolved.  Wherever,  therefore,  iron  is  exposed 
to  corrosive  action,  it  may  l)e  protected  from  it  by 
couphng  it  with  zinc.  This  accounts,  in  some 
degree,  for  the  durability  of  iron  coated  with  zinc, 
or,  as  it  is  called,  'Galvanised  Iron'  (q.  v.).  In  the 
same  way  zinc  protects  copper  from  corrosive  action. 
On  the  other  hand,  zinc  corrodes  more  readily  in 
presence  of  these  metals,  and  hence  the  necessity 
for  using  zinc  nails  for  zinc  roofs  instead  of  iron 
or  copper  nails.  When  pure  zinc  is  put  into  dilute 
sulphuric  acid,  almost  no  change  is  \dsible,  wliilst 
ordinary  commercial  zinc  is  rajjidly  dissolved  by  it. 
This  arises,  in  all  probability,  from  different  portions 
of  the  latter  standing  in  diflerent  chemical  relations, 
arising  from  the  heterogeneous  structure  introduced 
by  extraneous  substances.  Galvanic  pairs  are  thus 
established  within  the  metal,  and  the  metal  dissolves 
in  consequence.  In  a  designed  galvanic  pair,  local 
circuits  would  thus  be  formed  at  diflerent  parts  of 
the  zinc  plate,  which,  besides  occasioning  a  useless 
waste  of  the  metal,  would  lessen  the  strength  of  the 
main  circuit,  were  it  not  found  that  amalgamated 
zinc  possesses  the  properties  of  the  pure  metal. 

Quantity  and  Tension  of  Electricity, — It  is  found 
that  the  tension  of  the  electricity  of  a  galvanic 
pair,  as  tested  by  the  amount  of  divergence  of  the 
gold  leaves  of  a  -condensing  electrometer,  is  not 
increased  by  increasing  the  size  of  the  plates.  For 
the  same  pair,  therefore,  metals  and  liquid  included, 
the  electro- motive  force  is  constant  whatever  be  the 
active  surface.  Although  the  teiisicai  is  not  increased, 
the  quantity  of  electricity  transmitted  in  the  cur- 
rent is  increased.  If  the  interpolar  communication 
of  the  two  plates  be  made  by  a  good  conductor,  such 
as  a  thick  copper  wire,  the  power  which  the  cun^ent 
has  to  deflect  the  magnetic  needle  is  doubled  Avheu 
we  double  the  surface  exposed  to  the  action  of 
the  liquid.  The  thick  ware  ofiers  no  resistance  to 
discharge,  and  the  tension  of  the  electricity  given 
off  in  the  two  cases  is  not  put  to  proof.  The 
quantity  of  electricity  is  shcMTi  thus  to  increase  with 
the  surface  of  the  plates.  The  distinction  bet^^een 
electricity  of  quantity  and  electricity  of  tension  ia 
well  illustrated  in  comparing  the  electricity  of  the 
galvanic  pair  with  that  of  the  machine.  A  Winter's 
electric  machine,  such  as  the  two-foot  plate  described 
in  the  article  Electricity,  gives  readily,  when  ia 
good  order,  a  spark  of  twelve  inches,  and  causes  a 
visible  disturbance  of  the  leaves  of  an  electrometer 
at  a  distance  of  20  feet  from  it.  If  such  a  macliine 
be  made  to  send  a  current  through  a  moderately 
sensible  galvanometer  in  the  way  described  at  the 
beginning  of  the  article,  it  will  make  the  needle 
deflect  one  or  two  degrees.    If  a  galvanic  pair  be 


gajlvaaism. 


connected  Avith  the  same  galvanometer,  consisting 
of  very  fine  iron  and  copper  wires  about  an  eightieth 
of  an  inch  in  diameter,  immersed  for  about  an 
inch  into  a  few  ounces  of  water  containing  one 
drop  of  sulphuric  acid,  the  needle  will  deflect  three 
or  lour  times  what  it  did  before.  The  electricity 
of  the  current  produced  in  the  diminutive  pair  is 
greater  in  quantity  than  that  of  the  machine,  but 
its  tension  is  immeasurably  smaller.  Shoxdd  a  break 
be  made  in  the  circuit,  the  power  of  the  terminal 
poles  to  attract  or  repel  is  almost  infinitesimal,  and 
discharge  between  them  through  the  air  cannot  be 
effected  even  at  a  microscopic  distance.  The  elec- 
tricity given  off  by  the  machine  is  small  in  quantity, 
but  exacted  in  tension.  Could  the  electricity  of  the 
machine  have  the  quantity  of  that  of  the  pair,  or 
could  the  electricity  of  the  pair  be  endowed  with  the 
tension  of  the  machine,  a  current  of  tremendous 
power  would  be  the  result.  The  tension  of  elec- 
tricity is  generally  estimated,  previous  to  discharge, 
by  its  power  of  attraction  and  rei)ulsion,  and  the 
quantity,  during  discharge,  by  its  chemical  and 
magnetic  effects. 

Galvanic  Battery. — When  a  number  of  copper 
and  zinc  pairs,  similar  to  the  one  already  refeiTcd 
to,  are  i)ut  together,  so  that  the  copi)er  i)late  of  one 
cell  is  plapced  in  conducting  connection  with  the  zinc 
plate  of  the  next,  in  the  manner  shewn  in  fig.  5, 
they  constitute  a  galvanic  battery.  The  tenn  battery 
is  sometimes  also  applied  to  a  number  of  cells  acting 
as  one  combination,  in  whatever  way  they  may  be 
connected.  When  the  terminal  co])})er  and  zinc 
plates  (fig.  5)  are  connected,  the  current  runs  from 


mm  Willi 


ili;l!mliJilii!li;'!ililllllHlli:li,l'illli[ii||jiilil.ii|jli!j^ 

Fig.  5. 

each  copper  to  each  zinc  plate  withoTit  the  liquids, 
and  from  each  zinc  to  each  copper  plate  within  the 
liqiiids  ;  and  when  the  contact  is  broken,  the  zinc 
pole  shews  negative,  and  the  cop})er  pole  positive, 
electricity.  The  galvanic  battery  acts  thus  in  all 
respects  as  a  compound  galvanic  pair.  If  the  polar 
wires  be  connected  with  a  tangent  galvanometer, 
the  deflection  of  the  needle  caused  by  the  battery 
will  be  exactly  the  same  as  that  effected  by  one  of 
the  cells,  provided  the  wire  be  thick,  and  a  good 
conductor :  but  if  the  zinc  end  be  connected  with 
the  ground,  and  the  electric  tension  of  the  insulated 
copx)er  pole  be  tested  by  a  condenser  and  torsion 
balance,  its  tension  is  found  to  be  as  many  times 
greater  than  the  tension  of  the  same  pole  of  one 
cell  examined  in  the  same  way,  as  there  are  cells 
in  the  combination.  Thus,  if  two  cells  be  taken, 
the  tension  is  doubled ;  if  three,  tripled ;  and  so 
OIL  77ie  electro-motive  force  of  a  battery  is  therefore 
proportional  to  the  number  of  cells,  supposing,  of 
coiirse,  that  they  are  arranged  consecutively,  as  in 
the  figure.  Hence  the  electricity  of  a  battery  is 
better  able  to  force  its  way  through  imperfect 
conductors  than  that  of  the  simple  pair.  When 
the  interpolar  communication  is  formed  by  a  thick 

598 


short  wire,  a  single  cell  produces  as  powerful  an 
effect  on  the  magnetic  needle  as  a  battery ;  but  il 
it  be  fonned  by  a  bad  conductor,  such  as  a  long 
and  thin  wire,  or  a  liquid,  the  effect  is  very  different. 
The  current  of  the  pair  is  then  nearly  stopped,  and 
its  influence  on  the  needle  small,  while  that  of  the 
battery  continues  to  flow  comparatively  unimpaired. 
In  the  presence  of  considerable  resistance,  the  quan- 
tity of  electricity  transmitted,  or,  as  it  is  termed, 
the  strength  of  the  current,  depends  not  only  on 
the  size  of  the  plates  of  each  couple,  but  also  on 
the  number  of  couples.  That  the  electric  tension 
should  midtiply  with  the  number  of  cells,  may  be 
accounted  for  by  the  consideration,  that  instead  of 
one  polarising  force,  there  are  several,  all  acting  in 
the  same  direction,  each  one  exalting  the  polarity 
of  the  molecules  produced  by  the  other. 

Different  Forms  of  the  Galvanic  Battery. —  Volta'* 
pile  is  shewn  in  fig.  6.  It  consists  of  a  number 
of  circ\dar  plates,  each  made  up 
of  a  plate  of  copper  and  a  plate 
of  zinc  soldered  together,  built 
uj),  the  copper  plates  facing  one 
way,  and  the  zinc  the  other, 
each  compound  plate  being 
separated  by  a  circular  piece 
of  woollen  cloth,  moistened 
with  a  solution  of  common  salt, 
or  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  In 
consequence  of  the  great  num- 
ber  of  pairs,  the  electric  ten- 
sion of  the  poles  of  Volta's 
pile  is  considerable.  One  fur- 
nished with  from  60  to  100 
plates  can  charge  an  electro- 
scope without  the  condensing 
plates.  It  is  from  this  battery 
that  the  term  '  pile '  is  applied 
to  the  galvanic  or  voltaic 
battery.  Volta  used  another 
form  of  battery,  which  he  called 
a  crown  of  cups.  This  consisted 
of  a  number  of  cells  like  those 
in  fig.  1,  arranged  in  a  circle,  so  that  the  first  and 
last  were  contiguous. 

Zamhoni's  Dry  Pile  consists  of  several  hundreds, 
and  sometimes  thousands,  of  discs  of  paper  tinned 
on  one  side,  and  covered  with  binoxide  of  man- 
ganese on  the  other,  put  together  consecutively,  as 
in  Volta's  pile,  and  jdaced  imder  pressure  in  an 
insulating  glass  tube  closed  with  brass  ends,  which 
serve  as  the  poles.  The  electric  tension  of  the 
poles  of  this  arrangement  is  considerable,  but 
the  strength  of  the  current  which  passes  when  the 
poles  are  joined,  is  next  to  nothing.  The  most 
important  application  of  the  dry  pile  is  in  the 
construction  of  a  very  delicate  electrometer,  which 
is  named  after  its  inventor,  Bohnenherger'a  electro 
meter. 

The  Galvanic  Trough,  introduced  by  Cruikshank, 


Fig.  6. 


Fig.  7. 

is  a  trough  (fig.  7)  into  which  rectangular  plates  oi 
copper  and  zinc,  like  those  of  Volta's  pile,  are  lixed. 


GALVANISM. 


the  cells  included  between  each  pair  being  filled 
with  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  The  inner  surface  of 
the  trough  is  coated  with  an  insulating  substance. 

Wollastoii's  Battery. — P]ach  couple  of  this  battery 
(lig.  8)  is  made  up  of  a  plate  of  copper,  doubled  up  so 
as  to  include  a  plate  of  zinc,  from 
which  it  is  kept  apart  by  strips  of 
wood.  Both  faces  of  the  zinc  are  thus 
equally  exposed  to  chemical  and  gal- 
vanic action,  a  device  by  which  the 
quantity  of  electricity  is  increased. 
Fig.  9  shews  a  battery  of  five  of  these. 
The  connecting  strips  of  metal  are 
fixed  to  a  wooden  rod,  which  allows 
of  them  being  lifted  or  lowered 
together.  When  the  battery  is  put  in 
action,  the  whole  is  lowered,  and  the 
five  couples  are  immersed  in  five 
troughs  filled  with  dilute  sulphuric 
acid  (1  of  the  acid  to  12  of  water). 
When  out  of  action,  the  whole  is  lifted 
and  fixed  by  binding  screws  to  the  two  su])porting 
pillars.    When  the  number  of  pairs  is  small,  as  in 


Fig.  9. 

the  figure,  it  is  of  little  consequence  whether  one 
large  trough  or  five  small  ones  be  used. 

S'ynee's  Batterii. — In  Smee's  couple,  the  position  of 
the  plates  of  Wollaston's  couple  is  reversed.  It 
consists  of  a  silver  plate,  with  a  zinc  plate  on  either 
side,  kept  sejiarated  from  it  by  slips  of  wood,  the 
two  zinc  plates  being  fastened  by  a  coupling.  There 
are  thus  two  positive  plates  to  one  negative,  instead 
of  two  nsgative  to  one  positive,  as  in  Wollaston's 
couple,  and  this  is  found  to  increase  still  more 
the  strength  of  the  current  produced.  The  silver 
plate  is  platinised — that  is,  covered  over  with  finely 
divided  platinum — and  this  is  found  to  lessen  the 
adhesion  of  the  hydrogen  bubbles  to  the  plate, 
thereby  greatly  improving  the  constancy  of  the 
action.  Smee's  battery  has  the  same  arrangement 
as  Wollaston's. 

Chviy's  Gas  Battery. — This  battery  is  more  intended 
or  instruction  than  use.  One  of  its  cells  is  shewn  in 
rig.  10.  Into  the  two  outer  necks  of  a  three-necked 
bottle,  two  glass  tubes  are  fitted  l>y  means  of  corks 
through  which  they  pass.  Each  of  these  tubes  is  open 
below,  and  a  platinum  wire  enters  them  hermetically 
above,  to  which  a  long  strip  of  platinum  is  soldered, 
extending  nearly  to  the  bottom  of  the  tube.  Little 
cups  containing  mercury  stand  at  the  upper  ends  of 
these  wires.  The  whole  apparatus  is  filled  with 
slightly  acid  water,  and  the  poles  of  a  galvanic 
buttery  are  placed  in  the  little  cups.  Water  is 
thereby  decomposed  ;  oxygen  forms  in  the  one  tube 
and  hydro{;eu  in  the  other.    When  the  battery  wires 


are  removed,  no  change  takes  place  till  metallic 

connection  is  established  between  the  cups,  and  the 
oxygen  and  hydrogen  gradually  disappear,  attended 
by  an  electric  current  which 
passes  from  the  oxygen  to 
the  hydrogen.  When  several 
of  these  are  put  together  in 
a  battery,  the  connection 
being  always  oxygen  to 
hydrogen,  they  can  decom- 
pose water.  The  most  im- 
portant fact  illustrated  by 
Grove's  battery  is,  that  the 
oxj^gen  and  hydrogen,  liber- 
ated by  galvanic  agency, 
when  left  to  themselves,  pro- 
duce a  current  the  op})osite 
to  that  which  sej^arated 
them.  When  the  poles  of 
the  decomposing  battery 
were  in  the  mercury  cups, 
hydrogen  is  given  ofl"  at  the 
negative,  and  oxygen  at  the 
positive  pole  ;  and  as  oppo- 
site electricities  attract,  it  is 
manifest  that  the  hydrogen 
in  this  action  is  positive,  and 
the  oxygen  negative.  When 
the  two  gases  form,  by 
mea.rs  of  the  platinum  plates, 
a  galvanic  pair  by  them- 
selves, the  current  must  proceed,  as  in  all  cases,  from 
the  positive  to  the  negative  within  the  liquid,  and 
the  reverse  way  between  the  poles  ;  but  this  is  the 
opposite  of  the  direction  of  the  original  current. 
It  is  therefore  manifest  that  where  oxygen  or 
hydrogen  is  set  free  at  any  point  in  a  galvanio 
circuit,  they  wiJl  tend  to  send  a  counter-current. 
This  action  is  called  galvanic  polarisation.  This 
accounts  for  the  sudden  falling  off  in  strength 
in  all  galvanic  couples  where  hydrogen  is  set  free 
at  the  negative  plate.  The  bubbles  of  the  gaa 
adhering  to  the  plate,  not  only  lessen  the  surface  ol 
contact  between  the  plate  and  the  liquid,  but  exert 
an  electromotive  force  contrary  to  that  of  the  pair, 
and  this  goes  on  increasing  until  the  action  becumea 
greatly  reduced  In  all  improved  forms  of  the  pair, 
it  therefore  becomes  necessary  to  adopt  some  means 
for  preventing  the  disengagement  of  hydrogen  at 
the  negative  plate,  and  this  is  done  in  all  co^istant 
batteries  by  employing  two  fluids  instead  cf  'ne. 
The  best  known  constant  batteries  are  thop*  of 
Daniell,  Grove,  and  Bunsen. 


Fig.  11. 


Fig.  12. 


DanielVs  Battery. — A  cell  of  this  battery  is  showi 
•a  fig.  11,  and  a  section  of  it  in  fig.  12.  The 

599 


GALVANISM. 


coutuining  vessel,  c,  is  of  copper,  which  serves  lilcewise 
us  the  negative  element  of  the  paii*.  Inside  of  this 
is  another  vessel,  d,  of  porous,  unglazed  earthenware, 
containing  a  roa  of  zinc,  z.  The  space  between  the 
copper  and  the  porous  cell  is  lilled  with  a  solution 
of  the  SI  li)hate  of  copper,  which  is  kept  concentrated 
by  cryst  ils  of  the  salt  lying  on  a  projecting  shelf,  8, 
and  dilu';e  sul})huric  acid  is  placed  with  the  zinc  in 
the  pore  is  cell.  When  a  tangent  galvanometer  is 
included  in  the  circuit,  the  needle  keeps  steadily  at 
the  samt  point  for  hours.  The  rationale  of  its  action 
:s  given  as  follows  :  the  porous  cell  which  keeps 
the  fluidu  from  mingling,  does  not  hinder  the  passage 
of  the  c  .rrent ;  when  the  atoms  of  hydrogen  that 
would  uU.imately  be  freed  at  the  copper  reach  the 
■oorous  cell,  they  displace  the  copper  in  the  sulphate 
of  copper,  and  copper  instead  of  hydrogen  is  thrown 
on  the  copper  ])late.  To  give  a  graphic  representa- 
tion of  this  action,  it  is  necessary  to  suppose  that  the 
sulphate  of  copper  (CuOjSOa)  should  be  represented 
not  as  the  union  of  oxide  of  copper  (CuO)  and 
sulphuric  acid  (SO3),  but  as  CuSO^,  the  direct  com- 
bination of  the  metal  (Cu)  with  a  salt  radical  (SO 4) 
called  sulphion,  and  that  the  dissolution  of  the  zinc 
does  not  arise  from  the  decomposition  of  water,  but 
of  the  compound  of  sulphuric  acid  and  hydrogen, 
now  regarded  as  the  true  sulphuric  acid  (H,S04). 
Taking  these  letters  to  represent  the  molecules,  and 
beginning  with  the  copper  (Cu)  of  the  outer  vessel, 
and  ending  with  the  zinc  (Zn)  of  the  rod,  we  have 
the  arrangement  before  discharge,  Cu,CuS04,CuS04, 
''H,S04  H,'8(i;  Zn;  and  after  it,  CuCu  SO^Cii 

SOJ''H  S04,H  S07Zm  The  discharge,  therefore, 
effects  a  deposition  of  copper  at  the  coi)per,  and  the 
formation  of  sulphionide  of  hydrogen  at  the  porous 
cell,  and  of  sulphionide  of  zinc  at  the  zinc  rod. 
Instead  of  hydrogen  in  its  nascent  state  being 
deposited  at  the  copper,  we  have  copper  in  the  same 
condition  ;  but  the  galvanic  polarisation  caused  by 
the  latt'^r  is  very  much  inferior  to  that  resulting 
from  the  former,  and  hence  the  superior  electro- 
motive force  of  Daniell's  cell.  The  porous  cell  keeps 
the  suljihate  of  zinc  from  reaching  the  copper,  and 
thus  obviates  another  source  of  diminished  force 
in  the  one-Huid  battery.  The  sulphate  of  zinc  once 
formed,  is  itself  subjected  to  the  decomposing  action 
of  the  pile,  and  zinc  is  deposited  on  the  co]>per-plate, 
thus  tending  to  give  a  zinc-zinc  instead  of  a  copper- 
zinc  pair.  The  constancy  of  Daniell's  battery  is  not 
unlimited,  for  the  sulphate  of  zinc  which  residts 
from  the  action,  being  a  bad  conductor  of  electricity, 
enfeebles  the  current.  From  its  great  specific 
gi-avity,  how^ever,  it  falls  to  the  bottom  of  the  cell, 
:ind  may  be  removed  by  a  siphon,  and  replaced  by 
fresh  liquid.  A  battery  of  Daniell's  cells  is  put  up 
in  the  usual  way. 

Groves  Battery  consists  of  platinum-zinc  couples. 
Fig.  13  shews  an  excellent  arrangement  of  a  cell  of 
it.  The  outer  cell  of  glass,  g,  is  filled  with  dilute 
sulphuric  acid  (1  part  of  acid  to  8  of  water),  in  which 
a  cylindrical  plate  of  zinc,  z,  is  immersed.  Inside 
the  zinc  is  a  porous  cell,  d,  containing  concentrated 
nitric  acid  and  the  platinum  plate,  j)-,  which  is  bent 
into  the  form  of  an  S  (fig.  14),  to  increase  its  surface. 
Grove's  couple  is  very  much  superior  in  power  to 
any  of  the  preceding,  though  it  is  inferior  in  con- 
stancy to  Daniell's.  When  the  poles  are  joined, 
sulphate  of  zinc  is  formed  in  the  outer  cell,  and 
hyi^onitric  acid  (NO 4)  vapours  are  given  off  by  the 
nitric  acid.  As  these  vapours  are  injurious  to 
the  health  when  breathed  for  any  time,  the  porous 
cell  is  closed  with  a  stopper  of  wood,  to  prevent 
or  lessen  their  escape,  the  connection  between 
the  exterior  and  the  platinum  plate  being  made  by 
ft  strip  of  metal  passing  through  the  wood.  The 

800 


chemical  action  of  Grove's  couple  may  be  shewn  m 
the  same  way  as  Daniell's,  taking  nitric  acid  (NO5) 


Fig.  13.  Fig.  14. 


to  be  the  oxide  of  hyponitric  acid  (NO 4).  Before 
discharge,  the  molecules  stand  thus,  beginning  with 
the  platinum :  Pt,  N04,0  NO^TO  \m,^0^  H,"S04,Zn; 

and  after  it,  Yi^^  OiNO^  OpH  SOIjT,  S04,Zn. 
The  hyi^onitric  acid  gas  (NO4)  discharged  at  the 
platinum  j)late  is  absorbed  by  the  nitric  acid,  in 
which  it  is  solul)le,  so  that  the  plate  is  left  free. 
The  cells  of  a  Grove's  battery  are  connected  with 
the  platinum  of  the  one  to  the  zinc  of  the  other. 

Banseii's  Battery. — Bunsen's  cell  has  the  same 
chemical  action  as  Grove's,  the  platinujn  being 
re])laced  by  carbon.  There  are  two  forms  of  the 
cell — the  one  invented  and  employed  by  Professor 
Bunsen,  and  generally  adoi)ted  in  Germany ;  and 
the  modification  introduced  by  Archerau,  generally 
found  in  England  and  France,  The  Bunsen  cell, 
properly  so  called,  has  a  carbon  cylinder  immersed 
in  nitric  acid,  and  the  porous  cell  containing  the 
zinc  and  sulphuric  acid  placed  mthin  it.    Fig.  15 


Fig.  15. 


represents  a  battery  of  four  cells,  shewing  how  tha 
different  cells  are  connected :  g  is  the  containing  glass 
vessel ;  c,  the  carbon  cylinder ;  d,  the  porous  cell; 
and  z,  the  zinc.  The  other  form  of  the  Bunsen  cell  , 
is  shewn  in  fig.  16.  In  it  the  same  arrangement  is 
adopted  as  in  Grove's  cell.  The  latter  form  of  the 
Bunsen  cell,  in  consequence  of  the  preponderance  of 
the  positive  surface,  gives  the  greater  quantity  of 
electricity.  For  the  manufacture  of  the  Bunsen 
carbons,  see  Carbon-  for  Electric  Purposes. 
Bunsen's  battery,  in  point  of  cheapness,  is  preferable 
to  Grove's,  w'here  the  platinum  forms  an  expensive 
item,  but  is  inferior  to  it  in  point  of  compactness. 
In  these  couples,  the  platinum  and  carbon  may  b« 


GALVAJSISM. 


repUced  by  iron,  wliicli  is  nearly  as  electro- negative 
AS  either  in  concenti-ated  nitric  acid.  In  Muller's 
Phytfik,  the  following  numbers  are  given  as  the  rela- 
fciouis  of  the  electromotive  forces  of  the  different 


Fig.  16. 


coxiplcs :  Bimsen's,  800 ;  Grove's,  780 ;  Daniell's 
470  ,  and  Wollaston's,  208. 

Galvanometers. — The  two  most  reliable  evi- 
dences of  the  strength  of  the  galvanic  current  are, 
its  power  to  deflect  the  magnetic  needle,  and  to 
effect  chemical  decomposition.  To  measure  one  or 
other  of  these,  is  the  object  of  a  galvanometer  or 
voltameter.  A  magnetic  galvanometer  shews  the 
strength  of  the  current  by  the  amount  of  the 
deflection  of  the  needle,  and  shews  its  direction 
by  the  way  in  which  it  deflects.  The  manner 
in  which  a  needle  shoidd  tiirn  Avhen  influenced 
by  a  current  is  easily  kept  in  mind  by  Ampere's 
mle  :  Sujrpose  the  diminutive  figure  of  a  man  to  he 
•placed  in  the  circuit,  so  tliat  the  current  shall  enter 
by  his  feet,  and  leave  by  his  head ;  when  he  looks 
with  his  face  to  the  needle,  its  north  pole  always 
turns  to  his  left.  The  deflecting  wire  is  supposed 
always  to  lie  in  the  magnetic  meridian.  The 
Ao-tatlc  Galvanometer,  or  Galvanometer,  is  used  either 
simply  as  a  galvauoscope,  to  discover  the  existence 
of  a  current,  or  as  a  measurer  of  the  strengths 
of  weak  cuiTents.  When  a  needle  is  placed  imder 
a  straight  wire,  through  which  a  current  passes,  it 
deflects  to  a  certain  extent,  and  when  the  wire  is 
bent,  so  as  also  to  pass  below  the  needle,  it  deflects 
still  more.  This  is  easdy  understood  from  the 
above  rule.  The  supposed  figiu'e  has  to  look 
down  to  the  needle  when  in  the  upper  wire,  and 
to  look  up  to  it  in  the  lower  wire,  so  that  his 
left  hand  is  turned  in  different  ways  in  the  two 
positions.  The  current  in  the  upper  and  the  lower 
wire  moves  in  opposite  directions,  thus  changing  in 
the  same  way  as  the  figure ;  and  the  deflection 
caused  by  both  wires  is  in  the  same  direction. 
By  thus  doubling  the  wire,  we  double  the  deflecting 
force.  If  the  wire,  instead  of  making  only  one  such 
circuit  round  the  needle,  were  to  make  two,  the 
force  would  be  again  doubled,  and  if  several,  the 
lorce  (leaving  out  of  account  the  weakening  of 
the  current  caused  by  the  additional  wire)  would 
be  increased  in  proportion.  If  the  circuits  of  the 
wire  be  so  multiplied  as  to  form  a  coil,  this  force 
would  be  enormously  increased.  Two  needles,  as 
uearly  the  same  as  possible,  placed  parallel  to 
each  other,  with  their  poles  in  opposite  ways,  as 
uhewn  in  fig.  17,  and  suspended,  so  as  to  move 
freely,  by  a  thread  without  twist,  have  little 
tendency  to  place  themselves  in  the  magnetic 
meridian,  for  the  one  would  move  in  a  contrary 
direction  to  the  other.  If  they  were  exactly  of 
Uie  sainf  power,  they  would  remain  indiflerently 


in   any   position.     They   cannot,  liowcvcr,  Ije  so 
accurately  i)aire(l  as  this,  so  that  tlicy  always  take 
up  a  fixed  i)osition,  arising  from  the  one  being 
somewhat  stronger 
than    the  other. 


This  position  is 
sometimes  in  the 
magnetic  meridian,  i. 
sometimes  not,  ac- 
cording as  the 
needles    are    less  — 


or  more  perfectly  Fig.  17, 

matched.     Such  a 

compound  needle  is  called  astatic,  as  it  stactlfl 
apart  from  the  directing  magnetic  influence  01 
the  eai-th.  If  an  astatic  needle  be  i)laced  in  a 
coil,  as  in  fig.  17,  so  that  the  lower  needle  be 
within  the  coil,  and  the  upper  one  al)ove  it, 
its  deflections  wdl  be  more  considerable  than  a 
simple  needle,  for  two  reasons :  in  the  first  i)lace, 
the  power  w^hich  keeps  the  needle  in  its  fixed 
position  is  small,  and  the  needle  is  consequently 
more  easily  influenced ;  in  the  second  place,  the 
force  of  the  coil  is  exerted  in  the  same  direction 
on  two  needles  instead  of  one,  for  the  upper 
needle  being  much  nearer  the  uj^per  j^art  of  the 
coil  than  the  lower,  is  deflected  alone  by  it,  and 
the  deflection  is  in  the  same  direction  as  that  of  the 
lower  needle.  An  astatic  needle  so  placed  in  a  coil 
constitutes  an  astatic  galvanometer.  One  of  these 
instruments  is  shewn  in  fig.  18.    E-ound  an  ivory 


Fig.  18. 


bobbin,  AB,  a  coil  of  fine  copper  wire,  carefully 
insulated  with  silk,  is  wound,  its  ends  being  con- 
nected with  the  binding  screws,  s,  s.  The  astatic 
needle  is  placed  in  the  bobbin,  wdiich  is  provided 
with  a  vertical  slit,  to  admit  the  lower  needle,  and 
a  lateral  slit,  to  allow  of  its  oscillations,  and  ifl 
suspended  by  a  cocoon  thread  to  a  hook  supported 
by  a  brass  frame.  The  upper  needle  moves  on 
a  graduated  circle ;  the  compound  needle  hangs 
freely,  without  touching  the  bobbin.  The  whole  is 
included  in  a  glass  case,  and  rests  on  a  stand,  sup- 
ported by  three  levelling  screws.  When  used,  the 
bobbin  is  turned  round  by  the  screw,  Q,  untd  the 
needle  stands  at  the  zero  point,  and  the  wires  throiigb 
which  the  current  is  sent  are  fixed  to  the  binding 
screws.  The  number  of  degrees  that  the  needle 
deflects  may  then  be  read  off.  It  is  manifest  that 
on  deflection  taking  place,  the  different  portions  of 
the  coil  are  differently  situated  with  respect  to  the 


GALVANISM. 


needle,  tlmn  when  it  is  nt  zero;  the  deflecting  force 
of  the  coil,  therefore,  differs  witli  the  position  of  the 
needle,  so  that  the  deflections  caused  hy  different 
currents  are  not  in  the  proportion  of  the  angles 
of  deviation,  or  their  functions  ;  up  to  from  15°  to 
20°,  it  is  found  for  most  iustmmcnts  that  the 
strength  of  the  current  is  proportional  to  tlie  angle 
of  deviation ;  beyond  that,  the  relations  of  strength 
indicated  by  different  angles  must  be  ascertained 
experimentally,  which  can  be  done  with  the  aid  of 
a  thermo-electric  pile. 

Tawjent  Galvanometer. — This  uistrumcnt  is  she^^^l 
in  fig.  19.  It  consists  essentially  of  a  thick  strip 
of  copper,  bent  into  the 
form  of  a  circle,  from  one 
to  two  feet  in  diameter, 
with  a  small  magnetic 
needle,  moving  on  a 
graduated  circle,  at  its 
centre.  When  tlic  needle 
is  small  compared  with 
the  ring,  it  may  be 
assumed  that  the  needle 
in  any  direction  it  lies 
hohls  the  same  relative 
position  to  the  disturb- 
ing power  of  the  ring. 
This  being  the  case,  it 
is  easy  to  ])rove  that  tlie 
stren(/ths  of  currents  cir- 
culating in  the  ring  are 
proportionate  to  the  tan- 
gents of  the  angles  of 
deviation  of  the  needle. 
Thus,  if  the  deflection 
caused  by  one  galvanic 
couple  was  45°,  and  of 
another  60°,  the  relative  strengths  of  the  currents 
sent  by  each  would  be  as  the  tangent  of  45°  to  the 
tangent  of  60° — viz.,  as  1  to  173.  The  needle  can 
never  be  deflected  00°,  for  as  the  tangent  of  90° 
is  infinitely  large,  the  strength  of  the  dexdating 
current  must  be  infinitely  gi'eat,  a  strength  mani- 
festly unattainable.  The  tangent  galvanometer  can 
consequently  be  used  to  measiu'e  the  strongest 
cm-rents.  One  great  advantage  attending  its  use, 
is  that  the  current,  in  passing  through  the  thick 
copper  ware,  experiences  almost  no  resistance,  and 
consequent  diminution  of  strength,  so  that  it  can 
measure  a  current  without  affecting  it. 

Voltameter. — This  was  invented  by  Faraday  for 
testing  the  streng-th  of  a  current.  Fig.  20  shews 
how  it  may  be  constructed.  Two  platinum  plates, 
each  about  half  a  square  inch  in  size,  are  placed  in 
a  bottle  containing  water  acidulated  Avith  sulphuric 
acid;  the  plates  are  soldered  to  wires  which  pass 


Fis.  19. 


Fig.  20. 


Fig.  2L 


np  through  the  cork  of  the  bottle;  binding  screws 
are  attached  to  the  ujjper  ends  of  these  wires ;  a 
glass  tube  fixed  into  the  cork  serves  to  discharge 


the  gas  formed  within.  When  the  binding  screws 
are  connected  with  the  poles  of  a  battery,  tlio  water 
in  the  bottle  begins  to  be  decomj)osed,  and  hydrogen 
and  oxygen  rise  to  the  surface.  If,  now,  the  outer 
end  of  the  discharging  tube  be  placed  in  a  trough 
of  mercury  (mercury  does  not  dissolve  the  gases), 
and  a  graduated  tube  (fig.  21),  likewise  filled  with 
mercury,  be  placed  over  it,  the  combined  gases  rise 
into  the  tube,  and  the  quantity  of  gas  given  off  in 
a  given  time  measures  the  strength  of  the  current. 
The  voltameter  chooses  as  a  test  the  work  which 
the  current  can  actually  perform,  and  establishes  a 
uniform  standard  of  comparison.  The  indications 
of  the  tangent  galvanometer  are  comparable  only 
with  its  own,  but  the  quantity  of  gas  discharged 
by  the  voltameter,  corrected  for  pressure  and  tem- 
perature, is  something  quite  absolute.  However, 
by  comparing  the  indications  of  both  iuetruments 
with  each  other  when  placed  in  the  same  circuit, 
an  absolute  standard  may  likewise  be  got  for  the 
tangent  galvanometer.  If,  for  instance,  the  current 
given  by  a  battery  should  give  2  cubic  inches  in  a 
minute,  as  shewn  by  the  voltameter,  and  produced 
at  the  same  time  a  deflection  of  45^  in  the  galvan- 
ometer, the  ratio  of  2  to  the  tangent  of  45° — viz.,  2 
to  1  =  2,  is  constant,  for  correct  measurements  of 
the  strength  of  currents,  however  taken,  must  beai 
to  each  other  a  constant  ratio.  If  the  angle  of  devia- 
tion for  another  current  was  30°,  we  have  therefore 
only  to  midtiply  2  by  the  tangent  of  30°,  to  ascer- 
tain the  amount  of  gas  that  would  be  liberated  by 
a  current  of  that  strength  in  a  minute.  This  found, 
we  know  the  meaning  of  a  deflection  of  3'J°  of  the 
galvanometer  in  question  in  a  perfectly  comparable 
standard.  The  plates  of  the  voltameter  must  be 
small,  for  when  they  are  large,  a  small  quantity  of 
electricity  is  found  to  pass  without  decomposing  the 
water.  It  is  found  also  that  a  minute  quantity  of 
the  oxygen  forms  binoxide  of  hydrogen  with  the 
water,  and  remains  in  solution,  so  that  when  very 
great  accuracy  is  required,  the  hydrogen  alone  ought 
to  be  measurecL 

Eesistances  to  the  Cureent.— It  is  found  that 
the  dimensions  and  material  of  substances  included 
in  the  circuit  exercise  an  important  influence  on  the 
streng-th  of  the  current.  It  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  to  ascertain  the  relative  amount  of  the 
resistance  offered  by  conductors  of  various  forms 
and  materials.  The  rJieostat,  invented  by  Wheat- 
stone,  is  generally  employed  for  this  purpose,  and 
for  this  object  is  constructed  so  as  to  introduce 
or  withdraw  a  con-  _ 
siderable  amount  of 
highly  resisting  wire 
from  the  circuit 
without  stopping 
the  current.  It  is 
shewn  in  fig.  22. 
TSvo  cylinders,  C, 
C,  about  6  inches 
in  length,  and  1^ 
inch  in  diameter, 
are  placed  parallel 
to  each  other,  both 
being  movable  round  their  axis.  One  of  them,  C, 
is  of  brass,  the  other,  C,  is  of  well-dried  wood. 
The  wooden  cylinder  has  a  spiral  groove  cut  into 
it,  making  forty  turns  to  the  inch,  in  which  is 
placed  a  fine  metallic  Avire.  One  end  of  the  wire 
is  fixed  to  a  brass  ring,  which  is  seen  in  the 
figure  at  the  further  end  of  the  wooden  cylinder; 
and  its  other  end  is  attached  to  the  nearer  end 
(not  seen  in  the  figure)  of  the  brass  cylinder,  C. 
The  brass  ring  just  mentioned  is  connected  with 
the  binding  screw,  S,  by  a  strong  metal  spring. 
The  further  end  of  the  cylinder  C'  has  a  similar 


Fig.  22. 


connection  with  the  binding  screw,  S'.  The  key, 
H,  fits  the  projecting  staple  of  either  cylinder, 
and  can  consequently  turn  both.  As  the  brass 
cylinder,  C,  is  turned  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
hands  of  a  watch,  it  uncoils  the  wire  from  the 
wooden  cylinder,  C,  making  it  thereby  revolve 
in  the  same  way.  When  the  wooden  cylinder  is 
tui'ned  contrary  to  the  hands  of  a  watch,  the  reverse 
takes  place.  The  number  of  revolutions  is  shewn 
by  a  scale  placed  between  the  two,  and  the  fraction 
of  a  revolution  is  shewn  by  a  pointer  moving 
on  the  graduated  circle,  P.  When  the  binding 
screws,  S  and  S',  are  included  within  a  circiut,  say 
S  with  the  positive,  and  S'  with  the  negative  pole, 
the  current  passes  along  the  wire,  on  the  v/ooden 
cylinder,  C,  till  it  comes  to  the  point  Avhere  the  wire 
crosses  to  the  brass  cylinder,  C ;  it  then  passes  up 
the  cylinder,  C,  to  the  spring  and  binding  screw,  S'. 
The  resistance  it  encounters  within  the  rheostat  is 
met  only  in  wire,  for  as  soon  as  it  reaches  the  large 
cylinder,  C,  the  resistance  it  encounters  wp  to  S'  may 
be  considered  as  nothing.  When  the  rheostat  is  to 
be  used,  the  whole  of  the  wire  is  wound  on  the 
wooden  cylinder,  C,  the  binding  screws  are  put  into 
the  circuit  of  a  constant  cell  or  battery  along  with 
a  galvanometer,  astatic  or  tangent.  If,  now,  the 
resistances  of  two  wires  are  to  be  tested,  the 
galvanometer  is  read  before  the  first  is  put  in  the 
circuit.  After  it  is  introduced,  in  consequence  of 
the  increased  resistance  offered  by  it,  the  needle 
falls  back,  and  then  as  much  of  the  rheostat  wire  is 
unwound  as  will  bring  the  needle  back  to  its  former 
place.  The  quantity  of  wire  thus  uncoiled  in  the 
rheostat  is  shewn  by  the  scales,  and  is  manifestly 
equal  in  resisting  power  to  the  introduced  wire. 
The  first  is  then  removed,  the  rheostat  readjusted, 
and  the  second  wire  included,  and  the  same  un- 
winding goes  on  as  before.  To  fix  our  ideas,  let 
the  quantity  of  wire  unwound  in  the  first  case  be 
40  inches,  and  in  the  second  case  60  inches  ;  40 
inches  of  the  rheostat  wire  offer  as  much  resistance 
to  the  current  as  the  first  wire,  and  60  inches  of  it 
as  much  as  the  second.  We  have  thus  40  to  60  as 
the  ratio  of  the  resistances  of  the  two  wires.  The 
wire  of  the  rheostat,  from  its  limited  length,  can 
only  be  comparable  with  small  resistances ;  and 
where  great  resistances  are  to  be  measured,  supple- 
mentary resistance  coils  of  wires,  whose  resistances 
have  been  ascertained,  are  introduced  into  the 
circuit,  or  removed  from  it,  as  occasion  requires, 
leaving  to  the  rheostat  to  give,  as  it  were,  only  the 
fractional  readings.  This  being  premised,  it  will  be 
easily  understood  how  the  following  results  have 
been  ascertained.  It  is  proved,  for  instance,  tiiat 
the  resistances  of  wires  of  the  same  material,  and 
of  uniform  thickness,  are  in  the  direct  ratio  of  their 
lengtlis,  and  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  the  squares  of  their 
diameters.  Thus  a  wire  of  a  certain  length  offers 
twice  the  resistance  of  its  half,  thrice  of  its  third, 
and  so  forth.  Again,  wires  of  the  same  metal,  whose 
diameters  stand  in  the  ratio  of  1,  2,  3,  &c.,  offer 
resistances  which  stand  to  each  other  as  1,  |,  |,  &c. ; 
therefore,  the  longer  the  wire  the  greater  the 
resistance ;  the  thicker  the  wire  the  less  the  resist- 
ance. The  same  holds  true  of  liquids,  but  not  with 
the  san.e  exactness.  For  this  reason,  the  larger  the 
plates  of  a  galvanic  pair,  and  the  nearer  they  are 
placed  to  each  other,  the  less  will  be  the  resistance 
offered  to  the  current  by  the  intervening  liquid. 
The  following  table,  constructed  by  Ed.  Becquerel, 
gives  the  specif  c  resistance^  of  some  of  the  more 
common  substances,  or  the  resistance  which  a  wire 
of  them,  so  to  sjieak,  of  the  same  dimensions,  offers 
at  the  temperature  54°  F. :  Copper,  1  ;  silver,  '9 ; 
gold,  1-4;  zinc,  37;  tin,  6-6;  iron,  7*5;  lead,  11  ; 
jJatinum,  11*3  .  mercury  (at  57°),  50-7.   For  liquids, 


the  resistances  are  enormous  as  compared  v.nth 
the  metals.  With  copper  at  32°  F.  as  1,  the 
following  liquids  stand  thus :  Saturated  solution 
of  the  sulphate  of  copper,  at  48°  F.,  16,885,520 ; 
ditto  of  chloride  of  sudium  at  56°  F.,  2,903.538  ; 
sulphate  of  zinc,  15,861,267  ;  suljihuric  acid,  diluted 
to  at  68°  F.,  1,032,020;  nitric  acid,  at  55  F., 
976,000  ;  distilled  water,  at  59°  F.,  6,754,208,000. 
The  slightest  admixture  of  a  foreign  metal  alters 
the  resistance  very  decidedly  :  ^  per  cent  of  iron  in 
copper  wire  increases  the  resistance  more  tlian  25 
1  per  cent.  It  has  been  found  also  that  the  resist 
ance  offered  by  a  wire  increases  as  its  temperature 
rises.  It  is  almost  needless  to  add,  that  tlie 
conducting  powers  of  metals  are  inversely  as  their 
specific  resistances,  the  least  resisting  being  the 
best  conducting. 

Ohm's  Law. — This  law  is  singularly  in  accordance 
with  experimental  results.  It  assumes  that  the 
electro-motive  force  for  a  particular  galvanic  pair  is 
constant,  and  that  the  strength  of  the  current  it 
produces  is  the  quotient  which  results  from  dividing 
it  by  the  resistance  of  the  circuit.  This  resistance 
arises  from  two  sources,  the  first  being  the  resist- 
ance wdthin  the  cell  offered  by  the  exciting  liquid,  and 
the  second  the  interjiolar  resistance.  If  e  represent 
the  electromotive  force ;  I,  the  resistance  within 
the  cell ;  w,  the  interpolar  resistance ;  and  S,  the 
strength  of  the  current,  or  the  quantity  of  electricity 
actually  transmitted,  the  statement  of  the  law  for 

6 

one  couple  stands  thus :  S  =   .    The  applica- 

tion  of  the  law  in  a  few  particular  cases  will  bes*i 
illustrate  its  meaning.  If  we  increase  the  numbe? 
of  cells  to  n,  we  increase  the  electromotive  force  n 
times,  and  at  the  same  time  we  increase  the  liquid 
resistance  n  times,  for  the  current  has  n  times  as 

much  of  it  to  travel,  then  S  =       — .     If  w  be 

nl  +  w 

small  compared  with  nl — that  is,  if  the  external 
connection  be  made  by  a  short  thick  wire — it  may  be 

neglected,  and  so  S  =     =  -f.    This  shews  that  one 
nl  e 

cell  gives  in  these  circumstances  as  powerful  a 
current  as  a  large  battery.  But  if  7il  be  small  with 
respect  to  w — as  in  the  interpolar  circuit  of  an 
electric  telegraph  battery — nl  may  be  neglected, 
ne 

and  S  =  — .    Here  we  learn  that  the  energy  of  the 
w  ° 

current  increases  directly  as  the  number  of  cells. 
We  may  learn  from  "the  same  that  the  introduction 
of  the  coil  of  long  thin  wire  of  a  galvanometer  into 
such  a  circuit,  introducing  but  a  comi^aratively 
small  increase  of  resistance,  causes  a  very  slight 
diminution  of  the  current  strength.  If,  again, 
we  increase  the  size  of  the  plates  of  a  galvanic 
pair  n  times,  the  section  of  the  liquid  is  propor- 
tionately increased,  so  that  whilst  the  electro- 
motive force  remains  the  same,  the  cell  resistance 

6 

diminishes    n   times :    therefore  S  =  ,  ,  or 

I  +  w 

ne  .         .       ^  . 

S  =  -1  .     If  the  exterior  resistance  is  small 

I  +  nw 

nl  may  be  neglected,  and  S  =       and  the  strength 

is  thus  shewn  to  increase  n  times.  These  are  only 
a  very  few  of  the  conclusions  arrived  at  by  this  law. 
With  the  aid  of  a  tangent  galvanometer,  which 
gives  the  value  of  S  expressed  in  cubic  inches  of 
voltameter  gas,  we  can  easily  ascertain  the  value  of 
e  and  I  for  any  pair.  By  making  two  observations 
with  two  wires  of  knov/n  resistance  separately 
included   in  the  circuit,   we  have  two  simjjla 


GALVANISM. 


erjuations  with  two  unknown  quantities,  from  which 
c  and  I  can  be  easily  found.  In  doinj^  so,  we  must 
adopt  a  unit  of  resistance^  such  as  that  ])roposed  by 
Jacobi — viz.,  that  offered  by  a  copper  wire  1  metre 
(39'3  inches)  long,  and  1  millimtitro  (-0393  inch)  in 
diameter.  The  resistance  of  the  liquid  of  the  pair 
would  be  expressed  in  units  of  this,  and  the  electro- 
motive force  in  cubic  inches  of  explosive  gas  with  a 
circuit  offering  a  unit  of  resistance. 

The  Effects  of  the  Galvanic  Current  may  be 
classified  under  physiological,  mechanical,  magnetic, 
heating,  luminous,  and  chemical.  The  mechanical 
effects  relate  to  the  mutual  attraction  or  repulsion 
of  one  current  to  another,  or  to  a  part  of  itself. 
These,  along  with  the  magnetic  effects,  will  be  found 
treated  of  under  Magneto  Electricity.  The  heat- 
ing and  luminous  effects  have  been  partly  discussed 
under  Electric  Light.  We  shall  here  only  further 
refer  to  the  heating  of  wires,  and  to  the  galvanic 
Bi)ark.  The  luminous  effects  of  galvanic  electricity 
of  very  high  tension  will  be  given  under  Induction 
Coil.  The  chemical  effects  have  been  already 
referred  to,  but  a  fuller  consideration  of  these  will 
nov/  be  given  under  the  head  Electrolysis  in  this 
article. 

The  physiological  effects,  as  shewn  by  the  convul- 
eions  of  Galvani's  frog  preparation,  were  the  first 
observed  manifestation  of  the  current.  Frog-liml)s, 
as  prepared  by  Galvani,  when  included  in  a  circuit, 
form  a  galvanoscope  of  excessive  sensibility,  which 
rivals  the  hnest  galvanometer  in  delicacy  of  indica- 
tion. There  is  one  pecuharity  in  their  action  which 
deserves  to  be  noted.  The  liml>s  contract  only 
when  the  circuit  is  completed  and  broken,  and 
remaio  undisturbed  so  long  as  the  current  passes 
Btead'iy  through  them.  The  more  frequently,  there- 
forf ,  the  current  is  stopped  and  renewed,  the  greater 
is  the  i)hysiological  effect.  The  same  is  experienced 
when  a  current  is  passed  through  the  human  body. 
When  the  terminal  wires  of  a  battery  are  lifted 
one  by  each  hand,  except  it  consist  of  a  very  large 
number  of  cells,  almost  the  only  sensation  felt  is  a 
Blight  shock  on  completing  and  breaking  the  circuit. 
Du  Bois  Eeymond,  the  great  authority  on  animal 
electricity,  states  that  the  nerves  of  motion  are 
affected  only  by  changes  in  the  electric  tension  of 
the  current,  whereas  the  nerves  of  sensation  are 
i».ffected  not  only  by  these,  but  also  by  the  steady 
continuance  of  the  current,  and  that  the  excitation 
of  the  nerves  dependent  on  the  changes  of  tension 
increases  with  their  frequency  and  suddenness. 
Frictioual  electi'icity  in  this  way  owes  its  superior 
physiological  power  to  the  instantaneous  nature  of 
its  discharge.  It  is  only  currents  of  great  tension 
which  affect  the  ordinary  human  nerves.  The 
p'des  of  a  battery  of  50  Bunsen  cells,  capable  of 
giving  a  brilliant  electric  light,  for  instance,  may 
be  handled  without  much  inconvenience.  This  may 
be  attributed  partly  to  the  non-conducting  nature 
of  the  skin.  If  the  current  enter  tlie  body  by  a 
cut  or  wound,  the  sensation  is  affected  even  when 
the  current  is  weak.  The  physiological  effect  is  also 
much  heightened  by  moistening  the  hands  with  salt 
and  water,  or  by  holding  metal  handles  instead  of 
mres,  so  as  to  improve  the  conducti]ig  connection. 
A-nother  cause  of  this  insensibility  may  be  attri- 
\)uted  to  the  fact  that  the  current  is  not  restricted, 
as  it  is  in  part  of  the  frog  preparation,  to  the 
nerve,  but  passes  through  all  the  conductors  of 
the  system.  The  nerves  of  the  palate  can  be  affected 
by  a  very  feeble  current ;  that  of  sight  by  one  pro- 
ceeding from  a  battery  of  one  or  two  cells,  and  that 
of  hearing  by  a  battery  of  some  30  cells.  See 
Ele/^tricity,  Medical. 

Heating  Effcct.8. — When  a  strong  current  passes 
fclirough  thin  wires,  el  intense  heat  is  produced, 
6ul 


sufficient  to  bring  them  to  a  white  heat,  and  to 
fuse  them.  This  is  turned  to  i)ractical  use  in 
exploding  gunpowder,  in  engineering  and  mining 
operations.  Two  wires  of  a  battery  placed  at  a  safe 
distance  are  insulated  from  each  other,  and  their 
ends,  which  are  connected  by  a  fine  iron  wire,  ar« 
sealed  up  in  a  tin  cartridge  fdled  with  gunpowder 
and  laid  in  the  exploding  charge.  When  all  is 
adjusted,  the  battery  connection  is  completed,  and 
the  current  making  the  iron  wire  red  hot,  ignites  tha 
gunpowder  in  the  cartridge,  and  that  again  the 
charge.  In  this  way,  all  danger  is  avoided.  Experi- 
ments on  the  heating  effects  of  the  current  through 
wires  have  proved  that  the  lieat  developed  is  propoT' 
tional  to  the  resistance  of  the  loires,  and  to  the  squarei 
of  the  strength  of  the  currents ;  and  that  the  strength 
of  the  current  being  the  same,  any  length  of  wire  ma^ 
he  heated  to  the  same  redness. 

Lnminous  Effects. — When  the  wires  connected  with 
a  powerful  galvanic  battery  are  brought  together,  no 
current  passes  except  they  are  made  to  'touch,  or 
nearly  so  ;  and  if  then  separated,  the  current  contin- 
ues with  the  evolution  of  sparks,  though  removed  for 
some  distance.  All  combustiljle  substances,  whether 
solid  or  licjuid,  may  be  influenced  by  passing  the  gal 
vanic  current  through  them.  A  plathiuni  wire,  several 
yards  long,  can  be  made  to  glow  with  intense  brilliancy 
if  wound  into  the  form  of  a  helix.  In  Duboscj's  elec- 
tric lamp  a  dazzling  light  is  produced  by  the  transfer 
ence  of  particles  of  carbon  from  the  positive  to  the 
negative  pole.  This  light,  transmitted  through  a  prism 
produces  a  spectrum  like  that  of  the  sun,  except  tha 
the  lines  of  Freuenhofer  are  bright  instead  of  dark. 

£lectroh/sis  is  that  branch  of  the  science  of  gal- 
vanism which  treats  of  the  laws  and  conditions  of 
electro-chemical  decomposition.  As  this  decomi)osi- 
tion  is  generally  atten(led  by  electro-chemical  com- 
bination, it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  distinguish 
electrolysis  from  the  more  general  sul)jcct  of  Electro- 
chemistry,  which  embraces  all  chemical  changes 
resulting  in  or  from  the  galvanic  current.  In  one 
case,  however,  the  application  of  the  term  is  strictly 
correct — viz.,  where  decompositions  are  effected  by 
electrodes  (poles,  see  Anode),  which  are  not  attacked 
by  the  elements  of  the  electrolyte  (the  substance 
decomjiosed)  discharged  at  them.  Throughout  the 
article,  there  have  been  frequent  allusions  to  electro- 
chemical changes,  but 
here  we  shall  discuss 
more  particularly  the 
laws  of  electro-chemical 
decomposition.  No  sub- 
stance is  decomposed 
by  the  current  so  long 
as  it  is  in  a  solid  or 
gaseous  state,  and  it 
must  first  be  brought 
to  a  liquid  state,  either 
by  solution  or  fusion, 
before  the  current  acts 
on  it.  The  decompo- 
sition of  water  by 
platinum  plates  is 
always  taken  as  the 
type  of  electrolytic 
action.  Fig.  23  repre- 
sents a  very  convenient 
apparatus  for  the  pur- 
pose. A  glass  basin  is 
made  so  as  to  admit  a 
cork  below,  through 
which  two  wires  pass 
having  slips  of  platinum 
plate  soldered  to  them 
open  below,  are  hung 


Fig.  23. 


above.    Two  glass  tubes, 
over  the  plates,  to  hooka 
projecting  from  an  ujiright  support.    The  bowl  iir 


GALVANISM. 


filled  with  acidulated  water;  and  the  tubes,  after 
beino;  filled  with  the  same,  are  inverted,  and  hung 
with  their  lower  ends  enclosing  the  plates.  When 
the  wires  projecting  downwards  from  tlie  cork  are 
connected  vnth  the  poles  of  the  battery,  hydrogen 
rises  from  the  negative,  and  oxygen  from  the  positive 
electrode,  to  lill  each  its  separate  tube.  As  the 
decomposition  proceeds,  twice  as  much  hydrogen  is 
liberated  as  oxygen.  When  the  tubes  are  tilled, 
they  may  be  removed  and  examined.  The  oxygen 
thus  obtained  smells  strongly  of  ozone.  Hydrogen 
is  here  the  type  of  the  metals  or  other  electro-positive 
substances  (cations),  which,  during  electrolysis,  are 
always  disengaged  at  the  negative  electrode;  and 
oxygen  of  the  salt  radicals,  chlorine,  iodine,  sulphur, 
&c.,  which,  being  electro- negative  (anions),  always 
ai)pear  at  the  positive  pole.  Moreover,  the  proj^or- 
tions  of  the  volumes  of  the  two  gases  being  that  of 
tlieir  chemical  combining  volumes,  reminds  tis  that, 
v.'hen  a  body  is  decomposed,  its  components  are 
always  separated  in  the  proportions  in  which  they 
were  united,  viz.,  those  of  their  chemical  equivalents. 
If  the  tubes  of  this  apparatus  were  graduated,  it 
would  serve  for  a  voltameter.  If,  instead  of  one 
such  voltameter  included  in  the  circuit,  we  had 
several,  we  shoidd  find  that,  whatever  amount  of 
gas  was  liberated  in  one  of  these,  the  same  amount 
woidd  be  liberated  in  all,  and  that  independent  of 
the  size  of  the  plates,  and  amount  of  acid  in 
each.  We  learn,  therefore,  tha""  the  chemical  power 
of  the  current  is  the  same  at  every  point  of 
the  circuit  where  it  is  manifested.  If,  instead  of 
two  or  three  voltameters  in  the  circuit,  we  had 
one  and  two  decomposing  cells  of  the  following 
description.  A  test  tube,  having  a  platinmn  wire, 
on  which  the  glass  has  been  fused,  passing  through 
the  bottom,  is  partially  filled  with  protochloride 
of  tin,  which  is  kept  fused  by  the  heat  of  a  spirit- 
lamp.  The  platinum  wire  at  the  bottom  of  the 
tube  forms  one  electrode,  and  one  descending  from 
the  top  forms  the  other,  dipping  below  the  fused 
tiiloride.  If,  then,  this  cell  be  included  in  the 
circuit  along  with  the  voltameter,  and  a  similar 
cell  containing  fused  chloride  of  lead,  so  that  the 
current  enters  the  tubes  by  the  upper  electrodes, 
and  leaves  by  the  lower,  the  water,  protochloride  of 
tin,  and  chloride  of  lead,  are  decomposed  simultane- 
ously by  the  current  passing  through  each.  In  the 
voltameter,  hydrogen  and  oxygen  are  disengaged  ;  in 
the  ttvbes,  metallic  tin  is  deposited  at  the  lower 
electrode  of  the  one,  and  lead  at  the  other  ;  whilst 
chlorine  is  liberated  at  the  upper  electrodes  of  both. 
If,  now,  the  quantity  of  hydrogen,  tin,  and  lead  thus 
set  free  be  weighed,  it  will  be  found  that  their 
weights  are  in  the  proportion  of  their  chemical 
equivalents.  From  such  experiments  as  these, 
Faraday  made  the  first  gi-and  electrolytic  general- 
isation to  the  follomng  effect  :  Wheyi  the  current 
passes  throufjh  a  series  of  binary  electrolytes,  consisting 
of  an  equivalent  of  each  of  the  elementary  bodies,  the 
quantities  of  the  separated  elements  of  the  electrolytes 
are  in  the  same  j)roportion  as  their  chemical  equi- 
vaUents.  It  is  not  only  in  cells  exterior  to  the 
battery  that  this  law  holds,  but  in  the  ceUs  of  the 
battery  itself.  If  the  battery  which  efi'ected  the 
above  decom]:)Osition  consisted  of  six  cells,  for  each 
equivalent  of  hydrogen,  tin,  and  lead  separated 
without  the  batter}^  one  equivalent  of  zinc  in  each 
cell  would  have  been  dissolved,  and  an  equivalent 
of  hydrogen  disengaged  at  each  of  the  copper  plates, 
if  the  cells  were  one-fluid.  The  above  law  holds 
also  for  binary  compounds,  whose  elements  do  not 
stand  in  the  relation  of  an  equivalent  of  the  one  to 
an  equivalent  of  the  other,  but  with  this  modififia- 
tion,  that  the  weights  of  the  electro -negative  ole- 
tnentsf  ilone,  separated  in  the  action,  are  in  the  ratio 


of  their  equivalents.  Thus,  if  the  same  cuiTcnt  pasa 
through  two  decomposing  cells,  one  containing  a 
solution  of  the  dichloride  of  copper  (CU2CI),  and 
the  other  of  pi'otochloride  of  copper  (CuCl),  the  same 
quantity  of  chlorine  will  be  disengaged  in  both,  but 
twice  as  much  copper  is  deposited  in  the  first  as  in 
the  second.  Had  there  been  a  sesquichloride  ui 
copper  (CujClg)  in  the  same  way  for  one  equivalent 
of  chlorine  disengaged,  there  would  be  |  of  au 
equivalent  of  copper.  Daniel  I  proved,  in  exten- 
sion of  Faraday's  law,  that  the  binary  constituenta 
of  the  oxisalts  followed  the  same  law  as  binary 
elementary  compounds  ;  he  shewed  that,  if  a  voltj»- 
meter,  and  a  vessel  divided  into  two  compartmenta 
by  a  porous  diaphragm,  both  containing  sulphate 
of  sodium  (Na2S04)  be  included  in  the  same  circuit, 
after  some  time  the  compartment  into  which  the 
positive  pole  dips  contains  free  sulphuric  acid  (SO4), 
and  that  the  other  compartment  contains  free  soda 
(Na20) ;  and  the  hydroiren  and  oxv^en  of  the  vol- 
tameter, and  the  soda  and  sulphuric  acid  of  the 
sulphate  of  soda,  when  weighed,  stand  in  the  ratio 
of  their  chemical  equivalents.  The  decomposition 
here  taking  place  was  found  to  be  the  same  in  all 
similar  salts.  One  effect  of  the  decomposition  in 
the  above  instance,  however,  seemed  singular — nearly 
as  much  oxygen  and  hydrogen  was  decomposed 
at  the  electrodes  as  in  the  voltameter,  so  that 
the  current  appeared  to  do  double  work  within  the 
cell.  To  account  for  this  anomaly,  Daniell  suggested 
a  new  theory  of  oxisalts,  to  which  we  have  ah'eady 
referred  in  passing.  According  to  it,  sulphate  of 
soda  ( jSTaOjSO  3 )  should  not  be  looked  upon  as  such, 
but  as  sulphate  of  sodium  (Na2S04),  a  binary  salt, 
similar  to  the  chloride  of  sodium  (NaCl),  with  this 
difference,  that  in  the  former  case  the  true  sul- 
phuric acid  (SO4)  was  compound,  and  in  the  latter  it 
was  simple  (01).  This  being  the  case,  the  primary 
stage  of  decomposition  will  be,  the  metal  sodium  (Na) 
set  free  at  the  negative,  and  the  sulphion  (SO^)  at 
the  positive  electrode;  but  sodium  being  higlily 
oxidable,  cannot  preserve  its  metallic  condition  in 
the  presence  of  water ;  it  therefore  decomposes  the 
water,  taking  its  oxygen,  and  setting  free  its  hydro- 
gen, so  that  the  hydrogen  does  not  come  directly 
from  electrolytic  action,  but  from  a  purely  chemical 
secondary  action — viz.,  that  of  sodium  on  water.  The 
sulphuric  acid  (SO4)  breaks  up  into  anhidide  (SO3), 
which  remains  in  solution,  and  oxygen  (0),  which 
escapes.  This  view  of  the  matter  appeared  to  him 
to  be  borne  out  by  the  fact  that,  when  a  similar  salt 
of  a  less  oxidable  metal,  the  sulphate  of  copper  for 
instance,  is  exposed  to  the  same  action,  the  copper 
retains  its  metallic  condition,  and  no  hydrogen 
escapes  at  the  negative  electrode ;  sulphate  of 
copper  (CuOSOa)  is  in  this  Avay  more  properly 
a  capric  sulphate  (CUSO4).  Similarly,  nitrate  of 
soda  (NaONOs)  is  now  NaNOs,  nitrate  of  sodium,  and 
the  like  comjiosition  is  given  to  all  oxisalts.  This 
view  of  the  composition  of  salts  reduces  all  electro- 
lytes to  the  same  general  formulae,  such  as  jMli 
M2R3,  &c.;  M  being  a  metal,  or  electro-positive  con- 
stituent, and  H  a  salt  racbcal,  or  electro-negative  , 
and  the  electrolytic  law  might  be  given  thus  :  When 
the  same  current  passes  through  a  sei'ies  of  electro- 
lytes, the  weights  of  the  separcded  electro-negative  const i' 
tuents  are  to  each  other  as  their  chemical  equivalents. 
The  accuracy  of  the  electrolytic  law  is  somewhat 
compromised  by  the  fact  that  liquids  possess,  to  a 
certain  extent,  the  power  of  conducting,  physically, 
electricity  without  electrolytic  action,  so  that  all 
that  passes  in  this  way  is  chemically  lost.  Fortu- 
nately, the  error  thus  introduced  is  very  small,  and 
can  be  therefore  practically  disregarded. 

Electko-metallukgy  is  the  art  of  depositing 
electro-chemically,  a  coating  of  metal  on  a  surface 

605 


GALVANISM— GALVESTON. 


prepared  to  receive  it.  It  may  be  divided  into 
two  great  divisions — electrotype  and  electro-plating, 
gildlDg,  &c.,  the  former  including  all  cases  where 
the  coating  of  metal  has  to  be  removed  from  the 
surface  on  which  it  is  deposited,  and  the  latter  all 
cases  where  the  coating  remains  permanently  fixed. 
Gold,  platinum,  silver,  copper,  zinc,  tin,  lead,  cobalt, 
nickel,  can  be  deposited  electrolytically. 

Electrotype — the  art  of  copying  seals,  medals, 
engraved  ])lates,  ornaments,  &c.,  by  means  of  the 
galvanic  current  in  metal,  more  especially  copper. 
The  manner  in  which  this  is  done  will  be  best 
understood  by  taking  a  particidar  instance.  Suppose 
we  wish  to  copy  a  seal  in  copper :  an  impression  of 
it  is  first  taken  in  gutta  percha,  sealing-wax,  fusible 
metal,  or  other  suljstance  which  takes,  when  heated, 
a  sharp  impression.  "While  the  impression — say,  in 
gntta  percha — is  still  soft,  we  insert  a  wire  into  the 
side  of  it.  As  gutta  percha  is  not  a  conductor 
of  electricity,  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  side  on 
which  the  impression  is  taken  conducting  ;  this 
is  done  by  brushing  it  over  with  plumbago  by 
a  camel-hair  brush.  The  wire  is  next  attached  to 
the  zinc  pole  of  a  weakly  charged  Daniell's  cell,  and 
a  copper  plate  is  attached  by  a  wire  to  the  copper 
pole  of  the  cell  When  the  impression  and  the 
copper  plate  are  dipped  into  a  strong  solution  of 
the  sulphate  of  cop[)er,  they  act  as  the  negative 
and  positive  electrodes.  The  copper  of  the  solu- 
tion begins  to  deposit  itself  on  the  impression,  first 
at  the  "black-leaded  surface  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
connecting  wire,  then  it  gradually  creeps  over  the 
whole  conducting  surface.  After  a  day  or  two,  the 
impression  is  taken  out;  and  the  coj)per  deposited 
on  it,  which  has  now  formed  a  tolerably  strong  plate, 
can  be  easily  removed  by  inserting  the  point  of  a 
knife  between  the  impression  and  the  edge  of  the 
plate.  On  the  side  of  this  plate,  next  the  copper,  we 
have  a  perfect  copy  of  the  original  seal.  If  a  medal 
or  coin  is  to  be  taken,  we  may  proceed  in  the  same 
way,  or  we  may  take  the  medal  itself,  and  lay  the 
copper  on  it.  In  the  latter  case,  the  first  cast, 
BO  to  speak,  that  we  take  of  each  face  is  negative, 
shewing  depressions  where  the  medal  shews  relief ; 
but  this  is  taken  as  the  matrix  for  a  second  copy, 
which  exactly  resembles  the  original.  The  adhesion 
between  the  two  is  slight,  and  they  can  be  easily 
separated.  The  ceU  of 
a  battery  is  not  needed 
to  excite  the  current. 
A  galvanic  pair  can  be 
made  out  of  the  object 
to  be  coated  and  a  piece 
of  zinc.  Fig.  24  shews 
how  this  may  be  done. 
B  is  a  glass  vessel, 
containing  sulphate  of 
copper ;  A  is  another, 
supported  on  B  by  a 
wire -frame,  and  con- 
taining a  weak  solution 
■pig.  24.  of  sidphuric  acid.  The 

glass  vessel,  A,  is  with- 
out a  bottom,  but  is  closed  below  by  a  bladder. 
A  piece  of  zinc,  Z,  is  put  in  the  sulphuric  acid,  and 
a  wire,  D,  coated  wnth  insidating  varnish,  estab- 
lishes a  connection  between  it  and  the  impres- 
sion, C,  which  is  laid  below  the  bladder.  Electro- 
type is  of  the  greatest  importance  in  the  arts  ; 
by  means  of  it,  engraved  copper  plates  may  be 
multiplied  indefinitely,  so  that  proof-impressions 
need  be  no  rarity ;  wood-cuts  can  be  converted  into 
cx>pper ;  bronzes  can  be  copied ;  and  several  like 
ftpi  lications  are  made  of  it  too  numerous  to  mention. 
By  connecting  a  copper  plate  ready  for  corrosion 
mth  the  positive  polo,  and  making  it  a  positive 
60^ 


electrode,  it  can  bo  etched  with  more  certainty 
than  with  the  simple  acid,  and  without  the  acid 
fumes. 

Electro-plating. — This  is  the  art  of  coating  the 
baser  metals  with  silver  by  the  galvanic  current. 
It  is  one  theoretically  of  great  simplicity,  but 
requires  in  the  successful  api)lication  of  it  very 
considerable  experience  and  skill.  Articles  that 
are  electro-plated  are  generally  made  of  brass, 
bronze,  copper,  or  nickel  silver.  The  best  electro- 
plated goods  are  of  nickel  silver.  When  Britannia 
metal,  iron,  zinc,  or  lead  are  electro-plated,  they 
must  be  first  electro- coppered,  as  silver  does  not 
adhere  to  the  bare  surfaces  of  these  metals.  Great 
care  is  taken  in  cleaning  the  articles  previous  to 
electro-plating,  for  any  siu'^'ace  impurity  would  spoil 
the  success  of  the  operatio/i.  They  are  first  boiled 
in  caustic  potash,  to  remove  any  adhering  grease  j 
they  are  then  immersed  in  dilute  nitric  acid,  to  dis- 
solve any  rust  or  oxide  that  may  be  formed  on  the 
surface  ;  and  they  are  lastly  scoured  w^th  fine  sand. 
Before  being  put  into  the  silvering  bath,  they  are 
washed  with  nitrate  of  mercury,  which  leaves  a 
thin  film  of  mercury  on  them,  which  acts  as  a 
cement  between  the  article  and  the  silver.  The 
bath  w^hcre  the  electro- plating  takes  place  is  a  large 
trough  of  earthenware  or  other  non-conducting 
substance.  It  contains  a  weak  solution  of  cyanide 
of  silver  in  cyanide  of  potassium.  A  plate  of  siJvef 
forms  the  positive  electrode  ;  and  the  articles  io 
be  plated,  hung  by  pieces  of  wire  to  a  metal  rod 
lying  across  the  trough,  constitute  the  negative 
electrode.  When  the  plate  is  connected  with  the 
copper  or  positive  pole  of  a  one  or  more  celled 
galvanic  battery,  acconling  to  the  strength  required, 
and  the  rod  is  joined  with  the  zinc  or  negative 
pole,  chemical  decomposition  immediately  ensues  in 
the  bath,  the  silver  of  the  cyanide  begins  to  deposit 
itseK  on  the  suspended  objects,  and  the  cyanogen, 
liberated  at  the  plate,  dissolves  it,  re-forming  the 
cyanide  of  silver.  According,  then,  as  the  solution 
is  weakened  by  the  loss  of  the  metal  going  to  foi-m 
the  electro-coating,  it  is  strengthened  by  the  cyanide 
of  silver  formed  at  the  plate.  The  thickness  of 
the  plate  depends  on  the  time  of  its  immersion. 
The  electric  current  thus  acts  as  the  carrier  of 
the  metal  of  the  plate  to  the  objects  immersed  In 
this  way,  silver  becomes  perfectly  plastic  in  our 
hands.  We  can  by  this  means,  without  mechanical 
exertion  or  the  craft  of  the  workman,  convert  a 
piece  of  silver  of  any  shape,  however  irregular,  into  a 
uniform  plate,  which  covers,  but  in  no  way  defaces 
objects  of  the  most  complicated  and  delicate  forms. 
When  the  plated  objects  are  taken  from  the  bath, 
they  appear  duU  and  white;  the  dulness  is  first 
reraoved  by  a  small  circular  brush  of  brass  wire 
driven  by  a  lathe,  and  the  final  polish  is  given  by 
burnishing.  The  process  of  electro-gilding  is  almost 
identical  with  that  of  electro-plating.  Success  in 
either  is  attained  by  proper  attention  to  the  strength 
of  the  battery,  the  strength  of  the  solution,  tht 
temperature,  and  the  size  of  the  positive  electrode. 

GA'LVESTON,  a  city  and  port  of  entry,  capi- 
tal of  Galveston  co,,  Texas,  is  situated  on  the  north- 
east extremity  of  Galveston  Island,  at  the  opening 
of  the  bay  of  the  same  name  into  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico ;  lat.  29°  18'  N.,  long.  94°  50'  W.  It  is  the 
largest  and  most  commercial  city  of  Texas.  Its 
harbour,  the  best  in  the  state,  has  12  feet  of  water 
over  the  bar  at  low  tide.  Its  streets  are  straight, 
spacious,  and  elegant ;  and  its  principal  buildings 
— the  Roman  Catholic  University  of  St.  Mary's, 
the  Koman  Catholic  Cathedral,  and  some  of  its  nu- 
merous churches — are  large,  imposing  edifices  of 
brick,  in  the  Gothic  style.  G.  has  also  a  convent  of 
Ursuline  nuns,  and  some  thirty  schools  of  variou<' 


GALWAY. 


kinds.  Here  nearly  all  the  foreign  trade  of  the  state 
is  transacted.  In  1874,  69  foreign  vessels,  of  38,432 
tons,  entered,  and  130,  of  82,384  tons,  cleiired  the 
port ;  but  the  greater  proportion  of  the  trade  is  along 
the  coast.  The  total  number  of  vessels  belonging  to 
the  district  in  1874  was  209,  having  a  tonnage  of 
8679.  The  trade  has  greatly  increased  of  late  years. 
The  exports  to  foreign  countries  for  the  year  ending 
June  30,  1875,  amounted  to  $15,876,632,  nearly  the 
whole  being  in  cotton;  and  the  imports  from  foreign 
countries  to  $1,073,930.  The  town  has  good  wharfs, 
several  ship-building  yards,  foundries,  machine  shops, 
cotton  presses,  etc.  Pop.  in  1850,  4177;  in  1860, 
7307;  in  1870,  13,818. 

^  The  Bay  of  Galveston  extends  northward  from  the 
city  to  the  mouth  of  Trinity  River,  a  distance  of 
ttbout  35  miles,  and  is  from  12  to  18  miles  broad. 
The  island  of  Galveston  is  a  long  strip  of  low- 
lying  ground  with  a  mean  elevation  of  from  3  to 
4  feet  above  sea-level,  and  is  about  28  miles  long, 
and  from  1^  to  34  miles  broad.  It  was,  from  1817  to 
1821,  the  haimt  of  the  notorious  pirate  Latitte,  who 
was  dislodged  in  the  latter  year,  and  his  settlement 
broken  up. 

GA'LWi^Y,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary 
borough  of  Ireland,  a  seaport,  and  county  of  itself, 
stands  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Corhb,  on  the 
north  shore  of  Galway  Bay,  50  miles  north  north- 
west from  Limerick,  and  130  miles  west-south- west 
from  Dublin.  It  is  built  on  both  sides  of  the  river, 
and  on  two  islands  in  its  channel,  its  parts  being 
imited  by  two  bridges.  It  is  connected  with  Lough 
Corrib  by  a  canal,  and  forms  the  terminus  of  the 
Midland  Great  Western  Railway.  A  line  of  steamers 
has,  with  a  few  interruptions,  run  for  the  last  four 
years  between  G.  and  the  North  American  colonies, 
seven  days  being  considered  the  usual  time  for  a  fair 
passage.  The  old  town  of  G.  is  poorly  built  and 
irregular,  and  some  of  its  older  houses  have  a  some- 
what Spanish  appearance,  which  is  accounted  for 
by  the  commercial  intercourse  which  at  one  time 
subsisted  between  G.  and  Spain.  To  one  of  these 
houses,  which  is  marked  with  a  skull  and  cross- 
bones,  a  very  remarkable  story  is  attached,  of  a 
mayor  of  G.,  James  Lynch  Fitzstephen,  who,  in 
1493,  like  Brutus  of  old,  condemned  his  own  son 
to  death  for  murder,  and  in  order  to  prevent  his 
being  rescued,  actually  caused  him  to  be  hanged 
from  his  own  window.  The  new  town  consists 
of  well-planned  and  spacious  streets,  and  is  built 
on  a  rising-ground,  which  slopes  gradually  toward 
the  sea  and  the  river.  The  suburbs  are  mainly 
collections  of  wretched  cabins,  inhabited  by  a 
miserably  poor  class  of  people.  One  of  these 
suburbs,  called  Claddagh,  is  inhabited  by  fishermen, 
who  exclude  all  strangers  from  their  society,  and 
marry  within  their  own  circle.  These  fishermen 
Btill  speak  the  Irish  language,  and  the  Irish  costume 
is  still  worn  by  the  w^omen.  They  annually  elect  a 
*  mayor,'  whose  function  it  is  to  administer  the 
laws  of  their  fishery,  and  to  superintend  all  internal 
regulations.  One  of  the  principal  buildings  of  G. 
is  the  parish  church  of  St  Nicholas,  founded  in  1320, 
in  connection  with  which  is  an  ecclesiastical  body 
called  the  Royal  College  of  Galway,  consisting  of  a 
warden  and  eight  vicars  choral,  who  are  elected  by 
the  Protestant  members  of  the  corporation.  In 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  a  similar  ecclesiastical 
arrangement  foniierly  existed.  The  see  of  Enach- 
dune,  of  which  G.  formed  a  part,  was  united  to 
that  of  Tuam  in  1324 ;  but  in  1484,  G.  was  consti- 
tuted a  wardenship,  with  a  distinct  jurisdiction, 
similar  to  that  of  an  episcopal  see.  The  warden - 
ship,  in  later  times,  was  held  by  one  of  the 
bishops  of  the  neighbouring  sees.  The  right  of 
fcitscting  the  warden,  however,  was  vested  in  certain 


Catholic  clans  or  families  of  the  town- -Blakea. 
Bodkins,  Lynches,  Frenches,  &c. — who,  by  a  cunoua 
local  custom  were  distributed  into  13  tribes,  'lliia 
singular  system,  almost  without  examy>le  in  the 
Catholic  Church,  continued  in  use  until  about  30 
years  ago  ;  when,  in  1831,  the  wardenship  of 
G.  was  erected  into  an  episcopal  see,  the  bishop 
of  which  is  appointed  by  the  same  rules  which 
regulate  other  Episcopal  appointments  in  Ireland. 
Among  the  other  edifices  are  three  monasteries 
and  five  nunneries ;  the  Queen's  College,  o])ened 
in  1849 ;  Erasmus  Smith's  College,  with  au  enclowed 
income  of  £126  a  year;  the  county  court-house; 
barracks,  &c.  G.  has  numerous  Hour  and  othsr 
mills,  also  breweries,  distilleries,  foundries,  &c., 
extensive  salmon  and  sea  fishing,  a  good  harbour, 
with  docks  that  admit  vessels  of  500  tons,  and  a 
light-house.  The  exports  consist  mainly  of  corn, 
flour,  bacon,  fish,  kelp,  and  marble.  About  3.')0  ves- 
sels, of  98,000  tons,  enter  and  clear  the  port  annually. 
G.  returns  two  members  to  parliament.  The 
population  of  the  town  of  Galway  in  1871 
amounted  to  13,184 — a  decrease  since  1851  of 
10,603. 

G.  was  taken  by  Richard  de  Burgo  in  1232,  and 
the  ancestors  of  many  of  the  leading  families  now 
resident  in  this  quarter  settled  here  about  that  time. 
From  the  13th  till  the  middle  of  the  17th  c,  G. 
continued  to  rise  in  commercial  importance.  During 
the  latter  part  of  the  17th  c,  it  suffered  consider 
ably  for  its  adherence  to  the  royalist  cause.  In 
1652,  it  was  taken  by  Sir  Charles  Coote  after  a 
blockade  of  several  months;  and  in  July  1691,  it 
was  compelled  to  surrender  to  General  Grinkell. 

GALWAY,  a  maritime  county  of  Ireland,  forms' 
the  southern  portion  of  the  province  of  Connaught. 
and  is  second  in  size  of  all  the  Irish  counties,  Cork 
being  the  largest.  It  is  bounded  on  the  E.  by  two 
navigable  rivers,  the  Shannon,  and  its  aflluent  the 
Suck;  and  on  the  W.  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It 
has  an  area  of  1,566,354  acres,  of  which  the  one 
half  is  arable,  and  almost  the  whole  of  the  remainder 
imcultivated.  Pop.  (1851)  297,897  ;  (1871)  235,073. 
The  county  of  G.  is  watered  in  the  east  by  the 
Shannon,  the  Suck,  and  their  feeders;  and  in  the 
west  by  Loughs  Mask  and  Corrib,  and  by  th« 
streams — none  of  them  of  any  great  importance — 
which  fall  into  the  loughs  and  into  Galway  Bay. 
Ill  the  most  southern  portion  of  the  coimty  are  the 
SKeve-Baughta  Mountains ;  and  in  the  west  are  the 
well-known  Twelve  Pius,  a  striking  moimtain  group, 
with  a  general  height  of  about  2000  feet ;  and  the 
Maam-Turk  mountains,  of  about  an  equal  height. 
This  western  portion  of  the  county  is  exceedingly 
wild  and  romantic;  the  hills  are  separated  by 
picturesque  glens,  and  by  secluded  and  beautiful 
loughs.  South-west  from  Lough  Corrib  to  the  sea 
is  the  district  called  Connemara,  which  contains 
vast  bogs,  moors,  lakes,  and  morasses,  and  presents 
a  peculiarly  bleak  and  dreary  aspect.  North-east 
of  Connemara  is  Joyce's  Countiy,  and  south-east  of 
it  is  lar-Connaught,  or  Western  Connaught.  Tha 
coast-line  is  stated  to  be  about  400  miles  in  length, 
and  the  shore  is  much  broken,  and  is  fringed  witli 
numerous  islands.  On  the  coasts  of  Connemara 
{Cun-na-mar^  'bays  of  the  sea')  and  lar-Connaught. 
there  are  more  harbours  for  vessels  of  large  size 
than  on  any  equal  extent  of  coast  perhaps  in  Europe. 
The  climate  is  mild  and  humid,  and  in  low-lying 
localities,  is  sometimes  imhealthy.  The  richest  soO 
occurs  in  the  district  between  the  head  of  Galvay 
Bay  and  the  Shannon.  Agriculture  and  fghing  £r« 
the  most  general  pursuits;  kelp  is  largely  manu- 
factured ;  also  woollens,  hnens,  friezes,  felt  hats,  are 
manufactured  The  lakes  and  loughs,  as  well  aa 
the  coasts  of  G.,  are  well  stocked  with  fish.  The 


GALWAY  BAY— GAMA. 


xninty  of  G.  abounds  in  ancient  remains  of  the 
Celtic  as  well  as  of  the  English  j)eriod.  Baths  and 
cromlechs  are  numerous  ;  monastic  ruins  are  found 
in  all  parts  of  the  county ;  a  very  fine  specimen  of 
this  class  is  that  of  Knockmoy,  near  Tuam ;  and 
there  are  no  fewer  than  seven  round  towers  in 
the  county.  G.  county  sends  two  members  to 
parliament. 

GALWAY  BAY,  an  inlet  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
on  the  west  coast  of  Ireland,  between  the  counties 
of  Galway  and  Clare.  It  is  a  noble  sheet  of  water, 
and  offers  great  facilities  for  an  extended  commerce. 
Great  efforts  have  been  made  to  obtain  a  i)ublic 
grant  for  the  construction  of  a  liarbour  of  refuge ; 
and  a  company  was  formed  in  1858  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Transatlantic  packet-service  alluded 
to  in  the  article  Galway.  A  series  of  misadven- 
tures, however,  has  hitherto  attended  its  efforts ; 
but  it  is  hoped  that  its  o])erations  will  be  resumed 
with  greater  vigour  in  the  present  year  (1802). 
G.  B.  is  30  miles  in  length  from  west  to  east,  and 
has  an  average  breadth  of  about  10  miles.  At  its 
entrance,  and  between  the  North  and  South  Sounds, 
are  the  islands  of  Arran. 

GA'LYZIN,  or  GOLYZIN,  also  frequently 
Galiztn,  Galitzin,  or  Gallitzin,  one  of  the  most 
numerous,  powerful,  and  distinguished  Ilussian 
families.  It  derives  its  origin  from  the  Lithuanian 
prince  Gedimin,  the  founder  of  the  Jagellonian 
dynasty  of  rulers  in  Poland,  Hungary,  and  Bohemia. 
Among  the  leading  memljcrs  of  the  family  may  be 
mentioned — 1.  The  pi'inccs  Michail  and  Dimitri 
G.,  Kussian  commanders  under  Wassili  IV.,  grand- 
duke  of  Warsaw,  who  were  taken  prisoners  by  the 
Poles  at  the  battle  of  Orscha  in  1514.  Dimitri  died 
in  captivity,  and  Michail  was  only  released  after  a 
confinement  of  38  years. — 2.  Wassili  G.,  surnamed 
the  Great,  born  in  1G33,  was  the  councillor  and 
favourite  of  Sophia,  the  sister  of  Peter  the  Great, 
and  regent  during  his  minority.  Wassili  was  a  man 
of  liberal  culture  and  civilised  tastes.  Kis  great  aim 
was  to  bring  Russia  into  contact  with  the  west  of 
Europe,  and  to  encourage  the  arts  and  sciences  in 
the  native  gymnasia,  and  at  the  court  itself.  His 
design  to  marry  Sophia,  and  plant  himself  on  the 
JRussian  throne,  hoAvever,  miscarried.  Sophia  was 
placed  by  her  brother  in  a  convent,  and  Wassili  was 
lianished  to  a  spot  on  the  Frozen  Ocean,  where  he 
died  of  poison. — 3.  Boris  G.,  cousin  of  the  pre- 
vious, was  Peter  the  Great's  tutor,  and  one  of  the 
administrators  of  the  kingdom  during  the  czar's 
first  journey  abroad. — 4.  Dimitri  G.,  also  a  cousin 
of  Wassili' s,  was  a  distinguished  Russian  statesman ; 
ambassador  at  the  Tui'kish  court ;  afterwards  direc- 
tor of  the  imperial  finances ;  and  finally  head  of  the 
»-ef orra  party  of  Galyzin  and  Dolgoruki,  which  wished 
to  limit  the  absolute  authority  of  the  czar.  Dimitri's 
plan  failed ;  the  two  families  were  banished,  and 
Dimitri  himself  ended  his  days  in  the  dungeons  of 
Schusselburg. — 5.  Michael  G.,  born  about  1675, 
was  brother  of  Dimitri,  and  one  of  the  most  distin- 
guished Russian  generals.  Pie  was  the  inseparable 
companion  of  Peter  the  Great  in  aU  his  campaigns. 
His  most  famous  achievement  was  the  conquest  of 
Finland.  He  died  at  Moscow,  1730.— 6.  Dimitri  G., 
bom  1738,  went  as  Russian  ambassador  to  France 
in  1763,  and  to  Holland  in  1773.  He  died  in  1803. 
He  wrote  one  or  two  books,  but  he  owes  the 
preservation  of  his  name  mainly  to  his  wife,  the 
celebrated  Amalie,  PPvINCESS  G.,  daughter  of  the 
Pnissian  general.  Count  von  Schmettau.  This  lady 
(born  at  Berlin,  August  28,  1748)  was  remarkable 
for  her  literary  culture,  her  grace  and  amiability  of 
disposition,  her  sympathetic  relations  with  scholars 
ana  poets,  but,  above  all,  by  her  ardent  pietism, 
608 


which  found  its  most  congenial  sphere  in  the  raystio 
and  venerable  sanctities  of  Roman  Catholicism. 
Having  separated  from  her  husband,  she  took  iij. 
her  residence  in  Munster,  where  she  gathered  round 
her  a  circle  of  learned  companions.  Here  resided 
for  a  longer  or  shorter  time  Von  FUrstenberg, 
Goethe,  Jacobi,  and  others,  but  her  most  attached 
friends  were  Hemsterhuis  and  Hamann.  She  ia 
the  Diotima  to  whom  the  former  of  these,  under 
the  name  of  Dioklas,  addressed  his  Lettre  sur 
PAthciwie  (1785).  She  largely  contributed  to  ths 
conversion  of  Count  Stolberg  and  his  family  to 
Roman  Catholicism,  and  called  forth  that  excess  of 
religious  feeling  which  for  a  considerable  period 
characterised  many  circles  of  German  society,  and 
which  Voss  so  sharply  reproved  in  his  Wie  ward 
Fritz  Stolberg  cm  Uvfreier  (How  Fritz  Stolberg 
became  a  Slave).  The  Princess  Amalie  died  August 
24,  1806. — Compare  Denkwdrdigkeitcn  aus  dem  Leben 
der  Filrstin  Amalie  von  G.  (Munster,  1828). — 7. 
Dimitri  Augustine  G.,  son  of  the  foregoing,  was 
Ijorn  at  the  Hague,  December  22,  1770.  He  became 
a  Ivoman  Catholic  in  his  17th  year,  shortly  after  hia 
mother ;  and  through  the  influence  exercised  over 
him  by  a  clerical  tutor  during  a  voyage  to  America, 
he  resolved  to  devote  himself  to  the  jjriestliood.  In 
1795,  Dimitri  Augustine  was  ordained  a  priest  in 
the  Ujiited  States  by  Bishop  Carroll  of  Baltimore, 
and  betook  himself  to  a  bleak  region  among  the 
Alleghany  Moimtains,  in  Pennsylvania,  where  he  waa 
known  as  '  Father  Smith.'  Here  he  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  a  town,  called  Loretto,  which  has  now 
population  of  GOOO.  He  was  austere  as  regards  hia 
personal  mode  of  life,  but  liberal  in  the  highest 
degree  to  others,  and  an  affectionate  and  indefatig- 
able pastor.  He  wrote  various  controversial  works, 
some  of  which  arc  still  largely  read  in  the  United 
States.  We  may  mention  his  Defence  of  Catholio 
Principles,  Letter  to  a  ProteMant  Friend,  and  Appeal 
to  the  Protestant  Public.  He  died  at  Loretto,  May 
6,  1840.— 8.  Prince  Emanuel  G.,  born  in  Paris, 
1804,  studied  in  that  city,  and  afterwards  entered 
the  Russian  army.  He  translated  into  French 
Wran gel's  book  on  Northern  Siberia,  and  wrote 
an  interesting  work,  entitled  La  Finlande.  Noiei 
recueillies  en  1848  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1852).  He  died  al 
Paris,  February  1853. 

GAMA,  DoM  Vasco  da,  the  discoverer  of  the 
maritime  route  to  India,  was  born,  it  is  not  precisely 
knoA\n  when,  at  Sines,  a  small  seaport  of  Portugal 
He  was  descended  of  an  ancient  family,  which  waa 
even  supposed  to  have  royal  blood  in  its  veins, 
though  not  legitimately.  At  an  early  period,  he 
distinguished  himself  as  an  intrepid  mariner ;  and 
after  the  return  of  Bartolommeo  Diaz,  in  1487,  from 
doubling  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  King  Jo-lo,  in 
casting  about  for  a  proper  man  to  undertake  the 
discovery  of  a  southern  passage  to  India,  fixed  on 
G.,  so  great  was  the  confidence  which  his  abilities 
inspired.  The  intentions  of  Joao  were  frustrated  by 
death;  but  his  successor,  Manoel  the  Fortunate, 
fitted  out  four  vessels,  manned  altogether  with  160 
men,  and  intrusted  them  to  the  command  of  G., 
presenting  him  at  the  same  time  with  letters  to  all 
the  potentates  whom  it  was  thought  likely  he  might 
require  to  visit ;  among  others,  one  to  the  mythical 
'  Prester  John,'  then  supposed  to  be  reigning  iu 
splendour  somewhere  in  the  east  of  Africa.  The 
little  fleet  left  Lisbon  8th  July  1497,  but  having 
been  tormented  by  temi^estuous  winds  almost  the 
whole  way,  only  arrived  at  the  haven  now  known  aa 
Table  Bay  on  the  16th  of  November,  where  they 
cast  anchor  for  a  few  days.  On  the  19th  November, 
G.,  after  encountering  a  series  of  frightful  storms, 
and  being  obliged  to  sternly  suppress  a  mutiny 
among  his  terrified  crew,  who  wanted  him  to  return 


GAMA  GRASS— GAMALIEI; 


to  Portugal,  sailed  round  the  southern  extremity  of 
Afiica,  and  touched  at  varioiis  places  ou  the  hitherto 
unknown  eastern  coast  of  Africa,  At  Melinda, 
where  he  found  the  people  far  more  civilised  thau 
he  expected,  he  obtained  the  services  of  a  well- 
educated  pilot,  a  native  of  Guzerat,  in  India,  who 
seemed  familiar  with  the  astrolabe,  the  compass, 
and  quadrant.  Under  his  guidance,  G.  struck  out 
to  sea,  crossed  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  arrived  at 
Calicut,  in  India,  on  the  20th  of  May  1498.  His 
reception  by  the  ruler  of  Calicut  (the  '  Samudri- 
Rajah,'  or  Prmce  of  the  Coast,  shortened  into 
Zamorin)  was  not  very  favourable,  nor  did  G.'s 
intercourse  with  him  subsequently  improve.  The 
Arab  merchants  residing  there  were  jealous  of  the 
new-comers,  who  might  interfere  with  their  mono- 
poly of  traffic,  and  incited  the  Hindus  against  them. 
Other  complications  also  arose,  and  the  result  was 
that,  on  his  departure,  G.  had  to  fight  his  way  out 
of  the  harbour.  Satisfied  with  the  discoveries 
he  had  made,  the  Portuguese  commander  now 
turned  his  course  homeward,  touched  at  several  of 
the  places  he  had  previously  visited,  and  in  Sep- 
tember 1499,  cast  anchor  at  Lisbon,  where  he  was 
received  with  great  distinction.  High-sounding 
titles  were  conferred  on  him.  He  was  allowed 
the  rare  privilege  of  prefixing  Dom  to  his  name, 
and  obtained  a  large  indemnity  for  his  trouble, 
besides  certain  monopolies  in  the  commerce  about 
to  be  opened  with  India.  King  Manoel  immediately 
despatched  a  squadron  of  13  ships,  under  Pedro 
Alvarez  Cabral,  to  India,  for  the  purpose  of  estab- 
lishing Portuguese  settlements  in  that  country.  In 
this  they  were  successful  only  in  a  few  places.  At 
Calicut,  forty  Portuguese,  who  had  been  left  behind, 
were  murdered  by  the  natives.  To  avenge  this 
injmy,  and,  more  particularly,  to  secure  the 
Indian  Ocean  commerce,  the  king  fitted  out  a  new 
squadron  of  20  ships,  which  set  sail  under  G.'s 
command  in  1502.  This  fleet  reached  in  safety 
the  east  coast  of  Africa,  founded  the  Portuguese 
colonies  of  Mozambique  and  Sofala,  which  still 
exist,  and  sailed  to  Travancore.  On  his  way,  G. 
captured  a  richly  laden  vessel  filled  with  Mussid- 
mans  from  all  parts  of  Asia,  on  their  way  to 
Mecca.  He  barbarously  set  it  on  fire ;  and  the 
whole  crew,  amounting  to  about  300,  were  burned 
or  slain,  with  the  excei)tion  of  some  20  women 
and  children.  What  adds  to  the  tragic  character 
of  this  fearful  incident  is,  that  it  occurred  through 
a  mistake.  G.  confounded  these  Asiatic  followers 
of  the  Prophet  with  the  Moors  of  Africa,  the 
hereditary  enemies  of  his  nation,  and  proceeded 
to  extremities  on  that  assumption.  On  reaching 
Calicut,  G.,  after  a  delay  of  a  few  days,  bombarded 
tbe  place,  destroyed  a  fleet  ^of  29  ships,  and  com- 
pelled the  rajah  to  conclude  a  peace  with  suitable 
indemnification.     If  this  act  of  vengeance  or  of 

Sunishment,  executed  as  it  was  with  prudence  and 
etermination,  inspired  the  natives  with  fear  of  the 
power  of  the  Portuguese,  it  contributed  to  confirm 
tHe  alliances  made  with  several  of  the  native  jjrinces. 
So  rapid  had  been  G.'s  proceedings,  that  before  the 
close  of  December  1503,  he  was  back  in  Portugal 
with  13  richly  laden  vessels.  He  was  not,  however, 
again  employed  for  a  period  of  20  years ;  and  it  would 
appear  that  Manoel,  for  some  reason  or  other,  failed 
properly  to  appreciate  his  great  services.  Mean- 
while, the  Portuguese  conquests  in  India  increased, 
and  were  presided  over  by  five  successive  viceroys, 
while  G.  was  lying  inactive  at  home.  The  fifth  of 
these  viceroys,  however,  was  so  unfortunate,  that 
King  Joao  HI.,  the  successor  of  Manoel,  was  com- 
pelled to  have  recourse  to  the  old  hero ;  and  in  1524, 
bearing  the  title  of  viceroy,  G.  set  sail  once  more 
for  the  scejie  of  his  former  triumphs  with  a  fleet  of 
ld6 


13  or  14  vessels.  As  he  approached  the  coast  of 
India,  an  unaccountaljlo  agitation  of  the  water  was 
observed  by  all.  There  was  no  wind  to  cause  it, 
and  the  superstitious  sailors  were  greatly  alarmccL 
'  Why  fear  ? '  said  G. :  '  the  sea  trembles  Ijefore  its 
conquerors.'  His  firmness  and  courage  succeeded  in 
making  Portugal  once  more  respected  in  India;  l)ut 
whde  engaged  in  his  successful  schemes,  he  was 
surprised  by  death  at  Cochin,  December  1525.  Hia 
body  was  conveyed  to  Portugal,  and  buried  with 
great  pomp.  In  the  character  of  G.,  resolution  was 
found  combined  with  prudence  and  great  presence 
of  mind.  His  justice,  loyalty,  honour,  and  religious 
fervour  distinguished  him  above  most  of  the  great 
navigators  and  conquerors  of  his  time.  His  dia* 
covery  of  a  passage  to  India  almost  vies  in  import- 
ance .with  the  discovery  of  America  by  ColumbuSf 
which  took  place  only  a  few  years  before.  Consult 
Barros,  Decades;  Castanpeda  and  Lafitau,  Hist. 
Conqu.  Portug.;  and  Cooley,  Hist.  31  ar.  Discov, 
His  achievements  are  also  celebrated  by  Camoens  in 
the  Lusiad. 

GAMA  GRASS  {Tr'tpsacum),  a  genus  of  Grasses, 
distinguished  by  unisexual  flowers  placed  in  spikes, 
which  are  fertile  at  the  base,  and  barren  towards 
the  extremity,  the  spikelcls  having  two  glumes  and 
about  two  florets,  the  female  florets  immersed  in  the 
thick  and  sinuous  joints  of  the  rachis,  so  that  the 
spike,  when  the  seed  is  ripened,  presents  the  appear- 
ance of  a  cylindrical  bone.  Only  two  species  are 
known,  of  which  T.  dactyloides,  the  Gama  Grass  of 
Mexico,  distinguished  by  having  sj^kes  usually  three 
together,  has  a  high  reputation  as  a  fodder-grass, 
and  is  cultivated  in  Mexico,  and  to  some  extent  in 
Europe,  and  sometimes  used  as  a  fodder  in  the  south- 
ern states.  In  favourable  circumstances  it  yields  a 
very  abundant  crop,  and  attains  a  height  of  nine  or 
ten  feet,  its  root-leaves  measuring  six  feet  in  length. 
It  possesses  what,  for  some  climates,  is  an  almost  in- 
valuable property  of  bearing  excessive  drought  with- 
out injury.  It  sufl^ers,  however,  from  frost.  It  seems 
eminently  adapted  to  the  climate  of  the  Australian 
colonies.  The  Oama  Grass,  or  Grama,  as  generally 
termed  on  the  western  plains,  appears  to  be  a  Chon- 
drosium.  It  is  well  adapted  to  an  arid  climate.  The 
Buffalo  Grass  is  a  s[)ecies  of  this  genus.  Gama  Grass 
is  said  to  derive  its  name  from  a  Spanish  gentleman 
who  first  attempted  its  cultivation  in  Mexico. 

GAMA'LIEL,  the  Greek  form  of  the  Hebrew 
name  Gamli'el  {My  reivarder  is  God;  or,  Idine 
also  is  God),  the  most  celebrated  bearer  of  which 
is  Gamaliel  I.,  or  the  Elder  (hasaken),  probably  the 
one  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament  (Acts,  v.  34, 
and  xxii.  3).  Both  here  and  in  the  Talmudical 
writings,  he  appears  oidy  in  his  capacity  of  a 
teacher  of  the  law,  and  a  prominent  Pharisaic 
member  of  the  Sanhedrim  (q.  v.);  but  of  the  cir- 
cumstances of  his  life,  or  the  date  of  his  birth  and 
death,  we  learn  nothing  from  these,  the  only  sources. 
He  was  the  son  of  Simeon,  the  same,  it  may  be 
assumed,  who  was  first  honoured  by  the  title  of 
Raban  (our  master) — a  mark  of  distinction  after- 
wards bestowed  on  Gamaliel  himself — and  thus 
the  grandson  of  the  celebrated  Hillel.  A\Tiether  (as 
would  follow  from  Pesacliim,  88  b.)  he  actually 
presided  over  the  Sanhedrim  (La  the  reigns  of  Tibe- 
rius, Caligula,  and  Claudius)  or  not,  certain  it  is 
that  the  laws  and  ordinances  which  were  issued 
by  that  body  during  his  life  bore  the  stamp  of  the 
all-embracing  humanity  and  eidightened  liberality 
which  from  the  'regal'  House  of  "Hillel  M'as  trans- 
ferred to  the  School  of  Hdlel — principally  as  opposed 
to  the  particularising  and  austere  school  of  ShamaL 
To  the  refinement  and  erudition  hereditajy  in  his 
family — to  which,  alone,  on  account  of  its  exalted 


G  AJ^IB— GAMBLING. 


position,  even  the  otlierwise  strictly  forbidden  study 
of  Creek  science  and  philosophy  had  been  allowed 
(cf.  Derech  Eretz,  iv.) — G.  appears  to  have  added 
a  rare  degree  of  discretion,  and  of  that  practical 
wisdom  which  betimes  revokes  or  adapts  social 
laws,  according  to  the  wants  of  the  common- 
wealth. For  the  benefit  of  sufferers  of  all  kinds, 
that  most  stringent  law  of  the  limited  Sabbath- 
day's  journey  was  relaxed  ;  the  licence  hitherto 
allowed  to  the  absent  husband,  of  annulling  his 
letter  of  divorce  (if  he  regretted  his  rashness),  even 
aftei'  its  delivery,  before  any  court  of  two  or  of 
three  men,  was  abolished  (Gittin,  32) ;  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  to  prevent  confusion,  prepense  or 
involuntary,  the  strictest  accuracy  with  respect 
to  the  names  of  the  husband,  wife,  and  witnesses 
contained  in  these  documents  was  most  rigorously 
enforced.  Again,  the  widow  was  to  receive  her 
marriage-portion  (Kethuba)  from  the  recalcitrant 
heirs,  simply  on  her  asseveration  that  she  had  not 
received  it  during  her  husband's  lifetime :  w^hile 
formerly  she  had  not  been  permitted  to  make  oath 
even  in  the  matter  (Gittin,  34).  But  no  less 
important,  and  testifying,  at  the  same  time,  to  a 
spirit  free  from  prejudice,  are  the  other  laws 
resi)ecting  the  treatment  of  the  Gentiles,  which 
may  properly  be  ascribed  to  G.'s  influence,  if  indeed 
they  were  not  inaugurated  by  himself.  Gentile  and 
Jew,  it  was  enacted,  should  henceforth,  without 
distinction,  be  allowed  the  gleanings  of  the  harvest- 
field  ;  even  on  the  day  specially  set  aside  to  his 
idol-wort^ihip,  the  former  should  be  greeted  with 
the  salutation  of  peace.  Of  his  poor,  the  same  care 
was  to  be  taken  ;  his  sick  were  to  be  tended,  his 
(lead  to  be  buried,  his  mourners  to  be  comforted, 
exactly  as  if  they  belonged  to  the  Jewish  com- 
munity (Gittin,  59  b.,  61  ff. ;  Jer.  Gitt.  c.  5)— cer- 
tainly no  mean  tribxite  to  the  principle  of  the 
equality  of  the  human  race,  and  a  practical  carrying 
out  of  Hillel's  motto,  the  words  ot  the  Scripture 
(Lev.  xix.  18),  'And  thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbour 
as  thyself  (cf.  Sabbath,  30  b.  ff.).  The  consideration 
of  these  and  other  legislative  acts,  all  tending 
towards  that  social  improvement  and  consolidation 
( TiJcku  n  H aolam)  which  was  G.  's  avowed  and  acknow- 
ledged aim,  seems  also  to  set  at  rest  that  old  and 
barren  dispute,  whether  G.,  when  he  interj>osed  on 
behalf  of  the  apostles,  and  referi-ed  their  matter  to 
God  himself,  v.^as  secretly  a  Christian,  or  whether 
he  was  '  a  cowardly  tyrant,  who  even  sought  to 
withhold  from  them  the  privilege  of  martyrdom.' 
Tolerant,  peaceful,  as  free  from  fanaticism  on  the 
one  hand,  as  on  the  other  from  partiality  for  the 
new  sect,  which  he  seems  to  have  placed  simply 
on  a  par  with  the  many  other  sects  that  sprang 
up  in  those  days,  and  disappeared  as  quickly :  he 
exhorts  to  long-suffering  and  good- will  on  all  sides. 
Of  his  relation  to  St  Paid,  of  the  '  Law '  he  taught 
him  (Acts,  xxii.  3),  as  well  as  of  the  influence  which 
his  mind  might  have  exercised  over  that  of  the 
'  apostle  of  the  Gentiles,'  we  shall  treat  ujider  the 
name  of  this  latter. 

When  G.  died  (about  seventeen  years  before  the 
Jestrnctiou  of  the  Temple),  '  the  glory  of  the  law ' 
was  said  to  have  departed,  and  with  him  '  died  the 
reverence  before  the  law  and  the  purity  of  the 
abstinence^  (Pharisaism),  (Sota,  49).  His  memory 
has  always  been  held  in  the  highest  honour.  The 
Btory  of  his  conversion  to  Christianity,  we  need 
Bcarcely  add,  is  as  devoid  of  any  historical  foun- 
dation as  that  of  the  transmission  of  his  bones 
to  Pisa.  Li  conclusion,  it  may  be  mentioned,  that  G. 
has  been  placed  on  the  list  of  Christian  Saints,  and 
that  his  day  is  celebrated  on  the  3d  of  August. 

GAMB,  an  heraldic  corruption  of  the  French 
word  jambe,  the  leg.    See  Jambe. 

6L0 


GAMBA.    See  Viol  di  Gamba, 

GA'MBESON,  or  WAMBEYS,  a  word  of  doubt, 
ful  origin,  imj)lying  a  covering  for  the  body,  was 
the  name  of  a  thickly  quilted  tunic  stuffed  with 
wool,  and  worn  by  knights  under  the  hauberk, 
as  a  padding  for  the  armour.  As  it  was  sufficiently 
strong  to  resist  ordinary  cuts,  it  was  sometimes 
worn  without  other  armour.  The  surcoat  waa 
also  quilted  or  fjamhoised  with  cotton  wool,  as  iu 
that  of  the  Black  Prince,  still  hanging  above  hia 
tomb  iu  Canterbury  cathedral. 

GA'MBIA,  a  river  of  Western  Africa,  whose 
basin,  and  that  of  the  Senegal,  constitute  the 
region  known  as  Senegambia,  enters  the  Atlantic 
in  lat.  13°  30'  N.,  and  long.  10°  34'  W.,  after  ao 
estimated  course  of  fully  1000  miles.  It  is  foru 
miles  broad  at  its  mouth,  having  a  reach  oJE 
double  the  width  immediately  inside.  It  is  navi- 
gable for  vessels  of  150  tons  up  to  Barraconda,  a 
town  on  its  right  bank,  about  200  miles  from 
the  sea. 

GAMBIA,  a  British  settlement  occupying  the 
banks  of  the  river  of  the  same  name,  as  far  up 
as  Barraconda,  though  not  continuously.  The 
principal  station,  Bathurst,  is  situated  on  the  island 
of  St.  Mary,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gambia.  Other 
posts  are  Fort  James  and  Fort  George,  the  former 
also  situated  on  St  Mary's,  and  the  latter  on 
Macnrtliy's  Island,  180  miles  from  the  sea.  Pop.  of 
the  settlement,  in  1871,  14,190,  of  whom  560  were 
whites.  The  climate  is  comparatively  healthy,  indeed 
the  most  healthy  P^uropean  settlement  in  Western 
Africa.  The  export  trade,  already  considerable,  is 
steadily  increasing,  comprising  chiefly  wax,  hides, 
ivory,  gold  dust,  rice,  palm  oil,  horns,  tiinher,  and 
ground  nuts.  The  total  public  revenue  in  1871  was 
£17,490,  and  the  expenditure  £I6,663.  Gambia  is  a 
dependency  of  Sierra  Leone  ;  and  its  natives  are  re- 
ported to  be  superior  to  the  other  intertropical  tribes 
of  Africa  in  intelligence  and  civilization.  Education 
is  well  attended  to. 

GA'MBIER  ISLANDS,  a  Polynesian  groui\ 
under  a  French  protectorate,  in  lat.  23°  8'  S., 
and  long.  134°  55'  W.  They  number  five  larger, 
and  several  smaller  islands,  all  of  coral  formation. 
With  the  exception  of  Pitcairn's  Island,  they  alone, 
on  the  route  between  Chili  and  Tahiti,  yield  good 
water  in  sufficient  abundance  for  the  supply  of 
shipping. 

GA'MBIR,  or  GAMBEER,  an  astringent  sub- 
stance  resembling  Catechu  (q.  v.),  and  used  for 
the  same  purposes.  It  is  one  of  the  most  powerfiil 
of  i)ure  astringents.  It  is  prepared  from  the  leaves 
of  the  G.  shrub,  Uncaria  Gavibir,  a  native  of  the 
East  Indies  and  Malay  Archipelago.  The  genua 
Uncaria  belongs  to  the  natural  order  Cinchonacece, 
The  G.  shrub  is  very  extensively  cultivated  in  che 
Eastern  Archipelago,  great  quantities  of  G.  being 
used  by  the  Malays  for  chewing  with  betel.  G. 
is  obtained  by  boiling  or  infusing  the  leaves  in 
water,  and  evaporating  either  by  the  heat  of  a 
fire  or  of  the  sun.  It  is  used  in  Europe  both 
in  medicine,  and  extensively  in  tanning.  It  is 
often  called  Terra  Japonica  in  commerce.  When 
examined  by  the  microscope,  it  is  found  to  consist 
in  great  part  of  a  midtitude  of  small  crystals  of 
catechine. 

GAMBLING,  or  G  AIMING,  the  art  or  practice 
of  playing  a  game  of  hazard,  or  one  depending 
paj-tly  on  skill  and  partly  on  hazard,  wnth  a  viev/, 
more  or  I'jss  exclusive,  to  a  pecuniary  gain.  Games 
of  this  nature  were  forbidden  by  the  Romans  both 
under  the  Republic  and  the  Empire  (Cic.  Philip,  li. 
23;  Dig.  ix.  tit.  5;  Cod.  iii  tit.  43).    The  ^oi\ad 


GAMBLING— GAMBOGE. 


on  which  tliis  was  done  was  the  tendency  of  such 
practices,  not  to  demoralise  the  populace,  but  to 
render  them  effeminate  and  unmanly.  Horace 
(Carm.  lii.  24)  complains  that  youths  of  condition, 
instead  of  riding  and  hunting,  had  betaken  them- 
selves to  illegal  games  of  chance.  It  belonged  to 
the  aidiles  to  attend  to  the  public  interest  by 
punishing  violations  of  the  gaming  laws.  During 
the  saturnalia,  which  was  a  period  of  general 
licence,  these  games  were  permitted  (Martial,  iv. 
14),  and  a  like  indulgence  at  other  seasons  was 
extended  to  old  men  both  amongst  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  (Eurip.  Med.  67  ;  Juv.  xiv.  4).  Nor 
has  this  vice  been  confined  to  civilised  nations, 
either  in  the  ancient  or  the  modern  world ;  Tacitus 
(De  Mor.  Ger.  c.  2)  mentions  its  existence  amongst 
our  own  barbarian  forefathers,  and  it  is  known 
to  prevail  amongst  many  half-civilised  and  even 
savage  tribes  at  the  ])resent  day.  In  general,  it  is 
resorted  to  as  a  refuge  against  the  depressing 
Beusations  of  languor  and  vacancy,  which  the  want 
of  active  exertion  causes  in  the  minds  of  those  who 
have  no  inner  life  ;  and  the  classes  most  addicted  to 
it  in  all  countries  are  the  idle,  and  mere  men  of 
business  in  their  idle  hours. 

It  is  remarkable  that  in  England,  as  in  Rome,  the 
gi'ound  on  which  gambling  was  first  prohibited  was, 
not  its  demoralising,  but  its  effeminating  influences 
on  the  community.  The  act  33  Henry  VIII.  c.  9 
(1541)  has  in  view  the  double  object  of  'maintaining 
artillery  and  debarring  unlawfrd  games.'  Bj'  '  artil- 
ery'  appears  to  be  meant  archery,  and  the  act, 
reciting  two  others  in  the  same  reign,  proceeds  on 
the  preamble,  that  the  skill  of  the  people  in  this 
martial  art  '  is  sore  decayed,  and  daily  is  like  to  be 
more  and  more  minished.'  The  cause  of  this  degene- 
rac}^  is  stated  to  have  been  the  practice  among 
the  people  of  '  many  and  sundry  new  and  crafty 
games,'  which  not  only  diverted  popular  attention 
from  the  more  manly  and  patriotic  art  of  shooting 
with  the  bow,  but  gave  rise  to  murders,  robberies, 
and  other  felonies.  The  act  then  proceeds  to  make 
anxious  provisions  for  the  revival  of  the  art  of 
shooting  with  yew  bows,  and  for  the  abolition  of 
the  said  games — among  which  '  carding '  is  expressly 
mentioned — in  any  common  house.  On  this  act 
followed  16  Charles  II.  c.  7,  and  9  Anne,  c.  14,  the 
latter  of  which  declared  that  all  bonds,  or  other 
securities  given  for  money  won  at  play,  or  money 
lent  at  the  time  to  play  with,  should  be  utterly 
x-oid,  and  all  mortgages  or  encumbrances  of  lands 
made  on  the  same  consideration,  should  be  made 
over  to  the  use  of  the  mortgager.  This  statute 
applied  to  Scotland,  where  the  nidlity  was  found  to 
affect  any  one  holding  a  bond  or  bill  as  trustee  for 
the  winner,  but  not  onerous  or  hona-fide  endorsers, 
without  notice  of  the  objection  (Bell's  Com.  i. 
p.  28,  Shaw's  edition).  Such  continued  to  be  the 
statute  law  till  1845,  when  there  was  passed  the 
act;  8  and  9  Vict.  c.  109,  which,  though  it  repealed 
the  obsolete  provisions  of  33  Henry  VIII.  and  16 
Charles  II.  c.  7,  entirely  affirmed,  and  even  extended 
the  prohibitions  of  the  former  enactments  against 
card-playing  and  other  games  in  common  houses, 
and  other  public  places.  By  this  statute,  also,  the 
common  law  of  England  was  altered,  and  wagers, 
which,  with  some  exceptions,  had  hitherto  been 
considered  legal  contracts,  were  declared  to  be  no 
longer  exigible  in  a  court  of  law.  This  prohibition, 
hov/ever,  only  applies  to  bets  and  wagers  made  on 
unlawful  games.  In  Scotland,  an  opposite  ride  had 
been  followed,  the  judges  having  held,  irrespective 
of  the  character  of  the  game,  or  of  any  statutory 
prohibition  regarding  it,  that '  their  proper  functions 
were  to  enforce  the  rights  of  parties  arising  out  of 
Berious  transactions,  and  not  to  pay  regard  to 


sponsiones  ludlcrce.^  The  partial  assimilation  which 
has  now  been  effected  in  this  respect  between  the 
laws  of  the  two  countries,  is  one  the  desirableueag 
of  which  had  been  pointed  out  by  many  eminent 
English  judge!?,  from  the  time  of  Lord  Mansfield 
down  to  the  passing  of  the  act,  and  which  was  at 
last  adopted  in  accordance  with  the  report  of  a 
select  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  in  1844. 
By  this  statute,  it  is  also  provided  that  cheating  at 
})]ay  shall  be  punished  as  obtaining  money  under 
false  pretences.  It  also  facilitates  i)roceedinga 
against  common  gaming-houses,  by  enacting  that 
where  other  evidence  is  awanting,  it  shall  be  sufhcient 
to  prove  that  the  house  or  other  place  is  kept  or 
used  for  playing  at  any  unlawful  game,  and  that  a 
bank  is  there  kept  by  one  or  more  of  the  playsra 
exclusively  of  the  others ;  or  that  the  chances  of 
any  game  played  therein  are  not  alike  favourable 
to  all  the  players,  including  among  the  players  the 
manager  or  managers  of  the  bank.  In  order  to 
constitute  the  house  a  common  gaming-house,  it 
is  not  necessary  to  prove  that  any  person  found 
playing  at  any  game  was  playing  for  any  money, 
wager,  or  stake.  The  police  may  enter  the  house  on 
the  report  of  a  superintendent,  and  the  authority 
of  a  commissioner,  without  the  necessity  of  an 
allegation  of  two  householders  ;  and  if  any  cards, 
dice,  balls,  counters,  tables,  or  other  instrum.ents  of 
gaming  be  found  in  the  house,  or  about  the  })erson 
of  any  of  those  who  shall  be  found  therein,  such 
discovery  shall  be  evidence  against  the  establish- 
ment vuitil  the  contrary  be  made  to  appear. 
Those  who  shall  appear  as  witnesses,  further,  are 
jjrotected  from  the  consequences  of  having  been 
engaged  in  unlawfid  gaming.  This  enactment  does 
not,  of  course,  apply  to  the  playing  of  games  in 
private  hoiises  merely  for  purposes  of  amusement, 
even  though  a  small  pecuniary  stake  should  be 
added  to  enhance  the  interest  of  the  players  ;  but 
where,  from  the  heaviness  of  the  stakes,  and  the 
systematic  and  repeated  character  of  the  playing, 
there  could  be  no  question  that  the  crime  of 
gambling  was  being  committed  in  point  of  fact, 
the  mere  circumstance  of  the  house  being  in  other 
respects  a  private  one,  would  not  protect  the 
players  from  the  statutory  penalties.  In  addition 
to  the  discouragement  given  to  gambling  in  Scot- 
land by  the  rule  that  bets  and  money  gained  at 
play  could  not  be  recovered  by  an  action,  it  was 
also  prohibited  by  statute.  The  act  1621,  c.  14, 
enacts  that  playing  in  taverns  is  prohibited  under 
a  pecuniary  penalty  for  the  first  offence,  and  a 
loss  of  licence  for  the  second.  Playing  in  private 
houses  is  also  forbidden,  if  the  master  of  the  house 
do  not  play.  This  act,  Mr  Bell  says,  is  not  in 
desuetude  {Com.  i.  p.  28),  and  the  act  of  Anne, 
c.  14,  in  so  far  as  not  repealed,  also  applies  to 
Scotland. 

In  most  of  the  states  of  Germany,  gaming  is 
allowed,  and  the  extent  to  which  it  is  practised 
at  the  German  watering-places  is  well  known. 
The  princes  of  the  petty  states  often  derive  a  large 
portion  of  their  revenue  from  the  tenants  of  their 
gaming  establishments,  whose  exclusive  pri\dlege3 
they  guarantee.  Abstracts  of  the  laws  of  different 
countries  relating  to  gaming  were  prepared  by 
J.  M.  Ludlow,  Esq.,  and  laid  before  the  select 
committee  of  the  House  of  Commons.  They  will 
be  found  in  a  condensed  form  in  volume  3  oi 
the  Political  Dictionary  of  the  Standard  Library 
Cydopcedia. 

GAMBO'GE,  or  CAIVIBOGE,  a  gum-resin,  used 
in  medicine  and  the  arts,  brought  from  the  East 
Indies,  and  believed  to  be  the  produce  chiefly  of 
Cambogia  gutta,  also  kno^\Ti  as  Hehradendron 
gambogioides,  a  tree  of.  the  natural  order  Guttifem 

611 


t 


GAMBOGE-GAME. 


a  native  of  Ceylon,  Siam,  Cambodia,  &c.  The 
gamboge-tree  attains  a  height  of  forty  feet,  has 
smooth  oval  lea.ves,  smaU  polygamous  flowers,  and 
clustered  succulent  fruit.  The  fruit  is  about  two 
inclies  in  diameter,  sweet  and  eatable,  and  is  also 
much  used  as  an  ingredient  in  sauces.    When  the 


Gamboge  [Hebradendron  gamhogioides) : 
0,  tack  view  of  a  male  flower  ;  6,  side  view  of  male  flower  ; 
c,  an  anther,  with  its  umbilicate  lid. 

bark  of  the  tree  is  wounded,  G.  exudes  as  a  thick 
viscid  yellow  juice,  which  hardens  by  exposure 
to  the  air.  Another  species  of  the  same  genus  (C. 
pictoria)  occurs  in  the  Mysore,  and  is  believed  to 
produce  G.  of  similar  quality.  The  finest  G.  comes 
from  Siam. — American  G.,  which  is  very  similar,  and 
used  for  the  same  jmrposes,  is  obtained  from  Vismia 
■^uianensis,  a  tree  of  the  natural  order  Hypericince, 
A  native  of  Mexico  and  Surinam. 

G.  occurs  in  commerce  in  three  forms  :  1.  in  rolls 
or  solid  cylinders;  2.  in  pij^es  or  hollow  cylinders; 
and  3.  in  cakes  or  amorphoxis  masses.  The  first  two 
kinds  are  the  purest.  Good  G.  contains  about  70 
per  cent,  of  resin  and  20  per  cent,  of  gum,  the 
remainder  being  made  up  of  woody  fibre,  fecula, 
and  moisture.  On  evaporating  to  dryness  the 
ethereal  texture  of  the  piu-e  gum-resin,  we  obtain  a 
deep  orange-coloured  or  cherry-red  substance,  to 
which  the  terms  gamhogic  and  gomhodic  acid  have 
been  applied.  Its  composition  is  represented  by 
the  formula  C^oHaaOg,  according  to  Johnston  [PhiL 
Trans.  1839).  . 

As  the  detection  of  G.  in  quack  medicines,  &c.,  is 
occasionally  of  great  medico-legal  importance  (death 
ha\nng  often  taken  place  in  consequence  of  the 
administration  of  Morison's  pills  and  similar  pre- 
parations), we  may  mention  the  following  simple 
mode  of  procedure.  Digest  one  portion  of  the  sus- 
pected substance  in  alcohol,  and  another  in  ether. 
In  each  case,  if  G.  is  present,  we  obtain  an  orange- 
coloured  tincture.  The  ethereal  tincture  dropped  in 
water  yields,  on  the  evaporation  of  the  ether,  a 
thin,  bright-yellow  film  of  gambogic  acid,  which  is 
soluble  in  caustic  potash.  The  alcoholic  tincture 
dropped  into  water  yields  a  bright,  opaque,  yellow 
emulsion,  which  becomes  transparent,  and  of  a 
deep  red  colour,  on  the  addition  of  caustic  potash. 
On  the  addition  of  acetate  of  lead  to  either  of 
these  solutions,  we  have  a  yellow  precipitate  of 
gambogiate  of  lead ;  similarly,  sulphate  of  copper 
yields  a  brown,  and  the  salts  of  iron  a  dark-brown 
612 


precipitate  of  the  respective  gambogiates  of  copper 
and  iron. 

In  doses  of  a  drachm,  or  even  less,  G.  acts  as  an 

acrid  poison,  causing  extreme  vomiting  and  purging, 
followed  by  fainting  and  death.  In  small  doses  of 
from  one  to  three  grains,  combined  with  aloes  and 
ginger  or  aromatic  powder,  it  may  be  given  in  cas" 
of  obstinate  constipation,  in  cerebral  affections  (a 
apoplexy,  or  where  there  is  an  apoplectic  tendency) 
in  dropsy  (especially  if  connected  with  hepatio 
obstruction),  and  as  a  remedy  for  tape- worm.  The 
use  of  G.  is  objectionable  when  there  is  an  irritable 
or  inflammatory  condition  A  the  stomach  or  intes- 
tines, or  a  tendency  to  abortion ;  and  it  is  not  very 
often  prescribed  by  orthodox  practitioners. 

G.  is  much  used  by  painters  to  produce  a  beautiful 
yellow  colour.  It  is  also  employed  for  staining 
wood,  and  for  making  a  gold-coloured  lacker  for 
brass.  It  has  a  shelly  fracture,  is  destitute  of 
smell,  and  has  an  acrid  taste.  It  burns  with  a 
dense  smoke  and  many  sparks. 

GAME.  Certain  wild  animals  are  selected  hy 
what  are  called  the  game-laws  from  all  other  ani- 
mals, and  protected,  for  the  exclusive  benefit  of 
those  on  whose  lands  they  are  found.  Game-laws 
of  one  kind  or  another  exist  in  all  modern  countries, 
and  in  recent  times  the  tendency  seems  every- 
where to  be  to  render  them  more  stringent.  In 
ancient  times,  our  kings  distinguished  themselves 
by  the  severity  of  the  forest  laws,  from  which 
the  modem  game-laws  are  descended ;  but  the 
cro■^^^l  has  now  little  to  do  with  game,  except  where 
certain  ancient  forests,  parks,  and  free  warrens 
are  to  be  found,  and  these  continue  to  this  day  to 
be  privileged  places  in  many  respects.  The  game- 
laws  of  England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland  are  still 
quite  distinct,  and  though  in  the  most  material 
parts  they  agree,  yet  there  are  several  peculiarities 
to  be  attended  to.  The  English  statutes  on  the 
subject  now  in  force  are  the  Game  Act  1  and  2 
Will.  IV.  c.  32,  and  its  amendments,  5  and  G  Will 
IV.  c.  20,  and  6  and  7  Will.  IV.  c.  65 ;  the  Night 
Poaching  Act,  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  69,  and  its  amend- 
ment, 7  and  8  Vict.  c.  29  ;  the  Larceny  Act,  24  and 
25  Vict.  c.  96;  the  Hares'  KilHng  Act,  11  and  12 
Vict.  c.  29,  and  the  Game  Licenses'  Acts,  23  and  24 
Vict.  c.  90,  and  2  and  3  Vict.  c.  35.  These,  however, 
only  constitute  the  statute  law  on  the  subject,  and 
there  is  interwoven  with  them  the  common  law, 
both  of  which  require  to  be  taken  together.  Our 
present  space  precludes  our  giving  more  than  the 
substance  of  the  leading  doctrines  on  the  subject. 

Blackstone  laid  down  the  doctrine,  that  at  com- 
mon law  the  sole  right  of  hunting  and  killmg  game 
belonged  to  the  crown,  and  that  the  subject  could 
only  claim  this  right  by  tracing  title  to  the  crown. 
This  doctrine  has,  however,  been  clearly  shewn  to 
be  erroneous,  and  Professor  Christian  was  the  first 
to  point  it  out.  It  is  now  well  settled  that  at  com- 
mon law  the  owner  of  the  soil,  or,  if  he  has  granted 
a  lease  without  reserving  the  ri|^ht,  then  the  lessee 
or  occupier,  has  the  right  to  kill  and  catch  every 
wild  animal  that  comes  on  his  lands.  This  is  stiU 
the  law,  but  the  game-laws  have  made  it  necessary 
that  the  owner,  or  other  person  having  the  legal 
right,  shall,  before  doing  so,  take  out  a  game-licence 
— in  other  words,  pay  a  tax  to  the  state.  Not  only 
is  a  game-hcence  necessary  in  all  cases,  but  there 
is  a  certain  season,  called  the  close  season,  during 
which  it  is  unlawful  for  every  person,  whether 
having  the  legal  right  or  not,  to  catch  or  kill  game. 
Game  is  defined  to  include  the  following  animals 
only — viz.,  hares,  pheasants,  partridges,  i^ouse, 
heath-game,  moor-game,  black-game,  and  bustards. 
The  close  season  applies  only  to  the  winged  game, 
so  that  hares  can  be  lawfully  killed  all  the  year 


GAMMA-GaNDO. 


round.  But  no  game  must  be  killed  on  Sundays 
or  Christmas-day;  to  do  so,  subjects  the  offender 
to  a  penalty  of  £5.  Thougli  the  above  animals 
alone  are  game,  the  game  acts  also  protect  certain 
other  animals — viz.,  woodcocks,  snipes,  quails,  land- 
rails, and  conies ;  that  is  to  say,  any  jierson  illegally 
tresjiassing  in  pursuit  of  these  may  be  fined  £2. 
The  eggs  of  game  are  also  protected.  In  general, 
the  game-laws  consist  merely  of  a  net-work  of 
penalties  directed  against  these  illegal  trespasses, 
and  these  wdll  be  more  properly  stated  under  the 
head  of  Poaching  (q.  v.).  Trespasses  in  the  night- 
time, in  pursuit  of  game,  are  pimished  more  severely 
than  those  in  the  daytime ;  and  when  there  are 
several  persons  acting  together,  exceeding  five,  the 
penalties  are  increased,  and  still  more  so  when  the 
poachers  are  armed  with  dangerous  weapons,  and 
use  violence. 

As  between  landlord  and  tenant,  the  general  rule 
is,  that,  if  there  is  no  provision  to  the  contrary  in 
the  lease,  the  tenant  has  the  exclusive  right  to  kill 
the  game,  and  not  the  landlord;  hence,  the  land- 
lord, in  order  to  preserve  the  right,  must  always 
introduce  an  express  clause  in  the  lease  for  his 
protection.  When  that  is  done,  then  the  tenant 
may  be  punished  like  other  persons  for  poaching. 
Formerly,  it  was  attempted  to  protect  lands  against 
poachers  by  setting  spring-guns  and  man-trapa, 
and  the  English  courts  were  inclined  to  hold  this 
to  be  legal.  But  to  put  an  end  to  all  doubt,  a 
statute  was  passed,  and  is  now  in  force,  which 
expressly  prohibits  spring-guns  except  to  protect 
dwelHng-houses  (24  and  25  Vict.  c.  100,  s.  31). 

In  order  to  discountenance  poaching,  game  is 
declared  to  be  not  a  legal  article  of  sale  except  by 
licensed  game-dealers ;  this  licence  costs  £2.  The 
game-dealer  can  only  buy  his  game  from  licensed 
sportsmen,  and  it  is  an  offence  for  any  of  the  public 
to  buy  game  except  from  these  licensed  dealers,  or 
to  seil  game  without  a  licence ;  but  sportsmen  are 
not  prohibited  from  making  presents  of  game  to 
any  person. 

As  regards  game-licences,  these  are  now  of  two 
kinds :  one  is  annual,  and  costs  £3  ;  the  other  lasts 
about  half  the  year,  and  costs  £2.  A  gamekeeper's 
licence  costs  £2.  These  licences  are  necessary,  not 
merely  to  kill  game,  but  also  to  kill  deer,  wood- 
cocks, snipes,  quails,  landrails,  and  conies  or  rabbits. 
An  exemption,  however,  exists,  as  regards  hares  and 
rabbits,  when  the  owner  or  occupier  kills  these  on 
his  own  enclosed  ground,  or  directs  another  person 
to  do  so,  in  wLich  case  no  licence  is  necessary; 
but  this  exemption  only  applies  when  the  lands 
are  enclosed  or  fenced,  and  the  owner  or  occupier 
has  othermse  the  legal  right  to  kill  the  hares 
and  rabbits.  No  licence  is  required  for  merely 
hunting  with  staghounds,  greyhounds,  or  beagles, 
or  killing  deer  in  one's  own  park.  Moreover, 
attendants  or  friends  going  out  with  licensed  sports- 
men, provided  these  merely  assist,  and  do  not  play 
a  principal  part,  do  not  require  a  licence.  But  in 
all  other  cases  it  requires  a  licence,  not  only  for 
killing,  but  for  pursuing  game,  or  even  for  lifting 
and  taking  away  dead  game  from  a  highway  or 
field.  Assessed  taxes  must  also  be  paid  for  dogs — 
viz.,  for  each  dog  12s.  See  on  the  foregoing  sub- 
jects, Pater  son's  Game-laws  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

The  policy  of  the  game-laws  has  often  been 
questioned.  Mr  Bright  obtained  a  committee  of 
the  House  of  Commons  in  1845,  who  examined  the 
subject.  These  laws  are  represented,  on  the  one 
hand,  to  be  far  too  stringent,  to  be  badly  admin- 
istered by  interested  justices,  and,  lastly,  to  be 
opposed  to  the  moral  sentiments  of  the  lower 
orders,  who  persist  in  treating  such  offences  as 
venial,  if  not  praiseworthy.    On  the  other  hand, 


owners  of  land  say  that  they  are  entitled  to  pro- 
tection against  trespassers,  and  this  is  the  only 
way  by  which  they  can  be  protected. 

In  Scotland,  several  of  the  foregoing  statuteri, 
such  as  the  Night  Poaching  Act  and  the  Game 
Licences'  Act,  also  apply.  There  is  a  similar  act  aa 
to  day-poaching — viz.,  2  and  3  Will.  IV.  c.  68,  and 
as  to  hares,  11  and  12  Vict.  c.  30.  The  provisions 
in  the  English  act  as  to  game-dealers  and  the  sale 
of  game  also  apply.  But  in  Scotland,  not  only  % 
game- certificate,  but  a  qualification,  is  requisite  to 
enable  a  person  to  shoot,  except  he  has  the  permis- 
sion of  a  qualified  person.  So  it  is  in  Ireland,  but 
not  in  England.  In  Scotland,  the  close  season 
differs  slightly  from  that  of  England,  and  so  does 
the  definition  of  game.  The  law  as  between  land- 
lord and  tenant  is  also  so  far  different,  that  the 
j)resumption  is  the  reverse  in  Scotland ;  for  if 
nothing  is  said  in  the  lease,  the  right  to  the  game 
belongs  to  the  landlord,  and  not  to  the  tenant, 
A  tenant  has  also  a  right  of  action  against  the 
landlord  for  excessive  preserving,  if  extraordinary 
injury  is  thereby  done  to  his  crops — a  right  which 
does  not  exist  in  England  or  Ireland.  See  Paterson's 
Oame-laws,  Irvine's  Game-laws. 

Laws  for  the  protection  of  birds  have  been  enacted 
in  the  various  states  of  the  Union,  and  differ  widely 
from  each  other.  For  a  Digest  of  these  Laws,  by  J. 
R.  Dodge,  and  Game  Birds  of  U.  States,  by  D.  G.  Elli- 
ott, see  Hep.  of  Com.  of  Agriculture  for  1864. 

GAMMA,  GAMME,  or  GAMMUT,  the  name 
given  to  the  system  of  musical  notation  invented 
by  Guido,  the  first  note  of  which  he  called  by  the 
Greek  letter  Gamma.  Later,  the  whole  scale  got 
the  name  of  Gamma,  but  it  afterwards  fell  into 
disuse  with  Guido's  Solmisation.  In  modern  music, 
the  term  is  applied  to  the  scale  or  compass  of  wind 
instruments.. 

GA'MMARUS,  a  genus  of  Crustacea  of  the 
section  Edrioph- 

thalma  (q.  v.),  and  _^=_:.=--f^^^^^~^ 
order  Amphipoda,  ^>'<^^^^PP^^^^'^^^ 
of      which  one 

species,    G.  pulex,  /l^^^^'^^^^^^ 
is  extremely  com-  if^^^{%]^^^^ 
mon  in  springs  and   -A^/J|  |/]^ 
rividets  in  Britain,  hk^ijjf  %uu  u 
particularly  where  LvV 
decaying  vegetable  Q 
matter   has   accu-  TW 
mulated.    It  gene-  MvV 
rally  keeps  near  the 

bottom;  swims  on  Fresh-water  Shrimp  (G^amnkXT^* 

its  side,  with  a  kind  pulex),  magnified, 

of  jerking  motion, 

and  feeds  on  dead  fishes  or  any  other  animal  matter. 
It  is  sometimes  called  the  Fresh- water  Shrimp. 

GAMRUN.    See  Goiubroon. 

GAND.    See  Ghent. 

GA'NDIA,  a  beautiful  town  of  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  Valencia,  and  34  miles  south-south-east 
of  the  town  of  that  name,  stands  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Alcoy,  about  two  miles  from  the  sea.  It  is 
well  built,  with  streets  regular  and  spacious ;  is 
surrounded  with  walls  and  towers,  has  numerous 
ecclesiastical  edifices,  and  a  magnificent  ducal  palace, 
adorned  with  gilding  and  azulejos  or  coloured  tiles. 
Its  gardens  are  fertile  and  luxuriant  beyond  descrip- 
tion. It  has  manufactures  of  linen,  woollen,  and 
silken  fabrics,  and  a  trade  in  rice,  hemp,  silk,  and 
timber.    Pop.  6000. 

GANDO.  1st,  A  kingdom  or  empire  of  Stidan, 
situated  on  both  sides  of  the  Niger.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  north-west  by  the  empire  of  Songhay,  and  on 

613 


GANDOLFO— GANGES. 


the  south-east  by  the  empire  of  Sokoto,  It  con- 
sists of  tlie  provinces  of  Western  Kebbi,  Mauri, 
Zabgnna,  Deudina,  parts  of  Gurma,  Borgu,  and 
Yoruba,  Yafnu,  and  Nfipe.  The  country  is  fertile, 
and  the  vegetation  in  many  places  hixuriaut.  The 
principal  productions  are  the  yam,  the  date,  and 
the  banana.  The  inhalntants  are  of  the  Fulah 
(q.  V.)  race,  and  mostly  Mohammedans.  "When  Dr 
Barth  \isited  G.  in  1853,  the  monarch  or  sultan 
was  Khalilu,  nephew  of  the  great  reformer  Imam 
Othman  (see  Fulah).  He  is  described  by  that 
traveller  as  a  '  man  without  energy,  and  most 
inaccessible  to  a  European  and  a  Christian ' — living, 
in  faot,  in  a  state  of  monkish  seclusion,  and  employ- 
ing a  younger  brother  to  '  keep  up  a  certain  show  of 
imperial  dignity.'  It  is  not  surprising  that  under 
Buch  a  ruler  Dr  Barth  should  find  '  most  of  the 
provinces  plunged  into  an  abyss  of  anarchy.' — 2d, 
Gando,  a  city,  and  capital  of  the  above  kingdom, 
lies  in  a  narrow  valley,  surrounded  and  commanded 
by  hilly  chains.  '  It  is  intersected,'  says  Dr  Barth, 
*  from  north  to  south  by  the  broad  and  shallow  bed 
of  a  ton-ent,  which  exhibited  fine  pasture-grounds  of 
fresh  succulent  herbage,  while  it  was  skirted  on 
both  sides  by  a  dense  border  of  luxuriant  vegetation, 
which  altogether  is  much  richer  in  this  place  than 
either  in  Sokoto,  or  Wurno,  being  surpassed  only  by 
the  fine  vegetable  ornament  of  Kano.'  The  interior 
of  the  place  is  very  pleasant  and  animated,  and  the 
inhabitants  are  industrious  and  successful  in  the 
manufacture  of  cotton  cloth. 

GANDOLFO.    See  Castel-Gandolfo. 

GANGA,  or  SAND-GROUSE  {Pterocles),  a  genus 
of  gallinaceous  birds,  of  the  family  Tetraonidce, 
closely  allied  to  grouse  and  ptarmigan,  but  distin- 
guished by  a  pointed  tail.  The  toes  are  not  feathered. 
The  species  are  natives  chiefly  of  the  warm  parts  of 
Asia  and  of  Africa,  and  are  most  abundant  in  arid 
Bandy  plains.  Two  species,  the  Banded  Sand-grouse 
(P.  arenarlus)  and  the  Pin-tailed  Sand-grouse  [P. 
setarius),  are  found  in  the  south  of  Europe.  The 
latter  species  is  very  abundant  on  the  arid  plains  of 
Persia.  In  Europe,  it  is  found  as  far  north  as  the 
south  of  France,  chiefly  in  the  sterile  Landes.  It  is 
always  to  be  seen  in  the  markets  of  Madrid.  The 
Banded  Sand-grouse  is  abundant  on  the  vast  stei)pes 
of  the  south  of  Russia.  The  African  species  of  this 
genus  are  often  to  be  seen  in  large  flocks  near  places 
to  which  they  resort  to  drink. 

GANGA  SAGOR,  a  low  swampy  island  at  the 
mouth  of  the  great  western  or  holiest  branch  of  the 
Ganges,  particularly  sacred  in  the  estimation  of 
the  Hindus.  Multitudes  of  pilgrims  annually  resort 
to  it,  at  the  time  of  full  moon,  in  November  and 
in  January.  Infanticide  formerly  took  place  to  a 
vast  extent  at  these  festivals,  but  is  now  prohibited 
by  the  British  government. 

GA'NGES,  a  river  prominent  alike  in  the  religion 
and  in  the  geography  of  the  East,  divides,  at 
least  towards  the  sea,  India  in  its  largest  sense 
into  the  two  grand  divisions  of  Hither  and  Farther. 
Its  ^ntire  length  is  more  than  1500  miles.  Its 
general  direction  during  the  first  half  of  its  course 
IS  south-east;  it  then  flows  east  through  the  plain 
of  Bengal,  as  far  as  Rajmuhal,  a  distance  of  about 
4O0  miles,  after  which  it  again  proceeds  in  a  south- 
eastern direction,  and  enters  the  sea  through  a 
multitudinous  delta.  For  the  purposes  of  detailed 
description,  the  stream,  which  exhibits  such  a  great 
variety  of  phases  in  the  different  parts  of  its  course 
may  be  conveniently  broken  down  into  five  sec- 
tions :  (1)  from  its  springs  to  Gangotri ;  (2)  from 
Gangotri  to  Hurdwar ;  (3)  from  Hurdwar  to  Alla- 
habad; (4)  from  Allahabad  to  Seebgimge,  or  the 
6U 


head  of  the  Delta ;  (5)  from  Seebgmige,  or  the  head 
of  the  Delta,  to  the  Bay  of  Bengal. 

From  its  Springs  to  Oangotrl. — The  Bhagecrettee, 
Bhagirathi,  or  Bhaghireti,  generally  regarded  aa 
the  true  G.,  rises  in  Gurhwal,  near  'lat.  30  54'  N., 
and  long.  79°  7'  E.,  from  a  snow-field  iml)edded 
between  three  mountains  of  about  22,000  feet  in 
height.  The  actual  spot  from  which  it  is  seen  to 
issue  is  itself  13,800  feet  above  the  sea.  After  a 
course  of  ten  miles,  throughout  which  the  torrent 
is  all  but  inaccessible,  it  reaches  the  temple  of 
Gangotri,  the  first  work  of  man  on  its  banks,  at 
an  elevation  of  10,300  feet,  so  as  to  have  descended 
about  350  feet  in  a  mile. — From  Gangotri  to  Hurd' 
war. — After  a  run  of  seven  miles,  the  stream 
is  joined  on  the  right  by  the  Jahnuvi,  consider- 
ably  larger  than  itself,  in  lat.  3r  2'  N.  and  long. 
78°  54'  E.;  and  the  united  waters,  13  mUei 
further  down,  burst  through  the  Himalaya  Proper, 
in  lat.  30°  59'  N.,  and  long.  78°  45'  E.  Still  90 
miles  lower,  it  receives  the  Aluknanda  with  a 
volume  one  half  greater  than  its  own,  and  here 
it  first  receives  the  name  Ganges.  A  distance  of 
47  miles  more  carries  the  still  rajnd  current  down 
to  Hurdwar,  on  the  verge  of  the  great  plain  of 
Hindustan,  at  an  elevation  of  1024  feet,  shewing 
a  descent  of  927G  feet  in  157  miles,  or  of  nearly  60 
feet  in  a  mile. — From  Hurdwar  to  Allahabad. — This 
portion  of  the  river,  measuring  488  miles,  and 
averaging  a  fall  of  22  inches  in  a  mile,  is  beset 
almost  thixnighout  by  shoals  and  rapids.  It  is 
navigable,  however,  for  river-craft  the  whole  way 
to  Hurdwar,  for  passenger-steamers  to  within  100 
miles  of  the  mountains,  and  for  loaded  barges  up  to 
Cawnpore,  which  is  140  miles  above  Allahabad. 
This  last-mentioned  city  stands  at  the  confluence 
of  the  G.  and  the  Jumna. — From  Allahabad  to 
Seebgunge,  or  the  head  of  the  Delta. — This,  the 
longest  of  the  five  divisions  of  the  stream,  measures 
563  miles  in  length,  and  has  a  fall  of  about  five 
inches  in  a  mile.  Notwithstanding  many  shoals,  it 
is  practicable  throughout,  even  in  the  driest  season 
of  the  year,  for  vessels  drawing  fully  18  inches. 
About  270  miles  below  Allahabad,  the  G.  is  joined 
"on  the  left  by  the  Ghogra,  having  previously 
received  the  Gumti  on  the  same  side,  and  the 
Tons  and  the  Kurumnassa  on  the  right.  About 
half-way  between  Allahabad  and  the  Ghogra  ia 
the  city  of  Benares.  Between  the  Ghogra  and 
Seebgunge,  the  principal  affluents  are  the  Sone  on 
the  right,  and  the  Gunduk  and  the  Coosy  or  Sua 
Kosi,  on  the  left.  Along  this  entire  section,  the  G. 
varies  largely  both  in  breadth  and  in  depth,  accord- 
ing to  the  season  of  the  year  and  the  state  of  the 
water. — From  Seebgunge,  or  tJie  head  of  the  Delta^ 
to  the  Bay  of  Bengal. — Here  the  descent,  along  a  line 
of  283  miles,  averages  about  three  inches  in  a  mile. 
Hitherto  swollen  by  its  feeders,  the  G.  now  begins 
to  send  off  branches,  parting  at  Seebgunge  with 
the  Bhagrutti,  and  next,  70  miles  further  down, 
with  the  Jellinghi,  at  the  town  of  the  same  name, 
which,  after  separate  courses  of  about  120  miles 
each,  unite  to  form  the  Hoogly  of  Calcutta.  Below 
the  point  of  departure  of  the  Jellinghi,  it  throws 
out  similar  offsets,  the  Marabhanga,  the  Gorae,  the 
Chundni,  and  the  Kirtynassa.  Meanwhile,  this 
waste  towards  the  right  is  in  a  great  measure  com- 
pensated by  affluents  on  the  left,  more  especially 
by  various  channels  of  the  Brahmaputra — the  two 
great  net-works  of  waters  intertwining  themselves 
together  in  a  manner  too  complex  for  delineation, 
and  at  last  indenting  a  long  line  of  coast  with  at 
least  20  estuaries.  "The  mouth  of  the  Hoogly,  the 
most  available  of  all  the  branches  of  the  G.  as  the 
means  of  communicating  with  the  outside  world,  is 
in  lat.  21°  40'  N.,  and  long.  88°  E.    By  it  the  largest 


GANGES. 


ehips  reach  Diamond  Harbour,  while  vessels  of  con- 
fiiderable  burden  ascend  to  Chandernagore.  Between 
the  Hoogly  and  the  G.,  above  the  Delta,  there  are 
two  routes.  When  the  water  is  high,  the  Bliagnitti 
and  the  Jellinghi  afford  the  requisite  facilities  ; 
but  in  the  dry  season,  the  intercourse  is  main- 
tained by  the  Sunderbund  or  Sunderbans  Passage, 
a  circuitous  course  to  the  north-east,  which  opens 
mto  the  Chundni. 

As  a  whole,  however,  the  G.  is  incapable  of  being 
definitely  described.  It  varies  not  merely  from 
season  to  season,  but  also  from  year  to  year. 
From  year  to  year  it  exchanges  old  passages  for 
new  oues,  more  particidarly  in  the  alluvial  basin  of 
its  lower  sections.  Even  as  far  up  as  Futtehpore, 
immediately  above  Allahabad,  this  characteristic  is 
remarkably  exemj)lified.  The  river  has  in  this  part 
a  bed  of  the  average  width  of  four  miles,  within  the 
limits  of  which  it  changes  its  course  annually,  in 
the  lapse  of  four  or  five  years  shifting  from  the  one 
limit  to  the  other.  BetNvcen  season  and  season, 
again,  the  fluctuations  are  still  more  conspicuous. 
To  take  Benares  as  an  instance,  the  stream  ranges, 
according  to  the  time  of  the  year,  from  1400  feet  to 
5000  feet  in  breadth,  and  from  35  feet  to  78  feet  in 
d--2pth.  Lower  down,  the  vicissitudes,  without  beiug 
more  striking  in  themselves,  produce  more  striking 
results.  About  the  close  of  July,  a  considerable 
proportion  of  the  Delta  forms  an  inundation  of  more 
than  100  miles  in  diameter,  presenting  nothing  to 
the  eye  but  villages  and  trees,  and  craft  of  every 
sort.  To  prevent  or  mitigate  this  evil,  expensive 
dams  have  been  constructed,  having  collectively  a 
length  of  above  1000  miles.  The  influence  of  the 
tides  extends,  at  the  dry  season,  a  distance  of 
240  miles  from  the  sea.  The  minimum  quantity 
of  water  delivered  per  second  has  been  estimated 
at  36,330  cubic  feet,  and  the  maximum  at  494,208 
cubic  feet.  Like  all  rivers  that  overflow  their 
banks,  the  G.  holds  in  suspension  a  large  admix- 
ture of  mud  and  sand — foreign  elements  eminently 
unfavourable  to  steam-navigation,  as  causing  quick 
wear  and  decay  of  the  cocks  and  valves  of  the 
engines.  It  has  been  computed  that  it  delivers, 
on  an  average,  annually  into  the  sea  534,600,000 
tons  of  solid  matter. 

Amongst  the  rivers  which  at  the  classical  and  the 
Paurdnic  period  of  India  were  held  in  peculiar 
sanctity  by  the  nation,  the  G. — or,  as  it  is  called, 
the  Ganrjd  (feminine) — undoubtedly  occupied  the 
foremost  rank.  In  the  vedic  poetry,  it  is  but 
Beldom  mentioned ;  and  whenever  its  name  occurs, 
whether  in  the  hymns  of  the  Bigveda  or  the 
ritual  text  of  the  Yajurveda,  no  legendary  fact  or 
mythical  narrative  is  connected  with  it.  Nor  does 
the  law-book  of  Manu  justify  the  conclusion  that 
its  author  was  acquainted  with  any  of  the  myths 
which  connect  this  river  in  the  epic  poems  and  in 
the  Pur^nas  with  the  Pantheon  of  India.  The 
earliest,  and  by  far  the  most  poetical  legend  of  the 
G.,  occurs  in  that  master-piece  of  Sanscrit  poetry, 
the  Rdmclyana,  We  give  its  substance,  because  it 
©Xj)lains  the  principal  epithets  by  which  this  river 
is  8i)oken  of,  or  invoked,  in  ancient  and  modern 
Hindu  poetry,  and  because  it  may  be  looked  upon 
as  the  tyjie  of  the  many  fables  which  refer  to 
the  pm'ifying  and  supernatural  properties  of  its 
waters.  There  lived,  saj'-s  the  Edindyana,  in 
AyodhyS,  (the  modem  Oude),  a  king,  by  the  name 
of  Sagara,  who  had  two  wives,  Kesini  and  Svimati ; 
but  they  bore  him  no  issue.  He  therefore  repaired 
to  the  Himalaya  ;  and  after  a  hundred  years'  severe 
austerities,  Bhrigu,  the  saint,  became  favourable 
to  his  wishes,  and  granted  him  posterity.  Kesini 
bore  him  a  son,  who  was  named  Asamanjas,  and 
Sumatv  brought  forth  a  gourd,   whence  sprang 


60,000  sons,  who  in  time  became  as  many  hen^eiS. 
Asamanjas,  however,  in  growing  u]),  was  addicted 
to  cruel  practices,  and  Avas  therefore  Ijanishcd 
by  his  father  from  the  kingdom.  His  son  was 
Ansumat,  who  thus  became  heir  to  the  throne  of 
Ayodhyii.  Now,  it  happened  that  Sagara  res.Mved 
to  perform  a  great  horse-sacrifice ;  and  in  accord- 
ance with  the  sacred  law,  chose  for  this  purpose  a 
beautiful  horse,  which  he  confided  to  the  care  of 
Ansumat.  But  while  the  latter  was  engaged  ir.  the 
initiatory  rites  of  the  sacrifice,  a  huge  seq)ent 
emerged  from  the  soil,  and  carried  off  the  horse  to 
the  infernal  regions.  Thereupon,  Sagara,  being 
informed  of  the  obstruction  which  had  befallen  his 
pious  undertaking,  ordered  his  60,000  sons  to 
recover  the  horse  from  the  subterranean  robber. 
These  then  set  to  work,  digging  the  earth,  and 
striking  terror  into  all  creation.  Having  explored, 
for  many  years,  the  infernal  regions,  they  at  last 
found  the  sacred  horse  grazing,  and  watched  by  a 
fiery  saint,  in  whom  they  recognised  the  serpent,  the 
cause  of  their  troubles.  Enraged,  they  attacked  him ; 
but  the  saint,  who  was  no  other  being  than  Vishnu, 
at  once  reduced  them  to  ashes.  Waiting  in  vain 
for  the  return  of  his  sons,  Sagara  sent  his  grandson, 
Ansumat,  in  search  of  them  and  the  sacred  horse. 
Ansumat  went,  and  soon  ascertained  the  fate  of  hia 
relatives  ;  but  when — mindful  of  his  duties — ^he 
wished  to  sprinkle  consecrated  water  on  their  ashes, 
so  as  to  enable  their  souls  to  rise  to  heaven,  Garuda, 
the  bird  of  Vishnu,  and  brother  of  Sumati,  came  in 
sight,  and  told  Ansumat  that  it  was  improj)er  for 
him  to  use  terrestrial  water  for  such  a  libation, 
and  that  he  ought  to  provide  the  water  of  the 
Gang^,  the  heavenly  daughter  of  Himavat  (the 
Himalaya).  Ansumat,  bowing  to  the  behest  of  the 
king  of  birds,  went  home  with  the  horse  to  Sagara  ; 
and  the  sacrifice  being  achieved,  Sagara  strove  to 
cause  the  descent  of  the  Gangfl,  but  all  his  devices 
remained  fruitless  ;  and  after  30,000  years,  he  went 
to  heaven.  Nor  was  Ansimiat  more  successfid  in 
his  attempt  with  the  austerities  he  performed  for 
the  same  purpose,  nor  his  son  Dwilipa,  who,  obeying 
the  law  of  time,  after  30,000  years,  went  to  the 
heaven  of  Indra.  Dwdipa  had  obtained  a  son, 
named  Bhagiratha.  He,  too,  was  eager  to  obtain 
the  descent  of  the  Gang^ ;  and  having  com])leted  a 
course  of  severe  austerities,  he  obtained  the  favour 
of  Brahman,  who  told  him  he  would  yield  to  his 
prayers,  provided  that  Siva  consented  to  receive  the 
sacred  river  on  his  head,  as  the  earth  woidd  be  too 
feeble  to  bear  its  fall  when  coming  from  heaven. 
And  now  Bhagiratha  recommenced  his  penance, 
until  Siva  consented,  and  told  the  GangS,  to  descend 
from  heaven.  The  river  obeyed  ;  but,  enraged  at 
his  command,  she  assumed  a  form  of  immense  size, 
and  increased  her  celerity,  thinking  thus  to  carry 
him  off  to  the  infernal  regions.  Yet  the  god 
becoming  aware  of  her  intentions,  caught  and 
entangled  her  in  his  matted  hair,  out  of  which  she 
could  find  no  means  of  extricating  herself  though 
erring  there  for  many  years.  Nor  would  she  have 
been  released,  had  not  Bhagiratha,  by  his  renewed 
penance,  appeased  the  god,  who  then  allowed  her  to 
descend  from  his  head  in  seven  streams — Hladinl, 
Pavini,  and  Nalinl,  which  went  eastwards  ;  and  Sit^ 
Suchakshus,  and  Sindhu,  which  went  westwards, 
whilst  the  seventh  stream  followed  Bhagiratha 
wherever  he  proceeded.  But  it  so  happened  that 
the  king  on  his  journey  passed  by  the  hermitage 
of  an  irascible  saint  whose  name  was  Jahnu. 
The  latter  seeing  the  GangS,  overflooding  in  her 
arrogance  the  precincts  of  his  saciificial  spot,  and 
destroying  his  sacred  vessels,  became  impatient,  and 
drank  up  all  her  waters ;  thereupon  all  the  goda 
became  terrified,  and  promised  him  that,  iji  futur^ 

615 


GANGES  CANAL— GANGOTKl. 


tbe  Gaugfi,  would  pay  him  filial  respect,  and  become 
his  daughter,  if  he  would  restore  her  again  to 
existence.  Quieted  by  this  promise,  Jahnu  then 
allowed  her  to  How  out  from  his  ear,  and  therefore 
she  is  still  called  Ja,hnavi,  or  the  daughter  of  Jahnu. 
But,  because  Bliagiratha,  by  dint  of  his  exertions, 
enabled  his  ancestors,  now  spi'inkled  with  the 
waters  of  the  Gangil,  to  ascend  to  heaven,  Brahman 
allowed  him  to  consider  her  as  his  daughter,  whence 
she  is  called  Bh&,giratht.  And  she  is  also  called  the 
river  of  '  the  three  paths,'  because  her  waters  flow 
in  heaven,  on  earth,  and  pervaded  the  subterranean 
regions. — Such  is  the  account  of  the  Bdmdtjana, 
and  its  substance  is  repeated  by  the  M ahdbhdrata 
and  several  of  the  Purilnas,  though  they  differ  in 
the  ndmes  of  the  streams  formed  in  her  descent 
by  the  Gangil,  some  (for  instance,  the  Vishnu-  and 
Vdy II- Parana)  restricting  their  number  from  seven 
to  four,  called  by  the  Vishnu- Purdna  ^\t%  Alaka- 
nandil,  Chakshu,  and  Bhadril.  A  further  deviation 
from  the  original  myth  was  caused  by  sectarian 
influence ;  for,  whereas  in  the  Bdmdi/ana,  the 
Ganga  springs  from  the  Hhnavat  (Himalaya),  whose 
daughter,  therefore,  she  is,  and  whereas  Siva  plays 
the  most  prominent  part  in  her  descent  to  earth, 
the  Vishnu- Pardna  assigns  her  source  to  the  nail 
of  the  great  toe  of  Vishnu's  left  foot,  and  allows 
Siva  merely  to  receive  one  of  her  branches  on  his 
bead.  The  following  passage  from  this  Purilna 
will  shew  the  ideas  of  the  Vishnuite  sect  on  the 
history  and  the  properties  of  this  river :  'From  that 
third  region  of  the  atmosphere,  or  seat  of  Vishnu, 
proceeds  the  stream  that  washes  away  all  sin, 
the  river  Ganga,  embrowned  with  the  unguents  of 
tlie  nymj^hs  of  heaven,  who  liave  sported  in  her 
waters.  Having  her  source  in  the  nail  of  the  great 
toe  of  Vishnu's  left  foot,  Dhruva  (Siva)  reverses 
her,  and  sustains  her  day  and  night  devoutly  on 
his  head,  and  thence  the  seven  llishis  practise  the 
exercises  of  austerity  in  her  waters,  wreathing  their 
braided  locks  with  her  waves.  The  orb  of  the 
moon,  encompassed  by  her  accumulated  current, 
derives  augmented  lustre  from  her  contact.  Falling 
from  on  high,  as  she  issues  from  the  moon,  she 
alights  on  the  summit  of  Meru,  and  thence  flows  to 
the  four  quarters  of  the  earth,  for  its  i)urification. 
The  Sita,  Alakananda,  Chakshu,  and  Bhadra,  are 
four  branches  of  but  one  river,  divided  according  to 
the  regions  towards  which  it  proceeds.  The  branch 
that  is  known  as  Alakanand^  was  borne  affection- 
ately by  Siva,  upon  his  head,  for  more  than  a  hun- 
dred years,  and  was  the  river  which  raised  to  heaven 
the  sinful  sons  of  Sagara  by  washing  their  ashes. 
The  offences  of  any  man  who  bathes  in  this  river 
are  immediately  expiated,  and  unprecedented  virtue 
is  engendered.  Its  waters,  offered  by  sons  to  their 
ancestors  in  faith  for  three  years,  yield  to  the  latter 
rarely  attainable  gratification.  Men  of  the  twice- 
born  orders,  who  offer  sacrifice  in  this  river  to  the 
lord  of  sacrifice,  Pumshottama,  ol)tain  whatever 
they  desire,  either  here  or  in  heaven.  Saints  who 
are  purified  from  all  evil  by  bathing  in  its  waters, 
and  whose  minds  are  intent  on  Kesava  (Vishnu), 
acquire  thereby  final  liberation.  This  sacred  stream, 
heard  of,  desired,  seen,  touched,  bathed  in,  or  hymned 
day  by  day,  sanctifies  all  beings ;  and  those  who, 
even  at  a  distance  of  a  hundred  leagues,  exclaim 
"  Ganga,  GangS,,"  atone  for  the  sins  committed  during 
three  previous  lives.'  How  far  the  belief  expressed 
in  the  latter  passage  was  carried  at  a  period  prob- 
ably succeeding  that  of  the  composition  of  the 
Vishnu- Purdna  may  be  seen  from  a  legend  which 
occurs  in  the  Kriydyogasdra,  the  sixth  division  of 
tlie  Padma- Purdna.  This  Purina  relates  that  a 
king,  Manobtadra,  having  grown  old  and  weak, 
riisoived  upou  dividing  his  kingdom  between  his 
VA 


two  sons.  He  therefore  convoked  a  (ouncil  of  hia 
ministers,  when,  of  a  sudden,  a  vidture  and  his 
mate  flew  into  the  hall,  to  the  surprise  of  the  whole 
assembly.  Questioned  about  the  purpose  of  their 
visit,  they  replied  that,  having  witnessed  the  evil 
luck  of  the  two  princes  in  a  former  birth,  they  now 
came  to  rejoice  in  their  happiness.  The  king's 
curiosity  having  been  roused,  the  male  vulture  then 
said,  that  in  the  age  called  Dwilpara,  the  two  prujces 
had  been  two  men  of  low  caste,  called  Gara  and  San- 
gara,  and  when  dead,  were  brought  before  Yama,  th^ 
judge  of  the  dead,  who  sentenced  them  to  l)e  th»-ov,n 
into  a  fearful  hell.  Their  lives  had  indeed  been 
faultless ;  no  sin  had  been  committed  by  bhem,  but 
whenever  they  gave  alms,  they  did  not  offer  them  to 
a  Brahmana,  and  thus  robbing  the  latter  of  the 
property  which  otherwise  would  have  come  to  him, 
they  became  candidates  for  hell.  He,  the  vulture, 
had  come  to  the  same  place,  because,  when  Ijeing  a 
noble  BrQ-hmana,  Sarvasa,  he  slighted  his  pai-ents. 
Now  the  period  of  their  sentence  having  expired,  he 
was  reborn  as  a  member  of  the  vulture  tribe,  which 
is  living  on  the  flesh  of  the  dead,  whereas  they 
became  a  couple  of  locusts.  Once,  however,  a  hurri- 
cane arose,  and  threw  the  locusts  into  the  Ganges  ; 
there  they  died  ;  but  having  found  their  death  in 
the  water  of  the  river  which  destroys  all  guilt,  the 
servants  of  Vishnu  came  with  heavenly  chariots  to 
conduct  them  to  his  town.  Having  stayed  there  up 
to  the  end  of  the  third  Kalpa,  they  were  bidden  by 
Brahman  to  enjoy  themselves  in  the  paradise  of 
Indra  ;  and  after  a  certain  time  they  were  reborn  in 
the  family  of  Manobhadra,  ultimately  to  rule  his 
country.  All  the  hymns  addressed  to  the  Ganges 
— and  a  remarkaljle  one  occurs  in  the  same  divi- 
sion of  the  Padma- Purdna — partly  allude  to  the 
legends  mentioned  before,  or  to  other  feats  of  purifi- 
cation worked  by  the  sacred  water  of  this  river.  Its 
efficacy  is  deemed,  however,  greatest  at  the  spot 
where  the  Ganges  joins  the  Yamuni,  or  Jumna,  at 
Allahabad,  and — the  latter  river  having  previously 
received  the  Saraswati  below  Delhi — where  in  reality 
the  waters  of  the  three  sacred  rivers  meet.  In  some 
representations  of  Siva,  the  GangA  is  seen  in  hia 
hair,  and  the  river  issuing  from  her  mouth  ;  she  is 
also  pictured,  as  Moor  tells  in  the  Hindu  Pantheon, 
as  part  of  the  Triveni  or  sacred  triad  of  the  rivers 
just  named,  when  she  is  white,  and  bears  tha 
forehead  mark  of  Siva ;  on  her  right  is  Saraswati, 
red,  and  with  a  roll  of  paper  in  her  hand ;  on  h 
left,  Yamuud,  as  Lakshmi,  the  deity  of  this  rive 
blue,  and  holding  a  golden  jar.  The  whole  group  \a 
riding  on  a  fish ;  the  fish,  the  clothing  of  the  god- 
desses, and  the  glory  encircling  their  heads,  being 
of  gold. — Ganga  is  also  considered  as  the  mother 
of  the  god  of  war.    See  Kartikeya. 

GANGES  CANAL,  a  modern  imitation,  in  some 
measure,  of  the  more  ancient  works  of  the  kind  on 
the  Jumna  (q.  v.),  has  two  main  objects  in  view — 
the  irrigating  of  the  Doab,  and  the  avoiding  of  the 
difficulties  in  the  navigation  of  the  river  above 
Cawnpore.  Extending,  on  the  right  of  the  Gauges 
from  Hurdwar  to  the  city  last  mentioned,  it 
measures,  including  its  branches,  810  miles — 350  for 
the  trunk,  and  460  for  the  offsets.  In  its  course,  it 
crosses  the  Solani  on  perhaps  the  most  magnificent 
aqueduct  in  the  world.  This  noble  work,  erected 
at  a  cost  of  £300,000,  consists  of  fifteen  arches,  each 
having  a  span  of  50  feet ;  while  the  piers,  sunk  20 
feet  below  the  bed  of  the  stream,  are  protected  ou 
every  side  against  the  force  of  the  current  by 
ingeniously  compacted  masses  of  piles  and  stones. 

GANGLION,  in  Anatomy.  See  Bhain  and 
Nervous  System. 

GANGO'TIII,  a  tcmplo  erected  on  the  liighest 


GAKGREI^— GANNET. 


accessible  spot  on  the  Ganges  (q.  v.),  about  10,000 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  stands  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  river,  here  called  the  Bhagirathi, 
about  ten  miles  from  its  source.  Immediately  in 
front,  the  stieam  expaiids  into  a  small  bay,  which 
is  subdivided  into  pools,  taking  their  names  respec- 
tively from  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  other  gods  of  the 
native  mythology.  Though  the  water  is  specially 
sacred,  and  ablution  peculiarly  efficacious,  yet,  from 
various  causes,  the  j)ilgrims  are  by  no  means  nume- 
rous. Besides  the  length  and  ruggedness  of  the 
journey,  and  the  diiEculty  of  procuring  subsistence 
by  the  way,  there  is  no  accommodation  for  visitors, 
the  only  dwelling-house  in  the  locality  being  occu- 
ied  by  the  officiating  Brahmans.  Sujierstition, 
owever,  has  found  a  remedy  in  the  exportation  of 
flasks  of  the  holy  element,  sealed  by  the  attendant 
priests. 

_  GA'N"GIIEN"E,  the  loss  of  vitality  in  a  part  of  the 
living  body,  whether  external  or  internal,  the  part 
becoming  often,  in  the  first  instance,  more  or  less 
red,  hot,  and  painful,  then  livid,  and  finally  dark 
and  discoloured,  black  or  olive-green,  according  to 
circumstances,  and  putrescent ;  after  which  a  separ- 
ation takes  place  gradually  between  the  living  and 
dead  parts,  and  if  the  patient  survive,  the  disor- 
ganised and  lifeless  textiu-e  is  thrown  off,  and  the 
part  heals  by  the  formation  of  a  Cicati^x  (q.  v.)  or 
Bear,  indicating  the  loss  of  substance.  Gangrene  is 
an  occasional  consequence  of  Inflammation  (q.  v.), 
but  is  often  also  determined  by  more  specific  causes, 
such  as  Typhus  Fever  or  Erysii)elas  (q.  v.) ;  some- 
times, also,  by  the  action  of  poisons  on  the  system, 
and  not  unfrequently  by  disease  or  obstruction  of 
the  arteries  of  a  part.  This  last  is  especially  the  case 
in  the  form  called  senile  gangrene.  Gangrene  admits 
only  to  a  slight  extent  of  medical  treatment;  but 
there  is  sometimes  a  necessity  for  sm'gical  mter- 
ference,  to  preserve  a  usefid  stump,  or  to  arrest 
bleeding.  Generally  speaking,  the  strength  must  be 
maintained  by  a  nourishing  but  not  too  stimulating 
diet,  and  the  part  carefully  preserved  from  external 
injury,  and  from  changes  of  temperature. 

GA'NGWAY  (Saxon,  gangweg),  the  entrance  to  a 
fihip.  There  is  a  gangway  on  each  side,  consisting 
of  steps  or  cleats  nailed  to  the  planks  of  the 
side,  up  which,  by  aid  of  a  rope,  it  is  necessary  to 
climb.    When,  however,  a  vessel  is  in  harbour,  a 

f»ortable  flight  of  steps,  called  an  accommodation- 
adder,  is  usually  hoisted  out,  by  which  the  ascent 
is  sufficiently  easy. 

GAN-HWUY,  or  NGAN-HOEE,  one  of  the  five 
eastern  provinces  of  China  Proper.  It  is  intersected 
by  the  Yang-tze-kiang,  on  which  river  its  capital, 
Gan-king-foo,  is  situated.  In  the  south-eastern 
parts  of  the  province  are  some  extensive  tea-planta- 
tions, and  it  also  produces  rice,  grain,  and  a  limited 
quantity  of  silk.  Pop.  according  to  the  census  of 
1812,  34,168,059  ;  area,  48,461  square  miles. 

GAI^JA'M,  a  town  in  the  sub-presidency  of 
Madras,  stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Hosikoila, 
immediately  above  its  entrance  into  the  Bay  of 
Bengal,  in  lat.  19°  23'  N.,  and  long.  85°  7'  E.  It 
was  once  the  capital  of  the  district  of  its  own 
name,  and  was  remarkable  for  its  fine  buildings. 
But  in  1815,  when  the  town  was  visited  by  deadly 
fevers  and  agues,  all  the  public  establishments 
were  removed  to  Chicacole  (q.  v.) ;  the  fort  and 
cantonments  gradually  fell  into  ruin,  and  the  place 
sank  into  decay. 

GANJAM,  the  district  mentioned  in  the  pre- 
ceding article,  lies  on  the  north-west  coast  of  the 
Bay  of  Bengal,  immediately  to  the  south  of  Cuttack, 
stretching  in  N.  lat.  from  18°  13'  to  19°  52',  and  in 
C  long,  from  83°  50'  to  85°  15',  and  contaiving  C400 


square  miles.  Poj).  (1871)  1,487,227.  The  chief 
products  arc  rice,  maize,  sugar-canes,  millet,  pulse, 
oil-seeds,  wax,  gums,  dye-stuffs,  and  arrowroot.  On 
the  northern  boundary  is  the  salt-lake  Chilka, 
42  miles  long,  15  broad,  and  only  6  feet  deej).  The 
country  does  not  offer  a  single  haven  to  ships  of 
any  Inirdcn.  Small  vessels,  however,  may  enter  the 
Hosikoila. 

GAN  JEH.    See  Elizabetopol. 

GANNAT,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  Allier,  is  pleasantly  situated  on  the  Andelot,  a 
tributaiy  of  the  Allier,  amid  hills  covered  witla 
vines  and  timber  trees,  34  miles  south-south-west  of 
Moulins.  In  former  times,  it  was  fortified  by  walla 
and  ditches,  the  latter  being  supplied  with  water 
by  the  stream  on  which  the  town  stands.  G.  has 
tanneries  and  breweries,  and  a  trade  in  corn,  wine, 
and  cattle.    Pop.  5055. 

GANNET  [Sula),  a  genus  web-footed  bu-ds, 
of  the  family  Pclecarudui,  having  a  long,  strong, 
conical  bill,  the  face  and  thi-oat  naked,  the  feet 
with  four  toes,  three  before  and  one  behind,  all 
united  by  the  web.  To  this  genus  the  Booby  (q.  v  ) 
belongs.  Another  species  is  the  Common  G.,  or 
Solan  Goose  {S.  Bassana),  a  bird  which  breeds  on 


Common  Gannet,  or  Solan  Goose  [Sula  Bassana). 


insular  rocks  in  the  northern  seas,  and  migrates  in 
winter  to  warmer  and  even  tropica,l  regions.  The 
name  Solan  or  Soland  Goose  is  from  Solent,  an  old 
name  of  the  English  Channel.  The  entire  length  of 
the  G.  is  about  three  feet ;  its  general  coloiu:  milk- 
white,  the  crown  and  back  of  the  head  pale  yellow, 
the  quill-feathers  of  the  wings  black.  The  G.  lays 
usually  a  single  egg,  of  a  chalky  white  colour ;  the 
young  bird,  when  newly  hatched,  has  a  naked  bluish- 
black  skin,  but  soon  becomes  covered  with  a  thick 
white  down,  so  that  it  resembles  a  powler-pulT, 
or  a  mass  of  cotton ;  and  when  the  true  leathe  rs 
appear,  they  are  black,  \xit\x  lines  and  spots  of 
dull  white,  so  that  the  plumage  of  the  young  is 
very  unlike  that  of  the  matiu'e  bird.  The  G.  ia 
long-lived,  and  takes  about  four  years  to  come  to 
maturity.  Its  motions  on  land  are  very  awkward  ; 
but  it  is  a  bird  of  very  powerfid  wing  and  graceful 
flight.  It  extends  its  flight  to  gi-eat  distances  from 
the  rocks  which  it  inhabits,  pui-suing  shoals  chiefly 
of  such  fish  as  swim  near  the  surface,  j^articidarly 
herring,  pilchards,  and  others  of  the  same  family. 
The  presence  of  a  shoal  of  pilchards  often  becomes 
known  to  the  Cornwall  fishermen  from  the  attend- 
ant gannets.    The  G.  may  often  be  =€en  sailing  in 


GANOID  FISHES-OAOL  DELI  TERY. 


the  air,  when  suddenly  seeing  a  fish,  it  falls  with 
unerring  precision  perpendicularly  n\)on  it.  Ganncts 
are  sometimes  taken  by  means  of  a  board  with  a  fish 
fastened  to  its  upper  surface,  made  to  float  a  little 
beneath  the  surface  of  the  water,  the  force  with 
which  the  bii'd  falls  being  sufficient  to  drive  its 
sharp  bill  through  the  board,  from  which  it  cannot 
draw  it  back.  Lundy  Isle,  the  Bass  Rock,  Ailsa, 
St  Kilda,  and  Suliskerry,  are  the  most  celebrated 
British  breeding-places  of  gannets.  The  number 
of  gannets  that  annually  visit  the  Bass  Rock  in 
the  Firth  of  Forth  is  estimated  at  nearly  twenty 
thousand.  The  young  are  killed  chiefly  for  the 
sake  of  their  feathers,  which  bring  a  good  profit 
to  the  person  who  rents  the  rock.  There,  and  in 
similar  localities,  they  are  to  be  seen  in  prodigious 
numbers,  the  air  around  the  rock  being  filled  with 
them,  like  bees  around  a  hive,  and  the  rock  itself 
whitened  by  them  and  their  acciimulated  excre- 
ments. Their  nests  are  formed  of  sea- weeds  and 
marine  grasses.  On  Great  Gannet  Rock,  near  the 
coast  of  Labrador,  they  are  described  as  placed  in 
regular  row^s.  From  this  rock,  great  numbers  of 
gannets  are  taken  to  be  cut  into  bait  for  the  cod- 
fisheries.  The  G.,  during  incubation,  will  often  allow 
itself  to  be  touched  with  a  stick  without  rising  from 
the  nest.  Its  flesh  is  rank  and  oily,  but  edible;  but 
that  of  the  young  baked,  is  eaten  to  a  considerable 
extent  in  many  places,  and  is  even  reckoned  as  a 
delicacy.  The  eggs  are  considered  by  many  con- 
noisseurs to  be  a  decided  delicacy.  They  are  boiled 
for  twenty  minutes,  and  eaten  cold,  with  vinegar, 
salt,  and  jjepper.  The  voice  of  the  G.  is  harsh,  and 
the  cries  of  the  multitudinous  birds,  when  distvu-bed 
at  their  breeding-places,  are  deafening. — A  species 
of  G.  {S.  variegata),  extremely  abundant  in  some 
parts  of  the  southern  hemisphere,  is  said  to  be  the 
chief  producer  of  guano. 

GA'NOID  FISHES,  one  of  the  four  orders  of 
fishes  in  the  classification  of  Agassiz,  character- 
ised by  ganoid  scales — shining  scales  (Gr.  gams, 
splendour),  covered  with  enamel,  angular,  either 
rhomboidal  or  polygonaL    Ganoid  scales  are  often 


Various  forms  of  Ganoid  Scales  : 


larg3,  thick,  and  bony ;  they  are  usually  placed  in 
oblique  row-s,  and  united  to  each  other  by  a  kind  of 
hook  at  the  anterior  angle.  Recent  ganoid  fishes 
do  not  form  a  natural  group,  but  differ  in  very 
important  parts  of  their  organisation.  Some  of 
them  have  an  osseous,  some  a  cartilaginous  skeleton. 
Recent  ganoid  fishes  are,  however,  comparatively 
few ;  whereas,  among  fossil  fishes,  the  ganoid  type 
is  extremely  prevalent.  The  sturgeon  is  an  example 
of  a  ganoid  fish. 

GA'NTLET,  or  GAUNTLET  (Fr.  gant,  a  glove), 
an  iron  glove,  which  formed  part  of  the  armour 
of  knights  and  men-at-arms.  The  back  of  the 
hand  was  covered  with  plates  jointed  together,  so 
as  to  permit  the  hand  to  close.  Gantlets  were 
introduced  about  the  13th  century.  They  were 
frequently  thrown  down  by  way  of  challenge,  Uke 
618 


gloves.  They  are  frequently  used  in  heraldry,  the 
fact  of  their  being  for  the  right  or  left  hand  being 
expressed  by  the  words  '  dexter '  or  '  sinister.' 

In  the  phrase  'to  run  the  gantlet,'  the  word  is 
probably  a  corruption  for  ganglope  (from  gang,  a 
j)assagc,  and  the  root  occurring  in  e-lope — D.  loopen, 
Ger.  laufen,  to  run).  The  German  has  gassenlav/en 
(lane-run),  meaning  a  military  punishment,  w^hich 
consists  in  making  the  culprit,  naked  to  the  waist, 
pass  repeatedly  through  a  lane  formed  of  two  lows 
of  soldiers,  each  of  whom  gives  him  a  stroke  as  he 
passes  with  a  short  stick  or  other  similar  weapon. 

GANTUNG  PASS,  in  lat.  31°  38'  N.,  and  long. 
78°  47'  E.,  leads  eastward  from  K  una  war,  a  district 
of  Bussahir  in  Hindustan,  into  Chinese  Tartary.  Its 
height  is  18,295  feet  above  the  sea,  and  it  is  overhung 
by  a  peak  of  its  own  name,  about  3000  feet  loftier. 
The  place  is  unspeakably  desolate  and  nigged.  It 
is,  of  course,  beset  with  perpetual  snow,  and  being 
devoid  of  fuel,  it  is  but  little  frequented.  Gerard, 
one  of  the  few  travellers  that  have  visited  it,  crossed 
it — and  that  in  July — amid  snow  and  sleet.  One 
peculiarity  in  the  scene,  according  to  the  travellei 
just  mentioned,  is  that  the  whitened  surface  pre- 
sents here  and  there  dangerous  pools  of  stiU  water. 

GANYME'DES,  the  cup-bearer  of  Zeus,  was, 
according  to  Homer,  the  son  of  Tros,  or,  according 
to  others,  of  Laomedon,  Bus,  or  Erichthonius.  The 
most  beautiful  of  mortals,  he  attracted  the  notice  of 
the  king  of  the  gods,  who  despatched  his  eagle  to 
carry  him  off  to  heaven,  where  he  succeeded  Hebe 
in  the  ofiice  above  referred  to.  The  Greeks  believed 
that  Zeus  gave  Tros  a  pair  of  divine  horses  as  a 
compensation  for  kidnapping  his  boy,  and  comforted 
him  at  the  same  time  by  informing  him  that  G.  had 
become  immortal  and  free  from  all  earthly  ills.  At 
a  later  period,  G.  was  identified  with  the  divinity 
who  presided  over  the  sources  of  the  Nile.  The 
Greek  astronomers  likewise  placed  him  among  the 
stars,  under  the  name  of  Aquarius  (the  w^ater-bearer), 
in  allusion  to  his  celestial  function.  He  was  also  a 
favourite  subject  of  ancient  art. 

GAOL.    See  Prison. 

GAOL  DELIVERY,  Cobimission  of,  is  one  of 
the  four  commissions  issued  to  judges  of  assize  in 
England,  under  which  tliey  discharge  their  duties  on 
circuit.  See  Assize.  Commission  of  gaol  delivery 
empowers  the  judges  to  try  and  deliver  every 
prisoner  who  shall  be  in  the  gaol  when  they  arrive 
at  the  circuit  town.  It  is  directed  to  the  judges, 
with  whom  are  coupled  the  serjeants-at-law-  and 
Queen's  counsel  on  the  circuit,  the  clerk  of  assize 
and  the  associate.  It  constitutes  the  persons  to 
whom  it  is  directed  the  Queen's  justices,  and  orders 
four,  three,  or  tw^o  of  them,  of  w^hom  one  must  be 
a  judge  or  serjeant,  to  proceed  to  try  prisoners.  It 
was  anciently  the  course  to  issue  special  writf?  of 
gaol  delivery  for  each  particular  prisoner,  which 
were  called  the  writs  de  bono  et  malo ;  but  these 
being  fou.nd  inconvenient  and  oppressive,  a  general 
commission  for  all  the  prisoners  has  long  been 
established  in  their  stead  (Stephen,  Comm.  iv.  371). 
It  is  not  incumbent  on  the  commissioners  to  deliver 
all  the  prisoners  in  the  gaol,  but  they  cannot  try 
any  one  who  was  not  in  custody  or  on  bail  at  the 
openihg  of  the  commission.  A  commission  of  gaol 
delivery  has  power  to  order  that  the  proceedinga 
at  any  trial  shall  not  be  published  till  all  the  trials 
are  finished.  Violation  of  this  order  is  contempt  of 
court,  and  is  punishable  by  fine  and  imprisonment. 
At  common  law,  a  commission  of  gaol  delivery  is 
suspended  by  the  Court  of  Queen's  Bench  sitting 
in  the  same  county ;  but  by  25  Geo.  III.  c.  18,  the 
session  at  Newgate  of  oyer  and  terminer  and  gaol 
delivery  is  not  to  be  interrupted  by  the  commencement 


GAP— GARBLEBS. 


of  term  and  sitting  of  the  King's  Bench  at  West- 
minster. By  4  and  5  Will.  IV.  c.  36,  a  special 
court  has  been  created  for  London  and  the  suburbs, 
called  the  Central  Criminal  Court  (q.  v.),  for  which 
a  special  commission  of  gaol  dehvery  is  issued. 

GAP,  a  small  town  of  France,  capital  of  the 
department  of  Hautes  Alpes,  is  pleasantly  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Luie,  about  50  miles  south- 
east of  Grenoble.  It  is  approached  through  walnut 
avenues,  and  surrounded  by  slopes  on  which  the 
vine  flourishes  at  the  height  of  2558  feet  above 
eea-level.  When  seen  from  a  certain  distance,  the 
town  has  a  picturesque  appearance ;  but  on  a  closer 
inspection,  it  is  found  to  be  merely  a  labyrinth 
of  dirty,  narrow,  and  ill-paved  streets.  The  chief 
public  building  is  the  cathedral,  with  a  mausoleum 
m  marble  of  the  Constable  de  Lesdigui^res.  The 
town  has  manufactures  of  coarse  woollens,  linens, 
agricultural  implements,  and  leather.    Po]>.  5566. 

G,  the  ancient  Vapincum,  was  formerly  capital 
of  the  district  of  Dauphine,  to  which  it  gave  the 
name  of  Gapengois.  At  the  commencement  of 
the  1 7th  c,  it  is  said  to  have  had  about  16,000 
inhabitants.  Since  that  period,  however,  it  has 
steadily  declined  in  size  and  importance.  It  was 
Backed,  and  almost  wholly  reduced  to  ashes,  by 
Victor  Amadeus  of  Savoy  in  1692. 

GAPES,  a  disease  of  gallinaceous  birds,  owing  to 
the  presence  of  a  trematode  worm  [Fasciola  trachealis) 
in  the  windpipe.  This  entozoon,  allied  to  the 
Fluke  (q.  v.),  is,  however,  a  creature  of  very  different 
general  form,  being  a 
red,  wavy,  cylindrical 
worm,  tapering  at  the 
tail,  and  forking  near 
the  upper  extremity, 
the  branch  which  is 
sent  off  terminating  in 
a  sucker  for  adhesion, 
whilst  the  mouth  ter- 
minates the  principal 
trunk.  The  whole 
length  seldom  exceeds 
an  mch.  Twenty  of 
_    .  ,         ,  these  worms,  of  vari- 

Fasciola  Tracheahs  :  gj^es,  have  been 

A,  the  whole  worm  ;  B  the  upper  f^^^  windpipe 
extremity,   magnifica :    a,   the    ^  .     -■       i  •  i  ^ 

sucker  at  the  end  of  its  branch;  Ot    a    smgle  chicken. 

h,  the  head,  with  mouth.  Pheasants,  partridges, 

&c.,  are  also  liable 
to  be  infested  by  them.  They  produce  inflamma- 
tion, and  sometimes  suffocation  and  death.  A 
common  remedy  is  to  introduce  into  the  bird's 
throat  the  end  of  a  feather,  well  oiled,  and  to  turn 
it  round,  so  as  to  dislodge  the  worms,  which  are 
then  either  brought  out  by  the  feather,  or  coughed 
out  by  the  bird.  Another  cure  is  to  give  a  little 
Epsom  salts  mixed  with  the  food.  Urine  is  often 
used  in  the  same  way,  and  with  similar  efficacy. 

GARANCEUX  is  a  term  now  applied  to  the 
rough  preparation  which  was  formerly  called  garan- 
cine — namely,  the  spent  madder  acted  on  by  sul- 
phuric acid,  as  mentioned  imder  Garancine. 

GA'RANCINE,  a  manufactured  product  of 
madder;  hence  its  name,  derived  from  the  French 
garance.  The  discovery  of  the  process  for  making 
this  material  is  due  to  the  French,  and  it  has  proved 
one  of  the  most  valuable  additions  to  our  dyeing 
materials  that  has  been  made  during  the  present 
century. 

It  was  first  practically  used  in  the  dyeing  estab- 
lishment of  Messrs  Lagier  and  Thomas  at  Avignon, 
where  it  was  introduced  with  the  hope  of  turning 
the  spent  madder  to  accoimt ;  but  the  rude  manner 
in  which  it  was  prepared  prevented  it  from  becoming 


generally  used  for  a  long  til  no,  and  our  ignorance  of 
the  organic  chemistry  of  madder  at  first  liindered 
its  imjjrovement.  It  was  first  jtreparrd  by  drying 
and  pulverising  or  grinding  the  spent  madder  whwh 
had  been  used  in  the  ordinary  i)rocesse3  of  dyeing 
madder  styles  ;  this  was  then  saturated  witli  sul- 
phuric aci(l,  wliich  was  supposed  to  char  the  woody 
tissue,  and  destroy  the  alizurine  and  some  other 
organic  products  of  the  madder,  but  to  have  no 
effect  upon  the  purpurine,  which  was  consequently 
I  available  for  fresh  dyeing  processes.  Subsequent 
experience  shewed  these  views  to  be  wrong,  and 
garancine  is  now  prepared  from  pure  ground 
madder-root  which  has  not  pre  nous ly  been  used. 

For  this  purpose,  the  ground  madder  is  mixed 
with  water,  and  left  for  a  day,  and  then  fresh  water 
is  added,  and  the  whole  drawn  off.  By  this  means, 
the  sugar,  and  probaV)ly  the  whole  of  the  rubian, 
another  principle  of  the  madder,  are  dissolved 
and  removed.  Sulphuric  acid  is  then  added,  and 
the  temi)erature  raised  to  about  90"  F.  for  some 
hours,  after  which  it  is  well  washed  Avith  cold 
water,  strained,  pressed,  and  dried,  and  afterwarda 
ground.  In  this  state,  it  has  a  fine  chocolate-brown 
colour,  and  looks  somewhat  like  ground  coffee. 
The  advantages  of  garancine  over  madder  are,  that 
it  is  more  easily  used,  and  the  colours  it  gives 
are  brighter  and  more  intense,  although  not  so 
permanent. 

GARAY,  Jaxos,  a  distinguished  Hungarian  poet, 
was  born  at  Szegszard  in  1812.  G.'s  poetical 
genius  manifested  itself  from  early  boyhood ;  for  it 
was  noticed  by  his  teachers,  that  whenever  he  had 
to  make  a  school  pensum  of  Latin  verses,  he  woidd 
usually  bring  at  the  same  time  an  elaborate  Magyar 
version.  His  Csatdr  (the  Warrior)  was  published  in 
1834,  and  from  that  moment  till  his  death,  G.  was 
one  of  the  most  assiduous  workmen  in  the  field  of 
Hungarian  literature,  being  attached  in  succession 
to  the  editorial  staffs  of  the  Hegeloi,  Rajzolatolc, 
H'miolc,  and  Jelenkor.  G.'s  dramatic  works  are — 
Csctb,  a  tragedy  in  five  acts  (1835) ;  Arhocz,  a  tragedy 
in  five  acts  (1837) ;  Orszdgh  Ilona,  an  historical  drama 
in  three  acts  (1837) ;  Utolso  Magyar  Khan,  a  tragedy 
in  five  acts  ;  Bdthory  Erzsehct,  an  historical  drama  in 
five  acts.  The  first  complete  edition  of  G.'s  poetical 
works  was  published  at  Pesth  in  1843.  A  collection 
of  tales  aj)peared  under  the  title  of  Tollrajzok  in 
1845;  and  the  historical  legends  of  Hungary,  under 
the  title  of  Arpddok,  in  1847.  A  new  series  of  poetry, 
under  the  title  Balatoni  KagyUk.  was  published  in 
1848.  He  died  at  Pesth,  November  5,  1853.  His 
last  work  was  Szent  Ldszlo,  a  long  historical  poem 
in  12  cantos  (2  vols.,  Erlau,  1850).  A  complete 
edition  of  his  poems  was  published  after  his  death 
by  Franz  Ney  (Pesth,  1853) ;  and  a  select  number 
of  them,  have  been  translated  into  German  by 
Kertbeny  (Pesth,  1854 ;  2d  edit.,  Vienna,  1857). 

GARB,  or  GARBE  (Fr.  gerhe,  Ger.  garhe),  a 
sheaf  of  any  kind  of  grain.  A  garb  is  frequently 
used  in  heraldry.  If  it  is  blazoned  a  garb  simply, 
then  wheat  is  understood ;  if  any  other  kind  of 
grain  is  intended,  it  must  be  mentioned — e.  g.,  'a 
garb  of  oats.' 

GARBLERS,  GARBLE  (Fr.  garher,  to  make 
clean).  To  garble  signifies  to  sever  and  divide  the 
good  and  sufficient  from  the  bad  and  insufficient. 
Garbles  signify  the  dust  or  soil  that  is  severed.  By 
1  Rich.  III.  it  was  provided  that  no  bow-staves 
should  be  sold  ungarbled ;  and  by  12  Ed.  IV.  c.  2, 
it  is  enacted  that  bow-staves  be  searched  and 
surveyed,  and  that  such  as  be  not  good  and  suffi- 
cient be  marked.  1  James  I.  c.  19  was  passed  to 
preserve  the  purity  of  drugs.  By  this  statute, 
thirty- two  kinds  of  drugs  are  specified  as  garbleable ; 

619 


GARCIA— GARD  A. 


a»d  ifc  was  declared  that  all  these  drugs,  &c., 
Wtire  to  be  garbled  and  sealed  by  the  garbler 
before  sale,  on  pain  of  forfeiture  of  the  same  or 
the  value  thereof.  Power  was  given  to  an  officer, 
called  the  garbler,  at  all  times  of  the  day  to  enter 
into  any  shops,  warehouses,  or  cellars,  to  view  and 
search  foi  such  drugs  and  spices,  and  to  garble  and 
make  clejtn  the  same.  This  statute  was  repealed 
by  6  Anne,  c.  16 ;  but  a  similar  power  to  that 
exercised  by  the  garblers  is,  by  55  Geo,  III.  c.  194, 
now  reposed  in  the  Apothecaries'  HaU  of  London. 

GARCIA,  Manuel,  a  well-known  musical  genius, 
was  born  at  Seville,  in  S])ain,  in  1775.  After 
acquiring  a  considerable  reputation  as  a  singer 
in  Cadiz  and  Madrid,  he  went  to  Paris  in  1808, 
where  he  obtained  great  success  at  the  Italian 
Opera;  and  in  1811  proceeded  to  Italy,  where  he 
was  received  with  equal  favour  in  Turin,  Rome, 
and  Naples.  From  1816  to  1824,  he  was  constantly 
engaged  as  a  singer,  either  in  Paris  or  London. 
Subsequently,  with  a  select  operatic  company,  com- 
posed in  part  of  members  of  his  own  family,  he 
crossed  the  Atlantic,  and  visited  New  York  and 
Mexico.  On  the  road  between  Mexico  and  Vera 
Cruz,  he  was  robbed  of  all  his  money ;  and  after  his 
return  to  Paris,  he  was  compelled  to  open  a  class 
for  singing,  as  his  voice  had  become  greatly  impaired 
by  age  and  fatigue.  Many  of  G.'s  pupils  reached  a 
high  degree  of  excellence,  but  none  equalled  his 
eldest  daughter  Maria,  afterwards  Madame  Mali- 
bran  (q.  v.).  He  was  less  successful  as  a  composer, 
although  several  of  his  works,  especially  El  Poeta 
CalmlUta  and  II  Calif o  di  Bagdad,  were  much 
admired.  G.  died  at  Paris  in  June  1832. — Pauline 
Viardot-Garcia,  second  daughter  of  Manuel,  was 
born  at  Paris  in  1821.  She  has  also  acquired  a 
gi-eat  reputation  as  an  operatic  singer. 

GARCILA'SO,  surnamed  (by  himself)  the  Inca, 
was  born  at  Cuzco,  Peru,  in  1540.  He  was  the  son 
of  Garcilaso  de  la  Vega,  who  belonged  to  the  same 
family  as  the  poet  of  that  name,  and  who  was  one 
of  the  conquerors  of  Peru.  G.'s  father  married 
Elizabeth  Palla,  a  princess  of  the  race  of  the  Incas, 
and  niece  of  the  famous  Huayna  Capac,  the  last 
emperor  of  Peru,  and  G.,  though  a  Spaniard  and  a 
Christian,  was  exceedingly  proud  of  the  royal  blood 
which  flowed  in  his  mother's  veins.  At  the  age 
of  20  he  proceeded  to  Spain,  and  never  again  visited 
America.  During  the  greater  portion  of  his  life  he 
lived  at  Cordova,  where  he  died  in  1616.  His  first 
work  was  a  History  of  Florida  {La  Florida  del 
Ynca.  Lisbon,  1605).  It  contams  an  account  of  the 
conquest  of  the  country  by  Fernando  de  Soto.  In 
1609  appeared  the  first,  and  in  1616,  shortly  before 
his  death,  the  second  part  of  his  work,  on  the  His- 
tory  of  Peru,  entitled  Commentarios  Reales  que  tratan 
del  Origen  de  los  Incas  de  sua  Leyes  y  Gohierno. 
This  work  is  valuable,  not  so  much  for  any  great 
historical  talent  which  it  betokens  in  the  author,  as 
on  account  of  its  being  almost  the  only  source  of 
information  which  we  possess  concerning  the  ancient 
Peruvians,  G.  well  understood  his  mother-tongue, 
and  was  thus  enabled  to  correct  the  er.v'ors  which 
other  Spanish  writers  had  fallen  into  from  ignorance 
of  the  Peruvian  language.  G.'s  History  of  Peru  was 
translated  into  English  by  Sir  Paul  Rycaut  (Lond., 
1G88) ;  and  into  French  (2  vols.  Amsterdam,  1727). 

GARCILA'SO  DE  LA  VEGA,  a  Spanish  soldier 
and  poet,  was  born  at  Toledo,  in  1500  or  1503.  He 
early  adoi)ted  the  profession  of  arms,  and  gained  a 
distinguished  reputation  for  bravery  in  the  wars 
carried  on  by  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  against  the 
French  and  Turks,  but  was  mortally  wounded 
while  storming  a  castle  near  Fr6jus,  in  the  south 
of  France,  and  died  at  Nice,  November  1536,  in  the 
620 


thirty-third  year  of  his  age.  G.,  though  prema- 
turely cut  off,  lived  long  enough  to  win  immor- 
tality, and  though  he  wrote  little,  he  revolutionised 
the  national  poetic  taste  of  his  countrymen.  For 
the  short  metre  of  the  older  romances  and  redon- 
dillas,  he  substituted  the  hendecasyllabic  verse  of 
the  Italians.  His  pieces  consist  of  only  37  sonnets, 
5  canzones,  2  elegies,  1  epistle,  and  3  pastorals. 
Singular  to  say,  they  do  not  contain  a  trace  of 
military  ardour,  but  are  inspired  by  a  tender 
sweetness  and  melancholy  which  appear  to  have 
deeply  affected  his  countrymen.  *  His  sonnets,'  says 
Ticknor,  in  his  History  of  Spanish  Literature,  'were 
heard  everywhere;  his  eclogues  were  acted  like 
popular  dramas.  The  greatest  geniuses  of  his  nation 
express  for  him  a  reverence  they  shew  to  none  of 
his  predecessors.  Lope  de  Vega  imitates  him  itt. 
every  possible  way ;  Cervantes  praises  him  more 
than  he  does  any  other  poet,  and  cites  him  oftener. 
And  thus  G.  has  come  down  to  us  enjoying  a 
general  admiration,  such  as  is  hardly  given  to  any 
other  Spanish  poet,  and  to  none  that  lived  before 
his  time.'  The  best  of  the  numerous  editions  of 
G.'s  poems  is  that  by  Azara  (Madrid,  1765).  They 
have  also  been  translated  into  English  by  Wiffen 
(Lond.  182?). 

GARCI'NIA.    See  Mangosteen. 

GARD,  a  department  in  the  south  of  France, 
bounded  or^  the  E.  by  the  river  Rhone,  is  trian- 
gular in  shape,  its  southern  extremity  reaching 
into  the  MediteiTanean  in  a  headland  which  has 
a  coast-line  of  about  ten  miles.  It  has  an  area 
of  2291  square  miles,  and  in  1872  a  population  of 
420,131.  One- third  of  the  area  is  arable,  one-third 
waste  land,  and  the  remainder  occupied  by  forests, 
plantations,  vineyards,  and,  on  the  coast,  l)y  exten- 
sive and  unhealthy  marshes.  It  is  watered  maiuly 
by  the  Rhone,  and  by  its  tributaries,  the  Gard — 
from  which  the  department  has  its  name — and  the 
Ceze,  Of  its  surface,  the  north-west  is  occupied  by 
a  branch  of  the  Cevennes ;  the  remainder  slopes 
toward  the  Rhone  and  the  Mediterranean.  The 
soil  is  in  general  dry,  the  best  land  occurring  in 
the  river- valleys.  Coal  is  found  in  several  places, 
and  salt-works  are  extensively  carried  on  in  the 
south.  The  vine  (which  yields  about  26,400,000 
gallons  of  wine  annually),  the  ohve,  and  the  mul- 
berry are  the  principal  products.  The  chief  manu- 
factures are  silk,  woollen,  and  cotton  goods ;  hats, 
ribbons,  gloves,  &c.  Wine  is  largely  exported. 
The  department  is  divided  into  the  four  arrondisse- 
ments  of  Nlmes,  Alais,  Uzes,  and  Le  Vigan ;  the 
chief  town  is  Nimes. 

GARD  A,  Lago  di,  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
of  the  Alpine  lakes,  and  the  largest  in  Italy,  was 
the  Lacus  Benacus  of  the  Romans.  Its  modem 
name  is  derived  from  the  small  village  of  Garda» 
situated  on  its  eastern  shore,  and  containing  3000 
inhabitants.  G.'s  chief  tributary  is  the  river  Saroa, 
which  rises  from  the  glacier  of  Monte  Adamo,  but 
it  also  receives  several  smaller  streams  descending 
from  the  valleys  of  Ledro,  Tavalo,  and  Vesta.  The 
northern  extremity  of  the  lake  enters  the  territory 
of  Trent  in  the  Italian  Tyrol.  On  the  E.  it  has 
the  province  of  Verona  ;  on  the  W.,  that  of  Brescia ; 
very  variable  ;  the  average  generally  exceeds  120 
and  on  the  S.,  that  of  Mantua.  Its  greatest  length, 
from  Riva  to  Peschiera,  is  32  miles ;  and  its  breadth, 
from  Desenzano  to  Garda,  10  miles.  Its  depth  is 
feet ;  in  the  direction  of  Mallesine,  it  reaches  700 
and  800  feet ;  and  its  maximum,  as  yet  ascertained, 
is  1900  English  feet.  The  principal  islands  are 
Trimelone,  Olivg,  and  St  Pietro.  The  scenejy  ia 
grand.  Alpine  spurs  border  the  lake  on  both  sidf«, 
and  descend  steeply  to  its  shores,  but  contain  mfcliu 


GARDAIA— GARDE  NATIONALS. 


themselves  also  many  beautiful  and  fertile  valleys. 
The  waters  of  this  lake  are  remarkaljly  clear,  and 
abound  in  fish  of  various  kinds.  Owing  to  the 
extent  of  its  surface,  and  the  violent  winds  to  which 
it  is  exposed,  waves  often  rise  on  it  to  a  consider- 
able height,  giving  its  waters  the  ajipearance  of  a 
rough  sea.  The  only  outlet  is  the  river  Mincio  at 
Peschiera,  which  descends  to  Mantua,  and  dis- 
charges itself  into  the  Po.  The  mild  climate  in 
the  district  of  the  lake,  and  the  beauty  of  its 
vicinity,  have  caused  its  shores  to  be  lined  with 
beautiful  villas.  Especially  attractive  to  the  scholar 
iB  the  neck  of  land  called  Sermione  (the  Sirmio  of 
Catidlus),  where  the  remains  of  that  poet's  country- 
touse  are  still  traceable.  Since  the  i>eace  of  Villa- 
franca.  Lake  G.  forms  the  barrier  which  separates 
Venetia  from  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

GARDAI'A,  or  GHARDEIA,  an  important 
trading  town  of  Algeria,  in  the  Sahara,  chief  town, 
and  seat  of  the  DjemmS-a  or  elective  council  of  the 
Repubhc  of  the  Seven  Cities  of  the  Mzab  district, 
is  situated  amid  savagely  naked  and  rocky  moun- 
tains, in  lat.  32'  28'  N.  and  long.  4°  38'  E.,  312 
miles  in  di»-ect  line  south-south-east  of  Algiers. 
It  is  fortified  by  an  enclosing  wall,  surmountexl  by 
nine  towers,  and  pierced  by  ten  gates ;  contains 
six  mosques,  one  remarkable  for  its  size  ;  and  has  a 
flourishing  trade  by  means  of  caravans  with  Tunis, 
Algiers,  Fez,  Marocco,  Sfidan,  and  Timbuctu,  in 
slaves,  dates,  barley,  pottery,  provisions,  oil,  wool, 
cotton,  indigo,  leather,  gold-dust,  ivory,  and  all  the 
varied  raw  produce  of  Central  and  Northern  Africa. 
G.  is  sixrrounded  by  extensive  orchards,  irrigated 
from  wells,  some  of  which  are  900  feet  deep.  In 
the  vicinity  are  the  ruin=(  of  a  tower,  supposed  to 
have  belonged  to  the  Romans.  The  Mzab  republic 
or  confederacy  pays  to  the  French  an  annual  tribute 
of  30,000  francs,  14,000  francs  of  which  are  con- 
tributed by  G.  alone.  In  return  for  this,  the 
French  secure  them  from  all  wars  and  marauders, 
and  open  to  them  freely  the  markets  of  the  Tell, 
or  coast  regions  of  Algeria.  Pop.  13,000.  See  the 
Great  Sahara,  Wanderings  South  of  the  Atlas 
Mountains,  by  H.  B.  Tristram  (London,  1860). 

GARDANT,  in  Heraldry,  is  said  of  an  animal 
vrhich  is  represented  full-faced,  and  looking  forward. 
See  Passant- Gard ANT. 

GARDE  NATIONALS,  the  celebrated  burgher 
defenders  of  order  in  Paris  and  certain  other  French 
towns,  was  for  the  first  time  introduced  into  Paris 
during  the  Revolution  of  1789.  It  had  existed  for 
a  long  time  previous  in  some  of  the  French  towns, 
having  been  at  first  employed  to  defend  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  the  city,  and  subseqiiently  to 
guard  the  persons  and  property  of  the  citizens. 
When,  in  Jidy  1789,  the  entire  lower  orders  of  the 
capital  rose  and  demanded  arms,  the  leaders  of 
the  Revolution,  sitting  at  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  seized 
the  opportunity  to  decree,  without  consulting  the 

fovemment,  the  formation  of  a  national  guard  for 
*ans  of  48,000  citizens,  which,  in  the  first  instance, 
they  named  the  Parisian  Militia.  Each  electoral 
district  was  to  enrol  a  battalion  of  800  men, 
divided  into  four  companies  of  200  men  each,  15  of 
these  companies  forming  a  legion.  The  officers  of 
the  battalions  were  to  be  elected  by  the  privates ; 
but  the  higher  officers  were  named  by  the  Com- 
mittee. The  device  chosen  as  the  badge  of  the 
service  was  of  blue  and  red,  the  colours  of  the  city, 
to  which  white,  the  colour  of  the  army,  was  added, 
to  denote  the  intimate  union  which  should  subsist 
between  the  defenders  of  national  liberty  and  the 
military.  Thus  arose  the  celebrated  tricolor,  after- 
waitis  adopted  as  the  national  badge,  and  now  borne 
la  honour  wherever  the  French  name  extends.  On 


the  king  consenting  to  the  removal  of  the  regulaJ 
troops  from  Paris,  Lafayette  (q.  v.)  was  named 
Commandant  of  the  National  Guard  of  tl.e  city, 
Ere  many  more  days  had  elapsed,  the  friends  of 
municipal  freedom  had  organised  themselves  into 
burgher  troops  in  every  important  town,  and  the 
National  Guard  had  become  a  recognised  institution 
of  the  whole  kingdom,  the  entire  numljcr  raised 
being  not  under  300,000.  The  force  soon  acquired 
an  extraordinary  degree  of  discii)line  and  efficiency 
— in  a  great  degree  from  the  number  of  old  soldicra 
who,  having  deserted  the  crown,  were  elected  to 
commissions  by  the  municipal  troops. 

Throughout  1789,  the  National  Guard  looked  on 
supinely  at  the  excesses  of  the  democratic  ])arty  in  the 
provinces,  and  joined  the  mob  in  Paris  during  the 
atrocities  of  the  5th  October  ;  but,  under  Lafayette, 
better  counsels  prevailed,  and  the  national  army 
restored  order,  rescuing  the  royal  family  on  the  11th 
of  October.  For  some  months  after  this  time,  the 
National  Guard  firmly  withstood  the  more  violent 
insurrectionists,  who  would  have  deluged  the  capital 
with  blood  ;  but  irresolution  and  indecision  marked 
their  actions  in  AugTist  1792,  and  they  stood  tamely 
by  during  the  appalling  massacres  in  the  prisons. 
As  the  Revolution  held  its  sanguinary  course,  the 
National  Guard  receded  more  and  more  from  the 
moderate  views  which  it  had  at  first  supported, 
until,  in  1794,  we  find  it  among  the  most  devoted 
adherents  of  Robespierre  and  his  bloody  trium- 
virate, ever  ready  to  lend  its  aid  in  the  execution 
of  their  merciless  decrees.  Later  in  the  year,  how- 
ever, when  the  Reign  of  Terror  stood  balanced 
between  power  and  death,  the  National  Guard 
proved,  under  the  command  of  Barras,  faithful  to 
the  Convention,  which  had  de])osed  Robespierre  and 
his  terrible  colleagues.  In  1795,  the  National  Guard 
aided  in  the  disarmament  of  the  j^opulace ;  the  reign 
of  the  multitude  ceased,  and  the  force  itself  was 
thoroughly  re-organised,  all  elements  of  internal 
turbulence  being  carefully  excluded  from  its  ranks. 
Under  this  constitu.tion,  none  were  eligible  to  serve 
as  National  Guards  but  citizens  of  substance, 
labourers  and  the  lowest  classes  being  deemed 
dangerous.  Not  many  months  after,  so  great  was 
the  reaction,  that  the  corps  had  become  quite 
royalist  in  its  feelings,  carrying  their  sympathies 
at  length  to  open  rebellion  against  the  Conven- 
tion ;  but  they  sustained  an  utter  defeat  from  a 
small  body  of  troops  of  the  regular  army,  who, 
under  Barras  and  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  defended 
the  Convention.  After  this  reverse,  the  National 
Guard  ceased  practically  to  exist.  It  is  worthy  of 
remark,  however,  that  in  1794  the  latter  general 
had  been  oflTered  the  command  of  the  National 
Guard  by  Robespierre,  and  had  declined  it :  had 
he  accepted,  how  different  might  have  been  the 
fate  of  Europe. 

In  1805,  on  the  eve  of  the  great  continental  cam- 
paign, which  he  expected  would  denude  France  of 
its  regular  troops.  Napoleon  re-instituted  the  G.  N., 
taking  care,  however,  that  no  elective  or  democratic 
principles  should  pervade  the  body.  By  a  decree 
of  September  23,  in  which  the  whole  empire  waa 
included,  every  man  in  good  health  was  required  to 
serve,  between  the  ages  of  21  and  60 :  the  officers 
were  to  be  named  by  the  Emperor.  The  companies 
were  localised  among  the  villages  and  townships  ; 
ten  companies  formed  a  cohort,  and  several  cohorts, 
according  to  the  district,  formed  a  legion.  This 
force  was  maintained  in  succeeding  j'ears  in  discip- 
line and  efficiency ;  and  in  1812,  before  the  great 
Russian  campaign,  the  Emperor  placed  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  National  Guard  on  permanent  duty.  He 
reaped  the  advantages  of  this  step  when,  in  1813, 
after  the  disastrous  issue  of  that  year*s  warfare,  he 


GARDELEGEN— GARDENING. 


found  100,000  well-drilled  steady  troops  ready  to 
replace  his  lost  veterans,  and  fill  some  of  the 
vacancies  in  the  ranks.  In  1814 — when  advancing 
to  meet  the  allies,  he  parted  from  his  empress  and 
his  son,  the  little  king  of  Eome,  for  the  last  time 
— Napoleon  solemnly  committed  them  to  the  pro- 
tection of  the  National  Guard  of  Paris.  After  the 
Bourbon  restoration,  the  National  Guard  continued 
an  important  body  in  the  state  until  1827,  when,  its 
attitude  becoming  insul)ordinate,  Charles  X.  dis- 
solved it,  but  neglected  to  disarm  the  members. 
Enraged  at  this  slight,  these  men  were  among 
his  most  formidable  opponents  at  the  revolution 
of  1830.  Under  Louis  Philippe,  in  that  year, 
the  G.  N.  was  re-established  throughout  France, 
Lafayette  being  appointed  to  the  command-in-chief, 
a  post,  however,  from  which  he  was  removed 
shortly  afterwards,  as  his  power  became  danger- 
ously great.  In  18.31,  the  National  Guard  of  Lyon 
was  implicated  in  the  insurrection  there  ;  and  in  the 
following  year,  a  considerable  portion  of  the  urban 
legions  of  Paris  took  part  in  tlie  sanguinary  distiu'b- 
ances  of  the  Quarticr  St  Meri,  in  which,  however, 
they  were  overcome  by  the  firmness  and  fidelity  of 
the  suburban  legions  of  the  IjanUeu.  Feehng  its 
power  over  tlie  Citizen  King  of  its  o\w\  creation, 
the  National  Guard  verged  more  and  more  towards 
republican  principles,  until,  in  the  critical  moments 
of  the  reform  insurrection  of  1848,  the  guard  of 
the  capital  deserted  from  Louis  Philippe  to  the 
revolutionists,  and  so  put  an  end  to  the  Orleans 
dynasty.  In  the  troubles  of  the  spring  and  summer 
of  1848,  the  G.  N. — a  few  legions,  subsequently 
dissolved,  excepted — steadfastly  supported  order, 
and  opposed  the  Socialists.  On  the  election  of 
Louis  Napoleon  to  the  presidency,  he  found  it 
necessary  to  dissolve  the  Guards  in  153  communes  ; 
and  he  re-organised  the  remainder  on  a  footing  to 
insure  the  absence  of  Socialistic  views. 

By  an  ordinance  of  June  1851,  the  National 
Guard  was  placed  nearly  on  the  footing  of  Louis 
Philippe's  reign;  but  by  a  decree  of  1852,  which  held 
till  the  4th  September  1870,  the  entire  force  was  dis- 
solved, and  reformed  on  a  more  niiUtary  basis,  in  cer- 
tain departments  only.  During  the  Franco-Prussian 
war  the  G.  N.  was  divided  into  the  sedentary  and  ac- 
tive battalions.  After  the  defeat  of  the  Comnume  in 
1871  the  French  National  Assembly  decreed  to  dis- 
solve the  G.  N.,  leaving  the  prefects  of  departments 
to  choose  the  time  of  executing  the  decree.  At  pres- 
ent this  body  may  be  considered  abolished,  as  its 
existence  is  incompatible  with  a  new  law  of  re- 
cruiting. 

GA'RDELEGEN,  a  small  town  of  Prussian 
Sajcny,  is  situated  about  30  miles  north-north-west 
of  ilagdeburg,  on  the  Milde.  It  has  manufactures 
of  L'.ather,  several  mills  and  distilleries,  and  five 
anniiwl  fairs.  Pop.  5402.  G.  is  very  old.  Tradition 
Bays  ^hat  in  ancient  times  it  was  called  Iseuburg 
{Castvm  Isidis),  from  being  a  sanctuary  of  the 
goddcis  Isis,  and  that  it  was  destroyed  by  the 
Franku.  Be  this  as  it  may,  it  was  certainly 
destroj  ed  by  a  Duke  Dervan  in  633  A.  D.,  and 
rebuilt  about  924.  Subsequently,  for  a  long 
period,  it  was  the  seat  of  jirincely  markgrafs,  who 
were  called  Counts  of  Gardelegen.  Until  1478,  it 
rcmaintid  a  free  town. 

GARDE'NIA,  a  genus  of  trees  and  shrubs,  of  the 
natural  order  CiuclLonacecc,  natives  of  tropical  and 
Bub-tropical  countries,  many  of  which  are  now 
favourites  in  our  green-houses  and  hothouses,  on 
account  of  their  beautiful  and  fragrant  flowers. 
Some  of  them  are  hardy  enough  to  endure  the  open 
air  in  .wramer.  The  corolla  is  funnel-shaped,  or 
approac'^iing  to  salver-shajjed,  the  tube  much  longer 

622 


than  the  calyx ;  the  fruit  is  a  berry  crowned  with 
the  cal3rx.  G.  Jlorida  and  G.  radicans  are  among 
the  species  best  known  in  Britain,  and  bear  the 
name  of  Cape  Jasmine,  but  are  natives  of  Japan.  The 
fruit  of  the  former,  which  is  about  the  size  of  a 
pigeon's  egg  and  orange-coloured,  is  sold  in  the  shops 
of  China  and  Japan  for  dyeing  silks  yellow.  A 
beautifid  yellow  resin  exudes  from  wounds  in  the 
bark  of  G.  arborea  and  G.  gummifera,  Indian  species. 
The  wood  of  G.  Thunbevgii  and  G.  Eothmamda  is 
very  hard,  and  is  used  for  agricultural  implements, 
wheel  axles,  &c.,  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Both 
of  these  species  are  known  in  Britain  as  esteemed 
hothouse  plants. 

GARDENING,  or  HORTICULTURE,  diflfers 
from  agriculture  in  the  comparatively  small  extent 
of  ground  used,  the  much  greater  variety  of  pro- 
ductions sought  from  it,  and,  consequently,  also  to 
no  small  extent  in  the  manner  of  cultivation.  Tho 
different  ordinary  productions  of  the  garden  are 
usually  classed  under  the  three  heads  of  Flowers^ 
Fruits,  and  Culinary  Vegetables,  concerning  which 
see  Flower-garden,  Fruits,  and  Kitchen-garden. 
In  large  gardens,  these  departments  are  kept  very 
distinct,  particularly  the  first  and  last  of  them ; 
but  in  small  gardens  they  are  generally  more  or  less 
combined. 

Where  circumstances  permit  a  choice  of  situation, 
a  garden  ought  to  be  as  fully  as  possible  exposed  to 
the  rays  of  the  sun,  and  in  the  northern  parts  of  the 
world  a  gentle  slope  to  the  south,  south-east,  or 
south-west  is  even  preferable  to  a  perfect  level.  But 
a  slope  in  the  opposite  directions  is  by  all  means  to 
be  avoided.  The  form  of  a  garden,  unless  where 
some  peculiarity  of  situation  determines  it  other- 
wise, is  usuallj'  a  parallelogram  ;  and  it  is  considered 
desirable,  at  least  in  the  case  of  a  walled  garden, 
that  it  shoxdd  be  longer  from  east  to  west  than  from 
north  to  south,  in  order  to  have  as  much  as  possible 
of  the  best  exposure  of  wall  for  fruit-trees.  This  is 
also  sometimes  increased  by  the  enclosure  within 
a  fence  of  some  other  kind,  of  a  piece  of  ground 
called  a  sl'q^,  exterior  to  the  wall.  A  wall,  either  of 
brick  or  stone,  is  the  best  enclosiu-e  for  a  garden  ; 
brick  being  preferable  on  account  of  its  more  perfect 
adaptation  to  fruit-trees  (see  Wall-trees)  ;  but 
where  this  is  deemed  too  expensive,  hedges  of  thorn, 
holly,  &c.,  are  resorted  to.  Hedges  afford  good 
shelter  from  winds,  but  have  the  disadvantages  of 
harbouring  birds  and  snails  to  an  inconvenient 
degree,  and  of  withdrawing  to  their  own  support 
much  of  the  strength  of  the  adjacent  soil.  The 
garden,  if  in  the  form  of  a  parallelogram,  is  usually 
di\aded  into  smaller  parallelograms ;  a  large  garden, 
in  the  first  instance,  by  cross-w^alls,  smaller  gardens 
at  once  by  walks,  ai¥l  the  flats  thus  formed  are,  if 
necessary,  broken  up  by  paths  into  smaller  plots 
or  beds  for  different  kinds  of  plants.  The  patha 
within  the  plots  are  made  by  mere  treading  with 
the  foot,  when  the  ground  has  been  nf^wly  dug,  and 
are  intended  only  for  a  single  season  ;  the  walks 
are  permanent,  and  are  carefidly  made,  usually  by 
throwing  out  the  earth  to  the  depth  of  at  least  a 
few  inches,  and  supplying  its  place  with  stones, 
cinders,  broken  bricks,  slag  from  ftirnaces,  or  the 
like — v/hatever,  in  fact,  is  least  likely  to  afford 
nutriment  to  plants — the  surface  being  covered  with 
gravel,  which  is  kept  clear  of  weeds  by  frequent 
stirring  with  the  hoe  or  Dutch  hoe.  The  walks  are 
seldom  less  than  five  feet  in  width.  The  groimd 
occupied  by  them  is  still  usefid  for  the  nourishment 
of  plants,  and  particularly  of  trees  or  shrubs,  grow- 
ing near  them.  They  have  generally  Edgings  (q.  v.; 
to  separate  them  neatly  from  the  adjoining  culti- 
vated ground  ;  and  in  damp  situations,  it  is  thought 
desirable  to  have  them  as  much  elevated  in  the 


GARDENING. 


centre  as  is  consistent  with  comfort  in  walking  on 
them. 

The  soil  of  a  garden  is  often  prepared  with  a 
degree  of  care  which  is  impossible  in  regard  to  a 
farm.  A  deep,  ricli,  and  easily  penetrable  soil  is 
desirable ;  and  where  the  immediate  expense  is 
not  much  regarded,  the  soil  of  a  garden  is  some- 
times almost  entirely  artificial ;  more  generally, 
means  are  used  for  ameliorating  the  original  soil. 
Of  these  means,  one  of  the  most  important  is 
trenchinrj,  by  which  the  soil  is  deepened,  and  it 
is  desiral)le  that  the  soil  of  a  garden  should  be 
at  least  three  feet  deep.  The  proper  depth  of 
trenching,  however,  depends  on  the  original  depth 
of  the  soil  and  the  nature  of  the  subsoil ;  where 
the  soil  is  pretty  uniform  to  a  considerable  depth, 
the  deepest  trenching  is  advantageous ;  and  the 
available  soil  may  often  be  deepened  by  incor- 
porating a  portion  of  the  subsoil  with  it,  but  if 
too  much  of  a  subsoil  nnsuited  for  vegetation  is  at 
once  tin-own  up  by  trenching,  it  may  communicate 
its  own  barrenness  for  years  to  the  soil,  ere  it  is 
mellowed  by  exposure  to  the  air,  manures,  and  the 
processes  of  cultivation.  A  stiff  clay  soil  is  very 
unsuitable  for  many  of  the  crops  required  in  a 
garden,  and  ought  to  be  mixed  with  as  much  sand 
and  vegetable  matters  as  can  easily  be  procured, 
both  at  the  formation  of  the  garden  and  afterwards. 
It  is  of  course  necessary,  in  all  cases,  that  a  garden 
be  thoroughly  drained ;  it  is  also  of  great  conse- 
quence to  have  the  means  of  irrigation,  or  at  least 
of  abundant  watering,  which,  even  where  the  climate 
is  generally  moist,  greatly  tends  to  inci-ease  the 
produce  in  dry  seasons,  and  is  almost  always  neces- 
sary to  the  perfection  of  certain  crops.  Indeed,  if 
water  can  be  obtained  to  form  a  small  pond,  or  to 
pass  through  the  garden  as  a  rivulet,  it  may  not 
only  be  turned  to  account  for  purposes  of  ornament, 
but  also  of  utility,  in  the  cultivation  of  many  plants 
which  cannot  be  successfidly  cultivated  otherwise. 
This  use  of  water  is  far  from  being  so  common  as  it 
might  be  in  British  gardens;  even  a  cranberry- plot, 
although  a  pleasant  thing  and  of  easy  attainment, 
being  seldom  thought  of ;  the  Chinese  are  better 
acquainted  with  it,  and  cultivate  aquatic  plants  to 
an  extent  that  has  never  been  equalled  amongst  any 
other  people. 

A  liberal  supply  of  manure  is  necessary  for  a 
garden ;  the  kinds  of  manure  must  be  accommodated 
to  the  soil  and  to  the  different  jilants,  ami  must  often 
also  depend  in  part  on  other  circumstances.  Care 
must  be  taken  not  to  overdose  with  guano,  or  indeed 
with  strong  manure  of  any  kind,  by  which  plants 
might  be  killed  rather  than  nourished.  Farm-yard 
or  stable-yard  manure  ought  in  general  to  be  sub- 
jected to  a  process  of  decomposition  in  heaps  before 
being  used ;  and  great  advantage  is  derived  from 
mixing  it  with  other  substances  to  form  Composts 
(q.  v.).  Nor  ought  any  of  the  weeds  and  other 
refuse  vegetable  produce  of  the  garden  to  be  thrown 
away  or  dissipated  in  smoke,  but  all  should  be 
gathered  into  some  corner  appropriated  to  the 
purpose,  there  to  decompose  and  form  a  heap  of 
vegetable  mould,  which  is  for  many  purposes  one 
of  the  best  manures  that  can  be  used.  Peat  is, 
in  some  soils  and  for  some  plants,  a  very  usefvd 
manure  or  ingredient  in  the  formation  of  composts. 

A  garden  ought  to  be  delved  or  dug  with  the 
spade  in  the  end  of  autumn,  except  where  the 
presence  of  a  crop  prevents,  the  gi'ound  being  left 
very  rough,  to  expose  the  soil  as  much  as  possible  to 
the  infiiiences  of  the  weather.  When  the  crops 
art;  planted  in  spring,  a  very  slight  stirring  of  the 
surface  is  all  that  is  required.  The  usefulness  of  a 
garden,  however,  is  much  increased  by  making  a 
cOEsiderable  Dart  of  it  produce  crops  even  during 


winter.  Greens  of  various  kinds  are  commonly 
obtained  from  the  garden  during  winter,  even  in 
the  northern  parts  o(  Britain  ;  the  variety  uf  winter 
crops  in  the  southern  parts  is  greater ;  ljut  nowhere 
is  a  system  of  constant  cropping  so  thoroughly 
maintained  as  in  the  market-gardens  around 
London.  Of  course,  constant  cropping  requires 
frequent  and  abundant  manuring ;  and  care  ia 
taken  that  each  crop  is  succeeded  by  one  of  a 
completely  different  kind,  a  rule  which  is  indeed 
always,  as  far  as  possible,  to  be  observed  both  ia 
horticultm-e  and  agriculture. 

In  laying  out  large  gardens,  fruit-trees  trained  on 
espaliers  are  not  unfrequently  i)lanted  around  the 
borders  of  plots ;  in  smaller  gardens,  gooseberry 
and  currant  bushes  generally  occupy  this  situa« 
tion,  often  in  addition  to  a  plot  entirely  devoted  to 
these  bushes.  Fruit-trees  are  often  also  planted 
as  standards  in  the  plots  devoted  to  culinary  vege- 
tables. The  productiveness  of  a  garden  may  cer- 
tainly thus  be  increased,  as  ground  duly  manured 
will  yield  a  greater  return  of  different  kinds  of 
produce  than  of  one  kind,  whilst  the  ownci  has  the 
additional  pleasure  of  the  greater  variety  ;  but  it  is 
to  be  remembered  that  the  roots  of  trees  and  bushes 
spread  a  long  way  through  the  soil,  and  render  it 
less  suitable  for  many  crops. 

The  implements  most  necessary  in  gardening  are 
the  spade,  fork,  rake,  hoe,  Dutch  hoe,  garden-line, 
wheelbarrow,  pruning-knife,  and  watering-can. 

The  practice  of  gardening,  of  course,  varies  much 
in  different  countries,  on  account  of  the  difference  of 
climate,  although  some  of  its  rules  are  of  universal 
application.  Of  the  history  of  gardening,  little  needs 
to  be  said.  We  know  little  of  the  gardening  of  the 
most  ancient  nations,  except  that  it  was  practised, 
both  for  the  sake  of  the  produce  and  for  pleasure, 
in  aU  the  seats  of  civilisation;  and  that  the  Greeks 
borrowed  their  methods  of  gardening  from  the 
Persians,  the  Pomans  in  their  turn  copying  from 
the  Greeks.  Of  the  gardening  of  the  Pomans,  some 
account  has  been  transmitted  to  us,  from  which  we 
know  that  they  had  attained  to  no  small  proficiency 
in  it.  During  the  middle  ages,  gardening  continued 
to  be  sedulously  prosecuted  in  all  the  more  civilised 
parts  of  Europe  ;  Charlemagne  enacted  laws  which 
contributed  much  to  its  promotion ;  and  even  in 
comjjaratively  barbarous  regions  it  was  carried  to 
great  perfection  by  the  monks,  traces  of  whose  skill 
and  diligence  are  still  to  be  seen  in  the  vicinity  of 
many  a  ruined  monastery.  The  practice  long  pre- 
vailed of  foriAng  gardens,  if  situated  on  a  slope,  into 
terraces,  and  many  a  fine  example  of  this  kind  of 
garden  still  remains  at  old  country-seats.  In  a  few 
places,  also,  may  be  seen  remaining  specimens  of 
the  clipped  hedges  and  fantastically  clipped  trees 
and  bushes,  which,  iintil  last  century,  seem  to  have 
been  thought  the  chief  ornaments  of  a  gardep ; 
other  puerile  conceits  being  often  associated  with 
them,  some  of  which  are  not  yet  entirely  exploded^ 
although  a  green  bush  in  its  natural  form  is 
universally  regarded  as  more  beautifid  than  one 
made  to  grow  into  the  shape  of  a  vase  or  of  a 
peacock.  But  the  history  of  taste  in  gardening 
accords  with  the  history  of  taste  in  lapng  out 
parks  and  pleasure-grounds,  concerning  which,  see 

liANDSCAPE-GARDENING. 

The  market-gardening  of  the  neighbourhood  of 
London  is  on  a  scale  proportionate  to  the  greatness 
and  wealth  of  the  city ;  large  fields,  instead  of  httle 
plots,  are  devoted  to  one  kind  of  crop,  and  as  an 
illustration  it  may  be  mentioned,  that  from  one 
garden  alone  200,000  gherkins  (yoimg  cucumbers  for 
pickling)  have  been  sent  to  market  in  a  single  day. 
At  Mitcham,  near  London,  and  at  a  few  other  placei 
in  England,  medicinal  plants  are  largely  cultivated. 


GAEDES  SUISSES— GAEDINER. 


GARDES  SUISSES,  a  celebrated  corps  in  the 
French  army,  constituted  'Gardes'  by  royal  decree 
in  1616.  They  comprised  upwards  of  2000  men, 
Avere  always  unswervinjj:  in  their  fidelity  to  the 
Bourbon  Icings,  and  are  chiefly  remarka'.jle  for  their 
heroic  end.  On  the  10th  of  August,  1792,  tliey  with- 
stood the  Parisian  revolutionary  mob,  and  defended 
the  palace  of  the  Louvre  till  almost  vjvery  man  was 
cut  down.  During  the  resistance  they  offered,  the 
royal  family  was  enabled  to  escape  to  such  shelter  as 
the  National  Assembly  afforded. 

GA'RDINER,  a  city  of  Kennebec  co.,  Maine,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Kennebec  river,  at  the  junction 
of  the  Cobbessecontce,  and  on  the  Kennebec  and  Port- 
land railroad,  seven  miles  below  Augusta.  Eight 
dams  have  here  been  built  across  the  Cobbessecontce, 
affording  an  abundance  of  water-power.  The  city 
has  numerous  saw,  paper,  and  other  mills;  has  tan- 
neries, machine  shops,  foundries,  a  woollen  factory,  a 
pottery,  sash  and  blind  factories,  furniture  factories, 
a  fancy  box  manufactory,  torpedo  factory,  etc.  G.  is 
at  the  head  of  the  ship-navigation  of  the  Kennebec, 
and  6000  tons  of  shipping  are  owned  here.  It  is  the 
headquarters  of  the  ice  l)usiness  of  the  Kennebec,  one 
company  alone,  tlip  Knickerbocker  of  Philadelphia, 
cutting  about  100,000  tons  annually.  The  city  con- 
tains 9  churches,  a  city  hall,  3  banks,  a  savings  insti- 
tution, a  public  high  school,  a  public  library,  and  two 
weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  in  1850,  6486;  but  by  the 
subsequent  incorj)oration  of  part  of  the  territory  of 
G.  with  other  townships,  its  jjopulation  diminished  to 
4496  in  1870.    Pop.  in  1880,  4444. 

GARDINER,  Stephen,  a  celebrated  English 
prelate  and  statesman,  the  illegitimate  son  of  Dr 
Lionel  Woodville,  Bishop  of  Salisbury,  brother  of 
Elizabeth  Grey,  queen  of  Edward  IV.,  was  born  at 
Bury  St  Edmunds,  Suffolk,  in  1483.  He  studied 
at  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge,  and  in  1520  became 
master  of  his  Hall.  Soon  after,  through  the  patronage 
of  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  he  was  introduced  to  Car- 
dinal Wolsey,  who  made  him  his  secretary.  In  this 
capacity  he  acquired  the  confidence  and'  favour  of 
Henry  VIII.,  and  from  his  knowledge  of  the  civil 
and  canon  law,  was  sent  to  Rome  in  1527,  to  conduct 
the  negotiation  with  the  pope  for  the  king's  divorce 
from  Catharine  of  Aragon.  He  was  then  usually 
called  Dr  Stephens.  His  exertions  were  unsuccess- 
ful ;  but  having  rendered  services  at  the  papal  court 
to  the  Bishop  of  Norwich,  he  w^as  by  him  afterwards 
appointed  Archdeacon  of  Norfolk,  while  he  promoted 
Wolsey's  interests  as  a  candidate  for  uie  pontificate. 
On  his  return,  he  was  made  secretary  of  state,  and 
in  the  spring  of  1531  was  advanced  to  the  arch- 
deaconry of  Leicester.  In  November  of  the  same 
year,  he  w^as  installed  Bishop  of  Winchester.  Not- 
withstanding his  allegiance  to  the  pope,  he  warmly 
Ef\pported  the  king's  supremacy,  and  wrote  a  treatise 
ix  defence  of  it,  entitled  De  Vera  Ohedientia.  He 
•was  sent  on  embassies  to  France  and  Germany,  and 
invariably  opposed  all  measures  tending  to  a  religious 
reformation  in  England.  He  had  a  principal  hand 
in  the  downfall  and  execution  of  Thomas  Cromwell, 
in  1540,  and  he  drew  up  an  impeachment  of  heresy 
against  Henry's  last  queen,  Catharine  Parr ;  but  in 
a  personal  interview  with  Henry  she  re-established 
herself  in  the  king's  favour,  and  G.  fell  into  disgrace. 
At  the  accession  of  Edward  VI.,  January  28,  1547, 
for  refusing  to  comply  with  the  Reformed  doctrines, 
he  was  committed  to  the  Fleet  prison,  hut  released 
in  the  following  December.  In  1548,  he  was  again 
seized,  and  committed  to  the  Tower,  and  on  his 
refusal  to  sign  certain  articles  submitted  to  him,  was 
deprived  of  his  bishopric.  When  Mary  ascended 
tho  throne  in  1553,  he  was  set  at  liberty,  restored 
to  his  see,  and  appointed  lord  chancellor  and  first 
624 


minister  of  state.    He  took  the  lead  in  all  the 

bitter  persecutions  of  the  Proteatants  during  Mary's 
reign,  and  is  charged  with  great  caprice  and  extreme 
cruelty  ;  but  Dr  Maitland  shews  that  many  of  the 
statements  regarding  G.  are  gross  misrepresenta- 
tions, and  that  in  very  many  instances  the  parties 
brought  before  his  court  were  arraigned  for  treason 
or  sedition,  rather  than  for  heresy ;  and  Roger 
Ascham  freely  confesses  that  G.  interposed  to  pro- 
tect him  when  summoned  by  the  council  on  a 
charge  of  heterodoxy.  The  management  of  the 
queen's  marriage  with  Philip  of  Spain  was  intrusted 
to  him,  and  he  officiated  at  their  nuptials.  He  died 
November  12,  1555.  A  treatise,  entitled  Necessary 
Doctrine  of  a  Christian  Man,  printed  in  1543,  ia 
said  to  have  been  the  joint  production  of  G.  and 
Cranmer.  G.'s  character  has  been  the  subject  of 
much  criticism  ;  but  it  can  scarcely  be  doubted 
that  he  was  a  zealous,  though  not  a  spiritually 
minded,  ecclesiastic.  His  devotion  was  that  of  an 
out-and-out  j>artisan;  but  it  was  nevertheless  real, 
after  its  fashion,  for  G.  would  have  given  his  lifo 
to  advance  the  cause  which  had  commanded  his 
sympathies  and  his  support. 

GARDINER,  Colonel  James,  son  of  Captain 
Patrick  Gardiner,  was  born  at  Carriden,  in  Linlith- 
gowshire, January  11,  1688,  and  when  only  14  yrara 
old,  obtained  a  commission  in  a  Scots  regiment  in 
the  Dutch  service.  He  afterwards  entered  the 
English  army,  and  was  severely  wounded  at  the 
battle  of  Rarailies  in  1700.  G.  fought  with  groat 
distinction  in  all  the  other  battles  of  Marlborough. 
In  1714 — 1715,  he  was  made  captain-lieutenant  in  a 
regiment  of  dragoons.  Some  time  after,  he  gave  a 
conspicuous  proof  of  his  courage,  when,  along  v/ith 
eleven  other  daring  fellows  (eight  of  whom  were 
killed),  he  fired  the  barricades  of  the  Highlanders 
at  Preston.  From  an  early  period.  G.  was  noted 
for  his  licentiousness,  which  was  so  marked,  that 
ordinary  officers,  making  no  pretensions  to  religion, 
rather  shunned  his  society,  for  i"ear  of  being 
corrupted ;  yet  his  constitution  enabled  him  to 
pursue  his  vicious  courses  with  apparent  impunity, 
and  in  consequence  of  his  continvial  gaiety  and  good 
health,  he  was  known  as  '  the  happy  rake.'  But  in 
the  year  1719,  he  suddenly  became  the  subject  of 
profound  religious  imi)ressions.  The  circumstances, 
as  narrated  by  Dr  Doddridge  (who  had  them  from 
the  hei'o  himself),  contain  much  that  is  marvellous, 
supernatural,  and  exceedingly  improbable.  Dodd- 
ridge himself  is  hardly  satisfied  with  G.'s  account, 
and  hints  at  the  possibility  of  the  whole  being  h 
dream,  instead  of  a  '  visible  representation  of  the 
Lord  Jesus  Christ  upon  the  cross,  surrounded  on  ail 
sides  with  a  glory,'  &c.  He  also  mentions  that  G. 
'  did  not  seem  very  confident'  whether  the  voice 
wdiich  came  to  him  was  really  '  an  audible  voice,  or 
only  a  strong  impression  on  his  mind  equally 
striking.'  Considerable  doubt  has  recently  been 
cast  on  the  whole  story  by  the  publication  of  the 
Autobiography  of  Dr  Alexayider  Carhjle,  edited 
by  John  Hill  Burton  (Edin,  Blackwood  and  Sons 
1860),  in  which  Carlyle  denies  altogether  the 
truth  of  Doddridge's  version  of  the  story,  at  least 
of  the  supernatural  portion  of  it.  The  attend- 
ant circumstances,  however,  are  of  little  moment 
one  way  or  another ;  the  great  fact  is  the  conver- 
sion of  the  brave  but  wicked  soldier  into  a  pioua 
and  excellent  Christian,  and  regarding  this  there  has 
never  been  any  doubt.  In  1724,  G.  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  major,  and  in  1726  he  married  Lady 
Francis  Erskine,  daughter  of  the  fom-th  Earl  of 
Buchan,  by  whom  he  had  13  children,  only  five  of 
whom  survived  him.  In  1730,  he  became  lieutenant- 
colonel  of  dragoons,  and  in  1743  colonel  of  a  new 
regiment  of  dragoons.    He  was  killed  at  the  battle 


G  ARESSIO— GARG  0  YLK 


of  Prestonpans,  September  21,  1745 ;  and  the  spot 
on  which  he  fell  is  marked  by  a  monument.  I'he 
JAfe  of  Colonel  Gardiner,  written  by  Dr  Doddridge, 
is  a  favourite  volume  with  the  more  religious 
portion  of  the  public. 

GARE'SSIO,  a  town  in  N.  Italy,  province  and  16 
miles  S.  E.  of  Mondovi,  on  the  Tnnuro.    Top.  6200. 

GARFIELD,  James  A.,  a  distinguished  general 
and  statesman,  the  twentieth  President  of  the  United 
States,  was  born  at  Orange,  Ohio,  Nov.  19,  1831. 
Of  hunihle  parentage,  his  early  youth  was  spent  in 
manual  labor,  but  when  he  was  about  eighteen  years 
of  age  he  passed  a  year  at  Geauga  Seminary,  Chester, 
Oliio  ;  then  became  a  student  at  the  Hiram  Eclectic 
Institute  at  Hiram,  Ohio;  and  finally  entered  Wil- 
liams College,  Williamstown,  Mass.,  from  which  he 
graduated  with  high  honors  in  1856.  After  his  grad- 
uation he  became  professor  of  Latin  and  Greek  at 
the  Institute  (or  College)  at  Hiram,  and  the  following 
year  was  chosen  its  president.  In  1859  he  was  elected 
State  senator,  and  in  1861  was  commissioned  colonel 
of  the  42d  Ohio  Volunteers.  He  served  with  success 
in  Kentucky,  dispersing  Humphrey  Marshall's  Con- 
federate forces,  and  was  made  a  brigadier-general  in 
1862.  He  commanded  the  20th  brigade  at  the  battle 
of  Shiloh,  and  subsequently  became  chief  of  staff  to 
General  Rosecrans.  He  was  promoted  to  major-gen- 
ei'al  "  for  gallant  and  meritorious  services  in  the  bat- 
tle of  Chickamauga,  Ga.,"  Sept.  JO,  1863,  and,  having 
been  elected  to  Congress,  resigned  from  the  army  and 
took  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Representatives  in  the 
following  December.  He  continued  to  represent  his 
district  until  1880.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  elected 
to  the  U.  S.  Senate,  but  at  the  Republican  Conven- 
tion of  that  year  he  was  nominated  for  President  of 
the  United  States,  Chester  A.  Arthur  of  New  York 
being  named  for  Vice-President.  A  spirited  contest 
rebuked  in  their  election,  and  they  were  duly  installed 
in  office  March  4,  1881.  On  the  2d  of  July  follow- 
ing, Presidt-nt  Garfield  was  sliot  at  Wasliington  by 
Charles  J.  Guiteau,  and  died  at  Long  Branch,  N.  J., 
from  the  effects  of  the  wound,  on  September  19. 

GAR-FISH  {Belo?ie),  a  genus  of  fislies  of  the 
family  Seomberesocidce,  having  the  body  gi-eatly 
elongated  and  covered  with  minute  scales.  They 
are  remarkable  for  the  green  colour  of  their  bones. 
The  llesh  is  wholesome,  and  is  often  used  as  food. 
One  species  only,  the  CoaiMON  G.  {B.  vulgaris), 


Gar-fish  [Belone  vulgaris). 


occurs  in  the  British  seas.  It  is  sometimes  called 
Greenbone,  Gorebill,  and  Mackerel-guide,  receiving 
the  last  name  because  it  visits  the  coasts  just 
before  the  mackerel,  coming,  in  fact,  from  the  deep 
to  the  more  shallow  water  for  the  same  reason,  to 
deposit  its  spawn.  It  is  usually  about  tw^o  feet  in 
length  ;  the  tail  is  forked  ;  the  pectoral  and  ventral 
fins  are  small ;  the  upper  part  of  the  head  and  back 
is  of  a  dark  greenish-blue  ;  the  cheeks  and  gill  covers, 
the  sides  and  the  belly  are  silvery  white,  the  dorsal  fin 
and  tail  are  gi-eenish-brown,  the  other  fins  white. 
The  G.  is  a  very  lively  fish  ;  it  swims  near  the  surface 
of  the  water,  and  not  unfrequently  springs  out  of  it. 
It  is  brought  to  the  London  market  in  considerable 
quantities.  The  flesh  has  a  flavour  somewhat  like 
1% 


that  of  mackerel.    Belone  trtmcata  is  abundant  in 
the  Delaware  river,  and  in  the  canals  of  New  Jersey, 
GA'liGANEY  {Aruis  querquedala  or  Querquedula 


Garganey,  or  Summer  Teal  [Anas  querqtiedula). 

sircia),  a  species  of  duck  or  teal,  considerably  larger 
than  the  common  teal,  although  not  so  large  as  the 
wild  duck,  nor  even  as  the  widgeon  ;  a  rare  British 
bird,  more  common  in  the  south  of  Europe,  i'oimd 
also  in  the  north  of  Africa,  and  in  Asia,  at  least  as 
far  to  the  east  as  Calcutta.  The  male  G.  is  a 
beautiful  bird ;  the  prevailing  colour  dark  brown, 
finely  varied  on  the  cheeks  and  neck,  with  short 
hair-like  lines  of  white  ;  the  speculum  grayish-green, 
margined  with  white  ;  a  conspicuous  white  streak 
over  each  eye,  extending  to  the  neck.  The  female 
is  smaller  than  the  male,  the  colours  more  dull,  and 
the  white  streak  obscure.  The  G.  is  very  much 
esteemed  for  the  table. 

GARGA'NO  (anc.  Garganns).  a  group  of  moun- 
tains in  the  province  of  Foggia,  S.  Italy,  forming 
a  peninsula,  wdiich  stretches  eastward  for  about 
20  miles  into  the  Adriatic  Sea.  The  gi-oup  ia 
composed  of   three  chains. 

GA'RGARA,  or  GARGARUS.    See  Ida. 

GA'RGLE,  or  G  A'RGARISM,  a  class  of  medicines 
intended  to  be  churned  about  in  the  mouth  and 
throat,  with  a  view  of  cleansing  the  parts  when 
affected  with  discharges  from  ulcers ;  or  of  acting 
as  Astringents  (q.  v.)  or  Stimulants  (q.v.),  in  relaxed 
sore  thr-oat.  The  best  gargles  are  composed  of 
vinegar  or  hydrochloric  acid  largely  diluted;  of 
chloj'ine  water  or  Condy's  disinfecting  liquor  in 
])utrescent  cases ;  of  port-wine,  alum,  and  capsicum 
(cayenne  pepper),  when  a  stimulating  effect  19 
required ;  of  tannin  or  oak-bark  decoction  with 
alum  or  borax,  in  case  a  pure  astringent  is  needed 
Gargles  are  very  iiseful  in  the  later  stages  of  soro 
throat,  in  almost  all  its  varieties. 

GA'RGOYLE,  a  projecting  spout,  leading  the 
water  from  the  roof-gutters  of  biiildings.  Gargoyles 
of  vai'ious  forms  have  been  used  in  almost  all  stylea 
of  architectiTre,  but  were  pecidiarly  developed  in 
connection  with  Gothic  architecture.  In  some  of  the 
larger  medieval  buii '  ings,  where  the  height  of  the 
walls  is  considerable,  the  gargojdes  have  to  project 
very  far,  in  order  to  fulfil  their  duty  of  throwing 
the  rain  off  the  walls,  and  are  in  such  cases  of  a 
lai'ge  size.  The  gargoyles  of  French  buildings  have 
usually  gi'eat  prominence,  much  more  than  in  Eng- 
land. Some  gargoyles  are  small  and  plain,  others 
large  and  ornamental,  according  to  their  various 
positions.  They  are  carved  into  all  conceivable 
forms — angelic,  human,  and  of  the  lower  orders ; 
and  as  in  fountains,  the  water  is  generally  spouted 
through  the  mouth.  In  late  castellated  buildings, 
they  frequently  assitme  the  form  of  small  cannoni 


GARGOYLE— GARIBALDI. 


projecting  from  the  parapet.  In  modern  times,  the 
use  of  leaden  pipes  to  convey  away  the  water  from 


Gakgotles. 


St  Stephen's,  Vienna. 


St  Alkmunds  Church,  Derby ;    Ilorslcy  Church,  Derbyshire  ; 
circa  1450.  circa  1450. 


roofs  has  almost  entirely  superseded  the  use  of 
gargoyles. 

GARIBALDI,  Giuseppe,  was  born  at  Nice,  22d 
July  1807,  of  respectable  parents.  His  father,  the 
owner  of  a  trading  vessel,  ha^dng  been  engaged 
all  his  life  in  maritime  pursuits,  young  G.  soon 
acquired  a  strong  predilection  for  the  hazards  of 
a  seafaring  life.  With  the  permission  of  his  father, 
he  adopted  the  profession  of  a  sailor,  and  made  his 
first  voyage  to  Odessa  under  the  command  of  an 
able  and  experienced  seaman.  Captain  Pesante.  He 
subsequently  visited  Rome,  Cagliari,  Vado,  Genoa, 
&c.,  with  various  commanders,  and  soon  became  a 
skilful  and  fearless  mariner,  distinguished  by  his 
prompt  decision  in  action  and  im.perturbable  pre- 
sence of  mind.  In  1830,  he  was  himself  in  com- 
mand of  the  brig  Noire  Davie  de  Grace  ;  and  about 
this  time  his  sentiments  of  patriotism  seem  to  have 
gained  increased  intensitj^,  ov/ing  to  his  intercourse 
with  a  fervid  Italian  patriot,  a  casual  passenger  on 
board  his  vessel.  From  1833,  his  acquaintance  with 
Mazzini  and  the  leaders  of  the  Italian  liberal  move- 
ment dates,  and  from  that  period  his  unquenchable 
hatred  of  despotism,  and  devotion  to  the  service  of 
universal  freedom,  exercised  a  predominant  influ- 
ence on  all  his  actions,  and  ultimately  became  the 
single  motive  of  his  career.  In  1834,  having  com- 
promised himself  by  participating  in  a  futile  revo- 
lutionary outbreak  at  Genoa,  he  was  compelled  to 
save  his  life  by  flight ;  and  after  extreme  hardship, 
Bncceeded  in  gaining  French  territory  simultane- 
ously with  the  publication  in  Italy  of  the  sentence 
of  his  condemnation  to  death.  G.  now  resumed 
his  seafaring  life,  and  after  some  unimportant 
voyages,  sailed  for  South  America.  When  Rosas, 
the  dictator  of  Buenos  Ayres,  declared  war  against 
the  republic  of  Uruguay,  G.  ofl'ered  his  services  to 
the  latter,  and  soon  gave  proof  of  so  remarkable  a 
talent  for  military  leadership,  that  he  w^as  raised  to 
the  supreme  command  both  of  naval  and  military 
operations.  In  1848,  war  having  broken  out  between 
Austria  and  the  liberals  of  Italy,  G.  hastened  to 
r>3« 


Europe.  He  bore  an  effective  part  in  the  whole  of 
the  Italian  campaign,  but  especially  distinguished 
himself  at  Rome  by  his  resistance  to  the  French 
forces,  who  during  four  weeks  were  successfully 
kept  at  bay,  and  repeatedly  repulsed  by  the  repub- 
lican forces  of  Rome,  under  the  direction  of  Garibaldi. 
Rome  having  at  length  succumbed  to  the  immensely 
superk»r  forces  at  the  disposal  of  General  Oudinot, 
G.  marched  forth  from  the  city  as  the  French  poured 
in.  After  a  retreat  of  imparalleled  difficidty  through 
districts  densely  occupied  by  Austrian  forces,  G., 
accompanied  by  his  devoted  and  heroic  Brazilian 
wife,  set  sail  in  a  small  fishing-craft  towards  Venice*, 
but  being  pursued  by  Austrian  vessels,  they  were 
compelled  to  land  at  random,  and  not  far  from 
the  shore  his  wife,  exhausted  by  the  dangers  and 
terrible  exertions  of  their  flight,  expired  in  tho 
arms  of  her  husl)and.  G.  at  length  reached  Genoa 
in  safety,  and  from  thence  eml)arked  for  Tunis.  He 
afterwards  revisited  South  America,  and  acquired 
the  command  of  an  American  trading-vessel.  In 
that  capacity,  he  touched  at  several  English  ports, 
where  he  was  received  with  every  testimony  of 
public  admiration  and  sympathy.  During  the  inter- 
val which  elapsed  between  the  w^ar  of  1848  and  that 
of  1859,  G.  publicly  accepted  the  substitution  of 
monarchy,  such  as  it  existed  in  Piedmont,  for  the 
republican  form  of  government,  for  which  he  had 
originally  combated,  and  was  therefore  free  to  serve 
as  an  irregular  auxiliary  of  the  Piedmontese  forces 
on  the  commencement  of  hostilities.  His  services 
in  that  capacity  ^vere  both  brilliant  and  etfective, 
notwithstanding  the  limited  scope  assigned  for  his 
operations.  In  the  course  of  the  following  year 
(ISGO),  the  most  triumphant  and  momentous  enter- 
prise of  his  marvellous  career  was  accomplished. 
The  chief  result  of  the  peace  of  Villafranca,  by 
which  the  Italian  war  of  1859  was  brought  to-an 
abrupt  and  unsatisfactory  termination,  was  the 
immediate  resumption  by  the  Italian  people  of  the 
revolutionary  and  progressive  responsibilities,  which 
during  the  campaign  had  been  vested  by  the  nation 
in  the  government  of  Sardinia.  Thus,  early  in 
18G0,  insurrectionary  disturbances  broke  out  in 
Palermo,  and  although  speedily  quelled  in  the  city 
by  the  gi*eat  ntxmerical  strength  of  the  Neapolitan 
garrison,  they  were  constantly  repeated  throughout 
the  interior  of  the  island,  where  the  insurgents  were 
full  of  elation  and  daring,  in  consequence  of  G. 
having  transmitted  to  them  the  assurance  that  he 
would  speedily  appear  himself  to  head  their  struggle. 
In  fulfilment  of  this  promise,  G.  assembled  at  Genoa 
a  volunteer  force  of  1070  patriots,  and  on  the  5th 
of  May  set  sail  for  the  island  of  Sicily.  On  the 
11th,  his  two  small  transport  steamers  having 
reached  Marsala  in  safety,  the  landing  of  his 
followers  was  successfidly  effected  in  sight,  and 
partially  imder  fire,  of  the  Neapolitan  fleet.  On  the 
15th,  in  the  battle  of  Calatafimi,  3600  Neapolitan 
troops  w^re  routed  by  G.'s  small  force,  and  to  this 
opening  "vdctory  may  be  largely  attributed  tho 
subsequent  success  of  the  entire  expedition.  It 
at  once  cleared  the  way  to  Palermo,  and  inspired 
G.'s  soldiers  with  irresistible  confidence.  On  the 
i8th  of  the  same  month,  G.  and  his  little  army 
of  heroes  occupied  the  heiglitst  which  command 
Palermo,  and  after  a  desperate  conflict  with  the 
royalist  troops,  fought  his  way  into  that  unhappy 
city,  which  for  several  subsequent  days  had  to 
sustain  a  ruthless  bombardment  from  the  united 
fire  of  the  Neapolitan  garrison  and  fleet. 

The  intervention  of  the  British  fleet,  seconded  by 
the  isolated  and  destitute  condition  of  the  garrison 
shut  up  in  the  forts,  induced  the  Neapolitan  general 
to  capitulate ;  and  on  his  departure  with  his  troops^ 
G.  remained  in  undisputed  possession  of  the  cit^ 


GAEIEP— GAELIC. 


atid  strongholds  of  Palermo.  His  first  })u})lic  enact- 
ment was  the  universal  armament  of  tlio  citizens. 
On  the  20th  of  July,  at  the  head  of  2500  men,  he 
gave  hattle  at  Melazzo  to  7000  Neapolitans,  who 
were  completely  defeated  and  compelled  to  evacuate 
the  fortress.  On  the  25th,  the  Neajiolitans  were 
driven  back  into  Messina,  where  G,  made  his 
triumphal  entry  on  the  27th,  the  mutinous  garrison, 
terrified  at  his  approach,  having  compelled  their 
general  to  submit.  Towards  the  middle  of  August, 
G.  made  a  descent  in  Calabria,  and  was  immediately 
joined  by  large  bodies  of  volunteers  from  all 
directions,  by  w^hom  he  w^as  accompanied  on  his 
memorable  and  eventful  march  to  Naples.  On  the 
6tli  of  September,  G.'s  army,  which  then  amounted 
to  25,000  or  30,000  men,  occupied  Salerno  on 
the  withdrawal  of  the  royalists,  and  on  the  7th, 
amidst  the  frenzied  enthusiasm  of  the  inhabit- 
ants, G.  entered  Naples,  with  only  one  or  two 
friends,  to  prove  to  Europe  that  his  advent  was 
that  of  a  welcome  liberator,  and  not  of  a  terror- 
inspiring  conqueror.  On  the  previous  day,  the 
capital  had  sullenly  witnessed  the  withdrawal  of 
King  Francis  II.  to  the  fortress  of  Gaeta.  Before 
the  close  of  the  month,  G.  had  enacted  several 
judicious  public  reforms,  calculated  to  increase  the 
popularity  of  the  Sardinian  government,  of  which 
he  was  the  declared  representative,  although  for  a 
brief  space  he  accepted  the  title  and  powers  of 
Dictator.  On  the  1st  of  October,  his  military  duties 
became  again  paramount,  as  the  royalist  troops, 
mmibering  15,000  men,  came  forth  from  Capua,  and 
attacked  fiercely  the  whole  line  of  the  Garibaldians, 
spread  along  the  Volturno.  For  some  lioiu-s  a 
terrible  suspense  reigned,  and  more  than  once  it 
Beemed  as  if  success  were  about  to  desert  the 
patriots  at  the  last  moment ;  but  finally  the  royalists 
were  driven  back  to  Capua  in  disorder,  and  G. 
announced  the  result  in  his  famous  telegTam — 'Com- 
plete victory  along  the  entire  line.'  This  was  G.'s 
last  triumph  ;  Victor  Emmanuel,  having  re-assumed 
the  command  of  his  army,  crossed  the  papal  frontier, 
routed  the  troops  under  Lamorici^re,  and  passed  on 
into  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  where  he  was  met  by 
G.,  who  immediately  relinquished  into  his  sovereign's 
hands  the  unconditional  disposal  of  the  southern 
volunteer  army,  and  the  absolute  sway  over  the 
Neapolitan  provinces.  G.  absolutely  declined  all 
personal  distinction  or  aggrandisement ;  and  having 
bid  farew^ell  to  his  heroic  comrades,  he  set  sail,  on 
the  9th  of  November,  for  his  home  on  the  rock  of 
Caprera,  there  to  remain  in  grand  simplicity  and 
retirement  till  his  countiy  might  again  require  his 
aid  and  invoke  his  presence. 

In  April,  18G2,  he  was  appointed  general-in-chief 
of  the  Italian  National  Guard,  and  moved  an  army  to 
attack  Kome,  but  Avas  opposed  by  the  Italian  govern- 
ment at  Aspromonte,  where  he  was  Avounded  and 
taken  prisonei".  In  1864,  he  visited  England,  and 
was  received  with  great  enthusiasm.  He  fought 
against  the  Austrians  in  1866,  and  in  1867,  without 
the  authority  of  the  Italian  government,  raised  an 
army  for  the  liberation  of  Rome,  and  was  arrested, 
but  soon  escaped  and  invaded  the  Papal  States,  was 
defeated  at  Mentana  in  November,  1867,  and  sent  to 
Caprera,  where  he  resided  until  October,  1870,  when 
he  offered  his  services  to  France,  and  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  irregular  forces  in  the  Vosges.  In 
1871  he  was  returned  a  deputy  to  the  National  As- 
sembly for  Paris,  but  at  the  preliminary  sittings  of 
that  body  the  general,  '  loving  the  Republic,  but  hating 
the  priesthood,'  resigned  and  returned  to  Caprera. 
Being  elected  a  member  of  the  Italian  Parliament,  he 
proceeded  to  Rome  and  took  liis  seat  amid  much  pop- 
ular enthusiasm,  Jan.  25,  1875. 

The  almost  fabulous  success  which  has  tracked  this 


great  soldier's  enterprises  throughout  his  entire  career 
is  the  best  evidence  o£  his  militiiry  genius  and  heroic 
qualities.  Of  a  i)atriarchal  simplicity  in  tastes  and 
habits,  he  reserrd)les  more  the  chief  of  a  warlike  tribe 
than  the  general  of  an  army.  G.  has  come  to  be  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  most  incorruptible  of  patriots 
and  most  glorious  of  heroes,  either  in  ancient  or 
modern  times;  and  the  land  which  has  produced  and 
nurtured  such  a  spirit  and  character  may  be  held  to 
have  j^roved  that  it  has  a  political  and  moral  vitality, 
at  least  as  powerful  as  any  other  portion  of  Christen- 
dom. 

While  in  retirement  he  wrote  The  Reign  of  the 
Priest.  See  his  Antohiography^  edited  by  Alexan- 
der Dumas;  Garibaldi  at  Caprera^  by  Col.  Veccbj  ; 
and  Garibaldi  and  Italian  Unity.,  by  Lieut.  Col. 
Chambers. 

GARIGLIA'NO  (the  Liris  of  the  ancients,  which 
separated  Latium  from  Campania)  is  the  largest  and 
most  important  river  of  the  Neapolitan  provinces. 
The  sluggish  course  of  its  muddj''  waters  (which,  how- 
ever, are  stocked  with  fish,  especially  eels)  has  been 
mentioned  by  more  than  one  of  the  ancient  poets : 
Non  rura  quae  Liris  quieta 

Mordet  aqua,  taciturnus  amnis. — Hor.  Od.  i.  31. 
It  is  asserted  that  the  name  G.  is  derived  from  an 
Arabic  word,  garil,  Avhich  signifies  marsh,  plain  ;  it 
was  generally  adopted  in  the  1 1  th  century,  after  the  de- 
feat of  the  Saracens,  who  had  held  possession  for  some 
time  of  the  neighbouring  plains,  and  had  erected  a 
castle  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  which  they  entitled 
Garilianum.  In  the  marshy  swamps  surrounding  the 
I'iver,  Marius  found  concealment  when  pursued  by 
Sulla.  The  banks  of  the  G.  are  memorable  for  the 
famous  battle  fought  there  betAveen  the  French,  in 
1503,  and  the  Spaniards,  commanded  by  Gonsah'o  de 
Cordova,  surnamed  the  Great  Captain,  in  which  the 
former  were  totally  routed. 

GA'RLAND.    See  Crown. 

GARLIC  {Allium  satlvitm,  see  Allium),  a  bulb- 
ous-rooted plaut,  a  native  of  the  East,  cultivated 
from  the  earliest  ages.  The  stem  rises  to  the 
height  of  about  two  feet, 
unbranched,  and  bear- 
ing at  top  an  umbel  of 
a  few  whitish  flowers, 
mixed  with  many  small 
bidbs.  The  upper  part 
of  the  stem  before 
flowering  is  rolled  to- 
gether into  a  ring.  The 
leaves  are  grass-like, 
obscurely  keeled,  and 
not  fistulous  like  those 
of  the  onion.  Three 
alternate  stamens  are 
3-pointed,  the  middle 
point  bearing  the  anther. 
The  bulb  consists  of 
about  12 — 15  ovate- 
pblong  cloves  or  sub- 
ordinate bulbs,  which 
are  axillary  buds  of  its 
scales  thus  developed; 
it  contains  a  viscid 
juice,  which  is  some- 
times used  as  a  cement 
for  porcelain,  and  has  a 
penetrating  and  power- 
ful alliaceous  odour, 
which  indeed  pen^ades 

the  whole  plant,  with  a  pungent  aromatic  tasta  It 
is  in  general  use  as  a  condiment  with  other  articles 
of  food,  and  to  many  it  is  in  tliis  way  very  agreeable  • 

C37 


Common  Garlic  (Allium 

sativum). 


GARLIC— GARNET. 


to  others,  it  is  disgusting.  It  is  much  more  largely 
used  in  many  other  countries  than  in  Britain  ;  in 
Spain,  it  enters  into  the  composition  of  almost  every 
dish.  Garlic,  or  its  fresh  juice,  is  also  used  in  medi- 
cine. It  is  stimulant,  tonic,  and  promotes  digestion  ; 
it  has  also  duiretic  and  sudorific  properties,  and  is 
a  good  expectorant,  promoting  all  the  excretions. 
Applied  externally,  it  is  a  rubefacient,  and  is  used 
to  stimulate  indolent  tmnours.  A  liniment  of  oil 
and  garlic  juice  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  chest  in 
infantile  convulsions.  In  some  cases  of  deafness, 
Snuch  benefit  is  obtained  from  a  clove  of  garlic  or  a 
few  drops  of  the  juice  put  into  the  ear.  Garlic  is 
also  used  as  an  anthelmintic.  It  owes  its  properties 
chiefly  to  oil  of  garlic  (see  following  art.).  Garlic 
abounds  also  in  mucilage.  The  cultivation  of  garlic 
is  extremely  easy ;  it  is  generally  propagated  by 
its  cloves. — Many  of  the  species  of  Allium  are 
popularly  called  garlic,  with  some  distinctive  addi- 
tion. A.  oleraceum  is  sometimes  called  Wild  Garlic 
in  England,  and  its  young  and  tender  leaves  are 
used  as  a  pot-herb.  Its  leaves  are  semi-cylindrical, 
and  grooved  on  the  upper  side.  The  stamens  are 
all  simple. 

GARLIC,  Oil  of.  When  cloves  of  garlic  are 
distilled  with  water,  about  0"2  per  cent,  of  a  brown 
heavy  oil,  with  an  acrid  taste,  and  a  strong  disagree- 
able smell,  passes  over.  By  careful  rectification 
from  a  salt-water  bath,  about  two-thirds  of  the  oil 
may  be  ol^tained  in  the  form  of  a  yellow  liquid, 
"which  is  lighter  than  water,  and  which,  when  treated 
■with  chloride  of  calcium  (in  order  to  dry  it),  and 
subsequently  distilled  from  fragments  of  potassium, 
conies  over  pure  and  colourless  as  suli)hide  of  allyl, 
an  organic  compound  of  veiy  considerable  interest, 
whose  formula  is  CeHioS.  The  crude  oil  also  contains 
oxide  of  allyl  (CaHsjO),  and  a  compound  of  alljl  still 
richer  in  sulphur  than  the  sulphide. 

Sulphide  of  allyl  exists  not  only  in  oil  of  garlic, 
but  also  in  the  oils  of  onions,  leeks,  cress,  alliaria, 
radishes,  asafoetida,  etc.  It  is  a  light,  clear,  pale- 
yellow  oil,  Avith  a  penetrating  odor  of  garlic ;  it 
boils  at  284",  and  dissolves  readily  in  alcohol  and 
ether. 

Sulphide  of  allyl  may  be  obtained  from  essential  oil 
of  black  mustard  (which  in  its  purified  form  is  repre- 
sented by  C4H5NS,  and  may  consequently  be  regarded 
as  sulphocyanide  of  allyl)  by  distillation  with  sulphide 
of  potassium.  The  reaction  is  exhibited  in  the  follow- 
ing equation : 

Sulphide  of       Sulphide  Sulphocyanide 
Oil  of  Mustard.       Potassium.        of  Allyl.  of  Potassium. 

2(CJ^NS)  +  K2S  =  C^h5  +  2(CNKS) 
We  may  perform  the  converse  experiment,  and  obtain 
oil  of  mustard  from  oil  of  garlic  by  mixing  alcoholic 
solutions  of  sulphide  of  allyl  and  corrosive  sublimate, 
when  a  white  precipitate  is  formed,  represented  by 
(C3H5)2S.2Hg2S  +  2(C3H5C1.2HgCl.),  and  distilling 
this  compound  with  sulphocyanide  of  potassium,  in 
which  case  oil  of  mustard  Avill  be  found  among  the 
products. 

The  pungency  of  horse-radish,  scurvy-grass,  and 
Other  allied  plants,  is  due  to  the  presence  of  this 
essential  oil  of  mustard  or  sulphocyanide  of  allyl. 

We  shall  postpone  the  further  consideration  of  sul- 
phocyanide of  allyl  to  the  article.  Mustard,  Oil  of, 
but  shall  take  this  opportunity  of  very  briefly  noticing 
the  chief  members  of  the  allyl  series,  which  has  re- 
cently been  studied  with  very  fruitful  results  by  sev- 
eral of  our  most  eminent  chemists. 

Free  allyl  (CsHs,  or,  more  probably,  C3H5,C3H5)  is 
a  very  volatile  combustible  fluid,  with  a  combined 
odour  of  ether  and  radishes.  It  is  obtained  by  the 
action  of  sodium  on  iodide  of  allyl. 

Allylic  alcohol  (CaHeOjO)  is  metameric  with  acetone 
628 


and  propylic  aldehyde,  but  it  differs  from  them  in  its 
properties.  It  is  obtained  by  the  action  of  ammonia 
on  oxalate  of  allyl. 

Allylic  ether,  or  oxide  of  allyl  {OillhYO,  has  been 
formed  in  at  least  two  difl:crent  ways,  but  the 
reactions  accompanying  its  formation  are  t(jo  com- 
plicated for  notice  in  this  article.  It  exists  ready 
formed  in  small  quantity  in  oil  of  garlic,  and  some 
other  oils  that  resemble  it,  and  may  be  obtained  by 
the  decomposition  of  oil  of  black  mustard. 

The  chloride,  bromide,  and  iodide  of  ally]  have 
all  been  obtained.  The  iodide  is  a  coloiirlcss  liquid^ 
of  specific  gravity  TTSO,  with  an  ethereal,  and 
somewhat  alliaceous  odour.  It  is  decomposed  by 
digestion  with  a  watery  solution  of  ammonia,  and 
on  distillation  with  potash,  a  volatile  base  with  a 
fishy  ammoniacal  odour  is  formed.  It  is  probably 
allylia,  or  allyl-amine  (C3H7N  or  CsHojIb.'N),  the 
basic  volatile  alkali  of  the  allylic  series,  wliich  has 
also  been  obtained  by  a  diff'erent  process,  and  corre- 
sponds to  cthylia  or  cthyl-amine  in  the  ethylic  series. 
Miller's  Elements  of  Chemistry,  2d  edition,  18G2,  vol. 
3,  pp.  574 — .584  ;  Gorup-Besanez,  Lehrhuch  d.  Chemic, 
vol.  2,  pp.  266 — 272  ;  and  the  recent  memoirs  of  Ber- 
thelot  and  Luca,  Hofmann  and  Cahours,  and  Watts' 
Diet,  of  Che7nistry.  Allyl. 

GA'RNET,  a  precious  stone,  some  o|  the  varieties 
of  which  are  of  great  beauty;  while  some  are  less 
higidy  prized  than  other  not  more  beautiful  minerals, 
because  much  more  common.  Garnets  are  found 
most  generally  in  mica-slate,  hornblende  slate,  and 
gneiss ;  less  frequently  in  granite  and  grauidar  lime- 
stone; sometimes  in  serpentine  and  lava.  There 
are  numerous  varieties,  diff'ering  considerably  in 
chemical  composition ;  anhydrous  sdicates  of  alumina 
and  lime  or  magnesia,  coloured  with  oxide  of  iron, 
of  manganese,  or  of  chrome.  The  colour  is  various, 
generally  some  shade  of  red,  brown,  black,  greeni 


Garnet : 

1,  a  detached  crystal ;  2,  portion  of  rock  with  imbedded 
crj-stals. 


or  yellow.  Colourless  and  white  specimens  also 
occur.  Red  garnets  sometimes  contain  so  much 
iron  as  to  be  attracted  by  the  magnet.  The  coa/ser 
variety  of  G.,  known  as  Common  G.,  is  generally 
found  massive,  often  forming  a  very  considerable 
part  of  the  rock  in  which  it  occurs,  so  as  even  to  be 
used  as  a  flux  in  the  smelting  of  iron.  Crystallised 
garnets  are  also  often  very  numerous  in  the  rock 
which  contains  them ;  the  crystals  are  sometimes 
very  small,  almost  imperceptible  grains  ;  sometimes 
they  are  as  large  as  a  man's  fist.  The  primary  form 
of  the  crystal  is  a  cube,  but  the  common  secondary 
forms  are  a  rhombic  dodecahedron,  and  an  acute 
double  eight-sided  pyramid,  the  summits  of  M'hich 
are  abruptly  acuminated  by  four  planes. — Noble 
G.,  or  Precious  G.,  also  called  Almandihe,  is 
generally  of  a  crimson-red  colour,  sometimes  of  so 
deep  a  tint,  that  jewellers  hollow  it  out  beneath, 
or  place  at  the  back  of  it  a  plate  of  silver.  It  is 
sometimes  transjiarent,  sometimes  only  translucent. 
It  is  found  in  some  of  the  mountainous  jjarts  both 
of  England  and  Scotland,  but  the  fir  est  garnets 
are  imported  from  Syriam,  in  Pegu.    A  Syriani  G., 


GABNISH,  GARNISHMENT,  GARNISHEE— GARRICK. 


of  a  velvety  black  colour,  without  defect,  is  valued 
at  about  half  the  price  of  a  blue  sappliire  of  the 
fiame  weight.  The  large  specimens  of  the  precious 
G.  are  geiierally  engraved  with  figures,  and  thus 
acquire  a  very  high  value. — A  variety  of  G.,  known 
as  Gros.mlaria,  from  its  resemblance  in  form,  size, 
and  colour,  to  a  green  gooseberry,  is  brought  from 
Siberia. — Cinnamon  Stone  (q.  v.)  is  a  variety  of 
garnet. — Pyrojie,  Vesuvian,  and  Epidote  are  nearly 
allied  to  it. — Powdered  garnets  are  often  used  for 
polishing  and  cutting  other  stones;  this  powder  is 
known  to  lapidaries  as  Red  Emenj. 

GARNISH,  GARNISHMENT,  GARNISHEE 
(Fr.  garnir,  to  furnish).  In  English  law,  to  garnish 
is  to  warn,  and  garnishment  signifies  a  warning 
given  to  one  for  his  appearance  in  court.  But 
garnishment  in  its  more  usual  sense  is  applied  to 
the  notice  which  a  person  sued  in  an  action  of 
detinue,  and  pleading  the  interest  of  a  third  party, 
is  entitled  to  require  to  be  served  on  that  party. 
By  the  custom  of  London  and  certain  other  tovnis, 
a  practice  has  existed  from  time  immemorial, 
whereby  a  plaintiff  suing  in  the  local  court  was 
entitled  to  attach  the  property  of  the  defendant  in 
the  hands  .of  a  third  person,  who  was  called  the 
garnishee.  See  Foreign  Attachment.  But  until 
the  passing  of  the  Common  Law  Procedure  Act, 
1854,  there  existed  no  means  in  England  whereby 
a  creditor  coidd  attach  the  property  of  his  debtor  in 
the  hands  of  third  persons  in  direct  satisfaction 
of  his  claim.  By  sections  60 — 65  of  this  statute, 
it  is  now  provided,  that  any  one  having  obtained 
a  judgment  in  one  of  the  superior  courts  at  West- 
minster, may  require  his  debtor  to  be  examined 
as  to  the  debts  due  to  him,  and  on  the  statement  of 
the  judgment  debtor,  all  debts  owing  to  him  by 
third  parties,  called  garnishees,  may  be  attached  in 
Batisfaction  of  the  plaintiff's  claim.  If  the  garnishee 
|;^y,  he  is  forthwith  discharged  of  the  debt  to  his 
creditors,  but  if  he  fail  to  pay,  and  does  not  dispute 
the  debt,  the  judge  may  order  execution  against 
him.  It  is  to  be  observed  that,  under  this  statute, 
garnishment  can  still  be  obtained  ojdy  where  judg- 
ment has  been  obtained.  Debts  due  to  a  defendant' 
during  the  currencj^  of  an  action,  therefore,  cannot 
be  attached.  In  this  respect,  the  remedy  is  less 
effectual  than  the  custom  of  foreign  attachment.  In 
Scotland,  debts  due  to  a  defender  may  be  attached, 
both  after  judgment  and  on  the  dependence  of  an 
action.    See  Arrestment. 

GARNISHED,  in  Heraldry.  Any  charge  is  said 
to  be  garnished  with  the  ornament  set  on  it. 

GARONNE  (anc.  Garumna),  the  principal  river 
in  the  south-west  of  France,  rises  within  the 
Spanish  frontier  in  the  Val  d'Aran,  at  the  base  of 
Mount  Maladetta,  in  the  Pyrenees.  About  26  miles 
from  its  source,  it  enters  the  French  territory  in 
the  department  of  the  Haute  Garonne,  flows  in  a 
general  north-east  course  to  Toulouse,  then  bends 
to  the  north-west,  and  continues  to  flow  in  that 
direction  until,  joined  by  the  Dordogne,  about  20 
miles  below  Bordeaux,  and  widening  afterwards  into 
the  estuary  which  bears  the  name  of  the  Gironde, 
it  enters  the  Atlantic  at  the  Pointe  de  Grave.  The 
basin  of  the  G.  is  upwards  of  200  miles  in  length, 
and  about  an  equal  extent  in  width  at  its  broadest 
part ;  although  narrowing  in  the  north-west  to  a 
width  of  only  25  miles.  The  total  length  of  the 
river  is  about  350  miles ;  and  its  natural  navi- 
gation, which,  however,  is  much  impeded  above 
Toulouse,  commences  at  Caz^res,  262  miles  from 
its  embituchure.  At  Bordeaux,  the  river  attains  a 
breadth  of  1603  feet.  Its  principal  affluents  are 
the  Tara,  Aveyron,  Lot,  and  Dordogne,  on  the  right ; 
and  on  tha  left,  th«  Save,  Gers,  and  Baise.    At  . 


Toulouse  it  is  joined  by  the  Canal  du  Midi,  which, 
running  eastward  to  the  Mediterranean,  forms 
with  the  G.  a  means  of  communication  between 
that  sea  and  the  Atlantic.  The  valley  of  the  G. 
is  noted  for  the  beauty  of  its  scenery,  and  its 
abundant  produce  of  corn  and  wine. 

The  estuary  of  the  Gironde  is  40  miles  in  length, 
and  about  4  miles  in  average  breadth.  lielow  Blaye, 
its  shores  consist  of  bare  rocks  and  bleak  and  dreary 
heath. 

GARONNE,  Haute,  a  department  in  the  south 
of  France,  is  bounded  on  the  S.  by  the  Pyrenees, 
and  on  the  W.  by  the  departments  of  Hautea 
Pyrenees  and  Gers.  It  has  an  area  of  2369  square 
miles,  and  a  pop.  (1872)  of  479,-362.  It  is  watered 
throughout  by  tlie  Garonne,  from  which  it  derives 
its  name,  and  within  the  basin  of  which  it  wholly 
lies.  Occupied  in  the  south  by  a  branch  of  the 
Pyrenean  range,  the  slope  of  the  department,  and 
the  course  of  its  streams,  are  toward  the  north 
and  north-east,  where  the  land  is  generally  level. 
The  soil  is  on  the  whole  good;  that  in  the  valleys 
is  remarkably  productive,  and  brings  forth  heavy 
crops  of  grain,  maize,  flax,  and  potatoes.  Orchard- 
fruits,  with  melons  and  tobacco,  are  produced  in 
abundance,  and  the  annual  yield  of  wine  is  about 
14,300,000  gallons,  two-thirds  of  which  is  exported. 
Minerals  also  abound,  but,  with  the  exception  of 
iron,  have  not  yet  been  obtained  in  any  great 
quantity.  The  chief  manufactures  are  woollen 
and  cotton  fabrics  and  hardware  ;  and  these,  with 
timber,  cattle,  wine,  and  preserved  meats,  are  the 
l^rincipal  exports.  The  department  of  Haute  G.  was 
formerly  divided  between  the  provinces  of  Languedoo 
and  Gascony.  It  is  divided  into  the  four  arron- 
dissements  of  Toulouse,  Maret,  St  Gaudens,  and 
Villefranche,  with  Toulouse  as  capital. 

GARRICK,  David,  actor  and  author,  was  bom 
at  Hereford  in  1716,  and  educated  at  the  grammar 
school  of  Lichfield.  After  a  short  residence  at 
Lisbon  with  an  uncle,  who  was  a  wine-merchant  in 
that  city,  he  returned  to  England,  and  in  1735 
became  a  pupil  of  the  famous  Dr  Johnson ;  but  in 
the  course  of  six  months,  master  and  pupil  both 
proceeded  to  London,  with  the  view  of  improving 
their  fortunes.  G.  attempted  the  study  of  law,  but 
an  irresistible  instinct  soon  urged  him  to  the  stage. 
He  made  his  debut  at  Ipswich  in  1741,  as  Aboan, 
in  the  play  of  Oroonoka,  and  obtained  a  great  suc- 
cess. Encouraged  by  this,  he  ventured  to  appear 
before  a  London  audience  in  the  autumn  of  the 
same  year,  and  in  the  character  of  Richard  III. 
was  received  with  prodigious  applause.  The  fashion- 
able theatres  were  emptied  to  gaze  upon  the  new 
star  that  was  shedding  an  unwonted  lustre  on  the 
obscurity  of  the  Goodmaii's  Fields'  stage,  and  the 
other  theatrical  celebrities,  such  as  Quin  and  Gibber, 
could  not  conceal  their  chagTin  and  disgust.  In  the 
following  year,  G.  accepted  an  engagement  at  Dublin, 
where  he  excited  the  Hibernian  enthusiasm  to  a 
miracidous  degree.  The  playhouse,  we  are  told,  wa:^ 
so  crowded,  '  that  a  very  mortal  fever  was  produced, 
which  was  called  Garrick's  fever,'  In  1747,  he 
became  joint-patentee  of  Dnuy  Lane,  and  two  years 
after,  married  Mademoiselle  Violette,  a  foreign  dan- 
sense ;  a  circimistance  which,  somehow  or  other,  he 
feared  might  expose  him  to  ridicule,  and  to  prevent 
such  a  thing,  he  got  his  friend  Mr  Edward  ^Moor* 
'to  wi-ite  a  diverting  poem  upon  his  marriage. 
This  was  not  the  only  occasion  when  his  sensitive- 
ness to  malicious  banter  induced  him  to  forestall  the 
wits  and  critics,  and  so  blunt  the  edge  of  their  jesta 
and  criticisms.  Before  acting  Macbeth  for  the  first 
time,  he  wrote  a  humorous  pamphlet,  reflecting  on 
.  the  '  mimical  behavioiir  of  a  certain  fashionable 


GARRISON-GARROTTE. 


faulty  actor,'  to  wit,  Garrick  himself.  In  1763  he 
paid  a  visit  to  Italy,  and  in  1769  projected  and 
conducted  the  menioral)le  jubilee  at  Stratford- 
npou-Avon  in  honour  of  Shakspeare.  He  died  in 
London,  January  20,  1779,  having  accumulated  a 
fortune  of  £140,000.  G.  ranks  as  one  of  the  very 
greatest — perhaps  the  very  greatest — of  English 
actors.  He  exhibited,  a  Shaks2)erian  universality 
in  the  representation  of  character,  and  was  equally 
at  home  in  the  highest  flights  of  tragedy  and 
the  lowest  depths  of  farce.  But  the  naturalness 
which  so  wonderfully  marked  him  on  the  stage, 
often  forsoolc  him  in  real  life.  He  was  jealous 
to  an  extreme,  and  had  an  unbounded  stomach 
foi  flattery.  His  friend  Goldsmith  hits  off  his 
cliaracter  haj^pily  in  the  poem,  entitled  Retaliation. 
As  a  dramatic  author,  G.  does  not  hold  a  high 
place.  He  wi'ote  about  40  pieces,  some  original,  but 
mostly  adaptations  of  old  jjlays.  His  numerous 
prologues  and  epilogues,  however,  deserve  consider- 
able praise. 

GA'tlRISON  (Fr.  garnison,  from  low  Latin  gar- 
nisio,  military  furniture),  the  troops  occupying  a 
town  or  fortress,  either  for  defensive  purposes,  or 
merely  as  ordinary  quarters. 

GARRISON,  William  Lloyd,  an  eminent 
American  abolitionist,  was  born  in  Newburyport, 
Massacbusetts,  December  10,  1805.  His  father  was 
a  sea  captain  from  New  Brunswick,  and  a  man  of  lit- 
erary taste  and  ability,  and  his  mother  a  woman  of 
deeply  religious  feeling,  from  whom  the  son  inherited 
an  intuitive  reverence  for  God  and  for  human  nature. 
As  early  as  1814,  William  was  apprenticed  to  a  shoe- 
maker at  Lynn,  but  his  mother,  hnding  that  the  busi- 
ness did  not  suit  him,  sent  him  back  to  Newburyport, 
where  he  went  to  school  for  some  time,  working  out 
of  school-hours  in  order  to  pny  his  board.  In  1818 
he  commenced  to  learn  cabinet-making,  but,  this 
proving  also  distasteful  to  him,  he  Avas,  in  October 
of  the  same  year,  apprenticed  to  the  printer  of  the 
Neiohuryport  Herald.  This  occupation  suited  his 
taste.  He  soon  made  himself  master  of  the  mechan- 
ical part  of  the  business,  and  when  oidy  16  or  17 
began  to  write  for  the  Herald.  His  contributions, 
which  were  anonymous,  Mere  favourably  received,  and 
he  soon  commenced  to  send  articles  to  the  Salem 
Gazette  and  other  papers,  drawing  the  attention  of 
political  circles  by  a  series  of  articles  under  tbe  sig- 
nature 'Aristides,'  with  the  view  of  removing  the 
almost  universal  apathy  on  the  subject  of  slavery. 
In  1824  he  became  editor  of  tbe  Herald^  and,  in  1826, 
proprietor  and  editor  of  the  Free  Press  of  Newburyport, 
in  which  he  was  accustomed  to  set  up  his  own  editorial 
articles  in  type  without  writing  them  out.  This  enter- 
prise was  unsuccessful,  and  he  went  to  Boston,  where 
he  worked  for  a  time  as  a  journeyman.  In  1827  he  be- 
came the  editor  of  the  National  Philanthropist  in 
that  city;  in  1828  he  joined  a  friend  in  the  publica- 
tion of  the  Journal  of  the  Times  at  Bennington,  Vt.  ; 
and  in  1829  he  joined  Benjamin  Lundy  at  Baltimore  in 
editing  the  Genius  of  Universal  Emancipation.  The 
vigorous  expression  of  his  anti-slavery  views  in  this 
last  paper  led  to  his  imprisonment  for  libel,  from  which 
he  was  released  by  Arthur  Tappan,  a  New  York  mer- 
chant, who  paid  his  fine.  He  now  prepared  a  series 
of  emancipation  lectures,  subsequently  delivered  in 
New  York  and  other  places.  He  returned  to  Boston, 
and  in  1831  started  the  ii&era^or,  a  paper  with  which 
his  name  is  inseparably  associated,  and  which  he  car- 
ried on  for  35  years,  until  slavery  was  abolished  in 
the  United  States.  For  the  first  few  years  almost 
every  nuiil  brought  letters  to  G.  threatening  his  assas- 
sination if  he  did  not  discontinue  this  journal.  The 
legislature  of  Georgia  offered  a  reward  of  $5000  to 
any  one  who  should  prosecute  and  bring  him  to  con- 
630 


viction  in  accordance  wjth  the  laws  of  that  State.  In 
1835  he  was  severely  handled  by  a  Boston  mob,  and 
the  mayor  of  that  city  was  constantly  njjpealed  to 
from  the  South  to  suppress  his  paper.  In  .spile  of  all, 
he  successfully  persevered.  In  1833  he  visited  Great 
Britain,  and  on  bis  return  organized  the  American 
Anti-Slavery  Society,  of  Avhich  he  was  afterwards 
president.  He  visited  England  again,  in  the  further- 
ance of  his  anti-slavery  o])inions,  in  1846  and  1848. 
Ill  1865,  afler  the  total  abolition  of  slavery  in  tbe 
United  States,  his  friends  presented  him  with  $30,000 
as  a  memorial  of  bis  services.  In  1867  he  was  once 
more  in  England,  and  entertained  at  a  public  break- 
fast in  St.  Janies's  Hall,  wbeie  the  Duke  of  Argyll 
and  Mr.  Bright  complimented  him  on  his  public  ser- 
vices. Some  sonnets  and  other  poems  by  him  were 
publislicd  in  1847,  and  selections  from  his  writings 
and  speeches  in  1852.  G.  died  in  New  York,  May  24, 
1879. 

GA'RROT  {Clangula),  a  genus  of  the  oceanic 
section  of  Ducks  (q.  v.),  having  the  bill  shoi-ter  than 
the  head.  One  species,  the  Golden-eye  (o'.  vulgaris 
or  C.  clirysophtJialmus),  a  bird  not  quito  «o  large  as  a 


Golden-eye  [Clangula  vulgaris). — Male. 


widgeon,  is  a  common  winter  visitant  in  Britain, 
appearing  in  small  flocks,  most  frequently  in  severe 
weather,  not  only  in  estuaries,  but  on  the  lakes  and 
rivers  of  inland  parts  of  the  country,  as  it  does  on 
those  of  all  the  central  and  southern  parts  of  Europe, 
and  eqxially  on  those  of  the  temperate  parts  of  Asia 
and  North  America.  It  breeds  in  arctic  and  sub- 
arctic regions,  preferring  wooded  districts,  and  forms 
its  nest  either  on  the  ground,  in  the  crevice  of  a 
rock,  or  the  hole  of  a  tree.  The  parent  birds  are 
said  to  transport  their  young  from  the  nest  to  the 
water,  holding  them  imder  the  bill,  and  supported 
by  the  neck.  The  Lapps  take  advantage  of  the 
predilection  of  the  golden-eyes  for  making  their 
nests  in  holes,  by  setting  up  boxes  for  them,  and 
then  robbing  them  of  their  eggs. — Another  British 
species  is  the  Harlequin  G.,  or  Harlequin  Duck 
(C.  hlstrionica),  but  it  is  only  a  rare  winter  visitant. 
Like  the  golden-eye,  it  is  a  native  of  the  northern 
parts  of  the  world  generally.  The  male  is  curiously 
streaked  and  marked  with  white. — The  Buffel- 
HEADED  G.,  or  BuFFEL-HEADED  DucK  [C.  albeola) 
is  of  extremely  rare  occurrence  in  Britain,  but  in 
very  common  in  North  America,  where  it  is  often 
called  the  Spirit  Duck,  a  name  which  is  said  to  have 
been  bestowed  in  allusion  to  its  power  of  eluding 
observation  by  di\dng.  It  is  rather  smaller  than 
the  golden- eye  and  harleqiiin  garrot.  The  flesh  oi 
the  garrets  is  eaten,  but  not  very  highly  esteemed. 

GARRO'TTE  (Spanish  garrote,  a  stick  or  cudgel), 
a  mode  of  execution  practised  in  Spain  and  th* 


GARROYILLAS-DE-ALCONETAI^-GARTER  KING  ':^F  AllMS. 


Spanish  colonies.  Originally,  it  consisted  in  simply 
placing  a  cord  round  the  neck  of  a  criminal,  who 
was  seated  on  a  chair  fixed  to  a  post,  and  then 
twisting  the  cord  by  means  of  a  stick  (whence  the 
name)  inserted  between  it  and  the  back  of  the 
neck,  till  strangulation  was  produced.  Afterwards,  a 
brass  collar  was  used,  containing  a  screw,  which  the 
executioner  turned  till  its  point  entered  the  spinal 
marrow  where  it  unites  "svith  the  brain,  causing 
instantaneous  death.    The  inquisitors  were  wont  to 

f;i"ant  as  a  favour  this  mode  of  strangulation,  before 
teing  burned,  to  such  condemned  persons  as  recanted. 
If  the  executioner  was  unskilful,  however,  the  ])ain 
was  sometimes  verj^  great.  Llorente  {Ilist.  de  I  Inq., 
t.  iii.  p.  472)  mentions  that  at  an  Auto  da  Fe  (q.  v.) 
at  Cuen9a,  a  poor  Jew,  who  had  obtained  this  dismal 
privilege  of  preliminary  strangulation,  noticing  the 
bungling  manner  in  which  the  executioner  had 
performed  the  operation  on  the  two  who  ])receded 
him,  said  to  the  latter  :  '  Peter,  if  you  are  likely  to 
strangle  me  so  clumsily,  I  would  much  rather  be 
burned  alive.'  The  same  process  was  al?o  applied  as 
a  species  of  torture  to  the  limbs,  or  to  such  portions 
of  the  body  as  might  be  injured  mth  comparative 
impunity.  .  It  is  probable  that  the  Spaniards 
adoi:)ted  the  garrotte  from  the  Moors  ;  at  all  events, 
in  its  primitive  form,  it  exactly  resembles  the 
punishment  of  the  bowstring  in  use  among  Moham- 
medan nations. — Garrotting  is  also  the  name  given 
in  England  and  Scotland  to  a  species  of  robbery 
which  has  recently  become  rather  common,  in  which 
the  robbers  suddenly  come  behind  their  victim,  and 
throAving  a  cord,  or  handkerchief,  or  something 
of  the  sort,  round  his  neck,  produce  temporary 
strangulation  till  their  purpose  is  effected. 

GARROVILLAS-DE-ALCONETAR,  a  small 
toAvn  of  Spain  in  the  province  of  Caceres  is  situ- 
ated 20  miles  north-west  of  the  town  of  that  name, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tagus.  It  has  manu- 
factures of  linen  and  woollen  fabrics,  and  some 
trade  in  grain,  cattle,  and  fruit.    Pop.  6573. 

GARTER.    See  Bend. 

GARTER,  Order  of  the.  The  order  of  the 
garter  was  instituted  by  King  Edward  III.,  and 
though  not  the  most  ancient,  is  one  of  the  most 
famous  of  the  military  orders  of  Europe.  Selden 
says  that  it  '  exceeds  in  majesty,  honour,  and  fame 
all  chivalrous  orders  in  the  world.'  It  is  said  to 
have  been  devised  for  the  purpose  of  attracting  to 
the  king's  party  such  soldiers  of  fortune  as  might 
be  likely  to  aid  in  assert- 
ing the  claim  which  he 
was  then  making  to  the 
crown  of  France,  and 
intended  as  an  imitation 
of  King  Arthur's  round 
table.  The  round  table 
was  erected  at  Windsor, 
and  the  knights  and 
nobles  who  were  invited 
from  all  parts  of  the 
world  were  exercised  at 
tilts  and  tournaments 
as  a  preparation  for  the 
magnificent  feasts  that 
were  spread  before  them. 
That  general  'jousts  and  tournaments'  of  this 
descri])tion  were  held  at  Windsor,  is  known  from 
the  letters  summoning  them  bearing  date  1st 
January  1844,  and  quoted  by  Sij;  Harris  Nicolas  in 
his  Orders  of  Knighthood,  i.  p.  6 ;  and  from  tLe 
narrative  of  Froissart,  who  connects  them  with  tiie 
institution  of  the  order.  The  original  number  of  the 
knights  of  the  garter  was  twenty-five,  his  majesty 
himself  making  the  twenty-sixth.    The  story  that 


Jstar  of  the  Order  of  the 
Garter. 


Collar,  Badge,  and  Garter. 


the  Countess  of  Salisbury  let  fall  her  garter  wlien 
dancing  with  the  king,  and  that  the  king  picked  it  up 
and  tied  it  round  his  own  leg,  but  that,  observing 
the  jealous  glances  of  the  queen,  he  restored  it  to 
its  fair  owner  with  the  exclamation:  Jfoni  noil 
qui  rnal  y  peme,  is  about  as  well  uuthcnticated  as 
most  talcs  of  the  kind, 
and  has,  moreover,  in 
its  favour  that  it 
accounts  for  the  other- 
wise unaccountable 
emblem  and  motto  of 
the  order.  Sir  Harris 
Nicolas,  whose  error 
does  not  usually  lie  in 
the  direction  of  credu- 
lity, says,  that  though 
the  writers  on  the 
order  have  treated  it 
with  contempt,  they 
have  neither  succeeded 
in  shewing  its  absurd- 
ity, nor  suggested  a 
more  probable  theory. 
Various  dates  are  assigned  to  the  order  of  the  garter. 
Froissart,  as  above  mentioned,  gives  1344,  and  fixes 
on  St  George's  day  (23d  Ajn-il),  i.344;  but  Stow,  and, 
it  is  said,  the  statutes  of  the  order,  fix  it  six  yeara 
later — viz.,  1350.  The  original  statutes  have  long 
since  j^erished,  and  little  reliance  can  be  i)laced  on 
the  modern  copies  of  them,  and  nothing  is  known 
on  the  subject  with  precision  till  the  compilation  of 
the  Black  Book  in  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  oi 
Henry  VIII.  In  these  circumstances.  Sir  Harris 
Nicolas  is  of  opinion,  that,  though  founded  at  the 
former  period,  it  v/as  not  till  the  latter  that  the 
order  was  finally  organised,  and  the  companions 
chosen.  It  was  founded  in  honour  of  the  Holy 
Trinity,  the  Virgin  Mary,  St  Edward  the  Confessor, 
and  St  George ;  but  the  last,  who  had  become  the 
tutelary  saint  of  England,  was  considered  its 
special  patron ;  and  for  this  reason  it  has  always 
borne  the  title  of  'The  Order  of  St  George,'  as 
well  as  of  'The  Garter.'  A  list  of  the  original 
knights,  or  knights-foimders,  is  given  by  Sir  Harris 
Nicolas. 

The  well-known  emblem  of  the  order  is  a  dark- 
blue  ribbon  edged  with  gold,  bearing  the  motto 
Ho7ii  soit  qui  mal  y  pense,  in  golden  letters,  with  a 
buckle  and  pendant  of  gold  richly  chased.  It  is 
worn  on  the  left  leg  below  the  knee.  The  mantle  is 
of  blue  velvet,  lined  with  white  tafi"eta,  and  on  the 
left  breast  a  star  is  embroidered.  The  hood  and 
surcoat  are  of  crimson  velvet,  lined  with  white 
taff'eta.  The  hat  is  of  black  velvet,  \vith  a  plume  of 
white  ostrich  feathers,  in  the  centre  of  which  there 
is  a  tuft  of  black  herons'  feathers,  all  fastened  to 
the  hat  by  a  band  of  diamonds.  The  collar  is  of 
gold,  and  consists  of  26  pieces,  each  in  the  form  of  a 
garter.  The  '  George '  is  the  figure  of  St  George  on 
horseback  encovmtering  the  Dragon  ;  is  worn  to  the 
collar,  and  there  is  a  '  lesser  George '  pendent  to  a 
broad  dark-blue  ribbon  over  the  left  shoulder.  The 
Star,  which  is  of  eight  points,  is  silver,  and  has 
upon  the  centre  the  Cross  of  St  George,  gules, 
enchcled  with  the  garter.  The  officers  of  the  order 
are — the  Prelate  (the  Bishop  of  Winchester),  the 
Chancellor  (the  Bishop  of  Oxford),  the  Registrar 
(the  Dean  of  Windsor),  the  Garter  King  of  Ai-ms 
(q.  v.),  and  the  Usher  of  the  Black  Rod. 

GARTER  KING  OF  ARMS  is  also  the  Prm- 
cipal  King  of  Arms  in  England.  Though  held  by 
the  same  person,  they  are  distinct  offices.  The  first 
was  instituted  for  the  service  of  the  order  of  the 
Garter  (see  Garter),  not  on  its  first  foundation, 
but  afterwards  by  Henry  V.  as  sovereign,  with  thf 

6QX 


GAllTH— GAS. 


ttdxaco  and  consent  of  the  knignta-eompanions.  The 
pecnliiu'  duty  of  Garter  King  of  Arms  is  to  attend 
upon  tlie  knights  at  their  solemnities,  to  intimate 
their  election  to  those  who  are  chosen  by  the  order, 
to  call  them  to  be  installed  at  Windsor,  to  cai;se 
their  arms  to  be  hxmg  up  over  their  stalls,  and  to 
marshal  tlieir  funeral  processions,  and  those  of  royal 
personages,  and  of  members  of  the  higher  nobility. 
In  the  capacity  of  principal  King  of  Arms,  he  grants 
and  confirms  arms,  under  the  authority  of  the 
Earl  Marshal,  to  whom  he  is  not  subject  as  Garter 
King  of  Arms.  All  new  grants  or  patents  of  arms 
in  England  are  first  signed  and  sealed  by  Garter 
King  of  Arms,  and  then  by  the  king  of  the  province 
to  which  the  applicant  belongs.  See  Herald's 
College. 

GARTH,  Saimuel,  an  eminent  physician,  and  a 
po<;t  of  considerable  reputation,  was  born  at  Bolam, 
in  the  county  of  Durham,  in  16G0.  He  was  a 
member  of  Peteihousc,  Cambridge,  and  graduated 
as  M.D.  in  1C91.  In  the  following  year,  he  settled 
in  London,  and  was  admitted  into  the  College  of 
Physicians,  in  wdiich  institution  he  subsequently 
held  several  important  offices.  His  professional  skill 
was  associated  with  great  conversational  powers, 
and  he  soon  acquired  a  very  extensive  i)ractice. 
The  year  1700  presents  an  incident  in  G.'s  life 
which  did  him  everlasting  honour.  He  it  was  who 
Bt-epped  forward  to  provide  a  suitable  interment 
ill  Westminster  Abbey  for  the  neglected  corpse 
of  Dryden,  which  he  caused  to  be  brought  to  the 
College  in  Warwick  Lane ;  and  he  pronounced  a 
fculogium  over  the  great  poet's  remains.  On  the 
ttccession  of  George  I.,  he  received  the  honour  of 
knighthood,  was  appointed  i)hysician  in  ordinary 
to  the  king,  and  physician -general  to  the  army. 
He  died  in  London,  January  18,  1718. 

G.  is  best  known  in  our  literary  history  as  the 
author  of  Tlie  Dispensarij,  a  poetical  satire  on  the 
apothecaries  and  tliose  physicians  who  sided  with 
them  in  opposing  the  jn-oject  of  giving  medicine 
gratuitously  to  the  sick  poor.  The  sketches  of 
Bonie  of  his  contemporaries — as,  for  instance,  Drs 
Gould,  Tyson,  and  How,  who  are  introduced  into 
the  poem  as  '  obsequious  Umbra,'  '  slow  Cams,'  and 
'shrill  Querpo' — are  severe  ;  and  although,  doubtless, 
exaggerated  by  poetic  licence,  must  have  been  true 
to  nature,  or  the  work  could  not  have  obtained  such 
an  immediate  and  extensive  circulation.  The  first 
edition  came  out  in  1699,  and  the  second  and  third 
followed  in  the  course  of  a  very  few  months.  In 
1706,  he  brought  out  the  sixth  edition  with  con- 
siderable additions.  In  1715,  he  jniblished  a  poem 
entitled  Claremont,  and  in  1717  he  superintended 
and  contributed  to  a  translation  of  Ovid's  Meta- 
morphoses by  some  of  the  most  eminent  writers  of 
that  age — Addison,  Pope,  Gay,  Congrieve,  and  Howe 
being  amongst  the  contributors. 

Pope  frequently  refers  to  him,  both  in  his  letters 
and  in  his  poems,  with  great  respect — ■ 

And  we,  too,  boast  our  Garth  and  Addison. 
The  second  Pastoral  was  dedicated  to  G. ;  and 
in  a  letter  to  Jervis  in  1718,  Pope  states  that  he 
entertains  '  the  truest  concern  for  his  loss.' 

GARTNER,  Friedrich  von",  a  distinguished 
German  architect,  was  born  at  Coblentz  in  1792. 
His  father,  also  an  architect,  removed  in  1804  to 
Munich,  where  young  G.  received  his  first  education 
in  architecture.  To  com])lete  that  education,  he 
travelled  in  1812  to  Paris,  and  in  1814  to  Italy,  where 
he  spent  four  years  in  the  earnest  study  of  anti- 
quities. The  fruits  of  this  labour  appeared  in  1819 
in  some  views  accomjianied  by  descriptions,  of  the 
principal  monuments  which  have  been  preserved  in 
bicily  {Ansichcen  der  um  jifalidoM.  ArhalJ£Xi£ja.  Mami- 

t32 


mente  Sic  'diens,  LitJiographien  mit  erldutemdem  Text). 
After  a  visit  to  England,  he  was  called,  in  1820, 
to  the  chair  of  Architecture  in  the  academy  of 
Munich.  With  this  appointment  began  his  work 
as  a  practical  architect.  Many  of  the  architectural 
ornaments  of  Munich,  and  various  other  Inul dings 
throughout  Germany,  as  well  as  the  new  royal 
])alace  at  Athens,  are  built  after  his  plans.  In 
the  style  of  his  works,  which  have  all  a  common 
impress,  G.  represents  the  renaissance  of  the 
medieval  architecture  in  its  Romanesque  forms. 
The  round  arch  with  its  accompaniments  prevaihj 
in  them  all.  G.  was  rewarded  with  the  fellowship 
of  several  academies,  with  orders  of  his  own  and 
foreign  countries,  with  a  degree  from  Erlangen, 
with  the  office  of  head  government- surveyor  of 
buildings,  and  with  the  directorshiji  of  the  Academy 
of  Arts  in  Munich,  He  died  in  the  midst  of  \ub 
laboiu-s,  21st  April  1847. 

GARTSHE'RRIE,  a  village  of  Lanarkshire,  in 
the  parish  of  Old  Monkland,  is  noted  for  its 
extensive  ironworks.  In  the  immediate  neighbour- 
hood are  the  ironworks  of  Dundy  van,  Clyde,  and 
Calder,  all  of  v/hich,  together  with  Coatbridge,  con- 
tril)iite  to  the  iron-trade  of  Glasgow.  See  article 
Lanarkshire. 

GAS,  Analysis  of.  This  department  of  analysis 
originated  in  the  attempts  of  various  chemists, 
during  the  last  quarter  of  the  ISth,  and  the  first 
quarter  of  the  present  century,  to  determine  the 
volume  of  oxygen  in  specimens  of  atmospheric 
air  taken  from  different  localities.  The  general 
principle  on  which  the  early  Eudiometers  (q.  v.) 
were  constructed,  was  that  of  exposing  atmospheric 
air  to  the  action  of  some  substance  which  combined 
with  its  oxygen.  Various  eudiometers  and  eudio- 
metrical  processes  were  devised  by  Priestley,  De 
Mart6,  Guyton,  Seguin,  Volta,  Berthollet,  Hope, 
Henry,  Pepys,  Ure,  &c.,  which  are  now  only  of 
interest  in  an  historical  point  of  view.  They  were 
not  only  almost  exclusively  limited  to  the  deter- 
mination of  the  quantity  of  oxygen,  but  they  were 
more  or  less  imperfect  in  their  action ;  and  the 
analysis  of  the  gases  generally  did  not  become 
developed  into  a  system  until  Professor  Bunsen  of 
Heidelberg,  some  20  years  ago,  began  to  devote 
himself  to  the  subject.  Ingenious  instruments  for 
the  analysis  of  gaseous  mixtures  have  recently 
been  devised,  not  only  by  Bunsen,  but  by  Regnault 
and  Reiset,  Williamson  and  Russell,  and  Frank- 
land  and  Ward.  The  instrument  devised  by  the 
last-named  gentlemen  we  shall  presently  describe; 
but  before  doing  so,  we  must  say  a  few  words  on 
the  collection  of  gases  for  analysis.  In  collecting 
gases,  we  usually  employ  small  glass  vessels,  the 
contents  of  which,  consisting  of  water,  mercury, 
or  air,  are  displaced  by  the  gas  to  be  analysed. 
Of  these  three  fluids,  water  is  the  least  capable 
of  general  application,  inasmuch  as  it  gives  rise 
to  phenomena  of  absorption  and  diffusion,  which 
modify  the  composition  of  the  gas  that  is  to  be 
collected,  and  gases  are  more  or  less  soluble  in 
it.  For  the  best  methods  of  collecting  gases  from 
mineral  springs  and  waters,  from  volcanic  lakes, 
geysers  or  boiling  springs,  from  openings  in  rocks, 
clefts  of  glaciers,  furnaces,  fissures  in  volcanic 
craters,  &c.,  we  must  refer  to  Bunsen's  Gasometry, 
translated  "by  Roscoe,  1857.  Again,  it  must  be  recol- 
lected that  the  nature  of  the  gas  that  is  evolved 
often  varies  with  the  progressive  phases  of  a  decom- 
position, as,  for  example,  in  the  process  of  coaking,  or 
in  the  phenomena  of  combustion  and  deconipositioii 
occurring  in  the  strata  of  a  furnace.  In  these  cases 
it  is  necessary  to  collect  a  series  of  specimens  during 
the  Drogress  of  the  decomposition. 


GAS. 


Our  limited  space  will  not  allow  of  our  entering 
into  the  various  details  of  the  complicated  ai)par- 
atiis  employed  by  Frankland  and  Ward,  which  is 
regarded  as  tlie  best  that  has  yet  been  invented. 
A  fuJl  account  of  it  may  be  found  in  their  Memoir 
in  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Chemical  Society,  or 
in  Williams's  Handbook  of  Chemical  Manipulation. 
The  following  remarks,  which  we  take  with  slight 
modifications  from  their  Memoir,  will,  we  trust, 
sufficiently  explain  the  manner  of  using  this  appar- 
atus. We  take  as  an  example  an  analysis  of  atmo- 
Bpheric  air.  A  few  (three  or  four)  cubic  inches  of 
air,  freed  from  carbonic  acid,  having  been  introduced 
into  the  tube  I,  it  is  transferred  into  F  for  measure- 
ment by  opening  the  cocks    l\  and  placing  the  tube 


A,  a  tripod,  with  levelling 
screws ;  BB,  a  vertical 
pillar,  to  which  is  attached, 
C,  a  mercurial  trough, 
movable  by  a  rack  and 
pinion,  aa ;  DD,  a  glass 
cylinder,  36  inches  long-, 
with  an  internal  diameter 
of  4  inches,  containing 
three  tubes,  F,  G,  H,  which 
communicate  with  one 
another  and  with  the  exit- 
pipe,  h,  by  the  apparatus 
E  /  E.  The  rest  of  the 
figure  will  be  suflBciently 
intelligible  from  the  des- 
•riptiou  given  in  the  text. 


F  in  connection  with  the  exit-pipe  h ;  the  trans- 
ference can  be  assisted,  if  necessary,  by  elevating 
the  mercurial  trough  C.  (The  part  marked  6  in  the 
figure  is  merely  the  tubular  well  of  the  mercurial 
trough  C.)  When  the  air,  followed  by  a  few  dro]is 
of  mercury,  has  passed  completely  into  F,  the 
cock  I  is  shut,  and  /turned,  so  as  to  connect  F  and 
H  with  h.  Mercury  is  allowed  to  flow  out  until 
ft  vacuum  of  two  or  three  inches  in  length  is  formed 
in  H,  and  the  metal  in  F  is  just  below  one  of  the 
graduated  divisions  ;  the  cock  /  is  then  reversed, 
and  mercury  veiy  gradually  admitted  from  G,  until 
the  highest  point  in  F  exactly  corresponds  with  one 
of  the  divisions  upon  that  tube  :  we  vnll  assume  it 
to  be  the  sixth  division,  there  being  ten  di^'isions  in 
aU.  This  adjustment  of  mercury,  and  the  subse- 
quent readings,  can  be  very  accurately  made  by 
means  of  a  small  horizontal  telescope,  placed  at  a 
distance  of  about  six  feet,  and  sliding  on  a  vertical 
rod.  The  height  of  the  mercury  in  H  must  now  be 
accurately  determined ;  and  if  from  the  number  thus 
read  off,  the  height  of  the  sixth  division  above  the 
zero  of  the  scale  in  H  is  deducted  (the  scale  on  H 
is  not  marked  in  the  figure),  the  remainder  wiU 
express  the  true  volume  of  the  gas,  no  corrections 
being  required  for  variations  of  temperattire,  atmo- 
spheric pressure,  tension  of  aqueous  vapour,  &c. 


Hydrogen,  in  the  proportion  of  half  the  volume 
the  air  used,  must  now  ])e  passed  into  I,  and  from 
thence  into  F,  when  the  volume  of  tlie  mixed  gases 
must  be  again  determined,  as  before.  An  electric 
spark  must  now  be  passed  through  the  mixed  gases 
in  F  by  means  of  the  platinum  wires  at  m.  A  slight 
explosion  occurs,  after  which  we  observe  a  consider- 
able contraction  in  the  volume  of  the  mixed  gases. 
The  determination  of  this  contraction  terminates 
the  analysis.  One  third  of  tlie  contraction  thua 
determined  represents  the  volume  of  oxygen  con- 
tained in  the  air  submitted  to  analysis,  and  in  thii 
case,  as  oxygen  and  nitrogen  were  the  only  gases 
present,  the  estimation  of  the  former  also  determines 
the  latter.  Such  an  analysis  as  that  which  we  have 
described  is  termed  a  direct  determination ;  in 
other  cases,  we  employ  an  indirect  methoth 

1.  The  method  of  direct  determination  is  appli- 
cable to  mixtures  of  the  following  gases  :  carbonic 
acid,  oxygen,  olefiant  gas,  and  farbonic  oxide.  If 
all  these  gases  are  present  in  the  specimen  to  be 
analysed,  a  few  drops  of  a  concentrated  solution 
of  potash  is  introduced  into  the  apparatus,  after 
a  measured  quantity  of  the  gas  has  been  trans- 
ferred to  it  as  before ;  the  carbonic  acid  is  speedily 
absorbed  by  the  potash,  and  converted  into  car- 
bonate of  potash.  The  remaining  gas  is  remeasured 
at  the  same  pressure  as  before,  and  the  diff"erence 
of  the  two  measurements  represents  the  volume  of 
the  carbonic  acid  that  was  present.  The  remaining 
gas  is  next  brought  into  contact  with  a  few  drops 
of  a  strong  solution  of  pyrogallic  acid,  which  is 
introduced  into  the  apparatus.  In  a  few  minutes, 
the  whole  of  the  oxygen  is  absorbed  by  the  acid 
solution,  which  assumes  a  deep  blood-red  colour. 
The  remeasurement  of  the  gas  at  the  original 
pressure  gives  the  volume  of  oxygen  in  the  mixture. 

The  absorption  of  the  olefiant  gas  is  effected  by 
the  introduction  into  the  tube  I  of  a  coke-bidlet 
saturated  with  a  solution  of  anhydrous  sidphuric 
acid  in  oil  of  vitriol.  This  absorption  occupies  far 
more  time  than  that  of  the  preceding  gas,  an  hour 
or  more  being  required,  and  the  residual  gas  contains 
sulphurous  acid  and  the  vapour  of  anhydrous  sid- 
phuric acid,  which  must  be  removed  by  a  few 
drops  of  a  strong  solution  of  jjotash.  The  residual 
gas  being  again  measured  in  F,  the  diminished 
pressure  represents  the  volume  of  olefiant  gas.  The 
carbonic  oxide  is  then  determined  by  a  solution  of 
dichloride  of  copper,  which  is  best  prepared  by 
allowing  a  concentrated  solution  of  the  proto- 
chloride  to  be  in  contact  wdth  copper  turnings  in 
a  stoppered  bottle  for  some  days.  The  gas  must  be 
brought  in  contact  for  ten  minutes  with  a  little  of 
this  solution,  introduced  into  the  ajiparatus.  The 
pressure  of  the  gas  is  again  measured,  and  deter- 
mines the  volume  of  carbonic  oxide  that  has  been 
absorbed.  This  gas  is,  however,  usually  determined 
by  the  indirect  method. 

2.  The  method  of  indirect  determination  is  espe- 
cially applicable  to  mixtures  of  the  following  gases : 
hydrogen,  light  carburetted  hydrogen,  carbonic 
oxide,  and  nitrogen.  We  explode  a  kno^-n  volume 
of  the  mixture  of  these  gases  in  the  tube  F,  with  an 
excess  of  oxygen,  and  determine  (1)  the  dinduution 
of  volume  after  the  explosion,  and  (2)  the  -vdume  of 
carbonic  acid  produced  by  the  combustion.  The  gas 
that  remains  after  the  absorption  of  the  carbonic 
acid  (by  a  solution  of  potash),  consists  merely  ot 
nitrogen,  with  any  excess  of  oxygen  beyond  what 
was  necessary.  The  voliune  of  oxygen  determined 
by  explosion  with  hydrogen,  subtracted  from  the 
residual  gas,  gives  the  amoimt  of  nitrogen  contained 
in  the  mixture.  For  the  determination  of  the 
respective  volumes  of  nitrogen,  hydrogen,  carbonio 
oxide,  and  light  carburetted  hydrogen,  we  have  the 


OAS. 


following  data — ^viz.  (1)  the  volume  of  the  gas  taken 
for  analysis,  wiich  M  e  will  call  A ;  (2),  the  volume  of 
the  combustibl(3  gases  contained  in  it,  which  we  will 
call  A',  and  which  is  ascertained  by  deducting  from 
A  the  amomit  of  nitrogen  determined  as  above  ; 
(3),  the  contraction  of  volume  on  explosion,  which 
we  will  call  C ;  and  (4)  the  volume  of  carbonic  acid 
generated  on  explosion,  which  we  will  call  D  ;  and 
we  likewise  know  that  on  exploding  one  volume  of 
hydrogen  with  an  excess  of  oxygen,  the  contraction 
of  volume  is  exjiressed  by  1  '5 ;  that  on  similarly 
exploding  one  volume  of  carbonic  oxide,  the  con- 
traction is  expressed  by  0'5,  while  one  volume  of 
carbonic  acid  is  produced ;  and  that  with  light  car- 
buretted  hydrogen  the  contraction  is  represented  by 
^0,  while  one  volume  of  carbonic  acid  is  produced. 
Jlence,  if  we  call  w,  x,  ij,  z,  the  unknown  volimies 
of  nitrogen,  hydrogen,  carbonic  oxide,  and  light  car- 
buretted  hydrogen,  we  see  at  once  that  w  =  A— A', 
and  x  =  A'— D ;  and  the  above  numerical  data  give 
us  the  equations 

C  =  ^  +  I  +  2^,    and  T>  =  y  +  z;  whence 

3A'  -  20  +  D      ^        2D  -  3A'  +  20 
y  =   3  ,  and  z  =  ^  , 

■which  affords  the  complete  solution  of  the  analytical 
problem. 

If,  on  the  application  of  these  formulae  to  the 
residts  of  an  analysis,  one  of  the  quantities  w,  x, 
y,  z  is  found  =  0,  or  a  small  negative  result,  it 
obviously  follows,  that  the  gas  whose  volume  is 
represented  by  the  letter  in  question,  is  not  present 
in  the  mixture. 

For  further  details  regarding  this  somewhat 
difficult  branch  of  chemical  analysis,  we  must  refer 
to  Bunseu's  treatise,  and  to  the  articles  'Analyse  fiir 
Gase,'  in  the  second  edition  of  Liebig,  Poggendorff, 
and  Wijhler's  Handworterhuch  tier  Chemie;  and 
*  Gasometric  Analysis,'  in  the  Enrjllsh  Cyclopaidia — 
Arts  and  Sciences,  vol.  iv. 

GAS  (Lighting  by)  is  the  best  and  most 
economical  mode  of  obtaining  artificial  light  as 
yet  brought  into  use ;  though  hardly  knowTi  at  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century,  it  has  since  been 
gradually  extending.  It  may  now  be  said  to  be 
miiversal  in  the  cities  and  towns  of  Europe ;  it  is 
making  rapid  progress  in  ISorth  America,  where  it 
has  long  been  used  in  the  principal  cities  of  the 
United  States  and  of  Canada,  and  it  is  spreading 
rapidly  in  the  smaller  towns.  Its  introduction  into 
South  America  and  into  Asia  has  been  more  recent, 
and  its  progress  there,  as  might  have  been  expected, 
is  much  slower.  It  has  also  been  introduced  into 
the  principal  towns  in  Australia  and  Tasmania. 

From  1658  to  1739,  the  attention  of  men  of  science 
in  England  had  been  repeatedly  turned  to  the  streams 
of  inflammable  air  issuing  from  wells  and  mines  in 
♦he  coal  districts,  various  communications  on  the 
subject  having  been  read  before  the  Royal  Society 
of  London.  In  the  last-mentioned  year,  the  Rev.  Dr 
John  Clayton,  dean  of  Kildare,  gave  an  account  of 
experiments  in  which  he  had  distilled  gas  from  coal. 
It  was  not,  how^ever,  till  1792  that  the  possibility  of 
applying  gas,  distilled  from  coal,  to  the  production 
of  artificial  light  was  demonstrated.  In  that  year, 
Mr  William  Murdoch  constructed  apparatus  by 
which  he  lighted  his  house  and  offices  at  Redruth, 
in  Cornwall.  In  1798,  he  lighted  part  of  the  manu- 
factory of  Messrs  Bolton  and  Watt  at  Soho,  and  in 
1805  he  lighted  the  cotton-mills  of  Messrs  Phillips 
and  Lee  at  Salford.  A  proposal  was  made  by  M.  Le 
Bon  to  light  a  portion  of  Paris  with  gas  in  1802. 
In  the  succeeding  year,  Mr  Winsor  commenced 
lecturing  on  the  subject  in  London.  He  being  a  man 
6M 


of  a  sanguine  and  enthusiastic  temper,  his  strong 
statements  probably  tended  to  retard  rather  than 
advance  the  new  art.  He  promised  to  every  depositor 
of  £5  an  income  exceeding  £500  per  annum,  and  he 
urged  the  goverimaent  to  take  the  matter  into  theii 
own  hands,  as  a  certain  means  not  only  of  clearing 
off  the  national  debt,  but  of  securing  a  permanent 
and  large  revenue  to  the  country.  The  chartered 
Gas  Company  of  London,  which  was  the  first  com- 
pany incorporated,  obtained  their  act  of  parliament 
in  181.0.  At  that  time,  Mr  Winsor,  who  had  been 
instrumental  in  establishing  the  company,  w^aa 
employed  by  them,  but  in  1813  they  foimd  it  neces- 
sary to  engage  the  late  Mr  Samual  Clegg,  who,  from 
the  year  1805,  had  been  engaged  in  promoting  the 
use  of  gas,  and  to  whose  ingenuity  and  scientifio 
sldll  the  chartered  company,  as  well  as  the  com- 
munity, were  greatly  indebted.  Mr  Clegg  was  the 
inventor  of  the  hydraulic  main,  of  the  wet-lime 
purifier,  and  of  the  wet  gasraeter,  all  which  were 
essential  to  the  success  of  gas  lighting. 

As  the  first  gas  applied  to  artificial  lighting  was 
obtained  from  coal,  so,  owing  to  the  economy 
attending  its  manufacture,  the  use  of  any  other 
material  only  occurs  when  coal  cannot  be  obtained 
except  at  an  exorbitant  price,  and  where  other  gas- 
yielding  materials  are  unusually  cheap.  Resin  and 
oils  are  the  best  substitutes  for  coal. 

Destructive  distillation  by  the  action  of  heat  is 
in  all  cases  the  means  employed  to  disengage  the 
gas  from  the  raw  material,  the  apparatiis  and  pro- 

I  cesses  being  modified  to  suit  the  material  operated 
upon.  As  the  manufacture  of  coal-gas  is  not  only 
the  most  general,  but  also  the  most  interesting  of 
these  processes,  and  as  the  mode  of  storing,  distri. 
buting,  and  using  the  gas  is  the  same  in  all,  the 
manufacture  of  coal-gas  only  will  be  here  described. 

As  a  branch  of  manufacturing  industry,  coal-gas* 
works  occupy  an  important  position,  not  only  from 
the  immense  capital  permanently  embarked,  and  the 
great  number  of  hands  employed  in  them,  but  also 
from  the  demand  created  by  them  for  coal,  lime,  &c., 
and  for  ironwork,  brasswork,  and  gasmeters.  In 

I  London  alone,  the  aggregate  share  capital  of  17 

!  gas  companies  amounts  to  £5,000,000,  independently 
of  large  sums  of  borrowed  capital.    In  England, 

1  there  are  above  400  gas  companies  ;  in  Scotland, 
above  180  ;  in  Ireland,  above  60 ;  and  there  are  in 
the  three  kingdoms  about  130  gas-works,  the  pro- 
perty of  individuals  or  of  corijorations.  The  coala 
best  adapted  for  the  manufacture  of  gas,  are  those 
known  in  England  by  the  name  of  cannel,  and  in 
Scotland  by  the  name  of  parrot  coals.  The  English 
caking  coals,  of  which  a  great  part  are  obtained  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  are,  how- 
ever, from  their  cheai^ness  and  the  superior  quality 
of  the  coke  which  remains  after  distillation,  more 
extensively  used  than  any  other.  In  Scotland, 
parrot  coals  are  used  almost  exclusively.  Cannel 
is  used  exclusively  in  Liverpool,  Manchester,  and 
some  other  towns ;  a  proportion  of  cannel  or  of 
Scotch  parrot  is  used  with  caking  coal  in  London 
and  other  places  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  gas, 
but  in  England  generally  the  gas  is  made  from 
caking  coal.  The  coke  of  the  English  cannel  coals 
is  of  fair  quality,  though  inferior  to  that  of  the 
caldng  coals.  The  coke  of  the  Scotch  pairot  coala 
is  very  inferior,  that  of  some  being  altogether 
worthless. 

The  English  caking  coals  yield  from  800O  to 
10,000  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  ton,  of  illunvinating 
power  varying  from  10  to  12  sperm  candles  to  a 
burner  consuming  five  feet  per  hour.  The  English 
cannel  coals  yield  about  10,000  cubic  feet  per  ton, 
of  illuminating  power  varying  from  20  to  24  sperm 
candles.    The  Scotch  parrot  coals  are  very  varica^ 


GAS. 


in  quality,  yielding  from  8000  np  to  13,000  cubic 
feet  per  ton,  varying  in  illuminating  power  from  16 
up  to  35  candles.  As  a  general  rule,  the  parrot 
coals  which  yield  the  greatest  quantity  of  gas,  yield 
also  gas  of  the  highest  ilkiminating  power. 

In  the  process  of  distillation,  gas,  tar,  and  ammo- 
niacal  liquor  come  off  together,  and  are  separated 
by  the  action  of  the  apparatus  employed— a  large 
residuum  of  coke  remains  in  the  retort.  Tlie  gas 
consists  of  a  mixture  of  heavy  carburetted  hydrogen 
(defiant  gas),  specific  gravity,  985 ;  heavy  hydro- 
carbon vapours  of  various  kinds ;  light  carburetted 
hydrogen,  specific  gravity,  555  ;  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen, specific  gravity,  1191  ;  sulphide  or  sulj)huret  of 
carbon  in  minute  quantity  ;  carbonic  oxide,  specific 
gravity,  972 ;  carbonic  acid,  specific  gravity,  1524. 

The  value  of  coal-gas  dej^ends  on  the  proportion 
of  olefiant  gas  and  heavy  hydro-carbons  which  it 
contains.  Great  attention  is  required  in  heating  the 
retorts  j  if  their  temperature  be  too  low,  the  tar  and 


liquor  are  increased  in  quantity,  and  the  gas  dunin- 
ished  in  quantity  and  deteriorated  in  quality.  Tf 
the  temperature  be  too  high,  the  oleliaiit  gas  ia 
decomposed,  and  light  carburetted  hydrogen  formed. 
While  different  parts  of  the  ai)paratus  necessary  for 
producing,  purifying,  storing,  and  sending  out  the 
gas  are  capable  of  many  variations  in  size,  form,  and 
construction,  the  order  in  which  they  come  into  use 
is  almost  invariable.  First  there  are  the  retorts 
ascension  and  dip  pipes,  hydraulic  main,  then  the 
tar-well  and  condenser,  the  exhauster,  the  washer  or 
scrubber,  the  purifier,  the  station-meter,  the  (jaa- 
holder,  and  the  govern' t — the  parts  printed  in  italics 
being  indispensable.  Besides  the  above,  valves  of 
various  forms,  simple  and  complicated,  are  employecL 
These,  in  some  of  their  arrangements,  disjjlay  great 
ingenuity.  Water-traps  also  have  to  be  aj)i)Jied  for 
collecting  and  removing  the  water  and  tar  which 
condense  in  the  pipes.  The  annexed  wood-cut  shews 
an  arrangement  common  in  small  gas-works. 


ELEVATION  OF  GAS-WORKS. 


^  <^  /S^ 


Retorts,  &a 


Tar  WelL 


Condenser. 


Washer, 


Dry-Lime  Purifier. 


The  retorts  are  now  generally  made  of  fireclay, 
though  cast-iron  retorts  are  still  frequently  to  be 
met  with.  They  are  made  D-shaped,  cylindrical,  kid- 
ney-shaped, and  elliptical.  The  sizes  most  common  are 
from  6  to  9  feet  in  length,  and  from  12  to  20  inches 
in  diameter.  In  large  works,  two  9-feet  lengths  are 
joined  together,  forming  one  retort  18  feet  long, 
with  a  mouth  at  each  end — a  mode  of  construction 
which  is  found  to  possess  considerable  advantages. 
The  retort  is  built  horizontally  into  an  arched  oven, 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  equally  heated  throughout 
from  a  furnace  beneath.  From  one  to  seven  retorts, 
and  sometimes  a  greater  number,  are  set  in  the  same 
oven.  The  open  mouth-piece  of  the  retort  is  of  cast 
iron,  and  projects  outwards  from  the  front  wall  of 
the  oven  sufficiently  far  to  admit  between  the  mouth 
and  the  front  of  the  oven,  an  opening  to  which  the 
aK3cension-pii)e  is  connected  for  conveying  the  gas  to 
the  hydraulic  main.  When  the  coal  to  be  distilled 
ia  introduced  into  the  retort,  the  mouth  is  closed 
with  a  lid,  which  is  kept  tight  by  a  luting  of  clay  or 
other  material  round  the  edge,  and  made  fast  with 
ft  screw. 

The  hydraulic  main  is  a  large  pipe  made  of  thick 
plate  or  cast  iron.  It  is  first  about  half  fiUed 
With  water,  which  in  the  course  of  a  short  time  is 
entirely  displaced  by  the  liquid  product  of  distilla- 
tion. The  dip-pipes,  which  are  the  continuation  of 
the  ascension-pipes,  dip  into  the  liquid  through 
wnich  the  gas  bubbles  up  into  the  upper  portion  of 
the  hydraulic  main.  The  gas  and  liquid  come  oflf 
it  the  end  of  the  hydraulic  main,  and  flow  together 


till  they  reach  the  tar- well,  into  which  the  liquid,  by 
its  greater  gravity,  faUs.  The  liquid  consists  of  tai 
and  ammoniacal  water.  These  are  withdrawn  from 
the  tar- well,  and  become  the  raw  material  from 
which  other  prodiicts  are  manufactured.  From  the 
tar,  naphtha,  pitch-oil,  pitch,  and  coke  are  obtaine.d; 
and  from  the  water,  salts  of  ammonia  are  prepared- 
The  tar  and  ammoniacal  water  being  of  different 
densities  are  easily  separated  by  being  allowed 
to  settle  in  a  vessel.  See  Gas-tar,  Naphtha, 
Ammonia,  Sal-ammoniac,  &c.  When  a  retort 
is  opened  for  withdrawing  the  exhausted  charge 
of  coal  and  renewing  it,  the  pressure  of  the  gas 
on  the  hydraulic  main  forces  the  liquid  to  ascend 
the  dip-pipe,  and  thus  seals  it  against  the  gas  in 
the  hydraulic,  which,  but  for  this,  woidd  rush  up 
the  dip-pipe,  descend  the  ascension-pipe,  escape  and 
ignite  at  the  open  mouth  of  the  retort.  In  the  tar- 
well  there  is  also  a  dip-pipe,  inserted  into  a  deep 
vessel,  to  prevent  the  gas  from  entering  the  well. 
A  similar  contrivance  is  resorted  to  wherever  it  is 
necessary  to  introduce  or  draw  off  hquids  at  any 
part  of  the  apparatus.  The  tar- well  must  be  placed 
so  low,  that  all  the  liquid  in  the  pipes  leading  to  it 
from  the  hydraulic  main,  and  from  it  to  the  con- 
denser, must  incline  towards  it. 

The  simplest  form  of  condenser  consists  of  a  series 
of  upright  pipes,  each  pair  being  connected  at  the 
top  by  an  arch  pipe.  These  are  erected  upon  a 
horizontal  chest,  the  top  of  which  has  an  opening 
into  the  bottom  of  each  upright  pipe.  Immediately 
imder  the  centre  of  each  arch  pipe,  a  plate  descends 


GAS. 


from  the  top  of  the  chest,  and  reaches  to  within  a 
few  inches  of  the  bottom.  When  in  operation,  the 
chest  is  always  filled  with  liquid  to  such  a  height, 
that  these  plates  dip  into  it,  and  prevent  the  gas 
from  passing  through  the  chest  horizontally.  When 
admitted  into  the  chest,  the  gas  finds  no  exit  but  by 
ascending  the  first  upright  pipe  ;  and,  passing  over  the 
arch,  it  descends  to  the  chest  again  through  the  second 
upright  pipe.  There  being  no  dip-plate  between 
the  second  and  third  upright  pipes,  the  gas  ascends 
the  third  pipe  and  descends  the  fourth,  and  so  on 
through  the  condenser.  The  upright  pipes  are  kept 
cool  by  exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  and  sometimes 
a  thin  stream  of  water  is  caused  to  flow  over  them. 
As  the  gas  ascends  and  descends,  cooling  rapidly  in 
its  passage,  the  liquid  which  has  been  carried  along 
in  a  state  of  vapour,  condenses,  and  falls  into  the 
chest,  from  which  it  is  conveyed  back  by  an 
ovei-flow-pipc  to  the  tar-well. 

The  exhauster,  when  used,  is  now  the  next  part 
of  the  apparatus.  It  is  a  species  of  pump,  driven 
by  steam-power,  and  is  made  in  various  forms, 
both  direct-acting  and  rotary.  It  serves  the  pur- 
pose of  relieving  the  retorts  of  the  resistance  or 
pressure,  created  in  the  passing  of  the  gas  thi'ough 
the  apj)aratus,  and  in  raising  the  gasholders.  The 
use  of  the  exhauster  greatly  lessens  the  deposit  of 
carbon  in  the  retorts  in  the  form  of  graphite,  and  is 
attended  with  other  important  advantages. 

At  this  stage  of  the  process,  the  liquid  products 
have  been  separated  from  the  gaseous.  A  portion 
of  the  ammonia  and  the  sul})huretted  hydrogen  and 
carbonic  acid  have  stdl  to  be  removed.  As  yet, 
there  are  no  means  practically  applicable  for  the 
removal  of  the  sulphide  of  carbon  ;  bat  the  quantity 
produced  is  so  minute  as  to  be  uninjurious,  and 
Bufficient  ammonia  remains  in  the  gas  to  form  the 
harmless  salt  sulphate  of  ammonia  as  the  product  of 
combustion.  To  remove  ammonia  from  the  gas,  the 
washer  or  scrubber  is  used.  In  the  washer,  the  gas 
is  forced  to  pass  through  water  to  a  depth  of 
several  inches,  or  through  a  solution  containing  an 
Ingredient  vnth  which  the  ammonia  will  combine. 
The  scrubber,  which  may  be  used  instead  of  the 
washer,  is  an  upright  vessel,  in  which  the  gas  is 
made  to  pass  through  bru.shwood,  or  layers  of  small 
Btones,  or  coke,  through  which  water  may  be  made 
to  percolate. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  purifiers — the  wet  and  the 
dry.  Either  may  be  used  separately,  or  they  may  be 
used  in  siiccession.  Lime  is  the  purifying  material 
which  is  most  eSective ;  a  preparation  of  the  oxide 
of  iron,  however,  is  rapidly  coming  into  general  use. 
Lime  is  used  in  the  wet  purifier  in  the  form  of 
cream  of  lime.  The  wet  purifier  is  a  cylindrical 
Vessel,  into  which  the  gas  is  introduced  through  a 
wide  pipe,  which  descends  through  the  centre  of  the 
Vessel,  and  is  furnished  with  a  very  broad  flange  on 
the  lowest  part.  The  vessel  is  filled  with  the  cream 
of  lime  to  the  height  of  several  inches  above  the 
flange  of  the  wide  pipe.  The  gas  enters  through 
the  wide  pipe,  passes  under  the  flange,  and  upwards 
through  the  cream  of  lime.  The  cream  of  lime  is 
kept  in  agitation  by  revolving  arms.  Two  or  more 
of  these  vessels  must  be  used  in  succession,  in  order 
efTectually  to  remove  the  sulphuretted  hydrogen. 
The  dry  purifier  is  a  square  or  oblong  vessel  con- 
taining a  series  of  perforated  trays,  on  each  of  which 
the  purifying  material  is  spread.  Slacked  lime  (in 
the  form  of  dry  hydrate)  is  used  in  this  purifier  in 
layers  of  from  2 4  to  34  inches  on  each  tray.  The 
lime  absorbs  the  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  a  portion  of 
the  ammonia,  and  the  carbonic  acid.  When  satu- 
rated, it  is  removed,  and  the  vessel  is  refilled  with 
fresh  material.  'Die  refuse  lime  is  extensively  used 
«fl  a  manure.  When  the  oxide  of  iron  is  employed 
636 


as  the  purifying  material,  the  preparation  is  spread 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  lime,  but  to  a  much 
greater  thickness.  When  by  the  absorption  of 
sulphuretted  hydrogen,  the  oxide  of  iron  has  become 
suli)huret  of  iron,  it  is  taken  out,  and  by  exposure  to 
the  atmosphere,  it  is  reconverted  into  oxide,  and 
can  be  used  again  and  again.  A  great  recommenda- 
tion for  the  use  of  the  oxide  of  iron  is  the  abatement 
of  the  annoyance  caused  by  the  unpleasant  smell  of 
the  refupe  lime.  When  oxide  of  iron  is  used,  a 
separate  lime  purifier  is  necessary  for  removing  the 
carbonic  acid.  A  narrow  chamber,  nearly  full 
water,  runs  round  the  upper  edge  of  the  dry  purifier ; 
into  this  chamber  the  sides  of  the  cover,  which  is 
of  sheet-iron,  are  let  down,  and  the  gas  is  thus 
prevented  from  escaping. 

After  passing  the  purifier,  the  gas,  which  is  now 
fit  for  use,  is  measiu'ed  by  the  station-meter,  an 
instrument  similar  in  principle  to  the  consumers' 
meter,  afterwards  described.  It  is  then  conveyed 
to  the  gasholder,  to  be  stored  and  issued  as 
required. 

The  gasholder  is  an  inverted  cylindrical  vessel  of 
sheet-ii-on,  placed  in  a  tank  of  cast  iron,  stone,  or 
brick  containing  water.  A  pipe  ascends  from  the 
bottom  of  the  tank  through  the  water,  to  admit  the 
gas  to  the  space  between  the  surface  of  the  water 
and  the  crown  of  the  gasholder.  Another  pipe 
descends  through  the  water  and  the  bottom  of  the 
tank,  for  the  issue  of  the  gas  to  the  main-pipe.  The 
\A-ater  is  for  the  purpose  of  retaining  the  gas  within 
the  vessel.  The  buoyancy  of  the  gas  raises  the  gas- 
holder, and  the  weight  of  the  gasholder,  or  such 
part  of  it  as  is  not  taken  ofi"  by  balance-weights, 
impels  the  gas  through  the  pipes.  When  balance- 
weights  are  necessary,  they  are  attached  to  the 
edge  of  the  crown  of  the  gasholder  by  long  chains, 
which  i^ass  over  pulleys  on  the  top  of  columns 
which  serve  also  to  guide  the  motion  of  the  vessel 
in  rising  and  falhng.  Gasholders  are  constructed  of 
all  sizes  up  to  200  feet  in  diameter,  and  are  made  to 
contain  quantities  up  to  two  and  a  half  millions  of 
cubic  feet.  In  large  establishments,  telescopic  gas- 
holders are  used,  and  economy  of  space  and  cost  are 
thereby  efi"ected — two  concentric  gasholders  being 


1 

J 

L  . 

n 

if 


Telescope  Gasholder, 

contained  in  one  tank.  The  outer  vessel  of  a  tele 
scope  gasholder  has  no  crown.  The  upper  edge  is 
turned  first  inwards  and  then  downwards,  forming 
an  inverted  hollow  chamber.  The  under  edge  of  the 
inner  vessel  aijain  is  turned  outwards  and  upwards, 
forming  a  hollow  chamber,  which,  when  the  vessel 
rises  out  of  the  tank,  will  be  full  of  water.  The 


OAS. 


Inner  side  of  t/  ^  ^nverted  chamber,  round  the  top  of 
the  outer  vesse),  fits  into  the  inside  of  the  chamber 
round  the  bottom  of  the  inner  vessel,  and  enters  it 
when  that  vessel  has  nearly  ascended  to  the  top  of 
the  tank.  Tlie  water  in  the  chamber  retains  the 
gas,  and  the  two  vessels  then  rise  together.  The 
inner  vessel,  it  will  be  observed,  ascends  first ; 
both  then  ascend  and  descend  together,  till  the 
outer  vessel  has  reached  the  bottom  of  the  tank, 
on  which  it  rests,  and  the  inner  vessel  then  also 
descends  into  the  tank.  Three  gasholders,  or  lifts, 
as  they  are  termed,  are  occasionally  placed  in  the 
same  tank. 

Before  reaching  the  main-pipes,  the  pressure  of  the 
gas  is  regulated  by  the  governor.  In  small  estab- 
M'ahments,  the  governor  is  very  frequently  dispensed 


Gas  Governor. 


With,  and  the  pressure  adjusted  with  sufficient 
nicety  by  the  regulation  of  the  outlet  valve.  The 
governor  consists  of  a  small  gasholder,  the  inlet- 
pipe  to  which  is  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  tankj 
and  terminates  with  a  plate  having  a  circular 
orifice  in  its  centre.  In  this  orifice  hangs  a  cone, 
which  is  attached  to  the  crown  of  the  small  holder. 
WTien  the  gas  is  issuing  slowly,  the  holder  rises, 
taking  with  it  the  cone,  and  so  restricting  the  orifice 
by  which  the  gas  enters.  When  the  gas  issues 
ra^jidly,  the  holder  falls,  and  with  it  the  cone, 
thereby  enlarging  the  inlet. 

The  gas  is  conveyed  from  the  works  by  main- 
pipes  of  cast  iron,  to  which  branch  or  service  pipes 
are  connected  wherever  a  supply  is  wanted.  The 
main-pipes  require  to  be  skilfully  arranged  with 
respect  to  size,  carefully  jointed,  and  laid  with  as 
few  changes  in  their  inclination  as  possible ;  but  as 
Buch  changes  are  unavoidable,  it  is  necessary  to 
provide  for  the  removal  of  water,  which,  flowing 
along  with  the  gas  in  the  form  of  vapour,  condenses 
in  the  pipes,  and  lodges  at  low  points.  For  this 
purf)Ose,  a  vessel,  similar  in  construction  to  the  tar- 
well,  is  connected  to  the  main-pipe,  and  the  water  is 
removed  by  a  pump.  When  little  condensation  is 
anticipated,  and  when  there  is  no  risk  of  the  water 
affecting  the  flow  of  the  gas,  a  small  pipe  merely  is 
attached  to  the  main,  with  a  stop- cock  to  run  off 
tlie  watei.  The  service-pipes  should  incline  towards 


the  wain ;  and  where  this  cannot  be  attained, 
provision  shoidd  be  made  for  drawing  off  water. 

Gas-Jittinqs. — The  small  pipes  for  fitting  up  the 
interiors  of  houses  are  either  of  wruu;iht  iron  or  of 
soft  metal.  To  ensure  permanent  efficiency,  it  is  or 
the  utmost  importance  that  these  pi[)e3  should  b« 
capacious;  they  should  be  laid  evenly,  with  aa 
inclination  towards  the  meter ;  and  where  th^^ 
inclination  is  m.aterially  disturbed,  a  box  should  be 
provided  for  the  collection  and  removal  of  water. 

Gas  for  street  lighting  is  usually  sujjplied  by  con  • 
tract,  a  specified  biu-ner  being  used,  and  the  lighti 
being  lighted  and  extinguished  at  stipulated  hours. 
Lights  in  private  estaljlishments  were  originally 
charged  for  on  the  same  system.  The  uncertainty  of 
such  a  mode  of  charge  directed  the  attention  of  gas- 
engineers  to  the  construction  of  meters  at  a  very 
early  period.  Accordingly,  in  181G,  Mr  Clegg  took 
out  his  first  patent  for  the  wet  gasmeter,  which,  as 
subsequently  improved  by  Malam,  Crosley,  and 
others,  came  into  general  use  about  the  year  1822. 
Dry  gasmeters  are  now  extensively  manufactured 
on  a  principle  first  patented  by  ]\lr  A.  A.  Croll,  a 
gentleman  who  has  also  patented  various  modifi- 
cations of  the  apparatus  and  processes  used  in  tha 
manufacture  and  purification  of  gas. 

The  wet  gasmeter  consists  of  a  hollow  circidar 
case,  somewhat  more  than  half  filled  with  water. 
The  measurement  is  made  by  the  cylinder,  a  hoUow 
drum  or  wheel,  which  revolves  on  a  horizontal  axis 
inside  the  case,  the  elasticity  of  the  gas  supplying 
the  motive-jiower.  The  cylinder  is  divided  into 
four  chambers  by  partitions  running  in  a  slanting 
direction  from  back  to  front,  and  presenting  a 


Wet  Meter — front  I  ox  open : 
A,  entrance  pipe;  B,  valve  cliamber;  C,  float,  with  ▼aiVB  on 
the  upper  end ;  D,  surplus  or  i^aste-water  box. 

section  of  a  four-threaded  Archimedean  screw.  A 
convex  cover  is  fixed  on  one  end.  of  the  cylinder. 
This  cover  has  an  opening  in  the  centre,  which 
admits  the  pipe  by  which  the  gas  enters  the 
cylinder;  the  opening  being  beloM  the  surface  of 
the  water,  so  as  to  be  sealed  by  it.  The  pipe,  after 
entering  the  opening,  is  turned  up,  so  tbat  its  mouth 
is  above  the  water.  The  gas  thus  admitted  within 
the  cover,  finds  its  way  through  a  slit  into  one  of 
the  four  chambers  into  which  the  cylinder  is  divided. 
The  chamber  which  first  comes  into  action  is  at  the 
moment  almost  entirely  under  the  water.  The  gas 
presses  between  the  water  and  the  partii  ion  of  the 
chamber,  and,  in  raising  the  partition,  tun-f  the 
cylinder  on  its  axis,  and  brings  the  chamber  above 
the  water,  filling  it  at  the  same  time.  The  outlet 
slit  of  the  chamber  is  on  the  side  of  the  cylindex 


OAS. 


"Wet  Meter — side  section. 


opposite  to  the  inlet  slit,  and  is  open  to  the  case  of 
the  raeter.  It  is  not,  however,  directly  opposite  to 
the  inlet  slit,  but  is  so  arranged  that  it  remains 
sealed  under  water  till 
the  chamber  is  completely 
filled  with  gas,  by  which 
time  the  revolution  of  the 
cylinder  has  brought  the 
inlet  slit  of  the  next 
chamber  above  the  water, 
and  it  is  ready  to  receive 
the  gas.  The  iilling  of 
the  next  chamber  carries 
round  the  one  already 
filled,  causes  its  descent 
into  the  water  as  it 
revolves,  and  completely 
expels  the  gas  by  the 
outlet  slit.  Two  chambers 
only  can  be  in  action  at 
one  time.  These  chambers 
ai-e  made  with  great  accu- 
racy, and  are  liable  to  no 
variation  but  the  enlarge- 
ment caused  ))y  the  evapor- 
ation of  the  water  and  the 
consequent  depression  of 
the  water-line.  On  the 
front  of  the  case  of  the  meter  is  placed  a  box,  into 
which  the  axis  of  the  cylinder  extends,  having  a 
spiral  worm-wheel  on  its  end.  The  worm-wheel 
communicates  motion  to  an  tipright  spindle,  which 
again  moves  the  train  of  wlaeels  by  which  the 
handles  of  the  index  are  worked.  The  front  box 
also  contains  the  filling  and  overflow  pipes  for  the 
supply  and  adjustment  of  the  water,  the  entrance- 
chamber  by  which  the  gas  is  admitted,  and  in  which 
the  float-valve  is  placed.  This  valve  is  supported 
and  kept  open  by  a  float  which  descends,  closes 
the  valve,  and  shuts  off  the  gas  when  the  water  is 
depressed  too  much. 

An  act  of  the  British  legislature  has  recently  been 
passed,  according  to  which  all  gasmeters  must  be 
so  constructed  as  not  to  register  more  than  2  per 
cent,  in  favour  of  the  seller,  and  3  per  cent,  in 
favour  of  the  purchaser  of  gas.  Thus  allowing  5  per 
cent,  for  variation  caused  by  the  depression  of  the 
water-line  on  wet  gasmeters.  All  meters  fixed 
since  the  act  came  into  operation  must  bear  the  seal 
of  an  inspector  appointed  under  the  act.  Previous 
to  the  passing  of  this  act,  wet  gasmeters  were  made 
BO  that  when  the  water-line  was  proj)erly  adjiisted, 
they  could  not  measure  more  than  2|  per  cent,  in 
favour  of  the  seller,  but  they  would  register  from 
8  to  12  per  cent,  in  favour  of  the  purchaser  before 
the  water-line  was  sufficiently  depressed  to  close  the 
float-valve.  In  the  arrangement  adopted  by  Crosley, 
there  was  a  defect  which  was  unfortunately  adhered 
to  by  many  meter-makers  in  England,  though  it 
^  as  abandoned  by  most  of  the  makers  in  Scotland. 
This  defect,  known  as  '  the  high  spout,'  arose  from 
the  pij)e  or  spout  which  receives  the  gas  in  the  front 
box,  and  conveys  it  into  the  cylinder,  being  made  to 
project  considerably  above  the  water-line.  This 
was  intended  to  prevent  the  consumers  of  gas  from 
being  subjected  to  the  inconvenience  of  their  lights 
being  rendered  unsteady,  or  being  extinguished  by 
water  coming  over  the  edge  of  the  spout  and  lodging 
in  the  bend  which  enters  the  cylinder ;  but  if,  in 
supplying  water  to  the  meter,  the  overflow-pipe 
which  adjusts  the  water-line  were  closed,  by  the 
replocing  of  the  plug  before  all  the  suq^lus  water 
had  run  off,  too  much  water  would  be  contained  in 
the  meter,  and  its  measuring  capacity  woidd  conse- 
quently be  restricted  to  the  prejudice  of  the  pur- 
cliaser  ;  and  this  having  been  ascertained  to  have 
6S8 


occun-ed  in  various  instances,  much  dissatisfaction 
was  the  natural  result.  The  provisions  of  the  act 
regulating  measures  used  in  sales  of  gas  enforce  the 
making  of  wet  gasmeters  with  '  the  low  spout,' 
and  consequently  remove  this  objection  entirely. 
Much  skill  and  ingenuity  have,  since  the  passing  of 
the  act,  been  brought  to  bear  on  the  construction 
and  arrangement  of  wet  gasmeters,  in  order  to  lessen, 
and,  if  possible,  remove  the  risk  of  the  float-valve 
closing  more  frequently  than  formerly,  which  it  will 
be  apt  to  do  oAving  to  the  limitation  of  the  descent 
of  the  water  by  the  restriction  of  the  variation  of 
the  measurement  to  3  per  cent,  instead  of  from  8  fe> 
12  per  cent,  against  the  seller. 
The  dry  gasmeter  possesses  some  advantages, 


Dry  Meter — front  view  open. 

which,  were  it  in  other  respects  equally  esteemed 
with  the  wet  meter,  would  give  it  the  preference. 
Once  adjusted,  it  gives  no  fiu-ther  trouble ;  it  is  not 
liable  to  derangement  in  frosty  weather;  and,  in 
passing  through  it,  the 
gas  takes  up  no  addi- 
tional moisture  to  in- 
crease the  risk  of  annoy- 
ance from  deposit  of 
water  in  the  pipes.  But 
doubts  are  entei-tained 
by  many  of  the  durability 
of  the  machine  as  an 
efficient  and  correct 
measure.  The  meter  is 
made  in  various  forms, 
and  consists  of  cham- 
bers separated  from  each 
other  by  partitions;  gene- 
rally there  are  two,  but 
some  makers  use  three 
chambers.  Each  cham- 
ber is  divided  into  two 
parts  by  a  flexible  parti- 
tion which  moves  back- 
wards and  forwards,  its 
motion  being  regulated 
by  valves  beautifully 
contrived  for  the  pur- 
pose. The  meter  bears  Dry  Meter— side  view  opea 
some  resemblance  to  a 

double  or  triple  steam  engine.  Following  out  this 
resemblance,  Mr.  Croll  thus  describes  his  meter: 
'It  consists  of  a  cylinder  divided  by  a  plate  in 


OAS, 


the  centre,  into  two  separate  cylindrical  compart- 
ments, which  are  closed  at  the  oj)posite  ends  by- 
metal  discs ;  these  metal  discs  serve  the  purpose 
of  pistons,  and  they  are  kept  in  their  places  by  a 
kind  of  universal-joint  adapted  to  each  ;  the  space 
through  which  the  discs  move,  aud,  consequently, 
the  means  of  measurement,  is  governed  by  metal 
arms  and  rods,  which  space,  when  once  adjusted, 
cannot  vary.  To  avoid  the  friction  attending  a 
piston  working  in  a  cylinder,  a  band  of  leather  is 
attached,  which  acts  as  a  hinge,  and  folds  with  the 
motion  of  the  disc  ;  this  band  is  not  instrumental  in 
the  measuring,  so  that  if  it  were  to  contract  or  expand, 
the  registering  of  the  meter  would  not  be  affected, 
inasmuch  as  it  would  only  decrease  or  increase  the 
capacity  of  the  hinge,  the  disc  still  being  at  liberty 
to  move  through  the  required  space  ;  the  leather  is 
also  distributed  in  such  a  manner,  being  curved,  and 
bending  only  in  one  direction,  that  it  prevents  any 
wi'inkles  or  creases  forming,  and  renders  it  therefore 
much  more  durable.  The  arrangement  of  the  valves 
and  arms  are  somewhat  different  to  that  of  a  steam- 
engine,  although  similar  in  principle.' 

Consiuners  of  gas  should  bear  in  mind,  that  the 
purpose  of  'the  meter  is  to  inform  them  laow  much 
gas  tJiey  are  expending ;  and  that  while  the  seller  of 
gas  cannot  visit  it  but  at  long  intervals,  the  pur- 
chaser may  from  day  to  day,  if  he  pleases,  ascertain 
the  quantity  which  has  passed  through  the  meter, 
and  so  detect  irregularity  or  waste,  which,  if  allowed 
to  go  on,  would  no  doixbt  be  put  down  to  error  on 
the  part  of  the  seller  of  gas. 

Gas-burners. — The  biirner  made  on  the  argand 
principle  is  still  the  best  when  carefully  used,  but  it 
is  expensive,  somewhat  troublesome  to  keep  clean, 
and  involves  outlay  for  glasses  from  time  to  time. 
Jets  and  batwings  have,  consequently,  almost  sup- 
planted it.  These  burners  are  now  made  by 
machinery  at  very  low  prices,  so  that  to  change  them 
when  out  of  order  costs  little,  and  is  easily  done. 
They  are  also  very  easily  cleaned.  Jets  are  of  two 
kinds  — cockspurs  and  union -jets.  The  cockspurs  are 
pierced  v/ith  one  or  more  straight  holes  ;  the  union- 
jets  are  pierced  mth  two  holes  at  an  angle  to  each 
other,  so  that  the  streams  of  gas  issuing  from  them 
impinge  on  each  other,  and  produce  a  fiat  flame. 
Batwings  are  made  with  a  clean  slit  across  the  head 
of  the  burner.  Gas  containing  a  great  quantity  of 
carbon  requires  burners  with  smaller  apertures  than 
gas  containing  little  carbon,  because  vdien  emitted 
too  freely,  the  carbon  does  not  come  into  contact 
with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  oxygen,  and  the  flame 
smokes  :  again,  when  the  gas  is  emitted  in  too  small 
a  quantity,  the  flame  becomes  blue,  and  its  illumi- 
Dating  power  is  diminished,  because  the  carbon 


comes  too  rapidly  into  contact  with  oxygen-  The 
light  is  emitted  by  the  carl)on  when  suspended  for 
an  instant  in  the  flame  in  an  io candescent  state,  and 
the  flame  which  is  capable  of  suspending  the  largest 
proportion  of  carbon  in  a  state  of  incandescence, 
ultimately  consuming  the  whole  of  it,  will  give  the 
most  powerful  light  from  the  smallest  quantity  of 
gas.  Accordingly,  an  opaque  yellowish  flame,  which 
is  just  at  the  smoking  point,  is  more  economical 
than  a  bluish-white  flame  for  lighting  purposes. 

There  are  many  contrivances  for  improved  burners 
and  improved  modes  of  using  gas.  Of  these  it  i« 
enough  to  mention  the  sun -lights  introduced  by  Mr 
King  of  Liveq)ool.  These  consist  of  a  ring  of  union- 
jets,  placed  horizontally  and  set  on  the  base  of  a 
cone  which  is  passed  through  the  ceiling,  and  con- 
veys away  the  products  of  combustion  through  a 
flue,  thus  serving  both  for  lighting  and  ventilating 
the  apartments  in  which  they  are  used. 

Beijulators. — The  object  of  these  instruments  is  to 
restrict  the  supply  of  gas  when  superabimdant,  and 
it  should  be  noticed  that  the  supply  requires  to  be 
so  before  any  advantage  can  result  from  the  use  of 
them.  A  conical  valve,  operating  by  the  pressure 
of  the  gas  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  governor  at  * 
the  gas-works,  is  in  general  the  acting  part  of  the 
apparatus. 

The  impurities  which  should  be  removed  in  the 
manufacture  of  coal-gas  are  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
ammonia,  and  carbonic  acid.  The  presence  of  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen  is  detected  by  allowing  a  sti'eam 
of  the  gas  to  play  on  a  paper  wetted  with  a  solution 
of  acetate  of  lead,  the  test-paper  is  blackened  if  the 
deleterious  gas  be  present.  Ammonia  is  detected 
by  allowing  the  gas  to  play  on  paper  stained  yellow 
with  turmeric.  Ammonia  changes  the  yellow  to 
brown.  The  presence  of  carbonic  acid  can  be  ascer- 
tained by  causing  the  gas  to  bubble  through  lime- 
water.  If  carbonic  acid  be  present,  it  combines  with 
the  lime,  and  the  water  becomes  milky. 

The  value  of  gas  for  lighting  depends  on  its  illumi- 
nating power,  which  again  mainly  depends  on  the 
proportion  of  defiant  gas  and  hea^'y  hydrocarbons 
contained  in  the  mixture.  The  specific  gravity  of 
the  gas  would  be  a  complete  test  of  the  illuminating 
power,  were  it  first  ascertained  that  no  deleterious 
gases  were  contained  in  the  mixture.  The  chlorine 
and  bromine  tests,  which  are  applied  by  bringing 
the  gas  into  contact  with  either  of  these  substances 
in  a  graduated  tube,  also  reqiiire  that  the  absence 
of  deleterious  gases  be  ascertained.  Chlorine  and 
bromine  condense  the  defiant  gas  and  hea\'y  hydro- 
carbons, and  the  proportion  of  them  present  ia 
ascertained  by  the  proportion  of  the  gas  which  ia 
condensed. 


9 


Gas-photometer. 


fhe  most  practical  mode  of  determining  the 
Illuminating  power  is  by  the  use  of  the  Bunsen 

thotometcr,  introduced  into  this  country  by  Dr 
^yon  Playfair,  and  adapted  by  Mr  King  of  Liver- 


pool.   At  3ne  end  of  a  straight  har  of  wood,  a 

burner  is  mounted ;  on  the  other  end,  a  candlestick. 
These  are  so  placed,  that  when  lighted,  there  are 
exactly  100  inches  between  the  centres  of  the  lights, 

G39 


GAS-GASCOIGNE. 


The  bar  is  correctly  graduated  to  shew  how  many 
times  the  one  light  exceeds  the  other.  A  circular 
disc  of  paper  made  semi-transparent,  excepting  a 
spot  in  the  centre,  which  is  left  opaque,  is  placed  at 
right  angles  across  the  graduated  bar  on  a  stand 
which  slides  along  the  bar.  When  the  disc  is  moved 
into  a  })osition  where  the  opaque  spot  is  invisible, 
the  lights  are  equal — the  disappearance  of  the  spot 
being  caused  by  the  light  transmitted  by  the  semi- 
transparent  part  of  the  disc  being  equal  to  that 
reflected  by  the  opaque  part.  The  tigures  imme- 
diately below  the  disc  indicate  the  power  of  the 
light.  It  is  usual  to  compare  a  burner  consuming 
five  feet  per  hour  with  a  sperm  candle  consuming 
120  grains  per  hour,  aud  when  the  quantities  con- 
sumed during  an  experiment  are  not  exactly  in  these 
proportions,  the  results  are  rectified  by  calculation. 

As  has  been  stated,  the  illuminating  power  of 
coal-gas  may  vary  from  ten  s})ex'm  candles  up  to 
nearly  forty,  though  it  is  more  than  probable  that 
either  extreme  is  unknown  to  consumers ;  the  cost 
of  production,  however,  does  not  vary  in  the  same 
ratio  with  the  value  of  the  gas,  it  being  affected  by 
totally  independent  causes,  and  these  causes  are  so 
various,  that  the  cost  can  hardly  be  the  same  in 
any  two  places.  Another  difficulty  in  contrasting 
the  price  of  gas  in  different  places,  arises  from  the 
unavoidable  variation  in  the  quantity  accounted  for, 
the  loss  sustained  imder  the  head  of  condensation, 
leakage,  bad  debts,  and  waste,  varies  from  10  up  to 
30  per  cent,  on  the  whole  quantity  made ;  and 
though  when  this  loss  is  excessive,  the  remedy  shoidd, 
to  a  certain  extent,  be  in  the  power  of  the  manufac- 
turer, yet  there  is  a  considerable  range  within  which 
the  loss  may  vary  owing  to  local  and  peculiar  cir- 
cumstances which  the  manufacturer  cannot  control. 
The  price  of  gas  being  dependent  on  the  cost  of 
production  and  distribution,  rather  than  on  the 
illuminating  power,  and  the  changes  in  the  former 
being  less  than  the  variations  in  the  latter,  gases  of 
high  illuminating  power  are  more  economical  than 
gases  of  low  illuminating  power. 

The  economy  of  gas  for  lighting  purposes  will  be 
apparent  when  it  is  considered  that  50  feet  of  gas, 
consumed  in  a  burner  at  5  feet  per  hour,  will  last  10 
hours  ;  while  a  sperm  candle  of  six  to  the  pound, 
and  burning  120  grains  per  hour,  will  only  last 
9"722  hours.  Assuming,  however,  that  both  will 
last  10  hours — a  view  which  is  in  favour  of  the 
candle — 1000  cubic  feet  will  last  as  long  as  20 
candles  ;  therefore,  with  an  illuminating  power  of 
15  candles,  it  will  give  an  amount  of  light  equal  to 
300  candles,  or  50  lbs.,  which  at  2s.  per  poimd  would 
cost  £5 ;  at  20  candles  it  would  equal  400,  or 
66f  lbs.,  custmg  £6,  135.  4d. ;  at  25  candles  it  would 
equal  500,  or  83^  lbs.,  costing  £8,  6s.  8d. ;  at  30 
candles,  it  would  equal  600,  or  100  lbs.,  costing  £10. 

Mr  Rutter,  author  of  a  usefid  pamphlet  titled 
Advantages  of  Gas  in  Private  Houses  (Parker  and 
Son,  West  Strand),  gives  the  following  table,  the 
experiments  from  which  it  is  deduced  having  appa- 
rently been  made  with  12  or  14  candle-gas  at  65. 
per  1000  feet. 


COMPABATrVE  COST  OF  LIGHT  FROM  CANDLES,  LAMPS,  AND  GAS. 


Quantities  and 

Quantities  and 

Cost  of  (>afl. 

Prices  of  Candlei 

•nd  Oil. 

Cub.  feet. 

ej.perlOOO. 

(.  4. 

i.  a. 

Tallow  Candles  (dips), 

1  lb. 

0  7 

21 

0  1^ 

"         "      (moulds),  . 

1  lb. 

0  9 

21 

0  li 

Composite  Candles,     .  . 

1  lb. 

0  10 

25 

0  If 

Wax            "  ... 

1  lb. 

2  4 

25 

0  IJ 

Common  Lamp  Oil,     .  . 

1  gall. 

5  6 

175 

1  0^ 

1  gall. 

10  0 

217 

1  3| 

It  must  be  remarked,  that  the  above  prices  are 
610 


for  equal  quantities  of  light,  which,  however,  is  not 
the  measure  of  economy,  just  because  no  one  is  con- 
tented to  take  no  more  light  from  gas  than  from 
other  modes  of  lighting ;  and  second,  because  the 
gas-lights  being  fixed,  more  light  is  requisite  in  order 
to  compensate  the  loss  of  the  convenience  afforded 
by  a  movable  light.  Five  feet  per  hour  of  15 
candle-gas  will  fully  suj^ply  the  place  of  a  pair  of 
sperm  candles,  costing  8d.  for  10  hours'  light;  while 
the  gas  at  5s.  per  1000  feet  would  only  cost  3d.  fo» 
the  same  time,  and  would  yield  a  light  74  times  a& 
great. 

The  use  of  gas  for  heating  and  cooking  is  becora- 
ing  extensive.  Its  great  recommendations  are 
facility  of  regiilation,  readiness  of  application,  and 
perfect  cleanliness.  In  roasting  by  gas,  the  juices 
are  retained  in  the  meat  to  a  greater  extent  than  by 
the  ordinary  process;  while  in  all  the  ♦operations, 
the  heat  can  be  regulated  with  so  much  nicety,  as 
gi-eatly  to  aid  the  cook  in  preseuting  the  food  in  the 
most  wholesome  and  agreeable  condition. 

Besides  brilliancy  of  light,  safety  and  cleanliness 
attend  the  use  of  gas.  Explosions  under  ordinary 
circumstances  are  hardly  possible — the  escape  of  gas 
is  quite  disagreeably  perceptible  by  the  smell  when 
there  is  one  three-thousandth  part  present  in  the 
atmosphere ;  and  there  can  be  no  explosion  unless 
with,  at  the  least,  200  times  that  quantity,  or  1  part 
in  15.  Such  accumulations  will,  and  do  undoubt- 
edly, take  place  in  confined  situations,  but  ordinary 
precaution  in  avoiding  the  use  of  a  light  will  avert 
the  risk  of  accident.  Gas,  having  a  tendency  to 
ascend,  escapes  near  the  ceiling  of  an  apartment  are 
more  likely  to  form  an  explosive  mixture  than 
escapes  occurring  low  down,  llepeated  accidents 
have  happent-i  through  forgetfulness  of  this.  It 
should  be  reiusmbered  that  the  situation  must  be 
considered  a  confined  one  when  the  gas  is  prevented 
from  ascending  freely.  See  Practical  Treatise  on 
Gas,  by  S.  Clegg,  Jr.,  London,  1866;  The  AnahjHia^ 
Valuation,  Purification,  and  Use  of  Coal  Gas,  by  W. 
R.  Bowditch,  London,  1867  ;  lire's  Pict.  of  Arts  and 
Manufactures ;  and  Gas  Woi'ks  of  London,  by  Zerah 
Colburn,  London,  1865. 

GASCOIGNE,  Sir  William,  an  eminent  English 
judge,  belonging  to  a  noble  Norman  family,  waa 
born  at  Ga}i;horpe,  Yorkshire,  in  1350.  After 
studying  for  the  bar,  he  acquired  considerable 
reputation  as  a  pleader,  and  in  1398  was  made 
serjeant-at-law.  On  the  accession  of  Henry  IV. 
in  1399,  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  justices  of 
the  Court  of  Common  Pleas ;  and  in  1401,  was 
promoted  to  be  chief -justice  of  the  King's  Benclu 
In  this  high  office  he  distinguished  himseK  both 
by  integrity  and  ability,  and  in  the  older  English 
law  reports  are  many  abstracts  of  his  opinions, 
ar^ments,  and  decisions.  In  Jidy  1403,  he  was 
jomed  M-ith  the  Earl  of  Westmoreland  in  a  com- 
mission for  levying  forces  against  the  insurrection 
of  Henry  Percy,  the  celebrated  Hotspur.  He  was 
also  nominated  one  of  the  commissioners  to  treat 
with  the  rebels.  On  this  and  another  memorable 
occasion,  he  acted  with  a  courage  and  rectitude 
which  evinced  that  he  was  guided  by  the  true  spirit 
of  judicial  independence.  On  the  apprehension  of 
Scroop,  archbishop  of  York,  he  refused,  at  the  com- 
mand of  the  king,  to  sentence  that  prelate  to  death 
as  a  traitor,  because  the  law  gave  him  no  jurisdic- 
tion over  the  life  of  an  ecclesiastic.  Henry  respected 
his  uprightness,  and  knighted  him  the  same  year. 
When  one  of  the  dissolute  associates  of  the  Prince 
of  Wales  was  arraigned  before  him  for  felony,  the 
prince  imperiously  demanded  his  release,  and  on 
being  ordered  to  leave  the  court,  he  rushed  furiously 
up  to  the  bench,  and,  it  is  recorded,  struck  the 
chief-justice  on  the  judgment-seat.    G.  immediately 


GASCON— GASES. 


committed  him  to  prison,  when  the  prince,  sensible 
of  his  misconduct,  at  once  submitted.  On  being 
informed  of  the  circumstance,  the  king  thanked 
God  for  having  given  him  '  both  a  judge  who  knew 
how  to  administer  the  laws,  and  a  son  who  respected 
their  authority.'  G.  was  called  to  the  first  par- 
liament of  Henry  V.,  but  died  the  same  year, 
December  17,  1413.  He  was  twice  married,  and 
left  numerous  descendants  by  both  his  wives. 

GASCON,  GASCONNADE.  The  term  Gascon  is 
now  employed,  in  the  French  language,  to  denote  a 
boaster  or  braggart-  and  Gasconnade  to  signify  any 
extravagant  or  absurd  vaunting— the  inhabitants 
of  the  district  once  known  as  Gascony  having  long 
been  notorious  in  this  respect.  An  example  may 
be  given:  a  Gascon,  on  a  visit  to  Paris,  was 
asked  by  his  city-friend  what  he  thought  of  the 
colonnade  of  the  Louvre.  His  reply  was:  'Ah, 
It 's  not  bad ;  it  resembles  pretty  closely  the  back 
part  of  the  stables  at  my  father's  castle ! '  There 
are  in  French,  volumes  filled  with  the  original 
sallies  of  these  humorous  boasters. 

GA'SCONADE,  a  river  of  North  America,  rises 
in  the  south'  of  the  state  of  Missouri,  and,  after 
flowing  north-east  for  250  miles,  joins  the  river 
JMissouri  about  40  miles  below  Jefferson  City.  It 
flows  through  a  hilly  country,  covered  with  forests 
of  pine  and  other  timber,  and  rich  in  picturesque 
sceneiy.  Great  rafts  of  yellow  pine  lumber  are 
floated  down  the  river  annually. 

GA'SCONY  (Lat.  Vasconia),  formerly  a  district  in 
the  south-west  of  France,  was  situated  between  the 
Bay  of  Biscay,  the  Eiver  Garonne,  and  the  Western 
Pyrenees,  and  is  now  included  in  the  departments 
of  Landes,  Gers,  Hautes  Pyrenees,  and  the  southern 
portions  of  Haute  Garonne,  Tarn-et-Garonne,  and 
Lot-et-Garonne.  It  derived  its  name  from  the 
Basques  or  Vasques,  who,  driven  by  the  Visigoths 
from  their  own  territories  on  the  southern  slope 
of  the  Western  Pyr6n6es,  crossed  to  the  northern 
side  of  that  mountain-range  in  the  middle  of  the 
Cth  c,  and  settled  in  the  former  Roman  district 
of  Novempopulana.  In  602,  after  an  obstinate 
resistance,  the  Vasques  were  forced  to  submit  to 
the  Franks.  They  now  passed  under  the  sove- 
reignty of  the  Dukes  of  Aquitania,  who  for  a  time 
were  independent  of  the  crown,  but  were  afterwards 
conquered  by  King  Pepin,  and  later  by  Charle- 
magne. Subsequently  it  became  incorporated  with 
Aquitania  (q.  v.). 

GASES,  General  Properties  op.  The  term 
gas— which  is  probably  derived  from  the  German 
word  Geist,  spirit — was  employed  by  the  older 
chemists  to  designate  any  kind  of  air  or  vapour. 
Macquer  (q.  v.)  was  the  first  chemist  who  limited 
the  term  gas  to  such  elastic  fluids  as  had  not  been 
rendered  liquid  or  solid  by  a  reduction  of  tem- 
perature. The  only  substances  that  gases  are 
liable  to  be  confounded  with  are  vapours ;  but 
there  is  this  essential  difi"erence  between  them, 
that  the  former  are  invariably  aeriform  at  ordinary 
t  jmperatures  and  atmospheric  pressures,  while  the 
latter  under  these  conditions  are  solid  or  liquid, 
and  only  assume  a  vaporous  or  apparently  gaseous 
form  at  relatively  high  temperatures.  Thus  oxy- 
gen, hydrogen,  nitrogen,  chlorine,  &c.,  are  true 
gases ;  while  water,  sulphur,  iodine,  &c,,  when 
Heated  to  certain  definite  points,  become  trans- 
formed into  vapours. 

Their  perfect  elasticity  is  one  of  the  most  import- 
ant physical  pecidiarities  of  gases.  Within  the 
limits  of  aU  ordinary  experiments  it  is  generally  true 
that '  the  volume  of  a  gaseous  body  is  inversely  as 
tlie  compressing  force.'    See  Mi  riotte's  Law. 

In  consequence  of  their  extreme  elasticity,  gases 


exhibit  an  entire  absence  of  cohesion  among  their 
particles,  and  in  this  respect  they  diff"er  essentially 
from  liquids.  A  vessel  may  be  filled  either  partially 
or  completely  with  a  liquid,  and  this  liquid  will 
have  a  definite  level  surface  or  limit.  With  gasf  s, 
it  is  otherwise ;  they  always  perfectly  fill  the  vessel 
that  contains  them,  however  irregular  its  form. 
Instead  of  cohesion,  there  is  a  mutual  repulsion 
among  their  particles,  which  have  a  continual  ten- 
dency to  recede  further  from  each  other,  and  thus 
exert  a  pressure  in  an  outward  direction  upon  the 
sides  of  the  vessel  in  which  the  gas  is  enclosed. 
This  outward  pressure  is  greater  or  less  according 
as  the  elasticity  of  the  gas  is  increased  or  dimin- 
ished. Experimental  proofs  of  the  facts  mentioned 
in  this  and  the  preceding  paragi'aph  may  be  found 
in  Miller's  Chemical  Physics,  in  the  first  volume  of 
J amin's  Cours  de  Physique,  or  in  any  standard  work 
on  Physics. 

Dalton  long  ago  remarked  that  'there  can  scarcely 
be  a  doubt  entertained  respecting  the  reducibility  oi 
all  elastic  fluids,  of  whatever  kind,  into  liquids  ; 
and  we  ought  not  to  despair  of  effecting  it  at  low 
temperatures  and  by  strong  pressure  exerted  upon 
the  unmixed  gases.'  Various  chemists,  amongst 
whom  we  must  especially  mention  Faraday,  have 
accomplished  all  that  Dalton  foretold,  and  various 
gases  can  now  be  exhibited  not  only  in  the  liquid 
but  in  the  solid  form.  It  occurred  to  Faraday,  who 
has  led  the  van  in  these  investigations,  that  the 
most  probable  mode  of  obtaining  gases  (or  rather 
what,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  would  be  gases) 
in  the  liquid  state,  would  be  to  generate  them  tmder 
strong  pressure.  When  thus  produced  in  strong 
bent  glass  tubes,  they  continued  liquid  at  low 
temperatures  while  the  pressure  was  maintained ; 
but  on  removing  the  pressure  (breaking  the  tube), 
they  instantly  passed  into  the  gaseous  state.  In  his 
Memoir,  published  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions 
for  1823,  he  annownces  that  he  has  succeeded  in 
liquefying  chlorine,  euchlorine  (a  yellow  explosive 
gas  discovered  by  Davy,  and  consisting  of  a  mixture 
of  chlorine  and  chloro-chloric  acid),  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  nitrous  oxide,  cyanogen,  ammonia,  and 
hydrochloric,  sidphurous  and  carbonic  acids.  Since 
that  time,  by  the  joint  action  of  powerful  mechanical 
pressure  (sometimes  upwards  of  50  atmospheres),  and 
extreme  cold,  the  number  of  Jiquefiable  gases  has 
been  so  far  extended  as  to  include  all  except  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  nitrogen,  nitric  oxide,  and  coal-gas ;  and 
the  following  gases  have  been  obtained  in  a  solid 
form — hydriodic  acid,  hydrobromic  acid,  sulphurous 
acid,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  carbonic  acid,  cyan- 
ogen, ammonia,  euchlorine,  fluoride  of  silicon.  The 
ammonia  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  when  soh- 
ditied,  each  furnished  a  white  translucent  mass,  like 
fused  nitrate  of  ammonia ;  euchlorine  gave  a  trans- 
parent orange-coloured  crystalline  solid  ;  while  the 
other  liquefied  gases  that  were  susceptible  of  soHdi- 
fication  by  the  application  of  intense  cold,  furnished 
colourless  transparent  crystalline  masses  like  ice. 

'  Oxygen  remained  gaseous  under  a  pressure  of  27 
atmospheres  at  a  temperature  of  - 166°,  and  a  pressure 
of  58'5  atmospheres  at  - 140°  was  equally  ineffectual 
in  producing  its  liquefaction.  Nitrogen  and  binoxide 
of  nitrogen  resisted  a  pressure  of  50  atmospheres ; 
with  carbonic  oxide,  a  pressure  equivalent  to  that 
of  40  atmospheres,  with  coal-gas,  one  of  32,  and 
with  hydrogen,  one  of  27  atmospheres  was  applied 
without  effecting  the  Hquefaction.  In  all  these 
experiments,  the  temperature  was  maintained  at 
-  166°.  Owing  to  the  superior  diffusiveness  of  the 
lighter  gases,  such  as  hydrogen,  the  apparatus  began 
to  leak  at  comparatively  low  pressures,  and  thus  a 
limit  was  placed  to  the  amount  of  pressure  tha^ 
could  be  applied  to  them.' 

641 


GASES. 


As  a  point  of  historical  interest,  we  may  mention 
fcliat  many  years  before  the  pul)lication  of  Faraday's 
earliest  researches  on  this  sali)ject,  snlphurous  acid 
gas  had  been  liquefied  by  Monge  and  Clouet,  am- 
monia by  Guyton  Morveaii,  and  arseniuretted  hydro- 
gen by  Stromeyer,  by  the  simple  application  of  cold, 
without  any  increased  pressure. 

The  expansion  and  contraction  of  gases  by  changes 
of  temi)erature  is  treated  of  under  Heat. 

The  process  of  intermixture  in  gases,  and  the 
movements  of  these  substances  generally,  have 
been  very  carefully  studied  by  Faraday,  Dobereiner, 
Mitchell,  Bunsen,  and  especially  Graham.  These 
movements  are  usually  considered  under  four  heads, 
viz.  :  1.  Diffusion,  or  the  intermixture  of  one  gas 
with  another  ;  2.  Effusion,  or  the  escape  of  a  gas 
through  a  minute  aperture  in  a  thin  plate  into 
a  vacuum ;  3.  Transpiration,  or  the  passage  of 
different  gases  through  long  capillary  tubes  into 
a  rarefied  atmop!j)liere  ;  4.  Osmosis,  or  the  passage 
of  gases  through  diaphragms. 

in  the  article  Diffusion  (q.  v.),  the  general 
principles  of  this  kind  of  movement  in  gases  are 
Butliciently  explained,  and  we  shall  merely  make 
one  or  two  supplementary  remarks,  chiefly  with  the 
view  of  rendering  the  following  table  more  intel- 


ligible.    Graham's  experiments  with  the  simple 

diffusion-tube  shew  (see  Graham's  Memoirs  in  the 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  Societies  of  London  and 
Edinburgh,  or  Miller's  Chemical  Physics)  that  the 
diffusiveness  or  diffusion  volume  of  a  gas  is  in  the 
inverse  ratio  of  the  square  root  of  its  density  ;  con- 
sequently, the  squares  of  the  times  of  equal  diffu- 
sion of  the  different  gases  are  in  the  ratio  ol  their 
specilic  gravities.  Thus,  the  density  of  air  being 
taken  as  the  standard  of  comparison  at  1,  the  square 
root  of  that  density  is  1,  and  its  diffusion  volume 
is  also  1  ;  the  density  of  hydrogen  is  0'0692,  the 
square  root  of  that  density  isO'2G32,  and  its  diffusion 
volume  is  y.^^g  ^,  or  3"7994 ;  or,  as  actual  experi- 
ment shews,  3 '83 — that  is  to  say,  if  hydrogen  and 
common  air  be  placed  under  circumstances  favouring 
their  mutual  diffusion,  3*83  volumes  of  hydrogen 
will  change  place  with  1*00  of  air.  The  following 
table  gives  :  1.  The  density  ;  2.  The  square  root  of 
the  density  ;  3.  The  calculated,  and  4.  The  observed 
velocity  of  diffusion  or  diffusiveness  of  several 
important  gases  ;  the  numbers  in  the  last  column, 
headed  '  Rate  of  Effusion,'  being  the  results  obtained 
by  experiment  ui)on  the  rapidity  with  which  the 
different  gases  escape  into  a  vacuum  through  a 
minute  aperture  about  ^5-5-5^  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 


Gaf. 

Deniity. 

Square  Root  of 
Density. 

Calculated  Velocity 
of  Diffusion. 

Observed  Velocity 
of  Diffusion. 
Air  =  1. 

Rate  of  Effualoa. 

Hydrogen,  .... 

0-069-26 

0  2C32 

3-7994 

3-83 

3-613 

Liglit  Carburetted  Hydrogen, 

0-5:,9 

0-7476 

1  3375 

1-344 

1  322 

Carbonic  Oxide,  . 

0  y(;78 

0-9837 

10165 

1-0149 

101-23 

0  9713 

0-98.59 

1-0147 

1-0143 

1  01fi4 

Olefiant  Gas, 

0-978 

0-9889 

1(1112 

1-0191 

10128 

Binoxide  of  Nitrogen, 

1  039 

l-OlPg 

0-9808 

Oxygen,  .... 
Suljjhuretted  Hydrogen, 

11056 

1  0515 

0-9510 

0  9487 

0-950 

11912 

1-0914 

0-9162 

0  95 

Protoxide  of  Nitrogen, 

1  -527 

1  ^s".; 

0  8092 

082 

0834 

Carbonic  Acid, 

1  52901 

1  -23^5 

0  8087 

0812 

0  821 

Sulpliurous  Acid, 

2-247 

1-4991 

0  C()71 

0-68 

•  The  process  of  diffusion,'  says  Professor  Miller, 
is  one  which  is  continually  performing  an  important 
part  in  the  atmosphere  around  us.  Accumulations 
of  gases  which  are  unfit  for  the  support  of  animal 
and  vegetable  life  are  by  its  means  silently  and 
speedily  dispersed,  and  this  process  thereby  contri- 
butes largely  to  maintain  that  uniformity  in  the 
composition  of  the  aerial  ocean  M^iich  is  so  essential 
to  the  comfort  and  health  of  the  animal  creation. 
Respiration  itself,  but  for  the  process  of  diffusion, 
would  fail  of  its  appointed  end,  in  rapidly  renewing 
to  the  lungs  a  fresh  supply  of  air,  in  place  of  that 
which  has  been  rendered  unfit  for  the  support  of 
life  by  the  chemical  changes  which  it  has  under- 
gone.' 

A  reference  to  the  last  two  columns  of  the  above 
table  shews  that,  within  the  limits  of  experimental 
errors,  the  rate  of  effusion  of  each  gas  coincides  with 
its  rate  of  diffusion. 

Graham's  experiments  shew  that  the  velocity  of 
transpiration  (the  term  which  that  chemist  applied 
to  the  passage  of  gas  through  long  capillary  tubes) 
is  entirely  independent  of  the  rate  of  diffusion,  or 
of  any  other  known  property.  It  varies  with  the 
chemical  nature  of  the  gas,  and  is  most  probably 
'  the  resultant  of  a  kind  of  elasticity  depending  upon 
tlie  absolute  quantity  of  heat,  latent  as  well  as 
seiisible,  which  different  gases  contain  under  the 
same  volume ;  and  therefore  will  be  found  to  be 
connected  more  immediately  vdth  the  specific  heat 
than  with  any  other  property  of  gases.'  WOxygen  is 
found  to  have  the  lowest  rate  of  transpiratiou. 
Taking  its  transpiration  velocity  at  1,  that  of 
air  is  1*1074;  of  nitrogen,  1-141;  of  carbonic  acid, 
642 


1-369  ;  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  1-614 ;  of  ammonia, 
1-935  ;  of  olefiant  gas,  1-980  ;  and  of  hydrogen,  2-288. 

In  the  passage  of  gases  "through  diaphrag-ms,  the 
law  of  the  diffusion  of  gases  is  more  or  less  disturbed 
or  modified  according  to  the  force  of  adhesion  in 
the  material  of  which  the  diaphragm  is  composed ; 
the  disturbance  being  greatest  in  the  case  (1 
soluble  gases  and  a  moist  thin  diaphragm,  such  as 
a  bladder  or  a  rabbit's  stomach.  For  details  or 
this  subject  we  must,  however,  refer  to  the  article 
Osmosis. 

All  gases  are  more  or  less  soluble  in  water  and 
other  liquids.  Some  gases,  as,  for  example,  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  ammonia,  are  absorbed  by  watei 
very  rapidly,  and  to  a  great  extent,  the  liquid  taking 
up  400  or  600  times  its  bulk  of  the  gas ;  in  othar  cases, 
as  carbonic  acid,  water  takes  up  its  own  volume 
of  the  gas  ;  whilst  in  the  case  of  nitrogen,  oxygen, 
and  hydrogen,  it  does  not  take  up  more  than  from 
^  to  ^  of  its  bulk.  *  As  the  elasticity  of  the  gas,' 
says  Professor  Miller,  'is  the  power  which  is  here 
opposed  to  adhesion,  and  which  at  length  limits  the 
quantity  dissolved,  it  is  found  that  the  solubility 
of  each  gas  is  greater,  the  lower  the  temperature, 
and  the  greater  the  pressure  exerted  upon  the 
surface  of  the  liquid.  Dr  Henry  found  tliat  at 
any  given  temperature  the  volume  of  any  gas  .vhich 
was  absorbed  was  uniform,  whatever  might  be  the 
pressure  ;  consequently,  that  the  weight  of  any  given 
gas  absorbed  by  a  given  volume  of  any  liquid  at  a 
fixed  temperature,  increased  directly  with  the  pres- 
sure. If  the  pressure  be  uniform,  the  quantity  of 
any  given  gas  absorbed  by  a  given  liquid  is  also 
uniform  for  each  temperature;   and  the  numerical 


GASES. 


expression  of  the  solubility  of  each  gas  in  such 
liquids,  is  termed  its  coefficient  of  absorption  or  of 
solubililj/,  at  the  particular  temperature  and  pressure, 
the  volume  of  the  gas  absorbed  being  in  all  cases 
calculated  for  32'  F.,  under  a  pressure  of  29-92 
inches  of  mercury.  Thus,  1  volume  of  water  at  32', 
and  under  a  pressure  of  29*92  inches  of  the  barometer, 
dissolve?,  0"04:114  of  its  volume  of  oxygen;  and  this 
fraction  represents  the  coefficient  of  absorption  of 
oxygen  at  that  temperature  and  pressure.  Simi- 
larly, the  coefficient  of  absorption  of  common  air 
is  0  02C1.  In  consequence  of  this  solubility  of  the 
air,  all  v;ater  cr^ntains  a  certain  small  proportion  of 
it  in  solution ;  and  if  placed  in  a  vessel  under  the 
air-purr  p,  so  on  to  remove  the  atmospheric  pressure 
ifrota  it«^  surfr>,ce,  the  dissolved  gases  rise  in  minute 


bul)bles.  Small  as  is  the  quantity  of  oxygen  thus 
taken  up  by  water  from  tlie  atmosphere,  it  is  tho 
means  of  maintaining  the  life  of  all  aquatic  animals. 
If  the  air  be  expelled  from  M^atcr  by  boiling,  and  it 
be  covered  with  a  layer  of  oil,  to  prevent  it  from 
again  absorbing  air,  fish  or  any  aquatic  animals 
placed  in  such  water  quickly  perish.  Even  the  life 
of  the  siiperior  animals  is  dependent  upon  the 
solubility  of  oxygen  in  the  fluid  which  moistens  the 
air-tubes  of  the  lungs,  in  consequence  of  which  thia 
gas  is  absorbed  into  the  mass  of  the  blood,  and 
circulates  through  the  jjulmonary  vessels.' 

The  foUowing  table,  drawn  up  from  the  researcheB 
of  Bunsen  and  Carius,  shews  the  solubility  of  some 
of  the  most  important  gases,  both  in  water  and 
alcohol : 


Ou. 

Volume  of  each  Gas  dinaolTed  In 
1  Volume  of  Water. 

Volume  of  ench  Gas  dissoWed  in 

1  Volume  of  AlcohoL 

At  32  Degieet  F. 

At  S9  Degrees  F. 

At  32  Degrees  F. 

At  59  Degree*  P. 

Ammonia,  .... 

1049-60 

727-2 

Hydrochloric  Acid,  .  , 

505-9 

458  0 

Sulphurous  Acid,  .       .  , 

68H61 

43-564 

328-62 

144  5.5 

Sulphuretted  Hydrogen,  .  , 

4-3706 

3-2326 

17  181 

9-539 

Chlorine,  .... 

Solid 

2-368 

Carbonic  Acid,  .... 

1  7Z8J 

1-002 

4-3295 

3  1993 

Protoxide  of  Nitrogen,  . 

1  3052 

0  0778 

4  1780 

3  2678 

0  2563 

01615 

3-5950 

2  8825 

Binoxide  of  Nitrogen,  .  . 

0-31606 

0-27478 

Marsh  Gas,  .... 

0  05449 

0-03909 

0-52-259 

048280 

Carbonic  Oxide,   .       .  . 

0-03287 

0  02432 

0  20443 

0  20443 

Oxygen,  

0  04114 

0-0-2989 

0-28397 

0  28397 

Nitrogen  

0  02035 

0  01478 

0-12634 

0-12142 

Air,  

0  02471 

0-01795 

Hydrogen  

0  01930 

0  01930 

0-06925 

0  06725 

<i.ll  these  -nses,  with  the  exception  of  hydrochloric 
acid,  may  be  expelled  from  the  water  by  long- 
continued  boilmg. 

Gases  are  not  cibsorbed  by  all  liquids  in  the  same 
order ;  for  example,  naphtha  absorbs  most  olefiant 
gas,  oil  of  lavender  ^nost  protoxide  of  nitrogen,  olive 
oil  most  carbonic  ackl,  and  sohition  of  chloride  of 
potassium  most  carbonic  oxide. 

If  a  mixture  of  t-v^o  or  more  gases  be  agitated 
with  water,  or  proba>'ly  any  other  liquid,  a  portion 
of  each  gas  will  be  aWjrbed,  and  the  amount  of  each 
so  absorbed  or  dissolve xl  will  be  proportional  to  the 
relative  volume  of  etch  gas  multiplied  with  its 
coefficient  of  solubility  at  the  observed  temper- 
ature and  pressure.  A<  all  ordinary  liquids  exert 
a  greater  or  less  solvent  action  on  gases,  a  gas 
tliat  we  "wish  to  examme  quantitatively  should  be 
collected  over  mercury. 

The  adhesion  of  gases  to  solids  next  requires 
notice.  Illustrations  of  this  phenomenon  perpetually 
occur.  Thus,  wood  and  other  solid  substances 
immersed  in  water  or  other  liquids  appear  covered 
with  air-bubbles.  It  is  this  adhesion  of  air  to  the 
Burface  of  glass  tubes  which  causes,  the  difficulty  of 
obtaining  barometers  and  thermometers  completely 
free  from  air.  It  is  in  consequence  of  the  adhesion 
of  air  to  their  surfaces  that  many  small  insects  are 
enabled  to  skim  lightly  over  the  surface  of  water 
which  does  not  wet  them.  A  simple  method  of 
illustrating  this  phenomenon  is  by  gently  dusting 
iron  filings  over  the  surface  of  a  vessel  of  water  ;  if 
we  proceed  carefully,  a  considerable  mass  of  the  iron 
may  accumulate  upon  the  surface  ;  till,  at  last,  it 
falls  in  large  Hakes,  carrying  down  with  it  numerous 
bubbles  of  air.  As  the  particles  of  iron  are  nearly 
si^ht  times  as  heavy  as  water,  it  was  only  the 
adherent  air  that  enabled  them  to  float  upon  the 
surface.  Closely  allied  to  this  adhesion  is  the  remark- 
ftble  property  of  condensation  which  porous  bodies, 


and  especially  charcoal,  exert  on  gases.  Owing  to 
this  property  of  charcoal — especially  freshly  Inirned 
vegetable  charcoal — various  gases  may  be  separated 
from  their  watery  solution  by  filtration  of  the  latter 
through  it ;  for  example,  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
may  be  removed  from  water  so  completely  that 
it  cannot  be  detected  either  by  its  well-known 
odour  or  by  the  ordinary  tests.  8aussure  found 
that  1  volume  of  freshly  burned  box-wood  charcoal 
absorbed  90  volumes  of  ammonia,  85  of  hydrochloric 
acid,  Co  of  sulphurous  acid,  55  of  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  40  of  protoxide  of  nitrogen,  35  of  car- 
bonic acid,  35  of  bi-carburetted  hydrogen,  9"4  of 
carbonic  oxide,  9*2  of  oxygen,  7*5  of  nitrogen,  5"0 
of  carburetted  hydrogen,  and  1*7  of  hydrogen. 
These  results  follow  an  order  very  near]y  the 
same  as  that  of  the  solubility  of  the  gases  in  water. 

Stenhouse  has  investigated  the  difi:erences  in  the 
absorbent  power  of  different  kinds  of  charcoal ;  the 
following  are  his  most  important  results  :  0-5  of  a 
gramme  of  each  kind  of  charcoal  being  employed, 
and  the  numbers  in  the  table  indicating  in  cubio 
centimetres  the  quantity  of  absorbed  gas. 


Bind  of  Charcoal  employed. 


Gu  Uie<l. 

Wood. 

Pest. 

Anlio^ 

Ammonia,  ..... 

98-5 

96-0 

43-5 

Hydrochloric  Acid,         .  . 

45-0 

60-0 

Sulphurous  Acid,       .       .  . 

3-2-5 

27-5 

17-5 

Sulphuretted  Hydrogen,  .  . 

30  0 

285 

9-0 

Carbonic  Acid,   .       .       .  . 

140 

100 

5-0 

Oxygen,  

0-8 

0-6 

0-5 

So  rapid  is  this  action  of  charcoal,  that  Stenhouse 
has  pi-oposed  to  use  a  respirator  filled  with  it  to 
jjrotect  the  mouth  and  nostrils  in  an  infected  atmo- 
sphere ;  and  the  employment  of  trays  of  powdered 
wood-charcoal  in  dissecting-rooms,  in  the  wards  of 


GASKELL— GASSENDI. 


hospitals,  and  in  situations  where  putrescent  animal 
inatter  is  present,  is  found  to  act  very  beneficially 
in  purifying  the  air  by  absorbing  the  offensive  gases. 
Its  use  in  reference  to  the  filtration  of  water  has 
Y>eei\  already  alluded  to. 

The  determination  of  the  exact  specific  gravity  of 
the  different  gases  is  of  gi'eat  importance  in  calculat- 
ing the  proportions  of  the  different  ingredients  of 
compounds  into  which  they  enter  ;  and  the  whole 
series  of  numbers  expressing  the  chemical  equiva- 
lents or  atomic  weights  of  bodies  depend  upon 
the  accuracy  of  the  determination  of  the  specific 
gravity  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen. 

The  following  table  gives  the  specific  gravity  and 
the  weight  of  100  cubic  inches  of  some  of  the  most 
inipoi'tant  gases  at  a  barometric  pressure  of  .30 
iiiclies,  and  at  a  temperature  of  CO'',  together  with 
the  name  of  the  observer  : 


Ga«. 

Specific 
Gravity. 
Air  —  1. 

Vci(;ht  of 
100  Cubic 
I»ch.'<i  in 
Grain*. 

Observer. 

Air,  .... 

1  0000 

80  935 

Regnault. 

Oxygen,      .      .  . 

1  1056 

34  203 

It 

Nitrojien, 

0-9713 

SO  119 

llydrofferi,  .  . 

oon!)'2 

2- 143 

Carbonic  Acid, 

1-5200 

47  3(  3 

II 

Chlorine,    .  . 

25000 

76  250 

Thomson. 

Ammonia, 

0  590-> 

18  003 

II 

Ciirburetted  Ilvdrogen, 

0-5.=i55 

16  944 

Olefiant  Gas,  .* 

0  972-2 

29  652 

II 

Arseniurettod  Hydrogen, 

0  5-2!)0 

16  130 

Tromsdorff. 

{Sulphuretted  Hydrogen, 

1  1805 

36007 

Thomson. 

Cyanogen, 

1  8055 

55069 

Gay  Lussac. 

llydrocliloric  Acid, 

1-2H47 

39  183 

Thomson. 

Sulphurous  Acid,  . 

2  2222 

67-777 

If 

The  methods  employed  for  determining  the  specific 
gra\'ity  of  a  gas,  both  by  direct  observation  and  liy 
calculation,  will  be  noticed  in  the  article  Specific 

GRAVITY. 

As  to  the  chemical  properties  of  gases,  most  of 
the  different  gases,  when  pure,  can  be  readily 
distinguished  by  some  well-marked  physical  or 
chemical  property.  Some  are  distinguished  by 
their  colour,  others  by  their  peculiar  odour  ;  but 
several  of  the  most  important  ones— viz.,  oxygen, 
nitrogen,  hydrogen,  carbonic  acid,  carbonic  oxide, 
light  carburetted  hydrogen,  olefiant  gas,  and  pro- 
toxide of  nitrogen — require  other  means  for  their 
discrimination.  The  distinctive  characters  of  the 
most  important  gases  are  noticed  in  the  articles 
OxYGEX,  Hydrogen,  Chloeine,  &c.,  and  the  out- 
lines of  the  general  method  of  analysing  a  gaseous 
mixture  are  given  in  a  separate  article.  For  further 
details  on  the  physical  and  chemical  characters  of 
the  gases,  we  must  refer  to  Miller's  Elements  of 
Chemistry,  and  especially  to  the  volume  on  Chemical 
Physics,  from  which  we  have  borrowed  freely  ;  to 
Kekule's  Lehrhuch  der  Organisclien  CJiemie,  1859  ; 
aad  to  Eoscoe's  translation  of  Bunsen's  Gasometry. 

GASKELL,  Mrs  Elizabeth  C,  an  English 
authoress,  was  born  about  the  year  1829,  and  was  the 
wife  of  a  Unitarian  clergyman  in  Manchester.  Her 
maidtiu  name  was  Stevenson.  Her  novels,  of  which 
Mary  Barton  (1848)  and  Eutlt  (1853)  are  perhaps  the 
best  examples,  are  chiefiy  descriptive  of  the  habits, 
thoughts,  privations,  and  struggles  of  the  industrial 
poor,  as  these  are  to  be  found  in  such  a  social  bee- 
hive as  the  city  in  which  the  authoress  resides. 
Some  of  her  characters  are  drawn  with  remarkable 
dramatic  power,  and  many  of  her  descriptive  pas- 
sages are  very  graphic.  Among  her  other  works 
may  be  mentioned  Tlie  Moorland  Cottage  (1850),  a 
Christmas  story ;  North  and  South  (1855) ;  Cranford; 
and  Lizzie  Leigh — the  last  three  of  which  originally 
appeared  in  Household  Words.  Mrs  G.  also  edited 
a  very  interesting  life  of  Charlotte  Bronte  (q.  v.), 


18.57.   Among  her  later  works  are  Sylvia's  Lovers  and 
Cousin  Phyllis.    She  died  Nov.  12,  1865. 
GASOMETER.    See  Gas,  Lighting  by. 

GASPl^,  the  most  easterly  district  of  Lower 

Canada,  consisting  of  the  counties  of  Gaspe  and 
Bonaventure,  is  chiefly  a  peninsula  projecting  into 
the  Gulf  of  St  Lawrence,  between  the  estuary  ol  the 
same  name  on  the  north  and  the  Bay  of  Chaleur  on 
the  south.  It  stretches  in  N.  lat.  between  48°  and 
49°  20 ,  and  in  W.  long,  between  64°  15'  and  07' 
56',  containing  7500  square  miles,  and  about  14  00(1 
inhabitants,  the  greater  number  being  of  French 
descent.  Cod  and  whale  fisheries  form  the  staple 
business  of  the  country.  The  district  is  terminated 
towards  the  east  by  a  cape  of  its  own  name,  and 
this  headland  is  the  northern  extremity  of  a  bay 
also  of  the  same  name,  which  presents  a  safe  and 
capacious  harbour. 

GASSENDI,  or  GASSEND,  Pierre,  an  eminent 
French  philosopher  and  mathematician,  was  l)orn 
22d  January  1592,  at  Chami)tercier,  a  little  village 
of  Provence,  in  the  department  of  the  Lower 
Alps.  His  ixnusual  powers  of  mind  shewed  them- 
selves at  an  early  age  ;  and  in  1616  he  became 
professor  of  theology  at  Aix.  About  this  time, 
he  drew  upon  himself  the  regards  of  Pieresc,  whom 
Bayle  calls  the  procureur-gene7'al  ot  literature, 
and  of  Joseph  Gautier,  pi'ior  of  La  Valette,  a 
distinguished  mathematician,  both  of  whom  liber- 
ally gave  him  the  benefit  of  their  instructions 
and  advace.  With  the  first,  he  studied  anatomy; 
from  the  second,  he  derived  his  taste  for  astron- 
omical observations.  After  six  years'  study,  ho 
became  disgusted  wdth  the  scholastic  philosoj)hy, 
and  undertook  to  maintain  certain  theses  against 
the  Aristotelians.  His  polemic  appeared  at  Grenoble 
in  1624,  and  was  entitled  Exercitationes  paradoxiccB 
adversiis  Aristoteleos.  It  was  accompanied  by  an 
expression  of  his  belief  in  the  church,  for  whose 
honour  and  glory  he  declared  himself  'ready  to 
shed  the  last  drop  of  his  blood.'  He  drew  a  dis- 
tinction for  the  first  time  between  the  church  and 
the  scholastic  philosophy,  denying  that  the  former 
must  stand  or  fall  by  the  latter.  G.  now  visited 
Paris,  where  he  made  several  influential  friends. 
In  the  same  year  in  which  he  published  his  Exerci' 
tationes,  he  was  appointed  prevdt  of  the  cathedral 
at  Digne,  an  office  which  enabled  him  to  pursue 
without  distraction  his  astronomical  and  philo- 
sophical studies.  In  1628  he  travelled  in  Holland, 
and  got  involved  in  a  controversy  with  Eoljert 
Fludd,  an  English  mystic,  relative  to  the  Mosaic 
cosmogony,  in  which  he  is  admitted  to  have  had 
greatly  the  advantage  of  his  incoherent  opponent. 
At  the  recommendation  of  the  Archbishop  of  Lyon, 
a  brother  of  Cardinal  Eichelieu,  G.  was  appointed 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  College  Eoyal 
de  France,  at  Paris,  where  he  died,  14th  October 
1655.  As  a  philosopher,  G.  maintained,  with 
great  learnmg  and  ingenuity,  most,  though  not 
all,  of  the  doctrines  of  Epicurus,  these  being 
most  easily  brought  into  harmony  wdth  his  own 
scientific  acquirements  and  modes  of  thought.  His 
philosophy  was  in  such  repute,  that  the  savans 
of  that  time  were  divided  into  Cartesians  and 
Gassendists.  The  two  chiefs  themselves  always 
entertained  the  highest  respect  for  each  other,  and 
were  at  one  time  on  the  friendliest  terms.  The 
agreeableness  of  their  intercourse,  however,  was  for 
a  while  interrupted  by  the  publication  of  a  work  of 
G.'s,  entitled  Dubitationes  ad  Meditationes  Canesiiy 
in  which  he  expressed  himself  dissatisfied  with  the 
tendencies  of  the  new  system  of  philosophy  intro- 
duced by  Descartes,  for  Gr.  was  averse  to  novelty 
in  the  sphere  of  mental  speculation,  although  hi 


GASSNER-GASTEROPODA. 


warmly  espoused  the  side  of  progress  in  physical 
Bcience  and  made  himself  many  enemies  among 
his  bigoted  ecclesiastical  brethren  for  the  love  he 
bore  it.  He  ranked  Kepler  and  Galileo  among  his 
friends,  and  was  himself  the  instructor  of  Moli^re. 
His  principal  work  is  entitled  De  vita,  moribus  et  doc- 
Irina  Epicuri  (Lyon,  1647),  to  which  the  Syntagma 
Philosophies  Epicurecs  (1649)  belongs.  It  contains 
H  complete  view  of  the  system  of  Epicurus.  His 
Jnstitutio  Astronomica  (1645)  is  a  clear  and  con- 
nected representation  of  the  state  of  the  science  in 
his  own  day;  in  his  Tychonis  Brahcei,  Nicolai 
Copei'iiici,  Georgii  Peur  hachii  et  Joannis  Regeomon- 
kini  Astronomorum  Celebrium  Vitce  (Par.  1654),  he  not 
only  gives  a  masterly  account  of  the  lives  of  these 
men,  1>ut  likewise  a  complete  history  of  astronomy 
down  to  his  own  time.  G.  was  pronounced  by 
Bayle  the  greatest  philosopher  among  scholars,  and 
the  greatest  scholar  among  philosophers.  His  works 
were  collected  and  published  by  Montmor  and 
Sorbi^re  (Lyon,  6  vols.  1658). 

GASSNER,  JoHANN  Joseph,  a  man  who  made  a 
noise  as  an  exorcist  in  the  18th  c,  was  born  28th 
August  1727,  at  Bratz,  near  Pludenz,  in  the  Tyrol, 
and  became  Catholic  priest  at  Klosterle,  in  the 
diocese  of  Coire.  While  in  that  office,  the  accounts 
of  demoniacs  in  the  New  Testament,  combined  with 
the  writings  of  celebrated  magicians,  brought  him 
to  the  conviction  that  most  diseases  are  attributable 
to  evil  spirits,  whose  power  can  be  destroyed  only 
by  conjuration  and  prayer.  He  began  to  carry 
out  his  conviction  by  practising  on  some  of  his 
parishioners,  and  succeeded  so  far  as  to  attract 
notice  at  least.  The  Bishop  of  Constance  called  him 
to  his  residence,  but  having  come  very  soon  to  the 
conviction  that  he  was  a  charlatan,  advised  him  to 
return  to  his  parsonage.  G.  betook  himself,  how- 
ever, to  other  prelates  of  the  empire,  some  of  whom 
believed  that  his  cures  were  miraculous.  In  1774, 
he  even  received  a  call  from  the  bishoj)  at  Ratisbon, 
to  EllAvangen,  where,  by  the  mere  word  of  com- 
mand, Cesset  (Give  over),  he  cured  persons  who  pre- 
tended to  be  lame  or  blind,  but  especially  those 
afflicted  with  convulsions  and  epilepsy,  who  were 
all  supposed  to  be  possessed  by  the  devil.  Although 
an  official  person  kept  a  continued  record  of  his 
ciu'es,  in  which  the  most  extraordinary  things  were 
testified,  yet  it  was  found  only  too  soon  that  G. 
very  often  made  persons  in  health  play  the  part  of 
those  in  sickness,  and  that  his  cures  of  real  sufferers 
were  successful  only  so  long  as  their  imagination 
remained  heated  by  the  persuasions  of  the  conjuror. 
Intelligent  men  raised  their  voice  against  him, 
and  he  lost  all  respect  before  his  death.  He  died, 
March  1779,  in  possession  of  the  wealthy  deanery 
of  Benndorf. 

GAS-TAR,  or  COAL-TAR,  a  thick,  black, 
opaque  liquid,  which  comes  over  and  condenses  in 
tlie  i)ipes  when  gas  is  distilled  from  coal.  It  is 
Blightly  heavier  than  water,  and  has  a  strong,  dis- 
agreeable odour.  Coal-tar  is  a  mixture  of  many 
distinct  liquid  and  solid  substances,  and  the 
B  'paration  of  the  more  useful  of  these  constitutes 
an  important  branch  of  manufacturing  chemistry. 
The  tar  is  first  distilled  in  malleable  iron  stills,  when 
the  more  volatile  portion  called  light  oil  or  coal  naph- 
tha, consisting  mainly  of  hydrocarbons  of  the  ben- 
zene series,  and  a  number  of  bases,  passes  over.  The 
less  volatile  oil,  or  dead  oil  of  coal-tar,  contains  phenol 
and  carbolic  acid,  or  coal-tar  creosote  (CeHeO),  and 
Bevei'al  hydrocarbons  of  high  boiling  point,  which  ex- 
ist at  ordinary  temperatures  as  crystalline  solids.  The 
residue  left  after  repeated  distillation  is  called  pit(;h 
or  asphalt,  Avhich  also  contains  solid  hydrocarbons  and 
te»inou8  compounds.    By  agitating  the  coal  naphtha 


with  sulphuric  acid,  it  is  freed  from  its  organic  bases, 
and  after  further  rectification,  'highly  rectified  naph- 
tha,' or  '  benzole,'  is  obtained.  This  is  chiefiy  a  mix 
ture  of  five  oily  hydrocarbons,  which  boil  at  various 
degrees,  of  which  Baiizenc  (Cclle)  is  the  most  volatile, 
boiling  at  80.4",  and  Cijmeue  (CioHu)  the  least,  boiling 
at  177.5".  Coal-tar  naptha  or  benzoic  is  largely  used 
as  a  solvent  for  caoutchouc,  and  is  also  burned  to  pro- 
duce a  fine  carbon  for  printing  ink.  Aniline  is  one  of 
the  products  obtained  from  benzene,  and  within  tho 
last  12  years  has  acquired  great  industrial  importancCo 
and  is  now  manufactured  in  enormous  quantities  on 
account  of  the  splendid  dyes  which  it  is  capal>le  of 
yielding,  of  which  the  beautiful  mauve  and  magenta 
are  examples.  The  dead  oil  or  heavy  oil  contains  a 
considerable  quantity  of  coal-tar  creosote,  or  carbolic 
acid  (CeHcO),  and  forms  an  excellent  preservative  for 
wood  in  damp  places.  It  is  also  consumed  in  common 
lamps,  but  is  chiefly  used  in  making  lamp-black.  The 
pitch  is  much  employed  for  making  asphalt  pavement, 
and  in  the  preparation  of  roofing  felt  and  roofing 
papers  used  in  gravel  roofing. 

From  the  last  portion  of  the  distillation  of  the  crude 
naphtha,  and  the  first  of  the  dead  oil,  a  beautiful 
white  ci-ystalliue  solid,  called  naphthaline,  is  obtained. 
It  has  long  been  known  without  heing  applied  to  any 
useful  purpose,  the  numerous  efforts  to  employ  it  for 
the  manufacture  of  colours  not  having  proved  suc- 
cessful. The  dead  oil  also  contains  considerable  quan- 
tities of  a  yellow  solid  termed  paranapthaline,  which 
is  a  mere  chemical  curiosity. 

The  carbolic  acid  (CeHeO)  is  prepared  from  the 
distillates  that  pass  over  between  150"  and  200"  by 
mixing  with  potash  ley  and  pulverized  hydrate  of 
potassium,  which  converts  the  \vhole  into  a  white  crys- 
talline magma.  This  is  dissolved  in  hot  water,  the 
rising  oil  removed,  the  alkaline  liquid  neutralized  with 
hydrochloric  acid,  and  the  impure  hydrate  of  phenyl 
{carbolic  acid),  which  rises  to  the  surface  as  an  oil,  is 
washed  with  water,  digested  over  chloride  of  calcium, 
rectified  sevei'al  times,  and  gradually  cooled  to  — 10" 
in  a  closed  vessel,  when  crystals  of  pure  carbolic  acid 
are  separated. 

Sulphuric  acid  extracts  from  the  crude  naphtha  sev- 
eral volatile  basic  oils  .besides  benzene,  namely,  toluene, 
xylene,  cumene,  and  cymene,  which  are  almost  un- 
known in  the  arts,  although  they  may  yet  come  to  be 
of  great  service.  From  the  bases  combined  with  it, 
aniline  and  sundry  other  compounds  containing  nitro- 
gen may  be  obtained.  There  also  occurs  a  curious  body 
named  pyrrol,  the  vapour  of  which  gives  to  fir  wood, 
dipped  in  muriatic  acid,  a  splendid  violet  colour. 
Para  fin,  a  colourless  crystalline  fatty  substance,  some- 
times found  in  a  solid  state  in  bituminous  strata,  and 
known  as  fossil  wax,  is  another  product  of  coal  tar. 

GASTERO'PODA  (Gr.  belly-footed),'  or  GAS- 
TROPODS, a  class  of  molluscs,  inferior  in  organisa- 
tion to  cephalopods,  but  far  superior  to  almost  all 
other  molluscs,  and  containing  a  multitude  of  species, 
the  greater  number  of  which  are  marine,  but  some 
are  inhabitants  of  fresh  water,  and  some  are  terres- 
trial. Snails,  whelks,  periwinkles,  limpets,  cowries, 
and  the  greater  nvimber  of  molluscs  with  univalve 
shells  belong  to  this  class,  and  imivalve  molluscs 
constitute  the  greater  pai-t  of  it;  but  it  contains 
also  some  molluscs  with  multivalve  shells,  aa 
chitons,  and  some,  as  slugs,  which  have  either  only 
a  rudimental  internal  shell,  or  no  shell  at  all.  Some 
aquatic  kinds  are  destitute  of  shell  in  the  adult 
state,  but  they  are  protected  by  a  mdimentary  shell 
on  first  issuing  from  the  egg.  No  known  gastropod 
has  a  bivalve  shell,  unless  the  operculum,  which 
closes  the  mouth  of  the  shell  in  many  species,  be 
regarded  as  a  second  valve. 

Gastropods  have  a  head,  more  or  less  fully 
developed,  in  which  is  situated  the  mouth,  and 

646 


GASTEROPODA. 


which  generally  carries  fleshy,  retractile  tentacula, 
varying  from  two  to  six  in  number.  The  tentac- 
ula do  not  encircle  the  mouth ;  they  seem  to  be 


Fig,  shewing  the  soft  parts  of  a  Gasteropod  {Dolium 
Galea) : 
a,  head  ;  d,  d,  foot. 

special  and  exquisitely  sensitive  organs  of  touch, 
a  sense  which  the  general  surface  of  the  body 
does  not  seem  to  possess  in  a  high  degree;  and  in 
some  G.,  as  snails,  they  carry  the  eyes  at  their 


Anatomy  of  the  Wlielk  (copied  from  Jones'  Gen.  Struc. 
of  An.  Kingd.) : 

ah,  vein  of  proboscis  and  its  branches;  c,  c,  nervnus  branches 
proceeding  from  the  brain  to  the  extremity  of  the  proboscis  ; 
d,  brain,  situated  above  the  cesojihagu-;  or  gullet;  e,  nervous 
brTinches  connecting  the  brain  with  the  great  ganglion  or 
nervous  mass  beneath  the  oesophagus  :  /,  tentacula  ;  p,  penis; 
h,  liver;  i,  a  large  nervous  mass  beneath  the  cesophai<us ; 

U  ganglia ;  m,  one  of  the  two  principal  trunks  of  the 
aorta,  supplying  the  foot  and  anterior  part  of  the  body; 
n,  0.  nervous  branches  connecting  ganglia ;  p,  orifice  of 
respiratory  cavity ;  q,  branchial  vein  ;  rs,  heart  (r,  ven- 
tricle ;  s,  auricle) ;  t,  one  of  the  two  principal  trunks  of 
the  a'/ta,  winding  among  the  mass  of  viscera  contained  in 
the  shell,  and  distributing  its  ramifications  to  them  :  u, 
branchial  frintres,  or  gills;  w,  posterior  part  of  the  body,  or 
mass  of  viscera  contained  in  the  shell  ;  x,  roof  of  respiratory 
cavity  thrown  back. 

tips,  but  In  others  the  eyes^ — always  small — are 
situated  elsewhere  on  the  head,  and  a  few  are 
destitute  of  eyes.    They  are  believed  to  possess  the 


senses  of  taste  and  smell,  and  at  least  some  of  them 
that  also  of  hearing,  as  they  not  only  have  a  nervous 
centre  analogous  to  the  acoustic  division  of  the 
brain  in  vertebrate  animals,  but  a  little  sac  on  each 
side,  apparently  an  organ  of  this  sense.  Their 
nervous  system  is  more  complex  and  concfiitratrd 
than  that  of  the  headless  {acephaloufi)  mollust  n ;  the 
principal  nervous  masses  surround  the  gnllet.  In 
the  highest  G.,  such  as  snails,  there  are  only  two 
principal  nervous  masses,  one  of  which,  supplying 
the  nerves  connected  with  sensation,  is  called  the 
brain. — The  blood  of  G.  is  often  opalescent,  with  a 
few  colourless  corj)uscles.  The  heart  is  ahvayt 
systemic  only,  and  in  almost  all  consists  of  one 
auricle  and  one  ventricle,  although  a  few  G.  have 
two  auricles,  one  for  each  set  of  gills.  Near  the 
commencement  of  the  aorta,  there  is  often  a 
contractile  muscular  swelling  {Imlhns  arf.crio.sus), 
as  in  (ishcs.  Respiration  takes  place  generally  by 
gills,  which  are  very  variously  situated,  sometimes 
externally,  sometimes  in  a  special  cavity,  and 
exhibit  an  equally  great  variety  of  form  and  struct 
ture;  but  some  G.,  as  snails  and  slugs,  have,  instead 
of  .gills,  a  pulmonary  sac  or  cavity,  lined  with  a 
vascular  net- work,  these  being  either  inhabitants  of 
the  land,  or,  if  of  the  water,  obliged  to  come  occa- 
sionally  to  the  surface  for  the  purpose  of  breathing. 
A  few  of  the  lowest  G.,  doubtfully  placed  in  this 
class,  are  destitute  of  distinct  respiratory  organs, 
The  digestive  ajiparatus  also  exhibits  much  diversity. 
Some  of  the  G.  feed  on  vegetable,  some  on  animal 
substances,  and  some  of  them  on  animals  which 
they  themselves  kill.  Thus,  whilst  snails  eat  leaves 
and  other  soft  parts  of  vegetables,  whelks  (Buccinum) 
prey  on  other  molluscs,  and  are  provided  with  a 
remarkable  apparatus  at  the  end  of  a  proboscis 
into  which  the  mouth  is  elongated,  for  filing  a  hole 
—  as  nice  as  could  1)e  made  by  the  drill  of  a 
mechanic — through  the  hardest  shell.  The  mouth 
of  the  snail  is,  in  like  manner,  admirably  adapted  to 
the  cutting  of  leaves  or  similar  substances  by  the 
action  of  the  lips  against  a  sharp  horny  j^late.  Othei 
G.  have  the  mouth  furnished  with  two  cutting 
blades,  \\Tought  by  powerful  muscles.  The  tongue 
of  some  is  covered  with  minute  recurved  hooks,  to 
prevent  the  possibility  of  anything  escaping  from 
the  mouth ;  and  the  stomach  of  some  is  a  muscular 
gizzard,  proA^ided  with  cartilaginous  or  sometimes 
calcareous  projections,  or  stomachic  teeth,  to  aid 
in  the  comminution  of  the  food.  The  intestine  is 
generally  bent  back,  so  that  the  anus  is  not  far 
from  the  head.  The  liver  is  large,  as  are  also  the 
salivary  glands  of  many  gastropods.  Very  great 
diversities  are  found  in  the  reproductive  system. 
In  some  G.,  the  sexes  are  distinct  (G.  Dkecia)  ; 
others  are  hermaj^hrodite  (G.  Mon(ECIa)  ;  and  whilst 
self-impregnation  takes  place  in  some  of  these, 
others — as  snails — mutually  impregnate  each  othei 
by  copulation.  In  general,  the  reproductive  organs 
are  very  largely  developed,  and  are  of  complex 
and  remarkable  structure.  The  G.  are  in  general 
oviparous ;  a  few  are  ovoviviparous.  The  yoxmg  of 
aquatic  G.  at  first  swim  about  actively  by  means  of 
ciliated  fins  attached  to  the  head.  G.  are  generally 
unsymmetrical,  one  side  of  the  body  being  developed 
without  the  other,  some  of  the  principal  organs  of 
which — the  gills  and  nerves — are  atrophied;  and 
thus  the  shell  with  which  most  of  them  are  covered 
becomes,  in  the  greater  number,  spiral,  the  s])ir6 
turning  towards  the  unatrophied  side,  which  is 
generally  the  right  side,  although  in  some  (reversed 
or  sinistrorsal  shells)  it  is  the  left.  The  head  and 
the  organ  of  locomotion  are  capable  of  being  with- 
di-awn  into  the  last  whorl  of  the  shell,  and  in 
aquatic  species  generally,  the  mouth  of  the  shell 
can  be  closed  by  an  operculum  (q.  v.),  exactly  fittuig 


GASTON  DE  FOIX— GATESHEAl?. 


it,  ami  attached  to  the  foot^  but  in  which  many 
varieties  of  beautiful  structure  are  exhibited,  and 
which  is  generally  horny,  sometimes  calcareous. 
Some  sliells  are  simply  conical,  and  there  are  numer- 
ous diversities  of  form.  The  shell  is  secreted  by  the 
mantle.  See  Molluscs,  Shells,  and  Univalve.s. 
The  viscera  are  contained  in  a  thin  sac— part  of  the 
rnaLtle — which  fills  the  upper  part  of  the  shell. 
The  organ  of  locomotion,  called  the  foot,  is  in  general 
a  muscular  disc,  developed  from  the  ventral  surface 
cf  Ihe  body;  sometimes,  as  in  limpets,  capable  of 
acting  as  a  sucker,  and  exhibiting  other  even  more 
i-emarkable  modifications,  so  that  in  some  it  becomes 
an  organ  for  swdmming.  G.  generally  creep  by 
means  of  this  disc  adhering  to  surfaces,  and  con- 
tracting in  transverse  wrinkles  or  undulations, 
which  begin  from  behind.  The  G.  generally  secrete 
a  pecidiar  kind  of  slime.  Some  of  them  also  pro- 
duce other  peculiar  secretions,  of  which  the  Tyrian 
purple  affords  an  example.  G.  have  a  great  power 
of  renewing  lost  parts ;  tentacles  are  thus  restored, 
and  even  the  eyes  which  they  bear  at  their  tips, 
the  mouth  with  all  its  apparatus,  or  the  head  itself. 

GASTON.  DE  FOIX.    See  Foix. 

GASTRA'LGIA,  or  GASTRODY'NIA.  See 
Cardialgia. 

GASTRIC  JUICE.  See  Digestion,  Organs 
AND  Process  of. 

GASTRITIS  and  GASTRO-ENTERITIS  (in- 
flammation of  the  stomach,  &c.).  See  Stomach, 
Diseases  of,  also  Enteritis.. 

GASTROCH^'NA,  a  genus  of  lamellibranchiate 
molluscs,  having  a  delicate  shell  of  two  equal  valves, 
gaping  very  much  in  front ;  the  animal  sometimes 
taking  possession  of  an  already  existing  cavity, 
which  it  often  lines  with  a  calcareous  linings  so  as 
to  form  a  tube,  to  which  the  valves  of  its  shell  are 
cemented ;  sometimes  burrowing  for  itself  in  sand, 
madrepores,  or  calcareous  rocks,  and  lining  its  hole 
with  a  shelly  layer.    G.  imdioLina^  a  rare  British 


Gastrochsena  Modiolina  : 
a,  one  of  the  tubes  broken  open,  shewing  the  valves. 

mollusc,  common  in  the  Mediterranean,  perforates 
shells  and  limestone,  making  holes  about  two  inches 
deep  and  half  an  inch  in  diameter.  It  sometimes 
bores  right  through  an  oyster  into  the  ground  below, 
and  makes  for  itself  a  flask-shaped  case,  with  its 
neck  fixed  in  the  oyster- shell.  The  tubes  of  some 
of  the  tropical  species  which  live  in  sand  are  very 
cunous. — To  the  family  Gastroc/icenido}  are  referred 
Asperr/iUum  and  Clava(/ella. 

GASTROCNE'MIUS  MUSCLE,  The,  is  the 
muscle  forming  the  greater  part  of  the  calf  of  the 
leg.  It  arises  by  two  heads  from  the  two  condyles 
of  the  thigh-bone,  and  is  inserted  by  the  Tendo 
AcniLLis  (see  the  diagrcam  in  the  article  Foot)  at 
the  posterior  part  of  the  heel-bone.  In  man,  these 
muscles  possess  great  power,  and  are  constantly 
called  ia  use  in  standing,  walking,  leaping,  &e.  In 
walking,  they  raise  the  heel,  and,  with  it,  the  enthe 
body  from  the  ground ;  and  the  body  being  thus 


supported  on  the  raised  foot,  the  other  leg  is  carri«d 
forward.  From  their  close  association  with  the 
erect  position,  they  are  much  less  developed  in  other 
mammals  than  in  the  human  subject. 

GASTRO'DIA,  a  genus  of  orchids.  O.sesamoides 
is  a  native  of  Van  Diemeu's  Land,  the  roots  of  which 
form  large  coral-like  masses,  and  are  sometimes 
called  native  2)otatoe8,  being  edible ;  but  they  are 
watery  and  insipid. 

GASTRO'STOMY  (Gr.  gaster,  the  belly  or 
stomach,  and  stoma,  mouth),  an  operation  which 
has  been  two  or  three  times  performed  for  the  relief 
of  stricture  of  the  gullet,  to  relieve  the  patient  from 
the  imminent  risk  of  starvation,  by  introducing  food 
directly  into  the  stomach  through  an  external  open- 
ing. The  weli'known  case  of  Alexis  Sb  Martiu, 
and  numerous  exj)eriments  on  the  lower  animals, 
have  led  to  this  attempt,  not  unreasonably,  to  sav«i 
life  ;  it  has  not  as  yet,  however,  been  successful. 

GASTRO'TOM  Y  (Gr.  gaster  and  tome,  an  incision), 
an  incision  into  the  cavity  of  the  Abdomen  (q.  v.) 
for  the  purpose  of  removing  some  diseased  texture 
or  foreign  body.  The  term  has  also  been  apjjlied  to 
Caesarean  Section  (q.  v.). 

GATES,  Horatio,  a  general  in  the  American 
army  in  the  war  of  independence,  was  born  in  Eng- 
land in  1728.  He  served  under  General  Braddock, 
and  was  severely  wounded  near  Pittsburg  in  the 
disastrous  campaign  of  1755,  in  which  Braddock 
lost  his  life.  On  the  bi'eaking  out  of  the  revolution, 
G.  espoused  the  popular  cause.  His  military  expe- 
rience and  skill  procured  his  rapid  promotion,  and 
in  1776  he  was  apijointed  major-general.  In  August 
1777,  he  took  the  chief  command  of  the  American 
forces  north  of  Albany,  then  amounting  to  about 
0000  men,  besides  some  detached  bodies  of  militia. 
Having  been  reinforced  by  the  troops  under  General 
Lincoln,  he  defeated  Burgoyne  (October  7  and  8), 
and  soon  after  compelled  that  general  to  surrender 
with  all  his  army,  consisting  of  about  5600  men. 
This  success,  by  far  the  most  important  that  had 
been  gained  by  the  Americans  during  the  war,  pro- 
cured G.  the  reputation  of  a  consummate  general, 
and  some  were  even  desirous  to  make  him  com- 
mander-in-chief m  the  place  of  Washington. 

In  17  SO,  G.  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
southern  army,  which,  though  amounting  to  near 
6000  men,  was  composed  chiefly  of  militia.  He  was 
totally  defeated  near  Camden,  South  Carolina,  by 
Lord  Cornwallis  (whose  force  was  greatly  inferior  in 
numbers  to  that  of  G.),  with  the  loss  of  900  msa 
killed,  and  as  many  more  taken  prisoners.  CongTess 
ordered,  soon  after,  an  inquiry  into  the  conduct  of 
G.,  who  was,  after  a  protracted  trial,  honourably 
acquitted,  and  reinstated  in  his  command.  He  died 
in  1806.  'His  experience,'  says  Bancroft,  *  adapted 
him  for  good  service  i  i  bringing  the  army  into 
order,  but  he  w^as  shall  )w  in  his  natui'al  endow- 
ments and  in  his  military  culture.' 

GA'TESHEAD,  a  town  of  England,  in  the 
county  of  Durham,  and  an  ancient  borough  under 
the  Episcopal  palatines  of  that  county,  was  for- 
merly governed  by  a  bailiflF  and  burgesses,  and 
became  a  parliamentary  and  municipal  borough 
under  the  Reform  Act  of  1832,  and  the  Municipal 
Corporations  Reform  Act  of  1835.  It  is  situated 
on  the  south  bank  of  the  Tyne,  directly  opposite 
Newcastle,  to  which  it  is  joined  by  two  bridges, 
and  with  which  it  is  otherwise  so  closely  con- 
nected as  virtually  to  form  one  town  with  it. 
The  older  portions  of  the  town  are  poorly  budt, 
but  great  extensions  have  been  made  westward 
and  southward,  in  which  directions  much  giouml 
has  been  laid  out  in  new  streets  and  detached 
villas.    There  are  numerous  dissenting  .v^  weU  aa 

647 


GATEWAY— GAULT. 


established  churches,  a  grammar-school  founded  in 
1700,  a  mechanics'  institute,  and  an  hospital  (King 
James's),  consisting  of  the  master  (who  is  the  rector 
of  Gateshead  for  the  time  being)  and  three  brethren 
who  have  residences,  and  twelve  others  who  receive 
allowances  without  residence.  It  has  also  an  excel- 
lent dispensary,  M'hich  was  established  after  a 
dreadful  visitation  of  cholera  in  1831—1832,  which 
carried  off  1028  of  the  population.  The  numerous 
coal-mines  in  tlie  neighbourhood,  iron-works  and 
foundries,  glass-works,  brick,  tile,  and  soap  works, 
ship-building,  chemical-works,  &c.,  furnish  employ- 
ment to  the  inhabitants.  There  are  also  extensive 
manufactures  of  anchors,  machinery,  chain -cables, 
irou-wire  and  other  ropes.  At  Gateshead  Fell  are 
quarries  from  which  the  famous  grindstones  erron- 
eously called,  but  proverbially  known  as  '  Newcastle 
^indstones,'  are  obtained,  and  exported  to  all  parts 
)f  the  world.  In  October  1854,  a  lai'ge  portion  of 
the  lower  part  of  G.,  as  well  as  considerable  property 
m  Newcastle  immediately  opposite,  was  destroyed 
by  an  awful  explosion  and  tire,  which  also  caused 
the  death  of  upwards  of  50  persons.  G.  sends  one 
mend)cr  to  the  House  of  Commons.  Pop.  in  1851, 
25,568;  in  1871,  48,592.  G.  is  supposed  to  have 
been  at  one  time  a  Roman  station,  or  outwork  to 
the  Roman  station  at  Newcastle,  several  coins  and 
other  relics  having  been  found  from  time  to  time. 
The  derivation  of  the  name  has  been  long  matter  of 
dispute,  but  the  probability  is,  that  it  simply  means 
the  head  of  the  gate  or  road  with  which  the  Romans 
connected  Newcastle  with  the  southern  mihtary 
divisions  and  defences. 

GATEWAY,  the  passage  or  opening  in  which  a 
gate  or  large  door  is  hung.  This  may  be  either  an 
open  way  wdth  side  pillars  or  a  covered  way  vaulted 
or  roofed  over.  The  gateway  being  a  most  import- 
ant point  in  all  fortified  ])laces,  is  usually  protected 
by  various  devices.  It  is  flanked  by  towers  with 
loopholes,  from  which  assailants  may  be  attacked, 
and  is  frequently  overhung  by  a  machicolated 
battlement,  from  which  missiles  of  every  descrip- 
tion were  poured  u])cn  the  besiegers.  City  gates, 
and  gates  of  large  castles,  have  in  all  ages  been  the 
subjects  of  great  care  in  construction ;  and  when 
from  some  cause,  such  as  the  cessation  of  constant 
fighting,  or  a  change  in  the  mode  of  warfare,  gate- 
ways have  lost  their  importance  in  a  military  point 
of  view,  they  have  maintained  their  position  as 
im])ortant  architectural  works,  and  where  no  longer 
useful,  have  become  ornamental.  In  very  ancient 
times,  we  read  of  the  '  gate '  as  the  most  prominent 
l)art  of  a  city,  where  proclamations  were  made, 
and  where  the  kings  administered  justice.  The 
(Jreek  and  Roman  gates  were  frequently  of  great 
magnificence.  The  propylnoa  at  Athens  is  a  beautiful 
•^xami)le,  and  the  triumphal  arches  of  the  Romans 
lire  the  ornamental  offspring  of  their  city  gates. 
Most  of  the  towns  in  this  country  have  lost  their 
walls  and  city  gates ;  but  a  few,  such  as  York 
and  Chester,  still  retain  them,  and  give  us  an 
idea  of  the  buildings  which  formerly  existed,  but 
which  now  remain  only  in  the  name  of  the 
streets  where  they  once  stood.  Our  castles  retain 
more  of  their  ancient  gateways,  and  from  these  we 
may  imagine  the  frowning  aspect  every  town  pre- 
sented during  the  middle  ages.  Abbeys,  colleges, 
and  every  class  of  buildings  were  shut  in  and 
defended  by  similar  barriers ;  many  of  these  still 
exist  in  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and  the  abbey 
gates  of  Canterbury  and  Bury  St  Edmund's  are 
well-known  specimens  of  monastic  gateways.  The 
feeling  of  personal  freedom,  which  is  so  strong  in 
this  country,  must  no  doubt  have  tended  greatly  to 
hasten  the  demolition  of  these  marks  of  feudalism ; 
but  on  the  continent,  where  every  man  has  to 

G18 


present  a  passport  at  the  gate  of  the  city  before 
entering  it,  we  stiH  fiind  these  barriers  kept  up. 

GATH  (in  Heb.  a '  wine-press '),  one  of  the  five  chief 
cities  of  the  Philistines,  was  situated  on  the  frontiers 
of  Judah,  and  was  in  consequence  a  place  of  much 
importance  in  the  wars  between  the  Philistines  and 
the  Israelites.  It  formed,  in  fact,  the  key  of  both 
countries,  and  was  strongly  fortified.  The  famous 
Goliath,  whose  gigantic  height  and  swaggering  air 
so  frightened  the  troops  of  King  Saul,  and  who  waa 
slain  by  the  stripling  David  with  pebbles  from  the 
brook,  was  a  native  of  this  place.  Jerome  describes 
it  in  his  time  as  a  *  very  large  village.'  The  site  ol 
ancient  Gath  is  probably  the  little  eminence,  about 
200  feet  high,  now  known  as  Tell-es-SS-fret,  at  the 
foot  of  what  were  once  called  the  Mountaias  of 
J  udah. 

GATINEAU,  a  large  river  of  North  i^merica  in 
Canada  East,  has  its  origin  in  a  connected  chain 
of  large  lakes  lying  immediately  north  of  the 
48th  parallel  of  latitude.  It  flows  in  an  almost 
undeviating  co'irse  south-south-west,  and  falls  into 
the  Ottawa,  in  kt.  45°  24'  N.,  long.  75°  43'  W.,  12 
miles  below  the  town  of  Aylmer.  The  length  of 
this  river  has  not  been  definitely  ascertained,  but  it 
is  said  that  canoes  have  navigated  it  for  upwards 
of  300  miles.  Steamers  have  ascended  it  for  four 
miles. 

GATSCHI'NA,  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Petersburg,  and  about  30  miles  south-south- 
west of  the  city  of .  that  name,  is  charmingly 
situated  on  a  small  lake  formed  by  the  Ishora. 
It  is  regularly  built,  has  an  educational  institution 
for  foundlings,  a  horticidtural  school,  and  some 
manufactures  of  porcelain  ;  but  is  especially  worthy 
of  mention  for  its  royal  palace,  a  structure  at  once 
simple  in  its  style  and  imposing  in  its  effect.  This 
palace,  which  contains  600  apartments,  and  is  sur- 
rounded by  one  of  the  finest  pleasure-gardens  in 
Europe,  was  the  favourite  seat  of  the  Emperor  Paid 
I.,  who  bestowed  municipal  rights  upon  the  town 
of  G.  in  1797.  Pop.  variously  stated  at  from 
4500  to  7000. 

GAIT  (of  doubtful  origin,  possibly  allied  to  Gr.  fje, 
land),  a  German  word  meaning,  in  a  general  way, 
country  (as  opposed  to  the  town),  district ;  but 
applied  specially  to  a  political  division  of  ancient 
Germany,  having  relation  to  the  arrangements  for 
war  and  the  administration  of  justice.  A  gau 
embraced  several  communities  or  villages,  and  had 
one  or  more  grafs  (q.  v.)  and  judges  over  it.  As  the 
grafdoms  became  more  and  more  hereditary,  the 
gau,  as  a  political  division,  fell  into  disuse  (about 
the  12th  c),  and  only  in  the  names  of  some  places 
do  the  traces  of  it  remain.  The  Abbot  Bessel  gave 
a  complete  account  of  the  geography  of  the  German 
gaus  in  his  Chronicon  Gottwicense ;  and  Spruner's 
Historical  Atlas  contains  a  map  of  them.  The 
nature  of  the  gau  system  is  fully  disciissed  in  the 
works  of  Eichhorn,  Waitz,  and  Bethmann-Hollweg, 
See  Hundred. 

GAUGE.    See  Gage. 

GAUGER,  an  officer  of  Excise,  whose  duty  it  ia 
to  gauge  or  measure  casks  containing  exciseable 
liquors  or  other  commodities.  Such  persons  are 
precluded  from  dealing  in  exciseable  commodities 
under  the  penalty  of  forfeiture  of  office,  and  inca- 
pacity to  fill  any  other  in  connection  with  the  excise; 
and  the  crime  of  accepting  a  bi-ibe  is  punishable  with 
the  penalty  of  £500,  and  incapacity  for  any  govern- 
ment office. 

GAUL.    See  France. 

GAULT,  a  member  of  the  Cretaceous  Formation 
(q.  V.)  separating  the  Lower  from  the  Upper  Green- 


GAULTHERIA— GAUSS. 


sand.  It  consists  of  an  upper  part,  hard  and  sandy, 
and  containing  green  particles  scattered  through  it ; 
and  of  a  lower  poi-t-.on,  a  stiff  dark  gray,  blue,  or 
brown  clay,  smooth  and  uniform  in  texture,  and 
very  jilastic,  wliich  is  manufactured  into  tiles,  bricks, 
and  even  common  pottery.  Concretions  of  iron 
P3'rites  and  other  nodvdes  are  not  uncommon  in  the 
Gault,  The  contained  fossils  are  for  the  most  part 
beautifully  preserved,  having  been  protected  from 
decay  by  being  buried  in  the  tenacious  and  compact 
mud  which  forms  the  Gault  beds.  The  most  abun- 
;iant  remains  are  those  of  cei)halopodous  molluscs, 
as  ammonites,  scaphites,  and  turrilites. 

The  Gault  occurs  at  Folkstone,  and  stretches 
west  through  Kent  and  Surrey  into  Hampshire,  and 
then,  turning  eastwards  through  Sussex,  it  is  seen 
on  the  coast  near  Beechy  Head.  It  also  stretches 
in  a  narrow  line  from  Dorsetshire,  in  a  north- 
easterly direction,  through  the  centre  of  England, 
till  it  reaches  the  coast  at  Hinstanton,  in  Norfolk. 
Its  maximum  thickness  is  150  feet.  In  Surrey,  the 
Gault  supplies  considerable  quantities  of  pliosphatic 
nodules,  largely  used  by  agriculturists  for  fertilising 
soils. 

The  Blackdown  beds  in  Dorsetshire  are  probably 
contemporaneous  with  the  Gault,  the  one  having 
been  deposited  near  the  shore,  while  the  fine  mud 
of  the  Gault  was  carried  out  to  sea.  The  Black- 
down  beds,  however,  contain  Green  sand  fossils 
mixed  with  those  of  the  Gault,  so  that  the  exact 
age  of  the  deposit  is  still  doubtful. 

GAULTHE'RIA,  a  genus  of  small  procumbent 
or  nearly  procumbent  evergreen  shrubs,  of  the 
natural  order  Ericecv,  the  fruit  of  which  is  a 
5-valved  capsule,  covered  with  the  enlarged  and 
fleshy  tubo  of  the  calyx.  They  are  natives  of 
temperate  regions.     G.  procamhtiis  is  a  common 


Jrt-ocumbent  Gaultheria  {Gaultheria procumbens) : 
a,  fruit ;  b,  flower. 

plant  in  North  America  as  far  south  as  Virginia, 
End  bears  the  names  of  Partridge  Berry,  Deer 
Berry,  Winter  Greex,  and  Mountain  Tea.  It 
is  about  four  or  five  inches  in  height,  with  small 
whitish  flowers  and  red  'berries,'  which  are  eat- 
able, but  not  safe  in  any  considerable  quantity, 
because  of  the  pungent  volatile  oil  which  they  con- 
tain. Brandy  in  which  they  have  been  steeped  is 
used  as  a  tonic.  The  whole  plant  has  an  agree- 
able aromatic  odour  and  taste,  owing  to  the  pre- 
Bence  of  volatile  oil,  which,  when  extracted,  is 
used  in  medicine  as  a  stimulant,  also  by  druggists 
for  flavouring  sirups,  and  to  a  considerable  extent 
in  perfumery,  under  the  name  of  Oil  of  Winter 
Green.  The  leaves  are  used  both  as  an  astringent 
and  as  a  stimulant ;  and  an  infusion  of  them  is 
used  as  tea  in  America,  for  'jrhich  purpose  those  of 
anofchet  species  are  also  employe  I  in  Nepal. — The 


SriALLON  {G.  shallon)  is  a  comparatively  large  species, 
two.  or  three  feet  high,  with  purple  berries,  which 
are  agreeable  to  the  palate,  and  form  a  considerable 
part  of  the  food  of  Indians  in  the  north-west  of 
America,  of  which  the  plant  is  a  native.  It  grows 
well  under  the  shade  of  woods,  and  has  of  late  been 
planted  in  many  places  in  Britain,  to  afford  food  for 
pheasants  and  other  kinds  of  game. — G.  hispida  is  a 
native  of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  bearing  snow-white 
berries,  and  known  by  the  name  of  Wax-cluster, 
The  berries  are  eaten. — Other  species,  some  of  which 
are  fragrant,  some  produce  edible  berries,  and  all 
are  beautiful  little  shrubs,  are  found  in  the  Hima- 
laya Mountains,  tlie  mountains  of  South  America, 
Australia,  &c.  The  Australian  G.  antipoda  is  said 
to  be  a  finer  fruit  than  G.  hispida. 

GAUR,  or  GOUlv  [Bos  Gaurus),  a  species  of  ox, 
inhabiting  some  of  the  mountain  jungles  of  India- 
It  is  of  very  large  size,  although  apparently  inferior 
to  the  Arnee  (q.v.).  It  bears  a  considerable  resem- 
blance to  the  Gayal  (q.  v.),  but  differs  from  it  in  the 
form  of  its  head,  and  in  the  total  want  of  a  dewlap, 
in  which  it  more  nearly  agrees  with  the  Banteng 
of  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  although  distinguished 
from  it  by  important  anatomical  peculiarities.  See 
Banteng.    The  back  is  strongly  arched,  having  a 


Gaur  {Bos  Gawus). — From  Routledge's  Natural 
History.  • 


remarkable  ridge  of  no  great  thickness,  which  rises 
above  its  general  line,  owing  to  an  unusual  elongation 
of  the  spinous  processes  of  the  vertebraa.  The  hair 
is  remarkably  short  and  sleek.  The  G.  is  formid- 
able even  to  the  tiger,  and  safe  from  his  attacks. 
It  is  usually  foiind  in  herds  of  from  ten  to  twenty. 
It  is  extremely  abi^ndant  in  the  high  insulated  table- 
land of  Myn  Pat,  in  South  Bahar,  and  in  the  adjoin- 
ing steep  and  narrow  valleys.  It  is  supposed  to  bo 
incapable  of  domestication ;  frequent  attempts  for 
this  i^urpose  are  said  to  have  been  made  in  Nepal. 

GAU'RITZ,  a  river  of  the  south  coast  of  the  Cs-jie 
Colony,  in  South  Africa,  forms  the  eastern  boundary 
of  the  district  of  Zwellendam,  entering  the  sea  » 
little  to  the  west  of  Mossel  Bay.  Like  nearly  aii 
the  streams  of  this  region,  it  is  rapid,  and  almost 
useless  for  the  jjurposes  of  navigation. 

GAUSS,  Karl  Friedrich,  one  of  the  most  illus- 
trious mathematicians  of  modern  times,  was  born  at 
Brunswick  on  the  30th  of  April  1777.  In  1795,  ha 
went  to  the  university  of  Gottingen,  where,  at  this 
early  age,  he  made  a  number  of  important  discoveries, 
one  of  which  may  be  mentioned,  as  it  had  occu])ied 
the  attention  of  geometers  from  the  time  of  Euclid, 
viz.,  the  division  of  the  circle  into  17  equal  parts 


GAUZE— GAVELKIND. 


Tie  soon  aff-erwards  returned  to  Brunswick,  and 
there,  in  1801,  published  his  DisqiuNiUones  Mathe- 
matic(v,  a  work  treating  of  indeterminate  analysis 
or  transcendental  arithmetic,  which  contains,  besides 
other  iniportant  theorems,  a  new  demonstration  of 
that  of  Format  concerning  triangular  numbers. 
While  G.  was  at  work  on  these  speculations,  he  was 
in  great  measure  ignorant  of  what  had  been  done 
in  the  same  subject  by  previous  mathematicians, 
which  accounts  for  the  presence  in  his  work  of  a 
aumbor  of  old  theorems.  But  the  discovery  of  the 
planet  Ceres  on  the  first  day  of  the  19th  c.  guided 
the  euergies  of  G.  into  a  new  field  of  research.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  to  calculate  the  elements  of  its 
crbit,  according  to  methods  of  his  own  invention, 
and  his  assiduous  application,  and  the  acciu-acy  of 
his  results,  excited  general  admiration.  On  the  dis- 
covery of  Pallas  by  Olbers  in  1802,  G.  set  himself 
to  calculate  its  orbit ;  and  his  results,  valuable  at 
the  time,  are  even  now  models  of  ingenuity  and 
research.  For  these  labours,  he  received,  in  1810, 
from  the  French  Institute,  the  medal  founded  by 
Lalande.  In  1807,  he  was  appointed  director  of  the 
Observatory  at  Gottiugen,  an  office  peculiarly  suited 
to  his  tastes,  and  about  this  time  commenced  to 
prepare  for  publication  his  celebrated  work,  Theoria 
Mollis  Corporum  Coelest'mm  in  Sectionibus  Conicis 
Amhientlum,  which  ai)peared  in  1809.  In  this  work, 
G.  has  developed  a  method  of  calculating,  in  the 
most  simple,  and  at  the  same  time  most  exact 
manner,  the  orbits  of  the  bodies  in  the  solar  system. 
It  is  also  to  him  that  the  credit  is  chiefly  due  of 
discovering  the  great  comet  of  1811,  the  elements 
of  whose  orbit  he  calculated  with  the  most  siu*- 
prising  accuracy. 

In  1821 ,  G.  was  charged  by  the  Hanoverian  govern- 
ment with  the  triangulation  of  the  kingdom  of 
Hanover.,  and  the  measurement  of  an  arc  of  the 
meridian.  In  executing  this  work,  G.  fouud  that  the 
appliances  then  in  use  did  not  allow  of  the  vertices 
of  the  triangles  being  seen  from  a  considerable  dis- 
tance with  sufficient  distinctness,  and  to  remedy 
this  defect,  he  invented  the  HeHotrope  (q.  v.).  About 
1831,  Wilhelm  Edward  Weber  arrived  at  Gcittingen, 
and  commimicated  to  G.  a  part  of  his  own  enthu- 
siasm for  magnetic  researches.  It  would  take  up 
too  much  space  to  give  a  full  account  of  the  many 
discoveries  he  made  in  this  new  branch  of  study ; 
suffice  it  to  say,  that  he  has  invented  a  '  magnet- 
ometer' which  measures  the  'magnetic  intensity' 
with  great  accuracy,  and  that  he  has  probably  con- 
tributed more  to  the  advancement  of  this  branch  of 
science  than  any  one  before  him.  G.  was  pronounced 
by  La  Place  to  be  the  greatest  mathematician  of 
Europe.  He  died  at  Gottiugen  on  the  23d  of 
February  1855.  Among  hia  most  celebrated  works, 
besides  the  two  nbove  mentioned,  are  the  Dlsquisitio 
de  Elementis  EUiptkis  Palladis  ex  Oppositionibus 
Annorum  1803-1809  (1810);  Theoria  Combina- 
tionis  Obsi-rvationum  Erroribus  Minimis  Obnoxice 
(Gottiugen,  1823),  containing  a  full  explanation  of 
hia  peculiar  method  above  mentioned ;  Intensitas 
vis  Mcujneticce  Terrestris  ad  Memuram  Absolutam 
Eswcafa  (1832),  &c. 

G  AirZE,  a  light  transparent  silken  fabric,  sup- 
post  I  to  have  derived  its  name  from  having  first 
been  manufactured  in  Gaza,  a  city  of  Palestine. 
France  and  Switzerland  produce  considerable  quan- 
tities of  gauze.  The  chief  seats  of  the  manufacture 
in  Great  Britain  are  Paisley  and  Glasgow,  and  the 
8iu-rounding  districts.  The  openness  of  texture  is 
obtained  by  crossing  the  warp  threads  between  each 
thread  of  the  weft,  so  that  the  weft  passes  through 
a  succession  of  loops  in  the  warp,  aud  the  threads 
*re  tlins  kept  apart,  without  the  liability  to  sliding 
from  their  places,  which  wovdd  take  place  if  simple 
650 


weaving  were  left  so  loose  and  open.  Inferioi 
qualities  of  gauze  are  made  of  a  mixture  of  silk  aL,d 
cotton. 

GAVA'ZZI,  Alessandro,  a  popular  Italian 
preacher  and  reformer,  distinguished  by  hia 
patriotic  zeal  in  promoting  the  civil  and  religious 
progress  of  his  country,  was  born  at  Bologua  in 
1809.  At  the  early  age  of  16,  he  became  a  monk 
of  the  Barnabite  order,  and  subsequently  was 
appointed  professor  of  rhetoric  at  Naples,  where 
he  speedily  acquired  great  reputation  as  an  orator. 
By  his  uncompromising  advocacy  of  church  aud 
state  reformation,  he  earned  at  once  the  enthu- 
siastic admiration  of  the  progressive  party  among 
his  countrymen,  and  the  bitter  enmity  of  the 
priestly  and  ruling  powers. 

On  the  accession  of  Pius  IX.  to  the  papal  chair, 
G.  was  one  of  the  foremost  supporter?  of  the  liberal 
policy  that  inaugurated  that  i)ontif^'s  reign  ;  and 
having  repaired  to  Rome,  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  diffusion  of  political  enlightenm'mt  and  patri- 
otic aspirations  among  the  masses  of  the  Komau 
population.  The  pope  sanctioned  his  political 
labours,  and  appointed  him  almoner  )f  a  body  of 
10,000  Roman  ti-oops,  who  voluntcred  for  the 
campaign  of  Lonibardy  in  1848,  and  quitted  Rome 
to  proceed  to  Vicenza.  To  G.'s  fervid  }'.nd  patriotic 
oratory  may  be  attributed,  in  no  slight  degree,  the 
universal  spirit  of  self-sacrifice  evoked  throughout 
Italy  during  this  period  of  her  historv.  He  was 
called  the  Pietro  Eremita,  or  Peter  the  Hermit  of 
the  national  crusade.  The  Roman  leg'cn  having 
been  recalled  by  the  pope,  G.  continued  ii'  Florence, 
Genoa,  and  Bologna,  to  agitate  in  favour  of  the 
national  movement.  On  the  establishmert  of  the 
republic  at  Rome,  he  was  appointed  aln'one^-in* 
chief  to  the  national  army.  Under  his  superin- 
tendence, efficient  military  hospitals  were  organised 
and  attended  l^y  a  band  of  Roman  ladies,  who 
volunteered  their  services  and  co-operation  in  the 
care  of  the  Avounded.  Rome  having  fallen,  G.  visited 
England  and  America,  where  he  delivered  numerous 
addresses  and  lectures,  illustrative  of  the  political 
and  religious  aims  of  his  country.  Recent  events 
have  enabled  him  to  return  again  to  Italy,  and  he  is 
once  more  the  foremost  of  his  fellow-countrymen  in 
the  advocacy  of  the  civil  and  religious  progress  of 
liis  native  land.  He  has  for  some  time  completely 
broken  with  the  papacy,  not  only  in  its  temporal, 
but  in  its  religious  aspect ;  yet  he  is  not,  and  does 
not  wish  to  be  considered  as  exactly  a  Protestant. 
He  proclaims  the  necessity  of  a  return  to  primitive 
and  apostolic  Christianity,  but  is  not  disposed  to 
accept  for  Italy  any  ready-made  theological  system 
from  abroad.  His  leading  doctrine,  however, 
'Justification  by  Faith,'  is  apparently  the  same,  at 
least  in  form,  as  that  held  by  the  reformers  of  the 
16th  century. 

GA'TELKIND.  Lappenberg,  who,  though  a 
foreigner,  when  endorsed  by  his  translator  Thorpe, 
may  be  considered  as  the  very  highest  authority  on 
the  subject  of  English  social  antiquities,  thus  speaks 
of  the  custom  of  gavelkind :  '  A  fact  worthy  of 
notice  is  the  existence  down  to  recent  times  of  the 
old  British  law  of  succession  in  Wales,  Kent,  and 
some  parts  of  Northumberland,  called  gavelkind. 
As  far  as  we  are  enabled  to  understand  it,  in  its 
mixture  with  Anglo-Saxon  law,  all  the  sons  of 
the  father  inherited,  but  the  youngest  possessed 
the  homestead ;  the  eldest,  or  the  next  following 
capable  of  bearing  arms,  had  the  lieriot— that  is, 
the  arms  oflensive  and  defensive  of  his  father,  and 
his  horse.  Even  the  son  of  an  outlaw  could  not  be 
deprived  of  the  entire  succession,  but  of  the  half 
only '  (vol.  i.  p.  39).    Though  a  Celtic  origin  is  here^ 


GAVIAL— GAY. 


as  by  Blackstone  (Stephen,  iv.  p.  548),  probably 
with  reason,  ascribed  to  this  tenure,  it  seems  to  be 
the  general  opinion  of  legal  antiquaries  (Selden, 
Analect.  1.  2,  c.  7  ;  Stephen,  vol.  i.  213)  that  it 
prevailed  over  the  whole  kingdom  in  Anglo-Saxon 
times,  and  that  in  Kent  and  elsewhere  it  was 
among  the  '  liberties '  which  the  people  were  per- 
mitted to  retain  at  the  Conquest.  Most  of  the 
many  derivations  which  have  been  suggested  for 
the  word  are,  moreover,  Teutonic — gif  eal  cyn, 
equivalent  to  Lord  Coke's  cjove  all  kiiide,  or  the 
custom  which  gives  to  all  children  alike,  being  the 
most  probable.  In  Wales,  gavelkind  obtained  imi- 
versally  till  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  (34  and  35 
Henry  VIII.  c.  26),  and  in  some  parts  of  England 
it  is  not  yet  abolished.  In  Kent,  all  lands  that 
have  not  been  disgavelled  by  act  of  parliament, 
are  held  to  be  gavelkind— a  fact  which  ought  to 
be  borne  in  mind  in  all  transactions  with  Kentish 
property.  In  addition  to  the  characteristics  of 
this  tenure  already  noticed,  Blackstone  mentions 
the  following  :  '  1.  The  tenant  is  of  age  suflicient 
to  alien  his  estate  by  feoffment  at  the  age  of 
15.  2.  The  estate  does  not  escheat  in  case  of 
an  attainder  for  felony ;  their  maxim  being,  "  the 
father  to  the  bough,  the  son  to  the  plough."  3.  In 
most  places,  the  tenant  had  a  power  of  devising 
lands  by  will  before  the  statute  authorising  the 
devise  of  lands  generally  was  made.' 

GA'VIAL  {Gavialis),  a  genus  of  rei)tiles  of  the 
Crocodile  (q.  v.)  family,  conspicuously  differing 
from  true  crocodiles  and  from  alligators  in  the 
great  length  and  slenderness  of  the  muzzle. 
Another  peculiar  character  is  a  large  cartilaginous 
swelling  at  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle  in  the  males, 
around  the  orifice  of  the  nostrils.  The  teeth  are 
very  numerous,  about  120 ;  they  are  more  equal  in 
size  than  those  of  the  other  animals  of  this  family, 
although  some  of  the  first  are  rather  larger  than 
the  rest,  the  longest  of  the  lower  jaw  being  received 
into  notches  in  the  upper,  as  in  the  true  crocodiles. 
The  head  is  very  broad,  the  narrow  muzzle  begins 
abruptly,  and  in  it  the  branches  of  the  bone  of  the 
lower  jaw  are  united  and  prolonged  as  one.  There 
are  two  great  perforations  in  the  bones  of  the  skidl 
behind  the  eyes,  externally  marked  by  depressions. 


I  of  the  recent  Crocodilidce,  frequently  attaining  the 
length  of  25  feet ;  but  owing  to  the  slenderness  of  its 
I  muzzle,  it  is  estimated  less  dangerous  than  a  true 
crocodile  of  smaller  size.  The  form  of  tlie  muzzle 
seeins  particularly  to  adapt  it  for  preying  on  fish. 
,  Gavial-like  crocodiles  are  the  most  abundant  among 
I  extinct  forms.  In  the  cretaceous  of  North  America 
j  there  are  numerous  species  of  Holops  and  Thoraca- 
I  saurus.  In  the  Eocene  of  Great  Britain  and  Mio- 
cene of  North  America  the  genus  Thecachampsa 
I  occurs. 

GAVINANA,  or  CAVINANA,  a  village  of  622 
I  inhabitants,  picturesquely  situated  amid  the  Tuscan 
I  Apennines,  in  the  valley  of  the  river  Lima,  owea 
its  interest  to  the  memorable  battle  fought  around 
its  walls  in  15.30,  between  the  republican  forces 
of  Florence,  led  by  their  great  captain,  Ferruccio, 
and  the  Im])erialists  headed  by  Philibert,  Prince 
of  Orange.     The  Florentines  were  defeated  with 
j  the  loss  of  their  commander  ;   and  the  death  of 
j  Ferruccio,  whose  name  in  Tuscany  has  become 
synonymous  with  chivalry  and  patriotism,  gave  the 
final  blow  to  the  liberties  of  the  republic. 

GAVOTTE,  a  piece  of  music  of  a  lively  charac- 
ter, pecidiarly  suitable  for  dancing,  but  more  adapted 
for  the  stage  than  for  private  performance.  It 
consists  of  two  repetitions  of  eight  bars  each,  begin- 
ning with  an  up-beat,  and  is  in  alla-breve  time. 
The  fundamental  rhythm  of  the  gavotte  is  therefore 


Gavial  {Gavialis  Gangeticus). 

The  plates  which  cover  the  back  and  the  nape  of 
the  neck  are  united.  The  crest  of  the  tail  is  much 
elevated ;  the  feet  are  webbed  to  the  extremity  of 
ihe  toes ;  the  whole  habits  as  aquatic  as  those  of 
the  crocodile  of  the  Nile.  The  only  perfectly 
ascertained  sjjecies,  G.  Gangeticus,  inhabits  the 
Ganges.    It  attains  a  greater  size  than  any  other 


by  which  the  second  bar  has  a  remarkable  cresura 
Formerly,  the  gavotte  was  often  introduced  into 
sonatas  and  other  pieces,  where  its  form  was  not  so 
strictly  adhered  to  ;  still  the  eight-bar  repetition 
was  always  considered  necessary. 

GAY,  John,  was  born  at  Barnstaple,  in  Devon- 
shire, in  1688.  Although  of  an  ancient  family,  hia 
father  was  in  reduced  circumstances,  and  G.  was 
apprenticed  to  a  London  silk-mercer;  but  disliking 
his  occupation,  he  was  finally  released  from  it  by  hia 
master.  In  1711,  he  published  a  descriptive  poem, 
dedicated  to  Pope.  The  year  after,  he  was  appointed 
secretary  to  the  Duchess  of  Monmouth.  His  next 
work  was  The  Shepherd's  Week,  in  Six  Pastorals, 
which  gained  considerable  applause.  About  the 
same  time  he  produced  Trivia  and  The  Fan,  full 
of  descriptions  of  low  city-life,  a  good  deal  in 
Swift's  style — indeed,  he  was  assisted  by  Swift  in 
the  former  work.  In  1713,  appeared  his  comedy, 
The  Wife  of  Bath,  which  did  not  succeed.  Next 
year,  he  relinquished  his  situation  in  the  family  of 
the  Duchess  of  Monmouth,  and  accompanied  Lord 
Clarendon,  then  envoy- extraordinar}'-  to  Hanover,  as 
his  secretary.  Within  two  months,  he  was  again  ia 
London,  where,  at  the  instigation  of  Pope,  he  wrote 
a  poem  on  the  Royal  Family,  and  shortly  afterwards 
produced  his  play,  What  ifye  Call  It  ?  Encouraged 
by  its  success,  he  brought  out  another  play  entitled 
Thre£,  Ho^irs  after  Marriage,  which  failed  sigualiy. 
In  1720,  he  published  his  poems  by  subscription,  and 
is  said  to  have  realised  ^1000  thereby.  He  at  the 
same  time  received  a  present  of  South  Sea  stock, 
and  was  considered  a  rich  man,  when  aU  his  sudden 
fortune  was  lost  m  the  collapse  of  that  famous 
bubble.  In  1724,  he  produced  his  play  of  The  Cap- 
tives, and  Avrote  a  volume  of  Fables  in  172G.  When 
Swift  came  to  live  with  Pope  at  Twickenham  in 
1726,  he  talked  to  G.  of  a  Newgate  pastoral,  and 
The  Beggars''  Opera  was  the  result.  The  success 
of  this  piece  was  immense ;  it  had  a  run  of  sixty- 
three  nights,  and  took  eajitive  town  and  country. 
G.  afterwards  wrote  a  senuel,  entitled  Polly,  hvi4 

6jl 


GAYAH— GAY-LUSSAC. 


owing  to  some  misunderstanding  with  the  lord 
chaniberlai  n,  its  representation  was  prohibited.  On 
its  publication,  it  brought  the  author  £1200.  About 
this  time,  he  went  to  live  with  the  Duke  of 
Queonsberry,  and  remained  with  him  during  the 
rest  of  his  life.  He  was  seized  with  an  mflamma- 
tory  fever,  and  died  after  an  illness  of  three  days. 
His  death  took  place  on  the  4th  December  1732, 
and  he  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Although  more  than  a  century  has  elapsed,  and 
the  satire  and  the  allusions  are  obsolete.  The  Beg- 
gars^ Opera  is  still  occasionally  represented.  It 
exists,  however,  mainly  in  virtue  of  its  songs  and 
music.  G.  had  a  hai)py  lyrical  vein,  and  coidd  turn 
a  stanza  on  the  beauty  of  woman,  and  the  fasci- 
nations of  the  wine-cup,  and  the  fleeting  of  youth, 
with  considerable  grace.  His  Fables^  and  his  serious 
and  comic  poems,  are  only  now  to  be  found  in 
libraries.  The  wit  and  the  sentiment  are  alike 
dust.  Of  all  he  has  done,  hid  ballad  of  Black-eyed 
Susan  i)ossesses  the  strongest  vitality,  and  thrills 
now  and  then  our  theatres  and  concei-t-rooms. 

UAY'AH,  the  capital  of  the  district  of  Bahar, 
in  the  sub-presidency  of  Bengal,  stands  on  the 
Phalga,  an  affluent  of  the  Ganges,  in  lat.  24°  48' 
N.,  and  long.  85°  4'  E.  It  contains  (1871)  66,843 
inhalntanl  a ;  but  as  it  is  a  place  of  great  sanctity,  it 
is  annualK  visited  by  at  least  100,()00  i)ilgrims.  It 
consists  of  :wo  towns — the  older  being  reserved  for 
the  Brahi  dus  and  their  immediate  dependents, 
and  the  l  jwer  being  occupied  by  the  popidation 
at  large — i»nd  on  an  intermediate  area  stand  the 
pul)lic  establishments.  The  people  rely  chiefly  on 
the  expenditure  of  the  superstitious  visitors,  some 
of  whom  have  been  known  to  leave  behind  them 
£5000  each. 

GAYAL  \,Bos  Gavceus),  a  species  of  ox,  found 
v^■ild  in  the  mountains  of  Aracan,  Chittagong, 
'J'i[)ura,  and  Sylhet,  and  which  has  long  been 
domesticated  .n  these  countries  and  in  the  eastern 

I farts  of  Benj  al.  It  is  about  equal  in  size  to  the 
ndian  bufl"alo ;  and,  like  the  buflalo,  it  carries  the 
head  with  tKj  muzzle  projecting  forward.  The 
head  is  very  broad  and  flat  at  the  upper  part, 
ftuddeuly  contracted  towards  the  nose ;  with  short 


Gayal  Cow  {Bos  Gaveetts). 


Lorns,  a  little  curved,  projecting  nearly  in  the  plane 
of  the  forehead,  and  a  very  wide  space  between  them 
at  the  base.  There  is  no  proper  hump,  but  a  sharp 
ridge  on  the  shoulders  and  fore-part  of  the  back. 
The  prevailing  colour  is  brown,  generally  dark. 
The  ] Cookies  keep  herds  of  gayals,  which  they  per- 
mit to  roam  at  large  during  the  day  in  the  forests, 
but  which  return  h  .^me  at  night  of  their  own  accord ; 
m 


to  secure  which  the  animals  are  occasionally  suppUed 
with  a  little  salt,  which  has  the  greatest  attractions 
for  them.  Their  milk  is  extremely  rich,  but  not 
abundant ;  the  Kookies,  however,  do  not  use  tlie 
milk,  but  rear  them  entirely  for  their  flesh  and 
skins. 

GAY-LUSSAC,  Louis  Joseph,  one  of  the  most 

distinguished  chemists  and  i)hysicista  of  recent 
times,  was  born  on  the  6th  of  December  1778,  at  St 
Leonard  (Haute- Vienne).  In  1795,  he  was  sent  to 
Paris  to  prepare  for  the  examinations  requisite  for 
admittance  into  the  Polytechnic  School ;  and  hiii 
admission  to  that  institution  took  i)lace  on  tho 
27th  December  1797.  After  three  years'  study, 
he  was  promoted  tb  the  department  Bes  Povts  (t 
Chavssees.  Berthollet,  who  was  then  Professor  of 
Chemistry  in  the  Polytechnic  School,  having  recog- 
nised his  zeal  and  talents  for  original  research, 
selected  him  as  his  assistant  at  Arcueil,  where  the 
government  chemical  works  were  situated.  The 
study  of  Dalton's  Experimental  Essays,  published  in 
1801,  directed  the  attention  of  the  young  chemist 
to  the  department  of  chemical  physics.  In  that 
5'^ear  he  i>ublished  his  first  Memoir,  which  treated 
of  '  the  dilatation  of  gases  and  vapours,'  and  which 
was  speedily  follow^ed  by  others  on  '  the  improve- 
ment of  thermometers  and  barometers  ; '  on  'the 
tension  of  vapoiirs,  their  mixture  with  gases,  and 
the  determination  of  their  density,  &c. ; '  and  on 
'  capillary  action.'  In  consequence  of  the  rejfutation 
which  he  acquired  from  these  researches,  he  was 
commissioned,  in  association  with  Biot,  by  the 
Institute  of  France,  to  make  a  balloon  ascent,  with 
the  view  of  ascertaining  whether  the  magnetic 
force  existed  at  considerable  heights  above  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  or  only  on  the  surface,  as  had 
been  asserted  by  some  physicists.  A  notice  of  this 
ascent,  and  of  another  ascent  which  he  made  alone, 
is  given  in  the  article  Balloox.  Alexander  von 
Humboldt  investigated  with  him  the  proj)ertie3 
of  air  brought  down  from  a  height  of  more  tlian 
23,000  feet,  and  their  joint  Memoir  to  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  (read  on  the  1st  of  October  1804)  con- 
tained the  first  announcement  of  the  fact,  that  oxygen 
and  hydrogen  unite  to  form  water  in  the  sun])le  pro- 
portion of  100  parts  by  bulk  (volumes)  of  the  former 
to  200  parts  of  the  latter.  The  simplicity  of  the  ratio 
in  which  these  gases  stood  to  each  other  in  their 
combining  jiroportions,  induced  him  to  study  the 
combining  volumes  of  other  gases,  and  thus  led  him 
to  the  important  discovery  of  the  law  of  volumes, 
which  was  announced  in  1808,  and  is  one  of  the 
most  general  and  important  laws  in  the  whole 
domain  of  chemistry.  Davy's  discoveries  of  potas- 
sium and  sodium,  by  the  decomposing  action  of 
the  voltaic  pile,  having  excited  much  attention  in 
France,  Napoleon  directed  G.  and  Thenard  to 
pursue  this  class  of  researches.  The  results  of  those 
investigations  appeared  in  their  Beclierches  Physico- 
ctdm'tques,  in  two  volumes,  published  in  1811. 
Amongst  the  most  important  of  the  discoveriea 
announced  in  these  volumes,  are  a  new  chemical 
process  which  yields  potassiimi  and  sodiiim  much 
more  abundantly  than  tl7  3  voltaic  pile,  the  determi- 
nation of  the  composition  of  boracic  acid  both 
anal jiiically  and  synthetically,  and  new  and  improved 
methods  of  analyzing  organic  compounds.  (Boron 
was,  however,  simultaneously  discovered  in  Eng- 
land by  Davy.)  Although  the  discovery  of  iodine 
(in  isil)  is  due  to  Courtois,  it  was  G.  who  (in 
1813)  first  described  its  distinctive  properties,  gav^e 
it  the  name  which  it  now  bears,  and  proved  that  it 
is  an  elementary  body;  he  was  also  the  first  to 
form  synthetically  the  compounds  of  iodine  with 
hydrogen  and  oxygen,  known  as  hydriodic  and 
iodic  acids.    In  1815,  he  announced  the  discovery 


GAZA— GAZETTE. 


of  cyanogen,  which  presented  the  first  known 
example  of  a  compound  body  (C,N)  exhibiting 
many  properties  which  were  previously  believed  to 
pertain  specially  to  simple  or  elementary  bodies. 
His  Memoir  on  this  compound,  in  the  95th  volume 
of  the  Anncdes  de  Chlmie,  is  a  model  of  what  a  com- 
plete and  exliaustive  chemical  investigation  should 
be.  Om-  space  will  not  allow  of  more  than  a  passing 
allusion  to  his  subsequent  investigations  regarding 
the  fabrication  of  hydrated  suli^huric  acid,  his 
essays  on  the  bleaching  chlorides,  on  the  alcohols, 
and  on  the  alkalies  employed  in  commerce.  In  1805, 
he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Committee  of  Arts 
and  Manufactures,  established  by  the  Minister  of 
Commerce.  In  1818,  he  was  appointed  to  superintend 
the  government  manufactory  of  gunpowder  and  salt- 
petre ;  and  in  1829,  he  received  the  lucrative  office 
of  chief  assayer  to  the  mint,  where  he  introduced 
several  important  chemical  changes.  In  1831,  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies ; 
and  in  1839,  he  was  made  a  peer  of  France.  He 
never,  however,  took  an  active  part  in  politics,  and 
was  diligently  engaged  in  scientific  research  nntil  his 
last  illness.  For  many  years,  he  was  the  editor,  in 
association  with  Arago,  of  the  Annales  de  Chwiie 
et  de  Physique.  He  died  at  Paris,  9th  May  1850, 
from  atrophy  of  the  heart. 

GAZA,  Theodorus,  a  successor  of  Emanuel 
Chrysoloras  as  teacher  of  the  Greek  language 
and  literature  in  the  West.  When  his  native  city, 
Thessalonica,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  in 
1430,  he  fled  to  Italy,  where  he  studied  the  Latin 
language,  under  Victorinus  of  Feltre,  at  Mantua  ; 
after  1441,  he  was  appointed  rector  of  the  newly 
established  gymnasium,  or  high  school,  of  Ferrara, 
and  professor  of  Greek.  He  was  invited  by  Pope 
Nicholas  V.,  along  with  other  learned  Greeks,  to 
Rome,  and  was  employed  in  making  Latin  versions 
of  Greek  authors.  After  the  death  of  Nicholas, 
King  Alfonso  invited  him  to  Naples  m  1456 ;  but 
two  years  after,  the  death  of  this  monarch  also 
necessitated  his  return  to  Rome,  where  he  found  a 
[)atrou  in  Cardinal  Bessarion,  who  obtained  for  him 
a  small  benefice  in  the  south  of  Italy,  either  in 
Apulia  or  Calabria.  Here  he  died  in  1478,  at  an 
advanced  age. 

G.  has  Ijeen  warmly  praised  by  subsequent  scholars, 
such  as  Politian,  Erasmus,  Scaliger,  and  Melanc- 
thon.  His  principal  writings  are  his  Introductivce 
Grammatices,  libri  iv.  (a  work  on  the  elements  of 
Greek  grammar,  first  published  l)y  Aldus  Manutius 
at  Venice,  1495  a.d.,  and  long  held  in  high  repute),  a 
number  of  epistles  to  different  persons  on  different 
literary  subjects,  and  a  variety  of  important  trans- 
lations into  Latin  of  portions  of  Aristotle,  Theo- 
phrastus,  St  Chrysostom,  Hippocrates,  and  other 
Greek  writers. 

GAZA  (Heb.  signifies  *  strong '),  (now  called 
GrzzEH),  a  town  in  the  south-west  of  Palestine,  is 
situated  about  three  miles  from  the  sea,  on  the 
borders  of  the  desert  which  separates  Palestine 
from  Egs^jt.  It  originally  belonged  to  the  Philis- 
tines, and  WIS  a  place  of  importance  at  the  period 
cf  the  conquest  of  Canaan  by  the  Israelites.  It 
is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  history  of  Samson  ; 
and  after  many  vicissitudes  in  the  wars  between 
the  Israelites  and  the  Philistines,  it  was  allotted  to 
the  tribe  of  Judah,  in  whose  possession  it  finally 
remained.  In  the  year  333  B.C.,  G.  was  taken  by 
Alexander  the  Great ;  and  from  that  period  down 
to  1799,  when  it  was  taken  by  the  French  imder 
Kleber,  it  has  been  the  scene  of  many  battles  and 
sieges.  Constantine  the  Great,  who  rebuilt  the 
town,  made  it  the  seat  of  a  bishop.  The  modem  G. 
has  the  appearance  of  being  a  collection  of  mere 


villages.  It  has  no  gates,  no  fortifications  or  defences 
of  any  kind.  The  only  building  of  interest  is  the 
great  mosque,  with  its  tall  octagonal  minaret  and 
peaked  roof.  G.  has  manufactures  of  soap  and 
cotton  stuffs  ;  and,  owing  to  its  situation  near  the 
Mediterranean  and  on  the  caravan  route  to  Egy])t, 
it  has  a  good  trade  both  by  sea  and  land.  Pop. 
upwards  of  15,000,  from  200  to  300  of  whom  are 
Christians,  and  the  rest  Mohammedans. 

GAZE,  in  Heraldry,  When  a  beast  of  the  chase, 
as  a  hart  or  stag,  is  rei)resented  as  affrontee,  »»t 
full-faced,  it  is  said  to  be  at  gaze. 

GAZE'LLE  {Antilope  Dorcas  or  Oazella  Dorcm\ 
a  species  of  antelope,  about  the  size  of  aroebu.^k,  bub 
of  lighter  and  more  graceful  form,  with  longer  and 
more  slender  limbs,  in  these  respects  exhibiting  the 
typical  characters  of  the  antelopes  in  their  highect 
perfection.  It  is  of  a  light  tawny  colour,  the  under 
parts  white  ;  a  broad  brown  band  along  each  flank ; 
the  hair  short  and  smooth.  The  face  is  reddish 
fawn-colour,  with  white  and  dark  stripes.  The  horns 
of  the  old  males  are  nine  or  ten  inches  long,  bend- 
ing outward  and  then  inward,  like  the  sides  of  a 
l}Te,  also  backward  at  the  base,  and  forward  at  the 
tips,  tapering  to  a  point,  surrounded  by  thirteen  or 
fourteen  permanent  rings,  the  rings  near  the  base 
being  closest  together  and  most  perfect.  The  horns 
of  the  female  are  smaller  and  obscurely  ringed. 
The  ears  are  long,  narrow,  and  pointed  ;  the  eyes 
very  large,  soft,  and  black ;  there  is  a  tuft  of  hair 
on  each  knee  ;  the  tail  is  short,  with  black  hairs  on 
its  upper  surface  only,  and  at  its  tip.  The  G.  is  a 
native  of  the  north  of  Africa,  and  of  Syria,  Arabia, 
and  Persia.  Great  herds  of  gazelles  frequent  the 
northern  borders  of  the  Sahara  ;  and  notwithstand- 
ing their  great  powers  of  flight,  and  the  resistance 
which  they  are  capable  of  making  when  compelled 
to  stand  at  bay— the  herd  closing  together  with 
the  females  and  young  in  the  centre,  and  the  males 
presenting  their  horns  all  aroimd— lions  and  pan- 
thers destroy  them  in  great  nimibers.  The  speed 
of  the  G.  is  such  that  it  cannot  be  successfully 
hunted  by  any  kind  of  dog,  but  in  some  parts  of 
the  East  it  is  taken  by  the  assistance  of  falcons, 
of  a  small  species,  which  fasten  on  its  head,  and 
by  the  flapping  of  tlieir  mngs  blind  and  confuse 
it,  so  that  it  soon  falls  a  prey  to  the  hunter.  It  is 
also  caj)tured  in  enclosures  made  near  its  drinking- 
places.  Although  naturally  very  wild  and  timid, 
it  is  easily  domesticated,  and,  when  taken  young, 
becomes  extremely  familiar.  Tame  gazelles  are 
very  common  in  the  Asiatic  countries  of  wliich 
the  species  is  a  native  ;  and  the  })oetry  of  these 
countries  abounds  in  allusions  both  to  the  beauty 
and  the  gentleness  of  the  gazelle.  It  has  been  sup- 
posed that  the  gazelles  of  Asia  may  be  of  diftereut 
S})ecies  from  the  African,  but  there  is  reason  to 
think  that  they  are  the  same.  The  Ariel  G.  [A. 
Arahica)  perhaps  differs  rather  as  a  variety  than 
as  a  species,  and  is  even  more  symmetrical  and 
graceful  than  the  common  kind.  There  ai-e  several 
species  very  nearly  allied  to  the  G.,  among  which 
is  Antilope  (or  Gazella)  Soemmeringii,  a  native  of 
Abyssinia,  with  the  curvatures  of  the  horns  very 
marked  and  sudden. — Some  confusion  has  arisen 
among  naturalists  as  to  the  application  of  the 
name  G.,  originally  Arabic  ;  and  it  has  not  only 
been  given  to  the  leucoryx  of  the  ancients,  a  very 
different  species,  but  even  to  the  gemshoc  of  South 
Africa.  The  true  G.  was  known  to  the  ancients, 
and  is  accurately  described  by  ^ian  under  the 
name  dorcas,  which  was  also  given  to  the  roe. 

GAZE'TTE.  A  gazette  was  a  Venetian  coin 
worth  somewhat  less  than  a  farthing  ;  and  the  name 
was  hence  applied  to  a  sort  of  gossiping  sheet,  oi 

651 


GAZETTEER— GECKO. 


Xirmitive  newspaper,  that  was  sold  for  that  sum  at 
Venice.  See  Newspaper.  In  its  English  accepta- 
tion, it  means  the  official  newspaper,  in  which  pro- 
vilamati  )ns,  notices  of  appointments,  and  the  like,  are 
published  by  the  government.  The  Gazette  is  said 
to  have  been  published  for  the  first  time  at  Oxford 
in  1G05.  On  the  removal  of  the  court  to  London, 
the  title  was  changed  to  the  London  Gazette.  It 
is  now  j)ublished  on  Tuesdays  and  Fridays.  Pro- 
clamations printed  in  the  Gazette  are  probative, 
without  jn-oduction.  But  the  rule  is  different  as  to 
presentations  or  grants  to  private  persons.  Publica- 
tion of  a  dissolution  of  partnership  in  the  Gazette  is 
not  a  sufficient  notice  to  persons  who  were  formerly 
in  the  habit  of  dealing  with  the  company.  Even  as 
regards  parties  dealing  for  the  first  time,  the  ten- 
dency in  England  is  to  doubt  the  sufficiency  of  such 
notice  in  all  cases  ;  whereas,  in  Scotland,  the  oppo- 
Bite  tendency  prevails,  and  it  is  held  that  persons 
contracting  with  a  company  for  the  first  time  are 
bound  to  inquire  into  its  existing  condition,  and 
consequently  that  notice  even  in  a  provincial  news- 
pa]>er  may  suflice.  In  practice,  all  reasonable  means 
ought  to  be  resorted  to.  Under  the  Bankrupt  Act 
and  other  statutes,  certain  notices  are  directed  to 
be  given  in  the  Gazette. 

GAZETTEE'R.    See  Dictionary  and  Encyclo- 

P^iDIA. 

GAZOGENE.    See  Aerated  Water. 

GAZONS,  in  Fortification,  are  sods  laid  over 
newly  made  earthworks,  to  consolidate  them,  and 
prevent  the  soil  from  rolling  down. 

GEARING,  a  term  applied  to  the  parts  of 
machinery  by  which  motion  in  one  part  of  a 
machine  is  communicated  to  another  ;  gearing  con- 
sists in  general  of  toothed- wheels,  friction- wheels 
endless  bands,  screws,  &c.,  or  of  a  combination  of 
these.  When  the  communication  between  the  two 
pai-ts  of  the  machine  is  interrupted,  the  machine 
IS  said  to  be  out  of  gear;  and  when  the  com- 
munication is  restored,  it  is  said  to  be  in  gear. 
In  the  case  of  a  thrashing-mill,  e.  g.,  driven  by 
a  steam-engine,  the  gearing  usually  consists  of  an 
endless  band  which  communicates  motion  from 
the  axle  of  the  fly-wheel  to  that  of  the  drum. 
If  the  band  were  slijjped  off  from  one  wheel,  or 
slackened  so  that  motion  coxild  not  be  communicated 
by  means  of  it,  then  the  machine  would  be  out  of 
gear.  Gearing  which  can  be  put  in  and  out  of  gear  is 
called  movable  gearing ;  that  which  cannot,  as,  for 
instance,  the  wheel- work  of  a  watch,  is  called  fixed 
gearing.  Gearing  which  consists  of  wheel-work  or 
endless  Screws  (q.  v.)  is  put  out  of  gear  either  by 
means  of  one  of  the  wheefs  sliding  along  its  axis, 
or  being  moved  out  of  its  place  horizontally  or 
vertically  by  means  of  a  lever.  Straight  gearing 
is  used  when  the  planes  of  motion  are  parallel  to 
each  other ;  bevelled  gearing,  when  the  direction  of 
the  plane  of  motion  is  changed.  See  Wheels, 
Toothed,  Gearing  has  also  for  its  object  the 
increasing  or  diminishing  of  the  original  velocity, 
arid  in  reference  to  this,  is  distinguished  by  the 
term  'multiplying'  or  'retarding.'  See  Wheels, 
Toothed. 

GEBA  RIVER.    See  Senegambia. 

GEBANG  PALM  [Corypha  Gehanga),  a  fan- 
leaved  palm,  native  of  the  East  Indies,  and  one  of 
the  most  useful  palms  of  that  part  of  the  world. 
Its  stem  yields  a  kind  of  sago ;  its  root  is  medicinal, 
being  both  emollient  and  slightly  astringent,  so  as 
to  be  particularly  adapted  to  many  cases  of  diar- 
rhoea ;  its  leaves  are  used  for  thatch,  for  making 
broad-brimmed  hats,  and  for  various  economical 
purposes ;  its  young  leaves  are  plaited  into  baskets 


and  bags,  in  the  manufacture  of  which  many  of  the 
people  of  Java  find  much  employment ;  the  fibres  of 
its  leaf-stalks  are  made  into  ropes,  baskets,  nets, 
cloth,  &c. — To  the  genus  Corypha  belongs  also  the 
Talipat  Palm  (q.  v,). — The  fruit  of  C.  Purnas,  a 
Mexican  species,  is  eatable,  and  has  a  sweet  taste. 

GEBIR,  Abu-Mussah-Jaafer  Al  Sofi,  the 
founder  of  the  Arabian  school  of  chemistry,  flour- 
ished towards  the  end  of  the  8th,  or  the  commence- 
ment of  the  9th  century.  The  i)lace  of  his  birth  ia 
imcertain.  According  to  the  majority  of  authorities, 
he  was  born  at  Tds,  in  Khorassan,  but  Abulfeda 
supports  the  claims  of  Ilarran  in  Mesopotamia.  lie 
was  greatly  esteemed  in  the  East,  and  suljsequently 
in  Em-ope,  whei-e  the  chemists,  down  to  the  time  of 
Van  Helmont,  did  nothing  more  than  repeat  his 
experuneuts.  Cardan  reckons  G.  one  of  the  twelve 
subtlest  geniuses  of  the  world,  while  Roger  Bacon 
bestows  upon  him  the  epithet  'magister  magis- 
trorum,'  He  wrote  an  immense  number  of  treatises 
on  alchemy,  of  which  a  considerable  number  are 
extant  in  the  form  of  Latin  versions.  The  library 
of  Leyden  contains  many  manuscripts  of  G.'s  works 
which  have  never  been  published.  In  the  Imperial 
Library  at  Paris  there  are  manuscripts  of  his  two 
celebrated  works,  the  Sumnia  Collectionis  Comple- 
menti  Secretorum  Naturae,  and  the  Summa  Perfec- 
tionis — also  of  a  work  on  Astronomy,  and  a  treatise 
on  Spherical  Triangles.  The  principle  laid  down  by 
G,  at  the  commencement  of  his  works  is,  that  art 
cannot  imitate  nature  in  all  things,  but  that  it  can 
and  ought  to  imitate  her  as  far  as  its  limits  allow. 
An  edition  of  his  works  in  Latin  was  published  at 
Dantzic  in  1G82,  and  another  in  English  by  Russell 
(London,  1G78),  For  information  respecting  G,'a 
opinions  with  regard  to  alchemy,  see  Alchemy. 

GECKO  {Gecko),  a  genus  of  Saurian  reptiles, 
constituting  a  family,  Geckotidce,  which  some  recent 
naturalists  have  divided  into  many  genera.  The 
geckos  are  of  small  size,  and  generally  of  repalsive 
aspect;  the  colours  of  most  of  them  are  dull,  and 


Gecko  [Plntydactylus  homalocephahis) : 
1.  Foot  of  P,  Cepedianus;  2.  Foot  of  P.  Hasselquistii ;  3.  Foot 
of  P.  Leachianus ;  4.  Claw  of  Gymnodactylus  pulcliellns ; 
5.  Foot  of  Thecadactj  lus  theconyx 6.  Foot  of  Gymnodactylus 
scaber. 

the  small  granular  scales  with  which  they  are 
covered  are  in  general  mingled  with  tubercles.  The 
legs  are  short,  the  gait  usually  slow,  measured,  and 
stealthy,  although  geckoa  can  also  run  very  nimbly 
when  danger  presses,  and  often  disappear  very 
suddenly  when  they  seem  almost  to  be  struck  or 


GEDDES. 


caught  The  feet  are  remarkable,  being  adapted  for 
adliering  to  smooth  surfaces,  so  that  geckos  readily 
climb  the  smoothest  trees  or  walls,  or  creep  inverted 
on  ceilings,  or  hang  on  the  lower  side  of  the  large 
leaves  in  which  tropical  vegetation  aboimds.  The 
body  and  tail  are  never  crested,  but  are  sometimes 
furnished  with  lateral  membranes,  variously  fes' 
tooned  or  fringed.  The  lateral  membrane  is  some- 
times even  so  large  as  to  be  of  use  to  arboreal 
species  in  enabling  them  to  take  long  leaps  from 
branch  to  branch.  The  geckos  feed  chiefly  on 
insects.  They  are  more  or  less  nocturnal  in  their 
habits.  They  are  natives  of  warm  climates,  and  are 
very  widely  distributed  over  the  world.  Two  species 
are  found  in  the  south  of  Europe,  both  of  which 
frequently  enter  houses,  as  do  the  geckos  of  Egypt, 
India,  and  other  warm  countries.  The  name  G.  is 
derived  from  a  peculiar  cry  often  uttered  by  some 
of  the  species,  and  which  in  some  of  them  resembles 
syllables  distinctly  pronounced,  whilst  others  are 
described  as  enlivening  the  night  in  tropical  forests 
by  a  harsh  cackle.  The  geckos  have,  in  almost 
all  parts  of  the  world  where  they  are  found,  a  bad 
reputation  as  venomous,  and  as  imparting  injurious 
quahties  to  food  which  they  touch,  but  there  is  no 
good  evidence  in  support  of  any  such  opinion,  in 
accordance  with  which,  however,  an  Egyptian  G. 
is  even  known  as  tlie  father  of  leprosy. 

GEDDES,  Alexander,  LL.D.,  a  biblical  critic, 
translator,  and  miscellaneous  writer,  was  born  at 
Arradowl,  in  the  parish  of  Iluthven,  Banffshire,  in 
1737.  His  parents  were  Roman  Catholics,  and 
young  G.  was  educated  for  a  priest,  first  at  Sculan, 
a  monastic  seminary  in  the  Highlands,  and  subse- 
quently at  the  Scots  College,  Paris,  where  he 
acquired  a  knowledge  of  Hebrew,  Greek,  Italian, 
French,  Spanish,  German,  and  Low  Dutch.  In 
1764,  he  returned  to  Scotland,  and,  having  taken 
orders,  he  was  appointed  officiatmg  priest  to  the 
Roman  Catholics  of  Angus,  but  after  a  short  time 
went  to  reside  with  the  Earl  of  Traquair.  In  17G9, 
he  undertook  the  charge  of  a  Roman  Catholic  con- 
gregation at  Auchinhalrig,  in  Banffshire,  where  he 
remained  tor  ten  years,  making  himself  during  that 
period  honourably  conspicuous  by  his  charities  and 
extraordinary  liberality  of  sentiment.  He  was  at 
length  deposed  from  all  his  ecclesiastical  functions, 
on  account  of  his  occasional  attendance  at  the 
parish  church  of  Cullen,  between  the  minister  of 
which  and  himself  there  existed  an  intimate  acquaint- 
ance. G.  now  resolved  to  betake  himself  to  litera- 
ture, and  proceeded  to  London  in  1780.  He  had 
long  planned  a  translation  of  the  Bible  into  English 
for  the  use  of  Roman  Catholics,  and  he  was  now, 
throxigh  the  munificence  of  Lord  Petre,  enabled  to 
devote  himself  to  the  work.  After  various  pre- 
liminary publications  intended  to  pave  the  way  for 
an  im})artial  or  favourable  consideration  of  his  mag- 
num  opvs,  there  appeared  in  1792  The  First  Volume 
of  the  Jloly  Bible,  or  the  Books  accounted  Sacred  hy 
Jews  and  Christians,  otherwise  called  the  Books  of  the 
Old  and  New  Covenants,  faithfully  translated  from 
Corrected  Texts  of  tJie  OrHyinals,  ivith  Various  Eead- 
inrjs.  Explanatory  Notes,  and  Critical  Remarks.  In 
1793,  the  second  volume  was  published,  carrying 
the  translation  as  far  as  the  end  of  the  historical 
books ;  and  in  1800,  a  third  volume  was  issued, 
containing  liis  Critical  Bemarks  on  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures. The  opinions  enunciated  in  these  volumes, 
especially  in  the  last,  are  startlingly  heretical,  more 
especially  when  the  training  of  their  author  is  con- 
Bidered,  and  were  calculated,  at  the  time  of  their 
a])pearance,  to  offend  both  Catholics  and  Protes- 
tantK.  They  exhibit  as  thorough-going  Rationalism 
as  is  to  be  round  in  Eichhorn  or  Paulus.  Moses  is 
Sdid  to  he  insuired  in  the  same  sense  as  other  good 


men ;  and  in  regard  to  his  purpose,  it  is  affirmed  that 
'  he  only  did  what  all  other  ancient  legislators  had 
done — required  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  implicit 
obedience  to  their  respective  laws,  and  for  that 
purpose  feigned  an  intercourse  with  the  Deity,  to 
make  that  obedience  more  palatable  to  the  credulous 
multitude.'  Miracles  are  explained  away  ;  and  the 
account  of  the  creation  in  Genesis  is  described  aa 
'a  most  beautiful  mythos  or  philosophical  fictiont 
contrived  with  great  wisdom,  and  dressed  up  in 
the  garb  of  real  histoiy.'  These  opinions  naturally 
enough  exposed  him  to  the  charge  of  infidelity,  and 
his  criticisms  were  described  as  'less  scurrilous, 
perhai)s,  but  not  less  impious  than  those  of  TI  omaa 
Paine.'  All  sorts  of  ecclesiastics  united  in  tlieir 
condemnation,  and  the  undoubted  effect  of  their 
hostility  was  to  crush  whatever  hopes  of  literary 
fame  G.  may  have  entertained.  He  died  at  London, 
26th  February  1802.  It  is  now  generally  admitted, 
even  by  those  who  have  no  sympathy  with  his 
views,  that  G.'s  translation  is  in  the  main  excellent, 
and  that  his  remarlcs  are  often  valuable.  His 
labours  have  unquestionably  advanced  the  science 
of  Biblical  Criticism.  Among  his  other  j)roduction3 
may  be  mentioned  a  poem  on  the  Confessional ;  the 
Battle  of  B — ng — r,  or  the  Church!  s  Triumph,  a 
comic-heroic  poem  in  nine  cantos  ;  and  Bardomachia^ 
or  the  Battle  of  the  Bards. 

GEDDES,  Janet,  known  in  Scottish  ecclesias- 
tical history  as  '  Jenny  Geddes,'  has  had  her  name 
transmitted  as  the  person  who  took  a  prominent 
part  in  resisting  the  introduction  of  the  Liturgy 
or  Service-book  into  the  Church  of  Scotland  in 
1637.  The  circumstances  were  these.  Sunday, 
23d  July  1637,  was  the  day  fixed  for  this  innova- 
tion, so  obnoxious  to  the  Scottish  Presbyterians, 
and  an  immei^se  crowd  tilled  the  High  Church  of 
St  Giles's,  Ediubxirgh,  on  the  occasion.  On  the 
Dean  of  Edinburgh  beginning  to  read,  his  voice  was 
lost  in  a  tumultuous  shout,  and  an  old  woman, 
said  to  have  been  one  Jenny  G.,  who  kept  a  green- 
stall  in  the  High  Street,  bawling  out:  '"Villain! 
dost  thou  say  mass  at  my  lug?'  (that  is,  ear), 
laimched  her  stool  at  the  dean's  head.  Universal 
confusion  ensued,  and  the  dean,  throwing  off  hia 
surplice,  fled,  to  save  his  life.  The  Bishop  of 
Edinburgh,  on  attempting  to  appease  the  storm, 
was  assailed  by  a  volley  of  sticks,  stones,  and  other 
missiles,  accompanied  by  cries  and  threats  that 
effectually  silenced  him.  This  tumult  prov^ed  the 
deathblow  of  the  liturgy  in  Scotland.  It  has  been 
doubted,  however,  if  there  ever  was  such  a  i)erson 
as  Jenny  Geddes.  In  1756,  a  citizen  of  Edinburgh, 
of  the  name  of  Robert  Mein  (who  died  in  1776), 
known  for  his  exertions  for  the  improvement  of 
his  native  city,  pubHshed  a  tract  called  Tlie  Cross 
Removed,  Prelacy  and  Patronage  Disproved,  &c.,  in 
which  he  claims  the  exploit  of  Jeimy  G.  for  his 
great-grandmother,  '  the  worthy  Barbara  Hamilton, 
spouse  to  John  Mein,  merchant  and  postmaster  in 
Edinburgh,  who,  in  the  year  1637,  spoke  openly 
in  the  church  at  Edinburgh  against  Archbishop 
Laud's  new  Service-book,  at  its  first  reading  there, 
which  stopped  their  proceedings,  and  dismissed 
their  meeting,  so  that  it  never  obtained  in  our 
church  to  this  day.'  In  the  obituary  notice  of 
Robert  Mein,  Weekly  Magazine,  vol.  xxxix.,  and 
Scots  Magazine,  vol.  xxxvi.  (1776),  this  Barbara 
Hamilton  is  said  to  have  been  descended  from  the 
Hamiltons  of  Bardowie,  '  but  was  better  known  in 
our  history  by  the  name  of  Jenny  Geddes,  though 
called  so  erroneously.'  Jenny  G.'s  famous  stool  is 
said  to  have  been  burned  by  herself  in  the  bonflrea 
at  the  cross  of  Edinburgh  at  the  Restoration,  and 
what  has  been  called  hers  in  the  Museum  of  the 
Society  of  Antiquaries  at  Edinburgh,  has  no  clainj 


GEEFS— GEHENNA. 


to  that  name  beyond  gratuitous  conjecture.  See 
Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Ardiquaries  of  Scotland, 
vol  iii.  part  2,  pp.  179,  180. 

GEEFS,  GuiLLAUME,  a  Belgian  sculptor,  was 
bom  at  Antwerp,  on  the  10th  of  September  1806. 
After  studying  there  for  some  time,  he  went  to 
Paris,  where  he  worked  in  the  stiidio  of  M.  Eamey. 
During  the  revolution  of  1830,  he  quitted  Paris,  and 
returned  to  Belgium,  and  soon  after  executed  at 
Brassels  a  monument  to  the  memory  of  the  victims 
of  the  revolution  of  1830.  The  most  important  of 
his  other  works  are  a  '  Colossal  Marble  Statue  of 
King  Leopold ; '  *  Monument  to  Couut  Frederic  de 
Merode,'  now  in  the  cathedral  of  Brussels  ;  and 

*  Statue  of  General  Belliard,'  both  of  whom  fell  in 
the  revolution.  He  also  executed  a  group  entitled 
'Le  Lion  Amoureux,'  which  was  shewn  at  the 
Great  Exhibition  in  Paris  (1855).— Geefs,  Joseph, 
younger  brother  of  the  preceding,  and  born  in  1808, 
has  also  accpiired  a  reputation  as  a  sculptor.  He 
has  executed  a  number  of  statues,  of  which  two, 

*  Metabus  *  and  '  I'hierry  Maertens,'  were  shewn 
at  the  Exhibition  in  1855.  In  general  character, 
his  works  bear  a  considerable  resemblance  to  those 
of  his  brother. — Geefs,  Aloys,  youngest  brother  of 
the  preceding,  is  also  known  as  a  sculptor  by 
means  of  his  '  Eparainondas  Dying,'  '  Beatrix,'  and 
tlie  bas-rehefs  for  the  '  Ptubens'  of  his  eldest  brother. 
He  died  in  1841. 

GEEL,  Jakob,  a  distinguished  Dutch  scholar, 
was  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1789,  and  educated  at 
the  Athenoeum  of  that  city,  principally  under  Van 
Lennep.  After  living  at  the  Hague  from  the  year 
1811  as  a  family  tutoi-,  he  became  second  liljrarian 
at  Leyden  in  1823,  and  in  1833  head-librarian 
and  honorary  professor.  He  had  made  himself 
meanwhile  known  as  a  philologist  by  editions  of 
Hieocritus,  with  the  Scholia  (1820),  of  the  Anecdoia 
Hemsterhusiana  (1826),  of  the  Scholia  in  Suetonium 
of  Ivuhnken  (1828),  of  the  Excerpta  Vaticana  of  Poly- 
biiis  (1829) ;  and  liis  Historia  Critica  Sophisiarum 
Groicorum  (1823)  had  called  forth  several  treatises 
oa  the  same  subject  from  German  philologists. 
Fn  1840,  appeared  his  edition  of  the  Olympicus  of 
Dio  Chrysostom,  accompanied  by  a  Commentarius 
de  JReliqins  Diouis  Orationihiis ;  and  in  1846  he 
issued  the  Phoenissce  of  Euripides,  with  a  commen- 
tary, in  opposition  to  Hennann.  All  these  works, 
which  are  written  in  pure  and  pleasing  Latin,  are 
models  of  thorough  scholarship,  as  well  as  of  taste 
and  method.  G.  contributed  fui-ther  to  the  revival 
of  classical  learning  in  the  Netherlands  by  the 
establishment,  along  with  Bak,  Pcorlkamp,  and 
Hamaker,  of  the  Bihliotheca  Critica  Nova,  in  1825. 
The  national  literature  is  also  indebted  to  him  not 
only  for  the  translation  of  German  and  English 
works  into  Dutch,  but  also  for  original  treatises 
on  various  jesthetical  subjects.  He  has,  moreover, 
won  the  gratitude  of  the  learned  throughout  Europe 
by  his  hberality  as  a  librarian,  and  especially  by 
his  valuable  Cataloijus  Codicum  Manuscriptorum, 
qui  inde  ab  Anno  1741  Bibliothecce  Lugduni  Bata- 
vorum  accesserunt  (1852). 

GEELO'NG,  a  flourishing  city  of  Victoria,  Aus- 
tralia, stands  at  the  head  of  the  westerly  arm  of  Port 
Philip.  It  is  about  45  miles  to  the  south-west  of 
Melbourne,  the  capital  of  the  colony,  with  which  it 
has,  since  1855,  been  connected  by  a  railway,  the  in- 
termediate space  being  said  to  be  one  of  the  finest 
levels  for  the  purpose  in  the  world.  Telegrnphic  com- 
munication has  also  been  established  with  Melbourne, 
Ballarat,  and,  since  1857,  with  the  other  gold-fields. 
It  was  in  1851  that  the  gold-fields  of  the  neighbour- 
hood were  discovered.  Even  before  this  G.  had  be- 
come a  flourishing  place  as  one  of  the  principal  seats 
656 


of  the  wool  trade.  This  city  has,  indeed,  the  credit 
of  establishing  the  first  woollen  mill  in  Victoria,  and 
for  this  it  received  the  government  award  of  £1500. 
G.  is  lighted  with  gas,  and  is  supplied  with  water 
from  the  river  Borwon.  There  are  four  jetties  in 
Corio  Bay,  alongside  which  ships  of  the  largest  ton- 
nage can  load  and  discharge,  since  the  bar  at  the  en- 
trance has  been  removed,  to  a  depth  of  21  foot  6 
inches,  at  a  cost  of  £60,000.  The  Australian  Meat- 
Preserving  Company,  on  the  banks  of  the  Borwon,  is 
noted  for  the  excellence  of  its  productions  and  the 
efficiency  of  its  commercial  management;  on  this 
river  there  is  also  one  of  the  largest  tanneries  in  the 
colony  of  Victoria.  The  country  surrounding  G.  is 
of  a  fine  agricultural  description,  being  taken  up  Avith 
farms,  vineyards,  and  orchards ;  while  the  Barabool 
hills,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Borwon,  are  very  fer- 
tile. The  Geelovg  Advertiser  is  an  old  and  well-con- 
ducted paper ;  "  the  Nev^s  of  the  Week  is  also  a 
very  good  paper.  Pop.,  including  suburbs  (1871), 
14,897. 

GE'FLl^,  an  important  town  of  Sweden,  chieJ 
town  of  the  Iren  of  the  same  name,  is  situated  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river  Gefle,  on  an  inlet  of  the  Gulf 
of  Bothnia,  about  100  miles  north-north-west  of 
Stockholm.  The  stream  upon  which  it  stands  is 
divided  into  three  branches,  forming  two  islands, 
which  are  imited  by  bridges  with  the  right  and  left 
banks  of  the  river,  and  form  portions  of  the  town. 
G.  ranks  third  among  the  commercial  towns  of 
Sweden ;  Stockholm  and  Gi3teborg  alone  possessing 
a  more  extensive  trade.  The  chief  buildings  are  a 
gymnasium  ;  a  castle,  imposingly  situated ;  a  court- 
lioiise,  which  is  considered  one  of  the  finest  in 
Sweden;  a  good  public  library,  and  an  excellent 
harbour.  G.  carries  on  ship-building  to  some  extent, 
and  has  manufactures  of  sail-cloth,  linen,  leather, 
tobacco,  and  sugar.  Its  exports  are  iron,  timber, 
tar,  flax,  and  linen,  and  its  imports  chiefly  corn  and 
salt.    Pop.  in  1872,  15,613 

GEHE'NNA  is  the  Greek  form  of  the  Hebrew 
Ge-hinnom  ('  Valley  of  Hinnom '),  or  Ge-hen-IIiyinom 
('Valley  of  the  Son  of  Hinnom').  This  valley,  or 
rather  gorge — for  it  is  described  as  very  narrow, 
mth  steep  and  rocky  sides — lies  south  and  west  of 
the  city  of  Jerusalem.  Here  Solomon  built  a  high 
place  for  Molech  (1  Kings  xi.  7),  and,  in  fact,  G. 
would  appear  to  have  become  a  favourite  spot 
with  the  later  Jewish  kings  for  the  celebration 
of  idolatrous  rites.  It  was  here  that  Ahaz  and 
Manasseh  made  their  children  pass  through  the 
fire,  '  according  to  the  abomination  of  the  heathen ; ' 
and  at  its  south-east  extremity,  specifically  desig- 
nated Tophet  ('  place  of  burning '),  the  hideous 
practice  of  infant  sacrifice  to  the  fire-gods  was  not 
unknown  (Jeremiah  vii.  31).  When  King  Josiah 
came  forward  as  the  restorer  of  the  old  and  pure 
national  faith,  he  '  defiled '  the  Valley  of  Hinnom  by 
covering  it  with  human  bones,  and  after  this  it 
appears  to  have  become  '  the  common  cesspool  of 
the  city,  into  which  its  sewage  was  conducted,  to  be 
carried  off  by  the  waters  of  the  Kidron,  as  well  as 
a  laystall,  where  all  its  sohd  filth  was  collected. 
Hence,  it  became  a  huge  nest  of  insects,  whose 
larvse  or  "worms"  fattened  on  the  corruption.'  It  is 
also  said  that  fires  were  kept  constantly  burning 
here,  to  consume  the  bodies  of  criminals,  the  car- 
casses of  animals,  and  whatever  other  ofFal  might 
be  combustible.  Among  the  later  Jews,  G.  and 
Tophet  came  to  be  regarded  as  symbols  of  hell 
and  torment,  and  in  this  sense  the  former  word  is 
frequently  employed  by  our  Saviour  in  the  New 
Testament.  For  example,  in  Mark  ix.  47,  48,  ho 
says:  'It  is  better  for  thee  to  enter  into  the  king* 
dom  of  God  with  one  eye,  than  having  two  eyes,  to 


GEIBEL— GEJER. 


be  cast  into  hell-fire  [Gehenna] ;  where  their  worm 
dieth  not,  and  the  fire  is  not  quenched.' 

GEIBEL,  Emanuel,  one  of  the  most  popular  of 
the  living  poets  of  Germany,  was  born  at  LUbeck, 
on  the  18th  October  1815.  After  receiving  the 
rudiments  of  education  at  the  high  school  of  his 
native  town,  he  completed  his  studies  at  the  univer- 
sity of  Bonn.  In  183G,  he  went  to  Berlin,  where 
he  became  acquainted  with  Chamisso,  Gaudy,  and 
Kugler.  Two  years  afterwards,  he  obtained  a  tutor- 
ship in  the  family  of  the  Russian  ambassador  at 
Athens,  where  he  continued  to  prosecute  his  scien- 
tific and  poetical  studies.  On  his  return  to  Liibeck 
in  1840,  he  worked  up  the  material  he  had  collected 
in  Greece,  and  became,  in  addition,  a  diligent  student 
of  Italian  and  Spanish  literature.  Soon  after  the 
publication  of  his  first  poems,  a  pension  of  300 
thalers  a  year  was  bestowed  upon  him  by  the 
king  of  Prussia.  G.  now  resided  alternately^  at  St 
Goar  on  the  Rhine  with  Freiligrath,  at  Stuttgart, 
Hanover,  Berlin,  and  Liibeck ;  tiU,  in  the  spring  of 
1852,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  festhetics  in  the 
university  of  Munich  by  the  king  of  Bavaria.  In 
conjunction  with  Curtius,  he  pubhshedhis  Glassische 
Studien  (Bonn,  1840),  containing  translations  from 
the  Greek  poets.  These  were  followed  in  the  same 
year  by  his  Gedichte  (Berlin,  1840,  28th  edit.  1852), 
the  melody,  artistic  beauty,  and  decidedly  religious 
tone  of  which,  made  them  at  once  great  favourites 
with  the  Germans.  The  results  of  his  Spanish 
studies  were  the  Spanischen  Volkslieder  undRoman- 
zen  (Berlin,  1843),  which  w^ere  followed  by  the 
Spanische  Liederbuch  (Berlin,  1852),  published  in 
conjimction  with  Paul  Heyse.  In  1857  appeared 
his  tragedy  of  Brunehilde.  His  poems  are  distin- 
guished by  fervour  and  truth  of  feeling,  richness  of 
fancy,  and  a  certain  pensive  melancholy,  .lud  have 
procured  him  a  popidarity — especially  among  culti- 
vated women — such  as  no  poet  of  Germany  has 
enjoyed  since  the  days  of  Uhland. 

GEIGER,  Abraham,  rabbi  in  Breslau,  was  born 
at  Frankfurt-on-the-Maine,  May  24, 1810.  According 
to  old  rabbinical  practice,  his  teachers  were  his 
father  and  elder  brother,  till  he  reached  the  age  of 
eleven.  After  that,  having  received  a  more  regular 
education  for  some  years,  he  went,  in  1829,  to  the 
university  of  Heidelberg,  and  shortly  afterwards  to 
that  of  Bonn.  While  engaged  there  in  the  study  of 
philosophy  and  of  the  Oriental  languages,  he  gained 
a  prize  for  an  essay  on  the  Jewish  sources  of  the 
Koran,  which  at  a  later  period  api)eared  in  print 
under  the  title,  Was  hat  Mohammed  aus  dem  Juden- 
thum  aufgenommen?  (Bonn,  1833).  In  November 
1832,  he  was  called  as  rabbi  to  Wiesbaden,  and 
there,  under  the  impulse  to  the  scientific  study  of 
Judaism  which  proceeded  from  Berlin,  he  devoted 
himself  zealously  to  Jewish  theology,  especially  in 
its  relation  to  practical  life.  In  1835,  he  joined  with 
several  able  men  in  editing  the  Zeitsdirift  fur 
JMbche,  Th.eoloyle.  The  spirit  of  inquiry,  however, 
with  wl  jh  he  discussed  prevalent  opinions  and 
usages,  brought  him  into  collision  with  the  con- 
eervative  Jews,  especially  after  1838,  when  he 
became  assessor  of  the  rabbinate  at  Breslau ;  but 
the  great  majority  of  educated  men  in  the  sect  con- 
tinued attached  to  him.  It  was  he  who  gave  the 
first  impulse  to  the  celebrated  assemblies  of  the 
rabbis,  three  of  which  have  been  held  since  1844  at 
Brunswick,  Frankfurt-on-the-Maine,  and  Breslau. 
At  the  second  of  these  he  was  vice-president,  and 
president  at  the  third.  Though  G.  thus  took  an 
active  part  in  the  reform  movement,  he  could  not 
abandon  his  historical  point  of  view,  which  made 
him  im willing  to  break  entirely  with  the  past ;  and 
therefore  he  refused  a  call  to  be  preacher  to  the 
108 


Berlin  Reform  Society.  Besides  sermons,  pamphlets, 
and  numerous  contributions  to  the  above-mentioned 
periodical,  G.  published  some  historical  monographs, 
which  are  distinguished  by  thoroughness  of  investi- 
gation and  many-sided  learning.  Among  these  may 
be  mentioned  the  Mdo  Cliofnajim  (Berlin,  1840),  on 
Joseph  Salomo  del  Medigo,  and  the  HUe  Haamamm 
(Berlin,  1847),  on  the  exegetical  school  of  Northern 
France.  His  Lehr-  und  Lesehv/^h  zur  Sprache  der 
Mischna  (1845)  also  is  of  great  value  to  the  Oriental 
philologist.  In  1850  appeared  the  first  number 
of  Studien  on  Moses-Ben-Mairaon ;  and  in  1851, 
a  translation  of  the  Divan  of  the  CastUian  Ahu'l- 
Hassan  Juda  Jui-Levi,  accompanied  by  a  biography 
of  the  poet  and  explanatory  remarks.  Besides 
some  specimens  of  Jewish  medieval  apologetics, 
contributed  to  Brcslauer's  Jahrbuch  in  1851 — 1852, 
G.  more  recently  published  Urschrifl  und  Ueberset- 
zungen  der  Bibel  in  ihrer  Abhdnr/igkeit  von  der  in 
neren  Entwickelung  des  Jiidenthnms  (1857);  Das 
Judenthum  und  seine  Geschichte  (1864 — 1865);  Un- 
ser  GoUes-dienst ;  Bine  Frage  die  dringend  Losung 
Verlangt  (1868).    He  died  in  1874. 

GEILER  VON  KAISERSBERG,  Johann,  a 
famous  pidpit-orator  of  Germany,  was  born  at 
Schafi'hausen,  16th  March  1455;  studied  at  Freiburg 
and  Basel,  where  he  obtained  his  degree  of  D.D. ; 
and  in  1478  became  preacher  in  the  cathedral  of 
Strasburg,  where  he  died,  10th  March  1510.  G, 
ranks  amon^  the  most  learned  and  original  men  of 
his  age.  His  sermons,  usually  composed  in  Latin 
and  delivered  in  German,  are  marked  by  great 
eloquence  and  earnestness  ;  nor  do  they  disdain  the 
aids  of  wit,  sarcasm,  and  ridicule.  Vivid  pictures 
of  life,  warmth  of  feeling,  and  a  bold,  even  rough 
morality,  are  their  leading  characteristics.  In  fact, 
G.'s  ethical  zeal  often  urged  him  to  a  pungency  of 
satire  hardly  in  keeping  with  modern  views  of  the 
dignity  of  the  pulpit,  but  quite  congruous  with 
the  taste  of  his  own  age.  His  style  is  vigorous, 
free,  and  Hvely,  and  in  many  respects  he  may  be 
regarded  as  a  sort  of  predecessor  of  Abraham  a 
Sancta-Clara.  Of  his  writings,  which  have  now 
become  very  rare,  may  be  mentioned  Narrenschiff 
(Lat.,  Strasb.  1511 ;  Ger.  by  Pauli,  1520),  comprising 
412  sermons  on  Sebastian  Brandt's  (q.  v.)  NarreU' 
schiff;  Das  Irrig  Schaf  (Strasb.  1510)  ;  Der  Seelen 
Paradiess  (Strasb.  1510) ;  Das  Schiff  der  Ponitens 
und  Busswirhung  (Augsb.  1511) ;  Das  Buch  Gran- 
atapfel  (Strasb.  1511) ;  Ghristl'iche  Pilgerscliaft  zum 
Ewigen  Vaterland  (Basel,  1512);  Das  Evangelienbuch 
(Strasb.  1515) ;  and  Das  Buch  Von  S'dnden  des 
Mundes  (Strasb.  1518).  Compare  Ammon's  G.  Von 
K  alsersberg'' s  Leben,  Lehr  en  und  Predigten  (Erl, 
1826),  and  Meick's  Joh.  G.  Von  Kaisersberg.  Sei» 
Leben  und  Seine  Schriften  in  einer  Ausnmhl  (3  vols., 
Fkf.  1829). 

GEJER,  Eric  Gustaf,  one  of  the  most  distin- 
guished historians  of  Sweden,  Avas  born  at  Ransatter, 
in  the  Swedish  Isen  of  Wermland,  in  1783.  Ho 
was  sent,  at  the  age  of  16,  to  the  university  of 
Upsala ;  and  in  1803  he  competed  successfully  for 
the  prize  which  was  that  year  awarded  by  th'^ 
Academy  of  Stockholm  for  the  best  essay  on  the 
life  and  character  of  the  great  Swedish  admini- 
strator, Sten  Sture.  This  was  the  turnmg-point  of 
his  life,  for  from  this  period  he  began  to  devota 
himself  mth  zealous  industry  to  the  study  of  the 
history  of  his  native  country.  His  assiduity  was 
rewarded  by  his  speedy  nomination  to  a  post  in. 
the  Chamber  of  the  National  Archives,  and  in  1810 
he  was  elected  assistant  to  Fant,  the  professor  of 
history  in  the  university  of  Upsala,  and  in  1817,  on 
the  death  of  the  latter,  he  succeeded  to  his  cliair, 
G.'s   early  lectures  were  listened  to    with  tlie 


GELA-GELATIGENOUS  TISSUES  AND  GELATINE. 


profoundest  i.itercst,  both  by  his  students  and  the 
public  ai  large,  who  crowded  to  his  lecture-room ; 
but  at  a  subsequent  period  of  his  teaching,  his 
popularity  diminished  in  proportion  to  the  increased 
profundity  of  his  views  ;  while  the  suspicion  that 
he  harboured  sceptical  notions  in  regard  to  the 
Trinity,  brought  him  into  disfavour  with  a  certain 

Eoition  of  the  community.  These  suspicions  led  to 
is  denunciation  to  the  university  authorities ;  but 
the  examination  to  which  the  charges  against  him 
gave  rise  terminated  in  his  acquittal,  and  were 
even  followed  by  the  offer  of  a  bishopric,  which, 
however,  he  declined.  G.  exercised  a  marked 
influence  on  the  poetic  no  less  than  the  historical 
literature  of  Sweden,  and  according  to  the  testimony 
of  his  countrymen,  his  Sista  Skalden,  Vikingen, 
Odalbondcn,  and  other  heroic  pieces,  place  him  in 
the  foremost  rank  of  Swedish  poets.  He  and  his 
friends  Adlei:beth,  Tegner,  and  Nikander,  adhered 
to  the  '  Gothic '  school  of  poetry,  which  owed  its 
origin  to  '  the  Society  of  the  Goths,'  whicli  they  and 
several  of  their  friends  established  as  early  as  1810, 
when  they  brought  out  in  connection  with  it  a 
magazine  entitled  the  Iduna,  in  which  first  appeared 
several  of  G.'s  best  poems,  and  among  other  produc- 
tions of  merit,  the  eai-ly  cantos  of  Tegner's  Fr'Uhiof. 
Great  as  is  the  value  of  G.'s  historical  works,  he 
unfortunately  did  not  complete  any  one  of  the  vast 
undertakings  which  he  planned.  Thus,  for  instance, 
of  the  Svea  It  ike's  Hd/der,  or  Eecords  of  Sweden, 
which  were  to  have  embraced  the  history  of  his 
native  country  from  mythical  ages  to  the  present 
time,  he  finished  only  the  introductory  volume, 
tfis  next  gxeat  work,  Svenska  Folkets  Jlistoria,  which 
was  intended  to  form  one  of  the  series  of  European 
histories,  edited  by  Leo  and  Uckert,  was  not  carried 
beyond  the  death  of  Queen  Christina  ;  yet  incom- 
plete as  they  are,  these  works  rank  among  the 
most  valuable  contributions  to  Swedish  history.  To 
G.  was  intrusted  the  task  of  examining  and  editing 
the  papers  which  Gustavus  III.  had  bequeathed 
to  the  university  of  Upsala,  with  the  stipulation 
that  they  were  not  to  be  opened  for  fifty  years 
after  his  death.  In  fulfilment  of  his  charge,  G. 
arranged  these  papers  in  a  work,  which  appeared  in 
1843  imder  the  title  of  Gustaf  III.^s  efterlemnada 
Fappe)',  and  which,  from  the  worthless  nature  of 
the  contents,  disappointed  the  expectations  of  the 
nation,  who  had  been  led  to  hope  that  their  pub- 
lication would  reveal  state  secrets  of  importance. 
During  the  last  ten  years  of  his  life,  G.  took  an 
active  part  in  politics ;  but  although  his  political 
tvritings  possess  great  merit,  the  very  versatility 
of  his  powers  diverted  him  from  applying  them 
methodically  to  the  complete  elaboration  of  any 
one  great  object.  G.  was  known  to  his  countrymen 
as  a  musician  and  composer  of  no  mean  order.  He 
lived  on  terms  of  friendly  intercourse  with  Ber- 
nadotte,  and  his  numerous  letters  to  the  king  form 
part  of  the  Samlade  Skrifter,  or  collective  works, 
which  have  been  published  since  his  death  by  his 
son,  who  has  appended  to  this  edition,  which  was 
completed  in  1853,  an  interesting  biographical  sketch 
of  his  distinguished  father.    G.  died  in  1847. 

GELA,  in  ancient  times,  a  very  important  town, 
on  the  southern  coast  of  Sicily,  on  the  river  of  the 
same  name.  It  was  founded  by  a  Hhodian  and 
Cretan  colony,  690  b.  c.  Its  rapid  prosperity  may 
be  inferred  from  the  circumstance,  that  as  early  as 
the  year  582  B,  c,  Agrigentimi  was  founded  by  a 
colony  from  Gela.  After  Cleander  had  made  himself 
tyrant  in  the  year  505  b.  c,  the  colony  reached  its 
highest  pitch  of  power  under  his  brother  Hippocrates, 
who  subdued  almost  the  whole  of  Sicily,  with  the 
exception  of  Syracuse.  Gelon,  the  successor  of  Hip- 
pocrates, pursued  the  same  career  of  conquest,  and 


Syracuse  itself  fell  into  his  hands,  and  was  even  made 
his  principal  residence,  G.  being  committed  to  the 
government  of  his  brother  Hiero.  After  many  vicis- 
situdes during  the  Carthaginian  wars  in  Sicily,  it 
ultimately  fell  into  decay.  Its  ruin  was  completed 
by  Phintias,  tyrant  of  Agrigentum,  who,  a  little 
before  280  b.  c,  removed  the  inhabitants  to  a  town 
in  the  neighbourhood,  which  he  had  founded,  and  to 
which  he  gave  his  own  name.  Its  site  is  generally 
believed  to  be  occupied  by  Terra  Nova,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  river  now  known  as  Fiume  di  Terranova. 

GELATI'GENOUS  TISSUES  and  GE'LA- 
TINE.  The  gelatigenous  tissues  are  substances 
resembling  the  proteine-bodies  (albumen,  fibi-ine,  and 
caseine)  in  containing  carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen, 
oxygen,  and  sulphur ;  but  differing  from  them  in 
containing  more  nitrogen  and  less  carbon  and 
sulphur.  They  consist  of  two  principal  varieties, 
viz.,  those  which  yield  gluten  (or  ordinary  (jelut'me) 
and  those  which  yield  chondrine. 

Gluten  is  obtained  by  more  or  less  prolonged 
boiling  with  water,  from  the  organic  matter  of  bone 
(the  osseine  of  Fr^my),  from  tendons,  skin,  cellular 
tissue,  white  fibrous  tissue,  the  air-bladder  and 
scales  of  fishes,  calves'  feet,  hartshorn,  &c. ;  while 
chondrine  is  similarly  obtained  from  the  permanent 
cartilages,  from  bone-cartilage  before  ossification, 
from  enchondromatous  tumours,  &c. 

Neither  gluten  nor  chondrine  appears  to  exist  aa 
such  in  the  animal  body,  but  is  in  all  cases  the  lesult 
of  the  prolonged  action  of  boiling  water  on  the 
above-named  tissues.  Fr^my's  analyses  (see  his 
Eecherches  Chimuines  sur  les  Os,  in  the  Ann.  de  Chlm. 
et  de  Phys.,  1855,  vol.  xliii.,  p.  51)  shew  that  osseine 
is  isomeric  with  the  gluten  which  it  yields,  and 
further,  that  the  amount  of  gluten  is  precisely  the 
same  as  that  of  the  osseine  which  yields  it. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  composition  of 
osseine  and  the  gluten  yielded  by  it  as  determined 
by  Fr6my,  and  that  of  chondrine  as  determined  by 
Mulder : 


Carbon,  .  . 

Hydrogen, .  . 
Nitrogen, 

Oxygen  with  a  little  Sulphur, 


Oiielne. 
49-21 
6-50 
1786 
2514 


Gluten. 

50  40 
fi-50 
17-50 
26  00 


Chondrine. 
4.9-97 

14  14 
28-97 


Gluten,  when  perfectly  pure  and  dry,  is  a  tough, 
translucent,  nearly  colourless  substance,  devoid  of 
odour  and  taste.  It  swells  when  placed  in  cold  water, 
and  loses  its  translucency ;  but  in  boiling  water  it 
dissolves,  and  forms  a  viscid  fluid,  which  on  cooling 
forms  a  jelly.  A  watery  solution  containing  only 
1  per  cent,  of  gluten,  gelatinises  on  cooling.  Tliis 
property  is  destroyed  both  by  very  prolonged  boiling 
and  by  the  action  of  concentrated  acetic  acid. 
Gluten  is  insoluble  in  alcohol  and  in  ether. 

A  solution  of  gluten  is  abundantly  precipitated  by 
solutions  of  corrosive  sublimate  and  of  bichloride  of 
platinum,  as  well  as  by  infusion  of  galls,  of  which 
the  active  principle  is  tannin  or  tannic  acid  (the 
terms  being  synonymous).  Tannic  acid  produces, 
even  in  very  dilute  solutions,  a  copious  yellow  or 
buff-coloured  precipitate  of  tannate  of  gluten.  The 
gelatigenous  tissues  unite  in  a  similar  manner  with 
tannin ;  they  extract  it  from  its  watery  solutions, 
and  form  compounds  with  it  which  resist  the  action 
of  putrefaction.  It  is  thus  that  hides  are  converted 
into  Leather  (q.  v.).  The  tests  which  we  have  men- 
tioned also  precipitate  albumen,  but  gluten  may  be 
distinguished  from  albumen  by  its  not  being  tlu'OAvn 
down  (as  is  the  case  with  albumen)  by  the  addition 
of  ferro-cyanide  of  potassium  together  with  a  little 
acetic  acid.  The  gelatinising  property  also  serves 
to  distinguish  gluten  when  it  amounts  to  1  per  cent, 
or  more  of  the  solution. 

On  exposm-e  to  the  atmosphere,  gluten  becomes 


GELATIGENOUS  TISSUES— GELATINE. 


mure  rapidly  putrid  than  almost  any  other  animal 
BUustauce.  Under  the  influence  of  oxydising  agents, 
it  fields  the  same  products  as  the  proteine-bodies ; 
treated  with  the  mineral  acids  or  with  alkalies,  it 
yields  Glycocine  (q.  v.) — known  also  as  glycine, 
glycocoU,  and  sugar  of  gelatine — Leucine  (q.  v.),  and 
otiier  products. 

Isinglass,  which  is  prepared  from  the  air-bladder 
of  the  sturgeon,  &c.,  when  boiled  with  water,  fur- 
nishes gluten  in  a  nearly  pure  state.  Glue  and 
size  are  two  well  known  forms  of  impure  gluten  or 
gelatine. 

Chondrine  resembles  gluten  in  its  physical  pro- 
perties, and  especially  in  its  property  of  gelatinising. 
It  difiPers,  however,  slightly  from  it  in  chemical 
composition  (see  the  above  table),  and  in  its  behaviour 
towards  reagents.  For  instance,  acetic  acid,  alum, 
and  the  ordinary  metallic  salts  of  silver,  copper, 
lead,  &c.,  which  produce  no  apparent  effect  on  a 
solution  of  gluten,  throw  down  a  precipitate  from  a 
solution  of  chondrine ;  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
(Corrosive  sublimate,  which  precipitates  gluten  freely, 
merely  induces  a  turbidity  in  a  solution  of  chondrine. 

We  do  not  know  much  regarding  the  physiological 
relations  of  these  substances.  Gluten  (according  to 
Scherer)  usually  exists  in  the  juice  of  the  spleen, 
but  in  no  other  part  of  the  healthy  animal  body  ;  it 
is  sometimes  found  in  the  blood  in  cases  of  leucocy- 
thaemia,  in  pus,  and  in  the  expressed  juice  of  can- 
cerous tumours.  Chondrine  has  been  found  in  pus. 
The  gelatigenous  tissues  rank  low  in  the  scale  of 
organisation,  and  their  uses  are  almost  entirely  of  a 
physical  character.  Thus  they  form  strong  jioints 
of  connection  for  muscles  (the  tendons),  they  mode- 
rate shocks  by  their  elasticity  (the  cartilages),  they 
protect  the  body  from  rapid  changes  of  tempera- 
ture by  their  bad  conducting  power  (the  skin),  and 
they  are  of  service  through  their  transj)arency  (the 
cornea). 

GELATINE,  in  Technology.  This  term,  althoiigh 
usually  applied  to  only  one  variety  of  the  sub- 
stance, obtained  by  dissolving  the  soluble  portion 
of  the  gelatinous  tissues  of  animals,  nevertheless 
properly  belongs  also  to  Isinglass  and  Glue,  which 
are  modilications  of  the  same  material.  Vegetable 
jelly  is  also  analogous,  and  will  be  mentioned  under 
this  head. 

Gelatine  and  glue  signify  the  more  or  less  pure 
and  carefully  prepared  jelly  of  mammalian  animals, 
but  the  term  isinglass  is  only  applied  to  certain 
gelatinoiis  parts  of  fishes,  which  from  their  exceeding 
richness  in  gelatine,  are  usually  merely  dried  and 
used  without  any  other  preparation  than  that  of 
minute  division  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  their 
action. 

Gelatine  (proper)  is  prepared  for  commercial 
pur])oses  from  a  variety  of  animal  substances,  but 
chiefly  from  the  softer  parts  of  the  hides  of  oxen 
and  calves  and  the  skins  of  sheep,  such  as  the  thin 
portion  which  covers  the  belly,  the  ears,  &c. ;  also 
from  bones  and  other  parts  of  animals. 

One  of  the  best,  if  not  the  best  of  the  varieties 
of  gelatine  manufactured  in  Great  Britain,  is  that 
made  by  Messrs  Cox  of  Gor^ie,  near  Edinburgh, 
which  is  remarkable  for  its  great  purity  and 
Strength,  or  gelatinising  power  ;  they  call  it  '  spark- 
ling' gelatine  from  its  beautiful  bright  transparency, 
an(l  its  purification  is  effected  by  certain  processes 
which  they  ha^'o  patented.  The  materials  they  use 
are  carefully  selected  portions  of  ox  and  calf  hides. 
Another  preparation,  made  by  Mr.  Mackay,  of  Edin- 
burgh (pharmaceutical  chemist),  is  deserving  of  spe- 
cial mention,  as  it  is  prepared  with  the  gi-catest  care 
fr<)m  calves'  feet,  and  is  es])eciully  adapted  for  invalids. 
It  is  made  on  a  limited  scale,  and  only  for  a  few  lead- 
ing chemists. 


The  general  method  adopted  with  skin-parings  or 
hide-clippings,  is  first  to  wash  the  pieces  very  care- 
fully ;  they  are  then  cut  into  small  pieces  and  placed 
in  a  weak  solution  of  caustic  soda  for  a  week  or 
ten  days,  the  solution  being  kept  moderately  warm 
by  means  of  steam-pipes.  When  this  process  of 
digestion  has  been  sufficiently  carried  on,  the  pieces 
of  skin  are  then  removed  into  an  air-tight  chamber 
lined  with  cement,  and  here  they  are  kept  for  a 
time,  determined  according  to  the  skill  of  the  manu- 
facturer and  the  kind  of  material  employed,  at  a 
temperature  of  70"  F.  They  are  next  transferred 
to  revolving  cylinders  supplied  with  an  abundance 
of  clean  cold  water,  and  afterwards  ai-e  placed  still 
wet  in  another  chamber  lined  with  wood,  in  which 
they  are  bleached  and  purified  by  exposure  to  the 
fumes  of  burning  sulphur ;  they  next  receive  their 
final  washing  with  cold  water,  which  removes  the 
sulphurous  acid.  The  next  operation  is  to  squeeze 
them  as  dry  as  possible,  and  transfer  them  to  the 
gelatinising  pots,  which  are  large  earthen  vessels, 
enclosed  in  w^ooden  cases,  made  steam-tight.  Water 
is  poured  in  with  the  pieces,  and  kept  at  a  high 
temperature  by  means  of  the  steam  in  the  case«i 
sun'ounding  the  pots. 

By  this  means  the  gelatine  is  quite  dissolved  out 
of  the  skin,  and  is  strained  off  whilst  still  hot ;  it  is 
poured  out  in  thin  layers,  which  as  soon  as  they 
are  sufficiently  cooled  and  consolidated,  are  cut 
into  small  plates,  usually  oblong,  and  laid  on  nets, 
stretched  horizontally,  to  dry.  The  cross-markings 
observable  on  the  plates  of  gelatine,  in  the  shops, 
are  the  marks  left  by  the  meshes  of  the  nets. 

Another  process,  introduced  by  Mr  Swineburne, 
consists  in  treating  pieces  of  calf-skin  by  water 
alone,  without  the  soda  and  sul})hur  jirocesses ;  the 
pieces,  after  simple  w\ashing,  being  transfei-red  at 
once  to  the  pots  to  be  acted  upon  by  the  steam ; 
undoubtedly,  this  is  the  purest,  but  the  expense  of 
preparing  it  prevents  its  general  use.  Inferior 
gelatine  is  made  from  bones  and  other  parts  of 
animals,  and  it  was  stated  by  an  eminent  authority, 
that  in  Paris  the  enormous  number  of  rats  w^hich 
are  occasionally  killed  in  the  sew^ers  and  abattoirs, 
after  being  deprived  of  their  skins,  which  are 
reserved  for  other  purposes,  are  all  used  by  the 
gelatine-makers.  These  materials  are  placed  in 
cages  of  wire,  which  are  placed  in  steam-tight  boxes, 
where  they  are  submitted  to  the  direct  action  of 
steam  of  223°  F.,  but  at  a  low  pressure  ;  and  cold 
water,  supplied  by  another  pipe  through  the  upper 
part  of  the  box,  is  allowed  to  flow"  slowly  and 
percolate  through  the  contents  of  the  cage,  the 
water  and  condensed  steam  descend  to  the  bottom 
charged  \vith  gelatine,  and  are  draw^n  off"  by  a  stop- 
cock placed  there  for  the  purpose. 

The  French  manufacturers  succeed  better  than 
any  others  in  clarifying  these  inferior  gelatines,  and 
they  rarely  make  any  others  ;  they  run  their  plates 
out  very  thin,  which  gives  them  greater  trans- 
parency and  apparent  freedom  from  colour ;  and 
they  colour  them  with  most  brilliant  colours,  and 
form  very  fine-rolled  sheets,  tempting  the  eye 
with  an  appearance  of  great  delicacy  and  purity, 
which  would  at  once  disappear  if  the  material  were 
made  up  into  the  thicker  plates  of  the  British 
manufacturers. 

The  purity  of  gelatine  may  be  very  easily  tested  ; 
thus  :  pour  upon  dry  gelatine  a  small  quantity  of 
boiling  water,  if  pure  it  will  form  a  thickish  gluey 
colourless  solution,  free  from  smell ;  but  if  made  of 
impure  materials,  it  will  give  off  a  very  offensive 
odour,  and  have  a  yellow  gluey  consistency.  No 
article  manufactured  requires  such  careful  selection 
of  material  and  such  nice  and  cleanly  manipulation 
to  insure  a  good  marketable  character;  and  those 


GELATINE. 


anxious  for  purity  should  avoid  all  artificially  col- 
oured varieties,  however  temptingly  got  up,  unless 
they  are  required  for  merely  decwative  purposes, 
and  not  for  food.  For  the  value  of  gelatine  as  food, 
see  Diet. 

Isinglass  (supposed  to  be  derived  from  the 
German  Hauaenhlase^  bladder  of  the  sturgeon), 
the  IchthyocoUa  {ichthiis,  a  fish ;  kollay  glue)  of 
the  classical  and  scientific  writers,  was  formerly 
obtained  only  from  the  common  sturgeon  (accipenser 
sturio),  and  consisted  of  the  dried  air-bladder  of 
the  animal.  The  necessities  of  modern  commerce 
have,  however,  led  to  the  discovery,  that  the  same 
part  in  many  other  fishes  forms  good  isinglass; 
and  instead  of  Russia,  as  formerly,  being  almost 
the  only  producing  country,  we  have  now  large 
quantities  from  South  America,  chiefly  imported 
from  Maranham,  some  from  the  East  Indies,  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Territory,  New  York,  and,  owing 
to  Professor  Owen  calling  the  attention  of  the 
Canadian  Commissioners  of  the  Exliibition  of  1851 
to  the  subject,  it  is  now  brought  in  considerable 
quantities  and  of  excellent  quality  from  Canada, 
where  it  is  likely  to  prove  a  source  of  profitable 
industry. 

The  commercial  varieties  of  this  material  are 
numerous,  and  a  thorough  knowledge  of  them  can 
only  be  obtained  by  considerable  personal  acquaint- 
ance with  them ;  therefore,  their  names  only  are 
given,  with  those  of  the  producing  animals  : 

Russia— 
Long  Staple  Ural,* 


1st  quality.' 

tr       It       tf         2d  u 
Short  Staple  Patriarch. 
Book  ratriarch,  1st 

It         II               2d  II 

Thin  leaf  Patriarch,  1st  ii 

i»         II         2d  II 

Belugo,         .         1st  11 

II         .         .2d  If 

The  brown  soiled  and  ragged 

ends  called  Pickings. 

Sisane,  leaf,         .  .  ! 

Kroski,  or  Krosky,    .  T 

Samovey,  leaf,      .    1st  quality, 


Accipenser  Guldcnstadtii 


Accipenser  Huso. 


1st 
2d 


ility.^ 


Silurus  Glanis  (I) 


Accipenser  Sturio  (?) 

f  Probably  a  species  of 
•  \  Pinielodus. 

{Probably    a    species  of 
Silurus. 


Probably    a    species  of 
Polyntmus. 


Accipenser. 
Gadus  Merlticcius. 
Accipenser  Sturio. 


II  staple, 
II  book. 
If  II 
Siberian,  Purse, 

South  America — 

Brazilian,  Pipe,  . 

Lamp, 

Honey-comb, 
East  Indies— 
East  Indian,  Purse,  . 
II      II  Leaf, 

North  America — 
Hudson's  Ray,  Purse, 
N2W  York,  Ribbon, 
Canadian,  leaf. 

Besides  these  now  well-known  commercial  varieties, 
others  are  occasionally  met  with,  as  the  Manilla,  in 
thin  cakes ;  the  Para,  which  is  the  most  remark- 
able of  all,  resembling  grapes  of  a  reddish-brown 
coloTir,  growing  from  a  straight  thick  stem ;  these 
are  the  dried  ova  of  the  Sudis  gigas,  a  large  fish 
common  in  the  mouths  of  the  Amazon.  An  inferior 
kind  is  also  made  of  cod-sounds  and  sole-skins, 
sufhcicLtly  good,  however,  to  be  used  in  fining  beer 
and  other  liquids. 

Oue  of  the  qualities  of  gelatine  is  its  power  to 
form  chemical  combinations  with  certain  organic 
matters ;  hence,  when  it  is  mixed  and  dissolved 
in  a  fluid  containing  such  matters,  it  combines, 
and  the  compound  is  precipitated.    It  would  appear 

•  So  called  from  the  bladder  being  purposely  bent  into  the 
form  of  a  ttaple  in  drying. 


that  this  combination,  however,  is  threadlike  in 
its  arrangement,  and  that  the  crossing  threads  form 
a  fine  net-work  through  the  fluid,  which,  in  fall- 
ing, carries  down  all  floating  substances,  which,  by 
their  presence,  render  the  liquid  cloudy ;  hence 
its  great  value  in  clarifying  beer  and  other  liquids. 
For  this  reason  isinglass,  which  has  been  fotind 
the  best  gelatine  for  the  purpose,  is  very  largely 
consumed  by  brewers. 

Isinglass,  strictly  speaking,  is  not  gelatine,  but  its 
only  7alue  is  from  the  excessive  proportion  of  gela- 
tine held  in  the  tissues  of  the  organ  which  yields 
it,  greatly  enhanced  by  the  ease  with  which  it  is 
abstracted  from  the  membrane  when  compared  with 
the  complicated  process  necessary  for  separating 
and  i^iirifying  the  gelatine  from  the  skins,  &c..  of 
other  animals.  When  separated,  however,  the 
substances  are  identical  in  composition,  and,  if  pure, 
are  undistinguishable  from  each  other. 

Besides  the  substances  mentioned  as  yielding 
gelatine,  formerly  hartshorn  shavings  were  used, 
and  ivory  turnings  and  saw-dust  are  still  em- 
ployed, both,  however,  chiefly  for  dietetic  purposes 
for  invalids ;  and  vai'ious  kinds  of  animal  food 
are  valued  for  the  abundance  of  gelatine  they 
contain,  as  the  Trei)ang  and  Beche  de  Mer  (speciei 
of  Holothuria),  sharks'  fins,  fish-maws,  ray-skins, 
elephant  hide,  rhinoceros  hide,  and  the  softer 
parts,  all  of  which  are  luxuries  amongst  the  Chinese, 
Japanese,  Siamese,  Malays,  &c.  Turtle-shells,  or 
the  upper  and  lower  parts  of  the  shield  {carapace 
and  plastron),  constitute  the  callipash  and  callipee 
of  the  epictire,  and  form,  in  the  hands  of  the  expe- 
rienced cook,  a  rich  gelatinous  soup.  The  fleshy 
parts  of  the  turtle,  calves'  head  and  feet,  and  many 
other  things,  might  be  enumerated  as  valuable, 
chiefly  in  consequence  of  their  richness  in  thia 
material. 

Glue  differs  only  from  gelatine  in  the  care  taken 
in  its  manufacture,  and  in  the  selection  of  the  mate- 
rials from  which  it  is  made ;  almost  every  animal 
substance  will  yield  it,  hence  all  kinds  of  animul 
refuse  finds  their  way  to  the  glue-makers'  boilers. 
Nevertheless,  the  impossibility  of  preserving,  for 
any  length  of  time,  the  materials  required  for  thia 
manufacture,  renders  it  necessary  to  adopt  some 
system  in  choosing  and  preserving  them,  until 
sufiicient  quantities  are  collected,  without  fermen- 
tation or  decomposition.  Hence  the  refuse  of  tan- 
neries, consisting  of  the  clippings  of  hides,  hoofs, 
ear  and  tail  pieces  of  ox,  calf,  and  sheep  are 
preferred,  because  they  can  be  dressed  with  lime, 
which  removes  the  hair,  and  acts  as  an  antiseptic. 
For  this  i)urpose,  they  are  placed  in  tanks  with 
quicklime  and  water  for  two  or  three  weeks,  during 
M'hich  the  lime  is  several  times  renewed,  and  the 
pieces  frequently  tunied  over.  They  are  afterwardij 
washed  and  dried,  and  are  ready  for  use  by  the 
glue-maker,  who  usually  gives  them  another  slight 
lime-dressing,  and  subsequently  washes  them  ;  they 
are  afterwards  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air 
for  a  time,  to  neutralise  the  caustic  lime.  When 
well-drained,  the  pieces  are  placed  in  flat-bottomed 
copper-boilers,  which  have  a  perforated  false  bottom 
placed  a  little  distance  above  the  true  one,  to  pre- 
vent the  burning  of  the  materials,  and  which  have 
been  supplied  with  rain  or  other  soft  water  up  to 
two-thirds  the  depth  of  the  boiler,  the  pieces  being 
piled  up  to  some  height  above  the  top  of  the  open 
boiler.  The  whole  is  kept  at  a  gentle  boiling  heat 
until  all  the  gelatinous  part  has  dissolved  out,  and 
the  mass  of  material  has  sunk  down  into  the  fluid. 
The  boiling  is  sustained  until,  by  repeated  trials 
of  small  quantities,  the  operator  knows  the  fluid 
is  of  the  right  consistency,  when  it  is  drawn  ofl 
carefully  into   the  congealing   boxes,  and  fresh 


GELDERLAND— GELLEET. 


materiala  are  added  to  tlie  residue  left  behind  in 
the  boiler,  and  the  process  is  repeated. 

The  congealing  boxes  are  of  wood,  and  are  nearly- 
square,  being  slightly  narrower  at  the  bottom  than 
the  top  ;  they  are  filled  to  the  brim,  and  when  their 
contents  are  sufficiently  solidified,  the  glue,  with  a 
little  management,  turns  out  in  the  form  of  a  cube, 
which  is  cut  into  thin  slices  by  a  wire  in  the  same 
manner  as  soap  ;  and  these  larger  slices  are  sub- 
divided into  smaller  cakes  by  a  wet  knife.  Frames, 
with  nets  stretched  upon  them,  are  provided  for 
drying  the  cakes  upon  ;  and  these  frames,  when 
covered  with  the  cakes  of  glue,  are  adjusted  one 
over  another  at  a  little  distance  apart,  supported 
between  four  iiprights,  and  if  in  the  open  air, 
covered  over  with  little  wooden  roofs,  the  whole 
being  arranged  so  that  the  air  can  have  free  access 
to  facilitate  drying.  This  process  is  an  anxious  one 
to  the  manufacturer,  as  the  changes  of  the  weather 
have  great  and  often  completely  destructive  effects 
upon  glue  in  this  state ;  and  in  this  country  only 
the  sj)ring  and  the  autumn  can  be  relied  upon  with 
any  satisfaction.  Generally,  after  the  open  air 
drying,  the  glue  is  taken  to  drying-rooms  heated 
slightly,  where  it  hardens  effectually ;  but  it  is 
not  yet  finished ;  the  cakes  at  this  stage  have  a 
dull,  unsightly  look,  to  remedy  which  they  are 
dipped  into  cold  water,  or  are  wetted  with  a  brush 
dipped  in  hot  water,  and  re-dried,  this  wetting 
giving  the  cakes  a  bright  varnished  appearance- 
Great  Britain  does  not  excel  in  the  manufacture  of 
glue,  and  British  workmen  usually  prefer  the  dark 
variety.  Very  superior  glue  is  made  hy  the  Dutch 
and  Germans,  by  whom  the  light  and  more  care- 
fully made  varieties  are  most  prized,  the  adhesive 
qualities  being  lessened  exactly  in  projiortion  to 
the  impurities  present  in  the  material. 

Besides  its  use  in  joinery,  cabinet-making,  and 
eimilar  operations,  glue  is  used  by  paper-makers 
and  in  dressmg  silks ;  and  for  these  last  two 
purposes  fine  light-coloured  kinds  in  thin  cakes 
are  made.  Large  quantities  are  employed  also  by 
paper-hangers  and  others  for  sizing  walls  in  the 
Btate  called  size,  which  is  the  glue  simply  gela- 
tinised after  boiling  in  the  first  process.  A  very 
fine  and  pure  white  size  is  made  by  the  bonnet- 
makers  of  Bedfordshire  and  other  places  of  the 
skins  of  calves'  head,  ears,  and  the  under  part  of 
the  neck  and  belly  :  this  is  used  for  stiffening 
straw,  cotton,  horse-hair,  and  other  plaits  for 
making  bonnets  and  hats. 

Vegetable  Jelly,  which  is  analogous  to  animal 
gelatine,  is  obtained  largely  from  some  fruits,  but 
never  in  a  pure  state  ;  it  is  only  of  value  in  pre- 
serving such  parts  of  the  fruit  for  culinary  pur- 
poses ;  but  several  of  the  sea- weeds  yield  a  large 
quantity  of  very  jiure  jelly,  which,  in  some  instances, 
is  applied  to  important  purposes :  thus,  the  jelly 
of  fucus  spinosus,  the  agar- agar,  or  agal-agal, 
abundant  on  the  shores  of  the  eastern  seas,  is 
used  by  the  East  Indians,  Cingalese,  and  Chinese  for 
dressing  their  silks  ;  the  Chinese  also  ingeniously 
form  thin  films  of  the  jelly  over  a  framework  of 
bamboo,  and  thus  make  small  windows  for  their 
houses.  This,  and  another,  Gracillaria  lichenoides, 
are  formed  into  a  thick  jelly,  with  sugar  and  other 
materials,  and  eaten  as  a  delicacy ;  and  both  are 
Bupposed  to  supi^ly  the  material  for  those  wonder- 
ful birds' -nests,  which  constitute  the  most  costly 
(uxuiy  known  to  the  art  of  cooking.  Another 
Jelly-yielding  sea- weed  is  foxind  on  our  own  shores, 
called  the  Irish  Moss  or  Carrigeen  {Chondrus 
Crispus),  which  is  often  made  into  jellies  for  invalids, 
and  the  plant  itself,  on  account  of  its  richness  in 
this  material,  is  very  extensively  employed  in  feeding 
cattlo,  especiaHy  in  England. 


GEa.DERLAND,  a  province  of  Holland,  is 
situated  between  the  Zuider  Zee  on  the  north-west, 
and  the  Brussian  dominions  on  the  south-east.  It 
has  an  area  of  1948  square  miles,  and,  in  1872,  an 
estimated  population  of  437,778.  It  is  watered 
chiefly  by  the  Yssel,  the  Rhine,  the  Waal,  and  the 
Maas.  The  surface  is  in  general  flat,  but  north- 
ward from  Arnheim,  the  capital,  and  over  the 
whole  of  the  north-west  portion  of  the  province, 
stretch  sandy  hills,  frequently  covered  with  bushes. 
The  climate  is  healthy,  and  the  soil,  on  the  whole, 
good,  though  much  of  it  is  still  in  heath  and 
marsh.  Along  the  river  valleys  a  rich  loamy  soU 
is  found.  Agriculture  is  prosecuted  with  great 
success.  Wheat,  rye,  buckwheat,  tobacco,  &c.,  are 
abundantly  produced.  Among  the  manufactures, 
paper  and  leather  are  the  principal  Chief  towns, 
Arnheim,  Nimeguen,  and  Zutphen. 

GELI'DIUM,  a  genus  of  AlgcB  (sea-weeds),  of 
the  sub-order  Ceramiacece,  some  of  the  species  of 
which  are  believed  to  afford  the  material  used  by 
certain  species  of  swallow  in  building  the  edible 
nests  so  much  prized  by  the  Chinese.  See  Nests, 
Edible.  Several  species  of  gelidium  are  used  as 
food  in  the  east.  Like  many  other  sea-weeds  of 
this  order,  they  are  almost  entirely  gelatinous,  and 
when  boiled  with  condiments  to  give  pungency 
and  flavour,  form  a  very  wholesome  and  agreeable 
food. 

GELL,  Sir  William,  knight,  an  eminent  anti- 
qviarian  and  classical  scholar,  the  younger  son  of 
Philip  Gell,  Esq.  of  Hopton,  Derbyshire,  was  born  in 
1777.  He  was  educated  at  Jesus  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  graduated  as  B.  A.  in  1798,  and  M.A.  in  1804, 
and  was  for  sometime  a  fellow  of  Emmanuel  College 
in  that  university.  He  devoted  his  time  prmcipally 
to  antiquarian  research  and  geographical  studies, 
and  published  the  following  learned  and  valuable 
works  :  The  Topography  of  T'roy  (1804,  folio) ;  The 
Geography  and  Antiquities  of  Ithaca  (1808,  4to) ; 
The  Itinerary  of  Greece  (1810,  4to) ;  The  Itinerai-y 
of  the  Morea  (1817,  8vo) ;  Attica  (1817,  folio); 
Pompeiiana,  or  Observations  upon  the  Topography, 
Edifices,  and  Ornaments  of  Pompeii — in  conjunction 
with  J.  P.  Gandy,  Esq.,  an  interesting  and  beautiful 
work,  which  first  brought  his  name  into  notice 
(2  vols.  8vo,  1817 — 1819 ;  second  series,  2  vols. 
8vo,  1832) ;  Narrative  of  a  Journey  in  the  Morea 
(1823,  8vo)  ;  The  Topography  of  Pome  and  its 
Vicinity  (1834,  8vo) ;  Porne  and  its  Environs  (Map, 
1834).  In  August  1814,  on  the  departure  to  the 
continent  of  Caroline,  Princess  of  Wales,  consort 
of  George  IV.,  she  appointed  him  as  one  of  her 
chamberlains.  In  that  capacity  he  attended  her 
in  various  parts  of  Italy,  but  being  attacked  with, 
the  gout,  was  soon  obliged  to  resign  his  situation. 
In  1820,  he  was  examined  as  a  witness  at  the 
bar  of  the  House  of  Lords  during  the  proceed- 
ings against  her  majesty  after  she  became  queen, 
and  had  returned  to  England.  Subsequently,  he 
resided  in  Italy,  principally  at  Naples,  having  a 
house  also  at  Rome,  where  he  occasionally  took  up 
his  abode.  He  died  at  Naples,  February  4,  1836, 
and  was  interred  in  the  English  burial-ground  of 
that  city, 

GE'LLERT,  Christian  Furchtegott,  a  Germau 
poet  and  moralist,  was  born  Jvdy  4,  1715,  at  Hay- 
nichen,  in  the  Erzgebirge,  in  Saxony,  entered 
the  university  of  Leipsic  in  1734,  where  he  devoted 
himself  mainly  to  the  study  of  theology.  After 
some  years  spent  as  a  tutor,  and  as  a  teacher  in  a 
public  academy,  he  obtained  a  professorship  in  the 
same  university  in  1751.  His  lectures  on  poetry, 
rhetoric,  and  morals  were  numerously  attended, 
and  were  greatly  admired.    He  died  13th  December 


GELLIUS— GEMISTUS. 


17(>9.  G.  was  a  man  of  spotless  virtue,  but  rather 
efleiniiiate  in  mind  and  character.  He  wrote  fables, 
stories,  didactic  poems,  spiritual  odes  and  songs. 
His  most  poi)ular  writings  were  his  fables  and 
stories.  They  are  marked  by  ease  and  naturalness 
of  majiner.  His  spiritual  odes  owe  their  continued 
popularity  to  their  deep  jnety,  and  to  a  certain 
vigour  and  loftiness  of  Hight  not  to  be  found  in 
liis  other  poems.  G.  is  to  be  considered  one  of 
the  piojieers  of  modern  German  literature.  He 
marks,  along  with  others,  the  transition  from  the 
dulness  and  pedantry  of  the  previous  genei-ation 
of  autliOTS,  to  that  rich  and  superabundant  life 
Tybich  Go<;tho  and  Schiller  poured  into  the  national 
literature.  G.'s  collective  works  {Sdiamtlirhe  Werke) 
first  appeared  at  Leipsic  in  10  vols.  (1769—1774), 
and  have  passed  through  various  editions  ;  the  most 
recent  is  that  published  in  the  same  city  (6  vols., 
1840—1841).  Compare  Gelkrt's  Leben,  by  J.  A. 
Cramer  (Leijx  1774),  and  by  Doring  (2  vols.,  Leiji. 
1S33). 

GE'LLIUS,  AuLUS,  a  Latin  author,  who  seems 
to  have  lived  about  117  -180  a.p.  The  exact  date, 
either  of  his  birth  or  death,  is  not  known.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  been  born  at  Ivome,  where,  at 
all  events,  he  studied  rhetoric.  Subsequently,  he 
proceeded  to  Athens  to  undergo  a  discipline  in 
philosophy.  On  his  return  to  Rome,  he  entered  upon 
a  legal  career,  without,  however,  abandoning  his 
literary  pursuits.  G.'s  well-known  work,  the  Attic 
Nights  [Nodes  AttkcB),  begun  diuring  the  long 
nights  of  winter  in  a  country-house  near  Athens, 
and  completed  during  the  latter  years  of  his  life, 
is  a  collection  of  miscellaneous  matter  on  language, 
antiquities,  history,  and  literature,  in  20  books,  of 
which  the  8th  is  wanting.  It  contains  many 
extracts  from  Greek  and  Latin  authors  no  longer 
extant.  The  work  is  destitute  of  any  plan  or 
arrangement,  is  disfigured  by  archaisms,  and  derives 
its  value  mainly  from  being  a  repertory  of  curious 
knowledge.  The  Edit 'to  Princeps  appeared  at  Rome 
in  1469  ;  the  most  critical  edition  is  that  of  Jak. 
Gronovius  (Lug.  Bat.  1706)  ;  a  more  recent  but 
much  less  valuable  one  is  that  of  Lion  (2  vols., 
Gottingen,  1824 — 182o).  G.  has  been  translated 
into  English  by  Beloe  (Lond.  1795)  ;  into  French  by 
the  Abbe  de  Verteuil  (Paris,  1776)  ;  and  (in  part) 
into  German  by  Von  Walterstern  (Lemgo,  1785). 

GELON",  'tyrant'  of  Gela  and  Syracuse,  was  the 
son  of  Deinomenes,  and  was  a  native  of  the  former 
city.  His  family  was  one  of  the  oldest  and  most 
distinguished  in  the  place.  G.  himself  first  figures 
in  history  as  one  of  the  body-guards  in  the  service 
of  Hippocrates,  tyrant  of  Gela.  On  the  death  of 
the  latter,  ho  contrived  to  obtain  the  supreme  power 
(491  B.C.),  and  about  485  B.C.,  he  made  himself 
master  of  Syracuse  also,  which  then  became  the 
seat  of  his  government,  and  to  which  he  transferred 
the  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  Gela.  His  influ- 
ence soon  extended  itself  over  the  half  of  Sicily.  G. 
refused  to  aid  the  Greeks  against  Xerxes,  as  they 
(ieclined  to  comply  with  his  demand  that  he  should 
"be  appointed  commander-in-chief.  About  the  same 
time,  Terilhis,  ruler  of  Himera,  in  Sicily,  invoked 
the  aid  of  the  Carthaginians  against  Theron  of 
Agrigentum,  who  had  dispossessed  him  of  his  state. 
G.,  who  was  in  alliance  with  Theron,  hastened  to 
ths  assistance  of  the  latter,  and  on  the  same  day 
(according  to  tradition)  on  which  the  Greeks  won 
the  battle  of  Salamis,  he  gained  a  complete  victory 
over  the  invaders  at  Himera.  The  consequence  was 
an  immediate  treaty  of  peace  between  him  and  the 
Carthaginians,  who  were  compelled  to  pay  all  the 
expenses  of  the  war.  His  clemency  and  the  wisdom 
of  his  measures  rendered  him  so  generally  beloved,  | 
662 


that  when  he  appeared  unarmed  in  an  assembly  of 
the  people,  and  declared  himself  ready  to  resign  hia 
power,  he  was  unanimously  hailed  as  the  deliverer 
and  sovereign  of  Syracuse.  The  story  current  vn 
later  times,  that  one  of  the  conditions  on  which  he 
granted  peace  to  the  Carthaginians  was,  that  their 
human  sacrifices  should  be  abolished,  has  probably 
no  historical  foundation,  but  it  illustrates  the 
general  belief  in  the  humanity  of  his  character. 
G.  died  478  b.  c.  The  peoi)le,  who,  contrary  to  his 
desire,  had  erected  a  si)lendid  monument  to  his 
memory,  paid  him  honours  as  a  hero,  and  at  a  later 
period,  when  all  the  brazen  statues  were  sold  under 
Timoleon,  his  statue  was  made  an  exception  to  the 
general  rule.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  brother 
Hiero. 

GEM,  a  term  often  used  to  signify  a  precious 
stone  of  smiUl  size,  such  as  may  be  used  for  setting 
in  a  ring,  or  for  any  similar  purpose  of  ornament ; 
but  sometimes  l)y  mineralogists  in  a  sense  which 
they  have  themselves  arbitrarily  affixed  to  it,  for 
the  purpose  of  scientific  classification,  as  the  desig- 
nation of  an  01-der  or  family  of  minerals,  generally 
hard  enough  to  scratch  quartz,  insoluble  in  acids, 
infusible  before  the  blow-pipe,  without  metallic 
lustre,  but  mostly  brilliant  and  beautiful.  Among 
tliem  are  included  some  of  the  minerals,  which,  in 
popular  language,  are  most  generally  known  as  gems 
— ruby,  sai)phire,  spinel,  tojmz,  beryl,  emerald, 
tourmaline,  hyacinth,  zircon,  &c. — and  some  other 
rarer  minerals  of  similar  character  ;  but  along  with 
these  are  ranked  minerals,  often  coarser  varieties 
of  the  same  species,  which  are  not  gems  in  the 
ordinary  sense  of  the  word,  as  emery  and  common 
corundum,  whilst  diamond  and  some  other  jj^  ocious 
stones,  much  used  as  gems,  are  excluded.  See 
Gems. 

GEMA'RA  (Ghemara,  a  Chaldee  word,  signifying 
complement)  is  that  portion  of  the  two  I'almuig 
which  contains  the  annotations,  discussions,  aiid 
amjdifications  of  the  Mishnah  by  the  academies  of 
Palestine  on  the  one  hand,  and  those  of  Babylon 
on  the  other.  The  Babylonian  Geraara,  more 
complete  as  well  as  more  lucid  than  the  l*al€s- 
tinensian,  possesses  a  much  more  highly  valutid 
authority.  The  final  redaction  of  this  latter  falls 
in  the  middle  of  the  4th  c.  A.D.,  while  the  fornier 
was  not  completed  till  500  a.d.  See  MiSHiSTAH  and 
Talmud. 

GE'MTlSri  (the  T\\dns),  the  third  constellation  in 
the  zodiac,  named  from  its  two  brightest  stars, 
Castor,  of  the  first  magnitude,  and  Pollux,  of  the 
second. 

GEMI'STUS,  GiORGios,  called  Giorgios  Ple- 
THON,  and  more  commonly  Gemistus  Plethon, 
was  the  last  of  the  Byzantine  waiters.  The  exact 
dates  of  his  birth  and  death  are  uncertain,  but  he 
is  known  to  have  lived  between  1350  and  1450. 
He  W'as  probably  born  at  Constantinople,  but  the 
greater  part  of  his  life  was  passed  in  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus. He  was  one  of  the  deputies  sent  by  the 
Greek  church  to  the  council  which  was  held  at 
Florence  in  1438,  for  the  purpose  of  arranging  a 
union  between  the  Latin  and  Greek  churches.  The 
council,  however,  entirely  failed  in  its  purpose.  G. 
was  more  celebrated  as  a  philosopher  than  as  a 
theologian.  In  his  time,  the  Aristotelian  philosophy 
reigned  supreme,  but  it  had  degenerated  into  » 
mere  science  of  w^ords,  from  the  study  of  which  G. 
turned  away  disgusted,  and  applied  himself  to  Plato. 
Plato's  philosophy  so  charmed  him,  that  thence- 
forward he  devoted  himself  to  its  propagation ;  and 
in  furtherance  of  this  view,  G.,  when  in  Italy, 
induced  Cosmo  de  Medici  to  embrace  it.  Cosmo'i» 
example  was  followed  by  others  in  Florence,  aiil 


GEMMATION— GEMS. 


thus  a  Platonic  school  was  founded  in  the  west 
which  flourished  for  nearly  100  years  afterwards. 
During  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  G.  was  engaged 
in  bitter  contiict  with  the  most  eminent  of  the 
Aristotelians,  among  whom  George  of  Trehizond 
held  a  high  position,  and  between  him  and  G.  the 
discussion  was  carried  on  with  most  unseemly 
violence.  G.  is  last  heard  of  in  history  in  1441, 
when  we  find  him  in  the  Peloponnesus  in  an  official 
capacity.  G.  wrote  a  great  number  of  works  in 
history,  philosophy,  theology,  &c. 

GEMMA'TION,  or  GEMMI'PAEOUS  GENER- 
A.TION.    See  Reproduction. 

GEMOTE.  Besides  the  great  council  of  the 
nation — the  Witena -gemot,  or,  as  we  more  usually 
spell  it,  Witenagemote  (q.  v.) — which  corresponded 
to  the  Reichstage  of  the  Franks,  and  which,  though 
it  took  the  place  of  the  still  more  ancient  meetings 
of  the  whole  nation,  to  which  Tacitus  refers  as 
characteristic  institutions  of  the  Teutonic  tribes  in 
his  day,  was  a  representative,  though  not  perhaps 
an  elective  body  (Kemble's  Saocons  in  England, 
ii.  p.  194),  there  were  amongst  the  Anglo-Saxons 
various  minor  motes  or  moots,  which  did  not  partake 
of  the  representative  character.  The  existence  of 
these  is  an  instance  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
spirit  of  localisation  has  always  maintained  its 
ground,  and  balanced  that  of  centralisation  amongst 
the  Germanic  nations,  and  more  particularly  in 
England.  There  was  the  shire-gemot,  or  county 
court,  which  met  twice  a  year ;  and  the  hurg-gemot, 
which  met  thrice ;  the  hundred-gemot  (see  Hundred), 
which  met  every  month,  and  an  extraordinary  meet- 
ing of  which  was  held  twice  a  year;  the  halle- 
gemote,  or  court-huron.  These  institutions  excluded 
not  only  central  despotism,  but  local  tyranny  in 
the  shape  of  individual  caprice.  The  ealdorman 
decided  only  with  the  assent  of  the  shire-gemote, 
just  as  the  king  was  dependent  upon  that  of  the 
Witan.    Lappenberg  by  Thorpe,  ii.  p.  322. 

GEMS,  Ancient.  The  term  gem,  which  is  applied 
to  jewels  and  other  valuable  and  precious  stones, 
means  in  archaeology  engraved  stones  of  the  precious 
kinds,  and  even  small  engraved  portions  of  hard  and 
primitive  rocks  which  have  been  set  or  worn  as 
jewels  by  the  ancients.  Before  entering,  however, 
upon  the  subject  of  engraved  stones,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  mention  the  principal  kinds  which 
are  mentioned  by  ancient  authors,  or  have  been 
found  by  modern  researches  to  have  been  used  for 
engraving. 

Although  the  principal  varieties  of  precious  stones 
were  known  to  the  ancients,  yet  owing  to  the 
absence  of  scientific  and  chemical  analysis,  they 
appear  to  have  distinguished  precious,  and  other 
stones,  only  by  colour,  specific  gravity,  and  density. 
The  different  nomenclature,  too,  used  by  different 
authors,  multiplied  synonyms,  and  caused  confu- 
sion ;  so  that  it  has  become  impossible  to  identify 
all  the  stones  mentioned  by  Theophrastus,  Pliny, 
and  others.  As  a  general  rule,  the  ancients  did 
not  engrave  such  precious  stones  as  the  diamond, 
ruby,  and  sapphire,  being  content  vidth  those  of 
less  hardness  and  value.  The  principal  stones 
used  by  engravers  were :  (1)  The  carnelian,  and 
its  more  transparent  variety  the  sard,  sardion,  in 
common  use  in  the  days  of  Plato  (so  called  from 
Sardes  in  Lydia,  but  chiefly  obtained  from  India 
and  Babylonia) :  (2)  The  chalcedony,  supposed  to 
be  the  ancient  calchedonion,  used  for  seals  and 
reliefs,  of  which  two  kinds  have  been  found  :  (3) 
The  onyx  or  nail-stone,  variously  described  by  Pliny 
ind  his  predecessors,  but  distinguished  by  a  white 
layer  resembling  the  nail :  (4)  The  nicolo  or  J^gyp- 
tUla^  obtained  from  the  onyx,  a  blue  spot  with  a 


black  zone  encir  ;ling  it :  (5)  The  sardonyx,  w  hich 
was  a  variety  of  the  onyx,  having  black,  blue,  whitfe. 
and  red  colours,  and  particularly  used  for  cameoa 
and  vases,  by  cutting  down  the  lighter  coloured 
layers  to  the  darkest  for  a  background  to  tlw 
figures,  a  stone  much  prized  by  the  ancients ;  the 
signet  of  Scipio  Africanus  the  Elder  being  of  this 
material,  and  the  Emperor  Claudius  esteeming  it 
and  the  emerald  above  all  other  gems:  (6)  The 
agate  or  achates,  so  named  from  a  Sicilian  river, 
embraced  many  varieties,  as  the  jaspachates,  den- 
dryachates,  but  confounded  with  the  jasper,  con- 
sidered a  charm  against  scorpions  and  spiders,  used 
for  whetstones,  and  a  talisman  by  athletes ;  it  viraa 
obtained  from  Egypt,  Greece,  and  Asia  :  (7;  Plasma 
or  the  Prasius,  root  of  emerald,  much  used  under 
the  lower  empire  ;  its  varieties  were  the  Molochates 
and  Nilion :  (8)  Numerous  varieties  of  the  jasper, 
iaspis,  green,  blood-red,  yellow,  black,  mottled  or 
porcelain,  and  even  blue,  were  employed  for  sigueca 
at  the  Roman  period,  and  procured  from  India, 
Persia,  and  Cappadocia.  Pliny  mentions  a  remark- 
able statuette  of  Nero,  weighing  15  ounces  in  this 
material :  (9)  Garnets,  the  granatici  or  red  hyacinths 
of  antiquity,  which  were  principally  in  use  at  the 
latter  days  of  the  Roman  empire,  and  amongst  the 
Oriental  nations — with  which  may  be  classed:  (10) 
The  carhunculus,  supposed,  however,  by  some  to  be 
the  name  given  by  the  ancients  to  the  ruby,  was 
brought  from  India,  Garamantia,  Carchedon,  and 
Anthemusia :  (11)  The  hyacinthus  or  jacinth,  a 
yellow  variety  of  the  garnet,  which  was  used  for 
signets,  and  came  from  Ethiopia  and  Arabia:  (12) 
The  Lyncurium,  or  Lychnis,  which  is  the  ancient 
name  of  the  true  modern  jacinth:  (13)  Several 
varieties  of  the  emerald  or  smaragdus  are  cited  by 
the  ancients,  as  the  Bactrian  or  Scythian,  supposed 
to  be  a  green  ruby,  principally  derived  from  the 
emerald  mines  at  Zabora,  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Coptos,  worked  by  conscripts,  and  described  by 
Agatharcides.  Many  remarkable  stories  are  told  of 
this  gem,  which  has  only  been  found  with  engravings 
of  a  later  period ;  one  sent  by  a  king  of  Babylon  to 
a  king  of  Egypt  was  4  cubits  long  and  3  in  width  ; 
an  obelisk  in  the  temple  of  Jupiter,  40  cubits  high, 
is  said  to  have  been  made  out  of  four  emeralds  ; 
and  Theophrastus  mentions  an  emerald  column  of 
great  size  in  the  temple  of  Hercules  at  Tyre.  In 
the  Egyptian  labyrinths,  according  to  Apion,  was 
a  colossal  Serapis  of  great  height,  made  of  emerald. 
This  stone  was  used  by  gem-engravers  to  '  refresh ' 
the  sight,  or  inlaid  in  the  eyes  of  statues,  as  in 
the  Lion  at  Cyprus,  erected  to  Hermias ;  it  was 
set  in  the  ring  of  Polycrates  ;  and  used  as  a  lens 
by  Nero  to  behold  the  fights  of  the  gladiators  in 
the  circus:  (14)  The  Beryl  or  Beryllus,  obtained 
from  India,  cut  in  shape  of  a  hexagonal  pyramid, 
was  used  at  an  early  period  for  engraving  :  (15) 
The  amethyst,  brought  from  Arabia  Petrsea  and 
Armenia  Minor,  is  found  used  for  intagli  at  all 
periods  :  (16)  The  sapphirus  of  the  ancients,  sup- 
posed by  some  to  be  lapis  lazuli,  came  from  Media, 
and  appears  in  use  amongst  the  Egyptians  and  Per- 
sians :  (17)  The  anthrax,  supposed  to  be  the  ruby, 
was  not  engraved;  the  hyacinthus  has  also  been 
conjectured  to  be  the  blue  sapphire :  (18)  The  topaz, 
topazon,  applied  by  the  ancients  to  a  green  stone 
found  by  the  Troglodytes  in  the  island  of  Cytis,  in 
the  Arabian  Gulf,  and  first  sent  by  Philemon  to 
Berenice,  out  of  which  also  a  statue  of  Arsinoe  was 
made  and  placed  in  the  so-called  '  golden  temple '  by 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus :  (19)  The  Chrysolithus :  (20) 
Chrysoprase,  turquoise  callais :  (21)  The  magnes  or 
loadstone,  were  used  for  cylmders  and  gems  of  a 
late  period:  (22)  The  green  tourmaline,  or  avan- 
turine,  sandaresus:  (23)  The  obsidian,  obsidianics, 

663 


GEMS 


so-called  after  its  founder  Obsidius,  four  elephants 
made  of  which  were  dedicated  by  Augustus  in  the 
temple  of  Concord  were  also  known ;  and  a  statue  of 
Menelaus,  n.ade  of  the  same  material,  was  returned 
to  the  Heliopolitans  by  Tiberius:  (24)  The  opal 
opalUes,  or  pcederos,  obtained  from  India,  the  largest 
of  which  then  known,  of  the  size  of  a  hazel-nut, 
belonging  to  the  senator  Nonius,  was  valued  at 
about  £2000,  which  he  would  not  yield  to  M. 
Antony ;  this  stone  was  sometimes  engi-aved :  (25) 
The  adamas,  of  which  seven  A-arieties  were  known  to 
the  ancients,  was  only  used  for  cutting  other  gems, 
or  worn  rough,  but  was  not  engraved,  or  even  faced, 
the  art  of  polishing  it  having  been  discovered  by 
Louis  de  Berghera  in  the  15th  century.  The  list  of 
Pliny,  indeed,  contains  many  other  stones,  which 
have  beeu  either  confounded  with  those  already 
described — their  names  having  been  derived  from 
different  sources — or  else  thoy  are  species  of  the 
same.  Many  of  these  had  fancifid  names,  as  (26) 
the  Aromatiies  of  Arabia  and  Egypt,  so-called  from 
its  fragrance:  (27)  The  alectorius,  worn  by  the 
wrestler  Milo,  so-called  from  being  taken  out  of  the 
gizzard  of  a  fowl :  (28)  The  aspilates,  a  fiery  stone, 
said  by  Democritus  to  be  foimd  in  the  nest  of  Arabian 
birds.  In  the  selection  of  stones  for  engra\'ing,  the 
gem-engravers  adapted  the  material  to  the  subject 
— Bacciianalian  subjects  were  often  engraved  on 
amethysts  ;  marine,  on  beryls ;  martial,  on  carne- 
lians,  sards,  and  red  jas]iers ;  rural,  on  green  jasper ; 
nelestial,  on  chalcedonies.  Superstitious  virtues 
were  also  attributed  to  the  different  varieties  of 
gems-  -thus  the  amethyst  was  supposed  to  protect 
from  the  influence  of  wine ;  and  according  to  Dios- 
eorid«^s,  the  jasper  was  particularly  adajited  for 
anuilets  ;  and  Alexander  of  Tralles  recommends  the 
subject  of  Hercules  engraved  on  a  Median  stone, 
to  be  worn  on  the  finger  as  a  remedy  against  the 
cho'ic. 

The  art  of  engraving  precious  stones  at  the  earlier 
periods  of  the  Egyi)tian  monarchy  was  compara- 
tiv^ily  unknown,  although  these  people  made  beads 
of  eamelian,  felspar,  root  of  emerald,  jasjiers,  lapis 
hu-.uii,  amethyst,  and  other  hard  stones.  For  the 
purposes  of  seals,  however,  and  for  intagli,  steatite 
sr'cirabsei  were  generally  used,  and  engraved  gems 
s'-e  either  of  the  greatest  rarity  or  suspected,  till 
t^ie  time  of  the  Ptolemies.  A  remarkable  excep- 
tion to  this  rule  is  a  square  signet  of  yellow  jasper, 
engraved  with  the  name  and 
titles  of  Amenophis  II.  (about 
1450  B.C.)  and  his  horse,  in 
the  British  Museum.  Under 
the  Ptolemies  and  Romans, 
the  Gnostic  gems,  called 
Abraxas,  generally  of  lapis 
lazuli,  blood-stone,  and  jasper, 
begin  to  appear,  but  these  are 
made  by  the  same  process 
as  the  Greek,  from  which 
t\iej  were  derived.  The 
Ethiopians,  according  to 
Herodotus,  engraved  signets. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  the 
neighbouring  Phoenicia,  which  either  imitated  the 
cylinders  of  the  Babylonians,  or  the  scarabaei  of 
the  Etruscans.  In  Assyria,  the  oldest  gems  are  of 
cylindrical  shape,  from  one  to  two  inches  long,  and 
half  an  inch  thick,  pierced  through  their  long  axis  for 
a  cord  to  attach  roimd  the  wi'ist.  The  earlier  ones 
are  of  serpentine,  the  later  of  the  time  of  Sargon  or 
•Shalmaneser,  of  agate,  jasper,  quartz,  and  syenite, 
engraved  with  figures  of  the  gods,  and  the  names 
of  their  possessors  in  cuneiform.  The  inscriptions, 
indeed,  are  often  difficult  to  read,  but  name?  similar 
fco  those  of  Assyrian  and  Baby  Ionian  monarch  s  occur, 


Green  Jasper  Abraxas, 
with  figure  of  lao. 


one  cylinder  having  a  name  like  that  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar. The  Babylonian  are  of  the  same  type,  and 
chiefly  of  htematite,  loadstone,  steatite,  and  jasper; 
have  also  figures  of  deities,  and  the  names  of  deities 
or  the  possessors,  generally  executed  in  a  coarse 
rude  style  by  the  graver.  Oval  gems,  indeed, 
appear,  from  the  impressions  on  the  clay  tablets, 
to  have  been  in  use  at  the  same  time  ;  that  of 
cylinders  passed  to  the  Persians,  under  whom  the 
art  became  much  better,  and  chance  has  preserved 
the  cylinder  signet  of  Darius  I.,  found  in  Egj^it 


Chalcedony  Cylinder :  Signet  of  Dariu3 


These  cylinders  were  abandoned  for  conical  geiu*, 
princij  tally  of  chalcedony,  engraved  on  the  base 
with  figures  of  deities,  in  use  prior  to  the  con- 
quest of  Alexander,  and  were  at  a  later  period, 
commencing  in  the  3d  c.  A.D.,  followed  by  hemi- 
spherical agate  gems,  with  heads,  aninals,  and 
Pehle\d  inscriptions,  generally  of  a  rude  and  debased 
style  of  art.  These,  again,  at  a  later  period,  were 
succeeded  by  convex  stones  en  cahochon,  often 
garnets,  sards,  carlmncles,  engraved  on  the  upper 
surface,  with  rude  figures  of  animals,  heads  and  other 
dex-ices  also,  accompanied  with  Pehlevi  inscriptions, 
and  these  probably  continued  till  the  rise  of  Moham- 
medanism in  the  East,  when  the  art  was  confined  to 
the  engravang  of  cufic  legends  on  the  most  valuable 
of  oriental  stones,  often  with  a  great  degree  of 
dexterity.  In  Judea,  the  use  of  signets  (see  Seals) 
prevailed,  and  the  most  important  known  instance 
is  the  Urim  and  Thummim,  or  breastplate  of  the 
high-priest,  consisting  of  twelve  precious  stones, 
engraved  with  the  names  of  the  twelve  tribes ; 
biit  no  Hebrew  engraved  stones  earlier  than  the 
5th  or  6th  century  are  known.  Amongst  the  other 
oriental  nations  of  antiquity,  the  Bactrians  and  early 
Hindus  seem  to  have  exercised  the  art  of  engraving 
on  stones,  although  no  works  of  great  merit  of  these 
nations  have  been  found,  and  those  of  a  later  age  are 
mere  seals  engraved  with  sentences  of  the  Koran, 
or  the  names  of  the  possessors,  and  when  smeared 
with  black  or  coloured  inks,  were  impressed  on 
documents  as  stamps.  Of  the  other  nations  of 
antiquity,  the  Chinese  only  have  had  seals  (see 
Seals)  of  crystal,  soapstone,  porcelain,  and  other 
substances,  with  devices  in  rehef  for  using  as 
stamps,  the  subjects  being  mottoes  from  poetical 
and  other  works. 

The  Greeks,  at  the  earliest  period,  are  not  sup- 
posed to  have  employed  engraved  stones  for  their 
signets,  the  earliest,  rings  being  of  solid  metal,  such 
as  the  legendary  ring  of  Minos ;  but  at  a  later  period, 
those  of  Helen,  Ulysses,  and  the  legendary  one  of 
Gyges,  are  said  to  have  had  engraved  stones.  Orestea, 
in  the  tragedies,  is  also  recognised  as  the  son  of 
Agamemnon  by  liis  engraved  ring ;  and  Mnesarchos, 
the  father  of  Pythagoras,  who  lived  about  700  b.  c, 
was  an  engraver  of  gems.  The  earliest  instance 
of  an  engraved  gem  is  the  emerald  ring  of  Poly- 
cratea,  set  in  gold  or  engraved  by  Theodoriw  of 


GEMS. 


Sam  OS  about  740  B.C. ;  while  the  laws  of  Solon 
against  counterfeiting  signets  shew  that  they  may 
have  been  in  early  use.  At  the  period  of  the 
_  Persian  war  they  were  by  no 

means  uncommon.  Later,  the 
writings  of  the  Platonists  and 
Stoics  constantly  allude  to  gems, 
and  the  flute -player  Ismeuias, 
437  B.C.,  purchased  an  emerald 
engraved  with  a  figure  of  Amy- 
mone.  Still  later,  the  poet  Eupolis 
instances  the  extravagant  prices 
given  by  the  Cyrenagans  for 
engraved  stones  in  rings.    Yet  it 

Creek  Sard,  with  ,f  //^''^^ 

Indian  Bacchus,  i^^fg^^  ^'^^^lier  than  the  war  of 
Peloponnesus  can  be  identined, 
those  hitherto  cited  in  low  relief,  enclosed  in  a 
guilloche  or  engrailed  border,  and  of  a  hard  and 
stiff  style  of  art,  having  been  probably  cut  from 
the  bases  of  scarabiei  of  Etruscan  work.  At  a  later 
period,  their  use  was  universal,  and  the  names 
of  celebrated  engravers,  such  as  Pyrgoteles  and 
Apollonides,  are  known,  the  first  named  having  the 
privilege  of  engraving  the  portrait  of  the  monarch, 
Alexander  the  Great:  Ptolemy  V.,  presented  as  a 
most  precious  gift  his  portrait  engraved  on  an 
emerald  to  Lucullus ;  and  Cleopatra  had  a  gem  with 
Bacchus.  The  style  of  engra\ang  of  this  age  is  fine 
and  noble,  the  hair  indicated  by  fine  wiry  lines ; 
the  subjects  are  generally  heroic,  but  busts  and 
portraits  of  divine,  regal,  and  historical  personages 
appear.    Sards,  amethysts,  and  jacinths  were  in  use. 

Contemporaneous  with  the  Greek  school,  if 
not  earlier,  was  the  Etruscan,  consisting  of  scarabs 
entirely  carved  out  of 
sard,  carnelian,  agate, 
with  engraving  often 
of  exquisite  work, 
but  generally  harsh, 
and  sometimes  of 
severe  style,  with 
subjects  derived  from 
the  earliest  Hellenic 
myths,  and  occasional 
inscriptions  in  the 
Etrviscan  language,  the 
Carnelian  Etruscan  Scarabaeus :  names  of  the  per- 
Centaur  and  Deer.  sonages  represented, 

seldom  more  than  one 
figure  appearing  on  the  gem.  The  subject  is  sur- 
rounded with  a  guilloche  or  engrailed  border,  and 
the  scarabs  were  pierced  through  their  long  axis, 
t3  set  as  rings  or  to  wear  as  other  objects  of 
tctire.  Similar  scarabs,  but  of  green  jasper,  and 
of  Phoenician  workmanship,  have  been  found  in 
Sardinia.  These  gems  probably  were  made  from 
the  beginning  to  the  middle  of  the  3d  c.  B.C., 
when  Etruria  fell  into  the  power  of  the  Romans, 
who  derived  their  engraved  stones  from  tliC  Greek 
Buccessors  of  Alexander,  as  engraved  rings,  with 
their  subjects,  are  mentioned  at  the  close  of  the 
repu1)lic,  the  device  of  Scipio  Africanus  being  a 
head  of  Scyphax  ;  that  of  Sylla,  the  submission  of 
Jugurtha  ;  of  Pompey,  a  lion  carrying  a  sword  ;  and 
of  Cfesar,  Venus  armed  with  a  dart.  So  great  had 
the  passion  for  these  charming  little  works  of  art 
increased,  that  Scaurus,  the  step-son  of  Sylla,  had 
even  a  collection  of  gems,  dactijliofheca.  Pompey 
sent  the  collection  of  Mithridates  as  an  ofl^ering  to 
ihe  Capitol  ;  and  Ctesar,  to  outvie  his  great  compe- 
titor, presented  six  such  collections  to  the  shrine  of 
Venus  Genetrix;  and  Marcellus  another  to  the  cella 
»f  the  Palatine  Apollo.  At  the  commencement  of 
the  Empire,  the  portraits  follow  the  costume  and 
art  of  the  period ;  the  hair  is  expressed  by  broad 


strokes,  the  compositions  rarely  contain  more  than 
two  figures.  Artists  of  great  merit,  as  Dioscorides, 
Apollonides,  and  Chronios  flourished  at  this  age. 

The  names  of  the  artists  who  engraved  the  gems, 
and  of  the  proprietors,  are  occasionally  found  upon 
them.  The  devices  were 
various :  Augustus  had  first 
a  sphinx,  then  his  portrait 
engraved  by  Dioscorides ; 
Nero,  Apollo  and  the 
Muses;  Galba  used  first  a 
dog,  subsequently  the  head 
of  Augustus.  After  the 
Antonines,  indeed,  the  art 
rapidly  declined,  and  por- 
traits after  Severus  are 
rare,  although  even  that  of 

Mauricius  is  said  to  occur.  Sard  Portrait  of  Caligula. 
At  the  middle  period  of  the 

Empire,  the  work  is  exceedingly  rude,  often  merely 
scratched  out  by  a  diamond  point  in  carnelian s, 
jaspers,  and  garnets.  Some  works,  indeed,  of  the 
later  or  Byzantine  period  exist,  but  they  are  of 
poor  merit  and  execution,  and  the  subjects  are 
taken  from  Christian  subjects.  The  gems  of  this 
later  period  are  sometimes  square,  generally,  how- 
ever, the  long  or  convex  oval.  The  canid,  or  gems 
in  relief,  the  ancient  ecti/pa  scalptnra,  appear  at  the 
period  of  the  Roman  Empire.  This  term  camei,  of 
imcertaiu  origin,  is  applied  to  engi^avings  on  stones 
of  two  or  more  layers,  such  as  the  onyx  or  sardonyx, 
and  niccolo,  and  is  different  from  the  relief-gems  cut 
out  of  stones  of  one  colour.  Ancient  camei,  indeed, 
are  of  the  greatest  rarity,  and  are  not  older  than 
the  imperial  days  of  Rome.  The  smaller  ones  were 
used  for  rings ;  the  larger,  which  are  often  perforated, 
are  supposed  to  have  been  worn  in  the  armour  or 
dress,  phalerce,.  They  were  worked  out  with  the 
diamond  point ;  chiseled,  so  to  say,  out  of  the  stone ; 
and  have,  when  examined,  a  rough  appearance.  The 
most  remarkable  ancient  camei  known  are  those  of 
the  Vienna  collection,  supposed  to  represent  the  apo- 
theosis of  Augustus,  on  which  are  Augustus,  Jupiter, 
and  Rome  enthroned,  the  Earth,  Ocean,  Abundance, 
Germanicus,  Victory,  a  triumphal  car,  Tiberius,  and 
German  cajjtives ;  another,  in  the  same  collection, 
with  Ptolemy  II.  and  Arsinoe,  the  great  cameo  in 
the  Bibliotheque  at  Paris,  representing  the  apotheosis 
of  Augustus ;  another  in  the  collection  of  the  Nether- 
lands ;  and  a  fourth  in  the  Vatican ;  a  cameo  at  St 
Petersburg,  one^  foot  long,  and  another,  eight  and 
a  half  inches  wide  by  six  inches  high,  in  the 
Marlborough  collection,  with  the  heads  of  Didius 
Jidian  and  Manlia  Scantilla.  At  a  later  period,  the 
art  had  considerably  declined,  and  the  Christians 
of  the  later  days  of  the  Empire  were  content  with 
engraving  inscriptions  on  camei.  These  gems  were 
principally  worn  as  objects  of  attire,  and  Helio- 
gabulus  is  said  to  have  placed  even  intagli  in  his 
shoes.  The  names  of  artists  are  rarely  found  upon 
camei ;  a  celebrated  one  of  the  Marlborough  collec- 
tion, indeed,  has  the  name  of  Tryphon,  but  there 
is  considerable  doubt  about  the  authenticity  of  the 
inscription. 

The  subjects  of  ancient  gems  embrace  the  wtoJe 
circle  of  ancient  art,  and  follow  the  la.vs  of  its 
development,  aiiimal  forms  being  succeeded  by 
those  of  deities  and  subjects  derived  from  the 
battles  of  Greeks  and  Amazons  and  Ceutaars, 
the  exploits  of  Hercules,  and  other  heroes  ;  then 
by  scenes  from  tragedians  and  later  myths  ;  and, 
finally,  by  portraits,  historical  representations,  and 
allegories.  The  inscrii)tions  consist  of  the  names  ol 
deities,  heroes,  and  subjects;  dedications  to  deities; 
the  names  of  artists,  sometimes  in  the  genitive 
case,  but  often  accompanied  with  the  veib  epoei, 

66» 


GEMS. 


*was  making'  (the  affected  imperfect  used  after  the 
iime  of  Alexander  the  Great) ;  addresses  to  indi- 
nduals ;  gnomic  or  other  sayings,  indicating  that 
the  gems  are  amulets  against  demons,  thieves,  and 
various  evils ;  or  charms  for  procuring  love ;  the 
names  of  the  possessors  and  sometimes  addresses, 
occasionally  even  distichs  of  poetry,  and  various 
mottoes.  These  inscriptions  were  often  added 
by  subsequent  possessors,  and  are  not  of  the  age 
of  the  gem  itself.  The  number  of  artists,  although 
veiy  considerable,  docs  not  exceed  100  authentic 
names ;  and  the  true  names  are  supposed  to  be 
distinguished  from  false  ones  by  being  placed  at 
the  side  of  the  comjiosition  in  very  small  letters 
terminating  in  dots ;  but  even  these  have  been  suc- 
cessfully imitated  by  modem  artists,  and  the  greatest 
criticism  and  learning  have  been  dis])layed  to  detect 
real  ancient  names  by  their  orthography  and  palceo- 
graphy.  The  number  of  false  antique  stones  pro- 
duced by  eminent  engravers  since  the  revival  of  the 
arts,  has  rendered  the  diagnosis  of  gems  so  diliicult, 
that  no  branch  of  archeology  requires  greater  judg- 
ment. All  gems  of  high  ai-tistic  merit  and  great 
finish  are  suspected,  especially  those  with  groups  of 
many  figures,  regular  edges,  and  polished  faces,  or 
too  great  a  polish  in  the  deep  parts.  Coarser  imita- 
tions have  been  produced  by  backing  pastes  or 
coloured  glass  (see  Gems,  Imitation)  with  stones, 
and  mounting  them  in  rings,  so  as  to  pass  for  a 
gem.  The  appearance  of  wear  and  friction  has  been 
produced  by  introducing  them  for  awhile  into  the 
gizzards  of  turkeys,  or  in  pierced  boxes  })lunged  in 
the  beds  of  rivers.  The  judgment  upon  gems  can 
be,  however,  only  matured  by  a  careful  study 
and  faniiliarit}'  with  all  branches  of  ancient  art. 
The  coarser  imitations  of  pastes,  the  tongue,  the 
file,  and  the  graver  will  detect ;  but  old  gems 
re-engraved,  or  new  compositions  invented,  require 
the  most  careful  survey.  The  place  or  circum- 
stance of  discovery  is  only  a  feeble  guarantee 
against  deception,  the  commerce  in  false  antiques 
being  successfully  plied  upon  the  unwary  even  in 
the  far  East. 

The  chief  implement  used  by  the  ancient  en- 
gravers appears  to  have  been  made  by  splitting 
diamonds  into  splints  [adamantis  crustoi)  by  a  heavy 
hammer,  and  then  fixing  these  points  like  glaziers' 
diamonds  into  iron  instruments,  with  which  the 
work  was  executed  by  the  hand  [  ferra  retusa).  The 
drill,  terebra,  was  also  extensively  used  for  hollowing 
out  the  deeper  and  larger  parts  of  the  work,  and 
emery  powder,  the  smaris  or  Nilxian  stone,  for 
polishing.  The  so-called  wheel,  a  minute  disk  of 
copper,  secured  to  the  end  of  a  spindle,  and  moist- 
ened with  emery  powder  or  diamond  dust,  and 
driven  by  a  lathe,  does  not  appear  to  have  come 
into  use  till  the  Byzantine  epoch.  It  has  been 
conjectured  that  the  artist  used  lenses  of  some  kind, 
or  globes  filled  with  water,  to  execute  his  minute 
work ;  but  the  ancient,  like  the  modern  engraver, 
rather  felt  than  saw  his  way.  All  these  processes 
were  not  employed  by  the  same  artist,  for  besides 
the  engraver  {sculptor  cavarius,  dactyliographus), 
there  was  a  polisher  (poUtor),  not  to  mention 
arrangers  {compositores  gemmarum),  and  m^'^'^hants 
(gemmarii,  mangones  gemmarum)  who  drove  a 
flourishing  trade  in  emeralds  and  pearls  and  engraved 
stones  in  the  days  of  Horace. 

The  general  fall  of  the  arts  at  the  period  of  the 
Byzantine  Empire,  seems  to  have  been  accompanied 
by  the  decline  of  the  art  of  engraving  on  gems ; 
and  the  Merovingian  and  Carlovingiau  monarchs 
were  obliged  to  use  antique  gems,  instead  of  those 
engraved  by  the  artists  of  their  day.  Hock- 
crystals,  however,  were  engraved  in  a  Byzantine 
atyle  of  art,  with  sacred  subjects,  in  the  9th  c. ;  but 


the  art  was  all  but  lost  tiU  the  rise  of  Lorenzo  de 
Medici,  when  Giovanni  delle  Corniole  at  Florence, 
and  Domenico  dei  Camei  at  Milan,  worked  under 
his  patronage.  A  subsequent  school  of  gem- 
engravera  originated  with  Pietro  Maria  de  Pescia, 
who  worked  for  Leo  X. ;  the  chief  representatives 
of  the  school  are  Michelino,  Matteo  de  Benedetti, 
the  celebrated  painters  Francia,  M.  A.  Moretti, 
Caradosso  of  Milan,  Severo  of  Eavenna,  Leonardo 
da  Vinci,  J.  Tagliacarne,  Bernardi  of  Castel  Bologj 
nese,  who  died  1555,  celebrated  for  a  Tityus  copied 
from  M.  Angelo.  These  were  succeeded  by  Matteo 
del  Nassaro  of  Verona,  who  worked  for  Francis  I., 
and  produced  a  crucifixion  on  heliotrope,  so  that 
the  red  spots  seemed  drops  of  blood  issuing  from 
the  wounds  of  Christ;  Caraglio,  who  flourished  in 
Poland  in  1569 ;  Valerio  dei  Belli,  who  chiefly 
employed  rock-crystal ;  Marmita,  Domenico  di 
Polo,  Nanni,  Anichini  of  Ferrara,  and  Alessandro 
Ccsari,  celebrated  for  a  cameo  head  of  Phocion ; 
Dei  Rossi,  a  Milanese,  engraved  the  largest  cameo 
of  modern  times ;  Jacomo  da  Trezzo,  celebrated  for 
his  portrait,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  engrave 
on  the  diamond  in  1564 — an  honour  disputed,  how- 
ever, by  Birago,  another  Milanese,  both  artists 
having  been  in  the  service  of  Pliilip  II.  of  Spain, 
who  made  a  poi-trait  of  Don  Carlos  and  the  arma 
of  Spain  on  this  gem. 

The  art,  which  had  declined  at  the  close  of 
the  16th  c.  in  Italy,  flourished  in  the  17th  c.  in 
Germany  under  Iludolph  IL,  for  whom  Lehmann 
engraved  at  Vienna  ;  and  in  France,  where  Coldor^ 
worked  for  Henri  IV.  and  Louis  XIII.  In  the 
17th  c,  Sirletti,  who  died  at  Home  in  1737,  excelled 
in  portraits,  and  copied  antique  statues  with  great 
excellence.  The  two  Costanzi  are  celebrated  in 
1790,  one  for  the  head  of  Nero  on  a  diamond. 
Pega  of  Naples  is  said  to  have  come  nearest  to  the 
antique.  Natter  of  Nuremberg,  who  died  in  1763, 
is  celebrated  for  his  intagli ;  Guay  and  Barier  were 
celebrated  in  the  French  school ;  and  the  English 
produced  Eeisen,  who  died  1725 ;  Claus,  who  died 
1739  ;  Smart,  celebrated  for  the  rapidity  of  hia 
works ;  and  his  pupil  Seaton,  a  Scotchman,  who 
engraved  portraits  of  the  great  men  of  his  day.  The 
gi-eatest  artist  of  the  age,  however,  was  Natter,  who 
died  in  1791.  Of  the  subsequent  Italian  school, 
Ghinghi,  Girometti,  Cerbara,  Bernini,  and  Puteuati 
are  much  praised.  The  19th  c.  produced  many  good 
English  engravers,  as  Marchant,  Burch,  Wray,  and 
Tassie  ;  while  Pistrucci,  celebrated  for  his  charmin» 
cameo,  Weigall,  and  Saulini,  who  made  intagli, 
comj)lete  the  fist  of  modern  gem-engravers. 

With  respect  to  ancient  gems  in  the  dark  and 
middle  ages,  they  were  j^reserved  in  shrines,  chtlsses, 
and  other  ecclesiastical  vessels  in  which  they  wero 
set,  the  passion  for  collecting  them  as  v.'orks  of 
art  having  commenced  with  Lorenzo  de  Medici, 
who  formed  the  Florentine  collection,  and  had  hia 
name  incised  on  his  gems.  The  large  camei  of  the 
European  collections,  however,  appear  to  have  been 
brought  by  the  Crusaders  from  the  East.  The 
French  collection  dates  from  Charles  IX.,  and  was 
augmented  by  the  successive  kings  of  France  ;  it 
is  very  rich  in  gems  of  all  kinds;  that  of  Berlin 
containing  the  united  <;abiuet3  of  the  Elector  of 
Brandenburg  and  the  Markgraf  of  Ans})ach,  col- 
lected by  Stosch,  consists  of  nearly  5000  stones. 
The  Vienna  collection,  far  less  numerous,  is  remark- 
able for  its  large  camei.  In  England,  the  collection 
of  the  British  Museum,  collected  originally  by 
Townley,  Hamilton,  Payne,  Knight,  and  Cracherode, 
consists  of  about  500  stones,  some  of  great  beauty 
and  merit,  but  is  very  poor  in  camei.  The  private 
collection  of  the  Duke  of  Devonshire,  formed  in  thb 
last  half  century,  com])rises  upwards  of  500  ii.tagli 


Mb', 


GEMS. 


and  camei,  including  some  of  the  finest  known. 
The  Marlborough,  still "  more  numerous,  comprises 
many  fine  camei  and  intagli,  and  numerous  works 
of  the  renaissance.  The  Piilzky  collection,  now  in 
Italy,  contains  many  rare  and  choice  intagli.  A 
celebrated  collection,  the  Poniatowsky,  formed  upon 
the  base  of  the  old  collection  of  Stanislaus,  last  king 
of  Poland,  was  so  filled  with  forgeries  by  its  last 
possessor,  executed  by  Roman  artists  with  inscrip- 
tions by  Diez,  that  it  entirely  lost  its  value  on 
dispersion.  The  Hertz  collection,  the  last  great  one 
sold,  was  remarkably  rich  in  fine  Etruscan  scarabffii 
and  ether  intagli.  There  are  jirobably  about  10,000 
gems  reputed  to  be  antique.  Yet  these  are  only 
a  mere  instalment  of  those  formerly  existing.  The 
immense  value  placed  by  the  ancients  on  their 
gems,  may  be  seen  by  the  scabbard  of  Mithridates, 
valued  at  400  talents,  or  £7572 ;  the  pearl  given 
by  Julius  CjBsar  to  SerAdlia,  worth  £4800 ;  that 
swallowed  by  Cleopatra,  valued  at  £5000 ;  and  the 
pearls  and  emeralds  worn  by  Lollia  Paulina,  wife 
of  Caligida,  valued  at  £320,000— all  the  si>oils  of 
provinces  and  the  heirlooms  of  her  family.  These, 
indeed,  were  probably  not  engraved,  but  in  modern 
times  great  sums  have  been  jiaid  to  celebrated 
engi-avers,  as  much  as  £800  for  one  cameo. 

Although  the  acquisition  of  gems  is  too  costly  for 
private  individuals,  impressions  in  glass,  called  pastes 
(see  Glass),  in  sulphur,  gutta  percha,  or  plaster  of 
Paris,  can  be  easily  obtained,  and  they  answer 
almost  all  the  purposes  of  study.  Some  ancient 
impressions  in  terra  cotta,  indeed,  exist,  and  the 
poorer  classes  of  Greece  and  Rome  were  content 
with  glass  ])astes.  The  value  of  antique  gems,  owing 
to  the  great  difficidty  of  discerning  those  really 
so,  has  considerably  declined  in  this  country,  and 
even  their  authority  is  very  cautiously  cited  by 
archseologists.  The  principal  writers  of  antiquity 
who  treated  of  gems  are,  Onomacritiis  or  the 
Pseiido- Orpheus,  Dionysius  Periegetes,  Theophrastus, 
and  Pliny,  whose  chapter  is  compiled  from  ante- 
cedent Greek  and  Roman  authors.  Isidorus,  630 
A.D.,  gives  an  account  of  the  principal  stones  ;  so 
do  Psellus  and  Marbodus  in  the  11th  c. ;  Mariette, 
Pien^es  Gravees  (4to.,  Paris,  1750) ;  Raspe,  Cataloi/ue 
des  Empruntes  cles  Pkrres  Gravees  (4to,  Lond.  1757) ; 
Millin,  Introduction  d  VEtude  des  Plerres  Gravees 
(12mo,  Paris,  1796) ;  Krause,  Pyrgoteles  (8vo,  Halle, 
1856) ;  Koehler,  Ueher  die  Geschiiittene  Steine  (Svo, 
St  Petersb.  1851) ;  King,  Antique  Gems  (Svo,  Lond. 
1860). 

GEMS,  Artificial.  Ever  since  the  chemical 
composition  of  our  most  valued  gems — the  diamond, 
ruby,  opal,  &c. — has  been  known,  attempts  have 
been  made,  with  more  or  less  success,  to  reconstruct 
them  in  the  laboratory  by  the  influence  of  intense 
heat,  electrical  action,  &c.  Amongst  the  most 
successful  workers  in  this  field,  we  may  mention 
Ebelmen,*  Despretz,  Sainte-Claire  Deville,  and 
Becquerel. 

There  are  at  present  no  reasons  for  believing  that 
diamonds  of  any  appreciable  size  will  be  formed 
aitificially;  Despretz  has,  however,  succeeded,  by 
intense  voltaic  action,  in  obtaining  minute,  dark- 
colo'jrad  crystals  of  carbon. 

Boron,  which  was  discovered  simultaneously  in 
1807  by  Davy  in  England,  and  by  Gay-Lussac  and 
Th guard  in  France,  was  first  exhibited  in  a  crystal- 
lised form  by  Wohler  and  Sainte-Claire  Deville. 
They  have  not,  however,  succeeded  in  obtaining 
perfectly  ])\ue  crystals.  The  different  tints  which 
they  exhibit  are  due  to  the  presence  of  small  quan- 

*  Ebolmen's  memoirs  on  this  department  of  chemistry 
are  contained  in  the  first  volume  of  Salvetat's  Recueil 
das  Travaux  Scientifigues  de  M.  Ebelmen.    Paris,  1855. 


titles  of  carbon  in  a  crystalline  state  (the  8am« 
condition  in  which  it  occurs  in  the  diamond)  and  of 
aluminium.  It  is  not  imj)Ossible  that  in  the  dis- 
covery of  crystallised  boron,  we  may  have  advarced 
a  step  towards  the  artificial  production  of  the 
diamond.  The  boron  crystals  possess  a  brilliancy, 
hardness,  and  refractive  power  scarcely  inferior  to 
those  of  the  diamond. 

Sainte-Claire  Deville  and  Caron  have  published  a 
very  important  Memoir  in  the  Comptes  Rmdua 
(1858,  vol.  xlvi.),  in  which  they  describe  various  pro- 
cesses by  which  they  have  succeeded  in  obtaining 
small  crystals  of  white  and  green  corundum,  rubies, 
sapphires,  &c.  By  the  action  of  the  vapours  of 
fluoride  of  aluminium  and  boracic  acid  on  one 
another,  they  obtained  crystallised  alumina  (corun- 
dum) in  large,  but  thin  crystals,  some  of  which 
were  about  '4  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  which  in 
their  hardness,  and  in  all  their  optical  and  crystallo- 
graphic  properties,  resembled  natural  corundum. 
When  a  little  fluoride  of  chromium  was  added, 
a  similar  process  yielded  violet-red  rubies  of  a 
perfectly  natural  tint;  with  rather  more  fluoride 
of  chromium,  blue  sapphires  were  yielded;  and 
with  still  more  of  this  ingredient,  green  corundum 
was  obtained,  presenting  the  natural  tint  of  the 
variety  known  as  ouvaroffite.  A  mixture  of  equal 
equivalents  of  the  fluorides  of  aluminium  and 
glucinum,  when  similarly  acted  on  by  boracic  acid, 
yielded  crystals  of  chrysoberyl  or  cynophane,  which, 
although  very  minute,  were  perfect  in  their  form, 
and  in  all  respects  resembled  the  natural  crystals. 
The  action  of  fluoride  of  siHcium  on  zirconia  yields 
small  crystals  of  zircon  or  hyacinth  (Zr2  03,Si03) ; 
and  by  the  action  of  silicic  acid  on  a  mixture  oi 
the  fluorides  of  aluminium  and  glucinum,  hexagonal 
plates  of  extreme  hardness  were  obtained,  which  in 
some  respects  resembled  emerald  (which  they  were 
attempting  to  form),  but  were  not  identical  in 
composition  with  that  gem. 

The  latest  researches  on  this  subject  are  those  of 
Becquerel  in  the  Comptes  Eendus  (1861,  vol.  liii. 
p.  1196).  After  having  for  many  years  tried  to 
obtiiin  gems  from  solutions  of  silicates,  and  by  feeble 
electric  currents,  he  now  uses  intense  currents,  with 
high  tension,  and  in  this  way  has  succeeded  in 
obtaining  oj^als,  &c. 

GEMS,  Imitation,  or  Pastes,  Piei-res  Precieusea 
Artificielles,  French  imitations  of  the  precious 
stones,  are  made  of  glass  specially  prepared.  It 
differs  from  ordinary  glass  in  its  greater  density ;  at 
the  same  time  it  is  made  with  the  greatest  possible 
amount  of  transparency  and  purity.  Its  composi- 
tion, generally,  may  be  said  to  be  silica  of  very  pure 
quality,  probably  quartz  crystals,  potash,  and  oxide 
of  lead ;  but  the  exact  proportions  are  varied  almost 
by  every  maker,  and  each  has  a  secret  ingredient  or 
two  to  add. 

The  colours  employed  are  usually  the  same  as 
those  used  for  colou.ring  ordinary  ornamental  glass, 
but  upon  their  careful  admixture,  and  upon  the 
skilful  cutting  to  represent  the  crystalline  form  of 
the  real  gem,  the  success  of  the  manufacture  chiefly 
depends.  By  some  persons,  the  cutting  is  carried 
to  such  a  marvellous  perfection,  that  their  work 
would  deceive  the  eye  of  most  ordinaiy  judges, 
when  well  set  and  foiled^  or  backed  with  silver  or 
tinfoil.    See  Foil. 

The  glass  used  for  artificial  gems  is  very  generally 
called  strass,  from  the  name  of  a  German  who 
claimed  the  invention.  But  if  we  seek  the  real 
inventor  of  factitious  gems,  we  must  go  iar  beyond 
the  time  of  Strass,  for  we  find  PHny  describing 
under  the  name  of  gemmm  vitrece,  certain  imitationa 
of  jirecious  stones  which  were  known  in  his  time, 
some  ot  which  were  certainly  made  cf  coloured 


GEMS-BOC— GENDEK, 


jjlass,  and  others  b}'  ingeniously  cementing  together 
layers  of  variously  coloured  transparent  stones. 
And  Seneca  (Epist.  ix.)  mentions  that  one  Demo- 
critus  had  invented  a  process  for  imitating  emeralds 
by  giving  a  green  colour  to  rock-crystal.  Other 
allusions  are  plentifully  scattered  through  the  works 
of  classical  authors ;  and  ancient  artificial  gems 
themselves  exist,  two  especially  famous  being 
imitations  of  a  chrysolite  and  an  emerald,  amongst 
the  Roman  antiquities  in  the  Museum  Victorium 
at  Rome. 

The  manufacture  of  factitious  gems  is  chiefly 
carried  on  in  Switzerland,  and  like  the  polishing  of 
diamonds  in  Holland,  is  engrossed  by  a  small  com- 
munity in  the  French  commune  of  Septmoncel,  on 
the  Jura  Alps,  IG  miles  from  Geneva.  Upwards  of 
a  hundred  artisans  are  there  employed  in  this  manu- 
facture, and  they  make  almost  enough  to  sui)ply  the 
whole  world.  Much  common  coloured  glass  is  cut 
up  in  this  country  for  the  purpose  of  making  the 
gilt-toy  jewellery,  but  the  writer  believes  that  a 
email  manufacturer  of  the  name  of  Weston,  in 
Birmingham,  is  the  only  person  who  attempts  fine 
imitations  of  precious  stones  -wdth  coloured  strass. 
The  following  are  a  few  known  formulas  for  imi- 
tating gems:  Amethyst — Strass,  500  parts  ;  oxide  of 
manganese,  3  parts ;  and  oxide  of  cobalt,  2  parts. 
Diamond — Perfectly  pure  rock-crystal,  IGOO  ])arts; 
biborate  of  soda,  SCO  parts ;  very  piu-e  cai'bonate  of 
lead,  3200  parts;  oxide  of  manganese,  1  part.  A 
glass,  consisting  only  of  the  oxide  of  tin,  fused,  is 
used  for  the  so-called  Parisian  diamonds ;  they  are 
the  nearest  in  brilliancy  to  the  real  gem  when  newly 
made,  but  they  soon  lose  their  brilliancy.  Emerald 
—Strass,  7000  parts ;  carbonate  of  copper,  05  parts ; 
glass  of  antimony,  7  parts.  Garnet,  Oriental — Strass, 
1200  parts ;  glass  of  antimony,  580  parts  ;  Purple  of 
Cassius,  3  parts;  binoxide  of  manganese,  3  parts. 
Raby — Strass,  45  parts ;  binoxide  of  manganese,  1 
part.  Sapphire — Strass,  3600  parts ;  oxide  of  cobalt, 
50  parts;  oxide  of  manganese,  11  parts.  Topaz — 
Strass,  1050  parts;  glass  of  antimony,  44  parts; 
Purple  of  Cassius,  1  part. 

GEMS-BOC  [Antilope  Orr/x,  or  Oryx  Gazella),  a 
species  of  antelope,  described  by  some  naturalists  as 
the  Oryx,  but  which,  being  a  native  of  South  Africa 
only,  cannot  be  the  Oryx  (q.  v.)  of  the  ancients, 


Gems-boc  {Antilope  Oryx). 


•Ithougli  it  is  certainly  a  nearly  allied  species.  It 
la  a  heavy,  stout  animal,  abort  the  size  of  a  stag, 
with  rough  reversed  haii  on  the  neck  and  along 
66S 


the  ridge  of  the  back;  large  pointed  cars;  and 
almost  perfectly  straight  horns,  fully  two  feet 
long,  in  the  plane  of  the  forehead,  little  diverging, 
and  obsciirely  ringed  at  the  base.  The  colours 
are  harshly  contrasted,  dark  rusty  gray  above,  and 
white  on  the  under  parts,  separated  by  a  broad 
dark  brown  or  black  band;  the  head  white,  with 
black  transverse  bands ;  the  thighs  black,  and  the 
legs  white.  The  hoofs  are  remarkably  long,  adapted 
to  the  rocky  mountainoiis  districts  which  the  animal 
frequents.  The  G.-B.  makes  such  use  of  its  horns  as 
sometimes  even  to  beat  off  the  lion.  It  inhabita 
districts  free  from  wood,  and  is  generally  found  ia 
pairs  or  in  very  small  herds. 

GE'MSHORN,  a  well-known  organ-stop  in  Ger- 
man organs,  the  pipes  of  which  are  made  of  tin,  and 
are  conically  shaped,  being  much  nari'ower  at  the 
open  end;  while  at  the  mouth,  at  the  broad  end, 
there  are  ears  on  each  to  regulate  the  tuning. 
It  has  a  peculiarly  pleasant  tone,  of  a  different 
character  from  either  an  open  cylinder  jjipe  or  a 
stojjped  pipe.  The  pitch  of  the  gemshorn  is 
generally  8  feet  tone,  sometimes  it  is  4  feet,  and 
in  the  pedal  organ  10  feet. 

GENDARMES  (Men-at-arms),  originally,  and 
up  to  the  time  of  the  first  French  revolution,  the 
most  distinguished  cavalry  corps  in  the  service  of 
the  Bourbon  kings,  to  whom  they  formed  a  sort 
of  body-guard.  Under  existing  arrangements,  the 
gendarmes  constitute  a  military  police,  and  comprise 
both  cavalry  and  infantry.  The  force  consists 
I^rincipally  of  soldiers  taken  from  the  army,  gener- 
ally on  account  of  intelligence  and  good  conduct. 
The  men  receive  much  higher  pay  than  the  rest  of 
the  army,  of  which,  however,  the  corps  is  a  part, 
and  they  are  liable  in  cases  of  emergency  to  be  sent 
on  active  service.  The  gendarmes  now  amount 
to  about  25,000  men,  and  are  intrusted  with  the 
execution  of  many  of  the  most  delicate  details  of 
government. 

GENDER  (Fr.  gendre,  from  Lat.  genus,  generis, 
race,  kind),  in  Grammar,  is  a  distinction  among 
words  depending  upon  sex.  Names  applied  to  the 
male  sex  are  said  to  be  of  the  masculine  gender, 
as  man,  poet;  those  applied  to  the  female  sex, 
feminine,  as  woman,  poetess ;  words  that  are  neither 
masculine  nor  feminine  are,  as  it  was  expressed  in 
Latin,  neutrius  generis,  *  of  neither  gender ; '  and 
from  this  phrase  grammarians  have  come  to  speak, 
somewhat  incorrectly,  of  this  class  of  words  as  being 
'of  the  neuter  gender,'  and  hence  to  reckon  three 
genders.  In  English,  the  distinction  of  gender  in 
nomis  is  chiefly  marked  in  the  pronouns  substituted 
for  them — he,  she,  it.  Gender,  strictly  speaking,  is 
applicable  only  to  li\'ing  beings  distinguishable  as 
male  and  female  ;  but  by  the  figure  of  speech  called 
Personification  (q.  v.),  inanimate  objects  are  often 
spoken  of  as  he  and  she.  In  the  infancy  of  langTiage, 
however,  when  every  word  was  what  we  should 
now  call  a  metai)hor — when  every  thing  that  moved 
or  was  seen  to  produce  any  effect,  was  conceived  as 
actuated  by  a  conscious  will,  like  that  which  tha 
spectator  felt  within  himself — every  prominent  or 
interesting  object  in  the  universe  would  be  invested 
with  one  or  the  other  sex,  according  to  the  analogy 
it  suggested.  In  Latin,  accordingly,  gladius,  a  sword, 
was  considered  masculine ;  navis,  a  ship,  as  femi- 
nine ;  and  pomum,  a  fruit  or  apple,  was  thought  of 
as  without  sex.  Similarly,  in  Sanscrit  and  Greek, 
the  greater  part  of  inanimate  objects  are  either 
masculine  or  feminine,  the  others  being  neuter,  la 
Hebrew,  everything  is  either  masculine  or  femi- 
nine, there  being  no  neuter ;  and  this  is  the  case  in 
the  modern  languages  derived  from  the  Latin,  viz., 
Italian,  French,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese — everything 


GENEALOGY— GENERAL. 


is  either  a  or  a  she.  German  resembles  the 
classic  languages  in  making  some  inanimate  objects 
masculine,  some  feminine,  and  others  neuter.  Thus 
at  table,  a  man  must  speak  of  the  spoon  [der 
loffel)  as  'he,'  of  the  fork  {die  gabel)  as  'she,'  and 
of  the  knife  {das  messer)  as  'it.'  English — in 
this  more  rational  than  any  of  its  congeners — has 
banished  the  spurious  distinctions  of  gender  that 
encumbered  the  Anglo-Saxon  like  the  other  Teu- 
tonic tongues,  and  attributes  sex  only  to  living 
beings. 

In  the  highly  inflected  languages,  there  are  certain 
terminations  distinctive  of  the  different  genders.  It 
is  probable,  indeed,  that  originally  every  noun,  sub- 
stantive, or  adjective,  had  a  suffix  indicative  of  the 
sex,  leal  or  imaginary,  of  the  object  designated, 
although,  like  other  Inflexions  (q.  v.),  these  suffixes 
of  gender  were  in  process  of  time  mutilated  beyond 
recognition,  or  in  many  cases  altogether  worn  off. 
The  terminations  most  characteristic  of  the  three 
genders  in  Latin  are  mas.  us ;  fern,  a;  neut.  um; 
corresponding  to  the  Greek  os,  e,  on.  In  a  great 
majority  of  the  adjectives  in  both  those  languages, 
the  genders  are  thus  marked.  In  English,  the 
gender  of  a  noun  affects  only  the  personal  jjronoun 
substituted  for  it ;  in  most  other  languages,  the 
adjectives  (including  the  articles)  have  different 
forms  for  the  several  genders — a  useless  complication, 
in  the  case  of  modern  languages  at  least.  See 
Adjective. 

Of  the  terminations  distinctive  of  gender  observ- 
able in  modern  English,  some  are  purely  Latin, 
as  in  executor,  executrix;  the  feminine  -ess,  as  in 
countess,  is  borrowed  from  the  French,  and  is  also 
of  classical  origin.  The  prevalent  feminine  termina- 
tion in  German  is  -inn,  as  in  tdnzerinn,  a  female 
dancer  (Fr.  dcmseuse) ;  of  this  there  are  two  instances 
in  English,  in  the  provincial  carliti,  the  fern,  of  carl, 
and  vixen  =  Ger.  filclmnn,  a  female  fox.  This  afiix 
was  already  in  use  in  Latin,  as  in  regina,  a  queen 
{reg{s),  a  king)  ;  and  in  this  form  it  is  used  in 
Europe  generally  to  femininise  proper  names ;  e.  g., 
Georglna,  Wilhelmina,  Caroline. 

In  such  pairs  as  son — daughter ;  man — maid;  horse 
— mare;  code — hen;  there  is  no  etymological  relation 
between  the  words ;  they  are  from  distinct  roots. 
But  with  regard  to  hen,  e.  g.,  the  Anglo-Saxon  had 
the  two  forms,  lian  for  the  male,  and  hen  for  tlie 
female;  and  mare  was  originally  applicable  to  both 
Bexes,  as  horse  still  is  (Fr.  marechal,  originally  an 
officer  who  had  charge  of  the  horses).  The  oldest 
known  form  of  the  Teutonic  speech,  the  Gothic,  had 
the  two  words,  magus,  son,  and  magaths,  daughter, 
both  from  the  root  mag,  to  beget,  or  to  make. 
Magaths  has  become  in  Ger.  magd,  in  Eng.  maid; 
rn'igus  has  been  lost  in  the  Teutonic  tongues,  but 
it  is  represented  by  the  Celtic  mac  (son),  evidently 
from  the  same  root.  King,  queen,  were  in  Sans. 
ganika,  father,  and  go7ii,  mother,  both  from  the 
root  gan,  to  generate,  produce.  The  masculine 
foiTO  appears  in  Old  Ger.  as  chunig,  in  modern 
Ger.  Iconig,  in  Eng.  king ;  the  feminine  became  the 
Greek  gyne,  a  woman,  as  well  as  the  Saxon  cvmi, 
Sw.  quinna.  Old  Eng.  q^iene  or  quean,  appHed  to  a 
woman  generally,  and  the  modern,  queen,  the  chief 
woman  of  the  land. 

GENEALOGY  (Lat.  and  Gr.  genealogia ;  from 
Gr.  genos,  race,  and  logos,  discourse)  is  the  name 
ay)plied  to  the  science  of  the  origin,  sequence,  and 
affinities  of  families.  Although  in  itself  it  is 
not  of  sufficient  imjiortance  to  rank  as  an  inde- 
£>endent  science,  yet  in  so  far  as  it  has  to  do  with 
remarkable  and  influential  families,  it  forms  a  very 
important  part  of  history.  It  naturally  divides 
itself  into  two  parts,  theoretical  and  practical. 
The  former  embraces  the  principles  on  which  the 


science  of  genealogy  is  based,  while  the  latter 
is  occupied  with  tracing  the  course  of  particular 
families  themselves.  To  render  perce[)tible  t<? 
the  senses  the  descent  and  relationship  of  indi- 
viduals, genealogical  tables  arc  made  use  of,  whose 
arrangement  depends  on  the  special  purpose  for 
which  they  are  constructed.  Usually,  however, 
such  tables  begin  with  the  earliest  ancestor  (Ger. 
stammvater)  of  a  family,  from  whom  all  the  known 
members  of  both  sexes  are  traced  in  the  order  of 
descent.  The  importance  of  this  branch  of  human 
knowledge,  however,  is  perhaps  less  obvious  in  a 
scientific  than  in  a  legal  aspect,  where  it  is  con- 
cerned about  the  various  claims  or  pretensions  of 
persons  based  on  real  or  alleged  relationship,  more 
especially  in  regard  to  rights  of  succession.  The 
earliest  traces  of  genealogy  are  to  be  found  in  the 
ancestral  catalogues  of  the  heroes  of  the  old  workL 
Among  the  Hebrews,  there  were  parties  specially 
appointed  to  draw  up  genealogical  tables.  The 
progress  of  civilisation  in  states,  and  in  particular 
the  institution  of  corporations  and  guilds  in  the 
towns,  afforded  a  wider  scope  for  genealogy.  But 
the  absence  of  criticism,  and  the  desire  to  flatter 
the  great,  were  the  causes  of  introducing — especially 
after  the  14th  c. — the  most  ridiculous  fables  into 
genealogy.  Ancestors  were  fabricated  in  the  most 
impudently  false  manner,  and  families  carried 
back  in  an  unbroken  line,  not  only  to  the  age  of 
Charlemagne,  but  even,  in  many  cases,  to  the  heroes 
of  the  Trojan  war.  The  fact,  however,  is,  that 
scarcely  any  family,  however  distinguished,  can 
trace  its  ancestors  even  to  the  middle  of  the  11th  c. 
Among  the  earlier  works  on  genealogy  are  Euxner'a 
Turnierbuch  (Simmern,  1527)  and  the  genealogical 
tables  of  Reusner  and  Hennings,  about  the  end 
of  the  16th  c,  but  these  are  not  conceived  in  a 
historical  spirit.  A  mora  luminous  treatment  of 
the  subject  was  initiated  in  France  by  Duchesno, 
St  Marthe,  Hozier,  Chifflet,  Lancelot  le  Blond, 
&c,,  and  in  England  by  Dugdale.  Rittershusiua 
of  Altdorf  (died  1670)  and  Spener  of  Wittenberg 
(died  1730)  were  the  first  in  Germany  to  base  gene- 
alogy on  documentary  evidence.  The  path  entered 
on  by  them  has  been  prosecuted  by  Konig,  Von 
Imhof,  and  especially  by  Hiibner  in  his  Genealogis" 
chen  Tabellen  (4  vols.,  Leip.  1725 — 1733  ;  new  edit., 
1737 — 1766),  to  which  Lenz  added  Erlduterungen 
(Elucidations,  Leip.  1756),  and  Sophia  queen  ol 
Denmark,  Supplement-tafeln  (Kopenh.  1822 — 1824). 
Gatterer,  in  his  Ahi-iss  der  Genealogie  (Gott.  1788), 
founded  the  scientific  treatment  of  the  subject, 
in  which  he  was  followed  by  Putter  in  his  TabulcB 
Genealogica;,  by  Koch  in  his  Tables  Genealogiques 
des  Maisons  Souveraines  d' Europe  (Ger.  Berlin, 
1808),  and  by  Voigtel  in  his  Genealogischen  l^abellen 
(1810). 

In  Great  Britain,  the  chief  printed  collections  of 
genealogical  information  are  the  Peerages,  Baron- 
ages, Baronetages,  and  County  Histories.  The 
chief  manuscript  sources  are  t^e  public  records, 
heraldic  registers,  and  the  parish  registers  of  births, 
marriages,  and  deaths. 

GENERAL  (of  religious  order),  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  the  supreme  head,  under  the  pope, 
of  the  aggregated  communities  throughout  Chris- 
tendom belonging  to  a  religious  order.  The  govern- 
ing authorities  of  the  monastic  orders  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  may  be  arranged  in  three  classes  i 
(1.)  The  superiors  of  individual  convents'  or  com- 
munities, called  in  different  orders  by  the  variouii 
names  of  abbot,  prior,  rector,  guardian,  &c. ;  (2.)  The 
provincials,  who  have  authority  over  all  the  convents 
of  an  entire  province — the  provinces,  in  the  monastic 
sense  of  the  word,  being  usually  coincident  as  to 
local  limits  with  the  several  kingdoms  in  which 


GENERAL  AGENT— GENERAL  OFFICER, 


the  order  is  established;  (3.)  The  general  to  whom 
not  only  each  member  of  the  order,  but  all  the 
various  officials  of  every  rank,  are  absolutely  subject. 
The  general  is  usually  elected  commonly  by  the 
general  chapter  of  the  order,  which,  in  the  majority 
of  orders,  consists  properly  of  the  provincials  ;  with 
whom,  however,  are  commonly  associated  the  heads 
of  the  more  important  monasteries,  as  also  the 
superiors  of  certain  subdivisions  of  provinces.  The 
office  of  genera)  in  most  orders  is  held  for  three 
years.  In  that  of  the  Jesuits  it  is  for  life ;  but  in 
all,  the  election  of  the  general  chapter  must  be 
confirmed  by  the  pope.  In  most  orders,  too,  there  is 
assigned  to  the  general  a  cousultor  {admonitor)  or 
associate  {socius),  who,  however,  is  only  entitled 
to  advise,  but  has  no  authority  to  control  the 
Buperior.  The  general  also  is  supposed  to  consult 
with  and  to  receive  reports  from  the  various  local 
superiors.  He  sends,  if  necessary,  a  visitor  to 
inquire  into  particular  abuses,  or  to  report  upon  such 
controversies  as  may  arise,  and  he  holds  a  general 
chaj)ter  of  the  order  at  stated  times,  which  differ 
according  to  the  usage  of  the  several  orders.  The 
general  is  exempt  from  episcopal  jurisdiction,  being 
subject  to  the  immediate  jurisdiction  of  the  pope 
himself.  He  resides  in  Rome,  where  he  enjoys 
certain  privileges,  the  most  important  of  which  is 
the  right  to  sit  and  vote  with  the  bishops  in  a 
general  conned  of  the  church. 

GENERAL  AGENT.  See  Agent,  Principal 
ijjD  Agent. 

GENERAL  ASSEMBLY.  See  Assembly, 
General. 

GENERAL  COUNCIL.    See  Privy  Council. 

GENERAL  DEMU  RRER,  in  English  pleading, 
was  a  Demurrer  (q.  v.)  without  shewing  special 
cause.  Where  the  objection  to  the  pleading  was  for 
want  of  form,  a  special  demurrer  was  necessaiy ; 
but  where  the  defect  was  in  substance,  a  general 
demurrer  was  sufficient.  By  the  Common  Law 
Procedure  Act  (1852),  special  demurrers  have  been 
abolished,  and  the  distinction  has  ceased  to  exist. 

GENERAL  ISSUE,  in  English  pleading,  is  the 
form  in  which  the  defendant  traverses  or  meets  with 
a  simple  denial  the  whole  allegations,  or  the  prin- 
cipal fact  on  which  the  plaintiff  relies  in  his  declar- 
ation. Thus,  in  actions  founded  on  wrongs,  the 
general  issue  is  'Not  Guilty;'  in  actions  of  debt, 
that  the  defendant  never  was  indebted ;  in  actions 
on  a  deed  or  bond,  non  e.st  factum,  i.  e.,  that  it  is  not 
the  deed  of  the  defendant.  Under  this  issue,  the 
defendant  may  prove  that  he  never  executed  the 
deed ;  but  not  that  it  is  bad  in  point  of  'aw.  In 
criminal  proceedings,  the  general  issue  is  'Not  Guilty,' 
by  which  plea,  without  further  form,  every  person, 
not  having  the  privilege  of  peerage,  upon  being 
arraigned  upon  any  indictment  for  treason,  felony, 
or  piracy,  is  deemed  to  have  put  himself  upon  the 
country  for  trial.  Where  a  prisoner  refuses  to 
plead,  a  plea  of  Not  Guilty  may  be  entered  for  him, 
7  and  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  28.  Under  the  plea  of  Not 
Guilty,  the  prisoner  is  entitled  to  give  in  evidence 
not  only  everything  which  negatives  the  charge, 
but  also  all  matter  of  excuse  or  justification. 

GENERAL  LIEN,  in  English  Law,  is  the  right 
which  a  paity  has  to  retain  a  chattel  as  security  for 
the  payment,  not  only  of  the  particular  article,  but 
of  any  balance  that  may  be  due  on  general  account 
in  the  same  line  of  business.  General  liens  do  not 
exist  at  common  law,  but  depend  upon  agreement, 
either  express  or  nnplied,  or  upon  the  usage  of 
trade.  Thus,  attorneys  have  a  lien  for  the  balance 
of  their  accounts  over  the  papers  of  their  clients. 
Bankers,  factors,  warehousemen,  and  others,  have 
C70 


also  a  lien  for  the  amount  due  to  them  on  the 
general  balance  of  their  accounts.  But  it  has  been 
held  that  fullers  are  not  entitled  to  this  privilege, 
Rose  V.  Hart,  8  Taunt.  499.  The  right  of  wharfingers 
also  is  not  clear  in  all  cases,  Holdcrness  v.  Collinson, 
7  Barn,  and  Ores.  212.  In  regard  to  carriers,  there 
has  been  much  dispute  whether,  by  the  usage  of 
trade,  they  have  a  general  lien  over  goods  intrusted 
to  them ;  but  the  prevailing  opinion  appears  to  be 
that  they  have.  The  master  of  a  ship  has  no  lien 
on  the  vessel  or  her  freight  for  his  disbursements  on 
her  accoimt ;  but  now  he  has  the  same  lien  for  his 
wages  as  a  seaman  has  ;  17  and  18  Vict.  c.  104,  s. 
191.  By  6  Geo.  IV.  c.  94,  it  is  provided  that  any 
person  in  whose  name  goods  are  shij^ped  shall  be 
deemed  to  be  the  owner  so  far  as  to  entitle  the 
consignee  to  a  lien  for  any  advances  made  for  the 
use  of  such  persons,  provided  the  consignees  had  no 
notice  when  the  advance  was  made  that  they  were 
not  the  true  owners.  As  a  lien  rests  upon  the  right 
to  retain  possession,  it  is  lost  by  abandonment  of 
the  possession  of  the  goods. 

In  Scotland  a  similar  right  exists,  under  the  title 
of  Retention  (q.  v.).    See  also  Lien,  and  Hypothec. 

GENERAL  OFFICER  is  an  officer  of  the 
general  staff  of  an  army  to  whom  is  intrusted  the 
command  of  a  body  of  men,  not  less  in  strength  than 
a  Brigade  (q.  v.).  In  an  army  of  very  large  ]:)ropor- 
tions,  the  normal  sequence  of  command  would  be 
the  following :  the  general  commanding-in-chief, 
generalissimo,  or  field-marshal,  would  command 
the  whole  force ;  the  generals  would  have  sci)arate 
corps-cVarmee ;  the  lieutenant-generals,  wings  of 
those  corps-d' armee ;  the  major-generals,  divisions 
in  the  wings  ;  and  brigadier-generals,  brigades  in  the 
divisions.  In  practice,  however,  an  army  is  rarely 
large  enough  to  allow  of  this  exact  scheme  of  a 
military  hierarchy  being  strictly  carried  out. 

In  the  British  service,  colonels  become  major- 
generals  (except  in  cases  of  selection  for  very  dis- 
tinguished service)  in  order  of  seniority,  provided 
each  has  served  on  fidl  pay  for  a  certain  numljer  of 
years ;  promotion  to  be  lieutenant-generals  and 
generals  follows  in  exact  order  of  seniority.  From 
the  last,  promotion  to  the  exceptional  rank  of  field- 
marshal  is  conferred  in  rare  instances  by  the  special 
favour  of  the  sovereign,  who  represents  in  person 
the  sole  command  and  possesses  the  patronage  of  all 
the  land  forces.  In  addition  to  the  colonels  who 
become  effective  genei'als,  officers  who  have  retired 
on  half-pay  at  earlier  periods  of  their  careers  ri^e  by 
senioiity  to  the  rank  of  general  officers ;  but  they 
continue,  notwithstanding,  to  receive  only  the  half- 
pay  of  the  rank  in  which  they  retired.  With  regard 
to  remimeration,  general  officers  hold  164  honorary 
colonelcies  of  regiments,  worth,  with  fev/  exceptions, 
£1000  each  per  annum,  and  the  remainder  receive 
unattaclied  pay  of  £600  a  year,  if  they  have  been  in 
the  guards ;  £1,  66-.  .3fZ.  a  day,  if  in  the  artillery  or 
engineers ;  and  £1,  5s.  a  day,  if  pr'  -dously  in  the 
line.  This  pay  is  received  during  non-activity, 
but  when  employed  actively  a  general  receives,  in 
addition,  £5,  13s.  Qd.  a  day ;  a  lieutenant-general, 
£3,  15s.  \Qd.  ;  and  a  major-general,  £1,  17s.  \\d., 
besides  various  allowances.  The  only  generals' 
commands  in  the  British  service  are,  during  peace, 
the  commands-in-chief  of  the  army  generally  and 
of  the  force  in  India.  According  to  the  estimates 
for  1862—1863,  there  are  8  lieutenant-generals,  29 
major-generals,  and  10  brigadier-generals  (smployed 
actively,  exclusive  of  the  numbers  serving  vsith  the 
army  in  India. 

The  pay  of  a  general  commanding  the  army  of  the  U. 
States  is  about  $1300  per  month ;  of  a  lieutenant-gen- 
eral on  duty,  about  $1180;  of  a  major-general,  from 
$620  to  $484;  of  a  brigadier-general,  from  $440  to 


GENERAL  SHIP— GENERALISATION. 


$328.  In  1876  there  were  one  general  (Sherman), 
one  lieutenant-general  (Sheridan),  three  major-gene- 
rals and  six  hrigadier-generals  belonging  to  the  rank 
of  general  officers  in  the  United  States. 

GENERAL  SHIP,  is  a  ship  wliicli  has  been 
advertised  by  the  owners  to  take  goods  from  a 
particidar  port  at  a  particular  time,  and  which  is 
not  under  any  special  contract  to  particular  mer- 
chants. The  owners,  in  this  case,  engage  separately 
"vdfch  each  merchant  who  applies  to  them  to  convey 
his  goods  to  the  ship's  destination.  The  contract 
between  the  owners,  or  the  master  acting  in  their 
behalf,  and  the  proi^rietors  of  the  goods,  may  in 
the  case  of  general  ship  be  established  by  parole 
evidence,  and,  indeed,  there  is  rarely  any  other 
writing  on  the  subject  beyond  the  advertisement 
and  the  bill  of  lading.  In  general  ship  the  master 
being  intrusted  by  the  owners  with  full  power  to 
contract  for  and  take  in  goods,  no  agreement  for 
freight  which  any  one  may  have  made  with  the 
owners,  independently  of  him,  wall  be  effectual  to 
secure  room  in  the  vessel.  All  such  agreements 
must  be  intimated  to  the  master,  or  those  acting  for 
him  on  board,  before  he  has  engaged  freight  for  the 
whole  vessel.  By  such  intimation,  a  preference  will 
be  seciu-ed  over  the  merchant  who  brings  his  goods 
to  the  ship's  side  on  chance.  If  the  owners  of  a 
general  ship  have  advertised  her  as  bound,  for  a 
particular  port,  they  must  give  specific  notice  to 
every  person  who  may  ship  goods  on  board,  of  any 
alteration  in  her  destination,  and  they  will  be  liable 
for  the  consequences  of  neglecting  to  do  so.  Bell's 
Com.  i.  433,  Shaw's  edition ;  Abbot  on  Shijjping, 
p.  233. 

GENERAL  VERDICT.    See  Verdict,  Jury. 

GENERALISA'TION.  Our  experience  of  the 
world  leads  us  to  recognise  not  only  great  variety, 
but  also  numerous  instances  of  agreement  in  the 
midst  of  the  variety.  We  do  not  call  the  continu- 
ance of  the  same  fact  an  agreement ;  it  is  only  when, 
amid  difference  of  accompaniment,  we  recognise 
a  common  feature,  that  our  attention  is  awakened, 
and  our  mind  interested.  Sometimes  the  common 
feature  in  a  number  of  varying  objects  is  obvious 
and  universally  noticed  ;  as  when  we  identify  the 
round  form  amidst  all  cbsparities  of  size,  colour,  and 
substance.  At  other  times,  the  resemblance  is  so 
obscured  by  the  amomit  of  difference,  that  it  has 
lain  for  ages  unperceived  ;  the  fall  of  a  stone  was 
never  suspected,  before  the  time  of  Newton,  to  have 
anything  in  common  with  the  motions  of  the  moon 
and  planets.  When  we  see  the  same  property  or 
effect  repeated  under  great  variety  of  circumstances 
and  adjuncts,  and  when  we  indicate  by  a  name  or 
otherwise  that  this  agreement  exists,  we  are  said  to 
mark  out  a  general  or  generalised  property,  or  fact ; 
while  thft  individual  instances  are  termed  the 
particular^  on  which  the  other  is  grounded. 

To  understand  the  full  meaning  of  generalisation, 
and  the  questions  therewith  connected,  we  must 
advert  t^  the  distinction  between  two  modes  of  the 
operation.  In  the  one,  we  generalise  an  individual 
or  isolated  pi  operty — as  roundness,  whiteness,  weight, 
attraction,  justice — and  assi^ai  what  we  think  the 
exact  nAture  of  the  common  feature  thus  singled  out. 
A  number  of  designations  have  been  given  to  this 
process,  according  to  the  particular  stage  in  the 
oj>erat»on  most  specially  taken  into  view  ;  these  are 
Classiiication,  General  Notion,  General  Tenn,  Defin- 
ition, Abstraction,  Concept  or  Conception,  Idea. 
They  all  sujjpose  that  we  have  a  plurality  of  objects 
with  agreeing  properties,  and  that  agreement  has 
beer  taken  notice  of,  and  embodied  in  such  a  form, 
thaT-  Mio  mind  can  deal  with  it  to  the  neglect  of  the 
ooints  wherfcin  the  particular  things  difir  among 


themselves.    They  suppose,  further,  that  we  make 

no  affirmation  beyond  what  is  implied  in  the  identi- 
fying of  so  many  differing  objects — namely,  that  thsy 
do  agree  in  the  point  in  (]uestion.  No  other  matter 
for  belief  or  disbelief  is  presented  in  the  notion  of 
roundness  but  that  certain  things  have  been  com- 
pared, and  have  been  found  to  agree  in  j)ossessing 
that  attribute.  To  attempt  to  form  a  general  notion, 
or  to  mark  a  property  not  attaching  to  anythiog  in 
nature,  is  a  pure  irrelevance  and  absurdity  ;  aiul 
j  although  by  a  Ijold  stretch  of  imagination  we  mi^  ht 
j  people  the  earth  with  chimerical  objects,  and  lind 
I  agreements  among  them,  yet  such  generalities  coidd 
I  not  be  introduced  into  any  process  of  reasoning ;  it 
;  is  presumed,  that  wherever  a  general  property  is 
specified,  there  are  things  in  natm-e  having  this 
property  in  company  with  the  others  that  make  up 
the  total  characteristics  of  each. 
*  But  the  other  kind  of  generalisation  introduces 
belief  in  a  totally  different  shape.  When  instead  of 
identifying  a  property,  we  identify  a  union  or  cou' 
junction  of  distinct  properties,  it  has  to  be  seen  not 
merely  whether  the  common  features  are  correctly 
rendered  in  the  general  notion,  but  whether  the 
alleged  coupling  always  takes  place.  Thus,  when 
we  compare  the  sea  coasts  all  over  the  globe,  we 
find,  with  some  exceptions,  that  twice  a  day  the 
sea  advances  and  recedes  on  the  shore  :  this  fact  we 
express  by  the  general  name  the  tides.  When,  how- 
ever, we  go  further,  and  note  everywhere  the  coin' 
cidence  between  the  tides  and  the  positions  of  tho 
moon,  and  generalise  that  coincidence,  we  attain  to 
a  more  complicated  result.  We  are  now  called  upon 
to  believe  not  merely  in  the  accurate  correspondence 
of  a  general  notion  with  the  particular  objects,  but 
in  the  constancy  of  the  conjunction  between  two 
distinct  properties,  so  that  the  occurrence  of  one 
shall  always  count  as  evidence  of  the  other.  The 
different  aspects  of  this  higher  operation  have  given 
rise  to  another  series  of  designations,  contrasting 
with  those  given  above  for  the  simj^ler  operation  ; 
these  are  Induction,  Inductive  Generalisation,  Con- 
joined Properties,  Affirmation,  Proposition,  Judgment, 
Law,  Order  of  Nature.  Tliese  all  involve  truth  or 
falsehood,  inasmuch  as  they  all  pretend  to  give  us 
a  positive  assurance  that  wherever  we  find  one 
thing  we  shall  find  some  other  thing  present  or 
absent,  and  be  enabled  thereby  to  anticipate  our 
individual  experience  of  the  course  of  nature.  A 
general  notion  can  often  be  expressed  in  a  single 
word  ;  the  7ioun  is  the  part  of  speech  that  names 
both  particular  objects  and  general  notions.  A 
general  jiroposition  is  a  complete  thought,  and 
requires  a  sentence  for  its  enunciation  ;  it  involves 
the  ve7'h  along  with  the  noun.  Heat  is  a  notion, 
and  so  is  Light ;  but  when  we  unite  the  two  in  tho 
affirmation  that  heat  is  the  cause  of  light,  we  indicate 
something  that  is  true  or  false,  that  may  be  proved 
or  disproved,  believed  or  denied. 

This  higher  form  of  generalisation  is  treated  of 
under  Induction.  On  the  other  and  simpler  lorm, 
a  few  further  explanations  are  added  here.  In  the 
operation  of  forming  a  general  notion,  the  first  s^tep 
is  something  of  the  natui'e  of  Classification.  We 
must  assemble  in  our  view  a  number  of  particular 
objects,  being  moved  to  bring  them  together  by  the 
attractive  bond  or  association  of  similarity.  Tho 
objects  thus  assembled  are  a  class.  In  Natural 
History,  for  example,  we  bring  together  in  the  mind 
all  the  quadnipeds  that  we  have  ever  had  any 
knowledge  of,  and  the  array  constitutes  a  class, 
grounded  on  the  pecidiarity  of  walking  on  all- fours. 
Another  class  is  made  up  of  the  animals  that  fly  in 
the  air ;  a  third,  of  those  that  live  in  the  sea.  By 
such  successive  groupings  of  creatui'es  that  have  a 
kindred  nature  in  one  or  more  respects,  we  gradually 


GENERALISATION. 


include  the  whole  of  the  animal  kingdom  known 
to  us  in  a  series  of  classifications,  whereby  method 
and  order  are  introduced  into  the  otherwise  hetero- 
geneous mass.  So  in  plants  and  minerals,  and  all 
through  nature.  According  as  likenesses  have  been 
discerned  in  the  constituent  parts  of  the  universe  of 
things,  the  individuals  are  placed  with  those  related 
to  them,  and  a  great  simplification  of  view  and 
extension  of  knowledge  are  the  results.  For  it 
happens  very  frequently,  that  likeness  in  one  point 
is  accompanied  with  likeness  in  other  points,  so  that 
we  can  couple  several  peculiarities  together,  and 
rise  to  general  truths  as  well  as  general  notions. 
When  a  classification  has  been  arrived  at  that  leads 
to  this  consequence,  we  put  a  more  than  ordinary 
value  upon  it ;  we  consider  that  we  have  seized  upon 
Bome  fundamental  and  pregnant  point  of  resem- 
l>lance,  something  that  conveys  the  most  essential 
nature  of  tlie  objects  classified,  and  we  are  accus-" 
tomed  to  style  the  group  that  so  arises  a  natural 
or  a  philosophiml  classification.  The  arranging  of 
animals  according  to  the  element  they  live  in,  as 
land,  water,  air,  so  very  obvious  to  the  first  observers, 
has  given  place  to  one  founded  on  other  kinds  of 
likeness — namely,  the  structure  of  the  skeleton 
and  the  mode  of  bringing  forth  and  rearing  the 
young ;  it  being  proved  that  a  greater  number  of 
important  attributes  are  bound  up  with  those 
characteristics  than  with  the  element  that  the 
animals  inhabit.    See  Mill's  Logic,  hook  iv.  chap.  7. 

The  forming  of  a  class  leads  to  the  adoption  of  a 
Class  Name,  in  other  words,  of  a  general  name, 
which  is  a  name  applicable  to  every  individual 
member  of  the  class,  in  consequence  of  being  under- 
stood to  express  no  more  than  they  all  have  in 
common.  Thus  we  have  the  name  '  round'  to  express 
all  round  objects,  omitting  any  reference  to  other 
peculiarities  that  may  attach  to  them.  So  the 
names  '  bird,'  '  heath,'  '  salt,'  are  applicable  alike 
to  a  vast  number  of  individual  things.  When  the 
general  name  has  been  devised,  we  can  by  means 
of  it  speak  of  all  the  particidars  in  one  breath,  on 
condition  that  we  intend  only  to  refer  to  the  points 
of  community. 

The  process  called  Abstraction  is  further  implied. 
When  we  bring  together,  or  constitute  a  class,  in 
virtue  of  a  prevailing  resemblance,  we  are  said  to 
'  abstract '  from  the  individuals  everything  else 
except  the  points  of  agreement.  In  the  language  of 
Sir  W.  Hamilton,  we  attend  to  the  likeness  and 
abstract  the  differences.  The  notion  that  we  have 
of  the  common  quality  is  termed  by  the  same 
philosopher  the  Concept ;  but  it  has  been  usual  to 
employ  the  phrase  'abstraction'  or  'abstract  idea' 
for  the  same  purpose,  although  a  perversion  of  the 
original  application  of  that  word.  The  common 
attribute  of  round  bodies,  the  round  fi^re,  or 
form,  is  the  concept,  or  the  abstract  idea  of  round- 
ness. The  precise  character  of  this  mental  element 
or  process  has  been  much  disputed  in  philosophy, 
there  being  three  different  sects  that  have  grown 
up  in  connection  with  it ;  the  Realists,  Nominalists, 
and  Conceptualists.  The  Eeahsts  gave  an  actual 
independent  existence  to  the  i^rototypes  of  our 
general  notions,  maintaining  that  apart  from  all 
circular  bodies  there  existed  in  nature  a  circular 
form,  having  no  other  attribute  soever,  like  a  circle 
of  Euclid  bereft  of  the  actual  line  required  to  mark 
the  figure  to  the  eye.  The  Nominalists  considered 
that  the  only  general  thing  was  the  common  name ; 
the  Conceptualists  allowed  a  mental  existence  to 
the  generalised  attributes,  but  no  more.  (Sir  W. 
Hamilton's  Metaphysics,  vol.  ii.  p.  296.)  The  last 
are,  no  doubt,  near  the  truth  ;  for  although  we  can- 
not, with  Plato,  affirm  the  existence  in  nature  of 
generals '  that  have  no  embodiment  in  particulars 
672 


(which  would  be  to  contradict  the  very  essence  of 
generalisation,  namely,  likeness  among  unlikeneaaes), 
we  must  still  grant  to  the  mind  the  power  of  attend- 
ing in  thought  to  what  is  common,  neglecting  for 
the  time  the  disagreements.  We  can  think  of  all 
the  consequences  of  the  circular  fi^re,  without 
specially  attending  to  the  other  pecuhariti(!S  of  any 
individual  circle.  This  abstractive  process  is  per- 
formed in  difi'erent  ways,  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  subject.  In  geometry,  for  example,  we  can  draw 
diagrams  that  are  little  other  than  naked  forma, 
although  we  must  make  them  of  a  definite  size  ; 
and  in  contemjjlating  these,  we  are  enabled  to  think 
of  form  without  substance.  We  cannot  use  thi$ 
method  in  Natural  History ;  we  cannot  form  a  con  • 
ception  of  a  bird  by  a  diagram  that  gives  nothing 
but  what  is  common  to  all  birds.  If  we  are  reason- 
ing upon  the  properties  of  the  class,  we  may  first 
call  into  view  some  one  as  an  example,  say  a  pigeon ; 
from  considering  which,  we  can  go  so  far  as  to  note 
the  common  peculiarities  of  feathers,  wings,  bill,  &c.; 
and  when  we  have  completed  the  description,  wo 
run  over  in  our  mind  a  number  of  other  birds,  to 
see  that  we  have  not  mentioned  points  special  to 
the  pigeon.  In  fact,  we  must  have  within  call  tLe 
whole  of  the  members  of  the  class,  if  we  would 
reason  generally  respecting  it.  After  we  have  thua 
checked  and  corrected  our  generalised  description, 
we  can  embody  the  abstract  idea  in  a  form  of  very 
wide  occurrence  in  our  general  reasonings,  namely, 
a  verbal  statement  of  the  common  attributes.  By 
means  of  this,  we  may  often  dispense  wnth  the 
reference  to  the  particulars,  except  to  know  the 
precise  meaning  of  the  language,  which  meaning  ia 
still  some  sort  of  general  conception  of  the  objects. 
We  must  have  a  general  notion  of  feathers,  and 
of  the  structure  of  the  bill  in  birds,  upon  the  plan 
above  mentioned  of  holding  in  the  mind  some 
typical  instance  subject  to  correction  by  a  com- 
parison of  all  the  instances  coming  under  the  genus. 
So  that,  in  point  of  fact,  no  general  reasoning  liaa 
ever  been  invented  to  supersede  totally  this  refer- 
ence to  the  particulars  ;  the  formal  reasonings  of 
mathematics  require  us  still  to  have  in  the  mind 
concrete  quantity,  or  one  thing  as  equal  to,  greatei 
than,  or  less  than,  another. 

These  remarks  lead  us  to  the  nature  of  Definition, 
which  is  one  of  the  important  designations  growing 
out  of  the  operation  of  generalising.  To  define,  ia 
to  limit,  settle,  and  specify  the  exact  compass  of  the 
properties  common  to  a  class.  Usually  this  is  done 
by  means  of  language  ;  but  in  reality  it  ia,  and  must 
be  done,  by  a  reference,  direct  or  remote,  to  the 
particulars  themselves.  This  reference  frequently 
has  the  appearance  of  being  dispensed  with.  The 
reason  is  that  many  general  notions  are  compounded 
of  others,  and  we  can  understand  the  composite 
notion  from  its  components,  without  going  further ; 
that  is,  without  producing  particidars.  Thus,  a 
circle  in  the  abstract  might  be  made  intelligible  by 
pointing  to  a  number  of  concrete  circles,  such  as  aro 
drawn  m  Euclid ;  we  should  then  have  to  impress 
on  our  minds  a  sufficient  nimiber  of  these  to  prevent 
us  from  ever  associating  with  the  general  idea  any 
one  size,  or  any  one  colour  of  the  outline  (which 
must  be  drawn  in  black,  red,  blue,  or  some  other 
colour).  No  one  circle  is  really  the  general  notion  ; 
this  must  be  nothing  less  than  a  multitude  of  actual 
circles,  which  the  mind  apprehends  by  turns,  so  aa 
to  be  sure  of  never  affirming  any  attribute  as  com- 
mon that  is  in  fact  peculiar  to  one  or  a  few.  But 
the  concept,  circle,  can  be  got  at  in  another  way.  If 
we  determine  first  Avhat  is  called  a  'point'  in  space, 
and  a  '  line '  proceeding  from  that  point,  and  made 
to  revolve  around  it,  the  other  extremity  of  the 
revolving  line  will  mark  a  course  which  m  a  circlet  ^ 


GENERATION. 


Here,  if  we  possess  ourselves  of  the  simple  notions 
or  concepts,  Point,  Line,  devolution,  we  may  attain 
to  the  notion.  Circle,  without  examining  actual 
circles  in  the  concrete.  So  we  may  deline  an  oval, 
or  ellipse,  and  many  other  figures.  This  practice  of 
referring  to  a  simpler  order  of  concepts  for  the  con- 
stituents of  a  given  one,  is  the  main  function  of  the 
Definition,  which  applies,  therefore,  to  complex 
notions,  and  not  to  such  as  are  ultimate,  or  simple 
in  the  extreme  degree.  To  define  in  the  last  resort, 
we  must  come  to  quoting  the  particulars.  We  cannot 
d'jfine  a  line  by  anything  more  elementary.  To  say, 
^ith  Euclid,  that  it  is  length  without  breadth,  is  no 
assistance,  as  we  must  still  go  to  our  experience  for 
examples  of  length  ;  and  length  is  not  a  more  simple 
idea  than  line,  being,  in  fact,  but  another  word  for 
the  same  thing.  Nevertheless,  it  has  been  often 
supposed  that  there  are  general  notions  independent 
of  all  experience,  or  reference  to  particulars  ;  the 
form  commonly  given  to  the  foundations  of  the 
science  of  mathematics  having  favoured  this  view. 

The  name  '  genus '  is  also  connected  with  the 
present  subject.  It  is  co-relative  with  another  word, 
'species,'  which,  however,  is  itself  to  some  extent 
a  generalisation  ;  for  every  speci^^a  is  considered  to 
have  individuals  under  it.  Thus,  xU  Zoology,  felis  is 
a  genus,  of  animals,  and  the  lion,  tiger,  cat,  &c.,  are 
among  its  species ;  but  each  of  those  species  is  the 
generalisation  of  an  innumerable  number  of  indi- 
vidual lions,  tigers,  &c.,  differing  considerably  from 
one  another,  so  that  to  express  the  species  we  are 
still  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  the  operations  of 
comparison,  abstraction,  and  definition.  Genus  and 
species,  therefore,  introduce  to  us  the  existence  of 
successive  generalisations,  more  and  more  extensive 
in  their  range  of  application,  and  possessing,  in 
consequence,  a  smaller  amount  of  similarity  or 
community  of  feature  (see  Extension). 

GENERA'TION.    See  Reproduction. 

GENERATION.  A  term  in  use  in  Mathematics. 
One  geometrical  figure  is  said  to  be  generated  by 
another,  when  produced  or  formed  by  an  operation 
performed  upon  the  other.  Thus  a  cone  is  generated 
by  making  a  right-angled  triangle  revolve  about  one 
of  its  sides  adjoining  the  right  angle  as  an  axis.  In 
arithmetic,  in  the  same  way,  a  number  is  said  to  be 
generated  when  produced  by  an  operation  performed 
on  one  or  more  other  numbers.  Thus,  30  is  generated 
by  the  involution  of  6  to  the  2d  power,  or  by  the 
multiplication  of  4  and  9. 

GENERATION,  Eternal.  See  Trinity, 
Doctrine  of  the. 

GENERATION,  Spontaneous.  From  the  earliest 
[>eriod  to  the  termination  of  the  middle  ages,  no  one 
called  in  question  the  doctrine  that,  under  certain 
favourable  conditions,  of  which  putrefaction  was  one 
of  the  most  important,  animals  might  be  produced 
without  parents.  Anaximander  and  Empedocles 
attiibuted  to  this  form  of  generation  all  the  living 
beings  which  first  peopled  the  globe.  Aristotle, 
without  committing  himself  to  so  general  a  view, 
maintains  that  animals  are  sometimes  formed  in 
putrefying  soil,  sometimes  in  plants,  and  sometimes 
m  the  fluids  of  other  animals,  and  lays  down  the 
following  general  principle,  'that  every  dry  sub- 
stance which  becomes  moist,  and  every  moist  body 
which  is  dried,  ])roduces  living  creatures,  provided 
it  is  fit  for  nourishing  them.'  The  views  of  Lucretius 
on  this  subject  are  shewn  in  the  following  lines  : 

Nonne  vides  qusecunque  mora,  fluidoque  liquore 
Corpora  tabuerint,  in  parva  aniinalia  verti  ? 

And  Pliny  maintains  that  'quaedam  gignuntur  ex 
non  genitis,  et  sine  ullil  simili  origine.'  Virgil's 
directions  for  the  production  of  bees  are  known  to 

199 


every  reader  of  the  Oeorgicn,  and  an  expression  in  thft 
Book  of  Judges  (xiv.  14)  i)robubly  points  to  a  similar 
ojnnion. 

Passing  from  classical  times  to  the  later  period 
of  the  middle  ages,  and  the  two  succeeding  cen- 
turies, we  may  quote  amongst  the  advocates  of  this 
theory,  Cardan — who,  in  his  treatise  J)e  h'ubtilitate 
(1542),  asserts  that  water  engenders  fishes,  and  that 
many  animals  spring  from  fermentation — Aldro- 
vandus,  Licetus,  Gassendi,  Scaliger,  Van  Ilelmont, 
who  gives  si)ecial  instructions  for  the  artificial  pro- 
duction of  mice,  and  Kircher,  who  in  his  Mundm 
Suhterraneus  (in  the  chajjter  '  De  Panspermia 
Rerum')  describes,  and  actually  figures,  certain 
animals  which  were  produced  under  his  own  eyea 
by  the  transforming  influence  of  water  on  fragments 
of  the  stems  of  different  plants ! 

lledi,  the  celebrated  Italian  naturalist,  whose 
Experiments  on  the  Genr-ratlon  of  Insects  were  pub- 
lished in  1668,  seems  to  have  been  the  first  oi)ponent 
that  the  doctrine  of  spontaneous  generation  encoun- 
tered. In  this  work,  he  proves  that  the  worms  and 
insects  which  appear  in  decaying  substances  are 
in  reality  developed  from  eggs,  deposited  in  those 
substances  by  the  parents.  Leuwenhoek,  Vallis- 
neri,  Swammerdam,  and  other  eminent  naturalists, 
soon  contributed  additional  facts  and  arguments 
in  favour  of  Redi's  view ;  and  as  from  the  time  of 
Redi  to  the  present  day,  the  tide  of  opinion  has 
generally  turned  strongly  against  the  doctrine  in 
question,  it  is  unnecessary  to  carry  the  historical 
sketch  further. 

The  entozoa,  however,  continued  to  be  a  great 
stumbling-block.  '  When,'  says  Professor  Ow^n, 
'  the  entozoologist  contemplated  the  tcmia  fixed  to 
the  intestine,  with  its  uncinated  and  suctorious  he-xd 
buried  in  the  mucous  membrane,  rooted  to  the  spot, 
and  imbibing  nourishment  like  a  plant — when  ha 
saw  the  sluggish  cystoma  (or  fluke)  adherir'g  by  its 
sucker  to  the  serous  membrane  of  a  closed  internal 
cavity,  he  naturally  asked  himself  how  they  got 
there ;  and  finding  no  obvious  solution  to  the  diffi- 
culty of  the  transit  on  the  part  of  such  animals,  ha 
was  driven  to  the  hypothesis  of  spontaneous  gener- 
ation to  solve  the  difficulty.  It  is  no  wonder  that 
Rudolphi  (1808)  and  Bremser  (1824),  who  studied 
the  entozoa  rather  as  naturalists  than  plij^siologists, 
should  have  been  led  to  apply  to  them  the  easy 
explanation  which  Aristutle  had  given  for  the 
coming  into  being  of  all  kinds  of  Vermes — viz.,  that 
they  were  spontaneously  generated.  No  other 
explanation,  in  the  then  state  of  the  knowledge  of 
the  develo]3ment  of  the  entozoa,  appeared  to  be 
adequate  to  account  for  the  fact  of  their  getting 
into  the  interior  cavities  and  tissues  of  higher 
animals.'  The  recent  investigations  of  Von  Siebold, 
KUchenmeister,  Van  Beneden,  Philippi,  &c.,  regard- 
ing the  development  and  metamorphoses  of  tho 
entozoa,  have,  however,  tended  to  remove  nearly 
all  the  difficulties  which  this  subject  presented; 
and  the  advocates  of  spontaneous  generation  aro 
faii-ly  driven  fi'om  this,  one  of  the  last  of  theii 
battle-fields. 

The  only  point  at  present  in  dispute  is,  whether 
microscopic  organisms  (animals  or  plants)  may  be 
spontaneously  generated.  It  is  well  known  that  if 
we  examine  under  the  microscope  a  drop  of  water 
in  which  almost  any  animd  or  vegetable  sub- 
stances have  been  infused,  and  which  contains  tho 
particles  of  such  substances  in  a  state  of  decay  or 
decomposition,  it  is  found  to  swarm  with  minute 
living  organisms.  The  question  at  issue  is  this  : 
Are  these  organisms  developed  in  the  water,  if  the 
necessary  precautions  have  been  taken  to  exclude 
every  animalcule  or  germ  capable  of  develoj^ment 
both  from  the  water  and  from  the  air  that  has 

678 


GENERATION- 


GENERATIONS. 


access  to  it?  A  well-known  experiment,  devised  by 
Professor  Schiilze  of  Berlin  (a  description  of  which 
may  be  I'ound  in  Owen's  Lectures  on  the  Invertebrate 
Animals,  2d  ed.  p.  44),  shews  that  with  due  pre- 
cautions in  reference  to  these  points,  no  animal  or 
vegetable  organisms  are  produced.  This  experiment 
was  continued  uninterruptedly  from  the  28th  of  May 
until  the  beginning  of  August,  'and  when,  at  last, 
the  j)rofessor  separated  the  different  parts  of  the 
apparatus,  he  could  not  find  in  the  whole  Hquid 
tne  slightest  trace  of  infusoria  or  confervte,  or 
of  mould;  but  all  three  presented  themselves  in 
great  abundance  a  few  days  after  he  had  left 
the  flask  standing  open.'  A  vessel  with  a  similar 
infusion,  which  he  placed  near  the  apparatus,  con- 
tained vibriones  and  monads  on  the  second  day  of 
the  experiment,  to  which  wei-e  soon  added  larger 
polygastric  infusoria. 

A  few  years  ago,  M.  Pouchet  announced  that  he 
had  repeated  Schulze's  experiment  with  every 
precaution,  but  that  animalcules  and  jdants  wei-e 
invariably  developed  in  the  infusion  on  which  he 
operated.  To  prove  that  the  atmospheric  air  con- 
tained no  germs,  he  substituted  artificial  air — that 
is  to  say,  a  mixture  of  21  parts  of  oxygen  gas  with 
70  of  nitrogen.  The  air  was  introduced  into  a  flask 
containing  an  infusion  of  hay,  prepared  with  distilled 
water  and  hay  that  had  been  exposed  for  twenty 
minutes  to  a  temperature  of  212°.  He  thus  appa- 
rently guarded  against  the  presence  of  any  germs 
or  animalcules  in  the  infusion  or  in  the  air.  The 
whole  Avas  then  hermetically  sealed,  so  that  no 
other  air  could  gain  access ;  yet  after  all  these 
precautions,  minute  animal  and  vegetable  organisms 
appeared  in  the  infusion.  He  repeated  the  experi- 
ment with  pure  oxygen  gas  instead  of  air,  and 
obtained  similar  results.  These  experiments  are 
described  by  Pouchet  in  the  AiDiales  des  Sciences 
Naturelles  (1858,  4th  series,  vol.  ix.  p.  372),  and  the 
same  volume  contains  important  articles  by  Milne 
Edwards,  and  by  De  Quatrefages,  in  oi)position  to 
Pouchet's  views. 

A  very  large  majority  of  our  physiologists  of 
the  present  day  reject  the  doctrine  ;  most  of  the 
apparently  exceptional  cases,  as,  for  example,  the 
mj^sterious  presence  of  the  entozoa,  have  been  found 
to  admit  of  ready  explanation ;  and  if  we  do  not 
positively  deny  the  possibility  that  auimalcides  may 
be  generated  spontaneously,  we  may  at  all  events 
assert  that  such  a  mode  of  generation  is  not 
probable,  and  has  certainly  not  been  proved  to 
exist.  Those  who  wish  to  know  more  fully  the 
arguments  that  may  be  adduced  in  favour  of, 
and  in  opposition  to,  the  doctrine,  are  referred,  on 
the  one  hand,  to  Pouchet's  Heterogenie,  on  Traite 
de  la  Generation  Spontanee,  base  sur  de  Nouvelles 
Experiences  (1859)  ;  and,  on  the  other,  to  Pasteur's 
Memoire  sur  les  Corpuscides  Organises  qui  existent 
dans  V Atmosphere;  Examen  de  la  Doctrine  des 
Generations  Spontanees,  in  the  Ajinales  de  Chimie  et 
de  Physique  (.3d  ser.  1862,  vol.  Ixiv.) ;  and  Facts  and 
Reasonings  Concerning  the  Heterogeneous  Evolution  of 
Living  Thi7igs,  by  H.  C.  Bastian,  in  'Nature'  for  1870. 

GENERATIONS,  Alternation  of,  a  phrase 
devised  by  Steenstrup,  a  Danish  naturalist,  about 
twenty  years  ago,  to  signify  '  the  remarkable  and 
till  now  inexplicable  natural  ^jhenomenon  of  an 
animal  producing  an  offspring,  which  at  no  time 
resembles  its  parent,  but  which,  on  the  other  hand, 
itself  brings  forth  a  progeny  which  returns  in  its 
form  and  nature  to  the  parent  animal,  so  that  the 
maternal  animal  does  not  meet  with  its  resemblance 
la  its  own  brood,  but  in  its  descendants  in  the 
second,  third,  or  fourth  degree  or  generation  ;  this 
always  taking  place  in  the  different  animals  which 
exhibit  the  phenomenon  in  a  determinate  generation, 


or  with  the  intervention  of  a  determinate  number  ol 
generations.' 

The  phenomenon  has  been  observed  in  many  of 
the  hudrozoa,  in  various  entozoa,  in  annelids,  in 
molluscoids  {salpa^),  and  in  insects  {ajjhides) ;  and 
its  nature  will  be  best  understood  by  our  giving  one 
or  two  illustrations. 

We  commence  with  the  development  of  the 
medusce  or  jelly  fishes,  which  belong  to  the  class 
hi/drozoa.  The  medusa  discharges  living  yuung, 
which,  after  having  burst  the  covering  of  the  egg, 
swim  about  freely  for  some  time  in  the  body  of  the 
mother.  When  first  discharged  or  born,  they  havo 
no  resemblance  whatever  to  the  perfect  medusae, 
but  are  little  cylindrical  bodies  (fig.  1,  a),  covered 


Fig.  1. 


with  cilia,  moving  with  considerable  rapidity,  and 
resembling  infusoria.  After  moving  freely  in  the 
water  for  some  days,  each  little  animal  fixes  itself 
to  some  object  by  one  extremity  (e),  while  at  the 
opposite  extremity  a  depression  is  gradually  fonned, 
the  four  corners  (b,f)  becoming  elongated,  and 
gradually  transformed  into  tentacles  (c).  These 
tentacles  increase  in  number  till  the  whole  of  the 
up])er  margin  is  covered  with  them  (g).  Transverse 
wrinkles  are  then  seen  on  the  body  at  regular 
intervals,  appearing  first  above,  and  then  extending 
downwards.  As  these  wrinkles  grow  deeper,  the 
edge  of  each  segment  presents  a  toothed  appearance, 
so  that  the  organism  resembles  an  artichoke  or  pine- 
cone,  surmounted  by  a  tuft  of  tentacles  (/<).  The 
segments  gradually  become  more  separated,  until 
they  are  united  by  only  a  very  slender  axis,  when 
they  resemble  a  pile  of  shallow  cups  placed  within 
each  other  (/).  At  length  the  upper  segment  dis- 
engages itself,  and  then  the  others  in  succession. 
Each  segment  (d)  continues  to  develop  itself  ;intil 
it  becomes  a  complete  medusa  {k)  ;  while  the  basis 
or  stalk  remains,  and  produces  a  new  colony.  Here, 
then,  we  have  the  egg  of  the  medusa  gradually 
developed  into  the  polypoid  organism  {h),  to  which 
the  term  stroh'da  (from  strobilos,  a  pine-cone)  has 
been  given.  This  polype,  by  gemmation  and  fission, 
yields  medusas  with  reproductive  organs. 

The  phenomenon  of  alternation  of  generations  in 
the  Cestoid  Worms  (q.  v.),  and  in  certain  Trematoid 
Worms  (see  Fluke),  has  already  been  noticed, 
and  will  be  further  disciassed  in  the  article  Tape- 
worms. The  fission  of  certain  annelids  (Syilia 
and  Myiianida),  (see  Reproduction),  presents  an 
example,  although  at  first  sight  a  less  obvious  one, 
of  alternation  of  generations,  the  non-sexual  parent 
worm  yielding  by  fissure  progeny  containing  sper- 
matozoa and  ova,  from  which  again  a  non-sexual 
generation  is  produced. 

The  Salpce  {mollusca  or  molluscoids  belonging  to 
the  family  Tunicata)  are  usually  regarded  as 
affording  a  good  illustration  of  the  phenomenon 
under  consideration.  It  was  in  these  animals  that 
it  was  originally  noticed  by  Chamisso,  who  accom- 
panied Kotzebue  in  his  voyage  round  the  world 
(1815—1818).    The  SaJpae  (from  twenty  to  forty  in 


GENESEE— GENESIS. 


number)  are  united  together  by  special  organs  of 
attachment,  so  as  to  form  long  chains,  which  float 
in  the  sea,  the  mouth  {711),  however,  being  free  in 


Fig.  2,  B. 


tftcn.  The  individuals  thus  joined  in  chains  (fig.  2, 
A)  produce  eggs  ;  one  egg  being  generally  developed 
in  the  body  of  each  animal.  This  egg,  when  hatched, 
produces  a  little  mollusc  (fig.  2,  B),  which  remains 
solitary,  differs  in  many 
respects  from  the  parent, 
does  not  produce  an  egg, 
but  propagates  by  a  kind 
of  internal  gemmation, 
which  gives  rise  to  chains 
already  seen  within  the 
body  of  the  parent,  which 
finally  bursts  and  liberates  them.  These  chains, 
again,  bring  forth  solitary  individuals. 

The  only  instance  in  which  this  phenomenon 
occurs  in  animals  so  highly  organised  as  insects  is 
in  the  Aphides,  or  Plant-lice.  In  many  species  of 
the  genus  aphis,  which  in  the  perfect  state  possess 
wings,  a  large  proportion  of  the  individuals  never 
acquire  these  organs,  but  remain  in  the  condition  of 
larviB.  These  without  any  sexual  union  (none  of 
them,  indeed,  being  males)  bring  forth  during  the 
summer  living  young  ones  resembling  themselves ; 
and  these  young  ones  repeat  the  process,  till  ten  or 
eleven  successive  broods  are  thus  produced ;  the  last 
progeny,  towards  tlie  end  of  the  summer,  being 
winged  males  and  females,  which  produce  fruitful 
eggs  that  retain  their  vitality  during  the  winter, 
and  give  birth  to  a  new  generation  in  the  spring, 
long  after  their  parents  have  perished.  Other 
peculiarities  of  insect-generation  will  be  noticed  in 
the  article  Parthenogenesis. 

Several  high  physiological  authorities,  amongst 
whom  we  may  especially  mention  Huxley  ('  On  the 
Anatomy  of  Salpae,'  in  Phil.  Trans,  for  1851,  and 
*  On  Animal  Indi\nduality,'  in  Ann.  of  Nat.  Hist.,  2d 
ser.,  vol.  ix,  p.  505),  and  Carpenter  [Principles  of 
Comparative  Physiolorpj,  1854),  object  to  the  term 
'  alternation  of  generations.'  The  detached  portions 
of  the  stock  originating  in  a  single  generative  act 
are  termed  Zooids  by  these  writers,  whilst  by  the 
term  animal  or  entire  animal  (the  equivalent  of 
Zoon)  they  understand  in  the  lower  tribes,  as  in 
the  higher,  tlte  collective  product  of  a  single  generative 
act.  Here  they  include  under  the  title  of  one 
generration  all  that  intervenes  between  one  gener- 
ativ3  act  and  the  next.  *If,'  says  Dr  Carpenter, 
'  the  phenomena  be  viewed  under  this  aspect,  it 
will  be  oljvious  that  the  so-called  "alternation  of 
generations  "  has  no  real  existence ;  since  in  every 
case  the  whole  series  of  forms  Avhich  is  evolved  by 
continuous  development  from  one  generative  act 
repeats  itself  precisely  in  the  products  of  the  next 
generative  act.  The  alternation,  which  is  very 
frequently  presented  in  the  forms  of  the  lower 
animals,  is  between  the  products  of  the  generative 
act  and  the  products  of  gemmation,  and  the  most 
important  difference  between  them  usiially  consists 
in  this — that  the  former  do  not  contain  the  gener- 
ative apparatus  which  is  evolved  in  the  latter  alone. 
The  generating  zooid  may  be  merely  a  segment  cast 
oflf  from  the  body  at  large,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Tape-worms  (q.  v.),  or  it  may  contain  a  combination 
of  generative  and  locomotive  organs,  as  in  the 


self-dividing  Annelide.  It  mi\y  possess,  however,  not 
merely  locomotive  organs,  l)ut  u  complete  nutritive 
apparatus  of  its  own,  which  is  tlie  case  in  all  thone 
instances  in  which  the  zooid  is  cast  off  in  an  early 
stage  of  its  development,  and  has  to  attain  an 
increased  size,  and  frequently  also  to  evolve  the 
generative  organs,  subsequently  to  its  detacliment; 
of  this  we  have  examples  in  the  Medusca  budded  o{£ 
from  Hydroid  Polyjjes,  and  in  the  aggregate  iStdpoR  * 
—  Principles  of  Comparatioe  Physiology,  p.  529. 

GENESEE',  a  remarkable  river  of  North  Amanca, 
rises  about  10  miles  south  of  the  boundary  between 
the  states  of  Pennsylvania  and  Kew  York,  flows 
north  through  the  western  portion  of  the  latter 
state,  and  after  a  course  of  145  miles  falls  into 
Lake  Ontario,  7  miles  north  of  the  city  of  Rochester. 
The  G.  is  not  only  notable  for  the  varied  and 
romantic  character  of  its  scenery,  but  is  also  famous 
for  its  extraordinary  falls.  Of  these  falls,  which 
are  five  in  number,  three,  occurring  within  a  dis- 
tance of  two  miles,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  to'*rri  cf 
Portage,  about  90  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the 
river,  are  respectively  60,  90,  and  110  feet  high. 
The  other  two,  the  one  occurring  immediately  above 
Rochester,  and  the  other  about  3  miles  below  that 
city,  are  both  of  about  100  feet. 

GE'NESIS,  or  more  fidly  GENESIS  KOSMOU 
(Origin,  Generation  of  the  World),  is  the  name  first 
given  by  the  Septuagint  to  the  opening  book  of 
the  Pentateuch.  In  the  Hebrew  canon  it  is  called 
Bereshith  (In  the  Beginning),  from  the  initial  word  ; 
in  the  Talmud,  it  is  sometimes  referred  to  as 
'  The  Book  of  Creation,'  or  '  The  Book  of  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob.'  Its  Masoretic  division  into  fifty 
chapters,  followed  in  the  English  Bible,  or  into  12 
large  and  43  small  encyclical  sections  {Sedarir<vy 
Parshioth),  has  been  grounded  rather  on  conv<3- 
nience  than  on  any  corresponding  division  of  the 
subject-matter.  The  book  seems  of  itself  to  fall 
most  naturally  into  two  totally  distinct  parts :  the 
first  of  which  would  extend  from  the  beginning  to 
the  call  of  Abraham  (c.  i. — xii.),  and  embrace  the 
account  of  the  creation,  paradise,  fall,  the  gener- 
ations between  Adam  and  Noah,  together  with 
their  religion,  arts,  settlements,  and  genealogy,  the 
deluge,  the  repeopling  of  the  earth,  the  tower  of 
Babel,  the  dispersion  of  the  human  race,  and  the 
generations  between  Noah  and  Abi-aham :  thus 
forming  an  introduction  to  the  second  part  (c.  xii. — 1.), 
or  the  history  of  the  patriarchs  (Abraham,  Lot, 
Ishmael,  Isaac,  Jacob,  Esau,  and  Joseph) ;  the  whole 
concluding  with  the  settlement  of  Jacob's  family  in 
Eg;y'pt.  Another  division  seems  indicated  by  the 
inscription  Toledoth  (Origin,  Generation),  which 
occurs  ten  times  in  the  course  of  the  book,  intro- 
ducing at  each  repetition  a  new  cycle  of  tb© 
narrative,  and  which  woidd  thus  split  the  whole 
(from  c.  ii.  4)  into  ten  distinct  sections  of  dispro- 
portionate length. 

The  period  of  time  over  which  the  Book  of  Genesis 
extends  has  been  variously  computed  ;  the  number 
of  years  commonly  assigned  to  it  is  about  2300 ; 
the  variations  in  calculation  seldom  exceeding  imitg 
or  tens  of  years  ;  Bishop  Hales  alone,  following  the 
Septuagint,  reckons  3619  years. 

Being  a  portion,  and  the  introductory  portion  of 
the  Pentateuch — at  the  same  time  that  it  forms  a 
complete  whole  in  itself — it  caimot  but  be  con- 
sidered as  lajdng  down  the  basis  for  that  theocracy 
of  which  the  development  is  recorded  in  the  suc- 
ceeding books.  While  the  design  and  plan  of  the 
Pentateuch  is  thus  also  that  of  Genesis,  the  latter, 
however  discordant  its  constituent  parts  may  seem, 
does  not  lack  the  necessary  imity.  Beginninj; 
I  with  tne  cosmogony,  or  rather  geogouy,  L  e.,  the 

67& 


GENESIS. 


generation  of  the  earth  with  its  animate  and  inani- 
mate products,  and  all  created  things  Avliich  bear 
upon  and  influence  it  visibly,  the  record  gradually 
narrows  into  the  history  of  man,  and  with  the 
distinct  aim  of  tracing  the  fate  of  the  one  chosen 
family  and  people,  it  singles  out  Noah,  Abraham, 
Isaac,  Jacob.  The  naiTative  dwells  with  careful 
tninuten<  ss  upon  their  fortunes,  laying  especial 
Btress  on  their  intimate  communion  with  God,  and, 
with  the  three  last,  on  the  reiterated  promises  of  the 
land  which  they  should  inherit :  '  they  and  their 
aeed  after  them.'  The  remainder  of  the  human 
race  is  summarily  treated  of  ;  the  various  founders 
of  tribes  and  peoples  that  represent  it  being  gener- 
ally but  briefly  named.  It  is  only  in  the  case  of 
brothers,  or  very  near  relations  of  the  elect,  that 
certain  incidents  of  their  lives  are  more  fully 
.ecorded  ;  plainly  with  the  intention  of  proving  the 
inferiority  of  their  claims  to  divine  consideration,  or 
even  of  representing  them  as  meet  objects  of  the 
displeasure  of  the  Almighty  : — Ham,  Ishmael,  Esau. 
From  c.  xxxvii.  to  the  end  of  the  book,  wc  have 
exclusively  the  one  chosen  family  of  Jacob  and  his 
children  before  our  eyes;  and  the  strictly  national 
character,  which  the  narrative  now  assumes, 
excludes  everything  but  the  fortunes  of  this  i)ar- 
ticular  house.  Here,  also,  an  unbroken,  flowdng 
style  takes  the  place  of  the  former  apparently 
sketchy  and  sometimes  abrupt  manner.  With 
the  occupation  by  Jacob's  rapidly  developing  tribe 
of  the  land  of  Goshen,  this  first  great  patriarchal 
period  is  brought  to  a  fitting  close,  and  the 
second  ushered  in,  when  the  tribe  reappears  after 
a  lapse  of  time  as  a  people.  The  ]\Iaker  of  all  things, 
having  by  the  creation  of  one  man  and  one  woman 
placed  all  mankind  on  an  equal  footing,  by  his 
sovereign  will  subsequently  elected  one  righteous 
from  out  the  mass  of  human  corruption,  and  through 
this  man's  progeny — whose  history  is  told  at  length 
— ^mankind  is  in  the  end  to  be  reclaimed  : — this 
seems  the  pith  of  the  book,  considered  as  a  religious 
history  of  man. 

A  certain  apparent  difference  of  style  and  lan- 
guage ;  the  occurrence  of  what  seemed  gaps  on  the  one, 
and  repetitions  and  contradictions  on  the  other  hand ; 
the  special  headings  ( Toledoth)  above  mentioned ; 
and,  lastly,  the  different  use  of  the  term  for  the  divine 
name,  led  very  early  to  the  question  of  the  integrity 
of  Genesis.  Celsus,  Isaac,  C.  Jasos,  Aben  Esra, 
Karlsstadt,  Spinoza,  all  assumed  smaller  or  larger 
interpolations  ;  that  is,  pieces  evidently  not  written 
by  the  author  of  the  book  himself,  but  added  after- 
wards. It  was  not  before  1753  that  the  '  Hypothesis 
of  Documents,'  based  on  the  alternate  use  of  the 
word  Jehova  (Everlasting)  and  Elohim  (Almighty) 
was  first  broached.  While  the  Talmud,  Tertullian, 
St  Augustine,  Chrysostom,  Jehudah  Hallevi,  &c., 
had  all  endeavoured  to  explain  how  the  individual 
word  was  always  necessary  in  the  special  passage 
yhere  it  occurred,  Astruc,  a  Belgian  physician, 
p7iblished  in  that  year  his  Conjectures  sur  les 
ifemoires  originaux  dont  il  paroit  que  Moyse  s'est 
aervi  pour  composer  le  livre  de  Genese,  in  which  he 
endeavoured  to  shew  that  this  writer,  or  rather 
editor  of  the  book,  had  made  use  of  two  large  and 
ten  small — respectively  '  Elohistic'  and  '  JehoAdstic' 
— documents  for  his  composition.  This  theory  was  at 
first  received  with  silent  contempt  in  the  writer's 
own  country.  The  only  man  who  took  any  notice 
of  it  was  Charban,  who  at  the  same  time  excused 
himself  for  refuting  this  'absurd  but  dangerous' 
theory.  It  soon,  however,  found  its  way  to  German j'-, 
where  it  was  warmly  advocated  and  developed  by 
Eichhorn  {Repert.  and  Jntrod.),  Hgen,  and  Gramberg. 
A  further  step  was  taken  by  Vater  and  Hartmann,  to 
whom  belongs  the  *  Hypothesis  of  Fragments,'  or  of 

676 


the  whole  Pentateuch  being  a  Mosaic  of  fragments 
by  various  authors.  Both  these  notions  have  now 
been  pretty  gtmerally  rejected,  chiefly  on  .iccounk 
of  their  incompatibility  with  the  apparent  unity  of 
the  whole  work  and  its  single  parts.  The  theory 
adopted  by  the  majority  of  biblical  critics  of  our  day, 
among  whom  may  be  mentioned  Wette,  Lengerke, 
Knobel,  Stahelin,  Bleek,  Tuch,  Delitzsch,  and  Bun- 
sen,  is  the  'Complementary,'  according  to  which 
the  author  of  the  Pentateuch — the  Jehovist — had 
worked  ui)on  an  old  Elohistic  fundamental  record 
which  embraced  the  time  from  the  creation  to  the 
death  of  Joshua,  altering,  enlarging,  and  com- 
pletely rewriting  it.  Ewald  and  Hupfeld,  however, 
assume  four  writers ;  the  former  two  Elohista 
and  two  Jehovists,  the  latter  three  Elohists  and 
one  Jehovist  ;  while  the  apologetic  school  of  Ileng- 
stenljcrg,  Hiivernick,  Keil,  attempts  to  uphold 
the  primitive  theory  of  one  single  author. 

Considered  from  the  remotest  time  as  a  book 
written  under  the  influence  of  divine  inspiration 
— a  term  very  differently  understood — and  thua 
raised  above  all  doubt  as  to  its  truthfulness, 
various  eff'orts  were  made,  from  the  days  of  the 
earliest  interpreters  to  our  own,  to  explain,  by 
allegory  and  symbol,  such  of  its  statements  as 
in  their  plain  sense  seemed  incomprehensible  to 
human  understanding.  Philo  and  the  Alexandrines 
generally,  Papias,  Irenaeus,  Justin  Martyr,  and 
others,  in  all  seriousness  spiritualised  into  divine 
parable  that  which  was  given  as  history ;  so  much 
so,  tliat  St  Augustine— exemplifying  the  spirit  of 
the  times —shortly  after  his  conversion,  explains 
paradise  to  represent  nothing  more  than  the  happi- 
ness of  mankind,  the  four  rivers  the  four  virtues, 
the  serpent  the  devil,  the  coats  of  skin  immortality, 
&c.  In  more  recent  times,  however,  after  Luther 
had  restored  the  belief  in  the  literal  meaning  of  the 
text,  some  have  gone  so  far  as  to  refer  all  that  is 
not  within  the  grasj)  of  human  reason  to  the  region 
of  myth,  and  to  point  to  the  obvious  similarity 
between  the  biblical  narrative  of  the  paradise,  its 
foiu'  rivers,  the  serpent,  the  apple,  the  fall,  &c. ; 
and  certain  legends,  common  to  most  eastern  nations 
in  the  remotest  times,  as  a  proof  that  they  were  all 
derived  from  one  and  the  same  mythical  source. 
Since  the  re^-ival  of  science  in  the  16th  c,  another 
and  much  graver  difficulty,  however,  has  arisen — . 
viz.,  how  certain  distinct  and  explicit  statements  of 
the  Scrii>ture,  allowing  of  but  one  translation,  were 
to  be  reconciled  with  certain  imdeniable  physical 
facts.  It  is  more  especially  the  Mosaic  cosmogony, 
as  contained  in  the  ojjening  chapters  of  Genesis, 
which  has  given  rise  to  violent  controversies.  The 
age  of  the  world,  which,  according  to  the  Bible, 
would  be  6000,  or  at  most,  between  7000  and  8000 
years ;  its  creation  and  the  formation  of  the  whole 
system  of  the  universe  in  six  days;  have  been 
declared  by  astronomers  and  geologists,  who  reckon 
the  period  of  the  existence  of  the  earth  by  millions, 
of  the  universe  by  millions  iipon  millions,  to  be 
subjects  on  which  information  must  be  sought  else- 
where than  in  the  Bible.  Most  of  the  apologists 
have  to  a  certain  degree  granted  this,  and  they  only 
differ  among  themselves  as  to  the  extent  to  which 
the  Bible,  a  book  intended  for  religious  instruction 
exclusively,  has  reserved  such  knowledge  as  has 
been  or  may  be  acquired  by  scientific  investigation. 
The  words  of  the  biblical  record  themselves,  so  far 
from  being  in  contradiction  to  the  results  of  human 
knowledge,  are  said  to  convey,  if  not  directly,  yet 
by  implication  all  that  science  more  plainly  teaches. 
The  two  principal  methods  of  reconciliation  advanced 
in  this  country  are  tho-e  of  Dr  Buckland  and 
Hugh  Miller  (and  their  followers)  respectively,  the 
first  of  whom  adopts  and  amplifies  the  Chalmerian 


GENET— GENEVA. 


Interpolation  of  tlie  geological  ages  before  the  first  day 
(an  opinion  strangely  enough  to  be  found  already 
in  the  Midrash  (q.  v.) :  '  Before  our  present  world, 
tlie  Almighty  had  created  worlds  upon  worlds,  and 
destroyed  them  again '),  the  latter  the  Cu%'ienan 
expansion  of  the  six  days  into  geological  ages.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  asserted  both  by  those  who 
hold  that  the  Bible  is  entirely  the  work  of  man, 
and  by  those  who  take  it  as  a  mixture  of  the 
divine  and  the  human  element,  that  the  biblical 
notion  of  the  cosmogony,  as  well  as  of  all  the 
other  physical  phenomena,  are  simply  in  accordance 
with  the  state  of  science  in  the  days  when  the  book 
was  compiled. 

The  apologists  adduce,  as  a  further  proof  of  the 
authenticity  of  the  Bible,  the  surpassing  sublimity 
and  moral  superiority  of  its  cosmogony  as  compared 
with  all  others.  The  dualism  of  God  and  matter, 
which,  according  to  the  different  pagan  systems,  are 
either  eternally  co-existent  or  fused  into  each  other, 
is  e^^changed  for  the  awful  and  moving  idea  of  a 
one  personal  God,  who  first  created,  then  moulded, 
and  everlastingly  sustains  the  vmiverse,  lavishing 
his  highest  gifts  on  man,  made  in  his  own  image, 
and  standing  towards  him  in  the  Hving  relation 
of  a  son  to  a  father.  The  occurrence  of  similar 
traditions  in  the  religious  records  of  other  primeval 
nations  is  taken  as  a  corroborating  proof  of  the 
historical  truth  of  the  biblical  account.  Recent 
investigations  have  likewise  affirmed  the  division 
of  mankind  into  three  principal  races,  corresponding 
to  Shem,  Ham,  and  Japhet,  to  be  substantially 
correct,  as  far  as  language  is  concerned. 

The  question  whether  Moses  really  was  the  author 
or  compiler  of  Genesis  has  been  negatived  by  some, 
chiefly  on  the  ground  that  certain  apparently  obso- 
lete names  mentioned  are  explained  by  others  which 
first  came  into  use  at  a  much  later  time,  and  that 
there  are  allusions  made  to  events  which  happened 
centuries  after  Moses.  Graves,  Faber,  Ilosenmiiller, 
and  others,  consider  such  passages  to  be  late  addi- 
tions. The  further  question  whether  Moses  wrote 
it  while  at  Midian,  or  during  the  forty  days  on 
Mount  Sinai,  or  during  the  forty  years'  sojourn  in  the 
desert,  will  be  considered  in  the  article  Pentateuch, 
where  also  some  other  points  in  connection  with  the 
composition  of  this  book  will  be  glanced  at.  Of 
opinions  on  the  other  side,  we  will  briefly  mention 
that  of  Lengerke,  who  holds  the  Elohist  to  have 
written  under  Solomon,  and  the  Jehovist  under 
Hezekiah  ;  of  Tuch,  who  places  the  former  in  the 
time  of  Saul,  the  latter  in  that  of  Solomon  ;  and  of 
Bleek,  who  assigns  to  the  Elohist  the  time  of  Saul 
or  the  Judges,  and  to  the  Jehovist  the  beginning  of 
David's  reign. 

Of  the  infinite  number  of  ancient  and  modern 
writers  who  have  commented  on  Genesis,  we  will 
mention  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  Ephraem  Syrus,  Theo- 
doret,  Procopius,  Chrysostom,  Jerome,  Augustine, 
Jitzchaki  (commonly,  but  wrongly,  called  Jarchi), 
Aben-Ezra,  Levi  b.  Gershom,  Abrabanel,  Men- 
delssohn, Michaelis,  Vater,  Bohlen,  Rosenmiiller, 
Eichhorn,  Augusti,  Faber,  Graves,  Schumann,  Tuch, 
Knobel,  Herder,  Hamann,  Baumgarten,  Delitzsch, 
Hengstenberg,  Keil,  KaHsch,  Kurtz,  &c.  See  also 
Turner's  and  Havernick's  Introductions  to  Genesis ; 
Hu^^h  Miller's  Testimony  of  the  Rocks  ;  Pye 
Smith's  Rtlation  between  Scripture  and  Science;  Dr 
WheweU's  Bridgewater  Treatise;  Goodwin's  Mosaic 
Cosmogony,  &c. 

GE'NET  (Getietta),  a  genus  of  quadrupeds  of  the 
family  Viverridce,  nearly  allied  to  the  Civets  (q.  v.), 
but  having  only  a  rudimentary  odoriferous  pouch, 
and  claws  perfectly  retractile,  as  in  the  Felidce. 
The  approximation  to  that  family  also  appears  in 
the  vertical  contraction  of  the  pupil  of  the  eye. 


The  species  are  numerous;  smaller  and  mora  slender 
animals  than  the  civets,  mostly  natives  of  Africa 
and  the  warmer  parts  of  Asia.  One,  the  common 
G.  {G.  vulgaris),  is  found  in  the  south  of  Europe,  aa 


Genet  {Genetta  vulgaris). 


well  as  throughout  Africa.  It  is  gray,  with  small 
round  or  oblong  black  or  brown  spots ;  the  tail, 
which  is  as  long  as  the  body,  ringed  with  black  and 
white.  It  frequents  the  banks  of  brooks.  Its  fur 
is  a  considerable  article  of  commerce.  It  is  easily 
domesticated,  and  is  kept  in  houses  in  Constan- 
tinople to  catch  mice. 

The  Genet  is  sometimes  met  with  in  Heraldiy. 
There  was  an  order  of  knighthood  in  France,  founded 
by  Charles  Martel,  called  the  order  of  the  G.,  but 
it  has  long  ceased  to  exist. 

GENE'VA  (Fr.  Genive,  Ger.  Genf,  Ital.  Ginevra), 
the  most  populous  and  flourishing  town  of  Switzer- 
land, capital  of  the  canton  of  the  same  name,  is 
situated  on  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Lake  of 
Geneva,  70  miles  north-east  from  Lyon,  in  France. 
At  the  time  of  the  contests  between  the  Helvetii 
and  the  Eomans,  G,  belonged  to  the  country  of  the 
AUobrogi.  It  was  afterwards  included  in  the  Roman 
Provincia  Maxima  Sequanorum,  and  was  a  place  of 
some  importance  under  the  Burgundian  kings.  Ou 
the  dissolution  of  the  kingdom  of  Burgundy,  G. 
fell  under  the  dominion  of  the  Ostrogoths ;  in  the 
year  536,  under  that  of  the  Franks ;  and  towards 
the  end  of  the  9th  c,  under  the  new  kingdom  of 
Burgundy.  It  had  been  made  a  bishop's  seat  in 
the  5th  c,  and  from  the  12th  c.  continual  feuds 
arose  between  the  bishoi)s  and  the  Counts  of 
Savoy  with  regard  to  the  supremacy.  The  citizens 
took  advantage  of  these  dissensions  to  obtain  fiesh 
liberties  and  privileges  for  themselves.  In  1518, 
the  Genevese  concluded  an  alliance  with  Freibiu-g, 
and  shortly  after  with  Bern,  and  thus  G.  became  a 
member  of  the  Swiss  confederation. 

The  doctrines  of  the  Reformation,  boldly  and 
enthusiastically  preached  by  William  Farel,  met 
with  general  acceptance  in  Geneva.  In  conjimction 
with  Bern,  the  citizens  expelled  the  adherents  of 
thl?*  Dukes  of  Savoy — the  so-called  Mamelukes 
— from  the  town,  and  declared  the  bishopric 
vacant.  In  August  1535,  the  Reformed  religion 
was  established  by  law;  and  in  1541,  Calvin  was 
invited  to  take  up  his  residence  permanently  in  G., 
as  public  teacher  of  theology.  It  was  he  who 
chiefly  impressed  the  stamp  of  rigid  morality,  not 
unalloyed  with  pedantry,  on  the  minds  of  the 
citizens  of  G,  and  awakened  a  taste  for  the  exact 
scienoos.  The  town,  which  had  hitherto  been 
merely  a  place  of  trade,  thus  acquired  an  important 
influence  over  the  spiritual  life  of  Europe,  and 
became  the  centre  of  education  for  the  Protestant 
youth  of  Great  Britain,  France,  (jrermany,  and 


GENEVA. 


Spain.  In  1602,  the  last  attempt  of  the  Dukes  of 
Savoy  to  recover  the  town  was  frustrated  by  the 
energy  and  resolution  of  tlie  citizens. 

During  the  18th  c,  G.  was  distracted  by  a  con- 
tinued feud  between  the  aristocratic  and  popular 
parties,*  until  in  1782,  Bern,  Sardinia,  and,  in 
particular,  France,  interfered  in  favour  of  the 
aristocracy.  The  French  Revolution  led  to  a  new 
crisis ;  the  government  was  overthrown  in  July 
1794,  equality  in  the  eye  of  the  law  was  established, 
a  national  convention  appointed,  and  a  reign  of 
terror  commenced.  In  1798,  G.,  and  its  territory, 
was  annexed  to  France  under  the  name  of  the 
department  'Du  Leman.'  After  the  overthrow 
of  Napoleon,  G.  recovered  its  independence,  and 
the  Congress  of  Vienna  increased  its  territory 
considerably. 

The  situation  of  the  town  on  both  sides  of  the 
lake  where  it  is  narrowed  to  a  point  and  forms 
the  Rhone,  is  exceedingly  pleasant  and  advan- 
tageous for  traffic.  Formerly,  G.  was  surrounded 
by  walls,  and  consisted  of  clusters  of  narrow  and 
ill-drained  streets  ;  but  since  the  accession  of  the 
democratic  party  to  poM^er  in  184-7  (see  next  article), 
a  most  extraordinary  change  has  been  effected,  and 
chiefly  through  the  energy  and  enlightened  views 
of  M.  James  Fazy,  a  wealthy  native  proprietor. 
The  ancient  ramparts  have  been  removed,  streets 
widened  and  well  ])aved,  new  and  commodious 
quays  constructed  along  the  shores  of  the  lake 
and  river,  and  a  spirit  of  improvement  introduced 
which  points  to  a  great  extension  of  the  city. 
Among  the  latest  improvements  is  the  constraction 
of  a  breakwater,  within  which,  as  in  a  harbovir, 
steam-boats  are  received  and  lie  in  safety,  and 
from  which  they  depart  several  times  daily  to  the 
principal  ports  on  both  sides  of  the  lake.  The  two 
divisions  of  the  town  are  connected  by  several 
wooden  bridges,  and  by  a  handsome  stone  bridf^e, 
which  was  completed  in  1863.  In  rusliing  through 
the  town,  the  Rhone  parts  into  two  branches, 
forming  two  islands,  on  one  of  which  still  ex- 
ists an  antique  and  picturesque  cluster  of  build- 
ings; on  the  other,  laid  out  as  a  public  pleasure- 
ground,  there  is  a  statue  of  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau, 
who  was  a  native  of  the  towai.  Stretching  along  a 
part  of  the  new  quay,  on  the  left  side  of  the  Rhone, 
there  is  now  a  public  promenade  laid  out  as  a 
jardin  Anglaise.  As  forming  a  central  terminus  for 
French  and  Swiss  railways,  G.  is  a  favourite  resort 
of  travellers,  for  whose  accommodation  there  are 
several  large  and  splendid  hotels,  commanding  fine 
views  of  the  lake  and  mountain  scenery  in  the 
environs.  The  language  spoken  is  French.  The 
principal  edifices  are  the  cathedral  church  of  St 
Pierre,  which  dates  from  1124;  the  town-hall; 
the  college,  founded  by  Calvin  in  1558,  and  con- 
taining a  library  of  75,000  volumes  ;  the  Musee 
Rath,  so  called  from  the  name  of  its  founder, 
General  Rath,  and  containing  good  pictures;  the 
observatory,  the  finest  in  Switzerland ;  and  the 
museum  of  natural  historj'-,  containing  De  Saus- 
stt^'s  geological  collection,  Halle r's  herbarium,  the 
foasil  ])lants  of  Brogniart  and  Decandolle,  &c. 
The  university  (originally  established  in  1368,  and 
reorganised  by  Calvin  and  Beza  in  1539)  has  four 
faculties — theology,  law,  science,  and  belles-lettres. 
Among  the  many  handsome  new  public  buildings 
may  be  mentioned  th,e  Post-office,  a  Catholic  and  an 
English  church,  this  last  accommodating  the  large 
number  of  English  residents  and  casual  visitors. 
The  staple  manufactures  of  the  town  are  watches, 
musical-boxes,  and  jewellery  ;  and  for  the  sale  of 
these  and  other  fancy  articles,  there  are  many 
attractive  shops.  Altogether,  G.  is  to  be  considered 
as  now  one  of  the  most  prosperous  and  improving 

£78 


towns  on  the  continent.  In  1870  the  population  of 
the  city  and  suburbs  was  68,165. 

GENEVA,  a  canton  of  Switzerland,  in  the  south- 
west of  that  country,  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the 
canton  of  Vaud  and  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  and  on  the 
S.,  E.,  and  W.  by  the  territories  of  France.  It  has 
an  area  of  109  sq.  miles,  and  in  1870  had  93,195 
inhabitants,  of  whom  over  40,000  were  Catholics* 
It  is  watered  by  the  Rhone  and  the  Ai^ne,  wliicii 
imite  about  two  miles  from  the  south-west  extremity 
of  the  Lake  of  Geneva.  The  surface  is  hilly,  and 
the  soil,  not  naturally  fertile,  has  been  rendered  so 
by  the  industry  of  the  inhabitants.  The  political 
affairs  of  the  canton  and  city  have  undergone 
various  changes,  the  last  of  these  being  a  revolution 
in  1847,  when  the  old  aristocratic  party  was  over- 
thrown, and  a  democratic  and  progressive  party 
attained  to  power.  Long  inert,  and  in  a  backward 
condition,  the  administration  is  now  most  active  in 
developing  the  resources  of  the  canton.  According 
to  the  constitution  of  1847,  all  male  citizens  of  21 
years  of  age  exercise  the  right  of  electing  repre- 
sentatives to  the  cantonal  council*;  the  age  of 
members  of  which  must  be  at  least  25  years.  There 
is  a  representative  for  every  666  inhabitants.  The 
executive  is  confided  to  a  council  of  state  composed 
of  7  members,  nominated  for  10  years,  but  eligible 
for  re-election.  The  constitution  guarantees  civil 
and  religious  liberty,  all  forms  of  worship  being 
allowed  by  law ;  but  the  majority  of  the  citizens 
pertain  to  the  Reformed  Calvinistic  Church.  The 
chief  branches  of  industry  are  agriculture,  and  the 
manufacture  of  articles  of  bijouterie  and  watches. 
About  100,000  watches  are  made  annually,  and 
exported  to  France,  England,  Italy,  and  elsewhere. 
Musical-boxes,  chronometers,  mathematical  instru- 
ments, &c.,  are  also  made.  The  chief  town  is 
Geneva  (q.  v.). 

GENEVA,  a  village  of  North  America,  in  the 
state  of  New  York,  is  delightfully  situated  at  the 
north-western  extremity  of  Seneca  Lake,  200  miles 
west  of  Albany,  and  50  miles  south-east  of  Rochester. 
It  is  handsomely  built,  and  commands  a  magnifi- 
cent view  of  the  lake  and  the  surroimding  country. 
It  contains  about  10  churches,  and  is  the  seat  of  Ho- 
bart  Free  College,  which  accommodates  about  100 
students.  G.  owes  its  prosperity  largely  to  the  nur- 
series in  its  vicinity,  which  are  said  to  occupy  about 
10,000  acres,  and  to  dispense  annually  over  $1,000,- 

000  worth  of  produce.  Pop.  of  the  village  (1870) 
5534. 

GENEVA,  Lake  of,  or  the  Leman  Lake  {Lacua 
Lemanus),  situated  between  Switzerland,  to  which 
the  larger  portion  belongs,  and  the  recently  acquired 
territories  of  France.  It  lies  1150  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  and  extends  for  rather  more  than 
50  miles  from  east  to  west,  in  the  form  of  a 
crescent.  Its  greatest  breadth  is  eight  miles,  and 
its  depth  between  Evian  and  Ouchy  is  920  feet. 
This  lake  at  some  periods  of  the  year  presents  a 
curious  phenomenon,  which  has  never  been  suflB- 
ciently  accounted  for,  the  surface,  especially  near 
Geneva,  rising  and  falling  through  a  space  of  from 
two  to  five  feet  in  the  course  of  about  25  minutes. 
The  lake,  which  is  never  entirely  frozen  over, 
abounds  in  fish,  and  several  steamers  ply  upon  its 
waters.  The  shore  on  the  side  of  the  Pays  de  Vaud 
is  celebrated  for  the  beauty  of  its  scenery ;  the 
southern  French  shore  rises  solemn  and  stern,  with 
the  mountains  of  Savoy  in  the  background.  From 
the  Lake  of  Geneva,  Mont  Blanc  is  visible,  and, 
although  60  miles  distant,  is  often  reflected  in  its 
waters.  The  Rhone  enters  the  lake  at  the  upper 
end,  turbid  and  yellow,  and  leaves  it  at  the  town 

1  of  Geneva  as  clear  as  glass,  and  of  a  deep  blu« 


GEIS  EVIUVE— GENGHIS. 


Jnt.  The  lake  receives  about  twenty  streams  from 
its  northern  shox-e,  none  of  which,  however,  are  im- 
portant. 

GENEVIEVE,  a  saint  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  the  subject  of  many  po])ular  and  highly 
poetical  legends,  and  regarded  with  special  venera- 
tion in  France  and  particularly  in  Paris,  of  which 
3ity  she  is  the  patroness.  From  a  nearly  contem- 
porary life  of  St  G.,  we  learn  that  she  was  born 
in  122,  in  the  village  of  Nanterre,  near  Paris,  where, 
»s  a  mere  child,  she  attracted  the  notice  of  Germanus 

Auxerre,  who  passed  a  night  at  Nanterre  on  his 
return  from  Britain  in  429.  Germanus  is  said  to 
have  marked  her  out  as  specially  destined  to  a 
life  of  holiness  and  purity ;  and  the  child,  partly 
from  her  natural  tendency,  partly,  perhaps,  under 
jlie  iutluence  of  the  coimsel  of  so  holy  a  bishop, 
devoted  herself  to  a  hfe  of  virginity  and  conventual 
seclusion.  On  the  death  of  her  parents,  she  was 
removed  to  Paris ;  and  her  active  charity,  and  the 
extraordinary  reputation  for  sanctity  which  she 
acquired  both  there  and  in  other  cities  of  France, 
which  she  visited  on  missions  of  Christian  benevo- 
lence, won  for  her  the  admiring  veneration,  not 
alone  of  her  own  people,  but  even  of  the  heathen  or 
haK- converted  tribes,  which,  about  this  period,  after 
a  long  series  of  struggles,  had  begun  to  amal- 
gamate with  the  ancient  population  "of  the  Roman 
province  of  Gaul.  During  the  Frank  mvasiou 
under  Child  eric,  G,  with  her  sisters  in  religion, 
set  out  on  an  exj^edition  for  the  relief  of  the 
starving  city,  and  successfully  conveyed  to  Paris 
an  abmidant  supply  of  provisions.  The  city,  when 
taken,  was  treated  with  special  leniency  through 
her  intercession  with  the  king,  and  many  captives 
obtained  their  libei-ty  at  her  prayer.  On  the  new 
alarm  for  the  safety  of  Paris,  created  by  the  news 
of  the  march  of  Attila  and  his  army  of  Huns,  it 
was  proposed  to  abandon  the  city ;  but  G.,  assem- 
bling the  matrons  and  consecrated  virgins  in  one  of 
the  churches,  exhorted  them  to  avert,  by  prayer  and 
fasting,  the  threatened  calamity.  The  unexpected 
alteration  of  the  direction  of  Attila's  march  added 
still  more  to  her  reputation  and  to  her  influence  ; 
and  it  ie  agreed  that  her  personal  example,  and  that 
of  the  sisterhood  to  which  she  belonged,  appealed, 
with  no  inconsiderable  effect,  to  the  natural  sensi- 
bilities of  the  rude  races  which  now  found  them- 
selves, for  the  first  time,  in  contact  with  the 
humanising  influences  of  the  Christian  religion.  St 
G.  enjoyed,  to  an  extreme  age,  the  reverence  and 
love  of  the  entire  people.  She  died  in  512  at  the 
age  of  89,  and  her  memory  is  still  affectionately 
described  as  the  type  of  all  that  is  purest  and  most 
elevating  in  the  conventual  life,  as  well  as  of  all  that 
is  most  admirable  in  the  works  of  charity  and 
benevolence,  with  which,  in  the  active  orders,  that 
life  is  habitually  associated.  Under  her  patronage, 
and  Avith  her  name,  a  religious  congregation  of 
priests  was  founded  in  the  12th  c.,  which,  with  some 
vicissitudes,  continued  until  the  Revolution.  A 
ineligious  congregation  of  women,  under  the  name  of 
*  Sisters  of  St  Genevieve,'  was  established  in  1636, 
chiefly  devoted  to  the  care  of  the  sick  and  the  edu- 
cation of  yoimg  females. 

GENGHIS  (Jengueiz,  Tchinggis,  or  Zingis) 
KHAN,  originally  called  Temujin,  a  celebrated 
Mongol  conqueror,  born  ^oth  January  1155  A.  D. 
at  Deylun-Yelddk,  near  the  northern  bend  of  the 
Feramuran  (Hoang-Ho),  was  the  son  of  Yesukai 
BahMdr,  a  Mongol  chief,  who  ruled  over  some 
thirty  or  forty  families  or  clans,  called  the  tribe 
of  ISeynin,  who  dwelt  between  the  Amur  and  the 
great  wall  of  China,  and  paid  tribute  to  the  khan  of 
feast  Tartary    On  his  father's  death,  he  did  not 


hesitate  to  assume  the  reins  of  government,  though 
only  13  years  of  age.  Some  of  the  subject  tril)ea 
refused  to  obey  liira,  and  chose  another  chief 
belonging  to  the  same  family.  A  war  of  several 
years'  duration  was  tlie  result,  at  tlie  termination  of 
which  he  was  com})elled  to  retire  to  Karakorum, 
the  capital  of  Toghrul  Ungh-Khan,  monarch  of  the 
Keraeit,  and  place  himself  under  that  mf)narch's 
protection.  Ungh-Khan  gave  him  his  daughter  in 
7narriage,  and  appointed  him  to  the  command  of 
his  army,  in  which  capacity  G.  gave  proof  of  great 
military  talent,  conquering  the  Mekreit,  'J'anjfit, 
Jellaeir,  and  other  neighbouring  tribes.  But  Ungh- 
Khan,  becoming  jealous  of  his  grov/ing  reputaticu, 
and  urged  on  by  envious  courtiers,  ordered  G.  to 
be  assassinated.  The  latter,  having  taken  counsel 
with  his  relative  and  chief  councillor,  Karatehar 
Nuyan,  a  youth  of  his  own  age,  but  renowned  ii. 
Tartar  history  for  his  wisdom,  resolved  to  depart 
for  his  native  country,  which,  after  many  hair- 
Ijreadth  escapes,  he  reached  at  the  head  of  5i;00 
cavalry.  Raising  an  army,  he  marched  against  his 
father-in-law ;  and  Toghrid,  vanquished  in  battle 
in  1203,  sought  refuge  among  the  Nay  mans,  but 
was  slain  by  the  guards  stationed  on  the  frontiers. 
G.  immediately  seized  upon  Toghrul's  dominions. 
In  the  following  year,  a  number  of  Tartar  tribes, 
alarmed  at  his  increasing  power,  formed  a  powerful 
league  against  him.  The  command  was  given  to 
Tai- Ungh-Khan,  chief  of  the  Naymans ;  but  in  a 
battle  fought  on  the  banks  of  the  Amur,  G.  utterly 
routed  his  enemies,  slew  their  leader,  and  became 
at  once  master  of  almost  all  Mongolia.  Grander 
views  of  conquest  seem  now  to  have  o])ened  before 
his  vision.  In  the  year  1206,  he  convoked  a 
kouriltai,  or  general  assembly,  on  the  l)anks  of  the 
Onan,  a  tributary  of  the  Amur,  flowing  through 
his  native  land.  This  meeting  was  attended  by 
deputies  from  ail  the  subjugated  hordes  of  Tartary, 
and  G.  contrived  to  obtain  a  religious  confirmation 
of  his  designs.  Up  to  this  period,  he  had  borno 
the  name  of  Temujin ;  but  a  renowned  magician 
or  priest,  surnamed  Boiit-Tangri  ('Son  of  Heaven'), 
venerated  by  all  the  Mongols,  now  came  forw^ard 
and  pronounced  him  Genghis  Klian — i.  e.,  greatest 
of  khans,  or  khan  of  khans,  declaring  that  he 
should  rule  over  the  whole  earth.  The  deputies 
were  duly  impressed  About  this  time  the  Eighurs, 
an  agiicultural  and  civilisexi  people,  inhabiting  the 
country  at  the  sources  of  the  Hoang-Ho  and  Yang- 
tse-Kiang,  voluntarily  submitted  to  his  swaj^  From 
this  people,  who  professed  Buddhism,  the  Mongols 
would  a])pear  to  have  acquii'ed  a  knowledge  of 
writing.  They  adopted  the  Eighur  characters,  but 
preserved  their  own  language,  and  G.  selected  onw 
of  the  newly-submitted  tribe  to  instruct  his  children. 
The  next  important  incident  in  his  career  was  the 
conquest  of  the  northern  portion  of  China,  called 
Khatai.  The  immediate  cause  of  the  war  between 
G.  and  the  emperor  of  China,  Tchong-Hei,  was 
the  refusal  of  the  former  to  recognise  the  latter 
as  his  suzerain,  or  liege-lord.  Most  of  the  Tartar 
tribes  which  G.  had  subdued  were  really  tribu- 
taries of  the  Chinese  empire ;  and  Tchong-Hei, 
though  not  interfering  to  prevent  the  conquests 
of  the  Mongols,  now  wished  G.  to  acknowledge 
his  superiority  b}'-  paying  tribute.  G.  immediately 
prepared  for  war,  scaled  the  great  wall  in  1211, 
and  after  a  series  of  bloody  and  protracted  cam- 
j)aign3,  Pekin  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  barbarians 
in  1215.  Meanwhile  G.  was  called  back  to  Tartary 
to  quell  certain  insubordinate  tribes,  headed  by 
Gutchluk,  son  of  the  chief  of  the  Najmians,  \\ho 
had  recovered  his  ancestral  dominions,  and  alsc 
conquered  those  of  the  Gdr-Kh^n  of  Kara-Khatai. 
These  tribes  were  nearly  exterminated  in  a  gre«i 

679 


GENGHIS-GENII. 


L^&b  which  took  place  near  the  sources  of  the 
"5.  >,'nissei.  Gutchluk,  however,  had  some  time  before 
taken  refuge  in  Turkestiln,  a  vast  region  stretching 
from  Lake  Lob,  in  the  middle  of  Tartary,  westward 
♦■■o  the  Sea  of  Aral.  Here  he  succeeded  in  making 
nimself  sujireme  ruler,  but  only  to  be  swept  away 
by  the  victorious  Mongols,  now  pressing  westward 
in  an  irresistible  torrent.  At  length  G.  reached  the 
Sihoon,  the  north-eastern  boundary  of  the  empire 
of  Khanrczm  or  Kharism,  whose  ruler,  Ala-ed-din 
Mohammed,  was  one  of  the  most  powerful  sovereigns 
in  Asia.  The  dynasty  to  which  he  belonged  had 
nsen  into  power  through  the  weakness  of  the 
Seljuk  sultans ;  and  its  sway  now  extended  from 
the  borders  of  Syria  to  the  river  Indus,  and  from 
the  river  Sihon  to  the  Pei-sian  Gulf,  The  mimler 
of  some  Mongol  merchants  at  Otrar,  a  town  on 
the  Sihon,  afforded  G.  a  pretext  for  invasion. 
He  immediately  despatched  his  eldest  son,  Jdjy, 
at  the  head  (according  to  Eastern  chroniclers)  of 
700,000  horse,  who  accordingly  burst  into  Kliaurezm 
in  1219;  and  after  having  overthrown  the  Tartar 
allies  of  Sultan  Mohammed,  and  fought  a  long 
and  bloody  battle  with  the  sultan  himself  with  no 
decisive  result,  captured  Samarkand,  Bokhara  (the 
valuable  library  of  which  he  destroyed),  and  all 
the  other  im])ortant  cities  of  the  country.  The 
Mongols,  in  three  separate  divisions,  now  scoured 
and  ravaged  Khaurezm  in  all  du'cctions.  In  the 
course  of  five  or  six  years,  they  overran  the 
whole  of  Persia,  subdued  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Caucasus,  crossed  into  Ilussia,  and  plundered  the 
laud  between  the  V/olga  and  the  Dnieper.  Nor 
were  they  less  successful  in  the  east ;  the  whole  of 
Southern  Asia,  as  far  as  the  Sutlej,  experiencing  the 
miseries  of  their  devastations.  Sickness,  disease, 
and  exhaustion  at  length  enfeebled  the  Mongol 
liordes,  and  com])elled  G.  to  return  to  Kai'akoruni,  in 
Tartary,  the  capital  of  his  empire,  in  1224.  During 
his  absence,  his  generals  had  been  prosecuting  tlie 
Chinese  war  with  the  greatest  success.  G.,  though 
well-advanced  in  years,  was  still  possessed  by  the 
old  thirst  of  conquest ;  and  having  recruited  his 
forces,  he  led  them  across  the  great  desert  of  Gobi 
to  the  kingdom  of  Tanjout,  in  the  north-west  f^i 
China,  the  capital  of  which,  Nin-hia,  he  besieged. 
Disheartened  by  the  loss  of  the  greater  part  of  his 
army,  the  king  of  Tanjout  promised  to  capitulate  at 
the  end  of  a  month;  but  in  the  interval  G.  died, 
the  2-Jl:th  August  1227,  on  the  hill  Lioii-pan,  worn 
out  with  years  and  toils.  G.  is  said  to  have  had 
five  hundred  wives  and  concubines,  and  to  have 
left  a  great  number  of  children,  among  three  of 
whom  he  divided  his  enormous  possessions.  The 
third  son,  Oughtai,  was  appointed  'Grand  Khan,' 
and  received  for  his  share  the  country  now  called 
Mongolia,  with  Khatai  or  Northern  China  as  far 
north  as  the  mouth  of  the  Amdr.  The  second  son, 
Tcheghatai,  received  Turkestan  north  of  the  Amd 
or  Jeyhun,  and  was  committed  to  the  guardianship 
of  Karatchar  Nuyan.  Jujy,  for  his  share,  obtained 
Keptchidv,  and  all  the  country  west  and  north  of 
Turkestan,  an  immense  tract  extending  fi'om  the 
Caspian  Sea  almost  to  the  Northern  Ocean. 

In  the  course  of  his  sanguinary  career,  G.  is 
Baid  to  have  destroyed,  by  wars  and  massacres, 
no  fewer  than  five  or  six  millions  of  human 
beings.  His  conquests  were  generally  accompanied 
with  acts  of  appalling  barbarity,  yet  we  seem  to 
trace  through  the  dreadful  history  of  the  man 
some  indications  of  a  civilising  tendency.  Himself 
a  Monotheist,  a  stern  believer  in  God  after  the 
fashion  of  Mohammed,  he  nevertheless  tolerated  all 
religions  ;  exempted  from  taxes  and  military  service 
physicians  and  priests  ;  made  obligatory  the  prac- 
tice of  h  >spitality ;  established  severe  laws  against 
080 


adidtery,  fornication,  theft,  homicide,  &c. ;  organised 
a  system  of  postal  communication  throughout  hia 
enormous  dominions  (mainly,  no  doubt,  for  military 
purposes) ;  aiul  so  thoroiighly  organised  what  we 
may  call  the  police  or  civil  authority,  that  it  was 
said  one  might  travel  without  fear  or  danger  from 
one  end  of  his  empire  to  the  other.  He  m  ould  also 
appear  to  have  had  a  respect  for  men  of  learning 
and  virtue,  and  to  have  retained  several  of  such 
about  his  person.  The  only  memorial  of  G.  low 
known  to  exist  is  a  granite  tablet,  with  a  Mon^^ol 
inscription  (deciphered  by  Schmidt  of  Petcrsburj^), 
discovered  among  the  I'uins  of  Nertschinsk.  Tiis 
tablet  Jiad  been  erected  by  G.  in  commemoration  of 
his  conquest  of  the  kingdom  of  Kara-KhataL 

GE'NII.  According  to  the  belief  of  the  old 
Italian  races,  genii  were  protecting  spirits,  who 
accompanied  every  created  thing  from  its  origin 
to  its  final  decay,  like  a  second  spiritual  self. 
They  were  appropriated  not  only  to  men,  but  to  all 
things  animate  and  inanimate,  and  more  especially 
to  places.  They  were  regarded  as  effluences  of 
the  Divinity,  and  were  therefore  worshipped  with 
divine  honours  ;  sacrifices  were  annually  made  to 
them  on  various  occasions,  especially  on  birthdays, 
and  during  the  period  of  harvest.  Nay,  Jupiter 
himself  was  called  the  genius  of  men,  and  Juno  of 
women.  Not  only  had  every  individual  his  genius, 
but  likewise  the  whole  people.  The  statue  of  the 
national  genius  was  placed  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Roman  forum,  and  is  often  seen  on  the  coins  of 
Hadrian  and  Trajan.  The  genius  of  an  individual 
was  represented  by  the  Romans  as  a  figure  in  a 
toga,  having  the  head  veiled,  and  the  corn  leopia  or 
patera  in  the  hands  ;  while  local  genii  appear  under 
the  figui'C  of  sei^ients  eating  fruit  set  before  them. 
(Compare  Hartung  Die  Relig.  tier  Bom.  1.  p.  .32,  &c., 
and  Schomann  De  Diis  Manibus,  Larihus,  et  Geniis, 
Greifswald,  1840.) — The  Genii  of  the  East  bear  no 
resemblance  to  the  old  Italian  genii.  Their  proper 
Arabic  name  is  Djinn  or  Jinn ;  and  there  seems  to 
have  been  no  better  reason  for  translating  the  word 
by  the  Latin  term  genius,  than  the  casual  similarity 
of  the  sounds.  The  word  Djinn  is  from  an  Arabic 
root,  signifying  to  '  veil '  or  '  conceal,'  and  properly 
denotes  an  'invisil^le  being.'  The  djinns,  or  Eastern 
genii,  are,  in  fact,  regarded  by  the  Arabs  and 
Persians  as  an  intermediate  class  of  beings  between 
angels  and  men,  and  inferior  in  dignity  to  both. 
They  are  described  in  poetry  as  the  subjects  of  a 
certain  Jan  Ibn  Jiin,  and  as  inhabiting  the  world 
l)ef  ore  the  present  race  of  human  beings ;  but 
they  having  excited  the  anger  of  God  by  their 
rebellion,  he  sent  his  favourite  angel,  Hliaris,  or 
according  to  others,  Azazel,  to  punish  and  govern 
them.  Some  time  after,  Hharis  himself  rebelled, 
whereupon  God  condemiied  him  to  eternal  punish- 
ment. From  this  period,  on  account  of  his  despair 
or  his  aj'ostasy,  he  was  called  Eblis  or  Iblis.  The 
djinns  can  assume,  in  an  instant,  any  form  they 
please,  whether  of  man,  brute,  or  monster,  the  last 
— in  accordance  with  the  popular  view  of  their 
wicked  character — being  the  one  most  f-.^uently 
selected.  Such  as  have  read  the  Arabian  Nhjhii 
will  have  a  vivnd  recollection  of  the  hideous  and 
gigantic  shapes  under  which  the  genii  are  wont  to 
manifest  themselves,  accompanied  at  times  with 
smoke  and  thunderings,  to  terror-stricken  mortals. 
They  are  in  no  degree  whatever  guardian  spirits 
like  the  genii  of  the  old  Italians ;  on  the  contrary, 
they  are  inimical  to  man's  happiness,  and  can  only 
be  subdued  by  the  spells  of  powerfid  magicians. 
See  Familiar  Spirits.  The  better-informed  East- 
erns, however,  do  not  believe,  it  is  said,  in  th<* 
actual  existence  of  snch  beings.  The  Mussulman 
dxDctors,  it  is  true,  affirm  the  existence  of  djinna 


GENIPAP 


•—GENIUS. 


a«  ail  invisibie  race  of  supernatural  beings,  who 
carry  out  the  purposes  of  Deity,  but  they  reject 
altogether  the  grotesque  and  repulsive  inventions 
of  the  Ai'ab  and  Persian  romancers  and  poets. 

GE'J^IPAP,  a  much  esteemed  fruit  of  the  "West 
Indies  and  warm  parts  of  South  America.  The  tree 
which  yields  it  is  Genipa  Americana,  of  the  natural 
order  Cinchonacece.  It  is  a  2-celled  berry,  contain- 
ing many  seeds  ;  about  as  large  as  an  orange,  of  a 
whitish -green  colour,  with  a  dark  piu-ple  juice  of  an 
agreeable  vinous  taste. 

GENI'STA,  a  genus  of  leguminous  plants,  of 
which  the  characters  are  noticed  in  the .  article 
Broom.  Some  of  the  species  are  popularly  known 
by  the  name  Broom,  some  as  Greenweed  (q.  v.). 
G.  Anglica,  a  much  branched,  very  spiny  shrub, 
not  above  a  foot  high,  is  called  Petty  Whin  and 
Needle  Furze  in  England,  where  it  is  regarded  as 
indicating  a  very  poor  soil.  The  Genista  of  Virgil 
and  other  Roman  classics  is  supposed  to  be  G. 
Hispaiiica,  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  with 
branched  stiff  spines.  Gen  is  said  to  be  a  Celtic 
word,  signifying  a  shrub.  The  name  Plantagenet,  is 
from  Planta  Genista;  but  what  j)lant  was  intended, 
and  whether  the  common  furze  or  a  species  of 
Genista,  is  not  so  certain. 

GE'NITIVE,  the  name  of  one  of  the  'cases'  in 
grammar  (see  Declension).  In  such  an  expression 
as  (Lat.)  regis  Jilius,  (Eng.)  the  king's  son,  the  form 
regis  or  king's  is  called  the  genitive  case  ;  and  accord- 
ing to  the  usual  explanation,  this  name  was  given  it, 
because  it  indicates  the  source  or  origin  of  the  thing 
joined  with  it.  A  much  more  satisfactory  account 
of  the  origin  of  the  name,  and  of  the  real  nature 
of  the  genitive  case,  is  that  given  by  Max  Muller 
{Science  of  Language).  The  terms  of  grammar  were 
originally  applied,  not  to  the  i')arts  of  si)eech,  but  to 
the  elements  of  thought ;  they  were  logical  terms 
before  they  were  grammatical.  Long  before  the 
now  familiar  grammatical  distinctions  of  singular 
and  plural,  of  gender,  case,  voice,  &c.  had  been 
thought  of,  the  G'^eek  writers  on  dialectics,  in 
analysing  the  different  parts  of  an  expressed  thought, 
had  distinguished  the  principal  notion — the  subject 
or  nominative  as  it  is  called — from  secondary  or 
dependant  notions  ;  the  dependency  of  the  latter 
they  expressed  by  the  word  ptosis  (Lat.  casus),  a  fall 
or  leaning  of  one  thing  upon  another  ;  and  in  such  a 
proposition  as, '  the  king's  son  is  dead,'  they  indicated 
the  exact  nature  of  the  dependence  by  calling  it  the 
genike  j'^tosis,  i.e.,  the  case  shewing  the  genus,  kind, 
or  class — the  generic  case  ;  for  v.'hile  the  name  'son' 
is  applicable  to  every  man  having  parents,  '  king's 
eon'  is  limited  to  the  class  of  sons  having  kings  for 
their  fathers.  One  name  joined  to  another  in  this 
relation  has  thus  the  same  effect  as  an  Adjective 
(q.  V.)  in  limiting  its  application.  It  seems  probable, 
indeed,  that  the  termination  of  what  we  now  call 
the  genitive  case,  was  originally  the  same  as  that  by 
which  adjectives  were  formed  from  nouns.  The 
names  thus  applied  to  ideas  were  by  the  Greek 
grammarians  of  Alexandria  transferred  to  the  words 
expressing  them,  and  were  afterwards  translated 
into  their  Latin  equivalents  by  the  Greek  gram- 
marians who  taught  their  language  to  the  youth 
of  Kome.  But  by  this  time  the  terms  had  become 
strictly  technical,  and  their  original  signification 
little  thought  of  ;  and  this  may  account  for  the 
Greek  genike,  the  Latin  equivalent  for  which  is 
yeneralis,  being  rendered  by  genitlvus,  generating 
or  producing,  which  would  have  been  expressed  in 
Greek  by  gennetike. 

]n  English,  the  genitive  is  the  only  case  or  relation 
among  nouns  expressed  by  a  difference  of  termmation, 
and  even  it  is  often  exp-e»sed  by  the  preposition 


of;  as  the  river^s  brink,  or  the  brink  of  thi 
river.    Erom  the  frequency  with  which  the  form  in 

indicates  that  one  thing  belongs  to  another,  it  ia 
often  called  the  possessive  case.  But  this  name  i« 
little  applicable  in  such  expressions  as  a  daifa 
journey  ;  still  less  in  many  cases  where  the  genitive 
is  used  in  the  ancient  languages  ;  e.  g.,  fons  lactis,  a 
fountain  of  milk.  The  generic  case,  however,  mean- 
ing that  which  limits  the  other  noun  to  a  clasa  or 
kind,  will  be  found  to  express  the  real  relation  ia 
every  conceivable  combination. 

The  termination  '5  has  been  erroneoucly  sup- 
posed  to  be  a  contraction  for  his^  as  if  '  the  kin^i 
son '  = '  the  king  his  son.'  But  this  would  not  account 
for  '  the  queen's  son,'  or  for  '  men's  sons.'  Besides 
his  itself  is  the  genitive  of  he,  and  formed  in  the 
same  way  as  king's,  for  the  apostrophe  ( ')  is  a  mere 
artificial  expedient  of  writing  to  distinguish  the 
possessive  from  the  plural,  and  does  not  belong  to 
the  spoken  language.  The  English  genitive  in  '« 
is  a  genuine  relic  of  the  Inflections  (q.  v.)  common 
at  an  early  stage  to  all  the  Aryan  languages,  s  was 
the  prevalent  ending  of  the  genitive  singidar  in  the 
Anglo-Saxon,  and  in  modern  English  it  has  been 
extended  by  analogy  to  all  nouns  and  even  to  the 
plui'al.  When  the  plural  ends  in  s,  the  additional  s 
of  the  genitive  is  omitted,  for  the  sake  of  the  soimd, 
as  kings'  sons. 

GE'NIU S.  This  word,  which  conveys  the  most 
lofty  eulogium  that  can  be  applied  to  intellectual 
excellence,  meant  originally  the  tutelary  god  or 
demon  that  was  anciently  supposed  to  preside  over 
the  birth  and  destinies  of  every  individual  human 
being.  The  peculiarities  attending  the  character 
and  career  of  each  person  came  thus  to  be  attributed 
to  the  higher  or  lower  nature  of  their  attendant 
genii.  Thus  arose  one  of  the  meanings  now  attached 
to  the  word — namely,  the  special  bent,  aptitude,  or 
faculty,  which  any  one  possesses  ;  as  a  genius  for 
poetry,  for  music,  for  mathematics,  for  statesman- 
ship, and  so  forth.  But  this  is  not  the  chief  or  most 
prominent  idea  imjilied  in  the  usual  application  of 
the  term.  If  we  consult  usage,  we  shall  find  that 
genius  is  more  frequently  spoken  of  in  connection 
with  the  poet,  painter,  architect,  &c.,  than  mth  the 
man  of  science  or  of  practice ;  as  if  there  was 
something  in  the  regions  of  line  art  that  came  more 
directly  home  to  the  susceptibilities  of  men,  and 
evoked  their  expressions  of  admiration  and  praise. 
And  such  is  really  the  case.  The  artist's  function 
is  to  touch  immediately  the  chords  of  human 
pleasure ;  the  men  of  practical  life,  the  jjhysician, 
lawyer,  or  engineer,  have  more  to  do  with  the 
deliverance  from  pains  or  from  obstacles  to  pleasure, 
and  however  necessary  their  work  uiay  be,  it  is  apt 
to  be  associated  with  the  dark  and  gloomy  side  of 
our  human  life. 

Undoubtedly,  the  most  important  meaning  of  the 
term,  as  pointing  to  a  fundamental  i)eculiarity  in 
which  human  minds  differ,  is  that  connecting  it 
with  originality,  invention,  or  creative  power,  in 
any  department  of  intellectual  activitj',  artistic, 
scientific,  or  practical.  Not  poetic  creativenesg 
alone,  but  every  effort  of  the  inventive  faculties 
of  man,  by  which  new  and  superior  combinations 
and  devices  are  introduced  into  the  world  Avith  a 
view  to  diminish  the  pains  and  add  to  the  pleasures 
of  mankind,  may  be  properly  designated  '  genius.' 
Sufficient  authority  exists  for  this  more  extended 
use  of  the  word,  and  we  may  justify  it  also  by  the 
consideration,  that  there  is  a  common  fact  in  all 
these  dift'erent  modes  of  intellectual  superiority, 
while  it  is  further  possible  that  there  may  be  a 
common  fomidation  for  them  all  in  the  consti 
tution  of  the  mind.  We  mark  off  the  depart- 
ment of  original  power  from  other  departments  01 


GENLIS— GENNESARET. 


modes  of  the  intellect,  still  of  positive  value  and  of 
real  importance — namely,  the  powers  of  acquiring 
and  reproducing  what  has  been  already  produced. 
Amassed  learning,  extensive  acquisitions  in  science, 
educated  skill  in  the  common  arts  or  in  fine  art 
may  exist  in  a  high  degree,  and  may  even  confer 
distinction  on  the  individual  and  serve  useful 
purposes  in  life,  without  the  accompaniment  of 
originality.  The  praise  implied  in  the  name 
*  talent '  would  be  conceded  to  the  best  examples 
©f  acquired  power  short  of  the  aptitude  for  inven- 
tion. This  furnishes  the  most  respectable  contrast 
to  genius,  being  itself  something  admirable  and 
meritorious.  A  less  esteemed  contrast  is  furnished 
by  the  crowd  of  imitators  that  follow  in  the  wake 
of  aiy  great  and  original  mind,  w^ho  aim  at  pro- 
ducing similar  effects  without  the  inward  sponta- 
neity of  the  master,  and  wdth  only  the  resoiirce  of 
copying  his  external  form  and  peculiarities.  There 
Is  a  kind  of  ability  amounting  to  talent  in  this 
power  of  imitation,  and  literature  always  contains 
both  good  and  indifferent  examples  of  it.  We  are 
accustomed  to  speak  of  poetasters,  playwrights,  and 
copyists,  among  the  writers  of  every  literary  period. 
The  imitators  of  Homer  in  his  own  time  have 
not  survived  ;  but  he,  as  well  as  every  other  great 
genius,  may  be  tracked  in  subsequent  compositions. 
Spenser's  school  of  poetry  makes  the  largest  section 
of  the  published  poems  of  the  century  succeeding 
him.  Pope  impressed  his  style  upon  last  century  ; 
and  Johnson's  balanced  prose  continued  to  be 
reproduced  long  after  his  death. 

The  meaning  of  genius  being  thus  understood 
as  referring  to  original  creativeness,  or  inventive 
power,  it  has  been  considered  a  problem  of  interest 
to  trace  it  to  its  foundations  in  the  mind,  with  a 
view  to  determine  w^hether  it  be  a  distinct  faculty, 
or  only  a  superior  degree  of  other  recognised  powers. 
Johnson's  definition  is  well  known  ;  '  large  general 
powers  turned  in  a  particular  direction.'  This 
negatives  the  idea  of  a  specific  endowment,  and 
would  seem  to  imply  that  the  man  of  genius  could 
be  anything  that  he  pleased ;  that  Aristotle  might 
have  been  Pindar,  and  Homer  have  discovered  the 
forty-seventh  of  Euclid ;  an  assumption  in  the  last 
degree  improbable,  if  not  verging  on  absurdity. 
There  is  a  class  of  minds  noted  for  versatility,  but 
they  are  only  a  select  class.  Caesar  was  a  general, 
an  orator,  and  a  writer,  besides  being  a  politician  of 
mark,  whether  successful  or  unsuccessful.  But, 
according  to  the  most  enlightened  theories  of  the 
present  day,  it  is  usual  to  consider  human  l)eings 
as  born  wdth  distinctive  endowments ;  and  although 
there  is  a  common  mental  organisation  at  the  basis, 
yet  this  is  supposed  to  have  a  plurality  of  distinct 
functions,  any  one  of  which  may  rise  in  degree 
without  the  rest.  Thus,  intellect  may  be  powerful 
on  the  whole,  without  involving  a  proportionate 
intensity  of  the  feelings  or  the  volition  ;  the  sensi- 
bility of  the  ear  may  be  acute,  and  that  of  the  eye 
only  average.  Now  it  would  be  fair  to  suppose  that 
ger.ia:-  in  one  line — as,  for  example,  painting — would 
resmlt  from  the  unusual  augmentation  of  the  suscep- 
tibilities and  powers  specially  exercised  in  the  art  ; 
the  sense  of  colour  and  of  form,  skill  of  hand,  and 
a  good  recollection  of  those  objects  of  nature  and 
human  life,  that  are  the  fitting  material  of  a  painter's 
compositions.  So  a  poet  should  have  a  more  than 
common  ear  for  verse,  plenty  of  language,  taste  for 
the  appropriate  images  of  poetry,  and  so  on.  In 
this  way  we  might,  by  a  kind  of  analysis,  determine 
which  of  the  faculties  common  to  all  men  should  be 
exalted  to  a  superior  pitch,  in  order  to  furnish  a 
genius  in  each  separate  walk.  This  method  has 
been  pursued  by  the  phrenologists  and  by  other 
speculators,  and  is  probably  now  the  received  mode 
€82 


of  handling  the  subject.  Examples  may  be  seen  in 
Bain  on  the  Study  of  Character. 

GENLIS,  Stephanie  Felicite,  Comtesse  i>e, 
was  born  at  Cham])9eri,  near  Autun,  in  Burgundy, 
2oth  January  174C,  of  an  ancient  but  reduced  family. 
Her  maiden  name  was  Ducrest.  At  the  age  of  15 
she  was  mamed  to  the  Comte  de  Genlis  ;  and  in 
1770,  through  the  influence  of  her  aunt,  Madame  de 
Montesson  (who  had  been  privately  married  to  th* 
Due  d'Orleans),  was  made  a  lady-in-waiting  in  the 
household  of  the  Duchesse  de  Chartres.  In  1782, 
the  Due  de  Chartres,  afterwards  known  as  Egalit6i, 
appointed  her  'governor'  of  his  children.  This 
a})})ointment  gave  rise  to  certain  scandalous  reports, 
the  truth  of  which  subsequent  circumstances  a])pear 
to  have  confirmed.  Madame  de  G.  wrote  a  variety 
of  works  for  her  puj)ils,  among  others,  TJiedtre  d 
Vusaije  dcs  jmnes  personiies,  ou  Thedtre  Education 
(Paris,  1779—1780) ;  Adtle  et  Theodore,  ou  Lettrea 
sur  r Education  (1782);  and  Les  Ve'dlees  du  Chdleau, 
ou  Cows  de  Morale,  d  Vusage  des  Enfants.  On 
the  breaking  out  of  the  Kevoluti<)n,  Madame  de  G. 
took  the  liberal  side,  but  was  ultimately  compelled 
to  seek  refuge  in  Belgium.  Afterwards  she  went 
to  Switzerland,  and  in  the  same  year  i>roceeded 
to  Altona,  in  Germany,  where  she  wrote  a  romance, 
entitled  Les  Chevaliers  du  Cygne,  ou  la  Cour  de. 
Cliarlemagiie  ;  and  also  Precis  de  la  Conduite  de 
Madame  de  Genlis  pendant  la  Revolution,  as  a  sort  ol 
reply  to  the  accusations  of  her  numerous  enemies. 
When  Bonaparte  became  consul,  she  returned  to 
Paris,  and  received  from  him  a  pension.  From  this 
time  she  resided  constantly  in  Paris,  ])ublishing  in 
ra])id  succession  one  book  after  another  till  her 
death  .31st  December  1830.  Madame  de  G.'s  writ- 
ings amount  to  about  90  volumes.  They  are  chiefly 
descriptions  of  incidents  in  fashionable  society,  with 
which  she  was  thoroughly  acquainted,  and  which 
she  painted  in  lively  colours.  As  she  advanced  in 
life,  her  writings  became  more  and  more  polemical 
and  ill-natured.  Her  Observations  Critiques  pout 
servir  d  VHistoire  htteraire  du  19'"«  siecle  (2  vols. 
Paris,  1818)  ;  and  her  Dictionnaire  Critique  et 
raisonne  de.s  Etiquettes  de  la  Cour,  des  usages  du 
Monde,  &c.  ;  and  her  Diners  du  Baron  d^Holbach^ 
subjected .  her  to  severe  criticism.  Tlie  last  of 
these  contains  a  great  deal  of  curious  but  mali- 
cious infomiation  concerning  the  freethinkers  of 
the  18th  century.  Nevertheless,  her  writings  have 
been  very  popular,  and  have  passed  through  several 
editions.  Her  voluminous  Menioires  were  written 
after  she  had  reached  her  80th  year. 

GENNE'SARET,  Sea  of,  called  also  in  the 
New  Testament,  Tlie  Sea  of  Galilee,  \nd  Tlie  Sea  oj 
Tiberias  (from  the  city  of  Tiberias;,  and  in  the 
Old  Testament  The  Sea  of  Chinnereth  or  Cinneroth^ 
from  an  ancient  town  of  that  name  situated  on 
or  near  its  shores.  The  word  G.  itself  is  supposed 
by  some  to  be  merely  a  corruption  of  Chinnereth ; 
but  others  derive  it  from  Gannah,  a  *  garden,'  and 
Sliaron,  the  name  of  a  plain,  between  Mount  Tabor 
and  the  lake.  The  Sea,  or  rather,  Lake  of  G.  is 
about  13  miles  long  and  6  broad.  It  lies  in  the 
bottom  of  a  great  basin,  and  is  undoubtedly  of 
volcanic  origin.  Although  the  Jordan  runs  into  it 
red  and  turbid  from  the  north,  and  many  warm 
and  brackish  springs  also  find  their  way  thither, 
its  waters  are  cool,  clear,  and  sweet.  Its  shores 
are  also  enlivened  with  sparkling  pebbles.  Now, 
as  formerly,  it  abounds  in  fish ;  but  the  fisheries 
are  almost  entirely  neglected.  The  surrounding 
scenery  is  not  very  beautiful,  but  its  associations 
are  among  the  most  sacred  in  Palestine.  *  Where'e< 
we  tread,  'tis  haunted,  holy  ground.'  *  Like  Jeru- 
salem, the  Sea  of  Gennesaret  is  enshrined  in  the 


GENNESARET— GENOA. 


heart  from  childhood.  The  home  of  Christ — "  His 
own  city " — Capernaum,  lay  on  its  shoi-es  ;  many 
of  His  miracles  were  performed  around  and  upon 
it ;  He  taught  the  multitudes  that  followed  Him, 
on  the  heights  over  it,  along  its  pebbly  beach,  and 
from  a  boat  on  its  surface ;  most  of  the  apostles 
were  fishermen,  who  here  gained  their  daily  bread  ; 
and  one  of  Christ's  last  earthly  interviews  with 
them,  after  the  crucifixion,  was  on  that  occasion 
when,  driven  probably  by  necessity,  they  had 
temporarily  resumed  their  old  occupation,  and  had 
toiled  a  long  night  without  success'  (Porter,  Hand- 
book/or  Syria  and  Palestine,  Part  ii.  page  418).  In 
the  time  of  Christ,  the  region  round  about  was  the 
most  densely  populated  in  Galilee,  Nine  cities  and 
towns  stood  on  the  shores  of  the  lake,  while  the 
neighbouring  ])lains  and  eminences  were  dotted 
with  niunerous  large  villages.  Of  the  nine  cities, 
seven  are  now  miinhabited  ruins  ;  half-a-dozen 
mud  hovels  are  sufficient  to  house  all  the  human 
life  at  Magdala,  and  only  Tiberias  continues  to 
exhibit  some  feeble  traces  of  its  former  prosperity. 

GE'NOA  (Ital.  Geneva;  Fr.  Genes;  anciently. 
Genua),  a  city  of  Italy,  situated  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean Gulf  of  the  same  name,  at  'the  foot  of  the 
Apennines,  79  miles  south-east  of  Turin,  is  the 
chief  commercial  seaport  of  the  Sardinian  pro- 
vinces. Lat.  of  light-house,  44°  24'  18"  N.,  long. 
8°  54'  24"  E.  The  population  of  the  town  of  G.  in 
1872  WHS  130,269;  that  of  the  province  of  which  it 
is  the  capital,  716,284. 

From  the  sea  the  aspect  of  G.  is  a  sjilendid  pano- 
rama ;  the  slopes  of  the  liills  down  to  the  shore  are 
covered  with  palaces,  churches,  hotels,  and  x)rivate 
dwellings,  relieved  by  terraced  gardens  and  groves 
of  orange  and  pomegranate  trees  ;  while  the  bleak 
summits  of  the  loftier  ranges  are  capped  with  forts, 
batteries,  and  outworks,  which  constitute  a  line  of 
fortification  of  great  strength  and  extensive  circuit. 

The  fine  harbour,  of  which  the  diameter  is 
rather  less  than  a  mile,  is  semicircular,  and  formed 
by  two  piers,  at  the  extremity  of  one  of  which 
stands  a  light-house  tower,  300  feet  high.  Vessels 
of  the  largest  class  can  enter  inside  the  harbour, 
and,  notwithstanding  the  heavy  swells  occasioned 
by  south-west  winds,  the  harbour  is  remarkably 
safe.  As  yet,  however  (1874),  there  is  no  landing 
pier  for  passengers,  all  of  whom,  at  considerable 
inconvenience,  are  carried  ashore  a  distance  of 
nearly  half  a  mile  in  row-boats.  Subject  to  this 
drawback,  the  harbour  is  visited  daily  by  French 
and  Italian  steamers  in  communication  with  other 
ports  in  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  anticipated  that 
the  increase  of  passenger  traffic  consequent  on  the 
opening  of  the  railway  to  Turin,  which  has  ah*eady 
given  rise  to  sundry  improvements,  will  cause  this 
del  ect  also  to  be  remedied. 

Several  important  establishments  are  grouped 
round  the  port — viz.,  the  arsenal,  the  convict 
prison,  the  custom-house,  and  the  Porto  Franco  or 
free-poi-t  warehouses,  where  merchandise  may  be 
stored  previous  to  its  re-exportation  free  of  duty. 
G.  i*}  tl  e  great  commercial  dgpot  of  a  wide  extent 
*f  country,  of  which  the  chief  raw  exports  are 
olive  oil,  rice,  fruits,  cheese,  steel,  &c.  ;  the  manu- 
factured goods  exported  are  velvets,  silks,  damask, 
gloves,  flowers,  paper,  soap,  jewellery  in  silver 
and  coral,  in  aU  of  which  industrial  branches  the 
excellence  of  the  Genoese  workmen  is  incontestable. 
The  imports  are  principally  cottons,  raw  cotton, 
woollens,  cochineal,  indigo,  grain,  hides,  &c.  The 
annual  exports  of  G.  are  valued  at  £4,000,000, 
while  the  imports  are  returned  at  £10,000,000. 

While  strikingly  grand  as  viewed  from  the  sea, 
and  Bo  far  worthy  of  being  entitled  La  Superha,  a 
cloeer  examination  of  G.  tends  materially  to  lower 


its  character  for  beauty  and  magnificence.  Hemn)«<i 
within  walls,  and  built  awkwardly  on  irregulai 
rising  grounds,  it  has  never  been  opened  up  by  any 
com])rehensive  plan  of  improvement,  and  remains 
very  much  a  labyrinth  of  narrow  and  intricate  lanes, 
accessible  only  to  foot-passengers,  or  to  thp  pack- 
mides,  by  the  use  of  which  a  large  portion  of  the 
internal  goods  traffic  is  conducted.  These  thorough- 
fares, mto  which  the  light  of  day  imperfectly  ])ene- 
trates,  are  lined  with  tall  buildings,  some  of  them 
of  marble  and  of  handsome  architecture,  1)ut  they 
can  with  difficulty  be  seen  from  the  limitednese  of 
the  space  in  front;  and  however  grand,  they  conse- 
quently fail  in  effect.  Many  of  them— once  the 
residence  of  merchant-princes — &ve  now  transformed 
into  hott  Is  or  business  establishments ;  in  son"  e  cases, 
the  sup(  rb  lobbies,  environed  by  marble  columns, 
being  occupied  by  petty  traders,  and  shabby  in  the 
extreme.  Only  a  few  streets  are  wide  enough  for 
carriages,  and  in  these  the  asjiect  of  affairs  is  more 
like  that  of  modern  cities.  Fallen  from  their  high 
estate  generally,  several  palazzos  still  belong  to 
persons  of  distinction  who  have  the  means  of  main- 
taining them  ill  their  original  splendour,  or  they  are 
a})propriated  as  public  buildings.  The  tv/o  most 
famous  are  the  Palazzo  Ducale,  formerly  inhabited 
by  the  doges,  now  approi)riated  to  the  meetings 
of  the  senate  ;  and  the  Palazzo  Doria,  presented, 
in  1522,  to  the  great  Genoese  citizen  Andrea  Doria, 
whose  residence  it  was  during  his  presidency  of 
the  Kepiiblic.  The  palaces  Brignole  Sale,  Serra, 
Reale,  Pallavicini,  Spinola  Balbi,  Negroni,  and 
many  others,  possess  great  interest  both  on  account 
of  their  historical  fame  and  architectural  beauty. 
Many  of  them  contain  galleries  of  paintings,  which 
are  shewn  for  a  fee.  Some  of  the  churches  are 
particularly  fine  :  the  most  noticeable  of  all  being 
the  cathedral  of  St  Lorenzo,  a  grand  old  pile  in  the 
Italian  Gothic  style.  G.  contains  many  excellent 
public  institutions,  which  almost  all  date  from 
the  period  of  the  republic.  The  great  hospital,  and 
the  asylum  for  the  poor  (Alberfjo  de'  Poveri),  are 
especially  worthy  of  mention.  The  latter  makes 
provision  for  1600  persons,  orphans  and  old  people. 
The  former  are  trained  up  to  useful  employ- 
ments, and  such  girls  as  marry  out  of  the  hospital 
receive  a  small  dowry.  The  deaf  and  dumb  insti- 
tution, and  the  hospital  for  the  insane,  are  the 
first  in  Italy  in  point  of  extent  and  regulation. 
There  are  numerous  excellent  foimdations  called 
conservator  le,  devoted  to  various  philanthropic 
purposes,  the  chief  of  which  is  called  the  Fieschine, 
and  is  an  asylum  for  female  orphans.  The  pubho 
library  contains  50,000  volumes,  and  is  unrestrict- 
edly open  to  the  public.  The  Academy  of  Fine 
Arts  was  founded  by  the  Doria  family.  The 
theatres  of  G.  are  very  fine,  that  of  Carlo  Fehce 
ranks  among  the  best  in  Italy. 

The  Genoese  are  a  shrewd,  active,  laborious  race, 
and  possess  all  the  qualities  of  a  commercial  and 
maritime  community.  They  make  skilful  and  hardy 
seamen,  energetic  ti'aders,  and  thrifty  husbandmen, 
and  are  still  remarkable  for  the  spirit  of  enterprise 
and  freedom  which  so  strongly  characterised  the 
period  of  the  repr.blic.  Claiming  Columbus  as  a 
native  of  their  city,  they  are  now  engaged  in  rear- 
ing a  public  monument  in  honoiir  of  that  distin- 
guished navigator.  While  the  main  business  of  the 
town  is  evidently  maritime,  there  is  also  an  exl  erosive 
trade  carried  on  in  the  manufacture  and  sah  fa 
peculiar  kind  of  jewellery.  This  consists  of  remark- 
ably fine  filigree-work  in  silver  and  silver  gilt,  which 
resembles  that  of  India,  and  is  fully  as  precious  in 
point  of  intrinsic  value.  Few  of  the  many  tourista 
who  pass  through  G.  fail  to  pm-chase  one  or  more  ol 
these  pretty  and  cheap  articles  of  bijcuterie. 


GENOA— GENRE-PAIKTrNG. 


ITistory. — The  early  history  of  G.  and  of  its 
ancient  inhabitants  is  full  of  uncertainty,  owing  to 
the  fabulous  traditions  by  which  it  is  obscured. 
The  Liguriau  tribes,  who  held  i)Ossession  of  G. 
previous  to  its  incorpoi-ation  with  ancient  Rome,  are 
of  disputed  origin.  By  some  historians  they  are 
classed  with  the  Celtic  race,  while  others  hold  them 
to  be  of  Greek  extraction.  G.  is  first  mentioned  in 
history  during  the  Second  Punic  War,  but  it  then 
appears  to  have  been  a  place  of  considerable  import- 
ance. In  205  B.  c,  it  became  for  a  short  time  the 
head-quarters  of  Mago,  the  Carthaginian  general, 
who  destroyed  it  before  leaving  the  country  ;  but 
in  203  B.C.,  the  Roman  ])roetor,  Sp.  Lucretius,  was 
commissioned  to  rebudd  it.  After  Liguria  was 
conquered  by  theT^lomans  (109  B.C.),  G.  does  not 
figure  mxich  in  ancient  history ;  but  as  a  Roman 
munidpium,  it  obviously  ])rospered,  for  Stral)0 
gpeaks  of  it  as  a  '  flourishing  town,  and  the  chief 
emporium  of  the  Ligurians.'  Under  the  Romans, 
the  Genoese  retained  a  considerable  degree  of 
internal  independence,  and  were  distinguished  in 
the  Roman  legions  by  their  valour  and  great 
physical  vigour.  On  the  dismemberment  of  the 
Latin  empire,  G.,  in  common  with  the  chief 
divisions  of  Italy,  successively  fell  under  the  sway 
of  the  Lombards,  the  Franks,  and  the  Germans  ; 
but  amid  all  these  vicissitudes,  preserved,  in  a 
eingular  degree,  both  privileges  and  i)rosperity. 
Navigation  and  commerce  were  the  two  natural 
Bources  opened  to  the  Genoese  by  the  maritime 
Bituation  of  their  country,  and  for  these  pursuits 
they  have  at  all  times  displayed  a  special  aptitude. 
Their  mercantile  interests  only  served  to  foster  the 
instinctive  valour  of  the  race.  The  rich  merchandise 
of  the  Genoese  galleys  offered  an  alluring  prize  to 
the  piratical  hordes  by  which  the  Mediterranean 
was  universally  infested  ;  and,  consequently,  from 
the  rise  of  their  commercial  importance,  the  Genoese 
were  compelled  to  defend  with  the  sword  the 
precious  freight  of  their  merchantmen.  Unhappily, 
a  bitter  spirit  of  hostility  and  intolerance  of  all 
maritime  competition  was  a  leading  feature  of  early 
Genoese  policy,  in  regard  to  the  other  important 
Italian  states ;  and  to  this  source  may  be  traced 
the  tierce  and  prolonged  wars  sustained  by  G. 
against  the  rival  maritime  republics  of  Pisa  and 
Venice.  The  frequent  incursions  of  the  Saracens, 
by  whom  G.  was  sacked  and  pillaged  about  935, 
led  the  Genoese  to  form  an  alliance  with  Pisa, 
udth  the  object  of  extirpating  these  barbarous 
aggressors  from  the  islands  of  Corsica  and  Sardinia, 
their  strongholds  in  the  Mediterranean.  This 
being  effected  (1016—1021),  the  Genoese  obtained, 
hy  papal  arbitration,  the  grant  of  Corsica,  while 
Sardinia  was  assigned  to  the  Pisans,  a  distribution 
v^hich  sowed  the  seeds  of  future  discord  between 
the  two  states.  At  the  close  of  the  11th  c,  G. 
commanded  large  land  and  naval  forces,  and  already 
ranked  as  a  powerful  maritime  state,  governed  by 
annual  magistrates,  named  consuls.  The  Genoese 
vigorously  seconded  the  Crusades,  and  in  return 
for  their  effective  co-operation,  obtained  several 
important  maritime  possessions  and  commercial 
privileges  in  the  Holy  Land  (1109).  The  chief 
events  of  the  three  following  centuries  are :  the 
capture  of  Minorca  (1146),  of  Almeria  (1147),  and 
Tortosa  (1148)  from  the  Moors  ;  the  wars  with  Pisa 
and  Venice,  and  the  ci\'il  dissensions  by  which  G., 
in  common  with  all  Italy,  became  distracted  by  the 
Guelph  and  Ghibelline  factions.  In  1284,  -at  the 
great  naval  battle  of  Meloria,  the  Pisan  republic 
sustained  such  destructive  losses  that  her  maritime 
influence  and  public  spirit  never  revived.  The 
wars  with  Venice  originated,  about  1244,  in  mutual 
jealousies  respecting  the  connnercial  supremacy  of 
684 


the  Levant,  and  continued,  with  various  vicissitudes, 
till  the  end  of  the  following  century,  when  the 
Genoese,  at  the  blockade  of  Chiozza,  were  compelled 
to  submit  to  disadvantageous  terms  by  the  peace 
of  Turin  (1381). 

Co -existent  with  these  suicidal  wars,  the  civil 
dissensions  of  G.  exhausted  and  demoralised  the 
state,  and  occasioned  an  infinity  of  changes  in 
the  primitive  form  of  government.  In  1190,  the 
consuls  were  superseded  by  a  magistracy  termed 
podesta,  an  office  for  which  natives  of  G.  were 
declared  ineligible.  This  institution,  which  waa 
founded  in  the  hope  of  restraining  local  Genoese 
animosities  and  amlntions,  lasted  till  1270,  when 
two  of  the  great  Guelph  leaders  of  the  state 
resolved  to  subvei't  the  popular  authorities,  and, 
under  the  title  of  '  captains  of  liberty,'  assumed 
irresponsible  authority,  which,  for  21  years,  they 
contrived  to  retain.  During  their  sway,  civil  feuds 
raged  inveterately,  not  alone  between  the  Guelph 
and  Ghibelline  factions,  but  also  between  the  citizen 
ranks  of  patricians  and  plebeians.  Various  other 
modifications  of  the  government  preceded  the  elec- 
tion of  the  first  Genoese  doge  in  1339.  This  supreme 
magisterial  office,  from  which  all  nobles  were 
excluded,  continued  iu  force  for  two  centuries,  its 
tenure  being  for  life. 

The  ambitious  contentions  of  four  leading  demo- 
cratical  families — viz.,  the  Adomi,  the  Fi^cgosi,  the 
Guarci,  and  the  Montaldi — succeeded  those  of  the 
patrician  houses  of  Doria,  Spinola,  Grimaldi,  and 
Fieschi,  and  engendered  such  disastrous  civil  strife 
in  the  state  under  the  early  doges,  that,  in  1396,  the 
citizens,  in  despair,  invoked  the  protection  of  the 
French  king,  Charles  VI.,  and  finally  submitted  to 
the  rule  of  the  Visconte,  the  tyrannical  and  ambi- 
tious lords  of  Milan  (14(54).  After  the  invasion  of 
Louis  XII.  in  1499,  G.  long  remained  subject  to 
the  French  ;  but  in  1528,  the  genius  and  resolution 
of  a  great  citizen,  Andrea  Doria,  freed  his  country 
from  foreign  invaders,  and  restored  to  G.  her 
republican  institutions.  The  last  important  exploit 
of  the  Genoese  was  the  expulsion,  in  1746,  of  the 
Austrians,  who  were  driven  from  G.  after  an 
occupation  of  three  months.  In  1768,  G.  ceded  to 
France  the  Island  of  Corsica  ;  and  in  1796  Bona- 
pai-te  invaded  Italy,  and  conferred  on  G.  tne 
name  of  the  Ligurian  Republic,  which,  in  1802,  was 
abolished,  and  Genoa  la  Superha  became  the  chief 
town  of  a  department  of  France.  In  1815,  by  a 
decree  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  the  state  of  G. 
became  a  pro\dnce  of  Piedmont.  Following  the 
fortunes  of  that  state,  it  has  latterly  become  a 
portion  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  and  with  the 
enterprise  of  its  people  there  are  marked  indi- 
cations of  improvement.  Canale's  Nuova  Storia 
della  Eepuhhlica  di  Genova ;  Dinena's  Hivoluzioni 
d' Italia  ;  Sismondi's  Italian  Republics. 

GENOA,  Gulf  of,  a  large  indentation  in  the 
northern  shore  of  the  Mediterranean,  north  of 
Corsica,  may  be  said  to  have  the  shape  of  a  hay 
rather  than  that  of  a  gulf.  The  towns  of  Oneglia 
on  the  west,  and  Spezia  on  the  east,  seem  to 
indicate  the  points  at  which  the  entrance  of  the 
gulf  commences.  With  this  entrance  the  Gulf  of 
G.  woidd  extend  90  miles  across,  and  30  miles 
inland. 

GENOUILLERE,  a  term  in  Fortification  (q.  v.) 
for  that  part  of  the  parapet  of  a  battery  which  lies 
under  the  embrasure.  The  name  is  derived  from 
Fr.  genou,  knee,  as  representing  the  ordinary  height 
of  the  genouill^re  above  the  platform  on  which 
the  gun  is  worked. 

GENRE-PAINTING,  a  term  derived  from  the 
French  genre  ('  kind,'  '  sort'),  originally  employed 


GENS-GENSERIC. 


to  distinguisla  any  special  branch  of  painting,  as 
genre  historique  (historic  painting),  genre  da  paysage 
(landscape-painting),  &c.  In  a  more  definite  sense 
it  is  used  to  describe  any  picture  containing  human 
figures  not  included  in  the  so-called  historical 
class,  particularly  pictures  with  figures  much  below 
the  size  of  life — cattle,  architectural  pieces,  flower- 
pieces,  and  representations  of  still  life.  Under 
the  term  genre-pictures  are  comprehended  all  pic- 
tures vnth.  figures  representing  individuals  only 
as  types  of  a  species  or  class,  m  contradistinction  j 
to  historical  compositions,  which  bring  before  us  ! 
certain  individuals,  or,  as  it  were,  nomina  propria. 
TLe  mode  of  conception  and  style  of  execution  in 
genre-painting  may  resemble  the  historical  style ; 
snd,  on  the  other  hand,  historical  personages  may 
be  represented  merely  in  situations  of  everyday 
life.  The  term  historic-genre  is  employed  in  both 
cases.  The  French  likewise  distinguish  the  genre- 
Tiistorique  from  the  lower  genre,  strictly  so  called  ; 
they  also  occasionally  apply  the  term  peinture  du 
style  to  historical  j)ainting.  Genre  pictures  are 
usually  of  limited  dimensions,  while  in  historical 

f)ictiires  the  figures  are  commonly  the  size  of 
ife,  or  even  colossal.  In  either  case,  however, 
there  are  many  exceptions  to  the  general  rule, 
and  the  proper  designation  depends  rather  on  the 
style  of  subject  than  on  the  size.  A  sj^ecies  of 
genre-painting  with  a  distinct  style  was  practised 
even  in  ancient  times,  but  the  birthplace  of  the 
present  genre  picture  is  the  north,  and  more  parti- 
cularly the  Netherlands.  The  Italians,  esi:>ecially 
Paul  Veronese,  had  previously  shewed  a  leaning 
to  the  genre  style  in  biblico-histoiical  pictures, 
by  making  the  principal  figures  and  the  action 
subordinate  to  the  accessories  and  locality — as, 
for  example,  in  his  '  Man-iage  at  Cana  ; '  and  Van 
Eyck's  school  in  the  Netherland's  had  likewise 
introduced  the  same  element  into  the  delineation 
of  incidents  in  sacred  history,  ^ucas  van  Leyden 
and  Albert  Durer  then  began  to  represent  actual 
scenes  from  the  everyday  life  of  the  people  in  ])aint- 
ings  and  engi-avings.  Genre-painting  was  brought 
to  its  highest  perfection  in  the  Netherlands  by 
a  series  of  admirable  painters,  such  as  Terburg, 
Brower,  Ostade,  Rembrandt,  the  younger  Teniers, 
Metzu,  Gerard  Dow,  and  others.  Tliough  the 
characteristic  and  humorous  conception  of  many 
of  the  works  of  these  masters  gives  them  a  peculiar 
value,  it  was  found  in  other  cases  that  a  certain 
delicacy  of  imitation  and  skill  in  using  the  brush 
was  capable  of  imparting  a  singular  ciarm  to  the 
most  ordinary  scenes  and  figures.  In  the  British 
school  this  style  of  art  is  generally  understood  to 
be  limited  to  pictures  with  figxires,  and  many  works 
of  the  highest  excellence  have  been  produced  in 
it,  elevated  in  treatment  by  the  introduction  of  an 
ir7portant  element — viz.,  the  dramatic. 

GENS  (allied  to  Lat.  genus,  Eng.  Hn;  from 
the  root  gen-,  to  beget  or  produce).  This  Latin 
word,  to  which  so  many  important  political  and 
»3cial  meanings  came  to  be  attached,  signifies, 
prope/ly,  a  race  or  lineage.  From  it  our  own 
worda  Gentleman  (q.  v.),  Gentility,  &c.,  have  come 
to  uo  through  the  French  gentilhomme,  the  primary 
nn^-AJiing  of  which  was,  one  who  belonged  to  a 
known  and  recognised  stock.  By  the  Romans  it 
was  sometimes  used  to  designate  a  whole  com- 
munity, the  members  of  which  were  not  necessarily 
connected  by  any  known  ties  of  blood,  though 
ome  such  connection  was  probably  always  taken 
for  granted.  In  this  sense  we  hear  of  the  gefis  Latin- 
*>rum,  campanorum,  &c.  But  it  had  a  far  more 
definite  meaning  than  this  in  the  constitutional 
law  of  Rome.  According  to  Scaevola,  the  Pontifex, 
those  aloue  belonged  to  the  same  ge?i8,  or  were 


'Gentiles,'  who  satisfied  the  four  following  conditiona 
— viz.,  1.  Who  bore  the  same  name ;  2.  Wlio  were 
born  of  freemen ;  3.  Who  had  no  slave  amongst 
their  ancestors ;  and  4.  Who  had  sufifered  no 
Capitis  Diminutio  (reduction  from  a  superior  to  an 
inferior  condition),  of  which  there  were  three  de- 
grees, Maxima,  Media,  Minima.  The  first  (Maxima 
Capitis  Diminutio)  consisted  in  the  reduction  of 
a  free  man  to  the  condition  of  a  slave,  and  was 
undergone  by  those  who  refused  or  neglected  ta 
be  registered  at  the  census,  who  had  been  con- 
demned to  ignominious  punishments,  who  refused 
to  perform  military  service,  or  who  had  been  takoB 
prisoners  by  the  enemy,  though  those  of  the  last 
class,  on  recovering  their  liberty,  could  be  reinstated 
in  their  rights  of  citizenship.  The  second  degree 
(Media  Capitis  Diminutio)  consisted  in  the  reduc- 
tion of  a  citizen  to  the  condition  of  an  alien  {LatinvA 
or  peregrinus),  and  involved,  in  the  case  of  a 
Latinus,  the  loss  of  the  right  of  legal  marriage 
[connuhium),  but  not  of  acquiring  property  [com- 
mercium) ;  and  in  the  ca,se  of  the  peregrinus,  the 
loss  of  both.  The  third  degree  (Minima  Capitis 
Diminutio)  consisted  in  the  change  of  condition 
of  a  pater/amilias  into  that  of  a  films  familiaSy 
either  by  adoption  {adrogatio)  or  by  legitimation. 
In  the  identity  of  name,  some  sort  of  approach 
to  a  common  origin  seems  to  be  here  implied. 
The  gens  thus  consisted  of  many  families,  but  all 
these  families  were  supposed  to  be  more  or  lesa 
nearly  allied  by  blood — to  be,  as  we  should  say, 
kindred.  A  Roman  gens  was  thus  something  very 
nearly  identical  Avith  a  Celtic  clan,  the  identity  or 
similarity  of  name  being  always  supposed  to  have 
arisen  from  relationship,  and  not  from  similarity  of 
occuimtion,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Smiths,  Taylors, 
Lorimers,  &c.,  of  modern  Europe.  There  was  thia 
peculiarity,  however,  about  the  gens  which  did  not 
belong  to  the  clan — viz.,  that  it  was  possible  for  an 
individual  born  in  it  to  cease  to  belong  to  it  by 
capitis  dimimdio,  or  by  adoption,  or  adrogation 
as  it  was  called  when  the  person  adopted  was  Sui 
Juris  (q.  v.).  If  the  adoption  was  by  a  family  of 
the  same  gens,  the  gentile  name,  of  course,  remained 
unchanged.  In  the  case  of  a  person  dying  intestate, 
his  gentiles,  failing  nearer  relatives,  were  his  heirs, 
and  they  undertook  the  duties  of  guardianship  in 
the  like  circumstances.  The  gens  was  further 
bound  together  by  certain  sacred  rites,  which  were 
imposed  on  the  whole  of  its  members,  and  for  the 
celebration  of  which  it  probably  possessed,  in  com- 
mon property,  a  sacellum  or  sacred  spot  enclosed, 
and  containing  an  altar  and  the  statue  of  the  god 
to  whom  it  was  dedicated.  According  to  the 
traditional  accounts  of  the  old  Roman  constitution, 
the  gentes  were  a  subdi\asion  of  the  ciiriaa,  as  the 
curiEe  were  subdivisions  of  the  tribe.  In  this  view 
of  the  matter,  the  original  idea  of  the  gens  becomes 
simply  that  of  the  smallest  political  di^'ision, 
without  any  relation  to  kindred  or  other  ties. — ■ 
An  excellent  article  on  the  gens  by  ^It  George 
Long,  in  which  references  to  the  principal  German 
authorities  on  the  subject  are  given,  will  be  found 
in  Smith's  Dictionarij  of  Roman  Antiquities. 

GE'NSERIC,  king  of  the  Vandals,  was  an  illegi- 
timate son  of  Godigiselus,  who  led  the  Vandals  into 
Spain.  After  the  death  of  his  brother  Gonderic,  G. 
became  sole  ruler.  In  the  year  429,  he  invaded 
Africa  on  the  invitation  of  Couiit  Boniface,  the 
viceroy  of  Valentinian  III.,  Emperor  of  the  West, 
who  had  been  goaded  on  to  rebellion  thi'ough  the 
machinations  of  his  rival  Aetius,  the  conqueror 
of  Attila.  G.'s  army  at  first  amounted  to  50,000 
warriors,  full  of  barbarian  valour,  and  hungi-y 
for  conquest  and  plunder.  As  they  swept  along 
through   Mauritania,  the    Kabyle  mountaineers, 


GENSERIC— GENTIAN. 


aid  the  Donutist  heretics,  maddened  by  perse- 
cution and  fanaticism,  swelled  the  terrible  horde, 
and  more  than  equalled  their  savage  associates  in 
acts  of  cruelty  and  bloodthirstiness.  The  friends 
of  Boniface,  astonished  that  the  hero  who  alone 
had  maintained  the  cause  of  the  emperor  and  his 
mother  Placidia  during  their  exile  and  distress, 
should  have  been  guilty  of  such  a  crime,  attempted, 
with  ultimate  success,  to  bring  about  an  interview 
between  the  Count  of  Africa  and  an  agent  of  the 
empress.  Then,  when  too  late,  were  the  imaginary 
provocations  he  had  received  explained,  and  the 
fraud  of  Aetius  detected,  for  the  army  he  had 
hurriedly  collected  to  oppose  the  Vandals,  having 
been  twice  defeated  by  G.,  he  was  compelled  to 
retire  to  Italy,  where  he  was  soon  afterwards 
glain  by  Aetius.  All  Africa  west  of  Carthage 
fell  into  the  hands  of  G.,  who  shortly  after  seized 
that  city  itself,  and  made  it  (439  a.  d.)  the  capital 
of  his  new  dominions.  Part  of  Sicily,  Sardinia, 
and  Corsica  was  likewise  taken  possession  of  by 
him.  In  the  year  451,  he  encouraged  Attila  to 
undertake  his  great  but  fatal  expedition  against 
GauL  Tradition  states  that,  at  the  request  of 
Eudoxia,  the  widow  of  Valentinian,  who  was  eager 
for  revenge  upon  her  husband's  murderer  Maxi- 
mus,  G.,  in  the  year  455,  marched  against  Rome, 
which  he  took,  and  abandoned  to  his  soldiers  for 
14  days.  On  leaving  the  city,  he  carried  with 
him  the  empress  and  her  two  daughters,  one  of 
whom  became  the  wife  of  his  sou  Huneric.  The 
empire  twice  endeavoured  to  avenge  the  indig- 
nities it  had  suffered,  but  without  success.  First 
the  Western  emperor,  Majorian,  fitted  out  a  fleet 
against  the  Vandals  in  457,  which  was  destroyed  by 
G.  in  the  bay  of  Carthagena;  second,  the  Eastern 
emperor,  Leo,  sent  an  expedition  under  the  command 
of  Heraclius  and  others  in  468,  which  was  also 
destroyed  off  the  city  of  Bona.  G.  died  in  477,  in 
the  possession  of  all  his  conquests,  leaving  behind 
him  the  reputation  of  being  the  greatest  of  the 
Vandal  kings.  His  appearance  was  not  imposing  : 
according  to  Jornandes,  he  was  '  of  low  stature,  and 
lame  on  account  of  a  fall  from  his  horse,'  but  '  deep 
in  his  designs,  taciturn,  averse  to  pleasure,  capable 
of  being  transported  into  fury,  greedy  of  conquest, 
and  cunning  in  so^dng  the  seeds  of  discord  among 
nations,  and  exciting  thetn  against  each  other.' 
Strange  to  say,  a  rude,  even  a  savage  religiosity 
burned  in  the  heart  of  G.,  and,  it  may  be,  grimly 
sanctified,  in  his  own  eyes,  his  wide-spread  devasta- 
tions. He  seems  to  have  regarded  himself  as  a 
'  scourge  of  God.'  Once  when  leaAdng  the  harbour 
of  Carthage  on  an  expedition,  the  pilot  asked  him 
whither  he  was  going.  'Against  all  who  have 
incurred  the  wrath  of  God.'  In  creed,  G.  was  a 
fierce  Arian,  and  inflicted  the  severest  persecutions 
upon  the  orthodox  or  Catholic  party. 

GE'NTIAN  (Gentiana),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Gentianacece,  with  5- cleft — sometimes 
4- cleft — calyx,  and  1-celled  capside.  The  species 
are  numerous,  natives  of  temperate  parts  of  Europe, 
Asia,  and  America,  many  of  them  growing  in  high 
mountain  pastures  and  meadows,  which  they  adorn 
\y  their  beautiful  blue  or  yellow  flowers. — The 
genus  is  said  to  derive  its  name  from  Gentius,  king 
of  Illyria,  who  was  vanquished  by  the  Komaus 
about  160  B.  c,  and  to  whom  is  ascribed  the  intro- 
duction into  use  of  the  species  still  chiefly  used  in 
medicine.  This  species.  Common  G.,  or  Yellow 
G.  {G.  lutea),  is  abundant  in  the  meadows  of  the 
Alps  and  P3rrenees,  at  an  elevation  of  3000 — 6000 
feet.  It  has  a  stem  about  three  feet  high,  ovate- 
oblong  leaves,  and  numerous  whorls  of  yeUow 
flowers.  The  part  employed  in  medicine  is  the 
root,  which  is  cylindi'ical,  ringed,  and  more  or 
£86 


less  branched;  and  which  appears  in  commerce 
iu  a  dried  state,  in  pieces  varying  from  a  few 
inches  to  more  than  a  foot  in  length,  and  from 
half  an  inch  to  two  inches  in  thickness.  It  ia 
collected  by  the  peasants  of  the  Alps.  Although 


Common  Gentian  : 
a,  capsule  ;  6,  capsule  cut  across  ;  c,  vertical  section  of  see<I, 
mugnified. 

G.  root  has  been  examined  by  various  chemists, 

its  constituents  are  not  very  clearly  known;  it 
contains,  however  (1),  an  oil  in  small  quantity; 
(2),  a  i)ale  yellow  crystalline  matter,  termed  gen- 
tisin  or  gentisic  acid  ;  (3),  a  bitter  principle, 
gentianite,  on  which  its  medicinal  properties  mainly 
depend  ;  (4),  pecti»  or  pectic  acid,  which  probably 
causes  the  gelatinisation  that  sometimes  occurs 
in  infusion  of  G.  ;  and  (5),  sugar,  in  consequence 
of  which  an  infusion  is  capable  of  undergoing 
vinous  fermentation,  and  of  forming  the  '  bitter 
snaps '  or  '  engiangeist '  which  is  much  employed 
by  the  peasants  on  the  Swiss  Alps,  to  fortify  the 
system  against  f o^s  and  damps.  (As  '  bitter  snaps ' 
contains  a  narcotic  princijile,  due  probably  to  the 
oil  of  G,  strangers  unaccustomed  to  its  use  shoidd 
take  it  with  caution.)  G.  is  a  highly  valued  medi- 
cine, a  simple  tonic  bitter  without  astringency,  and 
is  much  used  in  diseases  of  the  digestive  organs, 
and  sometimes  as  an  anthelmintic. 

G.  may  be  administered  in  the  form  of  infusicai, 
tincture,  or  extract.  The  Compound  Mixture  oj 
G.  of  the  London  Pharmacopoeia,  consisting  o| 
six  parts  of  compound  infusion  of  G.  (Ph.  K), 
three  parts  of  compound  infusion  of  senna  (populaxly 
known  as  Black  Draught),  and  one  part  of  compound 
tincture  of  cardamoms,  forms,  in  doses  of  from  one 
to  two  ounces,  a  safe  and  modei-ately  agreeable 
tonic  and  piirgative  medicine  in  cases  of  dyspepsia 
with  constipation.  An  imitation  of  the  Coynpoun(f 
I'incture  of  G.,  knowTi  as  Stoughton's  Elixir,  ia 
very  much  used  in  the  West  Indies  before  ineal» 
as  a  pleasant  bitter,  to  give  tone  to  the  languid 
stomach.  The  Extract  of  G.  is  very  commonly 
used  as  the  vehicle  for  the  exhibition  of  metallic 
substances  (such  as  salts  of  iron,  zinc,  &c.)  in  the 
form  of  i)ill.  Powdered  G.  is  one  of  the  chief 
constituents  of  an  empirical  medicine  known  aa 
'The  Duke  of  Portlands  Gout  Poioder.  The  bitter 
principle  on  which  its  virtue  depends  exists  also 
in  other  species  of  this  genus,  probably  in  all,  and 
appears  to  be  common  to  many  ])lants  of  the  same 
order.     The  roots  of  G.  purpurea,  G.  punctiUOt 


GENTIANACE^i^GENTLEMAN-COMMONER. 


and  O.  Pannonica,  are  often  mixed  with  the  gentian 
of  commerce.  They  are  deemed  inferior.  Several 
species  are  natives  of  Britain,  but  none  are  at  all 
common  excei)t  O.  campestris  and  G.  amarella,  plants 
of  a  few  inches  in  height,  with  small  flowers,  both  of 
which  are  in  use  as  tonics,  although  only  in  domestic 
medicine. — G.  Catesb(vi,  a  North  American  species, 
is  extensively  used  in  its  native  country,  as  a  substi- 
tute for  Common  G-.,  and  G.  Kutroo  is  employed  in 
the  same  way  in  the  Himalaya. — Several  species  of 
G.  are  common  ornaments  of  our  gardens,  particu- 
larly G.  acatdisy  a  small  species  with  large  blue 
flowers,  a  native  of  the  continent  of  Europe  and  of 
Siberia,  often  planted  as  an  edging  for  flower- 
borders.  Of  North  American  species,  G.  crinita  is 
particidarly  celebrated  for  the  beauty  of  its  flowers, 
which  are  large,  blue,  and  fringed  on  the  margin. 
It  has  a  branched  stem,  and  grows  in  wet  ground. 
The  brilliancy  of  the  flowers  of  the  small  alpine 
species  has  led  to  many  attempts  to  cultivate  them, 
which  have  generally  proved  unsuccessful,  appa- 
rently from  the  difficulty  of  imitating  the  climate 
and  seasons  of  their  native  heights. 

GENTIAN A'CE^,  or  GENTIANE^,  a  natural 
order  of  exogenous  plants,  consisting  chiefly  of  herba- 
ceous plants,  but  containing  also  a  few  small  shrubs. 
The  leaves  are  opposite,  rarely  alternate,  destitute 
of  stipules.  The  flowers  are  terminal  or  axillary, 
generally  regular.  The  calyx  is  divided  usually  into 
5,  sometimes  into  4,  6,  8,  or  10  lobes ;  the  corolla  is 
hj7)ogynous  (q.  v.),  has  the  same  number  of  divi- 
sions with  the  calyx,  and  a  plaited  or  imbricated 
twisted  jestivation.  The  stamens  are  inserted  upon 
the  corolla,  alternate  with  its  segments,  and  equal 
to  them  in  number.  The  ovary  is  composed  of 
two  carpels,  1 -celled  or  imperfectly  2-celled,  many- 
seeded.  The  fruit  is  a  capsule  or  berry. — The 
species  are  numerous,  about  450  being  known. 
They  are  natives  both  of  warm  and  cold  climates, 
but  rather  of  elevated  regions  in  the  torrid  and 
temperate  zones,  than  of  cold  regions  near  the  poles. 
Many  have  flowers  of  great  beauty,  both  of  colour 
and  form,  the  corolla  being  often  most  delicately 
fringed.  Many  are  medicinal,  as  Gentian,  (Jhikata, 
Frasera,  Buckbean,  and  Centaury.  See  these 
headings. 

GENTIANE'LLA,  a  name  sometimes  given  to 
th<c  small-flowered  or  autumnal  Gentian  [Gentiana 
Amarella),  the  beautiful  blue  flowers  of  which 
adorn  some  of  the  dry  pastures  of  Britain;  but 
mire  commonly  to  the  species  of  Cicendia,  another 
gemis  of  the  order  Gentianacexe,  of  which  one  (C 
filiformis,  formerly  Exacum  filiforme)  is  a  native  of 
^Britain,  growing  in  sandy  peat-soils,  chiefly  in  the 
sc  nth- west  of  England — a  small,  slender,  and  grace- 
fid  plant  with  yellow  flowers.  C.  hyssopt/olium  is 
much  employed  as  a  stomachic  in  India. 

GENTILLY,  a  populous  village  of  France,  in 
tbe  metropolitan  department  of  Seine,  is  situated 
ne-^T  Paris,  towards  the  south  of  that  city.  The 
great  bastioned  wall  of  Paris  passes  through  the 
village,  separating  it  into  two  portions,  called 
Gieiit  and  Little  Geutilly.  Pop.  (1872)  6350,  who 
Hrc  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  chemicals,  in 
quarrying,  and  in  washing. 

GE'NTLEMAN.  This  word  is  an  example  of 
those  compromises  so  frequent  in  English  between 
the  language  introduced  by  the  Normans,  and  that 
in  possession  of  the  country  at  the  period  of  the 
Conquest.  The  Norman  word  was,  as  the  French 
word  is  now,  gent'dhomme.  The  flrst  syllable  was 
retained,  whilst  the  second  was  abandoned  in  favour 
of  its  Saxon  equivalent,  man.  Though  commonly 
transiated  into  Latin  by  genebosus,  which  means  a 
(feuorous,  liberal,  manly  person,  in  short,  a  gentle- 


man, the  word  gentleman  is  derived  from  gentUis, 
and  homo,  or  man  ;  and  gentUis  in  Latin  did  not 
signify  gentle,  generous,  or  anything  equivalent,  but 
belonging  to  a  gena,  or  known  family  or  clan.  See 
Gens.  A  gentleman  was  thus  originally  a  person 
whose  kindred  was  known  and  acknowledged ;  which 
is  the  sense  in  which  it  is  still  employed  when  it  ia 
not  intended  to  make  any  reference  to  the  moril  or 
social  qualities  of  the  i)articular  individual.  One 
who  was  sine  gente,  on  the  other  hand,  was  one 
whom  no  gens  acknowledged,  and  who  might  tlrtUi 
be  said  to  be  ignobly  born. 

The  term  gentleman  is  continually  confounded  Ttnth 
Esquire  (q.  v.),  even  by  such  learned  authorities  as 
Sir  Edward  Coke.  But  they  are  not  equivalent ;  ani 
whilst  some  attempt  can  be  made  to  define  the  iattei^ 
the  former  seems  in  England,  from  a  very  early  time, 
to  have  been  a  mere  social  epithet.  '  Ordinarily, 
the  king,'  says  Sir  Thomas  Smith,  '  doth  only  make 
knights  and  create  barons,  or  higher  degrees ;  aa 
for  gentlemen,  they  be  made  good  cheap  in  this 
kingdom ;  for  whosoever  studieth  the  laws  of  the 
realm,  who  studieth  in  the  universities,  who  pro- 
fesseth  the  liberal  sciences,  and  (to  be  short)  who  can 
live  idly,  and  without  manual  labour,  and  will  bear 
the  port,  charge,  and  countenance  of  a  gentleman, 
he  shall  be  called  Master,  for  that  is  the  title  which 
men  give  to  esquires  and  otlier  gentlemen,  and  shall 
be  taken  for  a  gentleman.' — Gommonivealth  of  Eng- 
land,  i.  c.  20.  But  though  such  was  the  real  state 
of  matters,  even  in  the  beginning  of  the  17th  c,  the 
word  was  stdl  held  to  have  a  stricter  meaning,  in 
which  it  was  more  nearly  synonymous  wdth  the 
French  gentilhomme,  for  in  the  same  chapter  the 
same  waiter  remarks  that  '  gentlemen  be  those 
whom  their  blood  and  race  doth  make  noble  and 
known.'  Eveii  here,  however,  it  scarcely  seems  that 
he  considered  any  connection  with  a  titled  family 
to  be  necessary  to  confer  the  character,  for  he 
afterwards  speaks  of  it  as  corresponding  not  to 
nobility,  in  the  English  sense,  but  to  nobditas,  in 
the  Roman  sense,  and  as  resting  on  '  old  riches 
or  powers  remaining  in  one  stock.'  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that,  in  still  earlier  times,  patents  of 
gentility  were  granted  by  the  kings  of  England, 
There  is  one  still  in  existence  by  Richard  II.  to 
John  de  Kingston,  and  another  by  Henry  VI.  to 
Bernard  Angevin,  a  Bourdelois.  But  these  patents 
determine  very  little,  for  they  seem  to  have  carried 
the  rank  and  title  of  esquire  ;  and  there  is  no  doubt 
that  esquires,  and  all  persons  of  higher  rank,  were 
held  to  be  gentlemen,  on  the  principle  that  the 
gi-eater  includes  the  less.  The  difficulty  is  to  say 
whether  between  an  esquire,  who  certainly  W'as 
entitled  to  the  character,  and  a  yeoman,  who  was 
not,  there  was  an  intermediate  class  who  coidd 
claim  it  on  any  other  grounds  than  courtesy  and 
social  usage.  These  patents  corresponded  to  the 
modern  patents  of  arms  which  are  issued  by  the 
Heralds'  Colleges  in  England  and  Ireland,  and  by 
the  Lyon  Office  in  Scotland,  and  were  probably  given 
on  the  very  same  grounds — \dz.,  the  payment  of  fees. 
A  patent  of  arms  confers  the  rank  of  esquire,  and 
there  probably  is  no  other  legal  mode  by  w^hica 
an  untitled  person  can  acquire  it,  miless  he  be 
the  holder  of  a  dignified  office.  In  present,  as  in 
former  times,  it  is  common  to  distinguish  between 
a  gentleman  by  birth  and  a  gentleman  by  pro- 
fession and  social  recognition.  By  a  gentleman 
born  is  usually  understood  either  the  son  of  a 
gentleman  by  birth,  or  the  grandson  of  a  gentle- 
man by  position ;  but  the  phrase  is  loosely  applied 
to  all  persons  who  have  not  themselves  '  risen  from 
the  ranks.' 

GENTLEMAN-COMMONER.  Sec  Univkr. 
siTY,  Oxford,  &c. 

M7 


GENTLEMEN-AT-AEMS— GEODESY. 


GENTLEMEN-AT-ARMS  (formerly  called  the 
Gentlemen-Pensioners),  the  body-giiarcl  of  the 
British  sovereign,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the 
yeomen  of  the  guard,  the  oldest  corps  in  the  British 
service.  It  was  instituted  in  1509  by  Henry  VIII., 
and  now  consists  of  1  captain,  who  receives  £1000  a 
year;  1  lieutenant,  £500 ;  1  standard-bearer,  £310;  1 
clerk  of  the  cheque,  £120;  and  40  gentlemen,  each 
^vith  £70  a  year.  The  i)ay  is  issued  from  the  privy 
purse.  Until  1861,  the  commissions  were  purchas- 
able, as  in  other  regiments  ;  but  by  a  royal  command 
of  that  year  purchase  has  been  abolished  in  the 
corjis,  and,  henceforth,  the  commissions  as  gentle- 
men-at-arms are  to  be  given  only  to  military  officers 
of  service  and  distinction.  The  attendance  of  the 
gentlemen-at-arms  is  now  rarely  required,  except  on 
the  occasions  of  drawing-rooms,  levees,  coronations, 
and  similar  imjwrtant  state  ceremonies.  The  ap})oint- 
ment,  which  is  in  the  sole  gift  of  the  crown,  on 
the  recommendation  of  the  commander-in-chief,  can 
be  held  in  conjunction  M'ith  half-])ay  or  retired  full- 
pay,  but  not  simultaneously  with  any  appointment 
which  might  involve  absence  at  the  time  of  the 
officer's  services  being  required  by  the  sovereign. 

GENTOO'  (Portuguese,  Genlio,  'Gentile')  was 
the  term  a]iplied  by  old  English  writers  to  the 
natives  of  Hindustan ;  it  is  now  entirely  obsolete, 
the  word  Hindoo,  or  i)roperly  Hindu,  having  been 
substituted. 

GENUFLE'XION,  the  act  of  kneeling  or  bend- 
ing the  knees  in  worship.  As  an  act  of  adoration,  or 
reverence,  there  are  frequent  allusions  to  frenuflexion 
in  the  Old  and  in  the  New  Testament :  as  Gen.  xvii. 
3  and  17  ;  Numbers  x\a.  22 ;  Luke  xxii.  41  ;  Acts 
vii.  60,  and  ix.  40;  Philip,  ii.  10.  That  the  use 
continued  among  the  early  Christians  is  plain  from 
the  Sliejyherd  of  Hennas,  from  Eusebius's  History, 
ii.  33,  and  from  numberless  other  authorities ; 
and  especially  from  the  solemn  proclamation  made 
by  the  deacon  to  the  people  in  all  the  liturgies 
— '  Flectamus  genua'  (Let  us  bend  our  knees) ; 
whereupon  the  people  knelt,  till,  at  the  close  of 
the  prayer,  they  received  a  corresponding  summons 
— 'Levate'  (Arise).  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  how- 
ever, that  in  celebration  of  the  up-rising  (resurrec- 
tion) of  our  Lord,  the  practice  of  kneeling  down 
at  prayer,  so  early  as  the  age  of  Tertullian,  was 
discontinued  throughout  the  Easter-time,  and  on  all 
Sundays  through  the  year.  The  kneeling  posture 
was  especially  assigned  as  the  attitude  of  penance, 
and  one  of  the  classes  of  public  penitents  in 
the  early  church  took  their  name,  genujlectentes, 
from  this  circumstance.  In  the  modern  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  the  act  of  genutlexion  belongs  to 
the  highest  form  of  worship,  and  is  frequently 
employed  during  the  mass,  and  in  the  presence 
of  the  consecrated  elements  when  reserved  for 
subsequent  communion.  In  the  Anglican  Church, 
the  rubric  prescribes  the  kneeling  posture  in  many 
parts  of  the  service ;  and  this,  as  well  as  the  practice 
of  bowing  the  head  at  the  name  of  Jesus,  was  the 
subject  of  much  controversy  with  the  Puritans.  The 
same  contro-s  ersy  was  recently  revived  in  Germany. 

GE'NUS  (Lat.  a  kind),  in  Natural  History,  a 
group  of  species  (q.  v.),  closely  connected  by  com- 
mon characters  or  natural  affinity.  See  General- 
isation. In  all  branches  of  zoology  and  botany, 
the  name  of  the  genus  forms  the  first  part  of  the 
scientific  name  of  each  species,  and  is  followed  by 
a  second  word — either  an  adjective  or  substantive — 
which  distingviishes  the  particular  species.  Thus, 
in  Solanum  tuberosum  (the  potato),  Solanum  is  the 
generic,  and  tuberosum  the  specific  (sometimes  styled 
the  trivial)  name.  This  method  was  introduced  by 
Linnaeus,  and  has  been  of  great  advantage  to  the 


progress  of  science,  simplifying  the  nomenclature, 
and  making  names  serve,  in  some  lueasure,  for  the 
indication  of  affinities.  The  affinities  indicated 
by  the  generic  name  are  often  recognised  even 
in  poj)ular  nomenclature — thus,  Elm  and  Ulviua 
are  perfectly  synonymous;  but  there  are  many 
instances  in  which  this  is  very  far  from  being  the 
case,  as  that  of  the  genus  Solanum.  The  arrange- 
ment of  species  in  groups  called  genera  has  no  real 
relation  to  any  of  the  important  questions  concerning 
species. — Genera  are  arranged  in  larger  grouj)s  called 
orders,  which  are  often  variously  subdivided  into 
sub-orders,  families,  tribes,  &c. ;  and  are  themselves 
grou])ed  together  in  classes,  which  are  referred  to 
divisions  of  one  or  other  of  the  kingdoms  of  nature. 
Some  genera  contain  hundreds  o.i  species  ;  othera  no 
more  than  one ;  and  although  future  discoveric  s  may 
add  to  the  number  in  many  of  the  smallest  f;enera, 
yet  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  a  very  gi-eat  dilTerence 
exists  in  the  number  actually  belonging  to  groups 
equally  distinct  and  natural.  Some  of  the  larger 
genera  are,  by  some  authors,  divided  into  sul)-genera ; 
and  too  many  naturalists  shew  an  extreme  anxiety 
to  multi})ly  geneiic  divisions  and  names,  perhaps 
forgetting  that  whilst  certain  affinities  may  be  thus 
indicated,  the  indication  of  others  is  necessarily  lost, 
whilst  the  memory  of  every  student  of  science  ia 
more  and  more  heavily  burdened.  There  can  he  no 
doubt,  however,  that  to  a  certain  extent  the  fiuctua* 
tions  of  nomenclature,  so  often  felt  to  be  annoying, 
mark  the  progress  of  science  and  the  removal  of 
errors. 

In  Mineralogy,  the  generic  name  is  not  adopted  aa 
the  primary  part  of  the  name  of  each  species.  Gem 
(q.  V.)  is  an  example  of  a  mineral ogical  genus. 

GEOCE'NTRIC  means,  having  the  earth  for 
centre  ;  thus  the  moon's  motions  are  geocentric ; 
also,  though  no  other  of  the  heavenly  bodies  revolves 
round  the  earth,  yet  their  motions  are  spoken  of  aa 
geocentric  when  referred  to,  or  considered  as  they 
appear  from,  the  earth. 

The  geocentric  latitude  of  a  planet  is  the  inclina- 
tion to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic  of  a  line  connecting 
it  and  the  earth  ;  the  geocentric  longitude  being  the 
distance  measured  on  the  ecliptic  from  the  first 
point  of  Aries  of  the  point  in  the  ecliptic  to  which 
the  planet  as  seen  from  the  earth  is  referred. 

GE'ODES  (Gr.  earthy)  are  rounded  hollow  con- 
cretions, or  indurated  nodules,  either  empty  or  con- 
taining a  more  or  less  solid  and  free  nucleus,  and 
having  the  cavity  frequently  lined  with  crystals. 
They  are  sometimes  called  '  potato  stones,'  on 
account  of  their  size  and  shape.  The  name  geode 
seems  to  have  been  given  them  because  they  are 
occasionally  found  fiUed  with  a  soft  earthy  oclure. 

GEO'DESY,  the  science  of  the  measurement  of 
the  earth's  surface,  and  of  great  portions  of  it.  The 
reader  will  find  under  Earth  the  principal  resulta 
of  geodetical  measurements,  and  under  Triangula- 
tion,  an  accoimt  of  some  of  the  methods  of  obtaining 
them.  Geodesy  has  many  physical  difficulties  to 
contend  against.  In  measuring  a  particular  length 
■with  a  view  to  obtaining  a  base  line  for  calculating 
other  lines  by  trigonometrical  observations,  there  ii 
first  a  difficulty  arising  in  the  use  of  the  unit  of 
length,  whatever  it  may  be,  whether  rod  or  chain. 
In  the  use  of  rods,  it  is  difficult  to  lay  them  all  pre- 
cisely in  the  same  direction,  and  to  prevent  error 
arising  from  intervals  between  the  rods.  In  the  use 
of  chains,  again,  the  greatest  care  is  needed  to  keep 
all  the  links  stretched,  while  the  difficulty  of  avoid- 
ing error  through  not  preserving  the  line  of  direction 
is  but  little  diminished.  Further,  in  all  cases,  the 
tendency  of  the  units  to  change  magnitude  with 
changes  of  temperature,  and  the  nnevenness  of  the 


GEOFFEEY  OF  MONMOUTH— GEOFFROY  SAINT-HILAIRE. 


earth's  surface,  are  pregnant  sources  of  error.  After 
all  these  difficulties  have  been  overcome,  and  a 
sufficient  base  line  obtained,  a  new  class  of  diffi- 
cidties  are  encountered.  In  taking  trigonometrical 
observations  of  distant  objects,  it  is  found  that  the 
three  angles  of  any  triangle  which  we  may  form  are 
together  in  excess  of  two  right  angles  ;  the  angles 
are,  in  fact,  more  of  the  nature  of  spherical  than 
plane  angles.  For  this,  in  using  the  angles  as  plane 
angles  (for  greater  simplicity),  a  correction  has  to  ba 
made.  Further,  a  correction  is  required  for  the 
effect  of  horizontal  refraction  on  the  results  of 
observations  on  distant  objects — a  most  fluctuating 
source  of  error — to  evade  which,  as  far  as  possible,  it 
is  usual  to  make  observations  when  the  atmosphere 
has  been  for  some  time  undisturbed.  See  Puissant' s 
work  on  Geodesy. 

GEOFFREY  OF  MONMOUTH,  called  also 
Jeffrey  ap  Arthur,  was  born  at  Monmouth,  and 
in  1152  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  St  Asaph.  He 
died  about  1154.  His  chief  work,  the  Chronlcon 
slve  Historia  Br'dorium,  seems  to  have  been  com- 
pleted about  1128.  It  is  a  tissue  of  the  wildest 
fables,  interwoven  with  some  histoi'ic  traditions. 
*  In  later  times,'  says  Dr  Lappenberg,  '  authors 
seem  to  have  unanimously  agreed  in  an  unqualified 
rejection  of  the  entire  work,  and  have  therefore 
failed  to  observe  that  many  of  his  accounts  are 
supported  by  narratives  to  be  found  in  writers 
wholly  unconnected  with,  and  independent  of 
Geoffrey.  He  professes  to  have  merely  translated 
his  work  from  a  chronicle  in  the  British  tongue, 
called  Brut  y  Breyihined,  or  History  of  the  Kings  of 
Britain,  found  in  Brittany,  and  communicated  to 
him  by  Walter,  Archdeacon  of  Oxford  [not,  as  has 
been  supposed,  Walter  Mapes,  but  an  earlier  Walter 
Calenius].  The  Brut  of  Tysilio  has,  with  some 
probability,  been  regarded  as  the  original  of  G.'s 
work,  though  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  may  not 
itself  be  rather  an  extract  from  Geoffrey.  That 
the  whole  is  not  a  translation  appears  from  passages 
interpolated,  in  many  places  verbatim,  from  the 
existing  work  of  Gildus,  of  whom  he  cites  another 
work,  De  Vita  Ambrosii,  no  longer  extant.'  G.'s 
work  was  first  printed  by  Ascensius  at  Paris  in 
1508,  and  has  been  reprinted  more  than  once.  An 
English  translation,  by  Aaron  Thompson,  apj^eared 
at  London  in  1718,  reprinted  by  Dr  Giles  in  1842, 
and  in  Bohn's  Antiquarian  Lil^rary,  1848.  What- 
ever its  value  as  a  historical  record,  the  Chronicle 
has  been  of  gi^eat  use  to  our  literature.  Versified  in 
the  Noi-man  dialect  by  Wace,  and  again  in  English 
by  Layamon,  we  are  indebted  to  it  for  the  story 
of  Lord  Sackville's  tragedy  of  Ferrex  and  Porrex, 
for  Shakspeare's  King  Lear,  for  some  of  the  finest 
episodes  in  Drayton's  Polyolbion,  and  for  the 
exquisite  fiction  of  Sabrina  in  Milton's  masque  of 
Cornus.  A  metrical  Life  and  Prophecies  of  Merlin, 
first  printed  at  Frankfurt  in  1603,  and  reprinted 
for  the  Roxburghe  Club  in  1830,  has  been  attributed 
to  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  but  without  sufficient 
grounds. 

GEOFFRIN,  Marie  Ther^se,  a  distinguished 
Frenchwoman,  born  at  Paris,  2d  June  1699.  She 
was  the  daughter  of  a  valet-de-charabre  named 
Rodet,  a  native  of  Dauphine  ;  and  in  her  fifteenth 
year  was  married  to  a  very  rich  manufacturer  in 
the  Faubourg  St  Antoine,  who  died  not  long  after, 
leaving  her  an  immense  fortune.  Madame  G.,  though 
out  imperfectly  educated  herself,  had  a  genuine  love 
tOf  learning,  and  her  house  soon  became  a  rendezvous 
of  the  philosophers  and  litterateurs  of  Paris.  No 
illustrious  foreigner  visited  the  city  without  obtain- 
ing an  introduction  to  her  circle ;  even  crowned 
heads  were  among  her  visitors.  Her  liberality  to 
200 


men  of  letters,  and  especially  the  delicacy  idth 
which  she  conferred  her  benefits,  reflect  the  highest 
credit  on  her  character.  Among  those  who  fre- 
quented her  house  was  Poniatowski,  afterwards 
king  of  Poland.  He  announced  to  her  his  elevation 
to  the  throne  in  these  words  :  '  Maman,  voire  fbi  est 
roi.^  In  1766,  he  prevailed  on  her  to  visit  Warsaw, 
where  she  was  received  with  the  greatest  dis- 
tinction. Subsequently,  in  Vienna,  the  Enipresa 
Maria  Theresa  and  her  son,  Joseph  II.,  honoured 
her  with  a  most  gracious  reception.  She  died  in 
October  1777,  leaving  legacies  to  most  of  her 
friends.  Towards  the  publication  of  the  Encyclopedia 
she  eontributed,  according  to  the  calculations  of  her 
daughter,  more  than  100,000  francs.  D'Alembert, 
Thomas,  and  Morellet,  wrote  eloges  upon  her,  which 
are  to  be  found  in  the  Eloges  de  Madame  Oeoffrin 
(Paris,  1812).  Morellet  likewise  published  her 
treatise  Sur  la  Conversation,  and  her  Lettres. 

GEOFFROY  SAINT-HILAIRE,  Etienne,  a 
French  zoologist  and  physiologist,  was  bom  at  Etampea 
in  1772,  and  died  at  Paris  in  1844.  He  was  destined 
by  his  family  for  the  clerical  profession,  and  waa 
sent  to  prosecute  his  studies  at  the  College  of 
Navarre,  where  he  attended  the  lectures  of  Briason, 
who  speedily  awakened  in  him  a  taste  for  the 
natural  sciences.  He  subsequently  became  a  pupil 
of  Haiiy  (q.  v.)  and  of  Daubenton ;  and  the  relations 
which  were  soon  established  between  his  mastera 
and  himself  were  attended  with  the  happiest  results 
to  science,  since  they  decided  the  future  prospecta 
of  G.,  and  saved  the  life  of  Haiiy,  who  had  been 
imprisoned  as  a  refractory  priest,  and  whom  G. 
rescued  from  prison  on  the  very  eve  of  the  massacres 
of  September  1792.  A  few  months  afterwards, 
Haiiy  obtained  for  him  the  post  of  sub-keeper  and 
assistant-demonstrator  at  the  Jardin  des  Plantes  ; 
and  in  June  1793,  on  the  reorganisation  of  the 
institution,  he  was  nominated  professor  of  the 
zoology  of  vertebrated  animals.  At  first,  he  refused 
to  accept  the  chair,  on  the  ground  that  all  his 
studies  had  been  directed  to  mineralogy;  but  he 
finally  yielded  to  the  urgent  persuasion  of  his  old 
master  Daubenton,  and  at  once  set  resolutely  to 
work.    At  this  time,  he  was  only  21  years  of  age. 

Immediately  after  his  installation,  he  comujenoed 
the  foundation  of  the  menagerie  at  the  Jardin  dea 
Plantes,  its  })egiuning  being  three  itinerant  collec- 
tions of  animals  that  had  been  confiscated  by  the 
police,  and  were  conveyed  to  the  museum.  All  the 
depai-tments  of  the  museum  over  which  he  had 
charge  soon  exhibited  signs  of  his  vigorous  adminis- 
tration ;  and  the  zoological  collection  became  the 
richest  in  the  world. 

In  1795,  G.  having  heard  from  the  Abbg  Tessier 
that  he  had  found  a  young  man  in  the  wilds  of 
Normandy  who  was  devoting  all  his  leisure  time  to 
natural  history,  and  having  subsequently  received 
from  the  stranger  a  communication  containing  some 
account  of  his  investigations,  wrote  thus  to  his 
unknown  correspondent  :  '  Come  to  Paris  without 
delay ;  come  and  assume  the  place  of  a  new 
Linnaeus,  and  become  another  founder  of  natural 
history.'  It  was  thus  that  Georges  Cu\ner  was  called 
to  Paris  by  the  prophetic  summons  of  Geoffroy.  An 
intimate  friendship  was  soon  established  between 
them,  which,  although  long  afterwards  broken  by  the 
as})erity  of  scientific  discussion,  was  finally  revived 
with  all  its  original  warmth  in  their  later  days. 

In  1798,  G.  formed  one  of  the  scientific  commis- 
sion that  accompanied  Bonaparte  to  Egjqit,  and  he 
remained  in  that  country  until  the  sun-ender  of 
Alexandria  in  1301.  He  succeeded  in  bringing  to 
France  valuable  collections  of  natural  history  speci- 
mens ;  and  the  Memoirs  in  which  he  dese]ibe<t 
them  led  to  his  election,  in  1807,  into  the  Academy 

6d9- 


«EOFIROy  SAHsT-HlLAIRE— GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OP  ANIMALS. 


of  Sciences.    In  1808,  he  was  charged  with  a  scien- 
tific mission  to  Portugal,  the  object  of  which  was 
to  obtain  from  the  collections  in  that  kingdom  all 
the  specimens  which  were  wanting  in   those  of 
France.    On  his  return,  he  was  appointed  to  the 
professorship  of  zoology  in  the  Faculty  of  Science 
at  Paris,  and  from  that  time  he  undertook  no  more 
expeditions,  but  devoted  himself  almost  exclusively 
to  science.    In  the  latter  years  of  his  life,  he  was 
stricken  with  total  blindness,  but  the  physical  | 
repose  to  which  he  was  consequently  condemned, 
Beomed  to  increase  his  intellectual  activity ;  and  ! 
to  the  very  last  days  of  his  life,  he  was  occupied  l 
with  those  abstruse  questions  of  biology  which  had  j 
influenced  his  whole  scientific  career.    Throughout  [ 
almost  all  his  writings,  we  find  him  endeavouring  to  ; 
c'staljlish  one  great  proposition — namely,  the  unity  \ 
of  the  organic  plan  of  the  animal  kingdom.  This 
was  the  point  on  which  he  and  Cuvier  mainly 
differ'^id,  and  on  which  there  were  very  warm  dis- 
cussions between  these  two  eminent  naturalists  in 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1830.    In  addition  to 
numerous  memoirs  in  various  scientific  periodicals, 
he  published  various  works,  amongst  which  we  may 
mention  his  Pldlosophle  Anatomique  (2  vols.  1818 — 
1820),  which  contains  the  exposition  of  his  theory  ; 
Principes  de  la  Philosophie  ZooUxjique  (1830),  which 
gives  a  synopsis  of  his  discussions  with  Cuvier ; 
Etudes  Progressives  d^ an  NaturaliHte  (1835);  Notions 
de  Philosophie  Naturelle  (1838)  ;  and  (in  conjunc- 
tion with  Frederic  Cuvier),  Hisloire  Naturelle  des 
Mammiferes  (3  vols,  folio,  1820—1842).   His  son  has  ' 

f)ublished  an  excellent  history  of  his  life  and 
abours,  under  the  title,  Vie,  Travaux,  et  Doctrine 
Sclentl/ique  d''E.  Geoffroy  Saint- II ilalre  (1848),  to 
which,  as  well  as  to  UEtoge  Illstorique  de  Geoffroy 
Saint- II lla ire  hy  Flourens,  we  are  indebted  for  many 
■  of  the  details  contained  in  this  sketch.  We  may 
ftlso  refer  to  a  very  able  sketch  of  the  life  axid 
doctrines  of  this  great  naturalist,  in  the  Appendix 
to  De  Quatrefages's  Rambles  of  a  Naturalist,  vol.  i. 
pp.  312—324. 

GEOFFROY  SAINT -HILAIRE,  Isidore,  a 
French  physiologist  and  naturalist,  son  of  Etienne 
Geoffroy,  was  boi'n  in  Paris  in  1805,  and  died  in  that 
city  in  1861.  Educated  in  natural  history  by  his 
father,  he  became  assistant  naturalist  at  the  museum 
when  only  19  years  of  age,  and  in  1830  he  delivered  the 
zoological  lectures  in  that  institution  as  his  father's 
substitute.  The  science  of  Teratology  (q.  v.),  or  of 
the  laws  which  regulate  the  development  of  mon- 
strosities, which  had  occupied  much  of  his  father's 
attention,  was  taken  up  with  great  zeal  by  the  son, 
and  in  1832  he  published  the  first  volume  of  his 
Ilistolre  Generale  et  Par-ticuliere  des  Anomalies  de 
I' Organisation  chez  1' Homme  et  les  Anlmaux,  ou  Traite 
de  Terafologie,  the  third  and  concluding  volimie  of 
which  did  not  appear  till  1837.  This  work  is  of 
extreme  vakie,  and  will  always  serve  as  the  starting- 
point  for  those  who  may  occupy  themselves  with 
this  important  branch  of  biological  investigation. 
Having  for  a  long  time  the  superintendence  of  the 
menagerie  of  the  museum,  he  was  led  to  study  the 
domestication  of  foreign  animals  in  France ;  and  the 
results  of  these  investigations  may  be  found  in  his 
.Domestication  et  Naturalisation  des  Animaux  Utiles 
(1854),  and  especially  in  the  Soclete  pour  V Accllmata- 
lion  des  Animaux  U tiles,  of  which  he  was  the  founder. 
In  1852,  he  published  the  first  volume  of  a  great 
work  entitled,  Hktoire  Generale  des  Pegnes  Orga- 
niques,  in  which  he  intended  to  develop  the  doc- 
trines iianded  dov/n  to  liim  by  his  father,  but  which 
is  left  in  an  unfinished  state  by  his  premature  death. 
He  was  a  strong  advocate  of  the  use  of  horse-flesh 
as  human  food,  and  published  his  Lettres  sur  les 
SubHtances  Allnientaires,  et  parUculierement  sur  la 
690 


Viande  de  Clieval  (1856),  with  the  view  of  bringing 
his  views  on  the  subject  before  the  general  public. 

GEO'GNOSY  {ge,  the  earth ;  gnosis,  knowledge) 
is  a  term  now  little  used  by  British  writers,  but  still 
employed  in  Germany  as  a  synonym  of  geology,  or, 
more  properly,  as  restricted  to  the  observed  facts  of 
geology,  apart  from  reasonings  or  theories  built  upon 
them.  The  geognost  examines  the  nature  and 
position  of  the  rocks  of  a  country,  without  group- 
ing them  together  in  the  order  of  succession.  Of 
necessity,  geognosy  prtceded  geology  ;  it  was  indeed 
geology  in  its  early  empirical  condition,  when  it 
consisted  merely  of  a  record  of  observed  facts  ;  but 
as  soon  as  these  assumed  a  scientific  form,  and  were 
arranged  into  a  system,  then  geognosy  disappeared  ; 
for  even  in  the  examination  of  new  and  unexplored 
territories,  the  data  supplied  by  the  science  of 
geology  enable  us  to  refer  the  strata  v/ith  certainty 
to  their  true  chronological  position. 

The  word  has  also  been  employed  to  designate 
that  department  of  geology  which  treats  of  the 
physical  characteristics  of  rocks  ;  that  is,  of  their 
chemical  composition,  internal  structure,  planes  of 
division,  position  and  other  properties,  and  i)ecu- 
liarities  belonging  to  them  simply  as  rocks. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF 
ANIMALS.  Each  great  geographical  or  climatal 
region  of  the  globe  is  occupied  by  some  species  of 
animals  not  found  elsewhere.  Thus,  the  ornitho- 
rhynchus  belongs  exclusively  to  New  Holland  ;  the 
sloth,  to  America ;  the  hippopotamus  and  camelo- 
pard,  to  Africa ;  and  the  reindeer  and  walrus, 
to  the  arctic  regions  ;  and  each  of  these  animals, 
when  left  in  its  natural  freedom,  dwells  within 
certain  limits,  to  which  it  always  tends  to  return,  if 
removed  by  accident  or  design.  A  group  of  animals 
inhabiting  any  i)articidar  region,  and  embracing  all 
its  species,  both  aquatic  and  terrestrial,  is  called 
its  Fauna  (q.  v.),  just  as  the  collective  plants  of  a 
country  are  termed  its  Flora.  There  is  a  close 
and  obvious  connection  between  the  fauna  of  any 
place  and  its  temperature,  although  countries  with 
similar  climates  are  not  always  inhabited  by  similar 
animals  ;  and  the  soil  and  vegetation  are  likewise 
important  factors  in  determining  the  characters  of. 
any  special  fauna. 

The  influence  of  climate  is  well  seen  in  the  distri- 
bution of  animals  in  the  arctic  regions.  The  same 
animals  inhabit  the  northern  polar  regions  of  Euroi)e, 
Asia,  and  America.  Thus,  for  example,  the  polar 
bear,  whales,  seals,  and  numerous  birds,  are  conunon 
to  the  northern  regions  of  these  three  continents. 
In  the  temperate  regions,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
ty|:)es  remain  the  same,  but  they  are  represented  by 
ditferent  species,  which  still,  nowever,  retain  the 
same  general  features.  These  general  resemblances 
often  led  our  early  American  colonists  erroneously 
to  apply  the  names  of  European  species  to  the 
similar,  but  not  identical  animals  of  the  New  World. 
Similar  difl^rences  occur  in  distant  regions  of  the 
same  continent,  v/ithin  the  same  parallel  of  latituda 
Thus,  as  Professor  Agassiz  has  remarked,  th-a 
animals  of  Oregon  and  of  California  are  not  the 
same  as  those  of  New  England  ;  and  the  difference, 
in  some  respects,  is  even  greater  than  between  the 
animals  of  New  England  and  Europe  ;  and  similarly, 
the  animals  of  temperate  Asia  difi'er  more  from 
those  of  Europe,  with  which  they  are  continuous, 
than  they  do  from  those  of  America,  from  which 
they  are  separated  by  a  large  surface  of  ocean. 

Under  the  torrid  zone,  we  not  only  find  animals 
different  from  those  occurring  in  temperate  regions, 
but  we  likewise  meet  with  a  fauna  which  presents 
the  greatest  variety  amongst  the  individuals  which 
constitute  it.     '  The  most  gracefully  proportioned 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTKIBUTION  UF  ANIMALS. 


forms,'  says  Agassiz,  *  are  found  by  the  side  of  the 
most  grotesque,  decked  with  every  combination  of 
brilliant  colouring.  At  the  same  time,  the  contrast 
between  the  animals  of  different  continents  is  more 
marked  ;  and  in  many  respects,  the  animals  of 
the  different  tropical  faunas  differ  not  less  from 
each  other  than  from  those  of  the  t(imperate  or 
frozen  zones  ;  thus,  the  fauna  of  Brazil  varies  as 
much  from  that  of  Central  Afiica  as  from  that 
of  the  Southern  United  States.  This  diversity  in 
different  continents  cannot  depend  simply  upon  any 
iuflaence  of  the  climate  of  the  tropics ;  if  it  were 
so,  uniformity  ought  to  be  restored  in  proportion  as 
we  recede  from  the  tropics  towards  the  antarctic 
temperate  region.  But  instead  of  this,  the  differ- 
ences continue  to  increase — so  much  so,  that  no 
faunas  are  more  in  contrast  than  those  of  Cape 
Horn,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  New  Holland. 
Hence,  other  influences  must  be  in  operation  besides 
those  of  climate,  &c. — influences  of  a  higher  order, 
which  are  involved  in  a  general  plan,  and  intimately 
associated  with  the  development  of  life  on  the 
surface  of  the  earth.'  If  space  permitted,  we  might 
point  out  the  influence  of  the  natural  features  of 
the  earth's  surface  in  limiting  and  separating  faunas. 
A  mountain  chain  or  a  desert  may  act  as  effectually 
as  the  depths  of  ocean  in  separating  one  fauna  from 
another.  When  no  such  obstacles  exist,  one  fauna 
gradually  merges  into  another,  without  any  definite 
line  of  demarcation. 

The  powers  of  locomotion  possessed  by  different 
animals  have  not— as  we  might  have  supposed — 
any  apparent  influence  on  the  extent  of  country 
o\er  which  they  range.  On  the  contrary,  animals 
whose  locomotive  powers  are  extremely  small,  as, 
for  example,  the  common  oyster,  have  a  far  greater 
range  than  some  of  our  fleet  animals,  such  as  the 
moose. 

'  The  nature  of  their  food  has  an  important 
bean'ng  upon  the  grouping  of  animals,  and  upon  the 
extent  of  their  distribution.  Cariuvorous  animals 
are  generally  less  confined  in  their  range  than 
herbivorous  ones,  because  their  food  is  almost  every- 
where to  be  found.  The  herbivora,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  restricted  to  the  more  limited  regions 
con'es])onding  to  the  different  zones  of  vegetation.' 
Similarly,  birds  of  prey,  like  the  eagle  and  vulture, 
have  a  much  wider  range  than  the  granivorous  and 
gallinaceous  birds ;  but  even  the  l)irds  that  wander 
fui-thest,  have  their  definite  limits  ;  for  example, 
the  condor  of  the  Cordilleras,  although,  from  the 
extreme  heights  at  which  he  is  often  seen,  he  can- 
not fear  a  low  temperature,  is  never  found  in  the 
temperate  region  of  the  United  States. 

A  very  influential  factor  is  the  distribution  of 
aquatic  animals  in  the  depths  of  water.  The  late 
Professor  Forbes  distinctly  shewed  that  we  may 
recognise  distinct  famias  in  zones  of  different  depth, 
I'ust  as  we  mark  different  zones  of  animal  and 
vegetable  life  in  ascending  lofty  mountains.  The 
zoojthytes,  molluscs,  and  even  fishes,  found  near  the 
shore  in  shallow  water,  usually  differ  very  materially 
from  those  living  at  the  depth  of  20  or  30  feet ;  and 
these,  again,  are  different  from  those  which  are 
met  with  at  a  greater  depth.  The  extreme  depth  at 
which  animal  life,  in  its  lower  forms,  ceases  to  exist, 
is  unknown  ;  late  researches  of  Dr  Wallich  and 
Alphonse  Milne  Edwards  shew,  however,  from 
the  evidence  of  deep-sea  soimdings,  and  of  pieces 
of  telegraph  wire  raised  from  great  depths,  that 
the  region  of  animal  life  extends  hathymetricalhj 
'to  use  Professor  Forbes' s  word)  further  than  was 
anticipated. 

Before  concluding  these  general  remarks,  we  must 
observe  that  occasionally  one  or  more  animals  are 
found  in  one  very  hmited  spot,  and  nowhere  else ;  as, 


!  for  example,  the  chamois  and  the  ibex  upon  the  Alps. 

(On  this  point,  the  reader  should  consult  Darmn'tS 
\  Joivrmd  of  Researches,  &c.,  in  which  it  is  shewn  that 
i  the  Galajiagos  Archipelago,  consisting  of  a  small 
group  of  islands  situated  under  the  equator,  and 
j  between  500  and  600  miles  westward  of  the  coast  of 
I  America,  not  only  contain  numerous  animals  and 
plants  that  are  found  in  no  other  part  of  the 
I  world,  but  that  many  of  the  species  are  exclusively 
I  confined  to  a  single  island.) 

All  the  faunas  of  the  globe  may  be  divided  into 
:  throe  great  groups,  corresponding  to  the  three  great 
;  climatal  divisions — viz.,  the  Arctic  or  Glacial,  the 
i  Temperate,  and  the  Tropical  Favmas,  while  the  two 
j  last-named  faunas   may  be    again    divided  into 
;  several  zoological  provinces.    Each  of  these  primary 
I  divisions  demands  a  separate  notice, 
j     Arctic  Fauna. — The  limits  of  this  fauna  are  eisily 
I  fixed,  as  we  include  within  them  all  animals  li^nng 
I  beyond  the  line  where  forests  cease,  and  are  suc- 
!  ceeded  by  vast  arid  plains,  known  as  barren  lands, 
j  or  tundras.     Though  the  air-breathing  species  are 
not  numerous  here,  the  large  number  of  individuals 
I  compensates  for  this  deficiency,  and  among  the 
I  marine  animals  we  find  an  astonishing  profusion 
and  variety  of  forms.    The  larger  mammals  which 
inhabit  this  zone  are  the  white  bear,  the  walrus, 
j  numerous  species  of  seal,  the  reindeer,  the  musk-ox, 
I  the  narwal,  the  cachalot,  and  whales  in  abundance. 
Among  the  smaller  species,  we  may  mention  the 
I  white  fox,  the  polar  hare,  and  the  lemming.  Some 
marine  eagles  and  a  few  wading  birds  are  found ; 
but  the  aquatic  birds  of  the  family  of  Palmipedes 
(the  web-footed  birds),  such  as  the  gannets,  cor- 
moramts,  penguins,  petrels,  ducks,  geese,  mergansers, 
and  gulls,  abound  iji  almost  incredible  profusion. 
No  reptile  is  known  in  this  zone.    Fishes  are  very 
numerous,  and  the  rivers  especially  swarm  v/itli  a 
variety  of  species  of  the  salmon  family.    The  Arti- 
culata  are  represented  by  numerous  marine  worms, 
and  by  minute  crustaceans  of  the  orders  Isopoda 
and  Amph'ipoda ;  insects  are  rare,  and  of  inferior 
types  (only  six  species  of  insects  were  observed  in 
Melville  Island  during  Parry's  residence  of  eleven 
months  there).    Only  the  lowest  forms  of  mollusca 
are  found,  viz.,  Tunlcata  and  Acejjhala,  with  a  few 
GaHteropoda,  and  still  fewer  Cephalopoda.  The 
Badiata  are  represented  by  nimierous  jelly-fishes 
(especially  the  beroe),  by  several  star-fishes  and 
vichini,  and  by  very  few  polypes. 

With  this  fauna  is  associated  a  peculiar  race  of 
men,  known  in  America  imder  the  name  of  Esqui- 
maux (q.  v.),  and  in  the  Old  World  under  the  names 
of  Laps,  Samoyedes,  and  Tchuktsches.  '  This  race,' 
says  Agassiz,  '  differs  alike  from  the  Indians  of 
North  America,  from  the  whites  of  Europe,  and 
the  Mongols  of  Asia,  to  whom  they  are  adjacent. 
The  uniformity  of  their  characters  along  the  whole 
range  of  the  arctic  seas,  forms  one  of  the  most 
striking  resemblances  which  these  people  exhibit  to 
the  fauna  with  which  they  are  so  closely  connected,' 
Temperate  Faunas. — To  the  glacial  zone,  which 
encloses  a  single  fauna,  succeeds  the  temperate  z  ue, 
included  between  the  isothermes  (or  lines  of  e  jual 
mean  temperature)  of  32°  and  74°,  characterise*  I  by 
its  pine-forests,  its  maples,  its  walnuts,  and  its  fruit- 
trees,  and  inhabited  by  the  terrestrial  bear,  the 
wolf,  the  fox,  the  weasel,  the  marten,  the  otter, 
the  lynx,  the  horse  and  ass,  the  boar,  numeroua 
genera  and  species  of  deer,  goats,  sheep,  oxen,  hares, 
squirrels,  rats,  &c. ;  and  southwards  by  a  few 
representatives  of  the  tropical  zone.  Considering 
the  whole  range  of  the  temperate  zone  from  east 
to  west,  Ar;assiz  diWdes  it,  in  accordance  vdih. 
the  prevailing  physical  features,  into — 1st,  the 
Asiatic  realm,  embracing  Mantchuria,  Japan,  China, 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DTSTEIBUTION  OF  ANIMALS. 


Mongolia,  and  passing  through  Turkestan  into,  2(1, 
the  Euroijean  realm,  which  includes  Iran,  Asia  Minor, 
Mesopotamia,  Northern  Arabia,  and  Barbary,  as  well 
as  Europe  properly  so  called  ;  the  western  parts  of 
Asia  and  the  northern  parts  of  Africa  being  intimately 
connected,  by  their  geological  structure,  with  the 
southern  part  of  Europe  ;  and  3d,  the  North  American 
realm,  which  extends  as  far  south  as  the  table-land  of 
Mexico. 

The  temperate  zone  is  not  characterised,  like  the 
arctic,  by  one  and  the  same  fauna.  Not  only  are  the 
audmals  different  in  the  eastern  and  western  hemi- 
spheres, but  there  are  differences  in  the  various 
regions  of  the  same  hemisphere  :  as  we  before 
remarked,  the  species  resemble,  but  are  not  identical 
with  one  another.  Thus,  in  Europe,  we  have  the 
brown  bear;  in  North  America,  the  black  bear;  and 
in  Asia,  the  bear  of  Tibet ;  the  common  stag  or 
red  deer  of  Europe  is  represented  i  i  North  America 
by  the  Canadian  stag  or  wapiti  and  the  American 
deer,  and  in  Eastern  Asia  by  the  musk-deer ;  the 
North  American  buffalo  is  represented  in  Europe  by 
the  wild  aurochs  of  Lithuania,  and  in  Mongolia  by 
the  yak ;  and  numerous  other  examples  might  readily 
be  given. 

The  marked  changes  of  temperature  between  the 
different  seasons  occasion  migrations  of  animals 
more  in  this  zone  than  any  other,  and  this  point 
must  not  be  overlooked  by  the  naturalist  in  deter- 
mining the  fauna  of  a  locality  within  it.  Many  of 
the  birds  of  Northern  Europe  and  America,  in  their 
instinctive  search  for  a  wanner  winter  climate, 
proceed  as  far  southward  as  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  See 
Migrations  of  Animals. 

Amongst  the  most  characteristic  of  the  animals  of 
the  A  siatic  realm,  we  may  mention  the  bear  of  Tibet, 
the  musk-deer,  the  tzeiran  [Antilope  (jutturosn),  the 
Mongolian  goat,  the  argali,  the  yak,  the  Bactrian  or 
double-hunched  camel,  the  wild  horse,  the  wild  ass, 
and  another  equine  species,  the  dtschigetai  [Eqvus 
Jieviionns).  The  nations  of  men  inhabiting  these 
realms  all  belong  to  the  so-called  Mongolicin  race. 

That  the  European  is  a  distinct  zoological  realm, 
seems  to  be  established,  says  Agassiz,  'by  the  range 
of  its  mammalia,  and  by  the  limits  of  the  migrations 
of  its  birds,  as  well  as  by  the  physical  features  of  its 
whole  extent.  Thus  we  find  its  deer  or  stag,  its 
bear,  its  hare,  its  squirrel,  its  wolf  and  wild  cat,  its 
fox  and  jackal,  its  otter,  its  weasel  and  marten,  its 
badger,  its  bear,  its  mole,  its  hedgehogs,  its  bats,  &c. 
Like  the  eastern  realm,  the  European  world  may  be 
subdivided  into  a  num.ber  of  distinct  faunas,  charac- 
terised each  by  a  variety  of  peculiar  animals.  In 
Western  Asia,  we  find,  for  instance,  the  common 
cainel  instead  of  the  Bactrian  ;  whilst  Mount  Sinai, 
M(»unts  Taurus  and  Caucasus,  have  goats  and  wild 
sh(  ep  which  differ  as  much  from  those  of  Asia  as 
from  those  of  Greece,  the  Alj)S,  the  Atlas,  or  of 
Egypt.'  There  is  no  reason  for  our  referring,  as  many 
writers  have  done,  our  chief  domesticated  animals 
to  an  Asiatic  origin.  A  wild  horse,  different  in 
species  from  the  Asiatic  breeds,  once  inhabited 
Spain  and  Germany,  and  a  wild  bull  existed  over 
the  whole  range  of  Central  Europe.  The  domesti- 
cated cat,  whether  we  trace  it  to  Felis  maniculata  of 
Egypt  or  to  Ftlls  catus  (the  wild  cat)  of  Central 
Europe,  belongs  to  this  realm ;  and  whatever  theory 
be  adopted  regarding  the  origin  of  the  dog,  the 
European  realm  forms  its  natural  range.  The  merino 
sheep  is  stdl  represented  in  the  wald  state  by  the 
moufion  of  Sardinia,  and  formerly  ranged  over  all 
the  mountains  in  Spain.  The  hog  is  descended  from 
the  common  boar,  still  found  wild  over  most  of  the 
temperate  zone  of  the  Old  World.  Ducks,  geese, 
and  pigeons  Lave  their  wild  representatives  in 


Europe.  The  common  fowl  and  the  turkey  are,  on 
the  other  hand,  not  indigenous,  the  former  being  o( 
East  Asiatic,  and  the  latter  of  American  origin.  The 
reader  will  observe  that  the  European  zoological 
realm  is  circumscribed  within  exactly  the  same 
limits  as  the  so-called  white  race  of  man. 

The  Amc7-ican  realm  contains  many  animals  not 
found  in  Euroi)e  or  Asia,  amongst  which  we  may 
mention  the  opossum ;  several  species  of  insec- 
tivora,  as,  for  example,  the  shrew-mole  {Scalops 
aquatiais)  and  the  star-nosed  mole  {Condylura 
cristata),  several  species  of  rodents  (especially  the 
musk-rat),  the  Canadian  elk,  &c.,  in  the  northern 
portion;  and  the  prairie-wolf,  the  fox-squirrel,  &c., 
in  the  southern  portion  of  the  fauna.  Amongst 
other  tj'p'^s  characteristic  of  this  zone  must  be 
reckoned  the  snapping- turtle  among  the  tortoises; 
the  Menobranchus  and  Menopoma  among  the  sala- 
manders ;  and  the  rattlesnake  among  the  serpents ; 
and  the  Lopidosteus  and  the  Amia,  important  repre- 
sentatives of  two  almost  extinct  families,  among  the 
fishes. 

The  faunas  of  the  southern  temperate  region  differ 
from  one  another  more;  than  those  of  the  correspond- 
ing northern  region.  *  Each  of  the  three  continental 
peninsidas  jutting  out  southerly  into  the  ocean 
represents,  in  some  sense,  a  separate  world.  The 
animals  of  South  America  beyond  the  troi)ic  of 
Capricorn  are  in  all  respects  different  from  those  at 
the  southern  extremity  of  Africa.  The  hyenas, 
wdld  boars,  and  rhinoceroses  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  have  no  analogies  on  the  American  continent ; 
and  the  difference  is  equally  great  between  the 
birds,  reptiles,  fishes,  insects,  and  molluscs.  New 
Holland,  with  its  marsiipial  mammals,  with  which 
are  associated  insects  and  molluscs  no  less  singidar, 
furnishes  a  fauna  still  more  pecidiar,  and  which 
has  no  similarity  to  those  of  any  of  the  adjacent 
countries.  In  tlie  seas  of  that  continent,  we  find 
the  curious  shark,  with.  j)aved  teeth  and  spines  on 
the  back  [Cestracion  Philippii),  the  only  living 
representative  of  a  family  so  numerous  in  former 
zoological  ages.' 

Tropical  Faunas  are  distinguished  in  all  the 
continents  by  the  immense  variety  of  animals  which 
they  contain,  and  in  many  cases  by  the  brilliancy  of 
their  colour.  Not  only  are  all  the  principal  types 
of  animals  represented,  but  genera,  species,  and 
indiWduals  occur  in  abundant  profusion.  The 
tropical  is  the  region  of  the  apes  and  monkeys  (which 
seem  to  be  naturally  associated  with  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  palms,  which  furnish  to  a  great  extent 
the  food  of  the  monkeys  on  both  continents),  of 
herbivorous  bats,  of  the  gi-eat  pachyderms,  such  as 
the  elephant,  the  hippopotamus,  and  the  tapir,  and 
of  the  whole  family  of  edentata.  Here,  too,  are  the 
largest  of  the  cats,  the  lion  and  the  tiger.  Among 
birds,  the  parrots  and  toucans  are  essentially 
tropical ;  amongst  the  reptiles,  the  largest  serpents, 
crocodiles,  and  tortoises  belong  to  this  zone,  as 
also  do  the  most  gorgeous  insects.  The  marine 
fauna  is  also  superior  in  beauty,  size,  and  number 
to  those  of  other  regions.  The  tropical  fauna  of 
each  continent  furnishes  new  and  peculiar  forms. 
Sometimes  whole  types  are  restricted  to  one  con- 
tinent, as  the  sloths,  the  toucans,  and  the  humming- 
birds to  America ;  the  gibbons,  the  red  orang, 
the  royal  tiger,  and  numerous  peculiar  birds  to 
Asia  ;  and  the  giraffe  and  hippopotamus  to  Africa : 
while  sometimes  animals  of  the  same  group  present 
different  characteristics  on  different  continents. 
Thus,  for  example,  the  American  monkeys  have  flat 
and  widely  separated  nostrils,  thirty-six  teeth,  and 
generally  a  long  prehensile  tail ;  while  the  monkeys 
of  the  Old  World  have  their  nostrils  close  together, 
only  thii-ty-two  teeth,  and  non-prehensile  tails. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  PLANTS. 


The  island  of  Madagascar  has  its  pecidiar  fauna. 
A  large  numl)er  of  species  of  quadrumana,  cheir- 
optera, insectivora,  &c.,  are  found  only  in  this 
ishxnd ;  and  of  112  species  of  birds  that  have  been 
desci-ibed,  65,  or  more  than  half,  are  found  nowhere 
else.  We  have  already  referred  to  the  still  more 
exclusive  fauna  of  the  Galapagos  Islands,  which  has 
been  specially  studied  by  Darwin. 

From  a  general  survey  of  such  facts  as  we  have 
given  m  a  very  condensed  form  in  the  preceding 
columns,  Agassiz  draws  the  following  conclusions  : 

1.  £ach  grand  division  of  the  globe  has  animals 
■which  are  either  wholly  or  for  the  most  part  pecidiar 
to  it. 

2.  The  diversity  of  faunas  is  not  in  proportion  to 
^he  distance  that  separates  them.  Very  similar 
faunas  are  found  at  great  distances  apart,  while  very 
different  faunas  are  found  at  comj)aratively  short 
distances. 

3.  There  is  a  direct  relation  between  the  richness 
of  a  fauna  and  the  climate,  and  likewise  between 
the  fauna  and  the  flora  ;  the  limit  of  the  former 
being  oftentimes  determined,  so  far  as  terrestrial 
animals  are  concerned,  by  the  extent  of  the  latter. 

4.  The  distribution  of  animals  cannot  (any  more 
than  their  organisation)  be  the  effect  of  external 
influences,  but  is  the  realisation  of  a  wisely  designed 
plan,  by  which  each  species  of  animal  was  originally 
created  at  the  place  and  for  the  -place  which  it 
inhabits.  The  only  way  to  account  philosophically 
for  the  distribution  of  animals  as  we  now  find  them, 
is  to  regard  them  as  autochthonoi — that  is  to  say,  as 
originating  on  the  soil  where  they  exist.  There  is 
not  a  single  fact  in  favour  of,  indeed,  all  scientific 
observations  are  in  direct  opposition  to  the  view, 
that  the  whole  animal  world  was  created  in  one 
single  centre. 

For  further  details  on  this  subject,  we  may  refer 
to  the  various  works  of  Agassiz,  of  which  we  have 
made  free  use  in  the  comi>iiation  of  this  article  ;  to 
Vogt's  Zoologlsche  Briefe,  vol.  ii. ;  Mrs  Somerville's 
Physical  Geograpliy,  vol.  ii. ;  Maury's  La  Terre 
et  V Homme;  Kloden's  Handhuch  der  Phijsischen 
Geographic ;  and  especially  to  Schmarda's  Die  Oeo- 
graphische  Verbreitung  der  Theiere  ;  also,  Murray's 
Gcograjjhical  Distribution  of  the  Mammalia. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF 
PLANTS,  also  called  Geogkaphtcal  Botany,  and 
PhytoCxEOGRAPhy,  is  that  branch  of  botany  which 
treats  of  the  geographic  distribution  of  plants,  and 
connects  botany  with  physical  geography.  A  know- 
ledge of  facts  belonging  to  it  has  been  gradually 
accumvdating  ever  since  the  science  of  botany 
began  to  be  studied,  but  its  importance  was  little 
understood  until  very  recent  times.  Humboldt  may 
be  said  to  have  elevated  it  to  the  rank  which  it 
now  holds  as  a  distinct  branch  of  science.  It  was 
indeed  imjjossible  for  botany  to  be  studied  without 
attention  being  arrested  by  the  great  diversity  of 
the  productions  of  different  coimtries,  and  even  of 
those  not  very  dissimilar  in  climate.  But  it  was 
long  ere  important  generalisations  were  attempted  ; 
and  a  large  accumulation  of  particular  facts  was  in 
the  first  place  necessary.  Even  to  this  day,  the 
deficiency  of  information  concerning  the  botany  of 
wide  regions  is  painfully  felt. 

Every  climate  has  plants  particularly  adapted  to 
It.  The  i)lants  of  the  tropics  will  not  grow  in  frigid, 
nor  generally  even  in  temperate  regions  ;  as  little 
will  arctic  or  subarctic  plants  endure  the  heat  of  the 
torrid  zone.  And  as  the  climate  changes  with  the 
elevation  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  the  mountains 
of  troi)ical  countries  have  a  flora  analogous  to  that 
of  the  temperate,  and  even  of  the  frigid  zones. 
The  vegetation  of  every  place  bears  a  relation  to 
ta  mean  annual  temperature.    But  owing  to  the 


pecidiarities  of  different  plants,  it  bears  also  im- 
portant relations  to  the  mean  temperatures  of  the 
summer  and  winter  months;  and  thus  great  diver- 
sities are  found  not  oidy  in  the  indigenous  vege- 
tation of  countries  very  similar  in  their  mean 
annual  temperature,  but  even  in  their  suital>ie- 
ness  for  plants  which  may  be  introduced  into  them 
by  man.  Nor  is  temperature  the  only  thing  of 
importance  in  the  relations  of  climate  to  vegeta- 
tion. Moisture  must  be  ranked  next  to  it.  Some 
plants  flourish  only  in  a  dry,  and  some  only  in  u 
humid  atmosi)lierc.  The  flora  of  the  very  dry  r-^ona 
of  Africa  and  of  Australia  is  almost  as  notal.'ly 
different  from  that  of  moist  countries  in  similar 
latitudes,  as  that  of  the  temperate  from  that  of  tho 
torrid  zone.  Nor  is  the  difference  merely  in  the 
species  of  plants  produced,  but  in  the  whole  char- 
acter of  the  vegetation,  which  very  much  cousista 
either  of  succulent  plants  with  thick  ei)idermis,  or 
of  plants  with  hard  and  dry  foliage. 

Much  depends  also  on  soil.  Sandy  soils  have 
their  peculiar  vegetation  ;  peat  is  also  favourable  to 
the  growth  of  many  plants  which  are  seldom  oi 
never  to  be  found  in  any  other  soil  The  chemical 
constitution  of  soils  determines  to  some  extent  the 
character  of  their  flora  ;  and  therefore  certain  plants 
are  almost  exclusively  to  be  found  in  districts  where 
certain  rocks  prevail,  and  a  relation  is  established 
between  botany  and  geology.  Limestone  districts, 
for  example,  have  a  flora  differing  to  a  certain  extent 
from  other  districts  even  of  the  same  vicinity.  Some 
British  plants  are  almost  entirely  limited  to  the 
chalk  districts.  The  other  physical  qualities  of  the 
sod  are  not  unimportant.  Light  soils  are  suitable  to 
plants  with  fine  roots  divided  into  many  delicate 
fibrils,  as  heaths,  which  will  scarcely  grow  in  stiff 
clay. 

Some  groujis  of  j^lants  are  almost  entirely  limited 
to  peculiar  situations,  as  the  Algoe  and  other  smaller 
gi-ouj)s  of  a/juatic  plants.  Some  are  exclusively 
tropical ;  others  are  only  found  in  the  colder  parts 
of  the  world ;  and  if  any  of  the  group  occur  within 
the  tropics,  it  is  on  mountains  of  considerable  eleva- 
tion. But  besides  all  this,  and  apart  from  all  obvious 
difierences  of  climate,  soil,  &c.,  some  groups  of 
plants,  and  these  often  containing  many  species,  are 
only  or  chiefly  found  in  certain  parts  of  the  world. 
Thus  the  Cactaceoi  are  exclusively  American ;  whilst 
of  the  numerous  species  of  Heath  [Erica],  not  one  is 
indigenous  to  America,  although  many  other  plants 
of  the  Heath  family  (Ericece)  are  so.  Sometimes 
the  plants  which  chiefly  abound  in  one  part  of  the 
v/orld  seem  to  be  replaced  by  other  but  similar 
species,  sometimes  by  those  of  another  group,  in 
another  part  of  the  world,  with  similar  physical 
characteristics.  Thus  Meseinbryaceoi  and  Crassu/acece 
seem  in  some  coimtries  to  occupy  the  place  of  the 
American  Cactacece,  whilst  the  black-fruited  Crow- 
berry  [Empeti-um]  of  the  northern  parts  of  the  world 
finds  a  representative  in  a  red-fruited  species, 
extremely  similar,  in  the  southern  parts  of  South 
America,  Of  many  groiips  which  chiefly  belong  to 
certain  climates  or  certain  parts  of  the  world,  there 
are  yet  species  which  wander,  as  it  were,  into  very 
difl'erent  climates  or  remote  parts  of  the  wc}  Id ; 
these  species  being  often,  however,  unknown  where 
the  other  species  of  the  group  abound.  Thus  the 
common  periwinkle  is  a  northern  wanderer  of  a 
family  mostly  tropical.  Some  groups  are  common  to 
parts  of  the  world  widely  remote,  and  their  pre- 
valence  is  characteristic  of  these  parts,  as  Rhodo- 
dendrons and  MagnoliacecB  of  North  America  and  of 
the  moimtainous  districts  of  the  East  Indies,  although 
the  American  and  the  Asiatic  species  are  not  the 
same.  Some  species  are  believed  to  exist  only 
within  a  very  narrow  range ;  others  are  very  widely 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  PLANTS— GEOGRAPHY. 


diffused.  A  few  are  found  in  the  colder  parts  both 
of  the  northern  and  southern  heniispheres,  and  also 
on  the  intervening  tropical  mountains.  Some  groups 
also,  containing  many  species,  arc  confined  to  i)articu- 
lar  regions,  as  the  important  Gincliotup.  to  a  district 
of  the  Andes,  and  the  Calceolarice  to  higher  parts  of 
the  same  mountain  chain.  Marine  vegetation,  like 
terrestrial  vegetation,  has  species  and  groups  that  are 
very  generally  diffused,  and  others  confined  to  par- 
ticuhir  regions. 

The  geographical  limits  of  species  have  no  doubt 
Ijecn  in  many  instances  unintentionally  modified 
by  man,  and  the  extent  of  this  modification  it  is 
e.itroniely  difficult  to  ascertain.  There  is  enough, 
h  ^wcver,  in  the  known  facts  of  botanical  geograi)hy, 
evidently  indei)endent  of  such  agency,  to  atFord 
fouadation  for  interesting  and  important  specula- 
tions, of  which  some  notice  will  be  taken  under  the 
head  Species. 

Many  of  the  principal  facts  of  botanical  geography 
will  be  found  stated  in  the  articles  Europe, 
Asia,  America,  and  Australia,  and  in  articles 
on  natural  orders  and  genera  of  plants.  Schouw 
and  Meyen  are  among  the  chief  authorities  on  this 
s\ibject ;  and  the  former  has  endeavoured  to  divide 
the  earth  into  25  botanical  regions,  characterised 
by  the  i)revalence  of  particidar  forms  of  vegetation. 
The  reader  will  find  much  information  on  botanical 
g«,ography,  collected  in  a  very  accessible  form,  in 
tl  e  Phjj.s^icul  A  tlas  of  Johnston  and  Berghaus. — Hen- 
frey's  Vegetation  of  Europe  (Van  Voorst,  London, 
1852)  may  be  consulted  with  advantage  ;  and  the 
Cyhek  B rUo.nnica,  and  Geography  of  British  Plants, 
of  Ml-  H.  C.  Watson,  treating  of  the  geograi)hic 
distribution  of  plants  in  the  British  Isles,  are 
unrivalled  among  works  of  its  kind. 

GEO'GRAPHY  (Gr.  ge,  the  earth,  graph-,  to 
write  or  describe)  is,  as  its  name  implies,  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  earth.  This  science  is  best  considered 
under  the  three  distinct  heads  of  Mafhematical  or 
Astronomical  Geography,  Physical  Geography,  and 
Political  Geography,  Avhich  all  admit  of  further 
subdivision  into  numerous  subsidiary  branches. 

Ma  thematical  or  Astronomical  Geography  describes 
the  earth  in  its  planetary  relations  as  a  memljcr 
of  the  solar  system,  influencing  and  influenced  by 
other  cosmical  bodies.  It  treats  of  the  figure,  mag- 
nitude, and  dtHisity  of  the  earth ;  its  motion,  and  the 
laws  by  which  that  motioai  is  governed ;  together 
-with  the  phenomena  of  the  movements  of  other 
cosmical  bodies,  on  which  depend  the  alternation  of 
day  and  night,  and  of  the  seasons  of  the  year,  and 
the  eclipses  and  occultations  of  the  sun,  moon,  and 
planets ;  it  determines  position,  and  estimates  dis- 
tances on  the  earth's  surface,  and  teaches  methods 
for  the  solution  of  astronomical  problems,  and  the 
construction  of  the  instruments  necessary  for  such 
operations,  together  with  the  modes  of  representing 
the  surface  of  the  earth  by  means  of  globes,  charts, 
and  maps.  The  numerous  subjects  comprised  in 
this  portion  of  geographical  science  will  be  found  in 
othei-  parts  of  the  present  work,  and  we  therefore 
refer  our  renders  for  further  particulars  to  the  several 
articles  in  which  they  are  more  fidly  treated,  as,  for 
instance.  Astronomy,  Latitude  and  Longitude, 
Mathematical  Instruments,  Observatories,  &c, 

Phi/sical  Geography,  as  the  name  indicates,  con- 
siders the  earth  in  its  relation  to  nature  and  natural 
or  physical  laws  only.  It  describes  the  earth,  air, 
and  water,  and  the  organised  beings,  whether  animal 
or  vegetable,  by  which  those  elements  are  occupied, 
and  considers  the  history,  extent,  mode,  and  causes 
of  the  distribution  of  these  beings.  This  may  be 
regarded  as  the  most  important  branch  of  geograph- 
ical science,  since  it  involves  the  consideration  and 
study  of  phenomena,  which  not  only  tend  to  further 


the  material  interests  of  man,  by  teaching  him  bow 
best  to  promote  the  development  of  the  products  of 
nature,  but  also  conduce  in  no  inconsiderable  degree 
to  general  intellectual  advance,  by  stimulating  the 
faculties  of  observation,  and  exercising  the  powera 
of  thought.  The  vast  sphere  of  inquiry  included 
in  physical  geography  necessarily  embraces  the  con- 
sideration of  all  the  natural  sciences  generally,  and 
we  can  here,  therefore,  merely  refer  our  readers  for 
more  special  infonnation  regarding  the  details  of 
the  subject  to  such  articles  as  Climate,  Heat, 
Lakes,  Rivers,  Mountains,  Ocean,  Winds,  Rain, 
Clouds  ;  Ethnology,  Geograpkical  Distribution 
OF  Ani>la.ls  and  Plants,  &c. 

Political  Geography  has  been  well  defined  aa 
'  including  all  those  facts  which  are  the  immediate 
consequences  of  the  operations  of  man,  exercised 
either  on  the  raw  materials. of  the  earth,  or  on  the 
means  of  his  intercourse  with  his  fellow-creaturcs.* 
Thus  considered,  it  embraces,  primarily,  the  descr  ip- 
tion of  the  ])olitical  or  arbitrary  divisions  and  limits 
of  empires,  kingdoms,  and  states ;  and,  secondarily, 
that  of  the  laws,  modes  of  government,  and  social 
organisation  which  prevail  in  the  several  counti  jes. 
The  details  of  this  branch  of  geography  wiD  be 
found  under  the  names  of  countries,  cities,  &c., 
while  more  general  information  in  regard  to  the 
subject  must  be  sought  from  historical,  pohtical, 
and  statistical  sources. 

Before  proceeding  to  sketch  the  progress  and 
history  of  geograi)hical  discovery,  we  will  indicate  a 
few  of  the  leading  works  that  afford  the  best  aid 
in  studying  the  three  main  l)ranches  of  geograi)hy  to 
which  we  have  referred.  Thus,  for  instance,  in  Mathe- 
matical Geogra])hy,  we  would  specially  instance ; 
Manual  of  Geographical  Science  (Part  I.  Mathe- 
matical Geography,  by  Mr  O'Brien) ;  Herschel's  Out' 
lines  of  Astronom,y ;  KXoCicri! q Erdkunde  (Part  I.):  in 
Physical  Geogra])hy,  Hitter's  Erdkande ;  Kloden's  ; 
A.  Maury's  La  Terre  et  V  Homme  ;  Mrs  Somerville'a 
Physical  Geography;  Mr  F.  Maury's  Physical 
Geography  of  the  Sea,  &c. :  while  in  regard  to  Poli- 
tical Geography,  infonnation  may  be  sought  from 
the  great  works  of  Ritter,  Berghaus,  Stein,  Wappiius, 
and  Kloden,  and  from  the  ordinary  geographical 
manuals  and  maps. 

Geogrctphical  Discovery. — The  earliest  idea  formed 
of  the  earth  by  nations  in  a  primeval  condition 
seems  to  have  been  that  it  was  a  flat  circular  disc, 
surrounded  on  all  sides  by  water,  and  covered  by 
the  heavens  as  with  a  canopy,  in  the  centre  of  which 
their  own  land  was  supposed  to  be  situated.  The 
Phcenicians  were  the  first  people  who  communicated 
to  other  nations  a  knowledge  of  distant  lands ;  and 
although  little  is  known  as  to  the  exact  period  and 
extent  of  their  various  discoveries,  they  had,  before 
the  age  of  Homer,  navigated  all  parts  of  the  Euxine, 
and  penetrated  beyond  the  limits  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean into  the  Western  Ocean,  and  they  thus  form 
the  first  link  of  the  great  chain  of  discovery  which, 
2500  years  after  their  fomidation  of  the  cities  of 
TartessTis  and  Utica,  was  carried  by  Columbus  to 
the  remote  shores  of  America,  Besides  various 
settlements  nearer  home,  these  bold  adventurers  had 
founded  colonies  in  Asia  Minor  about  1200  E.C., 
and  a  century  later  they  laid  the  foundation  of 
Gades,  Utica,  and  several  other  cities,  which  was 
followed,  in  the  course  of  the  9th  c.  by  that  of 
Carthage,  from  whence  new  streams  of  colonisation 
continued  for  several  centuries  to  flow  to  hitherto 
unknown  parts  of  the  world.  The  Phcenicians, 
although  less  highly  gifted  than  the  Egyjitiang, 
rank  next  to  them  in  regard  to  the  influencp 
which  they  exerted  on  the  pro<^ress  of  human 
thought  and  civilization,  for  their  knowledge  ot 
mechanics,  their  early  use  of  weights  and  measures^ 


GEOGRAPHY. 


and  what  was  of  still  greater  importance,  their 
employniuut   of  an  alphabetical  form   of  writing,  ' 
facilitated   and  confirmed  commercial  intercourse 
amojig  their  own  numerous  colonies,  and  formed  a 
bond  of  union  which  speedily  embraced  all  the 
civilised  nations  of  Semitic  and  Hellenic  origin.  So 
rapid  was  the  advance  of  geograi»hical  knowledge  I 
between  the  age  of  the  Homeric  poems  (which  may  j 
be  regarded  as  representing  the  ideas  entertained  ' 
at  the  commencement  of  the  9th  c.  B.C.)  and  the  I 
time  of  Hesiod  (800  B.C.),  that  while  in  the  former  | 
the  earth  is  supposed  to  resemble  a  circular  shield,  ! 
suiTAu  ^dcd  by  a  rim  of  water,  spoken  of  as  the  ; 
parent  of  all  other  streams,  and  tRe  names  of  | 
Asia  and   Europe  ap])lied   only,  the  former  to  I 
the  up]>er  valley  of  the  Caister,  and  the  latter  to  | 
Greece  north  of  Peloponnesus,  Hesiod  mentions  [ 
parts  of  Italy,  Sicily,  Gaul,  and   Spain,  and  is 
.acquainted  with  the  Scythians,  and  with  the  Ethio-  1 
pians  of  Southern  Africa.    During  the  7th  c.  B.C.,  I 
certain  Phoenicians,  under  the  patronage  of  Neku  j 
or  Necho  II.  king  of  Egypt,  undertook  a  voyage  [ 
of  discovery,  and  are  supposed  to  have  circum- 
navigated Africa.     This  exi)edition  is  recorded  by  j 
Herodotus,  who  relates  that  it  entered  the  Southern 
Ocean  by  way  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  after  three 
years'  absence,  retm-ned  to  Egypt  by  the  Pillars  of 
Hercules.    The  fact  of  an  actual  circumnavigation 
of  the  African  continent  has  been  doubted,  but  the 
most  convincing  proof  of  its  reality  is  afforded  by 
the  observation  which  seemed  incredible  to  Herod- 
otus, viz.,  '  that  the  mariners  who  sailed  roiuid 
Libya  (from  east  to  west)  had  the  sun  on  their  right 
hand.'    The  7th  and  6th  centuries  b.  c.  were  memor- 
able for  the  great  advance  made  in  regard  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  form  and  extent  of  the  earth. 
Thales,  and  his  pupil  Anaximander,  reputed  to  have 
been  the  first  to  draw  maps,  exploded  many  errors, 
and  paved  the  way,  by  their  oljservatioiis,  for  the 
attainment  of  a  sounder  knowledge.     The  logo- 
grai)hers  contributed  at  this  period  to  the  same  end 
by  the  descriptions  which  they  gave  of  various 
parts  of  the  earth ;   of  these,  perhaps  the  most 
interesting  to  us  is  the  narrative  of  the  Carthaginian 
Himilco,  who  discovered  the  British  Islands,  includ- 
ing the  CEstrymnides,  which  he  described  as  being 
a  four  months'  voyage  from  Tartessus. 

With  Herodotus  of  Halicarnassus  (born  484  B.C.), 
who  may  be  regarded  as  the  father  of  geography  as 
well  as  of  history,  a  new  era  began  in  regard  to 
geographical  knowledge,  for  although  his  chief  object 
was  to  record  the  struggles  of  the  Greeks  and  { 
Persians,  he  has  so  minutely  descril^ed  the  countries 
w-hich  he  visited  in  his  extensive  travels  (which  ' 
covered  an  area  of  more  than  31°  or  1700  miles  from  j 
east  to  est,  and  24°  or  1 660  miles  from  north  to 
south),  that  his  History  gives  us  a  comjilete  represeu-  j 
tation  of  all  that  w^as  known  of  the  eartli's  surface 
in  his  age.  This  knowledge,  wliich  was  extremely 
Bcanty,  consisted  in  believing  that  the  world  was 
bounde  l  to  the  south  ])y  the  Eed  Sea  or  Indian 
Oceau,  and  to  the  west  by  the  Atlantic,  while  its 
eastK;m  boundaries,  although  admitted  to  be  un- 
.iefhied,  were  conjectured  to  be  nearly  identical  with 
the  limits  of  the  Persian  empire,  and  its  northern 
termination  somewhere  in  the  region  of  the  amber- 
»ands  of  the  Baltic,  whicli  had  been  visited  by 
Phoenician  mariners,  and  v^'ith  wL-oh  the  people  of 
Massilia  (the  modern  Marseille)  Kept  up  constant 
intercourse  by  w^ay  of  Gaul  and  Germany.  In  the 
next  century,  the  achievements  of  Alexander  the 
Great  tended  materially  to  enlarge  the  bounds  of  j 
human  knowledge,  for  while  he  carried  his  arms  to 
the  banks  of  the  Indus  and  Oxus,  and  extended  his 
conquests  to  Northern  and  Eastern  Asia,  he  at  the 
same  time  promoted  science,  by  sending  expeditions  i 


to  explore  and  survey  the  various  provinces  which 
he  subdued,  and  to  make  collections  of  all  that  was 
curious  in  regard  to  the  organic  and  inorganic  pro- 
ducts of  the  newly  visited  districts  ;  and  licnce  the 
victories  of  tlie  Macedonian  conqueror  formed  a  new 
era  in  ])hysical  inquixy  generally,  as  well  as  in 
geographical  discovery  S})ecially.  While  Alexander 
was  ojjening  the  East  to  the  knowledge  of  western 
nations,  Pytheas,  an  adventurous  navigator  of. 
Massilia,  conducted  an  expedition  past  Spain  and 
Gaul  through  the  Channel,  round  the  east  of  Eng- 
land into  the  Northern  Ocean,  where,  after  six  days' 
sailing,  he  reached  Thule  (conjectured  to  be  Iceland), 
and  returning,  passed  into  the  Baltic,  where  he  heard 
of  the  Teutones  and  Goths.  Discovery  was  thus  tieing 
extended  both  in  the  north  and  east  into  regions  whose 
very  existence  had  never  been  suspected,  or  which 
had  hitherto  been  regarded  as  mere  chaotic  wastes. 
An  important  advance  in  geograidiy  was  made  by 
Eratosthenes  (born  276  b.  c),  who  first  used  parallels 
of  longitude  and  latitude,  and  constructed  maps  on 
mathematical  i)rinciples.  Although  his  work  on 
geography  is  lost,  we  learn  from  Strabo  that  he 
considered  the  world  to  be  a  sphere  revolving  with 
its  surrounding  atmosphere  on  one  and  the  same 
axis,  and  having  one  centre.  He  believed  that  only 
about  one-eighth  of  the  earth's  surface  was  inhab- 
ited, while  the  extreme  points  of  his  habitaljle  world 
w^ere  Thule  in  the  north,  China  in  the  east,  the 
Cinnamon  Coast  of  Africa  in  the  south,  and  the 
Prom.  Sacrum  (Cape  St  Vincent)  in  the  west.  Dur- 
ing the  interval  between  the  ages  of  Eratosthenes 
and  Strabo  (born  66  B.  c),  many  voluminous  works 
on  geography  were  compiled,  which  have  been  either 
wholly  lost  to  us,  or  only  very  partially  pi-eserved 
in  the  records  of  later  writers.  Strabo's  great  work 
on  geography,  which  is  said  to  have  been  composed 
when  he  was  eighty  years  of  age,  has  been  con- 
sidered as  a  model  of  what  such  works  should  be  in 
regard  to  the  methods  of  treating  the  subject ;  but; 
while  his  descrij^tions  of  all  the  places  he  has  him- 
self visited  are  interesting  and  instructive,  he  seems 
unduly  to  have  discarded  the  authoi'ity  of  preceding 
writers. 

The  wars  and  conquests  of  the  Eomans  had  a 
most  important  bearing  upon  geography,  since  the 
practical  genius  of  tlie  Roman  people  led  them  to 
the  study  of  the  material  resources  of  every  province 
and  state  brought  under  their  sway,  and  the 
greatest  service  was  done  to  geographical  knowledge 
by  the  survey  of  the  empire,  which  was  begun  by 
Julius  Ciesar,  and  completed  by  Augustus.  This 
work  comprised  a  description  and  measurement  of 
every  province  by  the  most  celebrated  geometricians 
of  the  day.  Pliny  (l)orn  23  A.  d.),  who  had  travelled 
in  Spain,  Gaul,  Germany,  and  Africa,  has  left  us 
a  compendium  of  the  geographical  and  physical 
science  of  his  age  in  the  four  books  of  his  Histaria 
Naturalis  which  he  devotes  to  the  subject.  Ho 
collected  with  indefatigable  industry  the  information 
contained  in  the  works  of  Sallust,  Caesar,  Tacitus, 
and  others,  to  which  he  added  the  results  of  his 
own  observations,  without,  however,  discriminating 
between  fact  and  fiction.  The  progress  that  had 
been  made  since  Caesar's  time  in  geographical  know- 
ledge is  OAnnced  by  Pliny's  notice  of  arctic  regions 
and  of  the  Scandinavian  lands,  and  the  accounts 
which  he  gives  of  Mount  Atlas,  the  coiu'se  of  the 
Niger,  and  of  various  settlements  in  different  parts  of 
Africa ;  while  his  knowledge  of  Asia  is  more  correct 
than  that  of  his  predecessors,  for  he  correctlj'-  affirms 
that  Ceylon  is  an  island,  and  not  the  commencement 
of  a  new  continent,  as  had  been  generally  supposed. 
The  study  of  geography  in  ancient  times  may  be  said 
to  have  terminated  with  C.  Ptolem}^  who  tiourished 
in  the  middle  of  the  2d  c.  of  our  era.    His  work 

695 


GEOGRAPHY. 


on  Geography,  in  eight  books,  which  continued  to  be 
regarded  as  the  most  perfect  system  of  the  science 
through  the  dark  and  middle  ages  down  to  the  16th 
century,  gives  a  tolerably  correct  account  of  the  well- 
known  countries  of  the  world,  and  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Euxiue,  and  Caspian,  together  with  the 
rivers  v\  hich  fall  into  those  seas,  but  it  added  little 
to  the  knowledge  of  the  north  of  Europe,  or  the 
extreme  boundaries  of  Asia  or  Africa.  Yet,  from 
his  time  till  the  14th  c,  when  the  records  of  the 
travels  of  the  Venetian  Marco  Polo  opened  new 
fields  of  inquiry,  the  statements  of  Ptolemy  were 
never  questioned,  and  even  during  the  15th  c.,  it 
waa  only  among  a  few  German  scholars  at  Niirn- 
berg  that  the  strange  accounts  given  of  distant 
eastern  lands  by  the  Venetian  traveller  were 
received  as  trustworthy  where  he  differed  from 
Ptolemy.  Marco  Polo  had,  however,  unfortunately 
made  no  astronomical  observations,  nor  had  he 
even  recorded  the  length  of  the  day  at  any  place, 
and  hence  the  NUrnl)erg  geographers,  who  had 
no  certain  data  for  estiinating  the  extent  of  the 
countries  which  he  had  traversed,  were  the  means 
of  propagating  errors  which  led  to  results  that 
were  destined  to  influence  the  history  of  man- 
kind ;  for  taking  Ptolemy's  tables  as  their  basis, 
they  had  incorporated  on  their  globes  and  maps 
the  results  of  their  ow^ii  rough  estimates  of  the 
length  of  Marco  Polo's  days'  journeys,  and  they 
liad  thus  represented  the  continent  of  Asia  as 
extending  across  the  Pacific,  and  having  its  eastern 
fihores  somewhere  in  the  region  of  the  Antilles. 
These  erroneous  calculations  misled  Clii'isto])her 
Columbus  to  the  false  assumption  that,  by  sailing 
120°  west,  he  wovild  reach  the  wealthy  trading  marts 
of  China,  and  the  result  of  this  conviction  was  his 
entering  upon  that  memorable  expedition  which 
terminated  in  the  discovery  (in  1492)  of  the  continent 
of  America.  Although  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
the  American  continent  was  visited  in  the  9th  and 
10th  c.  by  Northmen,  the  event  remained  without 
influence  on  the  history  of  discovery,  and  cannot 
therefore  detract  from  the  claims  of  Columbus.  This 
momentous  discovery,  which  had  been  preceded  in 
1486  by  the  exploration  of  the  African  coast  as  far 
as  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  (which  Avas  doubled  by 
Vasco  da  Gama  in  1497),  was  followed  by  a  rapid 
succession  of  discoveries  ;  and  within  30  years  of 
the  date  of  the  first  voyage  of  Columbus,  the  whole 
coast  of  America  from  Greenland  to  Cape  Horn  had 
been  explored,  the  Pacific  Ocean  had  been  navigated, 
and  the  world  circumnavigated  by  Magellan  (q.  v.) ; 
the  coasts  of  Eastern  Africa,  Arabia,  Persia,  and 
India  had  been  visited  by  the  Portuguese,  and 
numerous  islands  in  the  Indian  Ocean  discovered. 
The  IGth  c.  was  marked  by  continued  attempts,  suc- 
cessful and  unsuccessful,  to  extend  the  sphere  of 
oceanic  discovery ;  and  the  desire  to  reach  India  by 
a  shorter  route  than  those  by  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  or  Cape  Horn,  led  to  many  attempts  to  dis- 
cover a  north-west  passage,  which,  though  they 
signally  failed  in  their  object,  had  the  effect  of  very 
materiall}'-  enlarging  our  knowledge  of  the  arctic 
regions.  The  expeditions  of  Willoughby  and  Fro- 
bisher,  in  1553  and  1576,  of  Davis  (1585),  Hudson 
(1607),  and  Baffin  (1616),  were  the  most  important 
in  their  results  towards  this  end.  The  17th  and 
18th  centuries  gave  a  new  turn  to  the  study  of 
geography,  by  bringing  other  sciences  to  bear  upon 
it,  which,  in  their  turn,  derived  elucidation  from  the 
extension  of  geographical  knowledge ;  and  it  is  to 
the  aid  derived  irom  history,  astronomy,  and  the 
physical  and  natural  sciences,  that  we  owe  the 
completeness  which  has  characterised  modern  works 
on  geography.  In  the  17th  c,  the  Dutch,  under 
Tasman  and  Van  Diemen,  made  the  Australasian 
(i'j6 


islands  known  to  the  civilised  world  ;  and  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  18th  c.  Captain  Cooi  extended 
the  great  oceanic  explorations  by  the  discovery  ol 

1  New  Zealand  and  many  of  the  Polynesian  groups ; 

I  but    he  failed  to  find  the   antarctic  continent, 

{  which  was  first  visited  in  1840  by  American,  Eng- 
lish, and  French  expeditions,  under  their  respective 

i  commanders,.  Wilkes,  Ross,  and  Dumont  d'LTrville. 

i  This  will  probably  prove  to  have  been  among  the 
last  of  great  oceanic  discoveries  ;  and  the  attention 

[  of  ex])]orers  is  now  turned  to  the  interior  of  the  great 
continents.    In  America,  the  travels  of  Humboldt. 

j  Lewis  and  Clark,  Fremont,  and  others,  have  don« 

I  much  to  nmke  us  acquainted  with  broad  geneial 

,  features,  but  much  remains  to  be  done  in  regard  to 

!  special  districts  of  Central  and  Southern  America. 

;  In  Asia,  numerous  travellers,  geographers,  and  natu- 
ralists have  contributed  to  render  our  knowledge 
precise  and  certain  in  respect  to  a  great  part  of  the 
continent,  whose  natural  characteristics  have  been 
more  especially  represented  by  the  great  physicist 
Ritter ;  while  we  owe  a  large  debt  of  gratitude  to 

;  the  Jesuit  missionaries,  whose  indefatigable  zeal 
has  furnished  us  with  a  rich  mass  of  information  in 

1  regard  to  minor  details  of  Asiatic  life  and  nature. 
In  Africa,  the  combined  influences  of  a  deleterious 
climate,  and  a  religion  hostile  to  European  advance, 
have  hitherto  retarded  explorations  into  the  inte- 
rior ;  but  notwithstanding  these  obstacles,  much 
light  has  been  thrown  on  the  character  and  con- 
dition of  the  African  continent  by  many  of  its 
greatest  explorers — as  Bruce,  Park,  Clapperton, 
Adanson,  the  Landers,  Burton,  Speke,  Barth,  Vogel, 
and  Livingstone.  In  Australia,  although  much 
still  remains  to  be  done,  the  obscurity  which  had 
hitherto  hung  over  the  interior  has  been  to  a 
great  extent  diminished  by  the  explorations  of 
btiirt.  Eyre,  Leichhardt,  and  the  brothers  Gregory ; 
and  still  more  by  the  highly  important  labours 
of  Burke  and  Wills,  who  in  1860  crossed  the 
Australian  continent  from  Melbourne  to  Carpen- 
taria. Although  both  these  intrepid  explorers 
])erished  miserably  from  starvation  on  their  return 
route,  their  journals  and  the  description  that  has 
been  given  by  them  and  their  sole-surviving  com- 
panion. King,  of  the  country  through  which  they 
passed,  prove  that  the  land  is  far  from  being  the 
desert  it  was  once  imagined  to  be. 

The  progress  which  lias  marked  recent  discovery 
has  been  materially  aided  by  the  encouragement 
and  systematic  organisation  wdiich  have  been  given 
to  plans  of  exploration  by  the  public  governments 
of  different  countries,  and  by  the  efforts  of  the 
numerous  geographical  societies  which  hav^e  been 
formed  during  the  present  century  both  at  home 
and  abroad  ;  while  the  constantly  increasing  mass 
of  information  collected  by  scientific  explorers  is 
rapidly  diffusing  correct  information  in  regard  to 
distant  regions,  and  thus  effectually  dispelling  the 
numerous  fallacies  which  have  hitherto  obscured  the 
science  of  geography.  Among  the  numerous  works 
of  authority  on  the  subject  of  geographical  dis- 
covery, the  following  may  be  consvdted  with  advan- 
tage :  Hudson's  Geographi  Greed  minores  ;  Precis  de 
Geographie  Universelle,  by  Malte  Brun ;  Ilanval  of 
Geographical  Science  (mathematical,  physical,  his- 
torical, and  descriptive),  1860 ;  Latham's  Germania 
of  Tacitus  ;  Humljoldt's  Hid.  crit.  de  CHist.  de  la 
Geographie,  Asie  Centrale,  and  the  Cosmos ,  Ritter's 
Asien;  and  Die  ErdJcunde  im  Verlidltnisse  z.  Natur 
u.  d.  Gesch.  d.  Menschheit ;  Petermann,  Mitlhcilungen 
aus  J.  Perthes^  Geographischer  An-stalt  (1855 — 1857); 
Proceedings  of  Geographical  Societii,  &c. 

GEO'GRAPHY,  Mkdical.  The  liability  of  par- 
ticular localities  to  become  the  centres  of  special 
diseases,  or  groups  of  diseases,  has  been  obsrj-ved 


GEOGRAPHY— GEOLOGY. 


Erom  the  most  ancient  periods,  as  we  have  excel- 
lent evidence  in  the  Hippocratic  treatise,  On 
Airs,  Waters,  and  Places,  one  of  the  undoubtedly 
genuine  works  of  the  great  Greek  physician,  and 
one  of  those  which  best  sustains  his  traditional 
reputation.  Now-a-days,  medical  geography  has 
become  a  most  elaborate  and  carefully  investigated 
branch  of  medical  science,  the  details  of  which, 
though  of  considerable  popvdar  interest,  are  far  too 
complicated  aoad  too  technical  to  be  discussed  with 
advantage  here.  The  reader  may  be  referred  to  the 
articles  Endemic  Disease,  Clijmate,  Ague,  Dysen- 
tery, Goitre,  Leprosy,  Yellow  Fever,  Plague, 
Remittent  Fever,  for  incidental  illustrations  of  the 
subject.  Generally  speaking,  the  tropics  are  subject 
to  diarrhoeal  diseases,  with  acute  affections  of  the 
liver,  and  severe  remittent  or  pestilential  fevers, 
caused  by  the  exalted  temperature  acting  on  the 
soil,  and  producing  emanations  very  destructive  of 
health ;  the  like  causes  in  more  temperate  climates 
causing  ague  and  diarrhoea,  especially  during  the 
simamer  and  autumn,  in  low-lying,  ill- drained 
localities.  Temperate  climates  are  also  subject  in  a 
pecidiar  degree  to  pulmonary  diseases,  and  to  all 
manner  of  contagious  fevers,  the  result  of  over- 
crowding and  confined  air.  Certain  diseases,  again, 
as  goitre,  leprosy,  and  some  animal  parasites  (see 
Entozoa),  appear  to  have  no  relation  to  climate,  but 
are  found  to  affect,  more  or  less  exclusively,  certain 
well-defined  districts  of  country ;  as  in  the  case  of 
the  Giunea-worm,  the  Egyptian  ophthalmia,  the 
pellagra  of  Lombardy,  the  beri-beri  of  Ceylon  and 
the  Malabar  coast,  and  the  elephantiasis  of  the 
Indian  peninsula  generally.  The  best  works  on 
medical  geography  are  those  of  Muhry  in  Ger- 
many, and  Boudet  in  France,  which  are  remarkably 
learned  and  complete  treatises  on  the  whole  sub- 
ject. A  more  recent  one  still  is  that  of  Dr  August 
Hirsch  of  Danzig,  a  work  of  immense  labour  and 
erudition,  not  yet  completed.  On  tropical  diseases 
generally,  the  English  works  of  Annesley,  Twining, 
Morehead,  and  Sir  Ranald  Mai-tin  are  of  confirmed 
rei)utation. 

GEO'LOGY  (Gr.  ge  and  logos),  the  science  of 
the  earth,  should  include  all  the  sciences  that  treat 
of  the  constitution  and  distribution  of  the  inor- 
ganic matter  of  the  earth,  as  well  as  those  which 
describe  the  living  beings  that  inhabit  it  ;  just  as 
astronomy  includes  the  whole  science  of  the  heavenly 
bodies.  In  this  wide  sense,  as  comprising  all  the 
physical  sciences,  it  has  sometimes  been  used.  As 
usually  employed,  however,  it  has  a  much  more 
limited  meaning,  being  confined  to  that  section 
of  the  sciences  which  takes  cognizance  of  the  hard 
crust  of  the  earth — of  the  materials  of  which  it 
is  composed,  and  of  the  manner  in  which  these 
materials  are  arranged. 

The  structure  of  the  earth  received  little  attention 
from  the  ancients  :  the  extent  of  its  surface  known 
was  limited,  and  the  changes  upon  it  were  neither 
BO  speedy  nor  violent  as  to  excite  special  attention. 
The  only  opinions  deserving  to  be  noticed,  that  have 
come  down  to  us,  are  those  of  Pythagoras  and  Strabo. 
They  both  observed  the  phenomena  which  were 
then  altering  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  proposed 
theories  for  explaining  the  changes  that  had  taken 
place  in  geological  time.  The  first  held  that,  in 
addition  to  volcanic  action,  the  change  in  the  level 
of  sea  and  land  was  owing  to  the  retiring  of  the 
sea;  while  the  other  maintained  that  the  land 
changed  its  level,  and  not  the  sea,  and  that  such 
changes  happened  more  easily  to  the  land  below  the 
sea  because  of  its  humidity. 

From  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire,  during  the 
dark  ages,  the  cultivation  of  the  physical  sciences 
was  neglected.    In  the  10th  c,  Avicenna,  Omar,  and  I 


other  Arabian  writers,  commented  on  the  works  of 
the  Romans,  but  added  little  of  their  own. 

Geological  phenomena  attracted  attention  in  Italy 
in  the  16th  c,  the  absorbing  question  then  being  aa 
to  the  nature  of  fossils.  On  the  one  side,  it  was  held 
that  they  were  the  results  of  the  fermentation  of 
fatty  matter,  or  of  terrestrial  exhalations,  or  of  the 
influence  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  or  that  they  were 
mere  earthy  concretions  or  sports  of  nature ;  while 
only  a  few  maintained  that  they  were  the  remains 
of  animals.  Two  centuries  elapsed  before  this 
opinion  was  generally  adopted.  At  the  outset,  it 
was  unfortunately  linked  to  the  belief  that  the 
fossils  were  relics  of  the  Noachian  delude. 

Steno  (1669)  observed  a  succession  in  the  strata, 
and  asserted  that  there  were  rocks  older  than  the 
fossiliferous  strata  in  which  no  organic  reirains 
occur ;  he  also  distinguished  between  marine  and 
fluviatile  formations.  He  was  not  able,  however, 
to  free  himself  from  the  absurd  hy^iotheses  of  his 
day. 

In  England,  the  diluvialists  were  busy  framing 
idle  theories,  to  give  a  plausibility  to  their  creed, 
that  the  Noachian  deluge  was  the  cause  of  all  the 
past  changes  on  the  earth's  surface.  Differing  some- 
what in  detail,  they  all  agreed  in  the  notion  of  an 
interior  abyss,  whence  the  waters  rushed,  breaking 
up  and  bursting  through  'bhe  crust  of  the  earth,  to 
cover  its  surface,  and  whither,  after  the  deluge,  they 
returned  again.  Such  absurd  dreams,  obviously 
opposed  to  the  observed  order  of  nature,  greatly 
hindered  the  progress  of  true  science. 

Leibnitz  (1680)  proposed  the  bold  theory,  that  the 
earth  was  originally  in  a  molten  state  from  heat, 
and  that  the  primary  rocks  were  formed  by  the 
cooling  of  the  surface,  which  also  produced  the 
primeval  ocean,  by  condensing  the  surrounding 
vapours.  The  sedimentary  strata  resulted  from  the 
subsiding  of  the  waters  that  had  been  put  in  motion 
from  the  coUapse  of  the  crust  on  the  contracting 
nucleus.  This  process  was  several  times  repeated, 
imtil  at  last  an  equilibrium  was  established. 

Hooke  (1688)  and  Ray  (1690),  differing  as  much 
from  Burnet  as  from  Leibnitz,  advocated  views 
similar  to  those  of  Pythagoras.  They  considered 
the  essential  condition  of  the  globe  to  be  one  of 
change,  and  that  the  forces  now  in  action  would, 
if  allowed  sufficient  time,  produce  changes  as  great 
as  those  of  geological  date.  They  were  followed 
in  the  same  direction  by  Vallisneri  (1720),  Moro 
(1740),  Buffon  (1749),  Lehman  (1756),  and  Fuchsel 
(1773),  each  contrilniting  somethmg  additional. 
Werner  (1780)  greatly  advanced  the  science  by 
establishing  the  superposition  of  certain  groups, 
by  giving  a  system  and  names,  and  by  shewing  the 
practical  applications  of  geology  to  mining,  agricid- 
ture,  and  medicine.  He  had  very  crude  notions 
regarding  the  origin  of  the  strata,  supposiag  that 
the  various  formations  were  precipitated  over  the 
earth  in  succession  from  a  chaotic  fluid ;  even  the 
igneous  rocks  he  held  to  be  chemical  jti'ecipitatcrS 
from  the  waters.  Hutton  (1788),  rejecting  all 
theories  as  to  the  beginning  of  the  world,  returned 
to  the  opinions  of  Pythagoras  and  Ray.  He  held 
that  the  strata  which  now  compose  the  continei  ts 
were  once  beneath  the  sea,  and  were  formed  out  of 
the  waste  of  pre-existing  continents  by  the  action  of 
the  same  forces  which  are  now  destro^^ing  even 
the  hardest  rocks.  He  introduced  the  notion  of  a 
periodical  elevation  of  the  sedimentary  deposits 
from  the  internal  heat  raising  the  bed  of  the  sea. 
Lyell,  in  our  own  day,  has  adopted  and  improved 
these  views,  eliminating  the  baseless  theories  which 
were  mixed  up  with  them,  and  demonstrating  that 
existing  forces  might  produce  all  the  phenomena  of. 
geology. 

6»7 


GEOLOGY. 


The  determination  of  the  order  of  the  strata,  and 
the  grouping  of  them  in  chronological  order,  were 
begun  by  Lehman  (1756),  and  carried  on  by  Fucliscl 
(1773),  Pallas  (1785),  and  Werner.  Smith  made  the 
most  important  contribution  to  this  subject  when, 
in  1790,  he  published  his  Tabular  View  of  the  British 
Strata.  He  showed  their  superposition,  and  charac- 
terized the  different  groups  by  their  peculiar  fossils. 
The  publication  of  his  geological  map  of  England 
(1815)  may  be  said  to  form  an  epoch  in  the  history 
of  geology.  Since  then,  the  science  has  advanced 
by  rapid  strides ;  and  it  is  not  too  much  to  expect 
that  ere  long  all  the  chief  geological  features  of  the 
accessible  parts  of  the  world  will  be  known  and 
published.  I 

Geology,  in  its  restricted  and  usual  sense,  takes  . 
cognizanc*}  of  the  solid  substance  of  the  earth,  or 
rather  oi  as  much  of  it  as  is  accessible  to  man's 
observati.n.    He  has  not,  by  his  own  efforts,  pene-  i 
trated  at  any  point  more  than  a  few  hundred  yards  ' 
from  the  3urfa(;e ;  but  natui  al  sections,  and  the  pccu-  j 
liar  arrangement  of  the  stratihed  rocks  (the  key  to  [ 
which  he  has  to  some  extent  obtained),  have  given 
him  an  acquaintance  with  a  greater  thickness  than  \ 
coidd  have  residted  from  his  own  labours.    He  has 
thus  by  actual  observations,  coupled  with  reasonings 
upon  them,  been  al)le  to  construct  an  ideal  section 
representing  a  depth  of  perha})s  ten  miles,  or  about  \ 
a  400th  part  of  the  distance  from  the  surface  to  the  ' 
centre.    He  does  not,  and  cannot  with  certainty, 
know  anything  of  the  structure  or  condition  of  ; 
what  is  deei)er.    This  does  not,  however,  prevent  ! 
the  attempt  to  know  something  of  what  is  beyond ; 
and  in  making  the  attempt,  there  are  many  facts 
which  serve  as  bases  for  inductions,  or  at  least 
theorisings,  as  to  the  condition  of  the  interior  of  the  ! 
globe.  As  the  conclusions  depend  upon  the  balancing 
of  evidence,  upon  the  value  given  to  one  set  of  facts 
as  set  against  another,  they  will  differ  according  to 
the  importance  given  by  each  individual  to  the  one 
or  other  set  of  facts. 

The  long  entertained  opinion  of  the  existence  of  a 
central  heat  seems  to  be  on  the  whole  fairly  estab- 
lished, and  upon  such  facts  as  these :  1.  There  is  a 
regular  and  gradual  increase  in  the  tempei^ature  of 
all  deep  mines,  equal  to  T  F.  for  every  55  feet  of 
descent  after  the  first  100.  2.  Deep  wells  have 
always  a  high  temperature.  This  has  been  carefully 
determined  in  artesian  wells,  not  only  by  api)lying 
the  thermometer  to  the  water  at  the  siu-face  which 
has  risen  from  a  known  depth,  but  also  by  sinking 
the  instrument  to  various  depths.  The  results  have 
shewn  an  increment  similar  to  that  exhil^ited  in 
mines.  Hot  or  boiling  natural  springs  rise  through 
great  and  deep  fissures.  3.  Igneous  rocks — that  is 
to  say  rocks  which  have  cooled  from  a  state  of 
fusion  by  heat — invariably  come  from  below  upwards, 
and  thus  testify  to  an  amount  of  internal  heat  able 
either  to  retain  these  rocks  in  a  state  of  fusion,  or 
to  convert  them  into  a  fluid  condition  before  their 
ejection.  4.  Physics  also  contributes  important 
evidence.  The  specific  gravity  of  granite  or  basalt 
is  scarcely  3,  while  that  of  the  earth,  according  to 
Ifce  recent  exjjei-iments  of  Airy,  is  about  65.  If  the 
earth  were  solid,  the  influence  of  gravitati*^"  would 
so  increase  tlie  density  of  the  composing  rock  as  to 
give  a  greate:  specific  gravity  for  the  earth  than  6^. 
There  must,  then,  be  some  expansive  force  acting  to 
reduce  the  gravity,  and  the  only  force  with  which 
we  are  acquainted  that  could  so  act  is  heat.  On 
the  other  hand,  physics  raises  difficulties  which 
militate  against  the  fluid  condition  of  any  consider- 
able portion  of  the  earth's  interior,  and  in  these 
diflQcidties  it  is  sup})orted  by  astronomy.  If,  how- 
ever, the  observations  made  in  mines  and  wells 
Fupply  a  measure  for  estimating  the  increase  from 


the  surface  downwards  of  that  heat  which  seems 
to  be  fairly  established,  then  it  would  follow  that 
the  solid  crust  of  the  earth  is  not  more  than  25  miles 
thick,  for  the  heat  at  that  depth  would  be  so  great 
as  to  fuse  any  known  substance. 

The  strict  province  of  geology  is  the  observed 
or  observable  portion  of  the  earth's  crust.  The 
early  geologists  were  no  more  than  geognosts— 
they  observed  and  described  the  rock-mineralogy 
of  districts,  and  thus  laid  the  foundations  for 
those  generalisations  which  have  raised  geology  tc 
its  present  position.  The  materials  of  the  eaHh'a 
crust  were  at  first  grouped  together  according 
to  their  composition,  structure,  and  origin ;  bul 
gradually  it  became  evident  that  the  rocks  them- 
selves occurred  in  groups,  and  that  they  had  a 
particular  order  in  nature  ;  until  at  last,  all  the 
sedimentary  strata  were  arranged  in  a  single  con- 
tinuous and  chronological  series,  from  characters 
drawn  less  from  their  lithological  structure  than 
from  their  organic  contents.  Both  systems  ol 
classification  are  important — that  of  the  geognost 
as  well  as  that  of  the  modern  geologist.  The  one  is 
the  residt,  to  a  large  extent,  of  work  in  the  labora- 
tory and  the  study,  and  may  be  accomplished  by 
the  examination  of  hand  specimens ;  the  other  must 
be  determined  in  the  field,  and  only  from  the  exami- 
\  nation  of  rocks  in  the  mass,  and  in  their  natural 
'  position.  The  term  lithology  has  been  api)lied  to 
the  one  aspect,  while  stromatology  [stroma,  a  layer) 
;  may  with  equal  fitness  be  given  to  the  other. 
!  Lithology. — All  rocks  are  either  igneous  or  sedi- 
mentary ;  that  is,  have  either  been  produced  by  the 
action  of  heat,  or  been  arranged  by  mechanical  or 
other  means  in  layers  or  beds. 

I     I.  The  Igneous  rocks  differ  amongst  themselves 
in  their  composition,  structure,  and  age :  they  are 
made  up  of  different  materials ;  they  nave  various 
textures,  as  granular,  compact,   or  glassy ;  and 
they  have  been  ejected  at  different  periods  of  the 
earth's  history.     From  these  characteristics,  they 
have  been  grouped  thus  :  1.  The  Volcanic  Rocks 
(q.  v.),  comprising  all  that  have  been  formed  during 
the  present  and  tertiary  periods,  and  which  are 
popularly  known  as  lavas  and  volcanic  ash.  They 
have  been  ejected  from  volcanoes  either  in  a  fluid 
state,  s])reading  over  the  land,  and  cooling  as  com- 
pact lavas  ;  or  spreading  below  shallow  water,  and 
becoming  vesicular  pumice,  or  as  ash  scattered  in 
layers  over  the  country;  or  they  have  risen  into 
cracks  and  crevices  of  rocks  as  dykes  and  veins. 
Their  principal  constituents  are  felspar  and  augite, 
and  the  different  varieties  depend  on  the  predom- 
inance of  the  one  or  other  of  these  ingredients.' 
The  feldspathic  lavas  are  generally  light-colom^ed, 
and  have  a  rough  prickly  feel  to  the  finger.  The 
chief  varieties  are  Trachyte,  Pearlstone,  Phonolite, 
I  Obsidian,  and  Pumice.     The  augitic  lavas  are  of 
•  a  dark-green  or  black  colour,  weathering  brown 
externally,  and  are  generally  hea^'ier  than  the  feld- 
i  spathic  lavas.  The  most  common  forms  are  Dolorite, 
1  Basalt,  and  Leucite.   2.  The  Trappean  Rocks  (q.  v.), 
I  which  generally  belong  to  the  primary  and  second- 
'  ary  strata,  and  are  composed  of  the  same  materials 
as  the  volcanic  rocks,  except  that  the  silicates 
'  of  magnesia  and  lime  crystallise  in  the  latter  as 
'  augite,  while  they  assume  the  more  obtuse  form  of 
hornblende  in  the  trappean  rocks.    Trap-rocks  are 
'  always  associated  with  a  pipe  or  dyke  connecting 
i  them  with  the  underlying  mass  from  which  the 
i  materials  were  obtained.     They  have  either  over- 
I  flown  the  surface,  and  formed  a  bed  conformable 
i  to  and  contemporaneous  with  the  subjacent  strata, 
I  or  inserted    themselves    between    already  formed 
I  strata,  forming  injected  sheets  that  are  not  contem- 
I  poraneous.    The  predominance  of  the  one  constituent 


GEOLOGy. 


material  over  the  other  gives  the  basis  for  groiiinng 
the  trappean  rocks  into  the  feldspathic  traps,  which 
are  Hght-coloured  and  generally  com})act  rocks,  the 
chief  varieties  being  Felstone  and  Pitchstone,  and 
Hornblendic  traps  or  Greenstones,  containing  the 
most  abundant  and  best  known  rocks  of  this  divi- 
sion. They  are  of  a  greenish  colour,  varying  from 
very  light,  when  the  felspar  is  white  and  abounding, 
to  almost  black,  when  the  constituent  minerals  are 
finely  divided  and  coloured  with  iron.  In  texture, 
also,  there  is  considerable  difference,  some  being 
fine-grained  and  compact,  while  in  others  the  crys- 
talline structure  is  very  evident.  The  principal 
varieties  are  Greenstone,  Basalt,  and  Melaphyre. 
Porphyry  occurs  in  both  the  volcanic  and  trappean 
rocks  when  the  felspar  is  aggregated  in  large  and 
evident  crystals,  scattered  through  the  body  of  the 
rock.  3.  The  Granitic  Rocks  (q.  v.).  The  strikmg 
characteristic  of  these  rocks  is  the  abundance  of 
silex  in  a  separate  and  uncombined  state  as  pure 
quartz.  Granites  are  associated  with  the  primary 
strata ;  they  form  also  the  support  of  the  sedimen- 
tary deposit,  wherever  their  base  has  been  exi)osed 
to  view.  They  occur  in  beds  overspreading  the 
sedimentary  deposits  or  intercalated  with  them, 
in  dykes,  or  as  the  apparent  fundamental  and 
imstratified  rock.  The  chief  varieties  are  true 
Granite,  Syenite,  and  Protogene. 

II.  The  Sedimentary  Pocks  occur  in  layers  or 
strata.  They  are  either  aqueous,  aerial,  chemical, 
or  organic  in  their  origin.  1.  The  Aqueous  Rocks 
(q.  V.)  are  Argillaceous  (q.  v.),  com})osed  more  or  less 
of  clay,  as  kaolin  shale  and  clay-slate ;  or  Arenaceous 
(q.  v.),  in  which  the  constituent  portions  are  so  large 
as  to  be  evident  to  the  eye,  as  in  sandstone.  The 
aqueous  rocks  were  deposited  in  thin  layers,  which, 
however,  frequently  cohere,  so  as  to  form  solid 
masses  or  beds  of  considerable  thickness.  Originally 
deposited  horizontally,  they  have  in  many  cases 
been  subjected  to  disturbances  that  have  elevated 
or  depressed  them;  hence  have  arisen  Faults  (q.  v.) 
and  Dislocations  (q.  v.),  as  well  as  the  exposing  of 
the  edges  of  the  strata  on  the  surface  of  the  earth 
(Strike,  q.  v.)  at  various  angles  (Dip,  q.  v.).  2.  The 
Aerial  Rocks,  which  cannot  be  easily  separated  from 
aqueous  rocks,  except  by  their  anomalous  stratifica- 
tion (see  Drift).  They  play  so  important  a  part 
on  sandy  coasts  and  arid  interiors  at  the  present 
day,  that  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  they  helped  in 
former  periods  to  bi'ing  the  earth  into  its  present 
condition.  3.  The  Chemical  Rocks  have  been  formed 
from  the  evaporation  of  liquids  containing  sub- 
stances in  solution.  The  materials  thus  dej)0sited 
are  salt,  gyj)sum,  lime,  and  silex.  Salt  is  generally 
associated  with  gypsum,  and  occurs  in  a  great  range 
of  formations  from  the  Devonian  or  Carboniferous, 
up  to  the  most  recent.  The  salt  mines  at  North- 
wich,  in  Cheshire,  belong  to  the  Triassic  period. 
Elock-salt  occurs  in  a  coarsely  crystalline  mass, 
generally  coloured  with  iron,  and  more  or  less 
mixed  with  clay  and  other  impurities.  The  dejjosits 
ftiv  often  of  great  thickness,  but  apparently  of 
limited  extent,  and  were  probably  precijntated  in 
isolated  brine-lakes.  Gypsum  seems  to  have  been 
formed  under  similar  circumstances.  It  is  abundant 
ia  the  Magnesian  Limestone,  in  the  London  Clay, 
and  in  the  Paris  Basin.  Lime  has  not  been  deposited 
in  masses,  like  gypsvim,  but  only  from  the  exposure 
to  the  atmosphere  of  small  quantities  of  liquid 
saturated  with  it,  which,  by  evaporation,  have  left 
stalagmitic  or  tufaceous  deposits.  Silicious  sinter 
has  been  deposited  in  a  similar  manner  as  it  is  at 
the  present  day  around  the  hot  springs  of  Iceland. 
4.  The  Organic  Rocks  are  those  which  have  been 
entirely,  or  to  a  large  extent,  formed  from  the 
remains   of   animaLs  -as   chalk   and   other  more 


compact  limestones— or  vegetables,  as  coal  lignite,  and 
diatomaceous  deposits. 

Changes  are  continually  taking  place  in  tlie  sedi 
mentary  rocks,  altering  their  structure  anti  texture. 
Among  the  chief  agents  including  these  metamor])hio 
changes  are  chemical  attraction,  the  infiltration  of 
water,  the  pressure  of  the  superincumbent  strata, 
and  above  all,  heat  and  magnetism.  Some  of  the 
older  strata  have  l)een  so  much  altered  that  they  are 
generally  spoken  of  as  Metamor}>hic  liocks  (q.  v.). 

Stromatoh(jy. — We  ap])ly  this  title  to  that  division 
of  geology  which  considers  the  stratified  rocks  iu 
their  chronological  order,  as  exhibiting  different 
phases  of  the  history  and  development  of  the  globe 
itself,  and  in  their  fossil  contents  setting  forth  the 
l)rogress  of  life  ui)on  its  surface.  Referring  to  the 
article  Paleontology  for  a  notice  of  the  animal  and 
vegetable  organisms  that  have  been  preserved  in 
the  rocks,  we  shall  here  give  a  rapid  sketch  of  the 
various  periods  in  the  earth's  geological  history. 

The  original,  and,  as  it  is  supposed,  molten  condi- 
tion of  the  globe  is  hid  in  mystery  and  uncertainty. 
The  geologist  takes  \\\)  the  history  at  the  point 
where  air  and  water  make  their  appearance,  and 
where  the  inorganic  substances  were  subject  to  the 
same  influences  as  those  now  in  operation.    It  is 
very  doubtful  whether  the  fundamental  crust  is  in 
any  place  exposed  or  has  ever  been  uncovered  by 
man.    The  earliest  rocks  observed,  though  pi-obably 
not  the  oldest,  are  those  described  by  Logan  as  the 
Laurentian  System  (q.  v.).    The  t3q)ical  beds  occur 
in  Canada ;  strata  of  the  same  age  have  lately  been 
detected  in  Scotland   by  Murchison  and  Geikie. 
The  strata  have  been  very  much  metamorphosed 
by  the  action  of  heat,  and  by  the  many  chemical 
and  physical  forces  which  heat  has  set  iu  motion, 
so  that  the  original  condition  is  entirely  altered, 
the  v\'hole  series  being   converted  into  gneissose 
strata,  with  one  or  two  greatly  altered  beds  of  lime- 
stone.   Fossils,  if  they  ever  existed,  have  been  obli- 
terated.   Even  in  the  succeeding  Cambrian  Series 
(q.  v.),  they  are  very  rare,  consisting  of  a  few 
zoophytes,  crustaceans,  and  annelids,  with  very 
doubtful  impressions  of  sea-weeds.     The  rocks  of 
this  period  consist  of  thick  masses  of  sandstones 
and  slates  or  shales.    The  Silurian  Period  (q.  v.)  ia 
represented  by  immense  marine  deposits,  which  iu 
some  districts  are  rich  in  the  remains  of  invertebrate 
animals,  while   other  extensive  tracts  have  not 
yielded  a  single  fossil.     No  certain  evidence  of 
plants  has  yet  been  observed  in  this  period,  yet  the 
economy  of  life  would  however  require  then,  as 
now,  oxygen-producers  and  carbonic  acid  consumers. 
Perhaps  the  anthracite  of  the  graptolitic  shales, 
and  the  oil  from  the  bituminous  Silurian  shales  of 
North  America,  may  be  in  part  or  in  whole  of  vege- 
table origin.    The  first  traces  of  the  existence  of 
dry  land  occur  in  the  Old  Bed  Sandstone  (q.  v.). 
The  great  mass  of  the  strata  of  this  peri(3d  consist 
of  immense  thicknesses  of  limestone,  composed  of 
corals  and  shell-fish,  of  beds  of  shale  and  of  sand- 
stone, crowded  in  some  places  with  fish-remains. 
A  few  land-plants  and  air-breathing  animals,  th 
tenants  of  the  dry  land,  are  preserved  in  the  upper 
strata,  which,  however,  probably  belong  to  the  next 
period.    The  Carbon i/erovs  Measures  (see  Carboni- 
ferous System)  ai-e  ushered  in  by  a  great  thickness 
of  deep-sea  limestone.    The  coal-bearing  strata  are 
alternately  sea,  estuary,  or  lake  deposits  of  sand- 
stone, shale,  and  limestone,  and  dry  land  siirfaces 
with  the  vegetation  converted  into  coal.  The  watei"^ 
teemed  M'ith  fishes  of  great  size  and  strange  form ; 
and  the  diy  land  was  covered  with  a  rank  and  luxu- 
riant vegetation  of  ferns  and  coniferous  trees,  and 
strange  forms  like  gigantic  reeds  and  club-mosses. 
A  few  air-breathing  reptiles  and  shel  s  have  been 

6.S9 


GEOMANCY— GEOMETRICAL  PROGRESSION. 


fourd  in  these  strata.  The  Permian  Period  (q.  v.) 
exhibits  a  group  of  organisms  differing  little  from 
those  of  the  preceding  epoch,  with  the  exception  of 
a  few  added  reptiles.  The  Permian  strata  are 
sandstones,  gypseous  marls,  and  common  and  mag- 
nesian  limestones. 

With  these  beds  terminate  the  Palaeozoic  Rocks. 
Before  the  commencement  of  the  Secondary  Epoch, 
great  disturbances  and  depressions  took  place  in 
the  districts  whose  geological  structure  has  been 
examined ;  and  at  the  same  time  a  great  change 
took  place  in  the  character  of  the  animal  and 
vegetable  life. 

"^rhe  ty])ical  rocks  of  the  Triassic  Period  (q.  v.), 
the  earliest  of  the  Secondary  Epoch,  exist  in  Ger- 
many. They  are  highly  fossiliferous,  containing  the 
remains  of  marine  animals  of  various  kinds.  In 
N.  America  the  rocks  are  chiefly  red  sandstones,  intei- 
caU\ted  in  some  places  with  strata  of  bituminous  coal. 
Fossil  remains  are  very  numerous,  and  indicate  a  fresh- 
water origin  of  the  strata.  They  consist  of  phuits,  lish, 
and  reptiles ;  a  single  mammal  has  also  been  found. 

The  Jurassic  series,  which  follows,  commences  with 
the  Lias  (q.  v.)  at  its  base.  It  consists  of  extensive 
clay  deposits,  with  argillaceous  limestones  and  sand- 
stones— strata  which  nidicate  the  existence  of  large 
tracts  of  land.  The  contained  fossils  have  a  mixed 
land,  fresh-water,  and  poa  character.  With  con- 
siderable numbers  of  plants  and  insects,  there  are 
also  marine  bracliiopods  and  ce])halopods,  and  the 
remarkable  swimming  reptiles,  that  are  so  perfectly 
preserved  as  to  sujiply  materials  for  nearly  perfect 
restorations. 

The  Oolite  Series  (q.  v.)  consists  of  alternating  beds 
of  limestone  and  clay,  with  very  little  intervening 
sandstone.  The  abundance  of  dry  land  is  testified 
to  by  the  number  and  variety  of  the  air-breathing 
fossils  (amongst  which  mammalia  appear  for  the 
first  time),  and  even  by  the  occurrence  of  strata 
that  have  been  ancient  soils.  The  group  is  highly 
fossiliferous. 

The  Cretaceous  Strata  (see  Cretaceous  Group), 
which,  as  a  whole,  have  had  a  dee])-sea  origin,  are 
introduced  by  fresh-water  and  estuary  deposits, 
shewing  that  great  tracts  of  land  were  traversed 
by  mighty  rivers  actively  abrading  and  carrying  off 
materials  for  delta  deposits.  The  life  of  the  period 
was  abundant.  The  immense  thicknesses  of  chalk, 
which  give  the  name  to  the  group,  are  composed  to 
a  very  large  extent  of  the  perfect  or  comminuted 
shells  of  foraminifera  and  mollusca.  Besides  these, 
land- plants,  fresh- water  and  marine  shells  and  fish, 
and  large  terrestrial  and  marine  reptiles,  with  birds, 
occur.  Mammalia  have  not  yet  been  observed,  but  it 
is  most  probable  that  they  did  exist,  as  they  have  been 
found  in  older  strata. 

In  passing  to  the  Tertiary  Epoch,  there  is  not 
found  so  striking  a  change  in  the  life  of  the  globe 
as  that  which  characterised  the  division  between  the 
Paleeozoic  and  Secondary  strata.  From  the  Trias, 
the  fossils  have  been  gradually  assuming  the  appear- 
ance of  existing  organisms :  many  strange  forms 
have  existed  and  passed  away  without  leaving 
representatives  in  the  later  strata  or  in  the  living 
inhabitants  of  the  earth.  Still,  the  fades  of  the 
organic  remains  gradually  a]tproaehes  that  of  the 
present  fauna  and  flora,  until  the  Eocene  Period 
(q.  v.),  when  some  fossils  appear,  which,  if  not  iden- 
tical with  recent  species,  so  nea]-ly  a])proach  them, 
as  to  make  it  impossible  to  distinguish  them.  The 
proporti(  a  of  such  species  is  from  3<2  to  5  per  cent. 
The  seas  in  which  the  Eocene  beds  were  dejiosited 
were  comparatively  small,  and  consequently  the 
deposits  occur  in  scattered  and  isolated  basins.  The 
earlier  strata  are  marine,  but  towards  the  middle  A 
this  period  they  bcome  lacustrine  or  fluviatiie. 
700 


The  Miocene  Period  (q.  v.)  is  said  to  contain  above 
25  per  cent,  of  living  forms.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
there  are  in  Britain  any  beds  of  this  period.  The  strata 
are  largel/  developed  in  the  United  States,  FrnncCv 
and  Belgium.  Besides  abounding  in  mj>--ine  mol- 
lusca, the  Miocene  strata  contain  the  i-omains  of 
many  large  mammalia.  The  deposits  of  the  Pliocene 
Period  (q.  v.)  contain  from  50  to  70  per  cent,  of 
existing  forms.  The  strata  are  marly  sauda  and 
gravels  abounding  with  sea-spoils. 

In  the  Pleistocene  Strata  (q.  v.),  the  proportion  of 
existing  forms  is  still  greater — indeed,  all  the  prin  ■ 
cij^al  generic  forms  now  alive,  except  man,  seem  to 
have  been  in  existence  during  this  periocL  The 
strata  consist  of  the  sands,  gravels,  and  boulder 
clay  left  by  glaciers  and  icebergs,  of  marls  and 
raised  sea-beaches. 

The  newer  strata  belong  to  the  human  period, 
and  have  been,  and  are  continuing  to  be,  formed  by 
agents  now  in  operation.  They  contain  the  remains 
of  species  of  plants  and  animals  which  still  live  on 
the  globe. 

GE'OMANCY.    See  Divination. 

GEOME'TRICAL,  related  to  Geometry  (q.  v.), 
as  a  geometrical  line,  demonstration,  construction, 
&c.  As  to  geometrical  lines,  see  Co-ordinates, 
Curves,  and  Demonstration.  Geometrical  con- 
structions and  solutions  were  anciently  such  as 
were  effected  by  means  of  the  straight  line  and 
circle — the  only  Imes  which  were  regarded  as  pro- 
perly geometrical — and  according  to  the  strict  rales 
of  geometry.  The  ancient  geometers  employed  two 
methods  of  reasoning  in  their  inquiries  and  demon- 
strations, known  as  geometrical  analysis  and  sijnthesis. 
Of  these,  the  synthetical  method  was  the  older  and 
more  generally  employed.  It  is  abimdantly  illus- 
trated in  Eucbd's  Elements,  in  which  new  truths  are 
deduced  f?'om  combinations  of  truths  already  estab- 
lished, so  that  every  proposition  depends  on  others 
preceding  it.  See  Synthesis.  Though  admirably 
suited  for  the  demonstration  of  truth  once  ascer- 
tained, this  method  was  found  of  little  use  in  the 
discovery  of  truth,  or  of  the  mode  of  its  demonstra- 
tion. For  these  puq)Oses,  the  analjd^ical  method 
is  admirably  adapted.  See  Analysis.  According 
to  this  method,  the  proposition  which  is  to  be 
proved  is  assumed  to  be  trve,  or  the  construction 
required  is  supposed  to  be  effected;  and  then  the 
conditions  of  the  proposition  being  true,  or  the 
construction  effected,  are  investigated  by  reasoning 
backwards  till  some  elementary  truth  or  simple 
construction  is  reached,  on  which  the  truth  or 
construction  under  inquiry  is  seen  to  depend.  The 
analytical  method  of  reasoning  in  geometry  is  said 
to  have  been  invented  by  Plato.  The  Greeks  have 
left  on  record  many  proofs  of  the  power  and  beauty 
of  the  method  as  a  means  of  discovery. 

GEOMETRICAL   MEAN  of  two  numbers  ia 

that  number  the  square  of  which  is  equal  to  the 
product  of  the  two  numbers ;  thus,  the  geometrical 
mean  of  9  and  16  is  12,  for  9  x  16  =  144  =  122 ; 
hence  the  geometrical  mean  of  two  numbers  ia 
found  by  multiplying  the  two  nimibers  together, 
and  extracting  the  square  root  of  the  product. 

GEOMETRICAL  PROGRESSION.  A  series 
of  quantities  are  said  to  be  in  geometrical  pro- 
gi-ession  when  each  term  of  the  series  is  equal 
to  that  which  precedes  it  multiplied  by  some 
constant  factor — i.  e.,  some  factor  which  is  the 
same  for  all  the  terms ;  or,  in  other  words, 
when  the  ratio  of  any  two  successive  terms  is  the 
same.  Thus  a,  ar,  ar^  a?'*...  and  2,  6,  18,  54...  ore 
geometrical  series.  The  sum  of  n  terms  of  the 
former  series  may  be  easily  obtained.  Let  it  be  S. 
Then  ^     a  +  ar  ^  ar"^  ^  ...  +  ar^'K  Multiply  both 


GEOMETRICAL  TRACERY— GEOMETRY. 


Bides  by  r,  we  have  rS  =  ar  +  ar'  +  ...  +  ar\ 
Subtracting  the  former  of  these  expressions  from  the 
latter,  we  have  {r  —  1)S  =  ar"  —  a.    Whence  we 
r"  —  1 

have  S  =  a .  ^ .    If  the  series  be  one  whose 

r  —  1 

terms  constantly  diminish,  i.  e.,  if  r  ^  1,  and  then  if 
we  suppose  n  indefinitely  great,  r"  will  be  inde- 
finitely small,  and  we  shall  have  S  =      —  for  the 

1  —  r 

Bum  of  the  series  extended  ad  infinitum.    For  ex- 

3       3  3 
ample,  the  sum  of  the  series  Jq  +       +  Jqz  +  "  del 

infinitum  is  ^.    It  is  obvious  that  any  three  of  the 
four  quantities  a,  r,  n,  S  being  given,  the  equation 
r"  —  1 

S  =  a .   will  enable  us  to  find  the  fourth. 

r  —  1 

GEOMETRICAL  TRACERY,  a  name  fre- 
quently used  to  distinguish  a  class  of  tracery  where 
the  parts  are  all  more  or  less  like  diagrams  in 
geometry.    See  Tracery. 

GEO'METRY,  the  science  of  space,  discusses  and 
investigates  the  j)roperties  of  definite  portions  of 
space  under  the  fourfold  division  of  lines,  angles, 
surfaces,  and  volumes,  without  regard  to  any  physi- 
cal properties  which  they  may  have.  It  has  various 
divisions,  e.  g..  Plane  and  Solid  Geometry,  Analyti- 
cal or  Algebraical  Geometry,  Descriptive  Geometry, 
and  the  Higher  Geometry.  Plane  and  solid  geometry 
are  occupied  with  the  consideration  of  right  hnes 
and  plane  surfaces,  and  with  the  solids  generated 
by  them,  as  well  as  with  the  properties  of  the 
circle,  and,  it  may  be  said,  the  sphere;  while  the 
higher  geometry  considers  the  conic  sections  and 
curved  lines  generally,  and  the  bodies  generated  by 
them.  In  the  higher  geometry,  immense  advances 
have  recently  been  made  through  improved  methods, 
the  application  of  modern  analysis,  and  the  various 
calculi  in  algebraical  geometry,  the  nature  of 
which  is  explained  in  the  article  Co-ordinates 
(q.  v.).  Descriptive  geometry,  a  division  of  the 
science  so  named  by  Monge  (q.  v.),  is  ]>roperly  an 
extension  or  general  application  of  the  principle  of 
Projections  (q.  v.),  its  object  being  to  represent  on 
two  plane  surfaces  the  elements  and  character  of 
any  solid  figure.  It  has  many  practical  applications. 
When  one  surface  penetrates  another,  for  instance, 
there  often  result  from  their  intersection  curves 
of  double  curvature,  the  description  of  which  is 
necessary  in  some  of  the  arts,  as  in  groined  vault- 
work,  and  in  cutting  arch-stones,  &c,,  and  this  is 
BU])plied  by  descriptive  geometry. 

The  history  of  geometry  is  full  of  interest,  but  no 
more  can  be  given  here  than  a  very  bare  sketch 
of  it.  The  name  of  the  science  (Gr.  and  Lat. 
aeometria)  originally  signified  the  art  of  measuring 
land.  Herodotus,  the  earliest  autliority  on  the 
Bubject,  assigns  the  origin  of  the  art  to  the  neces- 
sity of  measuring  lands  in  Egypt  for  the  purposes 
of  taxation,  in  the  reign  of  Sesostris,  about  1416- 
1357  B.C.  (Hero,  book  ii.  chap.  109).  This  is  prob- 
able, not  only  as  resting  on  such  authority,  but  also 
because,  d  jr.'iori,  we  should  expect  the  necessity 
of  measuring  lands  to  arise  with  property  in  land, 
and  to  give  birth  to  the  art.  Of  the  state  of 
the  science,  however,  among  the  Chaldeans  and 
Egyptians,  we  have  no  record. 

The  story  of  Herodotus  is  further  confirmed  by 
tradition.  Proclus,  in  his  commentary  on  Euclid's 
Elements  (b.  ii.  c.  4),  says  that  the  art  was  l)rought 
to  Greece  from  Egyj)t  by  Thales,  who  was  himself 
a  great  discoverer  in  geometry.  The  Greeks  at 
once  took  keenly  to  the  study ;  various  disciples  of 
Thales  excelled  in  it,  chief  among  them  Pythagoras, 
who,  according  to  Proclus,  first  gave  geometry  the 


form  of  a  deductive  science,  besides  discovering 
some  of  its  most  important  elementary  ])ropo- 
sitions,  among  others,  it  is  said,  the  47th  Prop.  Euc. 
b.  i.  See  article  Pythagoras  for  a  notice  of  hia 
other  contriliutions  to  the  science.  Pythagoras  had 
illustrious  successors :  Anaxagoras  of  Clazomen* ; 
.^nopidis,  the  reputed  discoverer  of  Euc.  b.  L 
12,  23;  Briso  and  Antipho;  Hippocrates  of  Chios, 
who  *  doubled  the  cube,'  and  quadrated  the  lunula, 
which  bear  his  name,  and  is  said  to  have  written 
a  treatise  on  geometry ;  Zenodorus ;  Democritua 
of  Abdera ;  and  Theodonis  of  Cjrrene,  who  ia 
said  to  have  been  one  of  the  instructors  of  Plato, 
whose  name  marks  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  the 
science.  Over  his  Academy  at  Athens,  Plato 
placed  the  celebrated  inscription,  Medeis  ageometretoa 
eisito  ('  Let  no  one  ignorant  of  geometry  enter 
here  '),  thus  recognising  it  as  the  first  of  the  sciences, 
and  as  the  proper  introduction  to  the  higher  phil- 
osophy. He  is  the  reputed  inventor  of  the  method 
of  geometrical  analysis,  and  of  geometrical  loci 
and  the  conic  sections,  called  in  his  time  the  higher 
geometry.  From  his  Academy  proceeded  many 
who  advanced  the  science,  of  whom  Proclus  men- 
tions thirteen,  and  more  than  one  of  them  as  having 
written  treatises  on  the  subject,  that  have  been 
lost.  We  shall  mention  but  two  of  these :  Eudoxus, 
who  is  said  to  have  brought  into  form  and  order  in 
a  treatise  the  results  of  the  studies  at  the  Academy, 
and  to  have  invented  the  doctrine  of  proportion,  as 
treated  in  the  5th  book  of  Euclid's  Element^;  and 
the  great  Aristotle,  who  assigned  geometry  as  high 
a  place  as  Plato  did,  and  who  wrote  a  treatise  on 
the  subject,  as  did  at  least  tM'o  of  his  pu])ils,  Theo- 
phrastus  and  Eudemus,  from  the  latter  of  whom 
Proclus  took  most  of  his  facts.  Autolycus,  a  dis- 
ciple of  this  Theophrastus,  wrote  a  treatise  on  the 
movable  sphere,  yet  extant ;  while  Aristseus,  the 
reputed  instructor  of  Euclid  in  geometry,  is  said 
to  have  written  five  books  on  the  conic  sections, 
and  five  on  solid  loci,  all  of  which  are  lost. 

The  name  of  Euclid  marks  another  epoch  in  the 
history  of  geometry,  and  the  chief  interest  of  the 
vague  sketch  above  given  of  the  labours  of  hia 
predecessors  lies  in  its  demonstrating  the  great 
mass  of  materials  from  which  he  constructed  his 
Elements — the  variety  of  treatises  which  pre2^ared 
the  way  for  that  great  work  whose  pre-eminence  has 
now  for  over  2000  years  been  undisputed.  In  the 
Elements,  Euclid  collected  aU  the  theorems  which 
had  been  invented  by  his  predecessors  in  Egypt  and 
Greece,  and  digested  them  into  fifteen  books, 
demonstrating  and  arranging  the  whole  in  a  very 
accurate  and  perfect  manner.  See  Euclid.  Next 
to  Euclid,  of  the  ancient  writers  whose  works  are 
extant,  must  be  named  Apollonius  Pergseus,  who 
flourished  about  230  B.C.,  and  about  100  years  later 
than  Euclid,  and  was  called  '  the  Great  Geometri- 
cian,' on  account  of  his  work  on  the  Conies,  and 
other  ingenious  geometrical  writings.  Much  about 
the  same  time  with  Apollonius  flourished  Archi- 
medes, not  less  celebrated  for  his  geometrical  than 
for  his  mechanical  inventions.  See  Archimedes, 
and  Apollonius  of  Perga.  It  may  be  mentioned 
that  Apollonius  first  gave  the  names  of  ellipse  and 
hyperbola  to  two  of  the  conic  sections,  the  third 
of  which  had  previously  been  called  the  parabola 
by  Archimedes. 

For  a  long  period  after  the  time  of  Archimedes, 
we  find  few  names  of  note  in  connection  with 
geometry.  We  but  mention  Nicomedes,  Hippar- 
chus,  and  Theodosius  of  Tripoli.  The  Greeks, 
however,  never  intermitted  their  attention  to  the 
science ;  they  continued  it  even  after  their  subjuga- 
tion by  the  Romans,  and  we  find  them  producing 
many  excellent  geometers  after  the  translation  c3 


GEOMETRY— GEORGE  1. 


the  Roman  Empire,  and  within  our  era  :  Ptolemy 
(q.  v.),  who  died  147  A.d.  ;  Pappus  (q.  v.),  who  lived 
in  the  time  of  Theodosius  (379—395  a.d.);  Proclus, 
who  liv^ed  in  the  5th,  and  Eutocius,  in  the  6th  cen- 
tury. Tlie  works  of  all  these  writers  are  still  extant. 
Meantime,  the  Romans,  the  dominant  race,  even  in 
the  most  flourishing  time  of  the  republic,  were  so 
ignorant  of  the  science,  that,  according  to  Tacitus, 
they  gave  the  name  of  Mathematicians  (q.  v.) 
to  those  who  practised  divination  and  judicial 
astrology.  As  may  he  supposed,  their  domination 
was  not  favourable  to  the  science,  and  only  one 
Roman  name  can  be  mentioned — viz.,  Boiithius,  who 
lived  towards  the  close  of  the  5th  c,  who  attained 
eminence  in  geometry ;  and  of  his  writings,  it  must 
be  said,  as  of  the  Roman  literature  generally,  that 
they  were  but  compilations  and  reflections  of  Greek 
thought.  But  if  the  Roman  empire  was  xmfavour- 
able,  its  downfall,  and  the  consequent  inundation  of 
ignorance  and  barbarism,  were  still  moj-e  so.  The 
rise  of  the  Mohammedan  power  in  the  7th  c, 
and  the  rapid  and  desolating  consequences  which 
followed,  further  hastened  the  extinction  of  the 
Greek  sciences.  The  time  now  came  when  those 
who  devoted  themselves  to  science  were  everywhere 
branded  as  magicians,  and  exposed  to  popular  fury. 
It  was  in  these  times  that,  fortunately  for  civilisa- 
tion, an  asylum  was  found  for  the  spirit  of  inqiiiry 
in  Arabia.  An  acquaintance  with  the  science  of 
the  Hindus  prepared  the  Arabians  for  the  reception 
of  the  writings  of  the  Greek  astronomers  aud 
mathematicians ;  and  the  dispersion  of  the  scientific 
coteries  of  Alexandria  gave  to  Bagdad  many  pre- 
ceptors in  the  learning  of  the  West.  In  little  more 
than  a  centiuy  after  it  took  place,  the  Arabians 
were  the  most  zealous  patrons  and  cultivators  of 
Greek  science ;  from  the  9th  to  the  14th  centuries, 
they  produced  many  astronomers,  geometricians, 
&c. ;  and  through  them  the  mathematical  sciences 
were  again  restored  to  Europe  towards  the  close  of 
the  14th  c,  being  first  received  in  Spain  and  Italy. 
The  revival  of  ancient  literature  in  Europe,  and  the 
discovery  of  the  art  of  printing  about  the  midille  of 
the  15th  c,  concurred  to  difi"use  a  knowledge  of  the 
ecience  of  the  Greeks,  which  came  into  notice  with 
their  general  literature  ;  and  from  this  date,  many 
names  occur  of  eminent  geometricians.  During  the 
16th  c,  Euclid  was  held  in  such  estimation,  that  no 
attemi)ts  were  made  to  advance  the  science  beyond 
the  point  at  which  he  left  it.  Commentaries  and 
translations  of  the  Elements  of  Euclid  were  rife; 
but  till  the  time  of  Kepler,  no  attempts  were  made 
to  improve  or  extend  the  methods  of  geometry. 
Kepler  (q.  v.)  introduced  the  principle  of  infinity 
mto  geometry.  Next,  Descartes,  seizing  the  results 
of  Vieta's  discoveries  in  the  use  of  S5anbols,  invented 
the  new  or  the  anal3i:ical  algebraical  geometry, 
which  vastly  extended  the  domains  of  the  science. 
It  then  required  but  the  invention  of  the  calculus 
to  give  the  science  that  grand  sweep  and  power 
which  it  now  possesses.  For  a  notice  of  some 
of  the  more  recent  improvements  in  geometrical 
methods,  see  Transversals,  Polars,  Projections. 
The  reader  will  also  find  a  very  excellent  view  of 
the  growth  of  the  science  in  the  introduction  to 
Mr  Pott's  Euclid  (London,  1845) ;  also  under  the 
various  names  of  those  mentioned  in  this  article, 
will  be  found  fuller  notices  of  their  contribu- 
tions to  the  science.  No  full  list  can  be  given 
of  the  contributors,  but  it  would  be  unjust  not 
to  refer  here  to  Johann  Mliller  (called  Regiomon- 
tanus),  Copernicus,  Tartaglia,  Vieta,  Galileo,  Fermat, 
Roberval,  Pascal,  Huyghens,  Barrow,  Newton,  the 
Oregories,  Lagrange,  Clairaut,  Euler,  Robert  Simson 
— wnose  translation  of  Euclid  may  be  regarded  as 
the  standard  text  in  English — Mathew  Stewart, 
7W 


Brook  Taylor,  Maclaurin,  Monge,  Poncelet,  Camot 
Chasles.  and  »Sir  William  Hamilton  of  Dublin.  See 
also  Quaternions. 

GEORGE  I.,  king  of  Great  Britain,  son  of  Ernst 
August,  Elector  of  Brunswick,  and  of  Sophia, 
a  granddaughter  of  James  1.  of  England,  was 
born  on  28th  May  1660.  A  '.cording  to  the  theory 
that  the  blood  of  James  II.  in  the  direct  line  was 
'  corrupted,'  he  was  the  near  est  heir  to  the  crown. 
On  the  death  of  Queen  Anne,  31st  July  1714. 
he  was  instantly  ])roclaimed  king,  and  arrived  in 
this  country  from  his  electorate  of  Hanover  at 
the  age  of  54.  To  him  this  country  was  to  the 
last  a  foreign  country,  for  which  he  had  no  love, 
a;.««  of  the  language,  feelings,  and  thought  of 
wmcli,  he  was  profoundly  ignorant.  His  aflectiona 
remained  with  Hanover,  but  to  Britain  his  alli- 
ances, experience,  and  fair  abilities  for  business, 
resolutely  exercised,  were  of  considerable  value. 
A  king  of  more  brilliant  j)arts  might  have  been 
an  impediment  in  the  way  of  constitutional  govern- 
ment adjusting  itself  to  habits  of  domestic  peace 
and  order  after  the  dethronement  of  the  Stuarts, 
whose  ruined  fortunes  excited  the  pity  of  the  people, 
and  afforded  a  convenient  cry  for  the  minority,  that 
declaimed  in  private,  and  wrote  songs,  and  plotted 
against  the  imported  king,  whom  they  called  a 
'  foreign  tyrant.'  Being  supported  by  the  Whigs, 
and  undisguisedly  partial  to  them,  the  Tories  were 
adverse  to  him,  as  well  as  the  Jacobites,  and  they 
associated  together  to  bring  abo\it  a  revolution.  In 
Scotland,  in  1715,  the  Earl  of  Mar  raised  the 
standard  of  rebellion ;  and  he  had  collected  about 
10,000  men,  when  he  engaged  the  Duke  of  Argyle 
with  about  half  that  number  of  men  at  Sheriff- 
muir,  near  Dunblane.  It  was  a  drawn  battle,  the 
left  wing  of  both  armies  being  victorious  ;  but  to  the 
rebels  it  was  not  a  victory,  and  it  caused  delay  and 
checked  their  ])rogress,  and  that  was  equivalent  to 
a  defeat,  for  the  Highlanders,  seeing  little  i)rospect 
of  fighting  and  i)lunder,  returned  home  ;  and  in  that 
part  of  the  island  the  rebellion  may  be  said  to  have 
burned  out  of  itself.  In  England,  it  did  not  suc- 
ceed so  well ;  and  it  was  ended  miserably  by  the 
unconditional  surrender  of  the  insurgents  at  Preston. 
For  this  outbreak  the  Earl  of  Derwentwater  and 
Viscomit  Kenmure  were  beheaded  on  Tower  Hill 
several  officers  were  shot,  many  persons  of  dis 
tinction  were  attainted,  about  thirty  of  the  less 
conspicuous  rebels  were  executed,  and  above  1000 
were  transported  to  the  plantations.  The  Earl  of 
Mar  and  the  Pretender  both  escaped  to  France. 

The  next  most  notable  and  calamitous  event 
of  this  reign  was  the  failure  of  the  South  Sea 
Company  (q.  v.).  A  quarrel  with  the  Spaniards 
commenced  in  1726,  which  issued  in  a  somewhat 
imsuccessful  expedition  of  Admiral  Hosier  to  their 
American  possessions,  and  a  fruitless  attempt 
on  Gibraltar  (q.  v.)  by  the  Spaniards.  In  1727, 
George  L,  who  had,  amid  the  splendo-urs  of  British 
royalty,  sighed  for  his  fatherland  and  his  family, 
set  out  for  Hanover,  and  died  of  aj)oplexy  on  hia 
way  to  \asit  his  brother,  who  was  Bishop  of  Osna- 
burg,  on  the  night  of  the  10th  or  the  morning  of 
the  11th  of  June.  His  life  was  not  a  ha])py  one. 
His  wife,  Sophia  Dorothea  of  Zell,  to  whom  he 
was  untrue,  had  solaced  herself  by  yielding  to  the 
attentions  of  Philip  von  Koningsmark.  On  Sunday 
the  1st  July  1694  the  latter  disappeared  for  ever  in  a 
mystei'ious  way,  and  on  the  28th  December  Sophia 
was  divorced.  The  remaining  32  years  of  her  lii'e 
were  spent  as  a  prisoner  in  the  fortress  of  Ahlden, 
where  she  died  at  the  a^e  of  60.  There  are  clear 
glimpses  of  George  I.  in  Carlyle's  Life  of  Frederick 
the  Great.  Carlyle  commends  his  talent  for  silence, 
and  thinks  him,  in  spite  of  appearances,  a  raan  o\ 


GEORGE  IL— GEORGE  ITI. 


more  human  faculty,  *  chiefiy  of  an  inarticulate 
kind,'  than  he  generally  gets  credit  for. 

GEORGE  II.  succeeded  his  father  as  king  of 
Enoiaud  in  the  45th  year  of  his  age.  He  was  born 
at  itlauover  on  the  30th  October  1683,  and  married 
Carolina  Wilhelmina,  daughter  of  the  markgi-af  of 
Anspach.  She  is  said  to  have  been  a  woman  of 
uncommon  attainments  in  literature,  tlieology,  and 
politics,  and  her  death  in  1737  was  reckoned  a  public 
loss.  The  king  himself  did  not  aspire  to  a  code  of 
morals  dilferent  from  his  fathers,  nor  to  any  intel- 
lectual accomplishments  except  those  of  a  soldier. 
He  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Dettingen  in  1743, 
and  with  the  assistance  of  the  Earl  of  Stair  he 
gained  it :  the  French  being  entirely  defeated,  and 
very  efficient  service  rendered  to  Maria  Theresa 
of  Hungary,  who  had  besought  it  to  prevent 
the  partition  of  her  dominions.  His  second  son, 
the  Dulce  of  Cumberland,  was  not  so  fortunate, 
for  the  English  forces  under  him  were  defeated 
with  great  loss  in  1745  at  Eoutenoy  by  the 
Frencii  under  the  famous  Marshal  Saxe.  In  the 
eame  year  (1745)  Prince  Charles  Stuart,  son  of  the 
old  J'retender,  landed  in  Scotland  with  seven 
officers,  and  arms  for  2000  men.  After  some 
transient  successes,  he  was  completely  defeated  at 
Culloden,  IGth  April  1746,  and  what  is  known  as 
the  Second  Rebellion  was  brought  to  an  end.  (See 
Stuakt,  Charles  Edward.)  The  Duke  of  Cum- 
berland, whose  barbarities  in  the  suppression  of  the 
insurrection  earned  him  the  name  of  the  '  Bloody 
Butcher,'  returned  to  the  command  of  the  English 
forces  on  the  continent,  and  was  repeatedly  beaten 
by  Marshal  Saxe  and  the  French  ;  much  that  Marl- 
borough had  gained  being  lost.  In  India,  Colonel, 
afterwards  Lord  Clive,  gained  various  victories, 
the  chief  of  them  being  the  victory  at  Plassey  in 
1756,  which  laid  the  foundations  of  the  British 
East  Indian  Emj^ire  ;  and  during  the  next  three 
years  the  British  dominion  in  North  America  was 
extended  and  strengthened  by  the  victory  of  Wolfe 
on  the  heights  of  Abraham,  and  by  the  subsequent 
surrender  of  Quebec.  British  allied  troops  contri- 
buted to  the  Hanoverian  victory  at  Minden  in  1739. 
G.  died  25th  October  1760,  in  the  77th  year  of  his 
age,  and  the  34th  of  his  reign.  Generally,  the  reign 
of  George  II.  was  a  prosperous  one  :  according  to 
Hallam,  '  the  most  prosperous  period  that  England 
had  ever  known;'  and  it  was  this  not  less  from  the 
acquisition  of  new  territory,  than  from  the  conquest 
of  new  fields  of  thought  effected  l)y  Pope,  Hume, 
Samuel  Johnson,  Fielding,  Smollett,  Reynolds, 
Hogarth,  and  many  others. 

GEORGE  III.,  son  of  Frederick  Lewis,  Prince 
of  Wales,  succeeded  his  grandfather,  George  II. 
He  was  born  on  the  4th  June  1738,  and  died  at 
Windsor  Castle,  on  the  29th  January  1820,  in  the 
60th  year  of  his  reign,  which  was  eventful  as  well 
as  long.  On  8th  September  1761,  he  married  the 
Princess  Charlotte  Sophia,  daughter  of  Charles 
Duke  of  Mecklenburg- Strelitz,  and  was  by  her  the 
father  of  fifteen  children.  His  intellect  was  not 
of  the  strongest,  but,  like  his  two  predecessors, 
he  had  firmness  of  purpose,  and,  in  addition,  a 
conscientiousness  and  sense  of  decorum  unknown 
to  them,  while  both  friends  and  enemies  could  rely 
upon  him — the  one  for  favours,  and  the  other  for 
the  reverse.  His  mind  gave  way  several  times 
-in  1764,  in  1788,  in  1801,  in  1804;  and  in  1810, 
when  the  British  Avere  fighting  behind  the  lines  of 
Torres  Vedras,  his  final  insanity  supervened.  He 
had  an  abundance  of  ^ares,  like  most  sovereigns. 
The  Letlers  of  Junius  and  the  invectives  of  Wilkes 
annoyed  him  ;  so  did  the  i)roposals  to  emancipate 
the  Roman   Cathohcs.  and  the  terrible  French 


Revolution  of  1789.  His  life  was  attempted  by 
tlie  maniacs  Margaret  Nicolson  and  a  man  named 
Hatfield.  The  marriages  of  two  of  his  brothers 
with  the  widows  of  subjects  displeased  him,  and 
led  to  the  passing  of  the  Royal  Marriage  Bill,  12 
Geo.  III.  c.  11,  prohibiting  the  niem])ers  of  the  royal 
family  from  contracting  marriage  without  the 
consent  of  the  king,  if  under  twenty-five  years  of 
age,  and  the  consent  of  parliament  if  above  that 
age  ;  and  afterwards  the  undoubted  deljts  and  dia- 
sipation  of  his  eldest  son,  who  became  George  IV., 
his  hardly  doubtful  marriage  with  Mrs  Fitzherbert, 
the  Roman  Catholic  widow  of  two  husl)and3,  and 
the  scandals  of  his  public  marriage  with  his  cou-sin, 
Caroline  of  Brunswick,  must  have  led  the  '  good 
old  king'  to  reflect  that  not  even  a  '  marriage -bill' 
could  cure  all  the  domestic  miseries  of  monarch*. 
Nor  were  matters  of  national  excitement  and  mag- 
nitude aw\anting.  A  bill,  imposing  certain  stamp- 
duties  upon  the  American  colonies,  which  had  been 
resolved  to  be  inexpedient  in  1764,  was  passed  in 
March  1765,  and  repealed  in  1766  by  the  Marquis 
of  Rockingham's  ministry ;  and  in  1767  the  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer,  Mr  Towushend,  brought 
forward  a  plan  for  the  taxation  of  these  colonies, 
which  led  to  their  revolt,  the  colonists  objecting 
to  be  taxed  by  a  parliament  in  which  tliey  were 
not  represented.  In  1770,  Lord  North,  the  premier, 
brought  in  a  bill  for  the  repeal  of  all  the  recently 
imposed  American  duties,  exce])t  the  duty  on  tea, 
w^hich  was  retained,  to  assert  the  English  right  to 
impose  taxes  on  these  colonies.  In  December  1773, 
'  Boston  harbour  is  black  with  unexpected  tea,' 
cargoes  of  it  being  wantonly  destroyed  by  the 
colonists ;  and  on  19th  April  1775,  hostilities  com- 
menced with  the  undecisive  battle  of  Lexington, 
which  on  the  16th  June  was  followed  by  that  of 
Bunker's  Hill,  which  was  a  victory  to  the  colonists, 
and  helped  to  give  them  boldness  to  renounce  the 
donunion  of  Great  Britain,  and  pul^lisli  the  declar- 
ation of  independence  on  the  4th  July  1776.  George 
Washington,  a  colonel  of  militia,  wlio  had  been 
appointed  general  of  the  insurgent  colonists,  took 
possession  of  Boston  in  that  year,  having  compelled 
General  Howe  and  the  British  troops  to  retire,  and 
next  year  he  gained  an  important  advantage  by  the 
capture  of  Burgoyne's  army  of  10,000  fine  troops, 
British  and  German.  The  French,  Spanish,  and 
Dutch  all  threw  their  weight  into  tlie  American 
scale,  and  the  chequered  and  disastrous  struggle 
ended  in  America  by  the  surrender  of  Lord  Corn- 
wallis,  with  a  British  army  of  6000,  to  Washington 
and  the  Marquis  de  la  Fayette.  The  French 
sufTered  at  sea  by  the  gallantry  of  the  British 
under  BjTon,  Hood,  and  Rodney,  this  last  having, 
in  1782,  in  the  West  Indies,  obtained  over  them  a 
naval  victory  by  the  hitherto  untried  method  of 
breaking  the  enemy's  line.  In  that  year,  also. 
General  Elliott  repulsed  the  grand  attack  of  the 
French  and  Spaniards,  and  put  an  end  to  their 
chances  of  success  in  the  obdm-ate  siege  of  Gibraltar. 
At  Versailles,  on  3d  September  1783,  a  peace  was 
concluded  with  France  and  Spain,  in  which  the 
independence  of  the  American  states  w^as  reccg- 
nised,  not  a  little  to  the  satisfaction  of  many  of 
the  English  at  home,  who,  besides  being  tired  of 
the  struggle,  had  throughout  the  contest  sym})a- 
thised  Avith  the  American  colonists,  whose  cause, 
originally  good,  had  had  its  merits  kept  before  the 
public  mind  by  the  eloquence  of  Chatham,  Fox, 
and  Burke,  three  of  the  greatest  orators  of  all 
time. 

Meanwhile,  the  British  rule  in  India  was  conso 
lidated,  and  this  was  effected  in  no  insignificant 
degree  under  thp  governor-generalship  of  Warren 
Hastings,  a  most  able  but  somewhat  unscrupulous 

703 


GEORGE  IV.— GEORGE. 


man  His  trial  for  misrule  and  oppression,  famous 
for  the  eloquent  accusations  of  Burke  and  Sheridan, 
began  in  1786,  and  was  protracted  for  nine  years. 
Wars  with  Hyder  Ali  and  his  son  Tippoo  Saib  were 
ended  by  the  storming  of  Seringapatani  in  1709. 

The  after-swell  of  the  French  revolution  broke 
over  all  the  continent  of  Europe  in  wave  after 
wave  of  war.  The  aversion  of  Britain  to  the 
insane  democracy  of  France  was  not  concealed, 
and  in  1793,  a  few  days  after  the  execution  of 
their  king,  the  French  declared  war  against 
Britain.  In  the  confused  warfare  that  followed, 
the  P]nglisli,  under  Lord  Howe,  in  1794,  defeated 
the  French  fleet  in  the  Channel ;  under  Sir  John 
Jervis  they  defeated  the  Spanish  fleet  off  Cape  St 
Vincent  in  1797  ;  and  also  in  that  year,  under  Lord 
Duncan,  they  defeated  the  Dutch  ofi"  Camperdown  ; 
and  in  1798  Nelson  was  victorious  on  the  Nile  over 
the  French  fleet  that  had  conveyed  Napoleon 
Bonaparte  and  his  troops  to  Egypt.  In  1801,  he 
bombarded  Copenhagen,  and  partially  destroyed 
the  Danish  fleet ;  and  the  forces  under  Sir  Ralph 
Abercromby — who  was  mortally  wounded — gained 
the  victory  of  Alexandria  over  the  troops  which 
Napoleon  had  left  in  Egypt  to  menace  tlie  power 
of  Britain  in  the  East.  On  25th  March  1802,  the 
treaty  of  peace  of  Amiens  was  signed,  but,  within 
a  year,  hostilities  were  renewed.  In  1803,  Hanover 
was  occuiucd  by  the  French.  On  October  21,  1805, 
Nelson  lost  his  life,  and  gained  his  greatest  victory 
of  Trafalgar  over  the  French  and  Spanish  fleets. 
Napoleon's  splendid  victory  of  Austerlitz  over  the 
Austrians  and  Russians,  December  1805,  was  sur- 
vived only  a  few  weeks  by  the  groat  statesman 
Pitt,  whose  l)reaking  heart  and  constitution  coidd 
not  sustain  the  shock  of  this  last  disappointment. 
Napoleon's  Berlin  decree  of  1806,  and  his  Milan 
decree  of  1807,  declaring  the  British  dominions  in 
a  state  of  blockade  on  purpose  to  destroy  British 
commerce,  were  not  supported  by  a  suflicient  navy 
to  carry  them  into  execution  by  capturing  vessels 
trading  with  Britain  ;  but  they  did  no  inconsider- 
able damage.  In  1808,  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  landed 
in  Portugal,  and  defeated  the  French  at  Vimeira ; 
but  the  advantage  of  this  victory  M'as  thrown  away 
in  the  Convention  of  Cintra.  The  retreat,  four 
months  after,  to  Corunna  of  the  English  army 
under  Sir  John  Moore,  from  overwhelming  odds, 
and  its  safe  embarkation  in  January  1809,  after 
the  repulse  of  Marshal  Soult,  has  secured  a  repu- 
tation for  the  able  and  distinguished  general  Avho 
fell  there  hardly  inferior  to  that  of  those  who  have 
died  in  the  moment  of  victory.  In  April  of  that 
year,  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  retiimed  to  the  com- 
mand in  the  Peninsula,  and  after  conquering  at 
Talavera  on  the  8tli  of  July,  wearing  out  the  powers 
of  the  assailing  French  behind  the  lines  of  Torres 
Vedras  during  the  last  months  of  1810,  and  con- 
quering at  Fuentes  de  Onoro  in  1811,  at  Salamanca 
in  1812,  at  Vittoria  in  1813  (as  Lord  Wellington), 
nnd  in  other  battles  and  sieges,  he  drove  the 
French  out  of  the  peninsula.  The  struggle  was 
terminated  on  the  eventful  field  of  Waterloo  (q.  v.), 
18th  June  1815. 

On  the  1st  of  January  1801,  Ireland  was  united 
to  Great  Britain,  and  its  separate  legislation  was 
abolished.  During  this  reign  many  Scotchmen  had 
forced  their  way  to  the  first  places  in  the  state ;  all 
the  Jacobite  feelings  had  died  out ;  and  the  Union 
had  become  not  a  legislative  one  merely,  but  a 
union  of  society,  literature,  thought,  and  enterprise. 
The  most  original  and  ^^gorous  thought  of  this 
period  found  its  expression  in  poetry,  and  among  its 
great  poets,  the  most  noteworthy  are  Byron,  Cole- 
ridge, Wordsworth,  and  Walter  Scott,  the  last  of 
whcm  is  also  at  the  head  of  all  the  writers  of  prose- 
704 


fiction.  In  spite  of  the  depressing  efi^ecta  of  war, 
commerce  greatly  increased  during  the  60  years  of 
this  reign  ;  and  the  revenue,  v/hich  at  the  beginning 
of  it  was  under  nine  millions,  had,  during  the 
years  of  the  French  war,  been  increased  more  than 
sevenfold,  thus  shewing,  though  by  an  undesirable 
metho<i,  the  vast  increase  of  the  resources  of  the 
country.  Chemistry  and  the  steam-engine  were 
beginning  to  alter  the  face  of  society.  Among 
legislative  reforms,  the  most  conspicuous  was  the 
abolition  of  the  punishment  of  death  for  minor 
crimes,  and  generally  the  statute-book,  which  had 
greatly  increased,  became  more  and  more  favourable 
to  individual  liberty. 

GEORGE  IV.  became  king  of  Great  Britain  on 
liis  father's  death.  He  had  been  virtual  sovereign 
during  the  long  })eriod  of  his  father's  last  insanity, 
as  Prince  Regent.  He  was  born  on  12th  August 
1762,  and  died  on  the  26th  June  1830.  That  he 
should  have  lived  so  long  as  67  years  is  not  the 
least  notable  circumstance  connected  with  a  life 
that  lias  supplied  as  much  material  for  scandal  aa 
any  in  English  history.  G.  had  considerable  intel- 
lectual al)ility  and  address,  covdd  tell  stories  well, 
and  enjoy  every  day  without  thinking  of  the  next. 
His  personal  attractions,  and  his  position  together, 
led  many  in  his  lifetime  to  style  him,  not  without 
sincerity,  '  the  first  gentleman  of  Europe ; '  but 
the  decay  of  king- worship,  and  the  growth  of 
moralit)',  have  not  allowed  that  to  continue  to  bo 
the  opinion  of  his  countrymen.  His  frailties,  and 
those  of  his  royal  namesakes,  have  been  merci' 
lessly  exjjosed  by  Thackeray  in  his  '  Four  Georges  * 
(1861).  Unfortunately  for  their  memory,  no  man 
of  Thackeray's  abilities  has  set  himself  to  look 
for  their  virtues  and  their  good  deeds  to  England 
— which  were  not  few — and  for  which  they  have 
earned  the  gratitude  of  patriots,  not  mere  blind 
worship])ers  of  royalty. 

The  marriage  of  George  IV.  was  specially  unfor- 
tunate. He  entered  into  it  on  8th  April  1794, 
with  his  cousin,  Caroline  Amelia  Elizabeth,  second 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  under  the 
pressure  of  debt,  and  of  his  father,  and  their  con- 
jugal hapi)iness,  if  it  ever  existed,  did  not  last  many 
weeks.  The  Princess  Charlotte  Augiista  was  born 
of  the  marriage  on  7th  January  1796,  and  shortly 
after  her  parents  separated,  having  ceased  to  speak 
to  each  other  months  before.  See  Caroline.  Tim 
Princess  Charlotte  had  married  Prince  Leopold, 
now  (1862)  king  of  Belgium,  and  she  died  in 
childbed  on  6th  November  1817,  greatly  to  the 
grief  of  the  whole  nation. 

Royal  visits  to  Scotland  and  Ireland ;  the  aid 
rendered  to  the  Greeks  by  the  British  fleet  in  the 
battle  of  Navarino  (1827),  which  secured  the  inde- 
pendence of  Greece ;  and  the  passing  (1829)  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Relief  Bill  (q.  v.)  (so  odious  to  his 
father),  are  the  most  notable  incidents  of  this 
king's  reign.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  brother 
William,  Duke  of  Clare  ace,  who  had  entered  the 
navy  in  his  youth. 

GEORGE  (the  Bearded),  Duke  of  Saxony,  eldest 
son  of  Albert  (the  Brave),  the  founder  of  the  Ducal 
or  Albertinian  Saxon  line,  was  born  in  147 1.  He 
early  exhibited  a  strong  desire  for  the  acqniHition 
of  religious  knowledge,  and  in  1484  was  sent  to 
Meissen  to  pursue  his  studies,  with  a  view  to  bis 
entering  the  church.  On  the  death  of  his  father  iu 
1500,  G.  succeeded  to  the  whole  dukedom,  consist- 
ing of  the  half  of  Thuringia  and  Meissen,  with  the 
exception  of  the  lately  acquirea  country  of  Friesland, 
which  fell  to  his  younger  brother  Henry;  who, how- 
ever, soon  after  exchanged  it  with  G.  for  Freiberg 
and  Wolkenstein.  Though  G.  and  WiUiam,  Du^e  o< 


GEORGE- GEORGETOWN. 


Lower  Bavaria,  were  the  two  pillars  of  Catholicism 
in  Germany,  yet  the  former  did  not  appear  to  be 
much  displeased  wdth  the  proceedings  of  Luther 
previous  to  the  Leipsic  controversy;  on  the  con- 
traiy,  they  were  at  one  in  regard  to  the  many 
aouses  which  had  crept  into  the  church,  but  G. 
wished  to  remedy  them  through  papal  edicts,  or  the 
decisions  of  a  general  council.  The  ill-feeling  between 
G.  and  Luther  commenced  diiring  the  Leipsic  con- 
troversy, and  arose  from  a  misapprehension  of 
Luther's  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith ;  it  neces- 
Bfrily  increased  in  strength  in  one  who  was  so 
remarkable  for  obstinacy,  especially  as  it  was  care- 
fully fostered  by  John  Eck  and  other  of  Luther's 
enemies.  Yet  when  the  emperor  seemed  likely 
to  \nolate  his  safe  conduct  given  to  Luther,  G. 
strongly  protested  against  such  a  breach  of  good 
faith.  The  later  years  of  his  reign  were  imbittered 
by  a  succession  of  domestic  calamities :  first  his 
wife  died,  then  all  his  children  in  succession,  and 
thus  his  brother,  Henry  of  Freiberg,  became  heir- 
apparent.  Henry  was  a  zealous  Protestant,  and 
such  was  G.'s  antipathy  to  being  succeeded  by  one 
of  that  religion,  that  he  attempted  to  break  the 
line  of  succession,  but  did  not  live  long  enough  to 
accomplish  his  purpose.  He  died  in  1530,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Henry. 

GEORGE,  a  district  of  the  Cape  Colony,  is 
separated  from  that  of  Zwellendam  on  the  west 
by  the  Gauritz  (q.  v.).  It  contains  4032  square 
miles,  and  about  20,000  inhabitants.  It  is  valuable 
chiefly  for  its  i>asturage  and  its  timber.  On  its 
coast  is  the  port  of  Mossel  Bay. 

GEORGE  (Lake),  called  also  Horicon,  a  pic- 
turesque sheet  of  water,  remarkable  for  its  trans- 
parency and  for  the  beauty  of  the  scenery  on 
its  shores,  lies  in  the  state  of  New  York,  and 
measures  34  miles  by  3.  It  discharges  its  waters 
into  Lake  Champlain,  thus  forming  a  part  of  the 
gi-and  system  of  the  St  Lawrence.  It  is,  in  some 
places,  400  feet  deep.  It  possesses  some  liisvorical 
interest  in  connection  with  the  North  American  wars 
between  England  and  France. 

GEORGE  (St),  one  of  the  Bermudas,  is  strongly 
fortified,  and  forms  the  principal  depot  in  the  group 
for  military  purposes.  On  the  south  coast  is  a  town 
of  its  own  name,  which  has  a  large  harbour  of 
considerable  strength. 

GEORGE,  St,  a  saint,  venerated  both  in  the 
Eastern  and  Western  churches,  held  in  especial 
veneration  as  the  patron  of  Chivalry,  and  adopted 
as  the  tutelary  saint  of  England.  His  origin  is 
extremely  obscure  ;  and  the  very  oldest  accounts 
of  him  which  are  extant  contain  a  straiige  admix- 
ture of  history  and  legend.  He  is  honoured  both 
in  the  East  and  the  West  as  a  martyr,  and  the 
Greek  acts  of  his  mai-tyrdom  fix  the  date  of  his 
death  as  the  persecution  imder  Diocletian  ;  but 
these  acts  are,  by  the  confession  even  of  Roman 
Catholic  hagiologists,  undoubtedly  spurious.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  asserted  (see  Gibbon's  Decline 
and  Fall,  ii.  323)  that  the  canonisation  of  G.  is 
one  of  the  many  errors  which  Protestant  historians 
freely  impute  to  the  Roman  calendar,  and  that  the 
George  who  is  thus  reputed  a  saint  and  martyr 
is  no  other  than  the  turbulent  and  unscrupulous 
Arian  partisan,  George  of  Caj)padocia,  whom  his 
Arian  followers  revered  as  a  saint,  and  imposed 
as  such  upon  the  credulity  of  their  Catholic 
countrymen.  It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that 
the  best  modem  authorities,  Catholic  and  Pro- 
testant, agree  in  admitting  the  great  improbability 
of  this  allegation.  Heylin  is  of  one  mind  in 
this  matter  with  the  Jesuit  Papebroch,  and  Dean 
Milman  adopts  the  arguments,  and  agrees  in  the 


opinion  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Bishop  Milner 
The  truth  is,  that  whatever  is  to  be  said  of  the 
early  accounts  of  the  martyrdom  of  G.,  the  fact 
of  his  being  honoured  as  a  martyr  by  the  Catholic 
church,  of  churches  being  dedicated  to  him,  and  of 
the  Hellespont  being  called  'St  George's  Arm,'  ia 
traced  by  Papebroch,  by  Milner,  and  by  other 
writers  to  so  early  a  date,  and  brought  so  imme- 
diately into  contact  with  the  times  of  the  angry 
conflicts  in  which  George  of  Cappadocia  figured  as  an 
Arian  leader,  that  it  would  be  just  as  reason al)le 
to  believe  that  the  Catholics  of  England  at  tbo 
present  day  would  accept  Lord  George  Gordon  as 
a  Catholic  saint,  as  to  suppose  that  the  Catholica 
of  the  East — ^while  the  tomb  of  Athanasius  was 
hardly  closed  upon  his  honoured  relics — would 
accept  as  a  sainted  martyr  his  cruel  and  unscru- 
pulous persecutor.  Indeed  it  cannot  be  doubted 
that  the  St  G.  of  the  Eastern  Church  is  a  real 
personage,  and  of  an  earlier  date  than  George  of 
Cappadocia — very  probably  of  the  date  to  which 
these  acts,  though  otherwise  false,  assign  him.  The 
legend  of  his  conflict  with  the  Dragon  arose  most 
probably  out  of  a  symbolical  or  allegorical  rejiresen' 
tation  of  his  contest  with  the  pagan  persecutor.  Aa 
in  this  ancient  legend  St  (t.  appears  as  a  soldier, 
he  was  early  regarded  as  one  of  the  patrons  of 
the  military  profession.  Under  this  title,  he  was 
honoured  in  France  as  early  as  the  Gth  c.  ;  but  it 
was  not  until  after  the  Crusaders,  who  ascribed 
their  success  at  the  siege  of  Antioeh  to  his  inter- 
cession, returned  to  Europe  from  the  Holy  War, 
that  the  religious  honour  paid  to  him  reached  its 
full  development.  He  was  selected  as  the  patron 
saint  of  the  Republic  of  Genoa  and  also  of  England. 
At  the  council  of  Oxford,  in  1222,  his  feast  was 
ordered  to  be  kept  as  a  national  festival.  In  1330, 
he  was  made  the  patron  of  the  Order  of  the  Garter 
by  Edward  HI. ;  and  even  since  the  Reformation, 
the  ancient  sentiment  is  still  po^^ularly  maintained. 

GEORGE,  St,  Banner  of,  white  with  a  red 
cross.  According  to  Sir  N.  H.  Nicolas,  the  cross 
of  St  George  was  worn  as  a  badge  over  the  armour 
by  every  English  soldier  '  in  the  l4th  and  subsequent 
centuries,  even  if  the  custom  did  not  prevail  at  a 
much  earlier  period,'  to  indicate  that  he  was  in  the 
service  of  the  crown.  On  the  invasion  of  Scotland 
by  Richard  II.  in  138G,  it  was  ordained  'That 
everi  man  of  what  estate,  condicion,  or  nation  they 
be  of,  so  that  he  be  of  oure  partie,  bere  a  signe  of 
the  armes  of  Saint  George,  large,  bothe  before  and 
behynde,  upon  parell  that  yf  he  be  slayne  or  wounded 
to  deth,  he  that  hath  so  doon  to  hym  shall  not  be 
putte  to  deth  for  defaulte  of  the  crosse  that  he 
lacketh.  And  that  non  enemy  do  bere  the  same 
token  or  crosse  of  St  George,  notwithstandyng  if 
he  be  prisoner,  upon  payne  of  deth.'  A  similar 
ordinance  was  adopted  by  Henry  V.  for  the 
government  of  his  army  in  France. 

GEORGE,  The,  the  badge  of  the  Order  of  the 
Garter  (q.  v.),  exhibiting  the  figure  of  St  George  on 
horseback  piercing  the  falling  dragon,  which  lies 
on  a  mount. 

GEORGE'S  CHANNEL,  St,  is  the  name  applied 
to  the  south  portion  of  that  arm  of  the  Atlantic 
which  separates  Ireland  from  the  United  Kingdom. 
A  line,  extending  from  Holyhead  in  Wales  to 
Dublin,  would  form  the  northern  limit  of  this 
channel ;  and  a  similar  line  from  St  David's  Head 
to  Wexford,  would  form  its  southern  limit.  At  its 
northern  extremity  it  is  G4  miles  in  width,  and  at 
its  southern  it  is  about  62  miles  wide ;  its  length, 
from  noi-th-east  to  south-west,  is  about  100  miles. 

GEORGETOWN,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  the 
United  States,  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  situated 

705 


GBOKGETOWN— GEORGIA. 


or  a  range  of  hills,  the  highest  of  which  are 
deriominated  the  Heights,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Potomac,  two  miles  north-west  of  Washington  ((j.  v.). 
Fiom  the  Heights,  which  are  occupied  by  elegant 
villas,  a  magnificent  view  of  the  cities  of  G.,  Washing- 
ton, and  of  the  surrounding  country  is  obtained.  G. 
is  quiet  and  antiquated,  and  has  a  reputation  for  its 
literary  advantages  and  for  its  refined  society.  Its 
principal  institutions  are  the  Georgetown  College, 
under  the  management  of  the  Jesuits,  and  the 
converit  of  Visitation  Nuns — attached  to  which  is 
an  ao  idemy  for  females  with  about  100  pui)ils.  Here 
the  Alexandria  branch  of  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio 
Caual  is  carried  across  the  Potomac  by  means  of 
an  enormous  viaduct  144G  feet  long,  and  36  feet 
above  the  ordinary  level  of  the  water.  As  it  is  the 
only  port  in  the  district  of  Columbia,  and  situated 
at  the  head  of  the  navigation  of  the  Potomac, 
125  miles  from  its  mouth,  its  foreign  commerce  and 
coasting  trade  are  important.  It  keeps  50  mills 
in  operation  to  supply  its  trade  in  flour.  It  is 
one  of  the  greatest  markets  in  the  United  States 
for  shad  and  herrings,  of  which  vast  quantities 
are  caught  in  the  Potomac,  and  lironght  here  for  bar- 
relling. Pop.  1860,  8733;  1870,11,384;  1880,12,578. 

GEORGETOWN"  (Dutch,  Stahroek),  the  capital 
of  British  Guiana,  is  situated  at  the  mouth, 
ami  on  the  right  or  eastern  shore,  of  the  river 
Demerara,  in  lat.  6°  49'  20"  N.,  and  long.  58°  IP 
30"  W.  It  is  handsomely  built,  and  consists  of 
spacious,  clean  streets,  intersecting  at  right  angles, 
and  composed  of  neat  wooden  houses,  which  are 
raised  three  or  four  feet  above  the  ground,  in  order 
to  avoid  the  damp,  have  oi)en  verandahs  in  front, 
and  are  embosomed  in  trees,  of  which  the  cabbage- 
palm,  the  cocoa-nut,  and  the  orange  tree  are  the 
chief.  Most  of  the  streets  are  traversed  by  canals, 
communicating  with  each  other  and  with  the  river. 
Of  the  public  buildings,  the  to>vn-hall,  an  elegant 
structure,  with  marble-paved  galleries  resting  on 
cast-iron  columns,  the  E])iscopal  cathedral,  and 
the  Colonial  Hospital,  are  the  principal.  There  are 
also  a  mariners'  hospital,  numerous  churches  and 
schools,  astronomical  and  botanical  societies,  bar- 
racks, theatres,  and  a  market-})lace  sun-ounded  by 
elegant  and  well-stocked  shops.  G.,  owing  to  the 
low  and  swampy  character  of  the  district  in  which 
it  stands,  is  unhealthy.  Yellow  and  intermittent 
fevers,  diarrhoea,  dysentery,  and  dropsy  are  local 
diseases.  The  chief  exports  of  G.  are  sugar,  cotlee, 
and  rum  ;  and  its  trade  employs  about  600  vessels 
of  100,000  tons.  Pop.  about  36,000,  of  which  about 
20,000  ai-e  negroes  and  people  of  colour. 

GEO'RGIA,  Gulf  of,  an  arm  of  the  North 
Pacific  Ocean,  between  Vancouver's  Island  and 
the  mainland  of  British  Columbia.  It  averages  20 
miles  in  width,  is  100  miles  in  length,  receives 
Fraser  River  (q.  v.),  and  communicates  with  the 
open  ocean  by  Queen  Charlotte's  Sound  in  the 
north,  and  by  the  Strait  of  Fuca  in  the  south.  Its 
southerly  entrance  is  about  lat.  49°  N.  and  long. 
124°  W. 

GEORGIA,  an  Atlantic  state  of  the  American 
Union,  and  one  of  the  13  original  states,  extends  in 
lat.  from  30^  21'  to  35°  N.,  and  in  long,  from  80°  48' 
to  85°  40'  W.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  and  N.E.  by 
the  states  of  Tennessee,  North  Carolina,  and  South 
Carolina,  on  the  W.  by  Alabama,  and  on  the  S.  by 
Florida.  Its  extreme  length,  from  north  to  south, 
is  320  miles  ;  and  its  greatest  breadth,  from  east 
to  west,  is  254  miles.  Its  area  is  58,000  square 
miles.  The  population  in  1860  was  1,057,286,  of 
which  the  whites  numbered  591,550,  the  slaves,  462,- 
198,  and  the  free  coloured,  2538.  In  1870,  the  aggre- 
gate value  of  the  farming  land  was  $94^559,468,  and  the 
706 


value  of  live  stock  on  farms,  $30,156,317,  and  that  of 
property  of  all  kinds  in  the  state  was,  according  to  the 
census  returns,  $268,169,207.  Georgia  sends  to  the 
federal  congress  9  Representatives  and  2  Senators. 
It  presents  every  variety  of  surface,  from  low  alluvial 
lands  and  swamps  along  the  shore  through  an  undu- 
lating and  rough  hilly  country  to  the  Blue  Ridge 
Mountains,  in  the  north  and  north-west  of  the  state. 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  Savannah,  which  forms 
the  north-east  boundary  of  the  state,  and  the 
Chattahoochee,  which  fonns  a  great  portion  of 
its  south-west  boundary.  The  course  of  all  the 
important  rivers  is  toward  the  south  and  south- 
east. Only  about  a  fifth  of  the  entire  area  of  the 
state  is  under  cultivation ;  but  owing  to  the  diver- 
sity of  climate  and  soil,  the  productions  are  wonder- 
ful in  their  variety.  The  islands  that  fringe  the 
coast  are  fertile  in  cotton  of  a  superior  quality  :  the 
bottom  lands  of  the  great  rivers  produce  rice, 
cotton,  Indian  corn,  and  sugar  ;  further  west  are 
the  '  pine  barrens,'  valuable  for  their  timber,  and 
easily  cultivable ;  the  central  region  consists  of  a 
loamy  soil,  once  pi'oductive,  but  now  impoverished  ; 
and  the  north,  the  Cherokee,  country,  contains  lands 
which,  although  long  worked  by  the  Indians,  still 
produce  from  50  to  70  bushels  of  grain  to  the  acre. 
Gold,  though  not  now  sought  for,  was  once  found 
licre  in  some  quantity ;  silver,  copper,  iron,  lead, 
marble  and  precious  stones  also  occur.  Georgia 
has  upwards  of  2200  miles  of  railway.  The  public 
state  debt,  in  1870,  was  $6,544,500.  Georgia  is  divided 
into  132  counties;  capital,  Milledgeville.  Georgia 
Avas  colonized  in  January,  1733.  The  state  was  re- 
admitted into  the  Union  in  1870.  In  1869,  the  fif- 
teenth amendment  was  rejected,  though  the  right  of 
a  negro  to  hold  office  was  established  bj'  a  decision  of 
the  supreme  court  in  June  of  that  year.  Georgia  had, 
in  1870,  $3,433,265  invested  in  cotton  manufactures. 
There  were  8  colleges,  with  1026  students,  46  acade- 
mies, Avith  1295  pupils,  and  provision  had  been  made 
for  a  system  of  general  education,  under  which  246 
public  schools  had  been  established,  Avith  6150  pupils. 
Pop.  in  1870,  1,195,338. 

GEORGIA,  the  name  formerly  applied  in  a 
general  manner  to  the  region  now  called  Russian 
Transcaucasia  (see  Transcaucasia),  which  forms 
the  isthmus  connecting  Europe  w'ith  Turkey-in- 
Asia,  and  is  bounded  by  the  Caucasian  mountains 
on  the  north,  and  by  the  Armenian  mountains  on 
the  south.  The  Persian  name  is  Gurjestan ;  the 
Russian,  Grusia ;  and  the  native,  Iberia ;  the  name 
of  G.  arose  either  from  the  numerous  kings  called 
George  that  ruled  over  the  country,  or  from  the 
patron  saint  being  St  George. 

The  early  history  of  the  Georgians,  who  trace 
their  origin  to  Thargamos,  a  great-grandson  of 
Japliet,  is  wrapped  in  fable.  Mtskhethos,  who  is  said 
to  have  built  Mtsketha,  the  ancient  capital  of  the 
country,  the  ruins  of  Avhich  are  still  visible  near 
Tiflis,  plays  a  prominent  part  in  it.  They  appear, 
however,  in  authentic  history  in  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great  to  whom  they  submitted.  Aftei 
the  death  of  Alexander,  in  the  year  324  b.  c,  they 
were  delivered  from  a  foreign  yoke  by  Pharna-?raa, 
and  united  in  one  kingdom.  With  Pharnawas 
begins  the  series  of  the  Mephe  or  kings  of  G.,  who, 
under  a  variety  of  dynasties,  ruled  the  country  almost 
without  interruption  for  more  than  2000  years. 
By  the  end  of  the  4th  c,  Christianity  had  diffused 
itself  throughout  the  country,  and  through  it  G. 
became  connected  with  the  Eastern  empire,  with 
which  it  joined  in  repelling  the  attacks  of  the 
Sassanides.  After  the  empire  of  the  Sassanides  had 
been  destroyed  by  the  Arabs,  the  latter  carried  their 
conquests  into  G.,  which  now  became  a  province  of 
the  Arabian  Califate.     Toward  the  end  of  the 


/ 


GEORGIA  BARK— GERACE. 


9tli  c,  during  the  decline  of  the  Arabian  Califate, 
the  Georgians  recovered  their  independence  for  a 
Bhort  period,  but  it  was  only  to  become  tributary 
in  the  10th  c.  to  those  dynasties  which,  in  Persia, 
took  the  place  of  the  Califs.  Toward  the  end  of 
the  10th  c,  they  again  achieved  independence,  and 
inaugurated  the  most  brilliant  era  in  Georgian 
history ;  for  from  this  period  to  the  13th  c,  when 
they  were  conquered  by  the  Mongols,  G.  was 
governed  by  a  series  of  able  sovereigns,  who 
increased  its  extent,  repulsed  its  enemies,  and 
raised  it  to  great  prosperity.  Toward  the  end  of 
the  14th  c,  the  country  fell  into  the  hands  of 
Timour,  who,  however,  was  driven  from  it  in 
the  beginning  of  the  following  century  by  George 
VII.  Alexander  I.,  the  successor  of  George  VII., 
committed  the  fatal  error  of  dividing  the  kingdom 
between  his  three  sons.  Each  of  these  states 
was  again  divided,  and  at  one  tune  26  different 
princes  reigned  in  Georgia.  The  general  history 
of  G.  now  divides  into  two  parts :  that  of  the 
eastern  states,  Karthli  and  Kacheth;  and  that  of 
the  western  states,  including  Imereth,  Mingrelia, 
and  Guria.  From  the  16th  to  the  18th  c,  the 
eastern  states  had  been  heavily  oppressed  by  Persia, 
and  in  1799  Gregory  XI.,  after  many  attempts  to 
establish  their  independence,  resigned  the  states 
in  favom-  of  Paul  Emperor  of  Russia,  and  in  1802 
the  Emperor  Alexander  proclaimed  the  territory  a 
Paissian  pro^^nce.  Of  the  three  states  forming 
Western  G.,  Guria  fell  into  the  hands  of  Russia  in 
1801,  and  formally  surrendered  itself  to  that  empire 
oy  the  treaty  of  1810 ;  Mingrelia  was  virtually 
added  to  Russia  in  1803 ;  and  the  state  of  Imereth 
toward  the  close  of  the  18th  century.  Thus  the 
whole  of  G.  has  been  brought  under  the  dominion 
of  Russia,  and  has  been  united,  along  with  the  other 
Transcaucasian  possessions  of  that  country,  into  a 
general  government,  the  head  of  which  imites  in  his 
own  person  the  military  aud  civil  powers,  and  exer- 
cises military  supremacy  over  the  whole  of  the 
Caucasus.  For  the  character  of  the  country  of  G., 
und  for  its  capabilities,  see  Transcaucasia. 

The  Georgians  are  one  of  that  numerous  group 
of  nations  or  tribes  that  inhabit  the  Caucasus,  to 
which  Dr  Latham  has  given  the  name  of  Dioscurians 
(see  Caucasus).  They  are  celebrated  for  their 
beauty,  and  imder  the  Mohammedan  rule,  the  white 
slaves  of  Western  Asia  and  of  Egypt  were  mostly 
drawn  from  among  them  and  the  Circassians. 
Though  endowed  by  nature  with  mental  no  less 
than  physical  advantages,  the  long  course  of  oppres- 
sion to  which  they  have  been  subjected  has  had 
its  efifect  both  upon  tneir  intelligence  and  their 
morality.  Despite  the  long  supremacy  and  cruel 
tyranny  of  their  Mohammedan  conquerors,  they 
have,  as  a  nation,  remained  faithful  to  the  Christian 
religion,  according  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Greek 
church.  In  Guria,  however,  nearly  half  the  inha- 
bitants have  gone  over  to  the  religion  of  Islam. 
The  condition  of  the  people,  although  somewhat 
•ameliorated  imder  Russian  rule,  is  on  the  whole 
deplorable 

The  language  ot  the  Georgians  is  harsh,  but 
regular  and  forcible.  It  has  a  peculiar  structure, 
and  Dr  Latham  considers  it  as  having  nearer 
alEnities  with  the  Tibetan  and  other  monosyllabic 
tongues,  than  with  the  Aryan.  The  hterature, 
which  is  not  altogether  unimportant,  begins  with 
the  introdiiction  of  Christianity  into  the  country, 
and  consists  chiefly  of  ecclesiastical  writings,  trans- 
lations of  the  Bible,  the  fathers,  Plato,  Aristotle,  and 
their  commentators.  Profane  literature  flourished 
chiefly  in  the  17th  c,  and  consists  mainly  of  poetry 
and  chronicles,  particularly  of  an  ecclesiastical 
character.     A  few  heroic  poems  may  be  traced 


back  to  the  time  of  Queen  Thamar  (1184 — 1206). 
Scientific  works  are  few  in  number,  and  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  historical  works,  are  of  no 
importance.  Recently,  however,  a  greater  zeal  in 
the  cultivation  of  the  sciences  has  begun  to  shew 
itself  among  the  Georgians,  aiul  under  the  Russian 
government  the  system  of  education  and  iustniction 
has  progressed  considerably.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  must  be  regarded  as  a  circumstance  unfavour- 
able to  the  mental  cidture  of  the  country,  that, 
in  1807,  the  archives  and  scientific  works  cif  G. 
were  conveyed  to  St  Petersburg.  The  person  most 
thoroughly  conversant  -with  the  langiiage,  literature, 
and  history  of  G.  is  Brosset.  Besides  the  transla- 
tion of  a  Georgian  chronicle,  he  has  published, 
among  other  works,  the  Elements  de  la  Langue 
Geonjknne  (Paris,  1837),  the  Eapport  :s-ur  un  Voyage 
Archeologique  dans  la  Georgie  et  dans  VArmeniey 
execute  en  1847—1848  (Petersburg,  1850—1851), 
UHistolre  de  la  Georgie,  in  Georgian  and  French, 
and  Additions  et  Edan-dssements  cl  VHistoire  de  la 
Georgie  (Petersburg,  1851). 

GEORGIA  BARK.    See  Pinckneya. 

GEORGSWALDE,  a  small  town  on  the  northern 
border  of  Bohemia,  64  miles  north  of  Prague.  It 
has  a  mineral  spring  and  some  manufactures  of 
linen.    Pop.  5100. 

GEOTEU'THIS,  a  genus  of  fossil  calamaries, 
peculiar  to  the  Oolitic  period.  The  shell  or  homy 
pen  is  broad  and  truncated  in  front,  and  pointed 
behind,  with  the  lateral  wings  shorter  than  the 
shaft.  Some  si)ecimens  from  the  Oxford  clay  are 
remarkably  preserved,  still  shewing  the  muscular 
mouth,  the  bases  of  the  arms,  and  the  ink-bag. 
The  ink  has  been  made  into  Sepia.  Some  of  tho 
ink-bags  from  the  Lias  are  nearly  a  foot  long, 
and  are  invested  with  a  brilliant  nacreous  layer. 
Upwards  of  a  dozen  species  have  been  found. 

GERA,  a  town  of  Germany,  the  chief  place  in 
the  small  princij^ality  of  Reuss,  is  pleasantly  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  White  Elster,  35  miles 
south-south-west  of  Leipsic.  It  is  handsomely 
built,  wdth  broad  and  regular  streets,  and  has  six 
squares,  a  castle,  a  fine  town  hall,  and  several 
religious  and  educational  institutions.  There  are 
extensive  manufactures  of  woollen  and  cotton  goods, 
also  machine  making,  and  manufactures  of  soap, 
gloves,  leather,  hats,  tobacco,  waxcloth,  ironware, 
stoneware,  and  porcelain.  The  recent  prosperity  of 
the  town  is  seen  in  the  increase  of  the  population  from 
11,300  in  1843  to  17,871  in  1871.  A  large  manufac- 
tory of  harmonicas  employs  600  hands.  Beer  is  ex- 
tensively numufactured  for  export. 

GERA'CE,  an  ancient  commercial  town  in  the 
south  of  Italy,  chief  town  of  the  district  of  the 
same  name,  in  the  i)rovince  of  Calabria  Ultra  I., 
occupies  a  beautiful  and  fertile  situation  on  the 
upper  slopes  of  the  Apennines,  at  about  four 
miles  distance  from  the  Ionian  Sea.  On  the 
destruction  of  the  ancient  town  of  Loeri  by  the 
Saracens  in  the  12th  c,  the  inhabitants,  out  of  the 
ruins  of  their  homes,  constructed  a  new  settleraei;  t 
about  four  miles  from  the  site  of  Locri,  on  the  sea- 
shore, aud  called  it  Santa  Ciriace,  which  has  since 
become  Gerace.  This  town  has  suffered  severely 
from  repeated  earthquakes,  in  one  of  which,  in 
1783,  both  the  cathedral  and  the  citadel,  a  fortress 
of  great  strength,  were  reduced  to  ruins.  In  a 
neighbouring  plain  are  seen  ruins  supposed  to 
occupy  the  site  of  Locri  EpizephjTii,  an  important 
city  of  Magna  Grecia,  celebrated  by  Pindar  in 
more  than  one  of  his  odes.  Coins  bearing  the 
epigraph  of  Locri  have  been  foimd  in  the  \acinity 
of  the  ruins,  and  together  with  the  Greek  char- 
acter borne  by  the  ruined  edifices,  seem  to  suppoii 


GERANIUM— GEKAED. 


this  supposition.  The  modern  G.  is  -well  built, 
and  owes  its  commei-cial  prosperity  to  its  silk 
factories  and  its  ti'ade  in  wine,  a  sweet  white 
kind  of  Avhich,  known  as  'II  Greco  di  Gerace,'  is 
deservedly  held  in  high  repute.    Top.  6430. 

GERA'NIUM,  a  genus  of  exogenous  i)lants,  the 
type  of  the  natural  order  Oeranlaceoi,  the  limits  of 
which  correspctnd  with  those  of  the  Linna^an  genus. 


a,  Geranium ;  5,  Pelargonium ; 
c,  Herb  Robert  {Geranium  Itobcrtianum). 


This  order  contains  at  least  500  known  species,  very 
\mequally  distributed  over  tlie  world,  and  particu- 
larly abounding  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  of  which 
country  most  of  the  species  of  the  large  genus  Pelar- 
gonium are  natives— a  genus  distinguished  by  an 
irregular  corolla  and  by  a  nectariferous  tube  running 
doM^n  the  flower-stalk.  Many  species  _of_  Pelar- 
(jonium,  and  many  fine  hybrids  and  varieties  pro- 
duced by  cultivation,  are  to  be  seen  in  gi-een -houses, 
and  some  of  them  are  frequent  in  cottage- windows. 
The  name  geranium  is  still  very  frequently  given  to 
them.  The  British  Geraniacece  are  thirteen  species 
of  Geranium  and  three  of  Erodium,  all  herbaceous. 
Some  of  them  are  common  weeds  in  fields  and 
gardens,  with  small  flowers  ;  others  have  large  and 
beautifid  flowers,  and  are  among  the  finest  orna- 
ments of  groves  and  meadows.  Some  species  of 
Geranium  are  often  cultivated  in  flower-gardens. 
The  name  Geranium  (Gr.  geranos,  a  crane),  the 
popular  English  name  Crane' s-hill,  and  the  German 
Storchsnahel,  all  refer  to  the  beaked  fiiiit.  The 
Geraniacece  are  generally  characterised  by  astrin- 
gency;  many  have  a  disagreeable,  others  a  pleas- 
antly aromatic  and  resinous  smell,  some  a  delightful 
fragrance.  The  Stinking  Crane's-bill  or  Herb 
Robert  {Geranium  Rohertianum),  a  common  weed 
in  Britain,  with  a  difi"use  habit,  deeply  divided 
lea -^63,  and  small  flowers,  has  been  used  medicinally. 
It  has  been  introduced  into  America.  G.  maculatum, 
North  American  species,  with  flowers  of  _  con- 
siderable beauty,  is  the  most  valuable  medicinal 
plant  of  the  order.  Its  root  is  extremely  astrin- 
gent, and  is  used  for  gargles.  G.  cmtlinianum  is 
also  an  American  species,  and  known  as  the  Carolina 
cranesbill. 

A  few  Geraniacece  produce  edible  tubers :  those 
of  Geranium  tuberosum  are  eaten  in  the  south  of 
Europe ;  those  of  G.  parviflorum  in  Van  Diemen's 
I;And,  where  they  are  known  as  Native  Carrot ;  and 
those  of  Pelargonium  triste  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  The  leaves  of  Pelargonium  acetomm  and 
P.  peltatum  are  edible,  and  gratefully  acid.  The 
cultivated  GeraniacecB  are  propagated  by  seed  or  by 
cuttings ;  the  shi'ubby  kinds  are  very  easily  propa- 
708 


gated  by  cuttings.  They  require  a  light  rich  soil : 
a  mixture  of  leaf  mould  and  sand  is  very  suitable. 
They  are  kept  low  by  pruning,  tc  increase  their 
beauty  and  make  them  more  productive  of  flowers. 

GERARD,  Etienne- Maurice,  Comte,  Marshal 
of  France,  was  born  at  Damvilliers,  in  Lorraine, 
on  the  4th  of  April  1773.  He  enrolled  as  a  volun- 
teer in  the  second  battalion  of  the  ISIeuse,  and 
served  during  the  campaign  of  1792 — 1793  under 
Dumouriez  and  Jourdan,  and  afterwards  accom- 
panied Bernadotte  on  his  embassy  to  Vienna,  where 
he  was  the  means  of  saving  his  master's  life  in  the 
melee  that  ensued  on  his  arrival.  After  rising 
ra})idly  through  the  different  grades  of  i>romotion, 
he  was  appointed  colonel  on  the  15tli  November 
1800,  and  in  1805  aid-de-camp  to  his  friend 
Bernadotte.  He  specially  distinguished  himself  at 
Austerlitz  (1805),  in  consequence  of  which  he  was 
a})pointed  general  of  brigade,  at  Halle  (ISOG),  Jena 
(1800),  Erfurt  (1806),  Lintz  (1809),  and  Wagrara 
(18U9).  On  the  morning  after  this  last  battle,  he 
received  the  title  of  Baron  of  the  Em])ire.  He  took 
})ai't  both  in  the  wars  of  the  Spanish  Peninsula 
and  in  the  Russian  campaign ;  and  in  1812  was 
made  a  general  of  di\nsion.  Subsequently,  Napo- 
leon named  him  Count  of  the  Empire.  After  the 
first  restoration,  he  was  named  Grand  Cross  of  the 
Legion  of  Honour,  and  Chevalier  of  St  Louis,  and 
received  various  honourable  appointments.  On  the 
return  of  Napoleon  from  Elba,  G.  joined  him,  and 
commanded  the  fourth  corps,  numbering  16,000 
men.  At  the  battle  of  Ligny,  G.  was  opposite  to 
the  centre  of  the  Prussian  position,  whicii  covered 
Ligny,  and  was  thus  in  the  hottest  of  the  fight. 
On  the  morning  of  the  ISth  of  June,  G.  was  near 
Wavres,  when  firing  was  heard  in  the  direction  of 
Soignies,  upon  which  a  council  was  called,  and  if 
G.'s  advice  had  been  taken,  the  battle  of  Waterloo 
might  perhaps  have  had  a  different  result.  After 
the  second  restoration,  G.  was  obliged  to  leave 
France,  and  did  not  return  till  1817.  He  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in 
1822  ;  he  also  took  an  active  part  in  the  revolution 
of  1830,  and  commanded  the  troops  appointed  to 
maintain  order  and  tranquillity  in  Paris.  In  1831, 
Louis  Philippe  appointed  G.  a  marshal  of  France, 
and  gave  him  the  command  of  the  expedition  to 
Belgium,  in  the  course  of  which  he  distinguished 
himself  by  taking  Antwerp  in  December  1832.  In 
1835  he  succeeded  Marshal  Mortier  as  Grand 
Chancellor  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.  He  died  17th 
of  April  1855. 

GERARD,  FRA]sr90is  Pascal,  Baron,  one  of  the 
first  histoi'ical  and  portrait  painters  of  the  modem 
French  school,  was  born  at  Rome,  11th  March  1770. 
At  an  early  age,  he  went  to  France,  and  was  appren- 
ticed to  Pajou,  the  sculptor,  in  Paris.  He  after- 
wards worked  for  some  time  in  the  studio  of  the 
painter  Brenet,  and  in  his  16th  year  became  the 
pupil  of  David,  but  his  artistic  career  Avas  inter- 
rupted for  several  years  by  the  Revolution.  In 
1795,  he  exhibited  his  first  picture,  'Belisarius;* 
some  time  after,  he  painted  'Psyche  receiving  the 
First  Kiss  from  Cupid.'  Encouraged  by  his  success, 
he  now  turned  his  attention  to  portrait-painting. 
Having  gained  Napoleon's  favour,  he  was  loaded 
wdth  honours,  and  received,  among  other  commis 
sions,  that  of  painting  the  Battle  of  Austerlitz,  ])er- 
haps  the  most  successful  of  his  paintings  ilhistrating 
the  camjiaigns  of  Napoleon.  But  his  gTandest  Avork 
— both  as  regards  size  and  merit — is  his  '  Eivtrance 
of  Henri  Quatre  into  Paris.'  It  is  30  feet  wide  by 
15  high,  glovvdng  with  life,  bright  with  colour,  and 
accurate  in  costume.  It  was  j^ainted  in  1817.  CV. 
was   shortly   after  appointed   first  court-painter, 


GERASA— GERHARDT'S  NOTATION. 


and  rmsecl  to  the  rank  of  Baron  by  Louis  XVIII. 
He  died  at  Paris,  11th  January  1837.  G.'s  most 
celebrated  portraits  are  those  of  Napoleon  in  his 
Coronation  Robes,  the  Queen  of  Naj)les  and  her 
Children,  Talleyrand,  Talma,  Louis  Philippe,  and 
Madame  Rccamier.  Of  his  other  pictures,  the  best 
known  are  '  Ossian's  Dream'  (engraved  l)y  Godefroy), 
'Homer'  (engraved  by  Massard),  'Daphnis  and 
Chloe,'  'Philip  V.,'  '  Corinna  on  the  Promontory  of 
Misrna,'  'St  Theresa  Kneeling  at  the  Altar,'  and 
'Thetis  Bearing  the  Armour  of  Achilles.' 

G  ERA'S  A,  in  the  time  of  the  Romans,  M-as  a  city 
of  Palestine,  on  the  eastern  borders  of  Peroea.  It 
was  situated  among  the  mountains  of  Gilead,  about 
20  miles  east  of  the  Jordan,  and  25  north  of  Rab- 
bath-Ammon,  and  attained  a  high  degree  of  pros- 
perity under  the  Antonines  (138 — 180  a.  D.).  On 
the  rise  of  Christianity,  it  became  the  seat  of  a 
bishopric,  but  subsequently  sunk  into  decay.  G. 
is  now  deserving  of  notice  solely'"  on  account  of  its 
ruins,  which  are  said  to  be  the  most  beautiful  and 
extensive  in  that  part  of  Palestine  lying  east  of  the 
Jordan.  In  fact,  it  presents  the  apijearance  of  a 
city  in  riiins,  but  which  still  preserves  its  original 
outlines.  Great  portions  of  the  wall  surrounding 
the  towTi  are  in  good  preservation ;  three  of  the 
gateways  are  almost  perfect,  and  within  the  city 
more  than  230  columns  are  still  standing  on  their 
pedestals. 

GERBI,  GERBA,  or  JERBA  (the  Meninx  of 
Strabo  and  Pliny),  a  small  island  on  the  north 
coast  of  Africa  belonging  to  the  state  of  Tunis,  is 
situated  in  the  Gulf  of  Cabes,  and  is  separated 
by  a  strait  from  a  headland  on  the  shore.  It  is 
about  20  miles  long  and  12  miles  broad,  and  is 
fertile  and  populous.  Shawls  of  brilliant  colours, 
beautiful  silk  and  woollen  fabrics  of  the  finest 
texture,  bornous  and  blankets,  are  manufactured. 
This  island  contains  a  triumphal  arch  in  honour 
of  Antoninvis  and  Verus,  and  a  pyramid  from  25  to 
30  feet  in  height,  built  Tip  of  the  skulls  of  the 
Spanish  soldiers  who  fell  here  in  a  disastrous  battle 
with  the  Turks  in  the  6th  century. 

GERHARD T,  Kael  Friedrich,  an  eminent 
chemist,  was  born  at  Strasburg  on  the  21st  of 
August  1816,  and  died  in  that  city  on  the  19th  of 
August  1856.  At  the  age  of  fifteen,  he  was  sent 
to  the  Polytechnic  School  of  Carlsruhe,  where  his 
attendance  at  Professor  Walchner's  lectures  first 
awaked  in  his  mind  a  taste  for  chemistr\'.  After 
two  years'  residence  in  this  town  he  removed 
to  Leipsic,  where  he  attended  the  lectures  of 
Erdmann,  which  seem  to  have  developed  in  him 
an  irresistible  passion  for  questions  of  speculative 
chemistry. 

On  his  return  home,  he  reluctantly  entered  upon 
the  business  of  his  father,  who  was  a  manufacturer 
of  chemical  products ;  but  the  requirements  of 
commerce  seem  to  have  been  intensely  repugnant  to 
him,  and  in  a  hasty  moment  of  passion  he  enlisted 
(being  now  in  his  twentieth  year)  in  a  regiment  of 
chasseurs.  He  soon,  however,  found  a  military  life 
as  insupportable  as  a  commercial  career,  and  in  the 
course  of  three  months  he  purchased  his  discharge, 
and  at  once  set  out  for  the  laboratory  of  Giessen, 
where  he  worked  imder  Liebig's  superintendence 
for  eighteen  months.  In  1838  he  arrived  in  Paris, 
where  he  was  cordially  welcomed  by  Dumas.  Here 
he  gave  lectures  and  instructions  in  chemistry,  and, 
with  Chevreul's  permission,  worked  in  the  labora- 
tory of  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  where,  in  association 
with  his  friend  Cahovirs  (to  whose  memoir  of  G. 
ve  are  indebted  for  many  of  the  facts  noticed  in 
this  article),  he  commences  his  im])ortant  researches 
ou  tlie  es?rntial  oils.     Lu  1844  he  was  appointed 


professor  of  General  Chemistry  in  the  Faculty  of 
Sciences  at  Montpellier,  and  in  the  same  year  he 
married  the  youngest  daughter  of  the  late  Dr 
James  Sanders  of  Edinburgli.  About  this  time  he 
published  his  Precis  de  Cldrnie  Organique,  in  which 
he  sketches  the  idea  of  '  Homologous  and  Hetero- 
logous Series '  (q.  v.),  which  at  a  later  period  he 
so  successfully  developed.  In  1845,  in  association 
with  Laurent,  he  commenced  the  Comptes  rendus  dtk 
Travcnix  de  Chimie publics  en  France  et  d  V Etranger^ 
which  were  continued  till  1848.  In  1848,  he  resigned 
his  chair  and  returned  to  Paris,  in  order  to  foU,»w 
out  uninterruptedly  his  special  investigatitms  ;  and 
in  that  city  he  established,  between  the  years  1849 
and  1855,  in  successive  memoirs,  his  views  of  series 
(already  adverted  to)  and  the  theory  of  types, 
with  which  his  name  will  be  ever  associated  in 
the  history  of  chemistry.  It  was  there,  also,  that 
he  gave  to  the  scientific  world  his  remarkable 
researches  upon  the  anhydrous  acids  and  the  oxides. 
All  his  ideas  and  his  discoveries  are  embodied  in 
his  Traite  de  Chimie  Organique  (1853 — 1856,  4  vols.), 
which  forms,  to  use  the  words  of  his  friend  and 
biographer  Cahours,  '  an  important  monument  of 
modern  science.'  He  had  hardly  completed  the 
correction  of  the  last  proof  of  this  great  work,  when, 
after  an  illness  of  only  two  days,  he  was  surprised 
by  the  hand  of  death  at  the  very  period  when  he 
seemed  to  be  beginning  to  enjoy  the  fruit  of  his 
labours ;  for  he  had  just  received  the  diploma  of 
corresponding  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
at  Paris,  and  in  the  previous  year  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  chemistry  at  Strasbourg. 

GERHARDT'S  NOTATION .  is  now  intro- 
duced, not  only  into  numerous  foreign  works  ou 
chemistry,  but  into  some  of  our  recent  English 
manuals — as,  for  example,  Comington's  Handbook  of 
Chemical  Analyses,  Odling's  Manual  of  Chemistry, 
&c. ;  and  being  emj^loyed  by  a  large  section  of 
English  chemists — as,  for  example,  Professors 
Williamson,  Brodie,  Hofmann,  and  Odling — requires 
a  brief  notice.  On  certain  theoretical  grounds, 
Gerhardt  has  doubled  the  combining  or  equivalent 
numbers  of  oxygen,  carbon,  sulphur,  selenia,  and 
tellurium  ;  the  other  numbers  remaining  unaltered. 
We  give  in  the  following  table  the  ordinary  and 
Gerhardt's  numbers  ; 


0, 

c, 
s, 

Se, 
Te, 


Ordinary 
Equivalent. 

8 
6 
16 

39-75 
64-5 


Gerhardt's 
Equivalent. 

16 
12 
32 
79-5 
129. 


The  examination  of  a  few  formulae  will  readily 
enable  the  reader  to  translate  from  one  system  into 
the  other : 


Compounds. 

Water,  . 
Potash, 

Hydrate  of  Potash, 
Hydrated  Nitric  Acid,     .  H0,N05 
Hydrated  Sulphuric  Acid,  HO,SO 


Hydrated  Acetic  Acid, 
Alcohol, 


Ordinary  Gerhardt'i 
Formulae.  Formula. 

HO  H2O 
KO  K,0 
KO,HO  KHO 
NOaH 
>S'0,Ha 


HCC.HgOa  C^H^Oj 


In  Gerhardt's  formulae  we  have  printed  in  italics 
the  symbols  whose  equivalents  are  changed.  Each 
system  of  notation  has  its  advantages,  but  upon 
the  whole  we  are  inclined  to  agree  with  Professor 
Miller,  that  'the  question  to  be  considered  is  not 
simply,  what  is  in  the  abstract  the  best  mode  of 
notation,  but  what,  considering  all  the  circum- 
stances of  the  science,  possesses  the  greatest 
advantage.     That  system   of  notation  which  is 

709 


GERIZIM  ANT)  EBAL— GERMAN  CATHOLICS. 


consistent  Avith  itself,  and  which  lends  itself 
most  completely  to  the  expression  of  the  various 
theories  and  aspects  of  the  science  which  have 
been  maintained,  or  may  be  maintained,  is  there- 
fore, pliilosojjhically  speakin<^,  the  best.  And  such 
grounds,  it  appears  to  me,  exist  for  continuing  to 
use  the  system  hitherto  adopted.* 

GERrZIM  AND  E'BAL,  two  mountains  cele- 
brated iu  Scripture  story.  They  are  separated 
from  each  other  by  a  narrow  valley  about  200 
yairls  V'iift,  in  which  stands  the  town  of  Nabulus, 
the  aiici^ab  Shechem  or  Sychar,  the  metropolis  of 
ihe  Samaritan  sect.  They  are  nearly  equal  in 
'iltiUide,  neither  of  them  exceeding  700  or  800  feet 
^bove  the  level  of  the  valley,  w^liich,  however,  is 
itself  ISOO  feet  above  the  sea.  The  view  from  the 
top  of  Mount  G.,  the  southern  hill,  is  said  to  be 
among  the  finest  iu  Palestine,  embracing,  as  it 
does,  glimpses  of  the  blue  waters  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean on  the  west,  the  snow-capped  heights  of 
Hermon  on  the  north,  and  on  the  east  the  wall 
of  the  Trans- Jordanic  mountains,  broken  by  the 
deep  cleft  of  the  brook  Jabbok. 

In  all  probability,  Mount  G.,  and  not  the  mere 
hillock  called  Moriah,  on  which  Solomon  afterwards 
built  the  Temple,  was  the  place  where  Abraham 
ofiered  u])  his  son  Isaac.  Along  with  Mount  Ebal, 
it  was  also  the  scene  of  a  grand  and  impressive 
ceremony,  in  which  the  whole  i)eople  of  Israel  took 
part  after  cx'ossing  the  Jordan,  in  obedience  to  a 
command  wdiich  Closes  had  given  them.  Half  of 
the  tribes  stood  xipon  the  declivities  of  the  one  hill ; 
the  rest  occupied  the  sides  of  the  other,  while  in  the 
valley  between,  the  Levites,  surrounding  the  sacred 
ark,  pronounced,  '  with  loud  voice,'  the  blessings 
afiixed  to  the  performance  of  the  law,  and  the  curses 
affixed,  to  the  neglect  of  it.  According  to  the 
Mishna,  their  manner  of  procedure  was  as  follows  : 
They  first  turned  towards  Gerizira,  and  pronounced 
•the  blessing,  whereupon  the  vast  host  that  thronged 
the  ascent  of  that  hill  rolled  back  their  multitud- 
inous '  Amen  ; '  then  turning  towards  Ebal,  they 
uttered  the  corresponding  malediction,  to  which  the 
tribes  there  stationed  responded  in  deep  and  solenni 
tones.  In  this  w^ay,  alternating  blessing  and  curse, 
they  w^ent  through  the  whole  series.  The  narrative 
of  the  ceremony  (which  is  to  be  found  in  the  27th 
chapter  of  Deuteronomy)  gives  only  the  curses — 
the  customary  explanation  of  which  fact  is,  that 
probably  these  were  merely  the  reverse  form  of  the 
blessings,  and  may  have  been  selected  by  the  writer 
of  the  book  on  account  of  the  greater  awe  inspired, 
among  a  rude  people,  by  a  malediction  than  a 
benediction.  At  a  later  period  the  Samaritans,  by 
permission  of  Alexander  the  Great,  built  a  temple 
on  Mount  G.,  as  a  rival  to  that  of  Jerusalem,  and 
organised  a  rival  priesthood.  And  though  this 
temple  was  destroyed  by  Hyrcanus  about  200  years 
after,  the  mountain  on  which  it  stood  continued  to 
he  held  sacred  by  the  Samaritans.  It  was  to  Mount 
G.  that  the  'woman  of  Samaria'  referred,  when  she 
Raid  to  our  Saviour :  '  Our  fathers  worshipi)ed  in 
this  mountain,  and  ye  say  that  in  Jerusalem  is  the 
place  where  men  ought  to  worship.'  Subsequently, 
a  Christian  church  in  honour  of  the  Virgin  was 
built  on  it,  which  Justinian  surrounded  with  a 
strong  wall  to  protect  it  against  the  assaults  of  the 
Samaritans,  who  were  even  then  a  powerful  and 
mportant  sect.     The  ruins  of  this  wall  are  still 

isible. 

GE'RKI,  a  considerable  town  of  Africa,  is  situated 
in  the  Sudan,  in  the  district  of  Sokoto,  in  lat.  12° 
26'  N.,  and  long.  9°  10'  E.  It  is  surrounded  by  a 
wall  surmounted  with  pinnacles.  Its  inhabitants 
are  notorious  for  their  thievish  i)ropensities,  and  for 
7iO 


their  aversion  to  agriculture,  and,  indeed,  to  any 
form  of  industry.    Population  estimated  at  15,000. 

GERLACHE,  Etienne  Constantin,  Baron  de, 
a  native  of  the  province  of  Luxemburg,  in  Belgium, 
was  born  on  the  26ch  December  1785.  In  1824,  he 
was  elected  as  deputy  from  the  province  of  Liege  to 
the  second  chamber  of  the  '  States  General.'  At 
the  time  of  the  Revolution,  G.  presided  ovei-  tho 
committee  appointed  to  revise  the  constitution,  and 
was  head  of  the  deputation  sent  to  offer  the  crown 
to  Prince  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg.  In  1831,  he 
became  president  of  congress,  and  in  that  ca])acity 
received  the  oath  exacted  from  the  king  by  the 
constitution,  and  the  following  year  was  api)oiiited 
first  president  of  the  '  court  of  cassation.'  In  1843, 
the  king  confeiTed  on  him  the  title  of  baron.  Since 
his  election  as  deputy  in  1824,  he  has  supported  tho 
Catholic  i)arty,  and  is  now  considered  as  one  of  their 
chief  leaders.  G.  has  also  acquired  a  literary  repu- 
tation. The  most  important  of  his  works  are  the 
following  :  Memoires  sur  les  Changements  d  apporter 
aiix  Tarifs  da  liOyaume,  which  appeared  between 
1821  and  1824,  and  were  addressed  to  the  king; 
Histoire  du  lioyaiane  des  Pays-Bas,  depuis  1814 
jusiqiCen  1880  (Brussels,  1839),  besides  other  works 
of  local  interest. 

GERMAN,  Sax,  a  town  in  the  south-west  of  the 
Spanish  island  of  Porto  Ilico,  stands  in  lat.  18°  lO' 
N.,  long.  67°  W.  It  is  situated  about  10  miles  from 
the  sea,  in  the  centre  of  a  district  productive  in 
cotton,  coffee,  and  cattle.  Its  population  is  esti- 
mated at  9125. 

GERMAN  BARM.    See  Yeast. 

GERMAN  CATHOLICS  is  the  name  generally 
given  to  a  religious  sect  that  has  recently  s])rung  up 
in  Germany  in  the  bosom  of  the  Roman  Catholio 
Church.    Though  retaining  the  designation  Catholio 
— i.  e.,  universal — they  form  independent  congi-ega- 
tions,  and  most  commonly  style  themselves  Chris- 
tian Cathohcs.     So  far  as  their  general  principlea 
are  concerned,  the  G.  C.  stand  upon  Protestant 
I  ground  ;  but  neither  in  theory  nor  practice  are 
I  they  evangelical  Protestants,  nor  do  they  wish  to 
!  be  accounted  such. 

Whatever  might  be  the  deeper  causes  of  the 
schism,  the  immediate  occasion  of  it  was  the  exhi- 
bition of  the  Holy  Coat  at  Treves,    In  1844,  Bishop 
Arnoldi  appointed  a  special  pilgrimage  and  service 
to  this  relic,  to  be  preceded  by  confession  and  remis- 
j  sion  of  sins.    This  proceeding  called  forth  a  protest 
1  from  J.  Konge  (pronoimced  Konge,  the  cj  hard),  a 
priest  in  Silesia,  who,  having  quarrelled  with  the 
I  authorities  of  his  church,  had  been  siispended  from 
i  his  office,  and  was  living  in  retirement.  Ronge 
;  addressed  a  public  letter  to  Bishop  Arnoldi,  October 
!  1,  1844,  in  whicb  he  characterised  the  exbibition 
i  of  the  coat  as  idolatry.     Rouge's  voice  found  a 
I  vivid  response  in  the  minds  of  many  Catholics,  and 
was  also  approved  by  Protestants. 

A  short  time  previous  to  the  publication  of  this 
letter,  J.  Czerski,  a  priest  at  Schneidemiihl,  in  Posen, 
had  seceded  from  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and 
was  about  to  form  a  congregation  of  '  Christian  Apos- 
I  tolic  Catholics.'    Czerski  and  Ronge  were  naturally 
!  drawTi  into  confederacy.    Ronge  at  last  addi'essed 
I  an  appeal  to  the  lower  orders  of  the  priesthood, 
!  calling  upon  them  to  use  their  influence  in  the 
pulpit  and  everywhere  to  break  the  power  of  the 
court  of  Rome,  and  priestcraft  in  general,  through- 
out Germany ;  to  set  up  a  national  German  Church 
independent  of  Rome,  and   governed   by  councils 
and   synods ;   to   abolish  auricular  confession,  the 
Latin  mass,  and  the  celibacy  of  the  priests ;  and 
to  aim  at  liberty  of  conscience  fcr  all  Thristianii. 


GERMAN,  COUSIN— GERMAN  PASTE. 


and  perfect  freedom  for  the  religious  education  of 
ohiidren. 

The  first  congregation  of  the  new  church  was 
formed  at  Schneidemiihl,  and  took  the  name  of 
Christian  Catholic.    The  confession  of  faith,  which 
was  drawn  up  by  Czerski,  differed  little  in  i)oint 
of  doctrine  from  that  of  the  Catholic  Church.  The 
fioly  Scriptures  and  the  Nicene  Creed  were  held  to 
be  the  ouly  standards  of  Christian  faith,  and  were 
to  be  understood  in  the  sense  patent  to  every 
enaglitenod  and  pious   Christian.     Nothing  was 
said   against   the  worship  of   saints   and  relics, 
pilgrimages,  confession,  &c.     This  Confession  of 
feckneidemiihl  served  many  other  congregations  as 
a  gjoimdwork,  though  some  of  them  modified  it 
in  various  ways,  and  expressed  themselves  more 
defii  itely.     The  new  sect  quickly  increased.  At 
the  beginning  of  1845,  more  than  a  hundred  con- 
gregations were  in  existence.     The  congregation 
which  was  formed  at  Breslau  is  noticeable  from 
the  confession  of  faith  which  it  issued,  drawn  up 
under  the  infiueuce  of  Ronge,  who  had  been  chosen 
preacher.     This    confession  completely  departed 
from  the  doctrine  and  ritual  of  the  Roman  Catholic  [ 
church.     The  Scripture  was  laid  down  to  be  the  I 
only  rule  of  Christian  faith,  and  no  external  autho-  j 
rity,  it  was  added,  can  be  allowed  to  interfere  ! 
with  the  free  interjiretation  of  it.    The  essentials  ' 
of  belief  were  restricted  to  a  few  doctrines  :  belief  | 
in  God  as  the  Creator  and  Governor  of  the  world,  ' 
and  the  Father  of  all  men ;  in  Christ  as  the  Saviour,  ■ 
in  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  holy  Christian  Church,  the 
forgiveness  of  sins,  and  eternal  life.    Baptism  and  I 
the  Lord's  Supper  were  held  to  be  the  only  sacra-  j 
ments.    Confirmation  was  retained,  but  most  of  the 
rites  and  practices  peculiar  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
church  were  given  up.  | 

The  need  of  something  like  concert  being  felt,  the 
first  council  of  G  erman  Catholics  was  held  at  Leipsic, 
March  22,  1845,  and  attended  by  deputies  from 
many  of  the  leading  congregations,  others  signify- 
ing their  willingness  to  abide  by  the  decisions  that 
might  be  come  to.  The  principles  of  the  Breslaii 
Confession  were  mostly  adopted.  The  interpreta- 
tion of  Scripture,  the  only  source  of  Christian  belief,  ' 
was  left  to  the  free  exercise  of  reason,  pervaded  and 
actuated  by  the  '  Christian  idea.'  Forms  of  worship 
were  to  be  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  time 
and  place.  With  regard  to  church  government,  the 
council  declared  in  favour  of  the  presbyterial  and 
synodal  constitution.  The  congregations  were  to 
have  the  free  election  of  their  clergy  and  eldership.  , 

The  effect  of  this  union  was  to  increase  the  number 
of  congregations,  which  by  the  end  of  1845  amounted 
to  about  300.    Numbers  of  leading  Catholics,  pro- 
fessors  and  others,   joined   the   movement ;  and 
learned  Protestants,  like  Gervinus,  looked  upon  it  ' 
as  a  momentous  event  in  the  history  of  Germany.  : 
Individual  Protestant  clergymen  went  over  to  the  ! 
body ;  and  all  those  Protestants  who,  from  dissatis-  i 
faction  with  the  state  church,  had  formed  what  are  ' 
called  '  free '  or  independent  congregations,  entered 
more  or  less  into  i-elations  with  it.    The  local  boards 
and  magistracy  also  shewed  great  favour  to  the 
cause,  and  often  supported  it  by  granting  the  use  of 
Protestant  churches,  and  even  funds. 

But  German  Catholicism  was  destined  soon  to  find 
enemies  both  within  and  without.  To  say  nothing 
ti  orthodox  Catholics,  conservative  Protestantism 
began  to  suspect  it  as  an  vindermining  of  religion  in 
general,  and  dangerous  to  the  welfare  of  'church 
and  state.'  And  as  the  movement  fell  in  with  the 
liberal  tendencies  of-  the  times  in  general,  the 
governments  took  the  alarm,  and  set  themselves  to 
check  its  spread.  Saxony  took  the  lead,  and  Prussia 
6oon  followed,  in  imposing  vexatious,  and  even 


tyrannical  restrictions  upon  the  *  Dissidents,'  aa 
they  were  styled  by  the  authorities.  In  Baden, 
they  were  even  denied  the  rights  of  burghers,  while 
Austria,  pre-eminent  in  religious  bigotry,  sent  them 
out  of  her  territories. 

It  was  more,  however,  internal  disagreements  than 
state  persecutions  that  checked  the  prosperity  of 
German  Catholicism,  as  was  to  be  anticipated  from 
the  wide  discrepancy  between  the  views  of  Czerski 
and  those  of  Ronge.  Czerski  and  his  adherents  held 
closely  by  the  doctrines  and  ritual  of  Rome,  and 
issued  successive  confessions,  laying  (hnvn  uK^re  and 
more  definitely  tlie  essential  points  of  belief,  such  aa 
the  divinity  of  Christ,  and  other  positive  doctrines. 
Rouge's  party,  on  the  other  hand,  approached  nearer 
and  nearer  to  the  Rationalists,  and,  leaving  tho 
province  of  religion  altogether,  occupied  themselves 
"with  free-thinking  theories  and  democratical  j)olitics. 
This  led  to  numerous  disagreements  between  con- 
gregations and  clergymen,  and  discouraged  tho 
I  spread  of  the  movement.  When  the  second  council 
J  was  held  in  Berlin  in  1847,  the  interest  had  greatly 
j  declined. 

I     When  the  great  storm  of  1848  burst,  the  German 
I  Catholics,  as  well  as  other  bodies,  had  free  sjjaco 
j  for  their  exertions,  whicli,  however,  took  mostly 
:  a  political  direction.     Some  additions  were  made 
'  to  the  number  of  the  congregations,  esi:)ecially  in 
I  Austria.     Ronge   was   active   in  travelling  and 
'  preacliing,  and  although  his  freethinking  and  politi- 
cal tendencies  were  repudiated  by  numbers  of  the 
body,  they  predominated  in  many  places,  and  found 
expression  in  a  series  uf  publications,  among  others.^ 
in  RvivC^  Catechism  of  theChristian  Religion  of  Jieason^ 
and  Shell's  Book  of  Religion.    After  the  political 
reaction  set  in,  strong  measures  were  taken  against 
the  German  Catholics.    The  early  enthusiasm  of  tho 
movement  a])parently  died  out,  and  after  the  disso- 
lution of  the  Frankfurt  parliament,  Ronge  retired  to 
London,  where  he  has  since  resided.    The  individual 
congregations  once  formed  still  continue  to  exist, 
though  in  a  dei)ressed  condition,  except  in  Austria, 
where  they  have  been  altogether  sup})re3sed.  A 
conference  was  held  at  Kothen  in  1850,  at  which  it 
was  proposed  to  form  an  alliance  with  the  Free 
congregations  formed  of  dissenters  from  the  Pro- 
testant church,  and  a  diet  was  fixed  for  1852,  but  it 
did  not  meet.    Since  then,  German  Catholicism  has 
been  rapidly  diminishing  all  over  Germany,  and  at 
the  Gotha  conference  of  1858  there  were  only  42 
representatives  present.  Compare  Kampe's  Gesdddite 
der  Religiosen  Bewegungen  der  Neueren  Zeil  (Leip. 
1856). 

GERMAN,  COUSIN-.  Cousins-german,  or  first 
cousins,  are  those  who  are  related  to  each  other 
by  their  fathers  and  mothers  having  been  sisters 
or  brothers,  or  the  father  or  mother  of  the  one 
being  the  sister  or  brother  of  the  other.  The 
term  has  no  relation  to  German,  in  the  sense  of 
Teutonic,  but  comes  from  the  Latin  word  geinnanus^ 
which  again  is  derived  from  germen,  a  young  bud  or 
branch.  Cousins-german  are,  therefore,  those  who 
are  the  buds  or  branches  of  the  same  tree,  and  they 
have  in  reality  always  one  grandfather  in  common. 

GERMAN  OCEAN.  See  North  Sea. 
GERMAN  PASTE,  used  for  feeding  birds  such 
as  larks,  thrushes,  nightingales,  and  other  singing- 
birds,  especially  those  which  in  their  wild  state 
feed  chiefly  upon  insects.  Take  2  lbs.  pea-meal, 
\  lb.  of  sweet  almonds  blanched,  \  lb.  of  fresh 
butter  or  lard,  5  oz.  moist  sugar,  \  dr.  of  nay 
saffron,  and  3  eggs  boiled  hard.  Beat  them  into 
a  smooth  paste,  using  sufficient  water  to  give  it  the 
consistence  required  for  granulating  by  passing  It 
through  a  colander;  then  expose  the  granulated 

711 


GERMAN  PHILOSOPHY. 


[)a.ste  to  tlie  air  in  a  warm  place  until  it  is  quite 
lard  and  dry.  Tf  properly  prepared  and  dried,  it 
U'ili  keep  good  in  a  dry  place  for  a  year  or  more. 

GERMAN  PHILOSOPHY.  When  we  speak 
of  the  philosophy  of  Germany,  we  do  not  necessarily 
impTy  that  it  differs  from  the  philosophy  of  any  other 
country  in  respect  of  the  problems  it  seeks  to  solve, 
any  more  than  when  we  compare  the  German  chem- 
istry with  that  of  France  or  England.  To  charac- 
terise German  philosophy,  means  nothing  more  than 
to  point  out  the  peculiar  j)ath  that  German  thinkers 
have  followed,  and  the  degree  of  success  that  has 
attended  their  investigations,  in  seeking  to  answer 
those  speculative  questions  which  are  understood  to 
form  the  domain  of  philosophy,  and  which  concern 
all  men,  if  they  concern  any.  Understood  in  this 
sense,  German  philoso})hy  claims  a  high  place — 
according  to  many,  the  highest.  At  least,  for  almost 
a  century  now,  a  more  general  interest  has  been 
taken  in  the  cultivation  of  philosoi)hy  in  Germany 
than  elsewhere,  and  abstruse  and  deep  speculation 
has  been  chiefly  represented  by  German  thinkers. 
That  country  has  thus  made  up  for  the  ground  she 
lost  by  continuing  to  adhere  to  the  traditional  forms 
of  scholastic  pliilosoi)hy  after  they  had  been  forsaken 
in  France  and  England.  This  spread  of  ])liilosophic 
culture  was  coincident  with  the  perfecting  and 
adaptation  of  the  German  language  to  prose  compo- 
sition. For  though  Leibnitz  confined  himself  in  his 
philosophical  writings  to  the  Latin  and.  French 
languages,  Chr,  Thomasius,  about  the  same  time, 
had  begun  to  employ  the  mother- tongue  both  in 
academic  lecturing  and  in  writing,  a  practice  which 
was  extended  by  the  numerous  writings  of  Chr. 
Wolf.  The  expansion  of  German  literature  in  the 
last  half  of  the  18th  c.  completely  emanci])ated 
epeculation  from  the  trammels  of  a  foreign  idiom, 
and  alongside  of  a  rich  poetical  literature  there 
eprang  up  a  jihilosophy  which  may  claim  comparison 
with  that  of  Greece. 

As  regards  the  scientific  characteristics  of  German 
philosophy,  it  may  be  remarked  that  the  systems 
piit  forth  by  Bacon  in  England,  Descartes  in  France, 
and  Spinosa  in  Holland,  had  but  little  influence 
in  Germany  at  the  time  of  their  appearance.  It 
was  Locke  that  first  awakened  any  considerable 
attention.  The  empiricism  of  this  philosopher,  who 
grounds  all  knowledge  on  experience,  and  makes 
psychology  the  regulator  of  metaphysic,  called  forth 
the  opposition  of  Leibnitz,  the  first  German  that 
made  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  modern  philosophy, 
and  who,  from  the  varied  impulse  he  communicated, 
must  be  looked  upon  as  the  creator  of  the  philosophic 
epmt  in  Germany.  At  the  same  time  the  fimdamental 
doctrines  of  Leibnitz's  system — that  of  monads,  of  a 
pre-established  harmony,  and  of  innate  ideas— were 
rather  genial  hypotheses  than  regularly  established 
propositions.  To  remedy  this,  Wolf  endeavoured  to 
construct  a  system  of  philosophy  complete  in  all  its 
parts  as  required  by  the  forms  of  logic,  in  doing 
which,  however,  he  set  aside  precisely  those  doc- 
trines that  formed  the  characteristics  of  Leibnitz's 
philosophy.  The  great  influence  exercised  by  Wolf 
IS  shewn  by  the  wide  circulation  of  his  writings, 
and  the  multitude  of  his  discijiles  and  adherents. 
Wolf  himself,  however,  outlived  his  fame,  and  the 
original  philosophic  mind  in  Germany  went  to 
sleep  for  a  period,  during  which  a  sort  of  Eclec- 
ticism, without  any  fundamental  principle — the  so- 
called  philosophy  of  'common  sense,'  prevalent  in 
England  and  France  in  the  18th  c. — became  generally 
Epread.  This  period,  however,  was  not  without 
great  intellectual  excitement  of  other  kinds.  Poetry, 
reform  in  education,  politics,  and  religious  enlighten- 
ment, keenly  occupied  men's  minds ;  old  customs 
ttud  associations,  both  in  family  and  political  life, 
712 


were  shaken  ;  and  preparation  was  silentlj"  going  on 

for  a  great  and  radical  revolution. 

Kant,  with  whom  the  next  period  of  German 
philosophy  begins,  thus  found  an  age  ready  to  receive 
impressions  ;  and,  although  the  KritlL  der  Iieinen 
Vernunft  (Critique  of  the  Pure  Reason)  was  at  lirst 
in  danger  of  being  overlooked,  when  a  hearing  waa 
once  obtained,  that  and  his  other  critical  work'j, 
which,  after  long  preparation,  appeared  in  rapid 
succession,  communicated  a  profound  impulse  to  the 
scientific  world.  This  arose  not  more  from  thr 
novelty  and  the  comprehensiveness  of  his  researchea, 
than  from  the  circumstance  that  theii'  aim  fell  ua 
with  the  tendencies  of  the  age.  The  exclusion  of 
everything  dictated  by  caprice  cr  sentiment,  the 
maintenance  of  the  independence  of  specidative 
inquiry,  the  reference  of  aU  theoretical  speculation 
to  the  field  of  experience  accessible  to  it,  and  the 
elevation  of  the  moral  element  to  the  highest  and 
ultimate  object  of  all  human  endeavour,  form  the 
leading  traits  of  his  i)hilosophy,  which  he  lecom- 
niended  to  consideration,  more  from  its  importance 
to  man  and  society  than  to  philosophers.  He  also 
entertained  the  hope  that,  through  the  critical 
inquiry  into  the  nature  of  the  human  mind,  it  might 
be  possiljle  to  reconcile  empiricism  and  rationalism, 
sensualism  and  spiritualism,  and  other  philosophical 
opposites,  and  discover  a  series  of  comi)rehensive 
principles  to  which  all  philoso])hical  disputes  might 
be  referred  in  the  last  resort.  This  hope  was  disap- 
pointed ;  among  other  causes,  because  Kant  sought 
to  ground  the  old  metaphysic  of  the  schools  on  a 
psychology  \^hich  itself  rested  on  the  basis  of  that 
metaphysic.  Besides,  there  was  wantinri;  in  the 
heyday  of  Kantism  any  satisfactory  point  of  unity 
for  the  several  parts  of  philosophy.  K.  L.  Reinhold 
was  the  first  to  point  out  this  defect ;  and  scepticism, 
as  in  C.  Schulze's  ^nesidemus,  and  dogmatism  in 
the  writings  of  Eberhard  and  others,  carried  on  a 
war  with  the  '  critical '  philosophy,  but  not,  it  must 
be  confessed,  with  any  great  success.  It  was  Fichte 
who  found,  or  thought  he  had  found,  in  the  fact  of 
consciousness,  that  absolute  point  of  unity  which 
Kant's  '  Critique'  had  always  pointed  to.  Fichte, 
following  out  the  path  on  which  Kant  had  entered, 
changed  the  half -idealism  of  Kant  into  a  com- 
plete idealism,  by  declaring  the  Ego  to  be,  not  only 
the  bearer  and  source  of  knowledge,  but  the  only 
reality,  the  world  being  merely  the  ideas  and  active 
manifestations  of  the  Ego.  In  the  ego,  being  and 
knowing  were  identical,  it  was  at  once  existence  and 
knowledge,  and  nature  apjDeared  only  as  the  reflex 
of  its  absolute  activity. 

With  tliis  idealism  began  a  kind  of  revolu- 
tionary excitement  in  the  philosophising  minds 
of  Germans,  which  contrasted  strongly  with  the 
calm  and  sober  spirit  of  Kant.  System  followed 
system ;  philosophical  books  appeared  in  shoals ; 
and  for  a  quarter  of  a  century  and  more  the  interest 
was  shared  by  the  public  in  general.  But  the 
meteors  that  appeared  in  the  philosophical  sky  of 
Germany  vanished  for  the  most  part  as  suddenly 
as  they  had  blazed  forth.  Schelliiig  was  the  fust 
that  attained  a  general  influence,  F.  H.  Jacobi  had 
previously  recalled  attention  to  Spinosa,  and  Schel- 
liiig, influenced  by  the  specidations  of  Spinosa, 
converted  the  idealism  of  Fichte  into  what  is  called 
*  the  philosophy  of  identity.'  This  system  set  out 
originally  with  the  assertion,  that  as  Fichte  educea 
nature  out  of  the  ego,  so  by  an  inverse  process  the 
ego  may  be  educed  out  of  nature ;  but  that  both 
these  forms  of  philosophising  have  their  ground  in 
the  absolute  as  the  identity  of  all  opposites — of 
the  real  and  the  ideal,  of  subject  and  object,  of 
mind  and  matter.  In  carrying  out  this  assertion, 
Schelling  fixed  upon  intellectual  intuition  as  the 


GERMAN  PHILOSOPHY— GERMAN  SILVER. 


llnd  of  cognition  alone  corresponding  to  the  absolute, 
or  rather  as  identical  with  and  representing  the 
absolute.  ^he  organ  of  this  intuition  was  called 
reason,  anc^,  as  such,  was  opposed  to  the  reflection 
3f  the  understanding,  which  was  held  to  be  quite 
incapable  of  taking  cognition  of  the  absolute.  The 
relation  of  the  phenomenal  world  to  the  absolute 
was  held  to  consist  in  this,  that  the  absolute  repre- 
Bents  itself  in  the  multi}jlicity  of  a])pcarances,  steps 
out  of  the  state  of  '  inditFerence'  into  that  of  'differ- 
ence,' manifests  itself  in  '  diflerence,'  &c.  Taking 
epecial  cases,  particularly  in  natural  philosophy, 
Schelling  endeavoured  to  demonstrate  the  existence 
of  this  identity  in  the  midst  of  non-identity,  and  of 
non-identity  in  the  midst  of  identity.  lu  this 
attempt,  however,  neither  Schelling  nor  his  disciples 
effected  much.  For  in  undervaluing  and  neglecting 
experience  and  reflection,  the  door  was  opened  to 
a  fanciful  mode  of  speculation,  which  in  most  cases 
had  little  more  in  common  with  science  than  the 
name  ;  so  that  in  the  departments  of  poetry,  reli- 
gion, and  social  life,  the  Schelling  philosophy  often 
degenerated  unto  a  blmd  groping,  leading  to  the 
strangest  aberrations  of  romanticism,  mysticism, 
and  tendency  to  Catholicism. 

The  philosophy  of  Hegel  (q.  v.)  took  the  same 
general  direction  as  that  of  Fichte  and  Schelling. 
Hegel  attempted  to  develop,  in  regular  organisation, 
the  contents  of  the  intellectual  intuition  (in  i)lain 
words,  the  cognitions  and  ideas  of  the  mind)  by 
the  dialectic  or  logical  method.  Though  he  broke 
loose  from  the  prevalent  fashion  of  indulging  in  an 
unbridled  play  of  fanciful  combinations,  he  did  not 
content  himself  with  the  rules  of  logic  recognised 
for  thousands  of  years,  but  sought  an  expression  for 
Bpeculative  thought  in  a  dialectic  of  his  own.  The 
essence  of  this  transcendental  logic  consisted  in  the 
analysis  of  all  the  established  general  conceptions ; 
and  the  process  or  method  consists  in  making 
each  conception  of  itself  generate  its  oi)posite, 
and,  combining  with  this  opposite,  thus  become 
enriched  and  enabled  to  advance  to  still  higher 
Btages.  This  method  Hegel,  with  enduring  perse- 
verance, endeavoured  to  carry  out  through  the 
whole  field  of  philosoj^hy ;  and  divided  his  system 
mto  the  three  provinces  of  logic,  philosophy  of 
uature,  and  philosojihy  of  mind. 

While  the  systems  above  considered  form  pretty 
much  a  continuous  line  of  progress,  that  of  J.  F. 
Herbart  (q.  v.),  on  the  coutrarj^  arose  in  opposition 
to  the  idealism  of  Fichte,  and  took  a  direction  in 
complete  antagonism  to  the  dominant  secular  phil- 
osophy ;  and  when  we  have  named  Herbart,  along 
with  Schelling  and  Hegel,  we  have  named  the  only 
men  that,  since  the  era  of  Kant  and  Fichte,  can  lay 
claim  to  extended  and  general  influence.  For  the 
well-nigh  innumerable  jiroductions  of  other  thinkers 
in  this  department,  though  often  of  individual  merit, 
are  only  of  secondary  importance  for  the  develop- 
ment of  philosophy  as  a  whole.  None  of  them 
oi)ened  up  any  new  leading  path ;  they  are  occupied 
chiefly  in  defending  or  remodelling  older  systems, 
and  applying  them  to  particular  departments  of 
science,  or  in  controversy  with  the  dominant 
philosophy  of  the  day.  To  this  category  belong 
the  Kantian  systems  of  Krug  and  others ;  the 
physical  speculations  of  Steffens,  Oken,  Schubert, 
&c. ;  the  various  attempts  to  lead  back  philosophy 
to  empirical  psychology;  the  peculiar  specidative 
attempts  of  Suhleiermacher,  J.  ,T.  Wagner,  Fichte 
the  younger,  A.  Trendlenburg,  &c. ;  the  different 
tendencies  within  the  Hegelian  school ;  and  lastly, 
the  i)Osition  which  Schelling  latterly  took  up  wdth 
regard  to  his  own  earlier  doctrines,  and  to  the 
development  given  to  them  by  others. 

While  philosophy  daring  Uie  last  haK  century 


was  thus  actively  prosecuted  as  a  science,  a  corre- 
sponding interest  was  taken  in  its  history ;  in  fact, 
it  was  Gcrnuins  who  first  souglit  to  grapple  witlj 
the  history  of  philosophy  as  a  whole,  and  to  throw 
light  upon  the  principal  departments  of  it  hy  valuable 
special  treatises.  See  riiiLOSOPJiY.  The  rapid 
succession  of  systems  one  after  anf)ther,  and  the 
extravagances  into  which  some  of  them  ran,  have, 
it  is  true,  produced  a  lull  in  the  interest  taken  in 
speculation  ;  and  to  the  former  enthusiasm  there  has 
succeeded  a  sceptical  aversion  to  all  speculative 
inquiry.  Still  the  influence  that  philosophy  has 
had  in  elevating  and  strengthening  the  scientitio 
mind  of  Germany,  has  been  powerfid  and  bcnefic'al ; 
and  there  are  few  dej)artments  of  research  in  which 
the  fruits  of  the  philosophic  spirit  may  not  be 
seen  in  a  deeper  and  more  thorough  mode  of 
treatment. 

GERMAN  SILVER,  the  name  given  to  an  alloy 
formed  of  copper,  zinc,  and  ni^Kel.  It  is  variable 
in  its  composition  according  to  the  reqiiirements  of 
the  manufacturer,  but  may  be  stated  for  general 
purposes  to  consist  of  coi)per  50'0,  zinc  80"0,  nickel 
20 "0 ;  this  composition  is  very  malleable,  susceptible 
of  high  polish,  and  nearly  as  white  as  silver.  This 
is  used  to  imitate  silver  in  articles  which  are  rolled 
and  stamped,  and  consequently  require  consider- 
able malleability.  By  taking  55  parts  of  coi)per, 
24-4  of  zinc,  and  20'6  of  nickel,  we  obtain  a  very 
beautiful  alloy,  scarcely  inferior  in  beauty  to  silver 
itself.  For  wire-drawing  and  very  thin  rolling, 
a  tougher  alloy  is  formed  of  cojiper,  60  parts; 
zinc,  25  parts;  nickel,  20  parts;  and  for  castings 
the  following  projiortions  are  used — copper,  60 
parts ;  zinc  and  copper,  each  20  parts.  Many 
other  formulas  are  in  use  arising  from  difference  of 
opinion  amongst  the  manufacturers  as  to  the  best 
proportions  for  their  respective  operations,  usiially 
however,  the  aim  is  to  obtaiii  a  silvery  whiteness, 
and  the  largest  proportion  of  malleability. 

This  alloy  must  not  be  confounded  with  other 
white  alloys,  such  as  Albata,  Britannia  metal,  and 
nickel  silver,  which  are  used  as  substitutes  for  the 
true  German  silver.  The  first  of  these  is  composed 
of  copper,  zinc,  nickel,  and  a  little  lead  ;  the  second 
of  copper,  zinc,  tin,  antimony,  and  sometimes  bis- 
muth ;  and  the  third  of  copper  60"0,  nickel  22-2, 
zinc  17  "8.  This  last  differs  only  in  its  proj)ortion3 
from  the  German  silver  ;  it  has  the  colour  of  highly 
polished  silver,  and  is  very  hard.  The  colour  of 
German  silver  being  so  near  that  of  the  precious 
metal,  it  is  particularly  well  adapted  for  plating 
either  by  the  old  jirocess  of  rolling  with  silver,  or 
in  the  newer  and  now  generally  used  process  of 
electro-plating;  the  advantages  are  that  a  thinner 
deposit  of  silver  can  be  used,  and  the  articles 
made  are  not  liable  to  the  objection  of  the  old 
process  of  plating  on  copper,  which  as  soon  as  the 
silver  began  to  wear  off  was  rendered  appaxent  by 
its  red  colour. 

As  alloys  of  the  nature  of  German  silver  are 
easily  oxidised  when  brought  in  contact  with  freo 
acids  (as,  for  example,  with  the  acetic  acid  c:n- 
tained  in  vinegar),  and  as  the  salts  of  lead,  co|,:p€r, 
and  nickel,  that  are  thus  formed  are  poisonous,  it  is 
not  expedient  to  use  spoons,  dishes,  &c.,  comjiosed 
of  German  silver. 

The  extent  to  which  it  is  now  used  is  very  great 
indeed,  and,  combined  with  electro- depositing,  it 
has  been  the  means  of  adding  immensely  to  tho 
national  industry,  the  manufacturers  of  Birmingham 
and  Sheffield  supplying  every  quai'ter  of  the  globe 
with  a  profusion  of  articles  of  taste  and  utility  in 
electro-plate  in  beautiful  designs,  and  rivaUiug 
genume  silver-plate  in  beauty  of  appearance. 

German  silver  derives  its  name  from  the  fact  that 

7i3 


GERMAN  TINDER— GERM ANIA. 


it  was  first  made  at  Hildnsj^bausen,  in  Germany, 
where  it  was  made  by  smeltinjj  the  ores  of  the 
metals  above-mentioned,  and  a  small  proj)ortion  of 
iron  ore  also ;  this  last,  however,  is  very  rarely  used 
no^v,  altbough  it  adds  to  the  silvery  whiteness  of 
the  alloy,  but  it  renders  it  more  brittle. 

GERMAN  TINDER.    See  Amadou. 

GERMA'NDER  {Tencrium),  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Lahiatce,  having  the  calyx 
fcoLulaTj  5-toothed  and  eometimes  2-lipped;  the 


Gf^rmander,  or  Wood  Sage  {Tencrium  Scorodonia)  : 
a,  corolla;  6,  calyx,  with  piatil. 

corolla  wdth  the  upper  lip  xery  short  and  bipartite, 
the  lower  lip  spreading  and  crifid ;  the  stamens 
much  exserted.  The  species  are  numerous,  and 
very  widely  distributed.  A  few  are  natives  of 
Britain.  The  Common  G.  or  Wall  G.  ( T.  chamce- 
drys),  often  found  on  ruiued  walls,  has  probably 
been  introduced  from  the  south  of  Europe.  It  is  a 
small,  ahiiost  shrubby,  perennial ;  with  wedge- 
shaped  ovate  inciso- serrate  leaves,  and  whorls  of 
about  three  large  reddish  purple  liowers.  It  is 
bitter,  somewhat  aromatic,  and  was  formerly  much 
used  in  medicine,  particularly  in  cases  of  gout.  It 
was  a  principal  ingredient  in  a  once  famous  gout 
'.nedicine  called  Portland  poioder. — Similar  medi- 
idaal  virtues  were  ascribed  to  T.  Boti-ys,  a  small 
annual  species  common  on  dry  hills  in  Gertnany ; 
with  aromatic  fragrance  and  yellow  flowers.  Wood 
&.  or  Wood  Sage  ( T.  scorodonia)  is  a  very  common 
British  plant,  growing  in  dry  bushy  or  rocky  places, 
with  oblong-ovate  very  much  wrinkled  leaves,  and 
one-sided  racemes  •)!  yellowish- white  flowers.  It  is 
very  bitter  ar.d  slightly  aromatic.  It  is  used  in 
Jersey  instead  of  hops. — Water  G.  [T.  scordium), 
a  rare  British  species,  growing  in  wet  meadows,  has 
a  smell  resembling  that  of  garlic.  It  had  once  a 
great  reputation  in  medicine. — Cat  Thyme  [T. 
Marum),  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  abounds 
714 


in  a  pungent  volatile  oil,  has  a  camphor-like  smell, 
and — like  catmint  and  valerian  root — has  great 
attractiveness  for  cats.  It  is  often  used  as  a  bter- 
nutatory ;  and  its  powder  snuifed  into  the  nose 
has  proved  very  beneficial  in  cases  of  polyi)U3. — A 
species  found  in  Cochiu-China  {T.  tJiea)  is  used 
there  in  infusion  as  tea. 

GERMA'NIA  was  the  general  name  under  wliich 
the  Romans  designated  not  only  great  part  of 
modern  Germany,  but  also  a  portion  of  Bel/^ura 
and  the  north  and  north-eastern  districts  of  Gaid, 
the  two  last  being  more  especially  characterised  aa 
'  Germania  Prima '  and  '  Secunda,'  while  Germany 
proper  was  also  called  '  Germania  INIagna,'  '  Ger- 
mania Trans-lvhenana,'  or  '  Germania  Barbara.' 
The  boundaries  of  the  region  comprehended  under 
these  designations  were  —on  the  west,  the  Rhine 
and  Celtic  Gaul  ;  on  the  east,  the  Vistula  and 
the  Carj)athian  Mountains ;  on  the  south,  the 
Danidie  ;  and  on  the  north,  the  sea,  which  waa 
divided  by  the  Ciml)rian  Chersonesus  (.Jutland) 
into  the  German  and  the  Suevic  (Baltic)  seas.  The 
flrst  occurrence  in  connection  with  the  history  of 
the  people  of  G.  with  which  we  are  acquainted, 
was  the  appearance  of  warlike  tribes  of  Cimbri 
and  Teutones  in  the  present  Steiermark  or  Stiria, 
where  they  defeated  the  Roman  consul  Papirius,  in 
the  year  113  b.  c.  Eleven  years  later,  they  again 
came  into  collision  with  the  Roman  arms,  but  the 
result  was  their  signal  defeat  by  Marius.  The 
names  Germani  and  Germania  do  not  seem  to  have 
been  ajipellations  in  use  among  the  people  them- 
selves ;  and  it  is  probable  that  the  Romans  bor 
rowed  tliem  from  the  Gauls  or  Celts,  in  whose  lan- 
guage the  word  '  gairm,'  a  loud  cry  (like  the  Homerio 
boen  arjatlws,  'good  at  the  war-shout'),  may  possibly 
have  served  to  designate  this  people,  whose  habit 
it  was  to  accompany  their  attack  on  an  enemy 
by  loud  cries.  The  Tungri  wei*e  the  first  German 
people  that  crossed  the  Rhine,  but  other  tribes 
soon  followed  ;  and  when  Julius  Cfesar  Opened  his 
Gallic  campaigns  (58  b.  c),  he  foimd  the  Germanio 
nations  of  the  Triboci,  Nemetes,  and  Vangiones  in 
possession  of  the  districts  l.ying  between  the  left 
bank  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Vosges,  while  he  even 
encountered  a  rival  pretender  to  the  supremacy  of 
GaTil  in  the  person  of  Ariovistus,  the  leader  of  the 
Suevic  tribe  of  the  Marcomanni.  All  these  tribes 
were,  however,  finally  reduced  to  subjection  with 
the  rest  of  Gaul,  Avhile  the  Tencteri  and  Usipetes, 
who  had  invaded  Belgium,  were  driven,  together 
with  the  Sicambri,  across  the  Rhine  to  their  former 
settlements  by  the  victorious  general,  who  for 
the  first  time  (55  B.C.)  led  a  Roman  army  into 
Trans-Rhenic  Germany.  The  quiet  which  Csesai-'s 
victories  had  secured  in  the  Rheiush  districts  was 
again  so  seriously  disturbed  by  the  Usi2)etes  and 
several  of  the  neighbouring  tribes  in  the  year 
16  B.C.,  that  Augustus,  who  had  hastened  to  Gaul 
on  the  outbreak  of  disturbances,  saw  that  stringent 
measures  must  be  adopted  to  keeji  the  Germans 
in  check,  and  sent  Drusus  at  the  head  of  eight 
legions  into  Germany.  The  first  step  of  the  Roman 
general  was  to  dig  a  canal  ('  fossa  Drusiana ')  from 
the  Rhine  to  the  Yssel,  by  w^hich  the  Roman 
galleys  could  sail  from  the  heart  of  the  continent 
to  the  ocean  ;  and  so  successful  were  his  measures, 
that  in  the  course  of  four  campaigns  he  had  carried 
the  Roman  arms  as  far  as  the  Albis  (Ell)e),  subdued 
the  Frisii,  Batavi,  and  Chauci  in  the  north,  and 
defeated  the  Catti  of  the  Moenus  (Maine)  dis- 
tricts. Drusus,  who  died  9  B.C.,  began  the  series 
of  forts,  bridges,  and  roads  which  were  completed 
and  extended  under  succeeding  commanders.  The 
attempt  made  by  Vains,  under  the  direction  of 
Augustus,  to  introduce  the  Roman  j^ro^-iucial  fonua 


GERMANIA. 


of  administration  into  Germany,  brought,  however, 
a  sudden  check  to  the  advance  raid  consolidation 
of  Koman  ])ower ;  for  the  tribes  of  Central  Ger- 
many, indignant  at  this  attempted  subversion  of 
their  national  institutions,  ranged  tliemselves  under 
the  leadership  of  Arminius,  a  chief  of  tlie  Cherusci, 
who  organised  a  general  revolt.  The  result  of 
this  movement  was  the  destruction  at  the  S^ltus 
Teutol:)ergiensis  of  the  three  legions  commanded 
by  Varus,  and  the  subsequent  loss  of  all  the 
Roman  possessions  between  the  Weser  and  the 
Rhine.  The  news  of  this  disastrous  event  threw 
the  city  of  Home  into  consternation.  Germanicus, 
Vfho  was  sent  forth  in  14  a.  d.  to  restore  Roman 
Bupremacy,  would  probably  have  again  wholly  sub- 
jugated the  Germanic  tribes  had  he  not  been 
recalled  by  Tiberius  in  the  midst  of  his  victories. 
From  this  time  forth  the  Romans  ceased  their 
attempts  to  conquer  Germany,  and  contented  them- 
selves with  repelling  the  incursions  which  the  ti'ibes 
made  on  their  frontiers,  and  endeavouring  b}''  their 
influence  to  foster  the  intestine  disturbances  which 
were  peq>etually  generated  through  the  ambition 
and  jealousy  of  rival  leaders,  such  as  Arminius, 
Marbodius,  and  the  Goth  Catualda.  After  the 
murder  of  Arminius  by  his  own  people,  the  power 
of  the  Cherusci  declined,  while  the  Longobardi  and 
Catti  began  to  assert  a  recognised  preponderance 
among  the  neighbouring  tribes.  Occasional  encoun- 
ters took  i)lace  between  the  people  of  Central 
Germany  and  the  legions  who  guarded  the  well- 
protected  Roman  boundary-line,  which  extended 
from  the  Rhine  to  the  Taunus,  and  from  thence  to 
the  Danube ;  and  from  time  to  time  the  Batavii 
and  other  warlike  tribes  of  the  north  and  north- 
west, who,  like  them,  had  been  brought  into  partial 
dependence  on  the  Romans,  rose  in  formidable 
insurrection  ;  but  after  Trajan  had  restored  order 
and  strengthened  the  forts,  peace  remained  undis- 
turbed in  the  north  till  the  beginning  of  the  3d  c, 
while,  with  the  exception  of  the  sanguinary  war  of 
the  Marcomanni  and  Quadi  under  Aurelius  Anto- 
ninus in  the  year  166  a.  d.,  there  was  a  similar 
absence  of  hostilities  in  the  south.  But  with  the 
3d  c.  the  tide  of  war  turned,  and  the  Romans  were 
lit  w  compelled  to  defend  their  own  empire  from  the 
im  oads  of  the  numerous  Germanic  tribes,  foremost 
among  whom  stood  the  powerful  confederacies  of 
the  Alemanni  and  Franks.  In  their  track  followed, 
during  the  next  two  centuries,  successive  hordes  of 
the  Vandals,  Suevi,  Heruli,  Goths,  and  Longobards, 
who  soon  formed  for  themselves  states  and  priiici- 
palities  on  the  ruins  of  the  old  Roman  provinces. 
From  this  period  till  the  establishment  of  the 
western  emi)ire  in  the  person  of  Charlemagne,  the 
history  of  Germany  is  a  blank  ;  but  the  condition  of 
the  country  when  he  entered  on  the  possession  of 
his  German  patrimony,  shewed  that  since  the  retire- 
ment of  the  Romans  the  lesser  tribes  had  become 
gradually  absorbed  in  the  larger,  for  on  his  accession 
the  land  was  held  by  a  few  great  nations  only,  as  the 
Saxons,  Frisians,  Franks,  Suabians,  and  Bavarians, 
whose  leaders  exercised  sovereign  power  within 
their  own  territories,  and  in  return  for  military 
services,  parcelled  out  their  lands  to  their  followers. 

The  knowledge  which  we  possess  of  the  habits 
and  government  of  the  ancient  Germans  is  princi- 
pally derived  from  the  Commentaries  of  Ca;sar,  and 
the  '  Germaiiia'  of  Tacitus  ;  and  imperfect  as  these 
Kources  of  information  are,  they  are  infinitely  less 
contradictory  than  the  subsequent  records  of  the 
earliest  Christian  times.  According  to  the  Roman 
historians,  the  Germans  were  a  people  of  high 
Btature,  fair  complexion,  and  red  or  yellow  hair, 
endowed  with  great  bodily  sLrength,  and  distin- 
guished for  an  indomitable  love  of  liberty.  The 


men  delighted  in  active  exercises  and  the  periis  of 
war,  and  the  women,  whose  chastity  was  without 
reproach,  were  held  in  higli  esteem.  Each  master  of 
a  family  had  absolute  ])ower  over  those  of  liia 
household.  Their  halntations  were  generally  sepa- 
rate, and  surrounded  by  their  several  stalls  and 
garners;  for  although  there  were  villages  wliose 
inhabitants  made  common  use  of  the  fields  and 
woods  surrounding  them,  the  Germans  seem  to 
have  preferred  isolated  and  detached  dwellings  to 
aggregate  settlements.  Towns  and  cities  they  long 
regarded  with  aversion,  as  inimical  to  personal 
freedom.  In  regard  to  tlieir  political  organisation, 
it  would  appear  that  several  villages  formed  a 
'  hundred,'  several  hundreds  one  '  gau,'  and  several 
gaus  one  tribe.  In  each  tribe  the  i)eople  were 
divided  into  four  classes — nobles,  freeinen,  freed- 
men  or  vassals,  and  slaves.  The  king  or  chief  was 
elected  from  among  the  nobles  ;  but  his  power  Avas 
very  limited,  and  the  government  of  the  several 
tribes  seems  to  have  been  democratic  rather  than 
monarchical. 

The  religion  of  the  Germans,  which  is  shrouded 
in  great  obscurity,  points,  like  their  language,  to 
their  eastern  origin,  and  was  based  upon  Asiatic 
myths  of  the  creation  of  the  world,  and  the  exist- 
ence of  gods  having  the  forms  and  attributes  of 
a  perfect  humanity.  Tlieir  conceptions  of  these 
mythical  beings  were  modified  by  the  local  colour- 
ing  which  they  received  from  association  with  new 
scenes,  and  through  the  lapse  of  time  ;  and  hence 
the  different  tribes  had  all  their  special  gods  or 
demigods,  who  were  often  their  own  leaders  or 
chiefs,  to  whom  the  attributes  of  the  god  to  whose 
worship  they  were  most  partial  were  ascribed.  It 
is  generally  said  that  the  Germans  had  neither 
teni2)le3  nor  statues.  Both  Cajsar  and  Tacitus 
expressly  afiirm  this,  but  it  cannot  be  regarded 
as  literally  true,  for  Tacitus  himself  mentions  a 
temple  of  a  goddess  Tanfana  among  the  Marsians  ; 
and  at  a  later  period,  we  find  Christian  mission- 
aries exhorting  the  Germans  to  change  their  pagan 
temples  into  Christian  churches,  while  we  also  read 
of  the  destruction  of  pagan  idols.  Nevertheless, 
the  religion  of  the  Germans  was  mainly  carried 
on  in  the  open  air — in  groves  and  forests,  and 
on  heaths  and  mountains.  Although  a  priestly 
order  also  existed  among  tlie  Germans,  yet  each 
master  of  a  household  i)erforined  religious  services 
for  himself  and  his  family  within  his  own  home- 
stead. A  knowledge  of  the  will  of  the  gods  and 
the  events  of  the  future  was  sought  by  divina- 
tion from  observations  of  the  flight  of  birds,  the 
rushing  of  waters,  and  other  similar  signs,  in  the 
interjn-etatioii  of  which  women  were  thought  to  be 
especially  skilled.  Belief  in  a  future  life,  and  in 
an  abode  after  death  for  those  who  had  deserved 
well  in  this  life,  was  cherished  among  the  Ger- 
manic races,  who  had  a  strong  faith  in  retribu- 
tive justice,  whose  sway  they  believed  would  be 
extended  over  the  gods  by  involving  them  in  a 
universal  annihilating  conflict  as  the  punishment 
of  their  evil  deeds,  after  which  a  new  world 
was  to  arise  guarded  by  a  pure  and  perfect  race 
of  gods.  In  addition  to  the  higher  deities,  the 
Germans  peopled  every  portion  of  space  with  a 
class  of  subordinate  beings  who  pervaded  the 
earth,  air,  and  water,  in  the  shape  of  elves,  nixes, 
kobolds,  dwarfs,  and  giants ;  while  Nornes  antl 
Valkuries  stood  apart  from  either  grade  of  spiritual 
existence  as  the  representatives  of  destiny  like  the 
Moirce  and  Parcre  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans. — See 
Kuhn,  Zur  dltesten  Gesch.  d.  indogerman.  Viilker 
(Berlin,  1850) ;  Wackernagel,  FamUienlehen  d.  Ge)^ 
manen  (Freibr.  1846) ;  Gibbon's  Dec'ine  and  Foil  oj 
the  llonian  Empire;  Grimm.  Deutsche  Mythologie 


GEEMANICUS  C^AiU  GERMANTOWN. 


(1844);  Muller,  Oesch.  und  System  d.  altdeutsch. 
Jidigion  (1844). 

G  E  R  M  A'  N I C  U  S  C  S  A  R,  a  distinguished 
Roman  general,  belonging  to  the  imj^erial  family,  was 
the  son  of  Nero  Claudius  Drusus,  and  of  Antonia, 
daughter  of  Mark  Antony,  and  niece  of  Augustus. 
He  was  born  15  B.C.,  in  the  month  of  September. 
In  accordance  with  the  desire  of  Augustus,  who 
had  even  thought  of  making  him  his  successor,  he 
was  adopted  in  the  year  4  a.d.  by  Tiberius,  whom 
he  accompanied  in  the  war  waged  against  the 
Pannonians  and  Dalmatians,  for  the  purpose  of 
Becuring  the  German  frontiers  after  the  defeat  of 
Varus.  After  having  been  consiil  in  12  A.D.,  he  was 
appointed  in  the  following  year  to  the  command 
of  the  eight  legions  on  the  Rhine.  On  the  death  of 
Augustus,  in  14  A.D.,  the  soldiers  revolted,  demand- 
ing higher  pay,  and  a  shorter  period  of  ser\'ice.  G. 
hastened  from  Gaul  (where  he  happened  to  be  at 
the  time)  to  remind  them  of  their  duty.  The 
soldiers,  who  almost  idolised  him  for  his  frank  and 
generous  disposition,  urged  him  to  seize  upon  the 
supreme  power.  G.,  however,  was  incapable  of 
treachery,  and^  declared  that  he  would  rather  die 
than  foi-feit  his  allegiance.  He,  however,  granted 
their  demands,  though  his  colleague,  A.  Ciscina, 
secretly  massacred  the  ringleaders  at  night.  G. 
now  led  the  legions  over  the  Rhine  below  Wesel, 
attacked  the  Marsi  during  a  nocturnal  festival,  and 
destroyed  their  celebrated  temple  of  Tanfana.  In 
15  A.  D.,  he  made  a  second  inroad  into  Germany. 
Proceeding  from  Metz  into  the  country  of  the  Catti, 
he  destroyed  their  chief  town  of  Mattium  (Maden, 
near  Gudensberg),  slaughtering  the  entire  inhabit- 
ants, young  and  old.  On  his  return,  his  assist- 
ance was  implored  by  the  ambassadors  of  Segestes 
(always  a  hrm  ally  of  the  Romans),  who  was 
besieged  by  his  son-in-law,  Arminius,  the  conqueror 
of  Varus.  This  was  at  once  given,  and  Thusnelda, 
the  heroic  wife  of  Arminius,  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Roman  general.  Arminius,  burning  with  anger 
and  shame,  now  roused  the  Cherusci  and  all  the 
neighbouring  tribes  to  war.  G.,  in  consequence, 
commenced  a  third  campaign.  He  divided  his  army 
into  three  divisions.  The  main  body  of  the  infantry 
were  led  by  Cfeciua  through  the  country  of  the 
Bructeri,  the  cavahy  under  another  general  marched 
through  Friesland,  while  G.  himself  sailed  with  a 
fleet  through  the  Zuydersee  into  the  German  Ocean, 
and  proceeded  up  the  river  Ems,  where  he  joined 
the  others.  The  iinited  divisions  now  laid  waste 
the  country  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Teutoburg 
forest,  penetrated  into  its  gloomy  depths,  and 
gathering  up  the  bones  of  Varus  and  his  legions, 
which  had  lain  bleaching  there  for  six  long  years, 
buried  them  with  solemn  funeral  honours.  A 
victory  gained  by  Arminius  induced  G.  to  make  a 
hasty  retreat,  during  which  he  lost  part  of  his  fleet 
in  a  tempest.  Csecina,  who  retreated  by  land,  sus- 
tained severe  losses  at  the  hands  of  the  pursuing 
Germans.  Before  the  fleet  of  1000  vessels,  which  G. 
had  built  in  Batavia,  was  equipped,  he  was  recalled 
over  the  Rhine  in  16  A.D.  by  news  of  the  beleaguer- 
ment  of  the  recently  acquired  fortress  of  Aliso,  on 
the  Lii)pe.  The  Germans  wei-e  repulsed,  and  the 
funeral  mound  in  the  forest  of  Teutoburg,  which 
they  had  thrown  down,  was  again  erected.  G.  now 
sailed  with  his  fleet  again  into  the  Ems,  pressed 
forward  to  the  Weser,  which  he  crossed,  and  com- 
pletely overthrew  Arminius  in  two  battles.  Never- 
theless, he  determined  to  return,  and  on  his  way, 
again  lost  the  greater  part  of  his  fleet  in  a  great 
storm.  In  order  to  prevent  this  event  from  giving 
courage  to  the  Germans,  he  once  more,  in  the  same 
year,  marched  into  the  country  of  the  Marsi,  and 
despatched  his  lieutenant,  Silius,  against  the  Catti. 
"116 


The  victories  thus  achieved  were  to  have  been 
followed  up  in  the  succeeding  years,  but  Tiberius, 
jealous  of  his  glory,  recalled  him,  and  feigning 
good- will,  bestowed  upon  him  the  honour  of  a 
triumph,  in  which  Thusnelda  appeared  among  the; 
captives.  To  rid  himself  of  G.,  whose  popularity 
seemed  to  render  him  dangerous,  Tiberiiis  sent 
him,  in  17  a.d.,  with  extensive  authority,  to  settle 
affairs  in  the  East,  at  the  same  time  appointing 
Piso  viceroy  of  Syria,  whose  haughty  and  despotic 
character  everywhere  counteracted  the  influence  of 
Germanicus.  G.  died  at  Epidaphnte,  near  Antioeh, 
9th  October,  19  a.  d,,  probably  of  poison.  He  wa* 
deeply  lamented  both  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  pro- 
vinces and  the  citizens  of  Rome,  whither  his  ashea 
were  conveyed,  and  dejjosited  by  his  wife  Agrippina 
in  the  mausoleum  of  Augustus.  Agrippina  herself 
and  two  of  her  sons  were  put  to  death,  by  order 
of  Tiberius  ;  her  third  son,  Caligula,  was  spared. 
Of  the  three  daughters  who  survived  their  father, 
Agrippina  became  as  remarkable  for  her  vices  as 
her  mother  had  been  for  her  virtues.  Besides  his 
splendid  generalship,  G.  was  conspicuous  for  his 
magnanimity,  benevolence,  finely  cultured  under- 
standing, and  personal  purity  of  life.  He  wrote 
several  works  of  a  rhetorical  character,  which  have 
been  lost ;  but  of  his  poetical  works,  we  possess  an 
epigram,  a  version  of  tlie  Phcenomena  of  Aratus,  and 
fragments  of  a  work  of  the  same  character,  entitled 
Diosemeia,  or  Prorpiostica,  compiled  from  Greek 
sources.  G.'s  literary  remains  were  first  published 
at  Bologna,  in  1474.  The  latest  edition  is  that  of 
Orelli,  at  the  end  of  his  Pha3di-us  (Zurich,  1831). 

GERMA'NO,  San,  a  beautiful  and  prosperous 
town  of  Italy,  is  situated  at  the  base  of  Monte 
Casino,  in  tlie  province  of  Terra  di  Lavoro,  about 
50  miles  north-north-west  of  Naples.  It  contains 
handsome  public  edifices,  and  is  surrounded  by  tho 
I'emains  of  monuments  and  buildings  of  high  anti- 
quarian interest;  it  is  built  on  the  site  and  from 
the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Volscian  town,  Casinum,  or 
Casca.  The  principal  ruins  of  the  ancient  Volscian 
period  are  a  monument,  supposed  to  have  been  a 
tomb,  an  amphitheatre,  and  a  temple.  The  first  is 
now  employed  as  a  church ;  it  is  a  square  building, 
in  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross,  constructed  with  enor- 
mous squared  blocks  of  stone,  on  the  Cyclopean 
principle.  From  its  form,  it  is  called  the  Church 
of  the  Crucifix,  or  Crocefisso.  The  second  must  have 
been  a  magnificent  building,  and  it  is  still  in  a  state 
of  preservation  sufficient  to  convey  an  idea  of  its 
original  vast  jjroportions.  The  third,  adjoining  the 
amphitheatre,  was  probably  built  in  conjunction 
with  it,  at  the  cost  of  the  Volscian  matron,  Umidia 
Quadratilla,  mentioned  by  Pliny.  The  Benedictine 
monastery  of  Monte  Casino,  at  a  couple  of  miles' 
distance  from  San  G.,  is  one  of  the  most  renowned 
religioiis  commuinties  of  Europe.  Its  foundation 
by  St  Benedict  dates  from  529.  It  contains  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  churches  of  Italy,  an  extensive 
library,  and  a  collection  of  the  most  precious  docu- 
ments of  the  middle  ages  in  its  valuable  archives. 
The  district  surrounding  San  G.  is  highly  cultivated, 
and  beautiful.    Pop.  about  8000. 

GERMANS,  St,  formerly  the  seat  of  the  .Ifipis- 
copal  government  of  the  ancient  diocese  of  Cornwall, 
England,  now  a  small  village  in  the  county  of  Corn- 
wall. It  stands  on  the  slope  of  a  hill,  on  a  branch 
of  the  river  Lynher,  10  miles  above  Plymouth  Sound, 
and  21  miles  east-south-east  of  Bodmin.  It  is  notable 
only  for  its  fine  parish  church,  which  has  an  excel- 
lent Norman  west  front,  and  the  toAvers  of  which 
are  hung  with  ivy  and  fern.    Pop.  (1871)  2678. 

GE'RMANTOWN,  formerly  a  post.-borough  of 
•  North  America,  in  the  state  of  Pennsylvania,  about 


GERMANY. 


6  miles  north-north-west  of  Thihidelphiii,  within  the 
chartered  limits  of  M'hich  city  it  was  included  in  1854. 
See  article  Philadelphia. 

GERMANY,  from  Lat.  Oermania  (q.  v.),  is  the 
English  name  of  the  country  which  the  natives  call 
Deutschland,  and  the  French  L'Allemagne.  See 
Alemanni.  The  word  is  sometimes  used  to  denote 
the  whole  area  of  the  European  continent  within 
which  the  Germanic  race  and  language  are  dominant. 
In  this  bi-oad  sense,  it  includes,  besides  Germany 
Proper,  parts  of  Aiistria,  Switzerland,  and  perhaps 
even  of  the  Netherlands;  hut  in  the  present  article 
the  name  is  to  be  understood  as  denoting  the  existing 
Germanic  Empire,  of  which  Prussia  is  the  head.  G. 
occupies  the  central  portions  of  Euro]ie,  and  extends 
from  6°  to  22"  40'  E.  long.,  and  from  49"  1'  to  55° 
50'  N.  hit.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  German 
Ocean,  the  Danish  Peninsula,  and  the  Baltic;  on  the 
E.  by  Russia  and  Austria;  on  the  S.  by  Austria, 
Italy,  and  Switzerland;  and  on  the  W.  by  France. 
Belgium,  and  the  Netherlands.  The  population  in  1875 
was  42,757,812.  Its  area  is  estimated  at  208,000 
square  miles,  or  aoout  ^th  of  that  of  all  Europe. 
The  coast-line  measui-es  about  950  miles.  G.  is  com- 
posed, of  an  aggregation  of  different  states  (26  in 
number),  which,  as  they  are  specially  treated  of  under 
their  respective  heads,  will  only  be  noticed  in  the 
present  article  in  as  far  as  they  severally  form  parts 
of  the  present  Germanic  Empire. 

The  following  list  gives  the  names  of  these  states, 
with  the  number  of  members  representing  each  in 
the  Bundesrath  or  Federal  Council,  and  the  Reichstag 
or  Imperial  Diet,  together  with  their  populations.  The 
areas  of  the  states  will  be  found  under  Unrope  gen- 
erally, and  under  the  head  of  each  specially. 

Number  of  Number  of  Pop.  at 


States  of  the  Empire. 

Members 

In  Deputies  in 

end  of 

Bundesrath.  Reichstag. 

1875. 

Kingdom  of  Prussia, 

.  17 

236 

25,742,404 

48 

5,022,390 

Wurtemberg,  .      .      .  . 

.  4 

17 

1,881,505 

Saxony,  .... 

4 

23 

2,760,586 

Grand-duchy  of  Baden,  . 

.  3 

14 

1,507,179 

Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  . 

2 

6 

553,785 

9 

884,218 

Oldenburg,  .... 

1 

319,314 

Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, 

.  1 

3 

292,933 

Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 

1 

1 

95,673 

Puchy  of  Brunswick, 

.  2 

3 

327,493 

Saxe-Meiuingen-Hildburgha 

usen,  1 

2 

194,494 

An  halt  

.  1 

2 

213,565 

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  . 

1 

2 

182,599 

1 

145,844 

Principality  of  Waldeck, 

1 

1 

54,743 

1 

112,452 

Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt,  . 

1 

1 

76,676 

Schwarzburg-Sondershausen 

.  1 

1 

67,480 

Reuss-Schleiz, 

1 

1 

92,375 
33,133 

Scbaumburg-Lippe, 

.  1 

1 

Reuss-Greiz, 

1 

1 

46,985 

Free  town  of  Hamburg,  . 

.  1 

3 

388,618 

1 

56,912 

1 

142,200 

Eeichsland  of  Alsace-Lorraine 

_1 

1.5 

1,. 531, 804 

Total,  . 

.  59 

397 

42,727,360 

Besides  the  above  political  divisions,  there  ai-e  certain 
distinctive  appellations  applied  to  different  parts  of 
G.,  which  have  been  derived  either  from  the  names 
and  settlements  of  the  ancient  Germanic  tribes,  or 
from  the  circles  and  other  great  subdivision  of  the 
old  empire.  Thus  the  name  of  'Swabia'is  still  ap- 
plied in  common  parlance  to  the  districts  embracing 
the  greater  part  of  Wurtemberg,  Southern  Baden, 
South-western  Bavaria,  and  Hohenzollern ;  '  Fran- 
conia,'  to  the  Maine  districts  of  Hamburg,  Schwein- 
furt,  and  Wurzburg;  'the  Palatinate,'  to  Rhenish 
Bavaria  and  the  north  of  Baden ;  '  the  Rhineland,'  to 
portions  of  Baden,  Rhenish  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  and  Nassau;  *  Voightland,'  to  the  high 
ground  between  Hof  and  Plauen;  'Thuringia,'  to 
the  districts  1}  ing  between  the  upper  Saale  and  the 


Werra,  as  Saxe- Weimar,  &c. ;  '  Lusatia,'  t()  the  east- 
ern part  of  Saxony  ;  '  East  Friesland,'  to  the  country 
between  the  Lower  Weser  and  the  Ems ;  and  '  West- 
phalia,' to  the  district  extending  between  Lower  Sax- 
ony, the  Netherlands,  Thuringia,  and  Ilesse,  to  ilie 
German  Ocean. 

Four-fifths  of  the  population  of  this  country  are 
of  the  race  called  in  English  Germans,  in  French,  Al- 
lemands,  but  by  the  people  themselves,  Deutsche. 
The  term  Deutscb,  in  Gothic,  thmdisJc^  in  O,  H.  Ger. 
dt?^^<.s■c  (Latinised  into  theotificus)^  is  derived  from  the 
Gothic  substantive  thiuda^  people,  and  therefore 
meant  originally  the  popular  language,  or,  in  the 
mouth  of  ttie  learned,  the  vulgar  tongue.  In  the  12th 
and  13th  centuries,  it  became  elevated  into  the  ac- 
cepted designation  both  of  this  wide-spread  tongue 
and  of  the  race  that  speak  it. 

The  Ahnanach  de  Gotha  for  1876  divides  the  pop- 
ulation of  the  German  empire,  in  regard  t(>  national- 
ity, as  follows:  Germans,  37,820,000;  Poles,  2,450,- 
000;  Wends,  140,000;  Czechs,  50,000;  Lithuanians 
and  Courlanders,  150,000;  Danes,  150,000;  French 
and  Walloons,  210,000.  Among  the  first  of  these 
must  be  included  half  a  million  of  Je\vs.  The  Ger- 
mans admit  of  being  divifled  into  High  and  Low  Ger- 
mans ;  the  phraseology  of  the  former  is  the  cultivated 
language  of  all  the  German  states;  that  of  the  latter, 
known  as  Piatt- Detitsch^  is  spoken  in  the  north  and 
north-west.  The  Poles  are  foutid  exclusively  in  the 
east  and  north-east  of  Prussia;  the  Czechs,  in  Sile- 
sia, about  Oppeln  and  Breslau,  the  Wends,  in  Sile- 
sia, Brandenburg,  and  Prussian  Lusatia;  the  Lithu- 
anians and  Courlnnders,  in  East  Prussia  ;  the  Danes, 
in  Slesvig;  the  Walloons,  ahoat  Aix-la-Chappelle,  in 
Rhenish  Prussia ;  and  the  French,  partly  in  the  same 
region,  and  partly  in  the  newly  re-acquired  provinces 
of  Alsace  and  Lorraine.  Although  the  Jews  are  scat- 
tered over  every  part  of  Germany,  they  are  most  nu- 
merous in  the  Prussian  territories. 

Physical  Character. — G.  presents  two  very  distinct 
physical  formations.  1.  A  range  of  high  table-land, 
occupying  the  centre  and  southern  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, interspersed  with  numerous  ranges  and  groups 
of  mountains,  the  most  important  of  which  are  the 
Harz  and  Teiitoburgerwald,  in  the  north  ;  the  Taunus 
and  Thuringerwald,  in  the  middle;  and  the  Schwarz- 
wald  and  Rauhe  Alps,  in  the  south;  and  containing 
an  area,  including  Alsace  and  Lorraine,  of  110,000 
square  miles.  2.  A  vast  sandy  plain,  which  extends 
from  the  centre  of  the  empire  north  to  the  German 
Ocean,  and  including  Slesvig-Holstein,  contains  an 
area  of  about  98,000  .square  miles.  This  great  plain, 
stretching  from  the  Russian  frontier  on  the  east  to 
tiie  Netherlands  on  the  west,  is  varied  by  two  terrace- 
like elevations.  The  one  stretches  from  the  Vistula 
into  Mecklenburg,  at  no  great  distance  from  the  coast 
of  the  Baltic,  and  has  a  mean  elevation  of  500  to  600 
feet,  rising  in  one  point  near  Danzig  to  1020  feet;  the 
other  line  of  elevations  begins  in  Silesia  and  terminates 
in  the  moorlands  of  Liineburg,  in  Hanover,  its  course 
being  marked  by  several  summits  from  500  to  800  feet 
in  height.  A  large  portion  of  the  plain  is  occupied 
by  sandy  tracts  interspersed  \vith  deposits  of  peat; 
but  other  parts  are  moderately  fertile,  and  admit  of 
successful  cultivation. 

In  respect  of  drainage,  the  surface  of  G.  belongs  to 
three  different  basins.  The  Danube  (q.  v.)  from  its 
source  in  the  Schwarzwald  to  the  borders  of  Austria 
belongs  to  G.,  and  through  this  channel  the  waters  of 
the  greater  part  of  Bavaria  are  poured  into  the  Black 
Sea  ;  thus  opening  up  communication  with  the  east. 
By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  surface,  however  (about 
185,000  sq.  m.),  has  a  nortbern  slope,  and  belongs 
partly  to  the  basin  of  the  North  Sea,  and  partly  to  tho 
basin  of  the  Baltic.  The  chief  German  streams  flow- 
ing into  the  North  Sea  are  the  Rhine  (q.  v.),  the 

717 


GERMANY. 


Weser  (q.  v.),  and  the  Elbe  (q,  v.) ;  into  the  Baltic, 
the  Oder  (q.  v.),  nnd  the  Vistula  (q.  v.). 

The  most  important  of  the  numerous  canals  which 
connect  tocether  the  p-eat  river  systems  of  G.  are 
Ludwijx's  Canal  in  Bavaria,  which  unites  the  Danube 
and  Maine,  and  thus  opens  a  communication  between 
the  Bhick  Sea  and  German  Ocean  ;  the  Finow  and 
Friedrich-Wilhelm's  canals  in  Brandenburg;;  the 
Plane  Canal,  whicli  connects  the  Elbe  and  the  Havel; 
and  the  Kiel  and  P>der  Canal,  unitin,<r  the  Baltic  and 
German  Ocean.  Numerous  lakes  occur  both  in  the 
table-land  of  Southern  G.  and  in  the  low  lands  of  the 
northern  districts,  butfewof  them  are  of  any  <?reatsize. 
G.  abounds  in  swamps  and  marsh-lands,  which  are 
especially  numerous  in  the  low  northern  districts.  Its 
mineral  sprinj^s  occur  priiicipidly  in  Nassau,  Wiir- 
tember2:,  Baden,  Bavaria,  and  Rhenish  Prussia.  Many 
»/f  these  sprintjs  have  I'etained  their  high  reputation 
from  the  earliest  a^res. 

Geology. — The  gi  eat  plain  of  North  Germany  con- 
sists of  strata  of  the  same  aire  as  the  tertiary  strata 
of  the  Paris  basin,  covered  with  very  recent  sand  and 
mud.  Newer  Tertiary  bods  occupy  the  basin  of 
the  Rhine  north  from  Mayence;  they  consist  of 
light-coloured  loam,  and  contain  the  bones  of  the 
mammoth,  rhinoceros,  and  other  contemporaneous 
mnmmals.  Erratics  are  scattered  over  the  north 
of  Germany.  The  whole  district  in  the  centre  of 
Germany,  from  the  Danube  northw  ards  to  Hanover, 
consists  of  Secondary  strata.  The  rocks  of  tha 
Trias  jieriod  are  best  known  in  Germany,  the  ty^iical 
rocks  of  buuter  sandstein,  muschel-kalk,  and  keuper 
being  developed  here,  so  as  to  justify  the  suitable- 
ness of  the  name  Trias,  which  is  wholly  inapplicable 
in  Britain,  where  the  series  is  represented  by  sand- 
stone beds  only.  In  Southern  Germany  the  strata  of 
this  age  are  rich  in  mines  of  rock-salt.  The  Trias  is 
highly  fossiliferous,  abounding  especially  in  marine 
shells,  and  containing  several  genera  of  remarkable 
labyrinthodont  saurians.  Jurassic  rocks  occur  in 
Central  Germany  ;  at  Hanover  they  consist  of  clays 
and  marl,  with  beds  of  sandstone  and  limestone, 
containing  coal  and  ironstone  of  such  value  that 
they  have  been  extensively  wrought.  The  Creta- 
ceous strata  are  frequently  highly  altered  from  the 
intruded  igneous  rocks,  which  have  raised  the  beds 
in  some  districts  to  a  nearly  vertical  position,  and 
have  altered  them  into  crystalline  marbles  and 
sihcious  sandstones. 

Of  the  Palaeozoic  rocks,  the  carboniferous  strata 
are  nearly  absent  in  Germany.  The  coal  obtained 
in  the  country  is  from  rocks  of  a  later  age.  True 
coal-beds  are  found  in  Ehenisli  Prussia.  The  sedi- 
mentary rocks  of  the  Hartz  Mountains  are  chiefly 
Devonian  ;  to  the  south-east,  near  Herzgerode,  they 
are  Upper  Silurian.  They  are  all  greatly  dislo- 
cated by  granite  and  other  intrusive  rocks.  The 
Hartz  Mountains  are  surrounded  by  a  zone  of  Per- 
mian rocks.  The  stratified  rocks  of  the  Thuringer- 
wald  are  also  Devonian,  resting  on  Lower  Silurian 
strata,  the  lower  j^ortion  of  which  is  highly  altered 
into  quartzose  schists ;  the  remainder  consists  of 
greywacke,  slate,  and  sandstone,  with  limestone 
and  alum  slates.  There  are  numerous  fucoid  and 
annelid  impressions  in  the  older  beds,  and  grapto- 
lites,  orthoceratites,  and  trilobites  in  the  newer. 

The  granitic  rocks  appear  in  the  Alps,  the  Eie- 
sengebirge,  and  Erzgebirge.  The  basalts,  trachytes, 
and  other  volcanic  products  are  largely  developed 
in  the  Eifel,  Siebengebirge,  Westerwald,  Vogels, 
Ehon-gebirge,  and  other  mountain  systems. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  G.  presents  less  diversity 
than  a  first  glance  at  the  map  might  lead  one  to 
infer,  for  the  greater  heats  of  the  more  southern 
latitudes  are  considerably  modified  by  the  alpine 
character  of  the  country  in  those  parallels,  while 
718 


the  cold  of  the  northern  plains  is  mitigated  by  their 
vicinity  to  the  ocean.  The  average  decrease  in  the 
mean  temperature  is  in  going  from  south  to  north, 
about  1°  F.  for  every  52  miles ;  and  in  going  from 
west  to  east,  about  1°  F.  for  every  72  miles.  The 
line  of  perpetual  snoAX  varies  from  7200  to  8000 
feet  above  the  levol  of  the  sea.  The  mean  ainiual 
fall  of  rain  is  20  inches ;  the  maximiim,  which  is 
met  with  on  the  southern  sloi)e  of  the  Alps,  being 
28  inches.  The  following  table  shews  the  mean 
annual  records  of  the  temperature  at  diflerei^fc 
points  of  the  continent : 


Menn 
An.  Temp. 

ITamliTirpr,      .      .      .47-  Fah. 
Brosdcn,     ...  48* 
Frankfort-on-the-Maine,  48-5 
T^prlin,        .       .       .  4G-5 
TTanovpr,        .       .       .  48' 
Konigsberg,       .       .  43* 


Summer.  Winter. 

64  Fah.  30  Fah. 

67  29 

66  R1 

66  27 

63  33 

62  24 


ProdnctR. — G.  is  rich  in  mineral  products,  among 
wliich  the  most  important  are  silver,  found  in  the 
Ilarz  Mountains  ;  iron  in  numerous  mountain-ranges; 
salt  in  many  parts  of  the  country;  coal  in  Rlienish 
Prussia  and  Silesia.  Cobidt,  arsenic,  Rulf)hnr,  salt- 
petre, alum,  gypsum,  bismuth,  pumice-stone,  tripoli- 
slate,  kaolin,  emery,  ochre,  and  vitriol,  are  all  among 
the  exports  of  Germany.  The  vegetable  products 
comprise  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  Enropenn 
flora.  All  the  ordinary  cerea's  are  extensively  cul- 
tivated in  the  north,  and  largely  exported,  chiefly 
from  Wiirtemberg  and  Bavaria  ;  hemp  and  flax,  mnd- 
der,  woad,  and  saffron,  grow  well  in  the  central  dis- 
tricts, where  the  vine,  the  cultivation  of  which  ex- 
tends in  suitable  localities  as  far  north  as  .51°,  is 
brought  to  great  perfection — the  best  wine-producing 
di'?tricts  being  the  valleys  of  the  Danube,  Rhine, 
Maine,  Necknr,  and  Moselle,  which  are,  moreover,  gen- 
erally noted  for  the  excellence  of  their  fruits  and  veg- 
etables. Tobacco  is  grown  in  sufficient  quantities  for 
extensive  exportation  on  the  Upper  Rhme,  the  Werra, 
and  Oder.  The  hops  of  Bavaria  have  a  high  reputa- 
tion, and  the  chicory  grown  in  that  country,  and  in 
the  district  between  the  Elbe  and  Weser,  finds  its 
way  all  over  Europe  as  a  substitute  for  coffee.  The 
most  extensive  foi-ests  are  found  in  Central  G.,  and 
in  some  parts  of  Prussia,  while  the  north-western 
parts  of  the  great  plain  are  deficient  in  wood,  the 
place  of  which  is  in  some  degree  supplied  by  the 
abundance  of  turf  yielded  by  the  marshy  lands.  G. 
hns  long  been  noted  for  the  good  breed  of  horses 
raised  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  continent;  whilo 
Saxony,  Silesia,  and  Brandenburg  have  an  equal  rep- 
utation for  their  sheep-flocks,  and  the  fine  quality  of 
the  wool  which  they  yield.  The  rich  alluvial  flats  of 
Mecklenburg  and  Hanover  are  celebrated  for  their 
cattle ;  the  forests  of  Northern  and  Central  G.  abound 
in  swine,  and  in  small  game  of  various  kinds;  while 
the  Bavarian  Alps  afford  shelter  to  the  larger  ani- 
mals, as  the  chamois,  the  red  deer  and  wild  goat,  the 
fox.  marten,  and  wolf;  and  in  all  the  plains  in  the 
north,  storks,  wild-jreese,  and  ducks  are  abundant. 
Among  the  fishes  of  G.,  the  most  generally  distributed 
are  cnrp,  salmon,  trout,  and  eels;  the  rivers  contain 
also  cray-fish,  pearl-bearing  mussels,  and  leeches. 
The  oyster,  herring,  and  cod  fisheries  constitute  im- 
portant branches  of  industry  on  the  German  shores  of 
the  Baltic  and  North  Sea,  G.  stands  next  to  Great 
Britain  in  regard  to  the  care  and  success  with  which 
its  agricultural,  mining,  and  other  natural  capabilities 
haA'e  been  cultivated.  All  the  German  states  en- 
courage agriculture,  and  have  endeavoured,  by  the 
establishment  of  agricultural  colleges  and  exhibitions, 
to  diffuse  among  tlie  people  a  knowledge  of  recent 
scientific  appliances.  The  countries  which  have  be 
come  most  conspicuous  in  this  movement  are  Prussia, 
Bavaria,  and  Saxony.    The  preservation  and  cultiva 


GERMANY. 


tion  of  woods  receive  almost  as  much  attention  in  G. 
as  ai^ricnlrure,  and  like  the  latter,  arc  elevated  to  the 
rank  of  a  science.  The  h\r<ie  woods  and  forests  in 
most  of  the  states  helong  to  tlie  2:overnnicnt,  and  are 
under  the  care  of  special  boards  of  niani'.<^err<!nt, 
which  exercise  the  right  of  supervision  and  control 
over  all  forest  lands,  whether  public  or  private. 

JJamifactnres. — The  ol'^sst  and  most  important  of 
the  German  industrial  arts  are  the  manufactures  of 
linen  and  woollen  goods.  The  chief  localities  for  the 
cultivation  and  preparation  of  flax,  and  the  weaving 
of  linen  fabrics,  are  the  mountain- valleys  of  Silesia, 
Lusatia,  Westphalia,  the  Ilarz,  and  Saxony  (for 
thread-laces) ;  while  cotton  fabrics  are  principally 
made  in  Khenish  Prussia  and  Saxony.  The  same 
districts,  together  with  Pomerania  and  Bavaria,  man- 
ufacture the  choicest  woollen  fabrics,  including  dam- 
asks and  carpets.  Toys,  Avooden  clocks,  and  wood- 
carvings,  which  may  be  regarded  as  almost  a  special- 
ity of  German  industry,  are  carried  to  the  greatrest 
perfection  in  the  hilly  districts  of  Saxony,  Ravaria, 
and  the  Black  Forest.  The  best  iron  and  steel  manu- 
factures belong  to  Silesia,  Hanover,  and  Saxony.  Si- 
lesia probably  possesses  the  finest  glass-manufacto- 
ries; Avhile  Saxony  and  Prussia  stand  pre-eminent 
for  the  excellence  of  their  china  and  earthen  wares. 
Augsburg  and  Nurnberg  dispute  with  Munich  aud 
Berlin  the  title  to  pre-eminence  in  silver,  gold,  and 
jewellery  work,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  philosoph- 
ical and  musical  instruments;  while  Leipsic  and  Mu- 
nich claim  the  first  rank  for  type-foundries,  print- 
ing, and  lithography.  The  trading  cities  of  Northern 
G.  nearly  monopolise  the  entire  business  connected 
with  the  preparation  of  tobacco,  snuff,  &c.,  the  distil- 
lation of  brandies,  and  the  manufacture  of  sugar  from 
the  beet,  potato,  and  other  roots;  while  vinegar  and 
oils  are  prepared  almost  exclusively  in  Central  and 
Southern  Germany. 

RailwaTjH^  &c. — The  railways  which  intersect  each 
other  in  all  directions,  from  Basle  on  the  Rbine  to 
Hadersleben  in  the  north  of  Slesvig,  and  from  Baut- 
zen in  the  east  of  Saxony  to  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  the 
west  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  measured,  July  1,  1875,  16,- 
705  English  miles ;  but  these  figures  strictly  represent 
the  length,  not  of  the  lines  within  the  limits  of  the 
German  empire,  but  of  those  which  are  under  Ger- 
man administration,  though  extending  some  way  into 
neighbouring  states. 

The  various  telegraphic  lines  of  the  empire  (except- 
ing those  of  Bavaria  and  Wiirtemberg)  are  now  under 
a  central  administration,  and  in  1875,  the  whole 
measured  nearly  26,500  English  miles. 

The  postal  system  of  the  German  states,  which  is 
administered  by  Boards  of  Control,  includes  the  expe- 
dition of  passengers  and  goods  by  the  post-carriages 
of  the  several  departments.  Since  1851,  in  accord- 
ance with  a  treaty  concluded  between  Austria  and 
Prussia,  a  Germano-Austrian  postal  union  has  been 
estal^lished,  the  objects  of  which  are  to  secure  an 
effective  and  more  energetic  administration  of  the 
various  branches  of  the  organisation,  and  tlie  adop- 
tion of  a  uniform  scale  of  charges,  while  it  likewise 
exercises  the  duty  of  concluding  international  postal 
treaties  with  foreign  states.  Bavaria  and  Wiirtem- 
berg have  still  their  special  postal  administrations. 

The  multiplicity  of  small  states,  into  which  the 
German  land  was  long  broken  up,  opposed  great  ob- 
stacles to  the  development  of  commerce;  but  the  dif- 
ficulty has  to  some  extent  been  obviated  by  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Zoll  imd  Ilandels-verein  (q.  v.),  or 
*  Customs  and  Trade  Confederation,'  and  partly  also 
by  the  absorption  of  several  of  the  smaller  states  by 
Prussia. 

Education. — Education  is  more  generally  diffused 
in  G.  than  in  any  other  country  of  Europe,  and  is 
cultivated  with  an  earnest  and  systematic  devotion 


not  met  with,  to  an  equal  extent,  among  other  na- 
tions. There  are  21  universities:  Berlin,  Bieslau, 
Halle,  Bonn,  Greifswald,  Miinster,  Munich,  Wiirz- 
burg,  Erlangen,  Leipsic,  Tubingen,  Gottingen,  Hei- 
delberg, Freiburg,  Marburg,  Gicssen,  Jena,  Rostock, 
Kiel,  Konigsberg,  and  Strasburg.  These  institutions 
embrace  the  four  faculties  of  'J'heology,  Law,  Medi- 
cine, and  Pliilosophy;  and  in  June  1872,  had  1154 
professors  and  teachers,  and  13,990  students.  Of 
21  universities  of  the  empire,  14  are  Protestant,  i.e., 
in  the  department  of  theology,  they  teach  only  l*rot- 
estant  theology;  four  are  Roman  Catholic,  viz.,  Frei- 
burg, Munich,  Muuster,  and  Wiirzburg;  three,  viz., 
Bonn,  Breslau,  and  "^I'ubingen,  are  mixed.  Protestant- 
ism prevailing  in  the  first  two,  and  Roman  Cathol- 
icism in  the  last.  There  are  also  10  polytechnic  in- 
stitutions; about  500  high  schools  or  gymnasia; 
numerous  special  schools  of  technology,  agriculture, 
commerce,  military  science,  &c. ;  several  seminaries  for 
teachers,  and  for  the  ministers  of  different  religious 
denominations;  and  more  than  50,000  elementary 
schools.  The  attendance  of  children  at  school,  for  at 
least  four  or  five  years,  is  made  compuLsory  in  nearly 
all  the  German  states,  and  hence  the  proportion  of 
pei-sons  who  cannot  i-ead  and  write  is  exceedingly 
small  in  Germany. 

Public  libraries — of  which  there  are  more  than  150 
— mus^eums,  botai\ical  gardens,  art-collections,  pic- 
ture-galleries, schools  of  music  and  design,  and  acad- 
emies of  arts  and  sciences,  are  to  be  met  with  in  most 
of  the  capitals,  and  in  many  of  the  country  towns, 
upwards  of  200  of  which  possess  one  or  more  perma- 
nently established  theatres.  In  no  country  is  the 
book  and  publishing  trade  more  universally  patron- 
ised than  in  Germany.  The  press  annually '  sends 
forth  from  8000  to  10,000  works,  while  about  3000 
papers  and  journals  are  circulated  throughout  the 
empire;  of  the  current  newspapers,  a  comparatively 
small  number  only  exert  any  marked  influence,  but 
many  of  the  German  scientific  and  literaiw  periodicals 
enjoy  a  world-wide  reputation.  Tlie  censorship  of  the 
press  was  abolished  by  a  decree  of  the  diet  of  1848, 
and  freedom  of  the  press,  under  certain  restrictions, 
which  were  promulgated  in  1854,  has  been  intro- 
duced. 

Army  and  Navy. — 1.  Army. — By  the  constitution 
of  April  16,  1871,  the  Prussian  obligation  to  serve  in 
the  army  is  extended  to  the  whole  empire ;  article  59 
prescribes  that  every  German  who  is  wehrfdhig^  i.  e., 
'capable  of  bearing  arms,'  must  be  in  the  standing 
army  from  his  twenty-first  to  his  twenty-eighth  year. 
Of  these  seven  years,  three  must  be  spent  in  active 
service  (hei  den  Fahnert)^  and  the  remainder  in  the 
army  of  reserve.  On  quitting  the  army  of  reserve, 
he  has  to  form  part  of  the  Landwehr  (q.  v.)  for  other 
five  years.  Article  63  enacts  that  die  gcsammte  Land- 
macht  des  lieichs  wird  em  emJieitlichea  Heer  hilden^ 
welches  itn  Krieg  und  Frieden  nnter  dem  Befehle  des 
Faisers  steht  ('the  whole  land-forces  of  the  empire 
shall  form  a  united  army,  in  war  and  peace,  under  the 
command  of  the  empei'or').  The  sovereigns  of  the 
principal  states  have  the  right  to  select  the  lower 
grades  of  officers,  but  even  their  selections  require  to 
obtain  the  approval  of  the  emperor,  whose  authority 
is  paramount;  article  64  expressly  declaring  that 
alle  denUchen  Truppen  smd  verpjliclitet  den  BefeJilen 
des  Kaisers  nnhedingt  Folge  zu  leisten  ('all  German 
troops  are  bound  to  obey  unconditionally  the  orders 
of  the  emperor').  In  May  1879,  the  imperial  army, 
on  its  peace-footing,  consisted  of  1  50  regiments  of  in- 
fantry, including  the  guards  ;  26  battalions  of  jiiger, 
or  riflemen;  93  regiments  of  cavalry;  36  regiments 
of  artillery;  20  battalions  of  engineers;  and  18  bat- 
talions of  military  train  :  comprising  a  total  of  17,- 
220  officers,  401,659  rank  and  file,  79,893  horses,  and 
1206  guns.    On  its  war-footing,  the  numbers  are 

719 


GERMANY. 


33.281  officers,  1,392,011  rank  and  fXe,  299,562 
horses,  and  2556  guns. 

2.  Navy. — The  formation  of  a  German  navy,  due 
to  the  initiative  of  Prussia,  dates  from  1848,  and  of 
late  years  rapid  progress  has  been  made.  In  1879, 
the  imperial  fleet  consisted  of  70  steamers,  of  wliich 
7  were  ironclad  frigates,  22  corvettes,  21  gunboats, 
11  torpedo-boats,  &c.,  &c.,  making  in  all  74  vessels 
()£  war,  with  five  others  in  course  of  construction, 
liaving  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  114,267  tons.  The 
fleet  is  manjied  hy  5625  seamen  and  l)oys,  and  ofHcercd 
by  the  following  ^)er.s*?n/.fiJ ;  1  admiral,  with  his  staff ; 
1  rear-admiral,  with  his  staff;  1  vice-admiral,  3  rear- 
admirals,  20  i^ost-captains,  40  cai)tains  of  corvettes, 
74  lieutciiiint-captains,  148  executive  officers,  128 
second  lieutenants,  100  naval  cadets,  24  engineers, 
42  paymasters,  15  midshipmen,  etc.,  besides  66  officers, 
18  physicians,  and  26  cadets  of  marines  of  the  reserve 
and  of  the  seewehr.  The  empire  h  iS  4  ports  of  war: 
Kiel  ((1.  v.),  Danzig  ((j.  v.),  antl  Stralsund  (q.  v.)  on 
the  Baltic,  and  Wilhclinshaven  (q.  v.)  in  the  Bay  of 
Jahde  on  the  North  Se:i. 

RclUjion. — In  regard  to  I'eligion,  it  may  be  stated 
generally  that  Protestantism  predominates  in  the 
north,  and  Koman  Catholicism  in  the  south,  although 
very  few  states  exhibit  exclusively  either  form  of 
faith. 

The  following  is  the  proportion  of  the  different  de- 
nominations, according  to  the  census  of  December 
1871:  Protestants  (Lutherans  and  Calvinists),  25,- 
500,000;  Roman  Catholics,  15,000,000;  various  small 
Christian  sects,  as  Ilcrrcnhuters,  Mennonites,  &c., 
110,000;  Jews,  440,000. 

Folilicnl  Organimtion. — All  the  states  of  the  em- 
pire recognise  four  distinct  ordei'S — viz.,  the  nobility, 
clergy,  burghers,  and  peasantry — and  all  distinguish 
three  distinct  grades  of  nobility.  The  highest  of 
these  includes  the  members  of  reigning  houses,  and 
the  descendants  of  families  who  belonged  at  the  time 
of  the  old  empire  to  the  sovereign  nobility  of  the 
state,  and  were  reichsanmittplbar,  or  directly  con- 
nected with  the  empire,  as  holding  their  domains  di- 
rectly under  the  emperor;  but  whose  houses  have 
subsequently  hQQn  mediatised^  or  deprived  of  sovereign 
power  in  accordance  with  special  treaties  between  the 
state  and  the  princes.  There  are  at  present  50 
princely  and  51  grdjliche  (countly)  mediatised  families, 
who  in  accordance  with  the  act  of  the  diet  of  1806, 
have  equality  of  rank  with  reigning  houses,  and  en- 
joy many  of  the  special  privileges  which  were  ac- 
corded to  the  high  nobles  of  the  empire.  The  second 
grade  of  nobility  is  composed  of  counts  and  barons 
not  belonging  to  reigning  or  mediatised  houses, 
whilst  the  third  and  lowest  grade  includes  the 
knights  and  hereditary  patrimonial  proprietors  of 
Germany. 

Before  we  proceed  to  consider  the  political  organ- 
isation of  the  new  Germanic  empire,  we  will  briefly 
describe — 1st,  the  principal  features  of  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  old  Germanic  empire,  which  was  over- 
thrown by  the  First  Napoleon  in  1806;  and  2d,  that 
Bund  or  federal  government  which  lasted  from  1814 
to  1866,  when  Austria  was  excluded  from  the  Confed- 
eration, and  the  hegemony  of  Germany  was  trans- 
ferred to  Prussia. 

The  Old  Qermanic  Empire. — The  states  of  this 
empire  comprised  three  chambers  or  colleges:  1.  The 
Electoral  College,  which  consisted  of  the  archiepisco- 
pal  electors  of  Mainz,  Treves,  and  Cologne;  and  the 
secular  electors,  of  whom  there  were  originally  only 
four,  but  whose  number  was  subsequently  increased 
to  five,  and  who  at  the  dissolution  of  the  empire  were 
represented  by  the  sovereigns  of  Bohemia,  Bavaria, 
Saxony,  Brandenburg,  and  Brunswick-Luneburg  or 
Hanover  (see  Electors).  2.  The  College  of  the 
Princes  of  the  Empire,  who  had  each  a  vote  in  the 
720 


diet,  and  were  divided  into  spiritual  and  temporal 
princes.  3.  The  Free  Imperial  Cities,  which  formed 
a  college  at  the  diet,  divided  into  two  benches,  the 
Rhenish  with  14  cities,  and  the  Swabian  with  37  ; 
each  of  which  had  a  vote.  These  colleges,  each  of 
which  voted  separately,  formed  the  diet  of  the  em- 
])ire.  When  their  respective  decisions  agreed,  the 
matter  under  discussion  was  submitted  to  the  empe- 
ror, who  could  refuse  his  ratification  of  the  decisions 
of  the  diet,  although  he  had  no  power  to  modify  them. 
Ordinary  meetings  were  usually  summoned  twice  a 
year  by  the  emperor,  who  specified  the  place  at  which 
the  sittings  were  to  be  held,  and  which,  during  the 
latter  periods  of  the  empire,  were  at  Regensburg 
(Ratisbon).  The  diet  had  the  right  to  enact,  abro- 
gate, or  modify  laws,  conclude  peace  and  declare 
war,  and  impose  taxes  for  the  general  expenses  of  the 
state.  The  Aulic  Chamber,  and  the  Cameral  or  chief 
tribunal  of  the  empire,  decided  in  cases  of  dispute  be- 
tween members  of  the  diet.  The  emperors  were 
chosen  by  the  electors  in  person,  or  by  their  dei)uties ; 
and  after  their  election  and  coronation,  which  usually 
both  took  place  at  Frankfnrt-on-the-Maine,  the  em- 
peror swore  to  the  '  capitulation '  or  constitution  of 
the  empn-e.  After  the  dissolution  of  the  empire  in 
1806,  its  place  was  nominally  taken  by  the  Confeder- 
ation of  the  Rhine,  which  owed  its  existence  to  Napo 
Icon,  and  which  lasted  till  1815. 

Late  Oermariic  Co'nfede.ratio7i. — The  late  Germanic 
Confederation  was  established  by  an  act  of  the  Con- 
gress of  Vienna  in  1^15,  on  the  overthrow  of  Napo- 
leon. It  was  an  indissoluble  union,  from  which  no 
single  state  could  at  its  own  pleasure  retire.  Its  cen- 
tral ]ioint  and  its  executive  and  legislative  powera 
were  represented  by  the  federative  diet,  which  held  its 
meetings  at  Frankf urt-on-the-Maine,  and  was  com- 
posed of  delegates  from  all  the  confederate  states, 
chosen,  not  by  the  people,  but  by  the  various  govern- 
ments. The  diet  deliberated  either  in  a  limited  coun- 
cil (the  Federative  government)  or  as  a  general  assem- 
bly (Plenian).  In  the  limited  council  there  were  17 
votes,  of  which  11  of  the  principal  states  had  each  a 
single  vote,  while  the  remaining  states  divided  the 
six  collective  votes  between  them.  The  Plenum, 
which  met  only  when  any  organic  change  was  to  be 
effected  in  the  diet  itself,  embraced  70  votes,  of  which 
Austria  and  the  five  German  kingdoms  had  each  four, 
while  the  other  states  had  3,  2,  or  1  vote  each  in  pro- 
portion to  their  individual  importance.  It  rested  with 
the  limited  council,  which  executed  the  enactments  of 
the  Plenum,  and  despatched  the  ordinary  business  of 
the  Confederation,  to  decide  (by  a  majority  of  voices) 
whether  a  question  should  be  submitted  to  the  Ple- 
num, where  it  was  not  debated,  but  simply  decided  by 
a  majority  of  ayes  or  noes.  Austria  presided  in  both 
assemblies,  and  had  a  casting  voice  in  cases  of  equal- 
ity. The  diet,  as  a  collective  body,  had  the  right  of 
concluding  peace  and  alliances,  and  declaring  war- 
but  this  power  could  only  be  exercised  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  independence  and  external  security  of 
G.,  and  the  individual  integrity  of  the  several  federa- 
tive states,  which  on  their  part  were  bound  to  submit* 
to  the  diet  the  consideration  of  all  questions  in  dis- 
pute between  themselves  and  other  powers.  Where 
such  differences  could  not  be  settled  by  the  committee 
empowered  by  the  Plenum  to  consider  them,  they 
were  finally  referred  to  a  special  tribunal  known  as 
the  '  Austriigal'  Court,  Avhich  was  composed  of  seve- 
ral members  of  the  Confederation  invested  for  the 
time  with  full  powers.  The  diet  was  bound  to  main- 
tain the  existing  order  of  government  in  each  state, 
and  to  aid  the  sovereign  in  suppressing  any  attempts 
by  the  subjects  to  subvert  it.  Those  members  of  the 
Confederation  whose  territories  did  not  contain  a  pop- 
ulation of  300,000  were  obliged  to  incorporate  them- 
selves with  some  other  federative  state  for  the  estab- 


GERMANY. 


lishment  of  a  joint  high  court  of  appeal.  _  When 
disputes  arose  between  rulers  and  their  subjects  in 
regard  to  the  (jucstions  of  internal  government,  they 
were  submitted  to  tlie  tribunal  of  the  federative  gov- 
ernment, which  was  a  body  composed  oC  34  menil>ers, 
known  as  Spruc7ima7ine)\  who  were  elected  triennially 
by  the  diet,  and  from  among  whom  the  disputing  par- 
ties chose  their  respective  umpires.  For  a  full  account 
of  the  proceedings  which  broke  up  this  Bund,  and  of 
the  North  German  Confederation  which  practically 
took  its  place,  from  1866  to  1871,  see  article  Ger- 
many in  Supplement,  Vol.  X. 

JSfeio  Germajiic  Empire. — The  seventy-ninth  article 
of  the  constitution  of  the  North  German  Confedera- 
tion provided  for  the  admission  of  the  South  German 
states  into  the  new  Bund;  and  the  war  between 
France  and  Germany,  which  broke  out  in  July  1870, 
and  in  which  all  the  German  princes  and  peoples 
took  part,  gave  an  irresistible  impetus  to  the  desire 
for  national  unity.  On  the  15th  November  1870,  the 
grand-duchies  of  Baden  and  Hesse  joined  the  Bund  ; 
Bavaria  followed  on  the  23(V,  and  Wiirtemberg  on  the 
25th  of  the  same  month.  Shortly  aftei%  the  king  of 
]?avaria  wrote  a  letter  to  the  king  of  Prussia,  urging 
him  to  re-establish  the  German  empire.  This  brought 
the  question  under  the  notice  of  the  Bund;  and  on 
the  10th  December  1870  it  was  agreed,  by  188  votes 
to  6,  that  the  empire  should  be  restored,  and  that  the 
king  of  Prussia  should  be  acknowledged  hereditary 
emperor  of  Germany.  The  latter  solemnly  accepted 
the  new  dignity  at  Versailles,  18th  January  1871. 

The  new  empire  is  composed,  like  the  old  Bund,  of 
a  confederation  of  German  states ;  but  these  are  weld- 
ed into  one  for  national  purposes  as  was  never  before 
the  case ;  and  the  imperial  power,  by  the  terms  of 
the  constitution,  is  so  fully  asserted,  that  it  cannot 
possibly  be  assailed  or  questioned  from  witliin.  There 
are  two  legislative  bodies  in  the  empire — the  Bundes- 
rnth^  or  Federal  Council,  the  members  of  which  are 
annually  appointed  by  the  governments  of  the  various 
states;  and  the  ReicJiRtag,  the  members  of  which  are 
elected  by  universal  suffrage  and  ballot  for  a  period 
of  three  years.  All  imperial  laws  must  receive  the 
votes  of  an  absolute  majority  of  both  bodies,  and,  to 
be  valid,  must,  in  addition,  have  the  assent  of  the 
emperor,  and  be  countersigned  when  promulgated  by 
the  Rpichskanzler,  or  chancellor  of  the  empire,  who  is 
ex  officio  president  of  the  Bundesrath. 

According  to  the  eleventh  article  of  the  constitu- 
tion, the  German  emperor,  with  the  consent  of  the 
Bundesrath,  can  declare  war,  make  peace,  enter  into 
treaties  with  foreign  nations,  and  appoint  and  receive 
ambassadors.  If,  however,  the  territory  of  the  em- 
pire is  attacked,  he  does  not  require  the  consent  of 
the  Bundesrath  to  declare  war,  but  can  act  independ- 
ently. 

The  power  exercised  by  the  empire  extends  to  every- 
thing necessary  to  the  security  and  welfare  of  the 
German  people.  The  preamble  to  the  constitution 
expressly  declares  that  all  the  states  of  Germany 
schlieRseyi  einen  cv)ige7i  B>md  znm  Schntze  des  Bnndes- 
gebiets  iind  zur  Pjlege  der  Wohlfahrt  dcs  Dentschen 
Volkes  ('form  an  eternal  union  for  the  protection  of 
the  territory  of  the  Bund,  and  for  the  care  of  the 
welfnre  of  the  German  people').  Thus,  it  possesses 
the  exclusive  right  of  legislation  on  all  military  and 
n aval  affairs;  on  imperial  finance  and  commerce ;  on 
posts,  telegraj)hs,  and  railways  in  so  far  as  the  intei*- 
ests  of  the  national  defence  are  concerned.  Whei-ever 
the  laws  of  the  empire  come  into  collision  with  those 
of  particular  states  of  the  Bund,  the  latter  must  be 
held  as  abrogated,  and  in  all  disputes  that  arise  among 
the  latter,  the  imperial  jurisdiction  is  supreme  and 
final. 

Acting  under  the  direction  of  the  chnncellor  of  the 
empire,  the  Bundesrath,  in  addition  to  its  legislative 
202 


functions,  represents  also  a  supreme  administrative 
and  consultative  board,  and  as  such,  has  seven  stand- 
ing committees — namely,  for  army  and  naval  matters; 
tariff,  excise,  and  taxes;  trade  and  conmierce;  rail- 
ways, posts,  and  telegraphs;  civil  and  criminal  law; 
financial  accounts;  and  foreign  affairs.  Each  com- 
mittee consists  of  representatives  of  at  lesist  four 
states  of  the  empire;  but  the  foreign  affairs' conmiit- 
tee  includes  only  the  representatives  of  the  kingdoms 
of  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  and  Wiirtemberg. 

See  Handhuch  d.  Geog.  uud  Statint.  v.  Dr  Wilppaus 
(Leip.  1859);  II.  Berghaus,  Ethnograph-StotiKt.^ 
Darstellung  des  deut.schen  IteicJm  (Gotha,  1848); 
Schauenburg,  Flmscharte  v.  Deatschl.  uud  MUtel- 
Enropa  (Berlin,  1855) ;  Stieler's  Hand- Atlas  (Gotha, 
1861);  Von  Kloden's  Erdkunde  (Berlin,  1861) ;  Bra- 
chelli,  Deutsche  Staale7iknn.de  (Wien,  1877),  and  his 
Statistische  Taheln  (1862);  C.  Dieterici,  Statist. 
Uehers  im  dentsch.  Zollver.  (Berl.  1857);  Zachariii., 
Die  dentsch.  Verfass.  Oesetze  der  Oegenwart  (Gottin. 
gen,  1855);  K.  Bildeker's  JJandbiicher,  and  the  A.I- 
manach  de  Ootha  for  the  current  year. 

German  History. — After  the  gradual  expulsioD 
or  Tetiremejut  of  the  Komans  from  Germany,  the 
country  necessarily  became  subdivided  into  numer. 
ous  petty  states,  each  governed  by  its  own  chief. 
The  erection  of  the  Franko- Merovingian  empire 
in  France  had  given  preponderance  to  the  Frankish 
power  on  both  sides  of  the  Eliine,  and  when 
Charlemagne  succeeded  in  771  to  the  German  aa 
well  as  the  Gallic  possessions  of  his  father,  Pepin 
d'Heristal,  he  found  himself  possessed  of  an  amount 
of  territory  and  a  degree  of  influence  which  speedily 
enabled  him  to  assert  supremacy  over  the  whole 
of  the  west  of  Germany,  while  his  conquests  over 
the  heathen  Saxons  in  the  north,  and  the  Avari  who 
then  held  Pannonia  in  the  south-east,  extended 
his  German  dominions  from  the  North  Sea  to  the 
Alps,  and  from  the  Rhine  as  far  as  Hungary.  With 
Charlemagne,  who  received  the  imperial  crown  at 
the  hands  of  the  poj^e  in  800,  began  the  long  line  of 
emperors  and  kings  who  occupied  the  German  throne 
for  more  than  a  thousand  years,  and  with  him,  too, 
the  vast  fabric,  which  he  had  reared  on  the  ruina 
of  Poman  power,  lost  its  stability,  for  at  his  death 
in  814,  no  member  of  his  family  was  competent  to 
wield  the  imperial  sceptre,  although  in  843  some 
portions  of  his  German  possessions  fell,  in  accordance 
with  a  family  compact,  to  his  grandson  Ludwig, 
surnamed  '  the  German,'  who  was  recognised  as  king 
of  Germany.  On  the  extinction,  in  911,  of  the 
degenerate  Carlovingian  dynasty  in  the  person  of 
Ludwig  'the  Child,'  the  provincial  rulers,  who, 
together  with  the  archbishops,  bishops,  and  abbots, 
constituted  the  chief  members  of  the  diet  or  national 
assembly,  arrogated  to  themselves  (in  imitation  of 
the  practice  of  the  nobles  of  the  ancient  German 
tribes)  the  right  of  electing  their  sovereign,  who, 
however,  could  not  assume  the  imjierial  title  till  ho 
had  been  crowned  by  the  pope.  At  this  period, 
there  were  in  Germany  five  nations — the  Franks, 
Saxons,  Bavarians,  Swabians,  and  Lorraiuers.  The 
Franks,  as  the  descendants  of  those  who  had  con- 
quered the  land  and  founded  the  empire,  enjoyed  a 
pre-eminence  over  the  others;  and  hence,  on  the 
extinction  of  "the  Carlovingian  race,  the  choice  of 
the  prince-electors  seems  to  have  fallen  almost  aa 
a  matter  of  course  on  the  chief  of  the  Franks, 
the  Duke  or  Count  of  Franconia,  who  reigned  as 
king  of  Germany  from  911  to  918,  imder  the  title 
of  Conrad  I.  At  his  own  instigation,  his  rival 
and  adversary,  Henry,  Duke  of  Saxony,  was  choseq 
as  his  successor,  and  proved  himself  an  able  and 
warlike  prince.  The  conquests  which  he  gained 
over  the  Danes,  Slaves,  and  Magyars  were  con* 
firmed  and  extended  by  his  son  and  successor 


GEliMANY. 


Otlu)  I.  (936 — 97.3),  who  carried  the  boundaries  of 
the  empire  beyond  the  Elbe  and  Saale,  and  who, 
])y  his  acquisition  of  Lombardy,  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  the  relations  which  existed  for  many  ages 
between  the  rulers  of  Germany  and  the  Italian 
nation.  Otho's  coronation -festival  was  eventful,  as 
't  formed  the  precedent  for  the  exercise  of  those 
offices  which,  till  the  dissolution  of  the  empire,  were 
regarded  as  connected  with  the  dignity  of  the 
secular  electors,  for  on  that  occasion,  while  the 
emperor  dined  with  his  three  spiritual  electors,  he 
was  waited  upon  by  tlie  secular  i)rinces — the  Elector 
of  Bavaria  (afterwards  Saxony)  serving  as  grand- 
marshal  ;  of  Swabia  (afterwards  Bohemia),  as 
grand-cupbearer ;  and  of  Lorraine  (afterwards 
Brandenl)urg),  as  arch-chaniberlain. 

Otho  11.  (973-988),  Otho  III.  (983—1002),  and 
Henry  II.  (1002—1024),  belonged  to  the  House  of 
Saxony,  which  was  succeeded  })y  that  of  Franconia, 
in  the  person  of  Conrad  II.  (1024 — 1039),  an  able 
ruler,  who  added  Burgundy  to  the  empire.  His  son 
and  successor,  Henry  III.  (1039 — 1056),  extended 
German  supi-eraacy  over  Hungary,  part  of  which  he 
conquered  and  annexed  to  Lower  Austria,  while  he 
repressed  the  insolence  and  despotism  of  the  tem- 
poral and  spiritual  princes  of  Germany,  and  gained 
the  respect  of  his  contemporaries  by  his  zeal  for 
justice  and  his  valour  in  the  field.  The  minority 
of  his  son  and  successor,  Henry  IV.  (105G — 1106), 
enabled  the  nobles  to  recover  much  of  their  former 
power,  and  to  apply  a  check  to  the  further  consoli- 
dation of  the  imperial  authority,  which  had  been  con- 
eiderably  extended  under  the  two  preceding  reigns. 
Henry's  constant  quarrsls  with  the  astute  Gregory 
VII.  entangled  him  in  difficulties  and  mortifications 
which  only  ended  with  hia  life,  and  which  plunged 
Germany  into  anarchy  and  disorder,  and  entailed 
upon  the  empire  destructive  wars  which  convulsed 
the  whole  of  continental  Europe  for  more  than  two 
centuries.  With  his  son  and  successor,  Henry  V. 
(1106 — 1125),  the  male  line  of  the  Franconian 
dynasty  became  extinct ;  and  after  the  crown  had 
been  worn  (1125 — 1138)  by  Lothaire  of  Saxony,  w^ho 
made  a  bold  attempt  to  recover  some  of  the  pre- 
rogatives of  which  at  his  election  the  empire  had 
been  deprived  through  paj^al  intrigues,  the  choice  of 
the  electors,  after  a  season  of  dissension  and  intrigue, 
fell  upon  Conrad  III.,  Duke  of  Franconia,  the  first 
of  the  Hohenstaiiffen  dynasty  (1138—1152).  His 
reign,  in  which  the  civil  w^ars  of  the  Guelphs  and 
GhibeHines  began,  was  distracted  by  the  dissensions 
of  th*>  great  feudatories  of  the  empire,  while  the 
strenpth  of  Germany  was  wasted  in  the  disastrous 
Crusades,  in  which  Conrad  took  an  active  part.  On 
his  d'^ath,  the  electoral  college  for  the  first  time  met 
at  Frankfurt,  which  retained  the  honour  of  being 
the  place  at  which  the  sovereign  was  elected  and 
crowned  tiU  the  dissolution  of  the  empire  in 
the  19th  century.  Frederick  L  (1152—1190),  sur- 
named  Barbarossa,  Duke  of  Swabia,  was,  at  the 
recommendation  of  his  uncle  Conrad,  chosen  as  his 
Buccessor,  and  the  splendour  of  his  reign  fully 
warranted  the  selection.  By  the  force  of  his 
character,  Frederick  acquired  an  influence  over  the 
diets  which  had  not  been  possessed  by  any  of  his 
immediate  predecessors,  and  during  his  reign  many 
important  changes  were  effected  iu  the  mutual 
relations  of  the  great  duchies  and  counties  of 
Germany,  while  we  now  for  the  first  time  hear  of 
the  hereditary  right  possessed  by  certain  princes  to 
txercise  the  privilege  of  election.  Unfortunately  for 
Germany,  this  great  monarch  suffered  the  interests 
of  his  Italian  dominions  to  draw  him  away  from 
tiiose  of  his  own  country,  whilst  his  participa- 
tion in  the  Crusades,  in  which  both  he  and  the 
flower  of  his  chivalry  perished,  was  only  memorable 
"23 


for  the  misfortunes  which  it  entailed  on  the 
empire.  The  interval  between  the  death  of 
Frederick  Barbarossa  (1190)  and  the  accession  of 
Rudolf  I.  (1273),  the  first  of  the  Hajisburg  lint, 
which,  through  a  female  branch,  still  reigns  in 
Austria,  was  one  of  constant  struggle,  internal 
dissension,  and  foreign  wars.  Individual  .y,  the 
princes  of  the  Hohenstauffen  dynasty  were  poi)ular 
monarchs,  their  many  noble  and  chivalrous  quali- 
ties having  endeared  them  to  the  peo])le,  while 
one  of  the  race,  Frederick  II.  (1212 — 1250),  wao, 
after  Charlemagne,  perhaps  the  most  ren  arkabia 
sovereign  of  the  middle  ages ;  but  their  ambitioua 
designs  on  Italy,  and  their  constant  but  futile 
attempts  to  destroy  the  papal  power,  were  a 
so\irce  of  misery  to  Germany,  and  with  Frederick 
II.  ended  the  glory  of  the  empire,  till  it  was 
])artially  revived  by  the  Austnan  House  of  Haps- 
burg.  His  son,  Conrad  IV.  (1250 — 1254),  after  a 
brief  and  troubled  reign,  was  succeeded  by  various 
princes,  who,  in  turn,  or  in  some  cases  contem- 
poraneously, bore  the  imperial  title  withtiut  exer- 
cising its  legitimate  functions  or  aiithorily.  This 
season  of  anarchy  was  terminated  at  the  accession 
of  Rudolf  I.  (1273— 1291),  who,  by  the  destruction 
of  the  strongholds  of  the  nobles,  and  the  stringent 
enforcement  of  the  laws,  restored  order.  His  chief 
efforts  were,  however,  directed  to  the  aggrandise- 
ment of  his  Austrian  possessions,  which  embraced 
Styria,  Cariuthia,  Carniola,  and  Tyrol. 

For  the  next  200  vears,  the  history  of  the  German 
empire  presents  very  few  features  of  interest,  and 
may  be  briefly  passed  over.  Adolf  of  Nassau, 
who  was  elected  to  succeed  Rudolf,  was  compelled 
in  1298  to  yield  the  crown  to  the  son  of  the  latter, 
Albrecht  L  (1298—1308),  whose  reign  is  chiefly 
memorable  as  the  period  in  which  three  Swiss  can- 
tons, Unterwalden,  Schwytz,  and  Uri,  established 
their  independence.  After  the  murder  of  Albrecht, 
the  throne  was  occupied  in  rapid  succession  by 
Henry  VIL  (1308—1313),  who  added  Bohemia  to 
the  empire  ;  and  conjointly  by  Frederick  of  Austria 
and  Ludwig  of  Bavaria  (1313—1349).  Charles 
IV.  (1349 — 1378)  of  Luxembourg  was  the  success- 
ful candidate  among  many  rivals,  and  although  he 
attended  specially  to  the  interests  of  his  hereditary 
possessions  of  Bohemia,  Moravia,  Silesia,  and 
Lusatia,  he  did  not  entirely  neglect  those  of  the 
emjiire,  for  which  he  provided  by  a  written  com- 
pact, known  as  the  Golden  Bull,  which  regulated 
the  rights,  privileges,  and  duties  of  the  electors,  the 
mode  of  the  election  and  coronation  of  the  emperors, 
the  coinage,  customs,  and  commercial  treaties  of  the 
empire,  and  the  rights  and  obligations  of  the  free 
cities.  His  son,  Wenceslaus  (1378— 1400),  who  was 
finally  deposed,  brought  the  royal  authority  into 
contempt,  from  which  it  was  scarcely  redeemed 
by  Ruprecht  of  the  Palatinate  (1400—1410).  The 
nominal  reign  of  Sigismund  (1410 — 1437),  the 
brother  of  Wenceslaus,  would  demand  no  notice 
were  it  not  for  his  connection  with  the  Councils  of 
Constance  and  Basel,  at  the  former  of  which  Huss 
was  condemned,  and  which  was  followed  by  the 
disastrous  Hussite  wars.  The  readiness  with  which 
Sigismund  lent  himself  to  the  interests  of  Henry  V. 
of  England,  and  of  aU  other  princes  who  ministered 
to  his  love  of  personal  display,  brought  discredit 
on  the  imperial  dignity,  while  his  dishonoui'able 
desertion  of  Huss  wiU  ever  attach  ignominy  to  his 
name.  Albrecht  IL  of  Austria  (1438—1440),  after  a 
brief  reign  of  two  years,  in  which  he  gave  evidence 
of  great  capacity  for  governing,  was  succeeded  by 
his  cousin,  Frederick  IIL  (144C— 1493).  an  accom- 
plished but  avaricious  and  indolent  prmce,  whose 
chief  object  seemed  to  be  the  aggrandisement  of 
the  house  of  Austria,  with  which  the  title  of 


GERMANY. 


djrapcror  had  now  become  permanently  connected 
(see  Austria),  while  he  neglected  the  interests 
of  (^rermany  collectively,  and  suffered  the  infidels 
to  make  unchecked  advances  upon  its  territory. 
Mpximiliai.  L  (149.S — 1519),  the  son  and  successor 
of  Frederick,  resembled  him  in  few  respects,  for  he 
v^'as  active,  ambitious,  and  scheming,  but  deficient 
in  steadiness  of  purpose.  His  marriage  with  Mary, 
the  rich  heiress  of  her  father,  Charles  the  Bold 
of  Burgundy,  involved  him  in  the  general  politics 
of  Europe,  while  his  opposition  to  the  reformed 
faith  preached  by  Luther  exasperated  the  reli- 
gious differences  which  disturbed  the  close  of  his 
reign.  Maximilian  had,  however,  the  merit  of 
introducing  many  improvements  in  regard  to  the 
internal  organisation  of  the  state,  by  enforcing 
the  bf:tter  administration  of  the  law,  establishing 
a  police  and  an  organised  army,  and  introducing 
a  postal  system.  With  him  originated,  moreover, 
the  special  courts  of  jurisdiction  known  as  the 
*  Imp'.^rial  Chamber '  and  the  '  Aulic  Council ; ' 
and  in  his  reign,  the  empire  was  divided  into  ten 
circles,  each  under  its  hereditary  president  and  its 
hereditary  prince-convoker.  Maximilian  lived  to 
see  the  beginning  of  the  Reformation,  and  the  success 
that  attended  Luther's  preaching ;  but  the  firm 
establishment  in  Germany  of  the  reformed  faith, 
and  the  religious  dissensions  by  which  its  success 
was  attended,  belong  principally  to  the  reign  of  his 
grandson,  Charles  L,  Idng  of  Spain,  the  son  of  the 
Archduke  Philip  and  of  Joanna,  iAie  heiress  of  Spain, 
who  succeeded  to  the  empire  mider  the  title  of 
Charles  V.  (1519 — 1558).  The  management  of  his 
vast  possessions  in  Spain,  Italy,  and  the  Nether- 
lands, and  the  wars  with  France,  in  which  he  was 
BO  long  implicated,  diverted  him  from  his  German 
territories,  which  he  committed  to  the  care  of  his 
brother  Ferdinand.  The  princes  of  Germany  were 
thus  left  to  settle  their  religious  differences  among 
themselves,  and  to  quell,  unaided  by  the  head  of  the 
state,  the  formidable  insurrection  of  the  peasants 
(1525),  which  threatened  to  undermine  the  very 
foundations  of  society.  This  rising  of  the  lower 
orders  was  due  to  the  preaching  of  the  fanatic 
Miinzer,  and  other  leaders  of  the  sect  of  Anabaptists, 
which  had  arisen  from  a  perverted  interpretation  of 
Bome  of  the  tenets  advanced  by  Luther.  Charles's 
determined  opposition  to  the  reformers  rendered  all 
settlement  of  these  religious  differences  impractic- 
able ;  and  although,  by  the  aid  of  his  ally,  Maurice  of 
Saxony,  he  broke  the  confederation  of  the  Protestant 
princes,  known  as  the  Union  of  Smalkald,  he  was 
forced  by  his  former  ally  to  make  concessions  to  the 
Lutherans,  of  which  he  disapproved;  and  in  his 
disgust  at  the  complicated  relations  in  which  he 
was  placed  to  both  parties,  he  abdicated  in  favour 
of  his  brother  Ferdinand  (1556 — 1564),  who  put  an 
end  to  much  of  the  religious  dissension  that  had 
hitherto  distracted  the  empire,  by  granting  entire 
toleration  to  the  Protestants.  Although  Ferdinand 
was,  personally,  mild  and  pacific,  his  reign  was 
troubled  by  domestic  and  foreign  aggressions — the 
different  sects  disturbing  the  peace  of  the  empire 
at  home,  while  the  French  and  the  Turks  assailed 
it  from  abroad.  During  the  next  fifty  years,  the 
empire  was  a  prey  to  internal  disquiet.  Maximilian  II. 
(1564 — 1576)  was  indeed  a  wise  and  just  prince,  but 
the  little  he  was  able  to  effect  in  reconciling  the 
adherents  of  the  different  churches,  and  in  raising 
the  character  of  the  imperial  rule,  was  fatally 
counteracted  by  the  bigotry  and  vacillation  of  his 
Bon  and  successor,  Rudolf  11.  (1576 — 1612),  in  whose 
teign  Germany  was  torn  by  the  dissensions  of  the 
opposite  religious  factions,  while  each  in  turn  called 
in  the  aid  of  foreigners  to  contribute  towards  the 
Quiversal  anarchy  which  culminated  in  the  Thirty 


Years'  War,  begun  under  Rudolfs  brother  and 
successor  Matthias  (1612—1619)  ;  continued  under 
Ferdinand  II.  (1619 — 16.'37),  an  able,  but  cruel  and 
bigoted  man;  and  ended  under  Fc)<lin;ind  IIL 
(1637—1657),  by  the  treaty  of  Westphalia,  in  1648. 
The  effect  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  was  to  depo- 
pulate the  rural  districts  of  Germany,  destroy  its 
commerce,  burden  the  i)eople  with  taxes,  cvipi)le  the 
already  debilitated  power  of  the  emj)er()rs,  and  cut 
up  the  empire  into  a  multitude  of  petty  stateo, 
the  rulers  of  which  exercised  almost  absolute 
power  within  their  own  territories.  Leopold  L 
(1658 — 1705),  a  haughty,  peelantic  man,  did  n  A 
avail  himself  of  the  opportunities  afforded  l«y 
peace  for  restoring  order  to  the  state,  but  suffered 
liimself  to  be  drawn  into  the  coalition  against 
France,  whilst  his  hereditary  states  were  overrun 
by  the  Turks.  Although  success  often  attended 
his  arms,  peace  brought  him  no  signal  advantages. 
The  reigns  of  Josephl.  (1705—1711)  and  Charles  VL 
(1711 — 1740),  with  whom  expired  the  male  line 
of  the  Hapsburg  dynasty,  were  signalised  by  the 
great  victories  won  by  the  imperialist  general.  Prince 
Eugene,  in  conjunction  with  Marlborough,  over  the 
French  ;  but  they  brought  no  solid  advantage  to 
the  empire.  The  disturbed  condition  of  Spain  and 
Saxony  opened  new  channels  for  the  interference 
of  Germany,  which  was  further  distracted,  after 
the  death  of  Charles,  by  the  dissensions  occasioned 
by  the  contested  succession  of  his  daughter,  Maria- 
Theresa,  and,  through  her,  of  her  husband,  Francis  I. 
of  Lorraine  (1745—1765),  after  their  rival,  the 
Bavarian  Elector,  Charles  VII.,  had,  through  the 
intervention  of  Prussian  aid,  been  elected  in  1742  to 
the  imperial  thi'one,  which,  however,  he  was  obliged 
to  cede,  after  a  brief  occupation  of  three  yeara. 
Constant  disturbances,  intensified  during  the  Seven 
Years'  War,  when  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia 
maintained  his  character  of  a  skilful  general  at  the 
expense  of  the  Austrians,  made  the  reign  of  these 
sovereigns  one  of  trouble  and  disaster.  Joseph  II., 
their  son  (1765 — 179C),  during  the  lifetime  of 
Maria-Theresa,  who  retained  her  authority  over 
all  the  Austrian  states,  enjoyed  little  beyond  the 
title  of  emperor,  to  which  he  had  succeeded  on  hia 
father's  death.  But  when  he  ultimately  acqxiired 
his  mother's  vast  patrimony,  he  at  once  entered 
upon  a  course  of  reforms,  which  M'ere,  however, 
premature,  and  unsuited  to  the  cases  to  which  they 
were  applied  ;  whilst  his  attempts  to  re-estabUsh 
the  supremacy  of  the  imperial  i)ower  in  the  south 
of  Germany  were  frustrated  by  Prussian  influence, 
Leopold  II.,  after  a  short  reign  of  two  j'^ears,  waa 
succeeded  in  1792  by  his  son,  Francis  II.,  who,  after 
a  series  of  defeats  by  the  armies  of  the  French 
republic,  and  the  adhesion,  in  1805,  of  many  of  the 
German  princes  to  the  alliance  of  France,  w^hich 
led  to  the  subsequent  formation  of  the  Rhenish 
Confederation  under  the  ^Jrotectorate  of  Napoleon, 
resigned  the  German  crown,  and  assumed  the  titla 
of  Emperor  of  Austria.  From  this  period  tiU  the 
Congress  of  Vienna  of  1814 — 1815,  Germany  was 
almost  entirely  at  the  mercy  of  Napoleon,  who 
deposed  the  established  sovereigns,  and  dismem- 
bered their  states  in  favour  of  his  favourites 
and  dependants,  while  he  crippled  the  trade  of 
the  country,  and  exhausted  its  resources  by  the 
extortion  of  subsidies  or  contributions.  As  a 
reconstruction  of  the  old  empire  was  no  longer 
possible,  those  states  which  stiU  maintained  their 
sovereignty  combined,  in  1815,  to  form  a  German 
Confedei'ation.  Of  the  300  states  into  which  the 
empire  had  once  been  divided,  there  now  remained 
only  40,  a  number  which  has  since  been  reduced 
to  35  by  the  extinction  of  several  petty  dynas- 
ties.   The  diet  was  now  reorganised,  and  appointed 

723 


GERMANY. 


to  hold  its  meetings  at  Frankfort-on-the-Maine, 
p.fter  liaving  been  formally  recognized  by  all 
the  allied  states  as  the  legislative  and  executive 
organ  of  the  Confederation  ;  but  it  failed  to  satisfy 
the  expectations  of  the  nation,  and  soon  became 
a  mere  |X)litical  tool  in  the  hands  of  the  princes, 
who  simi)ly  made  its  decrees  subservient  to  their 
own  efforts  for  the  suppression  of  every  progres- 
sive movement.  The  French  revolution  of  1S30 
reacted  sufficiently  on  some  few  of  the  German 
states  to  compel  their  rulers  to  grant  written 
;?onstitutions  to  their  subjects ;  but  the  effect  was 
tfan)iient ;  and  it  was  not  till  1848  that  the  German 
aatii  n  gave  expression,  by  open  insurrectionary 
movements,  to  the  discontent  and  the  sense  of 
0})pression  which  had  long  j)osscssed  the  minds  of 
the  people.  The  princes  endeavoured,  by  hasty 
concessions,  to  arrest  the  progress  of  republican 
principles,  and,  fidly  recognising  tlie  inefficiency  of 
the  diet,  they  gave  their  sanction  to  the  convo- 
cation, by  a  provisional  self -constituted  assembly,  of 
a  national  congress  of  representatives  of  the  peoi)le. 
Archduke  John  of  Austria  was  elected  Vicar  of  the 
newly  organised  national  government ;  but  he  soon 
disappointed  the  hopes  of  the  assembly  by  his  evi- 
dent attenqjts  to  frustrate  all  energetic  action  on 
the  side  of  the  parliament,  while  the  speedy  success 
of  the  anti-rejmblican  party  in  Austria  and  Prussia 
damped  the  hopes  of  the  progi*essionists.  The' 
refusal  of  the  king  of  Prussia  to  accept  the  impe- 
rial crown  which  the  parliament  offered  him,  was 
followed  by  the  election  of  a  provisional  regency  of 
the  empire  ;  but  as  nearly  l.-alf  the  members  had 
declined  taking  part  in  these  proceedings,  or  in  a 
previous  measure,  by  which  Austria  had  been 
excluded,  by  a  single  vote,  from  the  German  Con- 
federation, the  assembly  soon  lapsed  into  a  state 
of  anarchy  and  impotence,  which  terminat(id  in  its 
dissolution.  The  sanguinary  manner  in  which 
insurrectionary  movements  had,  in  the  meanwhile, 
been  suppressed  by  Prussian  troops  both  in  Prussia 
and  Saxony,  put  an  effectual  end  to  republican 
demonstrations ;  and  in  1850,  Austria  and  Prussia, 
after  exhibiting  mutual  jealousy  and  ill-will,  which 
more  than  on^e  seemed  hkely  to  end  in  war,  com- 
bined to  restore  the  diet,  whose  first  acts  were  the 
intei'vention  in  Slesvig-Holstein  in  favour  of  Den- 
mark, and  the  abolition  of  the  free  constitutions  of 
several  of  the  lesser  states.  Since  that  period,  the 
diet  has  been  the  arena  on  which  Austria  and 
Prussia  have  striven  to  seciire  the  supremacy  and 
championship  of  Germany,  and  every  measure  of 
public  interest  has  been  made  subservient  to  the 
views  of  one  or  other  of  these  rival  powers.  These 
states  did,  however,  conclude  a  treaty  of  alliance 
in  1854,  guaranteeing  to  each  other  the  mutual 
defence  of  their  possessions  against  all  enemies — 
a  compact  in  which  the  diet  soon  joined.  In  1858, 
a  currency  convention  was  concluded  between  all 
the  states  of  the  German  Confederation,  which  had 
previously  entered  into  similar  alliances  for  the 
adjustment  of  international  postal  and  commercial 
rel.'vtions ;  and  in  the  same  year  the  diet  adopted 
a  r-esolution  by  wdiich  the  Danish  government 
M'as  called  upon  to  submit  to  the  legislative 
assemblies  a  new  project  for  the  political  organis- 
ation of  the  duchies  of  Holstein,  Laiienburg,  and 
Slesvig.  In  1859,  after  many  stormy  discussions, 
the  assembly  passed  a  resolution  to  mobilise  the 
■whole  federal  army,  and  to  appoint  the  Prussian 
Prince  Pegent  commander-in-chief,  subject  to  the 
control  of  the  diet,  or  virtually  of  Austria,  with 
which  rested  the  casting-vote  in  the  federal  assembly. 
This  appointment  did  not  satisfy  the  views  of  Prussin, 
which,  however,  abstained  for  a  time  from  nudcing  any 
direct  attempt  to  secure  the  political  leadership  in 
724 


Germany.  The  anti-Napoleonic  feeling  which  nt  a 
later  period  swelled  to  such  a  tide,  manifested  itself 
decidedly  during  tlie  difficulties  between  France  and 
Austria  in  1859;  and  the  discussions  and  apprehen- 
sions to  which  this  sentiment  gave  rise,  together  with 
the  consideration  of  the  Slesvig-Holstein  difficul- 
ties, constituted  the  principal  (]uestions  under  discus- 
sion in  the  Federal  Parlianient  down  to  the  rupture 
between  Prussia  and  Austria  and  the  dissolution  of 
the  Jkmd  in  1866.  For  the  Inter  history  of  Ger- 
many, see  Germany  and  Bismarck  in  Supp.,  Vol. 
X.  See  Hhtoire  dcs  Francais,  1819;  Europe  clurhig 
the  Middle  Ages,  in  Lardner's  Cabinet  Cyclop.,  and 
Jlist.  of  the  Italian  Republics ;  Putter,  History  o) 
the  Gervian  Constitution ;  Raumer,  Hist,  of  the 
Hohenstaiijfen ;  Coxe,  House  of  Austria;  Pfeffel, 
Abrer/e  Chrojiolofjique  ;  Harte,  Gusfavus  Adolphus  ; 
Schiller's  Tlurty  Years^  War;  Beausobre,  Hist, 
de  la  Reform.  ;  Mosheim's  Hist,  of  Lutheran  and 
Reformed  Churches  ;  Robertson's  Charles  V. ;  Eich- 
horn's  Deutsch.  Staats-Rechlsgesch. ;  Carlyle,  Hist 
of  Fred.  IT.^  &c. ;  Auerhach,  Das  neue  Dent.  Reich 
■unci  Seine  Vcrfassiing  (1871),  and  Hausen,  Die  Ver^ 
faasung  des  Dent.  Reichs  (1871). 

German  Language  and  Literrature. — T^e  nume- 
rous dialects  which  were  spoken  by  the  different 
confederacies  and  tribes  of  ancient  Germany  were  all 
derivatives  from  one  branch  of  the  Aryan  or  Indo* 
Germanic  family  of  languages,  which  separated  from 
the  parent  stock  at  a  very  early  period,  although 
subsequently  to  the  separation  of  the  Celtic.  We 
can  trace  the  co-existence  of  the  two  branchea 
of  Teutonic  speech  kno\\Ti  as  Low-German  and 
High-German  as  far  back  as  the  7th  c.,  but  there 
is  no  evidence  to  shew  that  they  existed  as  com- 
mon uniform  languages,  from  which  their  variously 
modified  dialects  were  respectively  derived.  Accord- 
ing to  the  eminent  philologist  Max  Miiller,  there 
never  was  one  common  Teutonic  language  which 
diverged  into  two  streams ;  while  the  utmost  wa 
can  venture  to  assert  in  regard  to  the  various  High 
and  LcAV  German  dialects  is,  that  they  respectively 
passed  at  different  times  through  the  same  stages 
of  grammatical  develo})ment.  The  High- German 
branch — which  was  spoken  in  the  dialects  of  Swabia,' 
Bavaria,  and  Austria,  and  parts  of  Franconia  and 
Saxony — has  been  the  literary  language  of  Germany 
since  the  days  of  Charlemagne.  It  may  be  classified 
under  three  periods — the  Old  High-German,  dating 
from  the  7th  c,  and  extending  to  the  period  of  the 
Crusades,  or  the  12th  c. ;  the  Middle  High-German, 
beginning  in  the  12th  c,  and  continuing  till  the 
Reformation ;  and  the  New  High-German,  dating 
from  Luther's  time  to  our  own  days.  The  Low- 
German,  which  in  Germany  itself  has  been  little 
used  in  literature,  comprehends  many  dialects,  as  the 
Frisian  (q.  v.),  the  Flemish,  Dutch,  Platt-Deutsch, 
&c.  The  oldest  literary  monument  of  Low-German 
belongs  to  the  9th  c,  and  is  a  Christian  epic  known 
as  The  Heliand  (the  Healer  or  Saviour)  ;  and 
although  there  are  traces  of  popular  Low-German 
literature  up  to  the  17th  c.,  the  translation  of  the 
Bible  into  High- German  by  Luther  decided  the  fate 
of  Low-German.  In  addition  to  the  various  dialects 
which  are  commonly  included  under  the  heads  of 
High  and  Low  German,  an  imj)ortant  evidence  of 
the  cultivation  of  a  form  of  German  differing  equally 
from  the  High  and  Low  groups  has  been  preserved 
to  us.  This  important  linguistic  monument  is  a 
fragment  of  a  Gothic  translation  of  the  Bible,  which 
was  made  in  the  4th  c.  by  Bishop  Ulfilas,  and  used 
by  all  the  Gothic  tribes  when  they  advanced  into 
Italy  and  Spain.  The  Gothic  language  died  out  in 
the  9th  c.  ;  and  after  the  extinction  of  the  power  of 
the  Goths,  the  translation  of  Ulfilas  was  forgotten 
and  lost  sight  of  till  the  accidental  discovery,  u  the 


GERMANY. 


16th  c,  of  a  MS.  preserved  in  the  abbey  of  Werden, 
and  containing  fragments  of  this  important  work. 
This  MS.  is  a  copy  made  in  the  5th  c.  of  Ulfilas's 
translation,  and  fragmentary  as  it  ia,  it  affords  evi- 
dence of  the  high  degree  of  development  to  which 
this  dialect  had  been  carried,  and  exhibits  a  form  of 
speech  which  belongs  .to  neither  the  High  nor  Low 
German  group,  but  very  possibly  may  have  been 
merely  one  among  numerous  other  allied  forms  of 
Teutonic  speech  which  have  perished. 

The  diffusion  of  Christianity  among  the  Germanic 
tribes  had  the  effect  both  of  suppressing  the  use 
of  the  Eunic  characters  that  had  been  common 
to  them,  and  of  changing  the  character  of  their 
literature,  for  instead  of  the  heroic  songs  and 
' beast- epics '  of  a  sanguinary  paganism  {Thier-epos), 
scriptural  paraphrases,  legends,  and  hymns  were 
Duw  selected ;  while  the  ancient  form  of  alliteration 
by  degrees  gave  place  to  the  rhythmical  arrange- 
ment of  the  Latin  versification  common  in  the 
early  periods  of  the  middle  ages.  Latin,  moreover, 
became  the  language  of  the  court,  the  church,  and 
the  law  under  the  Saxon  emperors,  while  German 
was  left  entirely  to  the  people,  until  the  new 
ideas,  which  were  diffused  both  in  regard  to  litera- 
ture and  language  diiring  the  Crusades  under  the 
rule  of  the  accomplished  emperors  of  the  Hohen- 
BtaufFen  line,  had  the  effect  of  reviving  the  use  and 
cultivation  of  the  vernacular  dialects,  among  v/hich 
the  Swabiau,  as  the  language  of  the  court,  soon 
acquired  a  marked  preponderance  over  the  others. 
In  that  age  of  chivalry  and  romance,  the  art  of 
Bong  was  cherished  by  princes  and  nobles,  many  of 
whom  belonged  to  the  order  of  the  Minnesdnger  (or 
Singers  of  Love),  and  composed  in  the  Swabian  or 
High- German  dialect  of  the  imperial  court.  The 
subjects  chiefly  selected  during  the  13th  and  14th 
centuries,  both  by  courtly  and  popular  singers,  were 
based  on  the  legendary  lore  of  Charlemagne  and  his 
paladins,  and  King  Arthur  and  his  knights,  and  of 
the  Sangrael ;  and  it  is  to  this  period  that  we  must 
refer  the  Nihelungen  Lied  and  Gudrun,  which  rank 
as  the  greatest  treasures  of  German  national  litera- 
ture. Among  the  most  successful  poets  and  minne- 
eingers  belonging  to  the  Swabian  period,  we  may 
Bpecially  indicate  Heinrich  von  Veldeke,  Hartmann 
von  der  Aue,  Wolfram  von  Esclienbach,  Walther 
von  der  Vogelweide,  Neidliart  of  Bavaria,  Heinrich 
von  Ofterdingen,  &c.  The  taste  for  the  Thier-epos 
received  a  new  impetus  among  the  people  in  the 
middle  of  the  12th  c.  by  the  re-translation,  from 
the  Walloon  into  German,  of  the  ancient  poem  of 
Jieinhard  Fuchs,  which,  according  to  the  distin- 
guished philologist  Jakob  Grimm,  originated  with 
the  Frankish  tribes,  who  carried  it  with  them  when 
they  crossed  the  Ehine  and  founded  an  empire 
in  Gaul,  and  from  whom  it  was  diffused  among 
the  neighbouring  tribes  of  Northern  France  and 
Flanders. 

The  period  which  succeeded  the  decline  of  chivalry 
was  marked  by  a  thorough  neglect,  among  the 
higher  classes,  of  national  literature,  which  thus  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  people,  to  the  thorough 
disorganisation  of  all  principles  of  grammar.  To 
this  age  belongs,  however,  the  great  mass  of  the 
Volicslieder,  or  national  ballads,  in  which  Germany 
is  specially  rich ;  the  fables  and  satires  of  Brand 
and  of  Sachs,  and  the  romances  of  the  satirist 
Johann  Fischart.  The  mysteries  and  passion-plays, 
which  were  at  their  height  in  the  15th  c,  and 
Btill  linger  in  the  village  of  Oberamniergau,  in 
Upper  Jiavaria,  may  be  said  to  have  given  origin 
to  the  German  drama,  which  numbered  among 
its  earliest  cultivators,  Sachs,  Rebhuhn,  and  Ayrer. 
The  close  of  tlie  15th  century  was  prolific  in  rhyming 
Historical  chronicles  in  satires  on  the  clergy,  and 


in  theological  writings  for  and  against  the  tottering 
power  of  the  llomish  Church.  The  writings  cf 
Luther,  his  translation  of  the  Bible,  and  th^" 
works  of  Ulrich  von  Hutten,  Zuinglius,  and  of 
many  of  the  other  reformers,  were,  however,  the 
most  important  events  in  the  history  of  German 
literature  from  the  close  of  the  15th  to  the  middle 
of  the  16th  c. ;  and  it  must  be  remembered  that 
Luther  addressed  himself  to  the  minda  of  his 
countrymen  not  merely  through  his  polemical 
writings,  but  also  by  those  noble  hymns,  whicli, 
since  his  day,  have  constituted  one  of  the  greatest 
literary  treasures  of  the  kind.  Some  of  the  best 
of  these  Kirch-lieder,  or  church  songs,  were  composed 
by  Luther  himself ;  while  next  to  him  those  of 
Speratus,  Decius,  Nicolai,  and  Herberger,  have  per- 
haps found  most  favour  both  among  Germans  and 
foreigners.  These  fervent  effusions  of  the  devout 
and  eloquent  reformers  were  followed  by  a  period 
of  literary  degeneration  and  stagnation,  which  is  in 
a  great  measure  to  be  ascribed  to  the  demoralising 
effects  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  when  Germany 
was  a  prey  to  all  the  evils  inseparable  from  civU 
war  fostered  by  foreign  interference.  The  indirect 
result  of  this  period  of  anarchy  was  to  quench  the 
national  spirit,  and  vitiate  the  popular  taste  ;  for 
while  the  petty  courts  aped  the  habits,  language, 
and  literature  of  Versailles,  the  lower  orders  forgot 
their  own  literature,  with  its  rich  treasures  of  legends, 
tales,  and  ballads,  and  acquired  a  taste  for  the 
coarse  camp- songs  imported  by  foreign  mercenaries, 
and  the  immoral  romances  borrowed  from  impure 
French  and  Italian  sources.  German  poetry  in  the 
17th  c.  was  framed  after  the  model  of  the  later 
classics,  and  their  modern  imitators.  The  study  of 
the  genuine  national  literature  was  neglected,  and 
although  a  host  of  learned  societies  were  formed, 
whose  professed  object  was  to  purify  and  elevate 
the  public  taste,  the  results  were  lamentably 
unsatisfactory  ;  and  it  was  not  till  J.  C.  Gottsched 
(1700 — 176G)  succeeded  in  his  Critical  Art  of  Poetry 
in  drawing  attention  to  the  turgid  pedantry  and 
artificial  stiffness  of  the  classicist  school,  that  a 
better  taste  was  awakened.  His  own  pretentious 
bigotry  gave  origin,  however,  to  a  counter-party, 
from  which  emanated,  at  a  somewhat  later  period, 
the  German  aesthetic  school,  under  the  guidance  of 
A.  Baumgarten  and  G.  Meier.  A  favourable  reac- 
tion now  took  place,  and  with  the  names  of  Klop- 
stock,  Lessing,  and  Wieland  began  the  brilliant 
epoch  of  modern  German  literature.  Their  influence 
was  alike  great  and  varied  ;  for  while  Klopstock's 
poem  of  the  Messiah,  and  his  odes,  in  which  he  had 
taken  Milton  as  his  model,  re-echoed  the  tsnder 
piety  of  the  old  reformers,  and  were  so  thoroughly 
German  in  their  spirit,  that  tliey  at  once  met 
with  an  enthusiastic  response  in  the  hearts  of  the 
people,  Lessing's  tragedy  of  Minna  v.  Barnhehn, 
and  his  drama  of  Nathan  der  Weise,  may  be  said  to 
have  created  anew  the  dramatic  art  in  Germany. 
Wieland,  on  the  other  hand,  who  was  the  completo 
antithesis  of  Klopstock,  although,  like  his  two  great 
contemporaries,  he  was  the  founder  of  a  new  style, 
and  gave  a  graceful  flexibility  to  German  diction, 
which  it  had  never  before  been  made  to  assume, 
had  imparted  to  his  numerous  tales  and  romances 
an  undisguised  sensuous  materialism,  which,  lite 
his  style,  had  been  borrowed  from  the  French  philc>- 
sophers  of  his  day,  and  thus  introduced  into  the 
language  and  literature  of  Germany  the  germs  of 
many  defects,  as  M'ell  as  graces,  to  which  they  had 
hitherto  remained  strangers.  The  influence  exerted 
on  German  literature  by  these  three  writers,  wh*! 
may  be  regarded  as  its  regenerators,  was  soon 
ajipreciable  in  every  branch  of  knowledge ;  and 
I  among  the  galaxy  of  great  names  which  have 

lib 


GERMANY— GERMEN. 


imparted  reno^^^l  to  the  literary  and  scicntilic  annals 
of  Germany  during  the  last  100  years,  we  can  only 
instance  a  few  of  the  principal  writers  who  have 
more  especially  enriched  the  several  departments  of 
learning  with  which  they  have  been  associated. 

rhilosophy,  which  in  Germany  originated  wiih 
Leibnitz,  who,  however,  wrote  in  Latin  and  French, 
assumed  a  degree  of  individuality  and  completeness 
through  the  intellectual  acumen  and  subtle  analysis 
of  Kant,  Fichte,  Schclling,  and  Hegel,  which  have 
no  parallel  in  any  other  country.  In  theology, 
Kemhard,  Paul  us,  Schleiermacher,  and  a  host  of 
others,  have  infused  new  life  into  biblical  inquiry ; 
while  invaluable  aid  has  been  afforded  in  the  same 
diiection  by  the  profound  philological  and  critical 
;€searohes  of  Wolf,  Hermann,  Midler,  the  erudite 
brothers  J.  and  W.  Grimm,  Bopp,  Benecke,  Adelung, 
[iassen,  Rosen,  Schlegel,  W.  Humboldt,  Lepsius, 
Bunsen.  &c.  In  archteology,  history,  and  jurispru- 
dence, all  nations  owe  a  debt  of  gratitude  to  Winckel- 
mann,  Heeren,  Von  Raumer,  Schlosser,  Von  Hammer, 
Gervinus,  Dahlmann,  Ranke,  Niebidir,  and  Mommsen. 
[n  poetry  and  belles-lettres,  the  name  of  Goethe 
(who  lived  from  1749  to  1832)  is  a  host  in  itself. 
He  had  been  preceded  in  the  school  to  wliich  he 
attached  himself,  which  was  known  as  that  of  the 
Sturm-  wnl-  Dranrj  period,  by  Herder,  its  originator, 
whose  philosophical  critiques  of  foreign  and  Ger- 
man literature,  by  reviving  a  taste  for  the  long- 
forgotten  national  poetry  of  Germany,  and  by 
exhibiting  the  weakness  of  the  recer.t  imitations  of 
the  French  classicists,  contributed  materially  to  the 
complete  literary  revolution  which  ushered  in  the 
modern  period  of  German  poetry.  In  his  Leiden 
des  Jungen  Werther  (The  Sorrows  of  Werthcr), 
Goethe  carried  the  sentimental  tendencies  of  the 
school  to  their  culminating  point ;  but  while  he  was 
followed  in  the  same  path  by  a  host  of  imitators, 
who  brought  the  style  into  ridicule  by  their  morbid 
exaggerations,  his  own  later  and  very  numerous 
works  became  in  time  more  and  more  free  from  the 
blemishes  into  which  he  had  led  others,  and  remain 
imperishable  monuments  of  the  universality  of  his 
genius.  The  Sturm-  und-  Dranrj  period  closed  with 
Schiller  (1759 — 1805),  who  ranks  in  the  estimation 
of  his  countrymen  almost  as  high  as  Goethe  himself, 
and  whose  early  works,  The  Bobbers,  Fiesco,  and 
Don  Carlos,  threw  the  whole  German  people  into 
a  frenzy  of  excitement.  His  later  dramatic  works, 
if  less  exciting  than  these,  gave  evidence  of  more 
matured  taste,  while  some  of  his  ballads  and  lyrics 
may  be  said  to  be  unrivalled.  In  the  present 
century,  poetry  has  found  noble  representatives  in 
the  so-called  Vaterlandsdichter  (Poets  of  the  Father- 
land), among  whom  we  may  instance  Theodor 
Kbrner,  and  Arndt,  whose  sjurited  patriotic  songs 
are  intimately  associated  with  the  war  of  1813 
against  Napoleon,  in  which  the  former  fell  fighting 
gloriously.  F.  Riickert  and  L.  Uhlan d  belong 
to  the  same  school ;  but  the  former  is  more 
especially  known  for  his  admirable  adaptations 
and  translations  from  the  Oriental  languages,  and 
the  latter  for  his  exquisite  romances  and  ballads, 
jl'he  infi'^ence  of  Goethe  and  Schiller  extended 
ill  a  marked  degree  to  the  drama  and  to  novel- 
writ'ng.  In  the  former  department,  IfHand  acquired 
great  reputation  as  a  writer  of  sensation  dramas, 
A.  von  Kotzebue  as  an  inexhaustible  composer 
of  light  effective  comedies,  A.  MUllner  v.  Honwald, 
F.  drillparzer,  and  E.  Raupach  for  their  historical 
and  social  tragedies,  while  C.  Immermann  (who  is 
better  known  as  the  author  of  the  novel  Miinch- 
hausen),  Mosen,  Lanbe,  and  G.  Freytag,  have  all 
produced  good  dramatic  pieces.  Among  the  host 
of  novelists  who  have  endeavoured  to  follow  in  the 
Bttps  of  the  great  leaders  of  the  Sturm-  und-  Drawj 

116 


period,  the  majority  are  \inworthy  of  notice.  J.  P. 
Richter,  the  satirist  and  humorist,  stands  forth, 
however,  apart  from,  and  far  above  his  comi)err3; 
and  few  novelists  ever  exerted  so  lasting  an  influ- 
ence on  the  literature  and  mode  of  feeling  of  their 
compatriots  as  that  which  Richter  exercised  over 
the  minds  of  the  middle  classes  of  Germany,  during 
the  close  of  the  last  and  the  early  part  of  the 
present  century.  Among  other  writers  of  note,  we 
may  instance  De  la  Motte  Fouqu6,  A.  Hoflinaim, 
and  A.  Chamisso,  whose  tendencies  were  to  dwfill 
on  the  mysterious  agencies  of  nature,  which  they 
attempted  to  individualise,  and  bring  into  associa- 
tion with  material  forms,  as  in  the  Undme  of  the 
first,  the  fantastic  tales  of  the  second,  and  :he  Peter 
Scldemihl  of  the  last-named.  C.  Pichler,  S])indler 
H.  Steffens,  C.  Gutzkow,  Sternberg,  W.  Hilring 
(the  imitator  of  Sir  W.  Scott),  Hauff,  Zschokke, 
an  admirable  writer  of  novelettes,  Hackliinder,  Ida 
V.  Hahn-Hahn,  Auerbach,  the  narrator  of  village 
talcs,  and  Freytag,  the  author  of  a  social  novel.  Soli 
und  J/aben,  have  all  in  turn  enjoyed  universal 
popularity. 

But  numerous  as  have  been  writers  of  poetic  and 
dramatic  literature  during  the  present  centui-y 
in  Germany,  the  tendency  of  the  German  mind  haa 
of  late  years  been  rather  to  science  than  fiction ; 
and  the  immense  impetus  given  to  the  taste  for 
scientific  inquiry  by  A.  v.  Humboldt's  travels  and 
observatiojis,  and  by  his  Cosmos  and  Views  oj 
Nature,  has  been  followed  by  the  prosecution  of 
the  most  profound  researches  in  every  department 
of  physical  and  natural  science,  and  by  the  api)ear- 
ance  of  a  multitude  of  records  of  travel,  among  the 
more  important  of  which  we  can  only  instance  a 
few,  as,  for  example,  those  of  Mai-tiiis  in  Brazil, 
Poppig  in  S.  America,  Tschudi  in  Peru,  Schubert  in 
Greece,  Lepsius  and  Brugsch  in  Egy][>t,  Schwnlnirgk 
in  British  Guiana,  GiitzlafF  in  China,  Siebold  in 
Japan,  the  three  brothers  Schlagentweit  in  the  Alps 
and  in  Central  Asia,  Barth  and  Vogel  in  Africa,  and 
Leichhardt  in  Australia.  In  conclusion,  we  can  only 
group  together  the  names  of  a  few  of  the  many 
eminent  Germans  who  by  their  labours  have  at 
once  enriched  the  science  of  the  world,  and  enhanced 
the  literary  and  scientific  glory  of  their  own  country. 
Without  again  referring  to  writers  whom  M'e  may 
already  have  mentioned,  we  may  specially  instance, 
in  astronomy  and  mathematics,  Bessel,  Encke, 
Struve,  Gauss,  and  Miidler ;  in  the  natural  sciences, 
and  in  medicine,  J.  Muller,  Ehrenberg,  Cams,  Oken, 
Schleiden,  Von  Buch,  Liebig,  Kopp,  Simon  Dove, 
Valentin  Moleschott,  Bischoff,  Rose,  Poggendorf, 
Erdmann,  Gmelin,  Griife,  Vogel,  Rokitansky, 
Wagner,  Schonlein,  and  DiefFenbach ;  in  history 
and  biography,  Niebuhr,  Leo,  Duncker,  Preuss, 
Bottiger,  Varnhagen  v.  Ense,  Pertz,  Lappenberg, 
Pauli,  &c.  ;  in  geography,  ethnology,  statistics, 
and  travels,  Berghaus,  Petermann,  Stein,  HUbner, 
KliJden,  Kohl,  Reinbeck,  Bunsen,  Ideler,  Lassen, 
Unger,  Zimmermann  ;  in  the  history  of  language, 
literature,  and  the  fine  arts,  and  on  politics  and  the 
social  sciences,  Vilmar,  Bouterwek,  Kuno,  Fischer, 
Waagen,  Heinsius,  Heyse,  Becker,  Creuzer,  Lersch, 
Wachler,  Ernesti,  Jacobs,  Savigny,  Eichhorn,  Biilow, 
Ersch.  See  Grimm,  GeschicJde  d.  Deutschen  Spraclit, 
and  Deutsche  Grammatik ;  Bopp,  Comparative  Gram' 
mar;  Bessel,  Uebei' das  Lehen  des  Ulfila;  M.  Muller, 
On  the  Science  of  Language;  Koberstein,  Grundrisa 
der  Deutschen  NationalUtei'atur ;  Vilmar,  Vorle- 
sungen  iiber  die  Geschichte  d.  Deutsch.  National' 
literatur  ;  Hallam,  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ag  '9. 

GE'RMEN  (Lat.  a  sprout),  or  O'VAi.  \  the 
lowest  and  thickened  part  of  the  Pistil  (q.  a  . j  of  a 
flower ;  containing  in  its  cavity  the  rudiments  of  the 
seeds,  called  Ovules  (q.  v.J,  attached  to  the  PlaceiUa 


GERMINATION— GER30N. 


Iq.v.)  often  hy  uvibilical  cords  (q.  v.),  Tliere  is  often 
nly  oue  ovule  in  the  germen ;  sometimes  it  consists 
of  a  number  of  Carpels  (q.v.),  with  one  ovule  in  each  ; 
occasionally  the  cavity  of  the  germen  is  divided 
into  ctUs,  each  of  these  containing  one,  and  often 
many  <miles.  When  there  are  many  ovules,  some 
of  them  are  <renerally  abortive.  The  germen  is  some- 
times superior — that  is,  it  is  free  in  the  centre  of 
the  Hower,  as  in  the  poppy,  stock,  and  carnation; 
occasionally  inferior,  the  calyx  being  adherent  to  it 
tl  rouglumt,  and  the  upper  part  or  limb  of  the  calyx 
th  J  5  F'^eming  to  arise  from  its  suinmit,  as  in  the 
go  tseherry,  rose,  campanula,  and  snowdrop  ;  soine- 
tinies  it  is  half  inferior,  as  in  Saxifraga  granidata. 
The  germen  develops  itself  into  the  Fruit  (q.  v.), 
after  the  flowering  is  over.  Some  plants  bencl  their 
flower-stalks  to  the  ground  after  flowering,  press 
the  germen  into  the  ground,  and  ripen  their  fruit 
in  the  earth,  as  a  species  of  Clover  [TrifoUum  sub- 
terraneum),  and  the  Ground-nut  {Arachis  hupojcea). 
See  Arachis. 

GERMINA'TION  (Lat.  sprouting),  the  begin- 
ning of  growth  in  a  seed,  or  of  the  vital  action  by 
which  it  is  converted  into  a  new  plant.  See  Seiid  ; 
and  for  what  is  peculiar  to  acotyledonous  plants, 
see  Spore. 

GERO'NA  (anc.  Getmnda),  a  city  of  Spain,  in 
lat.  41°  58'  N.,  long.  2°  50'  K,  capital  of  the  pro- 
vince of  the  same  name,  is  situated  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Ter,  with  its  afHuent  the  Onar,  60 
miles  north-east  of  Barcelona.  It  consists  of  an 
old  and  new  town,  the  latter  irregularly  built  on  the 
declivity  of  a  rocky  hill,  but  highly  picturesque,  and 
containing  a  beautiful  and  lohy  Gothic  cathedral, 
commenced  in  1316,  and  approached  by  a  superb 
flight  of  steps.  Besides  the  cathedral,  there  are 
five  churches  and  twelve  convents.  The  inhabit- 
ants carry  on  the  manufacture  of  paper,  soap,  and 
leather ;  and  spinning  and  weaving.  The  city  is 
fortified  by  high  thick  walls,  and  protected  by 
four  forts.    Pop.  13,959. 

G.  was  of  Roman  origin,  and  was  formerly 
the  residence  of  the  kmgs  of  Aragon.  It  has 
sufl'ered  much  from  sieges,  of  which  the  most  note- 
worthy was  that  of  181)9,  when  the  French  with 
35,000  men  encompassed  and  assailed  the  town. 
The  besieged,  unprovided  with  everything,  even 
with  ammunition,  maintained  a  defence  for  seven 
months  and  five  days  against  seven  open  breaches, 
and  were  forced  to  capitulate  only  when  their  heroic 
governor  was  struck  down  by  famine  and  disease. 

GEROPI'GIA,  or  JERUPIGIA.  Of  late  years,  a 
considerable  quantity  of  this  material  has  been  sent 
from  Portugal  to  this  country.  It  consists  of  grape 
juice  unfermented,  and  coloiu-ing  matter,  probably 
the  extracts  of  rhatany-root  and  logwood,  with 
sufficient  brandy  and  sugar  to  preserve  it  from  fer- 
mentation. Besides  being  mixed  with  Port,  Sherry, 
»nd  other  wines,  it  is  substituted  by  wine  compounders 
m  the  United  States  for  spirits  and  sugar.  In  the 
British  bonded  warehouses  it  is  permitted  to  be  mixed 
with  wines  up  to  their  relative  strength  in  brandy. 
At  least  20,000  gallons  are  now  imported  annually,  and 
this  large  trade  has  sprung  up  within  the  last  25  years. 

GERS,  a  department  in  the  south-west  of 
France,  is  formed  of  portions  of  the  old  provinces 
of  Gascony  and  Guienne.  The  department  of 
Landes  intervenes  between  it  and  the  Bay  of 
Biscay,  and  that  of  Hautes-Pyrenees  between  it 
and  the  frontiers  of  Spain.  It  has  an  area  of 
2403  square  miles,  and  a  pop.  of  295,692.  The 
surface  toward  the  south  is  mountainous,  covered 
with  ramifications  of  the  Pyrenees,  which  extend 
uorthward  in  parallel  lines.    These  lines  deci'ease 


in  height  as  they  advance,  and  are  separjited  by 
fan-shaped  valleys,  which  are  only  a  few  yards  wide 
in  the  south,  but  expand  to  a  width  of  several  miles 
in  the  north  of  the  department.  The  principal 
rivers  are  the  Gers — which  gives  its  name  to  the 
department — the  Losse,  the  Raise,  the  Arratz,  tlie 
Gimone,  and  the  Save.  The  climate  is  healtliy  and 
temperate.  The  soil  is  a  stifl'loam,  resting  <»n  thick 
layers  of  clay,  and  is  only  moderately  ])ro(luctive. 
More  than  one-half  of  the  surface  is  devoted  to 
agricultme,  one-seventh  is  in  vineyards,  and  tlio 
rest  in  meadows,  heaths,  and  forests.  Wine  is  pio- 
duced  in  consideraljle  quantity,  but  of  an  inferior 
quality ;  great  part  of  it  is  converted  into  Armagnac 
brandy,  which,  after  Cognac,  is  esteemed  the  best. 
The  manufactures  and  exports  are  inconsiderable. 
The  town  of  Auch  is  the  capital. 

GERSON,  JkiVN  de,  one  of  the  most  eminent 
scholars  and  divines  of  the  14tli  and  15th  centuries. 
His  proper  name  was  Jean  Charlier,  the  name  of 
G.  being  given  to  him  from  the  place  of  his  birth 
(1363),  the  village  of  Gerson  in  the  diocese  of 
Rlieims.  He  was  educated  in  the  university  of 
Paris,  under  the  celebrated  Peter  d'Ailly.  Here  he 
rose  to  the  highest  honours  of  the  university,  and 
ultimately  to  its  chancellorshi}),  having  ac(pured 
by  his  extraordinary  learning  the  title  of  '  The 
Most  Christian  Doctor.'  During  the  unha[>py  con- 
tests which  arose  out  of  the  rival  claims  of  the 
two  lines  of  pontiffs  in  the  time  of  the  Western 
Schism,  the  imiversity  of  Paris  took  a  leading  part 
in  the  negotiations  for  union  ;  and  G.  was  one 
of  the  most  active  supporters  of  the  proposal  of 
that  university  for  putting  an  end  to  the  schism 
by  the  resignation  of  both  the  contending  j-arties. 
With  this  view,  he  visited  the  other  imiversities, 
in  order  to  obtain  their  assent  to  the  plan  pro- 
posed by  that  of  Paris.  But  although  he  had 
the  satisfaction  to  see  this  plan  carried  out  in  the 
council  of  Pisa,  it  failed,  as  is  well  known,  to 
secure  the  desired  union.  In  a  treatise  inscribed 
to  his  friend  D'Ailly,  he  renewed  the  proposal  that 
the  rival  pontifi's  (now  not  two,  but  three  since  the 
election  of  J ohn  XXIII.  at  Pisa)  should  be  required 
to  resign ;  and  in  the  new  council  held  at  Con- 
stance in  1414,  he  was  again  the  most  zealouH 
advocate  of  the  same  expedient  of  resignation. 
It  is  to  him,  also,  that  the  great  outluies  of  the 
plan  of  church  reformation,  then  and  afterwards 
proposed,  are  due.  But  his  own  personal  fortunes 
were  marred  by  the  animosity  of  the  Duke  of 
Burgimdy  and  his  adherents,  to  whom  G.  had 
become  obnoxious,  and  from  whom  he  had  already 
suffered  much  persecution,  on  account  of  the  bold- 
ness with  which  he  had  denounced  the  murder  of 
the  Duke  of  Orleans.  To  escape  their  vengeance, 
he  was  forced  to  remain  in  exile  ;  and  he  retired 
from  Constance,  in  the  disguise  of  a  pilgrim,  to 
Rattenberg  in  Bavaria,  where  he  composed  his  cele- 
brated work  De  Consolatlone  TJieologice,  in  imitation 
of  that  of  Boetliius,  De  Coj) solatia ne  Philosophice^ 
It  was  only  after  the  lapse  of  several  years  that  he 
was  enabled  to  return  to  France,  and  take  up  his 
residence  in  a  monastery  at  Lyon,  of  which  his 
brother  was  the  superior.  He  devoted  himself  in 
this  retirement  to  works  of  piety,  to  study,  and  to 
the  education  of  youth.  He  died  in  1429,  in  his 
66th  year.  His  works,  which  are  among  the  most 
remarkable  of  that  age,  fill  five  volumes  in  folio. 
Among  the  books  formerly  ascribed  to  him  was 
the  celebrated  spiritual  treatise  On  the  Imitation  oj 
Christ;  but  it  is  no  longer  doubtful  that  the  true 
author  is  Thomas-a-Kempis.  See  Kempis.  The 
authority  of  G.  is  much  relied  on  by  the  advo- 
cates of  GaUican  principles  ;  but  the  UltraiQontanc* 
allege  that  the  principles  laid  down  ty  him 

727 


GERSTACKER— GESENI  US. 


to  the  aull^ority  of  the  pope  are  only  applicable 
to  tlie  exceptional  case  in  which  he  wrote — viz., 
that  of  a  disputed  succession,  in  which  the  claim 
of  each  of  the  rival  popes,  and  therefore  of  the 
existing  papacy  itself,  was  doubtfid. 

GERSTACKER,  Friedrich,  a  German  novelist 
and  traveller,  was  born  at  Hamburg,  1 6th  May 
181C.  In  1837,  he  went  to  America.  After  spend- 
ing some  months  m  New  York,  he  began  his 
wanderings  through  the  United  States,  sometimes 
as  a  stoker  or  sailor  in  various  steam -packets,  some- 
times as  a  silversmith,  a  woodcutter,  a  maker  of 
pill-boxes,  &c.,  working  till  he  had  earned  money 
enough  to  enable  him  to  proceed  further.  He  also 
led  for  a  considerable  period  a  wild  adventurous  life 
as  a  hunter  in  the  forests.  In  1842,  he  set  up  a 
hotel  at  Point  Coup6e,  in  Louisiana  ;  but  in  1843,  a 
strong  desire^  to  see  his  friends  induced  him  to 
return  to  Germany.  Here  he  published  his  admir- 
able Streif-  und-  Jagdzuge  durch  die  Vereinhiten 
Staatcn  Nor  darner  ikas  {2  vols.,  Dresden,  1844).  This 
was  followed  by  his  Die  Regulatoren  in  Afkansasi 
(3  vols.,  Leip.  1846),  Die  Flussjnraten  des  Mississipjn 
(3  vols.,  Leip.  1848),  Mis-mfiippihilder,  Licht-  und 
Schattenselten  transailanlisclien  Lehens  (2  vols.,  Dres- 
den, 1847),  and  Amerik.  Wald-  und-  Stromhilder 
(2  vols.,  Leip.  1849).  In  his  popular  writings,  as  the 
lieisen  vm  die  Welt  (6  vols.,  Leip.  1847),  and  Der 
Deutsclien  Auswanderer  Fahrten  und  Schicksale 
(Leip.  1847),  G.  contrives  to  rivet  the  attention 
even  of  the  uneducated  reader.  In  1862  he  accompa- 
nied the  Duke  Ernest  of  Gotlm  on  his  travels  in 
Egypt  and  Abyssinia.  In  1867 — 1868  lie  undertook 
the  longest  journey  of  his  lite,  visiting  North  Auierica, 
Mexico,  Equador,  Venezuela,  and  the  West  Indies; 
and  published  in  1868  Nenc  Jieisen^  in  which  he  gives 
a  vivid  account  of  them.  As  to  novels,  he  pub- 
lished, among  others,  Eine  Mutter  (1867);  Die 
Missioniire  (1868);  Die  Blanen  und  die  Gelden 
(1870);  in  1871  he  issued  as  a  feuilleton  in  the 
Jlambnrg  News  a  novel,  In  America.  He  died  in 
1872. 

GE'RUND  (from  Latin  gero,  I  carry  on)  is  a 
part  of  the  Latin  verb  which,  according  to  gram- 
marians, declares  that  anything  is  to  be  done.  Thus 
the  gerund  of  scribo,  I  write,  is  scribendum;  as, 
cliarta  idilis  ad  scribendum,  paper  useful  for  writing. 
It  is  a  sort  of  verbal  noun,  possessing  the  same 
power  of  government  as  its  verb,  but  is  scarcely 
ever  found  in  the  nominative,  at  least  as  a  govern- 
ing word.  In  French,  the  infinitive  has  almost 
entirely  supplanted  the  gerund,  the  sole  surviving 
remuant,  we  believe,  being  found  after  the  prepo- 
Bition  en,  as  en  attendant.  In  English,  the  present 
participle  does  duty  also  for  the  gerund  ;  as,  he  is 
reading  novels  (participle) ;  he  amuses  himself  with 
reading  novels  (gerund). 

GERVAS  {Stachytarpheta  Jamaicensis),  a  small 
6hmb  of  the  natural  order  Verbenaceo'.,  a  native  of 
the  West  Indies  and  warm  parts  of  America.  It 
has  scattered  hairy  branches,  oblong-ovate  coarsely 
and  sharply  serrated  leaves  about  two  inches 
long,  and  long  dense  spikes  of  lilac  flowers.  It  is 
regarded  as  a  stimulant,  febrifuge,  anthelmintic,  and 
vulnerary ;  a  decoction  of  the  leaves  is  applied  to 
Bevcre  contusions  ;  and  the  dried  leav^es  are  used 
as  tea.  In  Austria,  they  are  sold  under  the  name 
of  Brazilian  Tea.  In  Britain,  they  are  employed 
only  for  the  adulteration  of  tea;  but  for  this  pur- 
pose they  are  perhaps  more  frequently  used  than 
any  other  kind  of  leaf. 

GE'RVASE  OF  Tilbury,  an  historian  of  the  13th 
c ,  was  born  at  Tilbury,  in  Essex.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  a  nephew  of  King  Henry  11.  of  England. 
About  1208,  he  was  received  with  great  distinction 

728 


at  the  court  of  Otho  IV.,  emperor  of  Germany, 
and  ai>pointed  by  that  monarch  marshal  of  the 
kingdom  of  Aries.  He  died  about  1218.  He 
wrote  a  commentary  upon  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth's 
History  of  Britain,  entitled  Jllastrationes  Galfridi 
M onemutJiensis,  lib.  iv.  ;  a  History  of  the  Holj  Land 
[Ilhitoria  Terrce  Sancta')  ;  a  treatise,  De  Origine 
Burgandionum ;  and  a  History  of  the  Kings  of  Eng- 
land and  France,  comprised  in  a  work  entitled  Otia 
Imperialia,  libri  tres  ;  also  known  under  the  titles 
Mappa  sive  Descriptio  Mundi,  and  De  MiraoilibuA 
Orbis.  MSS.  of  the  Otia  Imperialia  are  preger*  ed 
in  the  Cottonian  Collection,  and  in  the  library  of 
Corpus  Christi,  Cambridge.  Nicolson  ascribes  to 
G.  the  Black  Book  of  the  Exchequer  {Liber  Niger 
Scaccarii).  Madox,  who  published  a  very  correct 
edition  of  that  work,  makes  Richard  Nelson,  Bishop 
of  London,  the  author. 

GERVI'NUS,  Georg  Gottfried,  an  historian 
of  German  literature  and  politician,  was  born  at 
Darmstadt,  2(ith  May  1805.  He  received  a  mercan- 
tUe  education,  and  was  for  some  time  emi)loyed  in 
the  counting-house  of  a  merchant  in  his  native 
town.  By  a  diligent  course  of  self-instruction,  he 
supplied  what  was  wanting  in  his  school-education, 
and  in  1826,  was  so  far  advanced  as  to  be  ready  to 
enter  the  university  of  Heidelberg.  After  com- 
pleting his  studies,  during  which  a  taste  for  history 
had  been  awakened  in  him  by  Schlosser's  lectures, 
he  became  teacher  in  an  educational  institution  at 
Frankfurt-on-the-Maine.  In  1835,  he  was  appointed 
a  professor  extraordinary  at  Heidelberg.  Previous  to 
this,  he  had  published  his  Geschichte  der  Angehaclisen 
im  Ueberblick  (Frank.  1830),  which  was  followed 
by  his  Ilistorische  Schriften  (Frank.  1833).  In  1836, 
he  was  ai)i)ointed  ordinary  professor  of  history  and 
literature  at  Gottingen.  He  had  now  begun  to  pub- 
lish his  Geschichte  der  PoetiscAen  NationaUlteratur 
der  DeutscJien  (3  vols.,  Leip.  1835—1838  ;  3d  edit. 
1846—1848).  This  was  followed  by  the  Neuere 
Geschichte  der  Foetischen  Nationalliteratur  der 
Deutschen  (2  vols.,  Leip.  1840—1842;  3d  edit.  1852). 
Both  of  these  works  have  attained  to  weD-deserved 
popularity.  In  1837,  he  was  one  of  the  Gottingen 
professors  who  signed  the  famous  protest  against 
the  abolition  of  the  Hanoverian  constitution,  in 
consequence  of  which  he  lost  his  chair,  and  was 
ordered  to  leave  the  countiy  within  three  days.  He 
first  went  to  Darmstadt,  then  to  Heidelberg,  and  in 
the  spring  of  1838,  to  Italy.  He  spent  the  Mdnter  in 
Rome,  engaged  in  historical  studies.  In  1844,  he 
was  appointed  honorary  professor  in  the  university 
of  Heidelberg.  From  this  period,  his  career  was 
that  of  a  political  writer.  Constitutional  liberty 
was  the  object  which  he  had  in  view,  and  for  which 
he  ardently  laboured.  His  pamphlets  and  writings 
in  different  periodicals  exercised  a  very  great 
influence  over  the  national  mind.  In  Jidy  18-J7, 
along  with  soine  others,  he  established  the  Deutsche 
Zeitung  in  Heidelberg,  to  advocate  the  political 
views  of  the  Constitutionalists.  In  1848,  he  was 
deputed  to  attend  the  diet  in  behalf  of  the  Hanse 
towns,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  the  National 
Assembly  by  a  district  of  Prussian  Saxony.  After 
the  failure  of  the  national  democratic  party  in  Ger- 
many, G.  returned  to  his  literary  pursuits,  the  fruits 
of  which  are  his  able  and  suggestive  work  on 
Shakspeare  (1849 — 1850),  his  OescMclite  der  Dentuch- 
en  Dichtung  (1853),  and  his  Geschichte  des  19/cu 
Jahrhnndert  (1853—1858;  English  translation,  1859). 
He  died  March  1871. 

GESE'NIUS,  Friedrich  Heinrich  Wilhelm, 
one  of  the  greatest  modern  German  Orientalists 
and  biblical  scholars,  was  born  at  Nordhausen,  in 
Prussian  Saxonv,  3d  February,  1785,  and  educated 


GESNER-GESNERAdLlL 


first  at  the  gymnasium  of  his  native  town, 
attervrards  at  the  universities  of  Helmstedt  and 
Gottingen.  After  having  been  a  short  time  teacher 
in  the  psedacfogium  at  Helmstedt,  he  became  in 
1800  a  theological  Repetent  in  Gottingen ;  and 
in  1809,  on  the  proposal  of  Johann  von  Miiller, 
was  ai)pointed  professor  of  ancient  literature  in 
the  gymnasium  of  Heiligenstadt.  In  1810,  how- 
ever, he  received  a  call  to  Halle  as  extraordinary 
professor  of  theology,  and  was  made  an  ordinary 
[)rofessor  in  the  following  year.  In  1810 — 1812,  he 
published,  in  two  volumes,  a  Hebrew  and  Chaldee 
Dictionary  of  tJie  Old  Testament,  which  underwent 
improvements  in  several  subsequent  editions,  after 
he  had  made  a  journey  to  Paris  and  Oxford  in 
the  summer  of  1820,  to  make  researches  in  the 
Semitic  languages.  In  the  two  years  following  the 
publication  of  this  Dictionary,  appeared  his  liehrd- 
isches  Elementarhuch  (2  Bde.,  Halle,  1813—1814), 
consisting  of  a  Hebrew  grammar  and  reading-book. 
This  work,  as  it  has  been  improved  in  the  recent 
editions  of  G.'s  distinguished  pupil  and  literary 
executor,  Professor  Ptodiger  of  Halle,  and  the  lexicon 
already  mentioned,  are  still  the  grammar  and 
dictionary  of  the  Old  Testament  most  in  use  not 
only  throughout  Germany,  but  in  Great  Britain 
and  in  America.  The  best  English  translations  of 
the  dictionary  founded  on  the  Latin  edition  are 
those  of  Robinson  (American),  and  of  Tregelles ; 
the  best  of  the  grammar  are  those  of  Davies 
(London)  and  of  Conant  (New  York).  In  1815, 
another  work  was  published  by  G.  on  the  his- 
tory of  the  Hebrew  language  [Kritische  Gescli.  d. 
Hebr.  Sprache  u.  Schr'/ft,  Leip.),  and  a  treatise,  De 
Pentateuchi  Samaritani  Origine,  indole  et  auctoritate 
(HaUe).  Besides  a  translation  of  Isaiah  with  a  com- 
mentary in  three  vols.  (Leip.  1820 — 1821),  we  are 
indebted  to  G.  for  a  larger  Hebrew  Grammar  {Grani- 
matlsch-kritisches  Lehrgebdiide  d.  Hebr.  Sprache,  2 
Bde.,  Leip.  1817),  as  weU  as  for  a  larger  lexicogra- 
phical work  [Thesaurus  philologico-crlticus  Lingitce 
Ifebraicce  et  Chaldaicce  Veteris  Testamenti),  of  which 
the  first  part  was  published  in  1829,  but  which  was 
completed  only  in  1858  by  Professor  Podiger.  G. 
contribiited  also  some  papers  on  Oriental  Antiquity 
to  Ersch  and  Gruber's  AUgemeine  Encyclojmdie ;  and 
his  notes  to  the  German  translation  of  Burckhardt's 
Travels  in  Syria  and  Palestine,  throw  light  on  many 
points  connected  with  biblical  geography.  He  died 
23d  October  1842,  and  a  memorial  of  him  appeared 
in  the  following  year  {G.,  eine  Erinnerung  an  seine 
Freunde,  Berlin,  1843). — Many  of  the  residts  of  the 
rationalising  method  of  interpreting  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, which  characterises  all  the  works  of  G.,  have 
been  luiable  to  stand  the  progress  of  biblical  science, 
and  he  has  certainly  been  surpassed  by  Ewald  in 
insight  into  the  genius  of  the  Hebrew  language,  and 
its  bearing  on  the  interpretation  of  Hebrew  life 
and  thought,  as  Avell  as  in  all  that  qualifies  the 
critic  for  a  true  historical,  £csthetical,  and  religious 
appreciation  of  the  literature  preserved  to  us  in  the 
GUI  Testament.  Yet  his  intense  devotion  to  his 
favourite  studies,  and  the  advance  which  he  made 
beyond  all  his  predecessors  in  the  establishment 
of  more  certain  principles  of  Hebi-ew  philology,  un- 
doubtedly entitle  him  to  be  regarded  as  having  con- 
stituted a  new  epoch  in  the  scientific  study  of  the  Old 
Testament. 

GESNER,  KONRAD  von,  a  celebrated  Swiss 
naturalist,  was  born  at  Zurich  in  1516,  and  died 
there  of  the  plague  13th  December  156.5.  His 
father,  who  was  a  leather  seller,  was  too  poor  to 
pay  for  moi-e  than  the  first  years  of  his  education 
at  the  town  school ;  but  John  Jacob  Arnmianus, 
professor  of  Latin  and  oratoiy  in  tl^e  college,  saw 
in  the  Lav  so  much  promise,  that  he  took  him 


into  his  house,  and  instructed  him  gratuitously  fox 
three  years  in  Latin,  Greek,  dialectics,  and  oratory. 
He  subsequently  studied  for  three  or  four  years  at 
Paris,  whence  he  was  summoned  back  to  Ziirich, 
to  l)ecome  a  teacher  in  the  school  in  which  he  had 
derived  the  elements  of  his  own  education.  He 
devoted  all  his  spare  time  to  the  study  of  medicine 
and  botany,  in  the  hope  of  idtimately  rising  from 
the  office  of  a  schoolmaster  to  that  of  a  professor. 
The  hope  was  gratified  upon  the  opening  of  the 
university  of  Lausanne,  when  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  Greek.  After  holding  the  office  three 
years,  he  went  to  Montpellier,  where  he  attended 
medical  lectures,  and  to  Basel,  where,  after  addi- 
tional study,  and  the  usual  disputations,  he  waa 
admitted  to  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Medicine.  He 
then,  at  the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  returned  to 
his  native  town.  In  a  A^ery  short  time,  he  received 
the  appointment  of  professor  of  philosophy,  which 
he  held  until  his  death.  He  likewise  practised  medi- 
cine, and  published  from  time  to  time  the  fruit  of 
his  studies.  As,  in  the  course  of  his  life,  he  pub- 
lished  no  less  than  seventy-two  works,  besides  leav- 
ing at  his  death  eighteen  that  were  in  progress,  it 
will  be  impossible  for  us  to  notice  more  than  a 
few  of  the  most  important.  His  first  great  work, 
the  BiblioOieca  Universalis,  appeared  when  he  was 
only  twenty-nine  years  old.  It  contained  the  titles 
of  all  the  books  then  known  in  Hebrew,  Greek,  and 
Latin,  with  criticisms  and  summaries  of  each ;  and  as 
an  index  to  authors  who  wrote  before  the  year 
1545,  it  remains  to  this  day  very  valuable.  Ten 
years  later  (in  1555),  his  Mithridcdes,  de  Dijferentiia 
Linguarum  apjieared,  which  contained  histories  of 
one-hundred-and-thirty  ancient  and  modern  lan- 
guages. But  by  far  the  greatest  of  his  literary  works 
w^as  his  Historia  Anivialium,  which  was  planned  iu 
six  books,  of  which  only  four  were  completed.  The 
first  treats  of  viviparous,  and  the  second  of  ovipar- 
ous  quadrupeds  (tortoises,  lizards,  &c.),  the  thu-d  of 
birds,  and  the  fourth  of  fishes  and  aquatic  animals. 
The  fifth  book  was  to  have  contained  the  history  of 
serpents,  and  the  sixth  that  of  insects.  Each  of  the 
four  published  books  is  a  folio  of  considerable  thick- 
ness, and  with  closely  printed  pages.  In  this  work, 
which  will  ever  remain  a  monument  of  his  imtiring 
industry,  he  aimed  at  bringing  together  all  that 
was  known  in  his  time  concerning  every  animal. 
The  information  which  he  collected  regarding  each 
animal  was  arranged  under  eight  heads,  represented 
by  the  first  eight  letters  of  the  alphabet.  These 
four  volumes  contain  the  complete  history,  up  to 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  of  beasts, 
birds,  and  fishes,  and  well  entitle  their  author  to 
the  designation  which  he  often  received  of  'th« 
German  Pliny.' 

Botany  was  probably  the  section  of  natural  history 
with  which  he  had  the  greatest  practical  acquaintance. 
He  had  collected  more  than  five  hundred  plants 
undescribed  by  the  ancients,  and  was  arranging  the 
results  of  his  labours  in  this  department  at  the  time 
of  his  death.  He  appears  to  have  been  the  first 
who  made  the  great  step  towards  a  scientific  classi- 
fication of  distinguishing  genera  by  a  study  of  the 
fructification. 

GESNERA'CE^,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  allied  to  Scrophulariacece.,  and  consisting  of 
herbaceous  plants  and  soft-wooded  shrubs,  gene- 
rally tropical  or  sub-tropical.  They  frequently  spring 
from  scaly  tubers.  The  leaves  are  wrinkled  and 
destitute  of  stipules.  The  calyx  is  5-parted;  the 
corolla,  tubular,  5-lobed,  more  or  less  irregular.  The 
stamens  are  generally  four,  two  long  and  two  short, 
with  the  rudiment  of  a  fifth.  The  germen  is  half 
inferior,  surrounded  at  its  base  by  glands  or  a  fleshy 
ring ;  it  is  one-celled,  and  has  parietal  placentse. 


GESSLER— GET^. 


The  fruit  is  either  a  capsule  or  a  berry,  many-seeded. 
There  are  about  120  species,  exclusive  of  those  some- 
times formed  into  a  distinct  order  under  the  name 
Cyrtandracece  or  Didymocmycce,  of  Aviiich  there  are 
about  140.  The  true  Oesneracece  are  all  natives 
of  the  warmer  parts  of  America,  where  some  of 
them  grow  upon  trees.  The  Cyrtandracece  are 
more  widely  distributed.  Some  })lants  of  this 
order  have  mucila  g'inous  and  sweetish  edible  fruits ; 
but  it  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  beauty  of  flowers, 
containing  some  of  the  most  admired  ornaments 
of  our  hot-houses,  as  species  of  Gloxinia,  Achimenes, 
etc. 

GESSLER,  Albrecht,  called  also  G.  von 
Bruneck,  was  in  1300  appointed  joint  governor,  along 
with  Berenger  von  Landenl)crg,  of  the  Waldstadten 
or  Forest  Cantons  (Schwjtz,  Unterwalden,  and  Uri), 
by  Albrecht  I.  of  Austria.  According  to  the  tradi- 
tions connected  with  Tell  (q.  v.),  his  oppressive 
edicts  and  wanton  cruelty  so  enraged  the  inhabitants 
that  a  consi)iracy  was  formed  against  him,  and  he 
was  shot  by  Tell  in  a  narrow  pass  near  Kussnacht  in 
1307. 

GESSNER,  Salomon,  a  German  poet  and  artist, 
was  born  at  Zurich,  1st  April  1730,  and  apprenticed 
to  a  bookseller  in  Berlin  in  1749,  but  soon  ran  away 
from  his  master,  and  endeavoured  to  earn  a  liveli- 
hood by  landscape  painting.  From  Berlin  he  went 
to  Hamburg,  where  he  formed  an  intimate  friend- 
ship with  Hagedorn.  On  his  retui-n  to  Ziirich,  he 
published  Daphnis,  which  w\as  followed  by  J)}Lie 
und  Yarico,  a  small  volume  of  idylls,  and  ^Jod 
Abels  (the  Death  of  Abel),  a  species  of  idyllic  heroic 
prose  poem,  which,  though  the  feeblest  of  all  his 
productions,  is  the  best  known,  and  the  one  on 
which  his  claim  to  the  notice  of  posterity  rests.  He 
afterwards  turned  his  attention  for  several  years 
exclusively  to  painting  and  engraving,  in  the  latter 
of  which  arts  he  attained  high  excellence.  Some  of 
the  engravings  with  which  he  ilhistrated  his  feeble 

?oetry  are  said  to  be  worthy  of  the  tirst  masters, 
n  1772,  he  published  a  second  volume  of  idylls, 
and  a  series  of  letters  on  landscape  painting.  He 
died  2d  March  1787. 

(fE'STA  ROMANO'RUM  is  the  title  of  the 
oldest  legendary  work  of  the  middle  ages.  The 
stories  are  written  in  Latin,  and  for  the  most  part 
are  either  taken  from  the  histories  of  the  Roman 
emperors,  or  at  least  are  referred  to  the  period 
in  which  these  flourished.  At  a  later  period, 
moralising  expositions  were  added,  whence  the  work 
obtained  the  name  of  Hlstorioe  Moralistoi.  The 
G.  R.  belongs  to  that  class  of  works  ynth  which 
the  monks  were  wont  to  beguile  their  leisure 
hours,  and  which  were  appointed  to  be  read  in 
th€.  refectory.  The  stories  are  short,  and  desti- 
tute of  rhetorical  ornament ;  neither  have  they 
any  dialogues  or  tragic  incidents.  Their  attrac- 
ti"\'eness  lies  in  the  charm  of  their  naivet§  and 
childlike  simplicity,  although  their  artless  piet}' 
often  passes  into  a  deep  mysticism.  Down  to  the 
10th  c,  the  G.  R.  was  one  of  the  most  widely 
r&od  books  among  the  learned,  as  the  number  of 
manuscripts  and  of  p>rinted  impressions  s?hortly 
after  the  invention  of  printing  (the  first  was  issued 
at  Cologne  in  1472)  prove.  At  an  early  period, 
it  was  translated  into  French,  English,  German, 
and  Dutch.  The  oldest  Dutch  translation  was 
published  at  Gouda  by  Gerard  Leeu  in  1481  ;  the 
oldest  German  translation  at  Augsburg,  by  Hans 
Schobser,  in  1489.  Among  the  older  English  trans- 
hitions  may  be  mentioned  that  by  R.  Robinson 
(Lond.  1577).  Recently  (1824),  the  Rev.  C.  Swan 
published  Gesta  liomanorum,  translated  from,  the 
Jjatin,  with  Preliminary  Observations,  and  Copious 

720 


Notes.  The  later  German  fabulists  and  novelists, 
such  as  Hans  Sacha,  Burkard  Waldis,  and  others, 
made  abundant  use  of  this  great  storehouse.  But 
soon  after  the  Reformation  it  was  thrown  into 
the  background,  and  even  in  the  monasteries,  where 
for  a  long  time  it  maintained  its  footing,  it  was 
at  length  forgotten.  Recently,  however,  amid  the 
general  revival  of  interest  in  the  literature  of  the 
past,  it  has  received  special  attention.  Its  author 
has  been  supj)osed  by  some  to  have  heen  Petrus 
Berchorius  or  Bercheur  of  Poitou,  who  died  prioi 
of  the  Benedictine  Abbey  of  St  Eloi  in  Paris  in 
1362,  but  it  is  now  believed  that  lie  only  added 
the  moralisings ;  and  Grlisse,  in  an  appendix  to 
his  German  translation  (2  vols.,  Dresd.  and  Leip. 
1842),  has  shewn  that  a  certain  Elinandus  is  the 
author  or  compiler  of  the  work.  This  Elinandus 
was  undoubtedly  a  monk,  and  was  either  an  Eng- 
lishman or  German,  as  is  clear  from  the  numerous 
Germanisms  and  A  nglicisms  that  pervade  the  Gesta. 
The  most  recent  edition  of  the  original  text  is  that 
of  Keller  (Stutt.  and  Tub.  1842). 

GESTA  TION,  in  Physiology,  is  the  term  applied 
to  the  period  that  intervenes  in  the  manunalia 
between  impregnation  and  the  bringing  forth  of  the 
young.  The  period  and  the  number  of  young 
produced  at  a  birth  vary  extremely  in  different 
mammals,  but  usually  stand  in  an  inverse  ratio  to 
one  another.  Thus,  in  the  larger  herbivora,  as,  for 
example,  the  elephant,  tlie  horse,  the  ox,  and  the 
camel,  the  female  seldom  produces  more  than  one  at 
a  time,  but  the  period  of  gestation  is  long  ;  while  in 
the  sraall-jr  ones  the  progeny  is  numerous,  but  the 
period  oi  gestation  only  a  few  weeks.  In  the  ele- 
phant, the  period  of  gestation  extends  over  twenty 
or  twenty-one  months  ;  in  the  giraffe,  it  is  fourteen 
months  ;  in  the  dromedary,  it  is  twelve  months  ;  in 
the  mare,  upwards  of  eleven  months ;  in  the  tapir, 
between  ten  and  eleven ;  in  the  cow,  nine ;  and  in 
many  of  the  larger  deer  somewhat  moi'e  than  eight 
months.  In  the  sheep  and  goat,  the  period  is  five 
months.  In  the  sow,  which  prodiices  a  numerous 
litter,  the  period  is  four  months.  In  the  rodentia, 
the  progeny  is  numerous  and  imperfectly  developed, 
and  the  period  of  gestation  is  comparatively  short : 
in  the  beaver,  one  of  the  largest  of  the  order,  it  ia 
four  months  ;  in  the  rabbit  and  hare,  from  thirty  to 
forty  days  ;  in  the  dormouse,  thirty- one  days ;  in 
the  squirrel  and  rat,  four  weeks  ;  and  in  the  guinea- 
pig,  three  M-eeks  or  less.  The  young  of  the  car- 
nivora,  like  the  young  of  the  rodentia,  are  born  w^ith 
their  eyes  closed,  and  in  a  \erj  immature  condition; 
and  in  even  the  larger  carnivora  the  period  of  gesta- 
tion is  far  shorter  than  in  the  larger  ruminantia  or 
pachydermata :  it  is  six  months'  in  the  bear ;  one 
hundred  and  eight  days  in  the  lion  (the  period  in 
this  animal  is  stated  by  Van  der  Hoeveu  at  three 
months) ;  seventy-nine  days  in  the  puma ;  sixty-two 
or  sixty-three  days  in  the  dog,  the  woLf,  and  the 
fox;  and  fifty- five  or  fifty-six  days  in  the  cat.  In  the 
marsupial  animals,  which,  from  a  structural  pecu- 
liarity, produce  their  young  in  a  far  more  immature 
state  than  any  other  mammals,  the  period  of  gesta- 
tion is  very  short,  being  thirty-nine  days  in  the 
kangaroo,  the  largest  of  the  marsupial  animals,  and 
only  twenty-six  days  in  the  opossum.  Nothing  certain 
is  known  regarding  the  period  of  gestation  of  the 
cetacea.  The  quadrumana  produce  one,  sometimes 
two,  at  a  birth ;  and  the  period  of  gestation,  as  far  as 
has  been  observed,  seems  to  be  seven  months.  In 
the  human  race,  forty  weeks  is  the  usual  period  of 
gestation,  but  this  period  is  liable  to  certain  devia- 
tions, which  are  noticed  in  the  article  Fcetus. 

GE'T^,  a  people  of  Thraciaai  extraction,  who, 
when  first  mentioned  in  history,  inhabited  IJie 


GETHSEMANP]— GEYSER. 


country  which  is  now  called  Bulgaria.  They  were 
a  warlike  jieople,  and  for  a  long  time  succcssfnlly 
resisted  the  attempts  of  Alexander  the  Great  and 
Pyrrhus  to  subdue  them.  They  afterwards  removed 
to  the  north  bank  of  the  Danul>e,  having  the 
Dniej)er  as  their  boundary  on  the  east,  while  west- 
ward they  encroached  on  the  Roman  em])ire,  with 
which  from  this  time  they  were  continually  at 
war.  They  were  called  Daci  by  the  Romans, 
and  their  country  Dacia,  and  are  often  mentioned 
in  the  literature  of  the  Augustan  era  as  savage 
and  uuconcjueral)le  foes.  Curing  the  reign  of 
Dcniitian,  they  overcame  the  Romans,  and  exacted 
ail  annual  tribute.  But  in  106,  their  gallant 
king,  Dtjcebalu3,  was  defeated  by  Tnajau,  and  the 
people  completely  subdued.  A  Roman  colony  was 
Bottled  in  the  country,  and  becoming  incorjiorated 
with  the  G.,  gave  rise  to  a  mixed  race,  the  modern 
Wallachs. 

GETHSE'MANE  (Heb.  Gath, '  a  wine-press,'  and 
Shemen,  'oil'),  the  scene  of  our  Saviour's  agony 
oix  the  night  before  his  Passion,  was  a  small  farm 
or  estate  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Olivet,  and  rather 
more  than  half  a  mile  from  the  city  of  Jerusalem. 
Attached  to  it  was  a  garden  or  orchard,  a  favourite 
resort  of  Christ  and  his  disciples.  The  s^jot  pointed 
out  to  modern  ti-avellers  as  the  site  of  the  garden 
of  G.  corresponds  sufficiently  with  the  requirements 
of  the  Scri})ture  narrative,  and  the  statements  of 
Jerome  and  Eusebius.  It  is  a  place  about  50  paces 
Bquare,  enclosed  by  a  low  wall  of  loose  stones,  and 
contains  eight  very  old  olive-trees,  regarded  with 
pious  superstition  as  having  existed  in  the  time  of 
our  Lord. 

GE'UM,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natm*al  order 
Jtosacece^  sub-order  Potentillece^  nearly  allied  to 
Potentilla^  but  distinguished  by  the  hardened  hooked 
etyles  Avhich  crown  the  carpels,  so  that  the  fruit 
becomes  a  bur.  The  carpels  are  dry.  Two  species 
are  common  natives  of  Britain,  G.  ■urbamim^  called 
Common  Avens,  or  Herb  Bennett,  a  herbaceous 
plant,  about  1 — 2  feet  high,  and  G,  rivale,  called 


Geum  Ptivale : 
a,  carpel  and  awn  ;  b,  petal ;  c,  stamen  ;  d,  pistil. 

WiTER  AvENS,  about  one  foot  high,  both  of  which 
have  the  radical  leaves  interraptedly  pinnate 
and  lyrate,  and  the  cauline  leaves  ternate,  but  G. 
xirbanum  has  erect  yellow  flowers,  and  G.  rivale 
iias  nodding  flowers  of  a  brownish  hue.  The  former 
<irows  in  hedges  and  thickets,  the  latter  in  wet 


meadows  and  woods  and  sometimes  even  in  very 
alj)ine  situations.  Both  are  aromatic,  t(mic,  and 
astringent,  and  are  emi)loyed  to  restrain  mucous 
discharges,  and  in  cases  of  dysentery  and  inter- 
mittent fever.  The  root  of  G.  rivale  is  also  us'hI 
in  diseases  of  the  bladder.  The  root  of  G.  urliaiium^ 
when  fresh,  has  a  clove-like  flavour,  which  it  com- 
municates to  ale  ;  and  for  this  purpose  it  is  gathered 
in  spring  before  the  stem  grows  up.  G.  Canmlmse, 
the  Chocolate  Root  or  Blood  Root  of  2s'«>rtb 
America,  has  some  rej)utation  as  a  mild  tonic.  It 
is  much  em])loyed  in  the  United  States  in  disca-sea 
of  the  bladder.  It  mtich  resembles  the  Britisij 
species  in  its  leaves,  and  has  erect  flowers  like  G, 
urbanum.  A  number  of  other  species  are  kuowu, 
natives  of  the  temperate  and  colder  regions  both 
of  the  northern  and  southern  hemispheres. 

GEY'SER  (Icelandic,  (jfysa,  to  burst  forth  vio- 
lently, allied  to  Eng.  gnuli)  is  a  term  applied  in 
Iceland  to  the  eruptive  thermal  springs  and  wells 
which  are  found  in  various  parts  oi  its  surface 
in  evident  connection  with  the  volcanic  forces 
at  work  below.  The  most  remarkable  group  of 
these  singular  objects  is  one  about  70  miles,  oi 
a  two  days'  ride  from  Reikiavik,  16  miles  north 
of  Skalholt,  and  within  sight  of  the  volcano  of 
Hecla.  On  the  slope  of  a  low  trap-hill,  overlook- 
ing the  wide  grassy  valley  of  the  ^V^litae,  or 
White  River,  a  sj)ace  of  ground  measuring  perhaps 
half  a  mile  each  way  is  thickly  interspersed  with 
boiling  or  hot  springs,  of  various  sizes,  from  jets  not 
greater  than  an  overboiling  tea-kettle,  uj)  to  great 
caldrons,  besides  vestiges  of  others  no  longer  in 
operation.  All  are  surrounded  by  silicious  incnista- 
^'ons  formed  in  the  course  ot  time  by  the  minute 
charge  of  silica  infused  into  the  water.  The  chief 
apertures  are  two,  respectively  called  the  Great 
Geyaer  and  the  Strokr  (i.  e.  Churn),  Avhich  are  little 
more  than  a  hundred  yards  apart.  The  latter  is  an 
irregular  aperture  of  from  six  to  eight  feet  diameter, 
down  whi(;h  one  may  in  general  safely  look,  when 
he  sees  tlie  water  noisily  working  in  a  narrower 
passage  about  20  feet  below.  If,  by  throwing  in 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  turf,  he  can  temporarily 
choke  this  gullet,  the  water  will  in  a  few  minutes 
oveiTome  the  resistance,  and,  so  to  speak,  perform 
an  eruption  with  magnificent  effect,  bursting  up 
60  feet  into  the  air,  brown  with  the  turf  that  has 
been  infused  into  it,  and  diffusing  steam  in  vast 
volumes  around. 

The  appearance  of  the  Great  Geyser  is  consider- 
ably different.  On  the  summit  of  a  mount  which 
rises  about  15  feet  above  the  surrounding  ground, 
is  a  circular  pool  or  cup  of  hot  M^ater,  72  feet 
across  at  its  greatest  diameter,  and  about  four 
feet  deep,  being  entirely  formed  of  silicious  crust 
of  a  dvill  gray  colour.  At  the  edge,  this  water  has 
been  found  to  be  188°  F. ;  in  the  centre,  it  is 
considerably  higher.  From  the  centre  descends  a 
pit  of  eight  feet  width,  and  83  feet  deep,  up  which 
a  stream  of  highly  heated  water  is  continiially 
but  slowly  ascending,  the  surplus  finding  its  way 
out  by  a  small  channel  in  the  edge  of  the  cup, 
and  trickling  down  the  exterior  of  the  crusty 
eminence.  Every  few  hours,  the  water,  with  a 
rumbling  noise,  rises  tumult uously  through  the  pit, 
and  jets  for  a  few  feet  above  the  sm-face  of  the 
pool ;  by  and  by,  it  subsides,  and  all  is  quiet  again. 
Once  a  day,  however,  or  thereabouts,  this  tumult 
ends  in  a  terrific  jmroxysm,  which  lasts  jjerhaps  a 
quarter  of  an  hour,  and  during  which  the  water  is 
thrown  in  repeated  jets  from  60  to  80  feet  high, 
mingled  with  such  volumes  of  steam  as  obscure  the 
country  for  half  a  mile  round.  If  a  -^'isitor  be  toler- 
ably near  on  the  windward-side,  he  may  catch 
glimj^ses  of  this  grand  spectacle — the  eruption  of  a 

7ai 


GFROKER— GHAJVIBABU. 


water-volcano,  it  may  be  termed — and  he  mnst 
needs  be  charmed  with  the  beautiful  jets  as  tliey 
curve  outwards  and  fall,  as  well  as  impressed  by 
the  sublimity  of  the  whole  scene.  When  quiet  is 
restored,  the  chalice,  and  perhaps  twenty  feet 
of  the  pit,  are  found  empty,  and  the  visitor  obtains, 
80  far,  a  sight  of  the  internal  arrangements  and 
Btriicture  of  the  geyser.  In  a  little  time,  the  water 
reasceuds  to  its  usual  level,  and  there  remains  for 
the  next  day  or  two,  wdth  only  those  minor  disturb- 
ances which  have  been  described. 

The  thermal  springs  and  wells  of  Iceland  may  be 
Biiid  to  be  of  three  classes — 1.  Those  of  continual 
and  uniform  ebullition  ;  2.  Those  which,  while  not 
constantly  ebullient,  are  liable  to  occasional  eruj)- 
tions  ;  and,  8.  Certain  wells  not  yet  particularised, 
which  contain  tranquil  tepid  water,  but  are  sup- 
posed (at  least  in  some  instances)  to  have  formerly 
been  eruptive.  It  is  only  in  regard  to  tlie  second 
class  that  there  is  any  room  for  doul)t  or  specula- 
tion. To  what  are  we  to  attribute  the  occasional 
eruptions  ? 

The  theory  started  by  Sir  George  Mackenzie,  who 
visited  Iceland  in  1810,  is,  tliat  steam  is  gathered  in 
Bome  cavernous  recess  connected  with  the  subter- 
ranean channels  throiigh  wliicli  the  water  rises; 
and  that,  when  it  has  accumulated  there  till  such 
time  as  the  pressure  overcomes  the  resistance,  it 
bursts  forth  through  the  tube,  carrying  the  water 
before  it,  and  tossing  it  high  into  the  air.  This 
mechanical  theory,  as  it  may  be  called,  has  lost 
ground  since  the  announcement  of  a  chemical  one 
by  Professor  Bunsen,  who  spent  eleven  days  beside 
the  Great  Geyser  in  1846.  The  learned  German 
looks  for  an  explanation  of  the  phenomena  to  the 
molecular  changes  which  take  place  in  water  after 
being  long  subjected  to  heat.  '  In  these  circum- 
Btances,*  water  loses  much  of  the  air  contained  in 
it ;  the  cohesion  of  its  molecules  is  greatly  increased, 
and  a  higher  temperature  is  required  to  boil  it. 
When  water  in  this  state  is  brouglit  to  the  boil, 
the  production  of  vapour  is  so  instantaneous  and 
BO  considerable  as  to  cause  an  explosion.  It  has 
been  found  that  the  water  of  the  Great  Geyser  at 
the  bottom  of  the  tube  has  a  temperature  higher 
than  that  of  boiling  water,  and  this  goes  on  increas- 
ing till  an  eruption  takes  place,  unmediately  before 
which  it  has  been  found  as  high  as  261"  F.  This 
peculiarity — for  so  it  is,  seeing  that,  in  ordinary 
circumstances,  the  hotter  water  at  the  bottom 
woidd  rise  to  the  top  till  all  was  equally  warm — 
shews  that  the  heating  of  the  water  in  the  Geyser 
takes  place  under  extraordinary  circumstances.  As 
far  as  I  understand  Professor  Bunsen,  he  implies 
that  the  great  pressure  of  the  column  above,  and 
perhaps  some  mechanical  impediments  to  free 
circulation  in  the  form  of  the  Geyser,  give  these 
required  circiunstances.  Such  being  assimiedly 
the  case,  there  is  an  increase  in  the  cohesion  of  the 
molecules  of  the  water  constantly  going  on  at  the 
bottom,  at  the  same  time  that  the  heat  is  constantly 
mcreasing  ;  at  length,  the  latter  force  overcomes 
the  former — ebullition  takes  place — an  immense 
rolume  of  vapour  is  instantaneously  engendered, 
and  an  eruption  is  the  consequence.'  We  have  to 
consider  this  theory  in  an  unusually  curious  light  in 
connection  with  a  small  double  geyser,  as  it  may  be 
called,  which  exists  in  the  group  at  Peikholt,  and  in 
which  each  pool  makes  an  eruption  every  few 
minutes,  the  other  being  at  those  times  pacific. 

*  This  account  of  Bunsen's  theory  is  from  a  series  of 
articles  entitled  Tracings  of  Iceland,  which  appeared 
in  Chambers's  Journal  in  1855,  and  subsequently  in 
a  small  8vo  volume,  Is.,  published  by  W  and  R. 
Chambers. 
732 


The  water  of  the  Great  Geyser  contains  soda  In 
various  forms  ;  but  the  chief  ingredient  is  a  charge 
of  about  31  grammes  of  siUca  to  six  gallons.  This 
forms  the  incrustations  around  the  pools,  reaching 
to  the  bulk  of  a  little  hill  in  the  case  of  the  Great 
Geyser. 

GFRORER,  August  Frtedrich,  a  .  German  his- 
torian, was  bom  at  Calw,  in  the  Black  Forest, 
5th  March  1803.  Although  he  studied  for  the 
church,  he  had  lost  all  taste  for  its  practical  work 
when  he  comideted  his  theological  education  iu 
1825.  After  spending  some  time  at  Lausanne  and 
Geneva,  where  he  mastered  the  French  language, 
he  went  to  Rome  in  1827  to  study  Italian.  On  his 
return  next  year,  he  became  a  liepeteni,  or  tutor,  in 
the  theological  institution  at  Tubingen ;  in  1829, 
he  was  removed  to  a  similar  situation  in  Stuttgart ; 
and  in  1830,  he  was  appointed  national  hbrarian. 
He  noAV  al)andoned  ecclesiastical  life  entirely,  and 
devoted  himself  to  literature.  The  first  fruit  of 
his  studies  was  a  work  on  Philo  and  the  Judoeo- 
Alexanchian  Theosophy  in  their  relation  to  the 
doctrine  of  the  New  Testament  (Philo  unci  die 
Judisch-Alexandrinische  Theosophie,  2  Bde.,  Stutt. 
1831).  This  formed  the  first  part  of  a  larger  work 
on  the  History  of  Primitive  Christianity  (Gesch.  d. 
Urclu-istenihums),  which  was  completed  in  1838  in 
three  other  parts.  Between  the  beginning  and 
completion  of  this  work,  G.'s  views  on  Christ  and 
Christianity  had  undergone  a  change,  which  appeared 
also  in  his  History  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  and  his 
Times  [Gustav  Adolf,  Konir/  von  Scliwedcn,  und 
Seine  Zeit,  Stutt.  1833—1837),  for  the  first  edition 
of  that  work  takes  at  the  commencement  the  side 
of  the  Gueli)hs,  and  towards  the  close,  that  of  the 
Ghibellines — an  impropriety  which  was  corrected  in 
the  second  edition  (1844 — 1845).  After  a  work  on 
the  Prophetce  Veteres  Pseudepigraphi  (Stutt.  1840), 
G.  published  his  Allgemeine  Kircliengescldchte  (Stutt. 
1841 — 1846),  which,  extending  to  7  volumes,  brings 
church  history  clown  to  1305.  While  working  at 
this  history,  he  came  to  the  conviction  that  the 
true  church  is  the  historical,  i.  e.,  the  apostolical 
Roman  Catholic,  and  that  the  Reformation  origin- 
ated to  a  large  extent  in  misunderstanding  and  the 
ambition  of  princes.  He  was  accordingly  called  in 
1846  to  the  Catholic  university  of  Freiburg,  and 
there,  by  his .  zeal  in  defending  the  interests  of  the 
university,  was  drawn  into  manifold  conflicts,  wliich 
were  fought  again  more  earnestly  at  the  Frankfurt 
parliament  in  1848,  where  he  was  one  of  the  most 
decided  adherents  of  the  party  called  the  Gross- 
deutschen.  In  1848  appeared  his  History  of  the 
Carlovin^ians  of  Eastern  and  Western  Franconia 
(Gesch.  d.  ost-  u.  west/runkischen  KaroUnger,  2  Bde., 
Stutt.);  in  1855,  the  Ixst  two  volumes  of  a  work 
on  the  Early  History  of  Mankind  (Urgesch.  d. 
menschlichen  Geschlechts,  SchafF.) ;  and  in  1861  the 
concluding  volume  of  a  large  work  on  the  times  of 
Gregory  VII.  (Pabst  Gregorius  VII.  und  Seiner 
Zeit,  7  Bde.,  Schaffh.).    He  died  in  1861. 

GHAMBARU,  formerly  a  celebrated  town  of 
Africa,  in  the  state  of  Bornu,  in  lat.  13  5'  N., 
and  long.  12°  5'  E.  During  the  flourishing  period 
of  the  Bornuese  empire,  it  was  the  favourite  retreat 
of  the  kings  of  the  country.  It  was  taken  and 
destroyed  by  the  Fulahs  in  1809,  and  since  that 
date  has  remained  in  a  state  of  utter  ruin  and 
desolation ;  so  that  now  almost  all  traces  of  the 
town  have  become  covered  with  vegetation,  and 
enveloped  in  the  surrounding  forest.  The  most 
interesting  relic  of  G.  is  a  well-preserved  portion 
of  an  ancient  edifice,  evidently  a  mosque.  This 
mosque  was  built  of  bricks,  which,  although  not 
so  regularly  shaped  as  European  bricks,  are  in  other 


GHARA— GHAZZALI. 


respects  said  to  be  quite  as  good.  G.  stands  in 
thft  midst  of  a  district  comprising  the  finest  land 
of  Bornu,  and  which,  before  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century,  was  loud  with  the  noise  and  bustle 
of  hundreds  of  towns  and  villages  ;  now,  however, 
it  is  the  haunt  of  the  elephant  and  the  lion  ;  the 
silence  of  solitude  has  overspread  it,  and  it  has  sunk 
back  into  the  condition  of  the  primeval  jungle. 

GHA'HA,  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Sutlej 
and  the  Beas,  the  most  easterly  of  the  rivera  of 
the  Punjab,  miites  with  the  Chenab,  which  has 
previously  collected  the  remaining  three  of  the  five, 
to  form  the  Punjnud,  which  thus  carries  the  whole 
into  the  Indus.  The  distance  between  the  two  points 
of  confluence  is  about  300  miles.  The  G.  is  nowhere 
fordable  at  any  season ;  and  its  bi'eadth  varies  from 
200  yards  to  500. 

GHASEL,  or  GHAZEL,  i\  favourite  form  of  lyr- 
ical poeti-y  among  the  Turks  iir^d  Persians.  It  is 
composed  of  not  less  thun  five,  and  not  more  than 
seventeen  strophes  of  two  lines  eacli,  all  the  second 
lines  of  which"  rhyme  together.  The  last  couplet 
always  contains  the  real  or  assumed  name  of  the 
author.  In  regard  to  matter,  the  ghasel  is  either 
purely  erotic  and  bacchanalian,  or  allegorical  and 
mystical.  Western  scholars  regard  it  as  the 
Oriental  sonnet.  Hafiz  is  unsurpassed  in  this  kind 
of  verse,  and  it  has  also  been  happily  imitated  by 
the  German  poets,  Platen,  Huckert,  Bodenstedt,  &c. 

GHATS,  or,  as  usually  \vritten,  GHAUTS,  are 
buildings  erected  along  the  banks  of  rivers,  in  order 
to  afford  easy  access  to  bathers.  They  are  peculiar 
to  Northern  Hindustan,  and  line  the  river  banks 
in  most  of  the  great  cities,  more  especially  those 
situated  on  the  Ganges.  A  ghat  consists  in  general 
of  a  long,  high  building,  fronting  the  river,  to 
which  access  is  had  by  means  of  several  flights 
of  steps,  these  latter  forming  the  essential  part 
of  the  structure,  as  the  wall  or  building  is  only 
for  the  protection  of  loungers  from  the  sun's 
rays.  The  uniformity  of  the  long  lines  of  steps  is 
broken  b^  small  projections,  often  crowned  by 
kiosks,  which  reheve  the  eye,  *  Upon  these  ghats,' 
says  one  traveller,  'are  .passed  the  busiest  and 
happiest  hours  of  a  Hindu's  day.  Escaping  from 
the  narrow  unwholesome  streets,  it  is  a  luxury 
for  him  to  sit  upon  the  open  steps,  and  taste  the 
fresh  air  of  the  river;  so  that  on  the  ghats  are 
concentrated  the  pastimes  of  the  idler,  the  duties 
of  the  devout,  and  much  of  the  necessary  inter- 
course of  business.'  Though  the  Ganges,  being  the 
sacred  river,  is  par  excelletice  the  river  of  ghats,  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  in  Hindustan  is  that  erected 
at  Maheswar,  on  the  Nerbudda,  by  Alaya  Baiee, 
the  widow  of  Holkar;  and  though  Benares  prides 
itself  upon  possessing  the  greatest  number  of 
gh^ts,  it  is  almost  rivalled  by  Ougein  and  other 
cities.  Eor  a  fidler  account  of  these  structures,  see 
Fergusson's  Hand-book  of  Arcliitecture. 

GHAUTS  (in  English,  Gates  or  Passes)  are  two 
converging  ranges  of  mountains,  which  run  parallel 
with  the  east  and  west  coasts  of  the  peninsiila  of 
Hindustan,  and  hence  known  as  the  Eastern  and 
Western  G. — 1.  The  Eastern  G.  extend,  with  an 
average  height  of  1500  feet,  from  the  vicinity 
of  Balasore,  in  lat.  21°  30'  N.,  a  little  north  of 
the  Mahanadi,  to  within  20  miles  of  Cape  Comorin. 
Before  joining  the  kindred  ridge  at  this  last-men- 
tioned point,  they  send  forth,  about  36  miles  to  the 
north  of  Madras,  a  common  spur,  as  it  were,  of  both 
ranges,  which  reaches  the  other  range  to  the  north 
of  the  gap  of  Palghatcheri.  To  the  south  of  the 
departure  of  this  connecting  chain,  the  Eastern  G. 
become  less  continuous  and  distinct.    Moreover,  they 


are  nowhere  a  water-shed  on  any  cousidor.ible  soalc^ 
being  penetrated  and  crossed  by  nearly  all  th? 
drainage  of  the  interior. — 2.  The  Western  Gl.  stretch 
from  the  south  side  of  the  Tapti,  about  the  same 
latitude  as  Balasore,  to  their  junction  ^ith  the 
kindred  ridge,  at  a  distance  of  20  miles  from  Cape 
Comorin,  or  rather,  in  fact,  to  Cape  Comorin  itself. 
Though  they  are  generally  far  more  continuous  and 
distinct  than  the  G.  Eastern,  yet  they  are  sharply 
divided  by  the  gap  of  Palghatcheri,  IG  miles  broad 
— the  northern  section  measuring  800  miles  in 
length,  and  the  southern  200.  Their  general  eleva- 
tion appeal's  to  vary  from  about  4000  feet  to  fully 
7000.  The  peak  of  Dodabetta  in  that  portion  of  the 
Western  G.  known  as  the  Neilgherries,  is  said  to 
be  87G0  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  oppo- 
site faces  of  these  mountains  differ  very  remarkably 
from  each  other.  Landward,  there  is  a  gradual 
slope  to  the  table-land  of  the  Deccan ;  seaward, 
almost  j)erpendicular  precipices,  speaking  generally, 
sinic  at  once  nearly  to  the  level  of  the  sea,  at  a 
distance  from  it  ranging  from  40  to  70  miles,  but  at 
one  place  approaching  within  6  miles.  From  thia 
peculiarity,  aggravated,  as  it  is,  by  the  incredibly 
heavy  rains  which  the  south-west  monsoon  dashea 
against  the  lofty  barrier  before  it,  the  maritime 
strip,  more  particularly  towards^ the  south,  pre- 
sents that  singidar  feature  of  the  country  which 
is  known  as  the  '  Backwaters.'  See  Cochin.  The 
Western  G.  are,  with  hardly  an  exception,  a  water- 
shed, for  not  a  single  stream  of  any  magnitude  finds 
its  way  through  them. 

GHAZIPO'RE,  a  city  of  Hindustan,  capital  of 
a  district  of  the  same  name,  stands  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Ganges,  in  lat.  25"^  32'  N.,  and  long.  83^^ 
39'  E.  It  contained,  in  1872,  34,385  inhabitants. 
The  mean  temperature  of  M'ay,  the  hottest  month 
is  97°  F. ;  and  of  January,  the  coldest  month^ 
it  is  56°.  The  air  is  said  to  be  comparatively 
salubrious.  The  place  owes  this  advantage  to  the 
porous  character  of  the  soil ;  and  it  has,  moreover, 
a  long  reach  of  the  river  towards  the  south-east — ■ 
the  quarter  from  which  the  hot  winds  generally 
blow. 

G  H  A  Z  Z  A'  L  I,  Abu  Hamid  Mohajmmad  1b:h 
Ahmad,  surnamed  Zaineddin  (glory  of  the  law), 
one  of  the  most  eminent  Mohammedan  philosophers 
and  divines,  and  one  of  the  warmest  adherents  of 
Sufism  (q.  v.),  born  in  450  n.  (1058  a.d.)  at  Tus,  in 
Khorassan,  the  birthplace  also  of  Firdusi,  and 
burial-place  of  Harun-al-Rashid.  The  surname  of 
G.  was  given  to  him,  according  to  some,  because 
his  father  dealt  in  ghazal  or  spun  cotton.  Left  an 
orphan  at  an  eaily  age,  by  the  advice  of  his 
guardian,  a  Sufi,  lie  went  to  Djorshan,  with  the 
intention  of  de\'^otiDg  himself  to  study  and  science, 
as  a  means  of  support,  and  became  the  favourite 
pupil  of  Abu  Nasr  Ismail,  an  eminent  teacher  of  the 
time.  He  afterwards  betook  himself  to  Nishapur, 
where  he  attended  the  lectures  of  the  learned 
Imam  of  the  two  sanctuaries  (Mecca  and  Medina) 
on  law,  polemics,  philosophy,  and  theology,  and 
remained  till  the  death  of  his  instructor.  The 
grand  vizier  of  Bagdad  then  appointed  him  (1091 
a.  d.)  to  a  professorship  at  his  Nizamje  (university), 
which  he  left  foui'  years  later,  in  order  to  perform 
the  holy  pilgrimage  to  IMecca.  On  his  return,  he 
visited  Jerusalem  and  Damascus,  and  remained  for 
ten  years  at  the  mosque  of  the  latter  place,  leading 
a  studious  and  ascetic  life.  He  afterwards  visited 
Cairo,  Alexandria,  and  other  places  in  Africa, 
everywhere  teaching  and  lecturing  on  religion  and 
science,  and  also  returned  for  a  short  time  to 
Nishapur;  but  he  finally  went  back  to  Tus,  hia 
naf  -e  place,  where  he  died  505  H.  (1111  a.  d.), 

73S 


GHEE— GHENT. 


having  founded  a  monastery  for  Sufis,  and  a  college 
for  the  studious. 

Of  the  uiaety-nine  works  m  ritten  by  him  (mostly 
in  A-rahic,  a  few  in  Persian),  the  most  famous  is  his 
Ilijd  Olianad-JJin  (Restoration  of  Religious  Sciences), 
a  work  so  remarkable  and  exhaustive,  that  it  has 
been  said  :  '  If  all  the  books  of  the  Islam  were  lost, 
and  we  had  only  tliis  one  left,  we  should  not  miss 
the  others '  (Haji  Khali/ah).  The  academies  of  the 
West,  however,  Cordova,  Marocco,  Fez,  &c.,  con- 
demned it  as  contrary  to  the  teachings  of  the 
Sunna  (q.  v.),  and  had  it  publicly  burned.  Next  m 
im})(>rtance  stands  his  great  philosoi)hical  work 
Tahdfat  Al-F'ddsafah  (The  Overturning  of  the 
rhilosoi)hers),  which  has  survived  only  in  Hebrew 
translations,  and  which  gave  rise  to  a  warmly  con- 
tested controversy  between  him  and  Averroes  (Ibn 
Roshd).  We  may  mention  also  his  commentary  on 
the  ninety-nine  names  of  God,  and  an  ethical  treatise, 
0  Child!  published  and  translated  into  German 
by  Hammer-Purgstall.  About  one-third  only  of 
his  works  is  known  to  have  survived,  and  of  this 
but  a  very  small  part  has  been  published. 

GHEE,  a  kind  of  butter  used  in  many  parts  of 
India,  and  generally  prepared  from  the  milk  of 
buffaloes.  The  fresh  milk  is  boiled  for  an  hour  or 
more ;  it  is  then  allowed  to  cool,  and  a  little  curdled 
milk,  called  dhye,  is  added  to  promote  coagulation. 
The  curdled  mass  is  churned  for  half  an  hour ;  some 
hot  water  is  then  added ;  and  the  churning  continued 
for  another  half  hour,  when  the  butter  fonns.  When 
the  butter  begins  to  become  rancid,  which  is  usually 
the  case  after  a  few  days,  it  is  boiled  till  all  the 
water  contained  in  it  is  expelled,  and  a  little  dhye 
and  salt,  or  betel-leaf,  is  added ;  after  which  it  is 
put  into  closed  pots  to  be  kept  for  use.  It  is  used 
to  an  enormous  extent  by  the  natives  of  many  parts 
of  India,  but  is  seldom  i-ehshed  by  Europeans. 

GHEEL,  a  well-known  colony  for  the  insane, 
is  a  town  of  Belgium,  in  the  province  of  Antwerp, 
and  26  miles  east-south-east  of  the  town  of  that 
lame.  It  is  literally  an  oasis  in  a  desert ;  a 
comparatively  fertile  spot,  inhabited  and  cultivated 
by  10,000  or  11,000  peasants,  in  the  midst  of 
an  extensive  sandy  waste,  called  the  Campine, 
wliere  neither  climate,  soil,  nor  surroundings 
invite  a  settlement.  There  are  no  gentlemen's 
Beats  in  the  district,  and  the  farmhouses,  though 
neat,  and  generally  surroimded  by  trees  and  a 
garden,  are  evidently  in  the  hands  of  the  poor. 
Their  frequency  shews  this.  They  are  sometimes 
built  of  brick  ;  much  more  generally,  they  are  con- 
Btructed  of  wattled  or  wicker  work,  thickly  laid 
over  with  mud  or  plaster,  and  whitewashed.  A 
G.  crofter's  house  is  much  larger  than  the  dwell- 
ing of  a  small  farmer  in  Scotland.  The  people 
inhabiting  these  seem  to  be  about  the  rank  of 
English  cottagers,  but  are  inferior  in  aspect,  tone  of 
character,  and  cleanliness  of  habits.  The  dwellings 
are  arranged  into  three  classes,  or  cordons :  those  of 
the  village  proper ;  those  scattered  around  in  its 
immediate  vicinity;  and  those  collected  into  hamlets 
in  the  more  distant  and  least  reclaimed  portions  of 
the  commune,  which  may  be  about  20  miles  in 
circumference. 

Historically  considered,  G.  is  noted  as  having  been 
the  spot  where  a  woman  of  rank,  said  to  have  been 
of  British  origin,  was  murdered  by  her  father,  in 
consequence  of  her  resistance  to  his  incestuous 
passion.  The  pagan  in  his  revenge  gave  the  church 
a  martyr.  Pilgrims,  the  sick,  the  sorrowful,  and  the 
insane,  visited  the  tomb  of  the  Christian  ^'irgin; 
the  last  were  restored  to  sanity  and  serenity. 
DjTnphna  became  the  tutelar  saint  of  those  stricken 
in  spirit ;  r\,  shrine  rose  in  her  honour,  which  now, 
73i 


for  ten  centuries,  has  been  consecrated  to  the  relief 
of  mental  disease,  is  said  to  have  been  distinguished 
by  never-failing  success,  and,  at  all  events,  has 
collected  around  it  hundreds  of  limatics,  chietly 
of  the  poorer  classes,  but  labouring  under  every 
form  and  stage  of  nervous  malady.  Formerly, 
besides  the  benefit  derivable  from  proximity  to  the 
ashes  of  the  saint,  and  from  the  i)rayer3  of  the 
church,  the  affiicted  underwent  a  sort  of  novitiata 
in  a  building  adjoining  the  church,  where  they 
were  chained  to  the  wall,  and  subsecpiently  passed 
under  the  mausoleum  of  their  patron,  &c. ;  but  now 
although  faith  lingers,  there  do  not  api)ear  to  bo 
any  other  than  the  ordinary  ministrations  of  the 
church  to  which  the  patients  belong,  resorted  to  jia 
treatment. 

About  800  insane  persons  are  lodged  with  the 
citizens  of  this  community,  or  with  COO  heads 
of  families,  and  are  controlled  and  employed  by 
them,  and  this  without  recourse  to  walls  or 
ha-has,  or  other  asylum  appliances,  and  with  little 
coercion  of  any  kind.  The  quiet  and  industrious 
reside  generally  one  in  each  family  in  the  town, 
the  more  excited  in  the  suburban  cottages,  and 
the  most  unmanageable  with  the  labourers  on  the 
confines  of  the  commune.  The  effect  produced  by 
this  large  body  of  lunatics  wandering,  woiking, 
displaying  many  of  their  ])eculiarities  in  tlie  midst 
of  a  thriving  sane  population,  who  chiefly  depend 
upon  a  traffic  in  insanity,  is  both  striking  and 
picturesque.  In  the  enjoyment  of  comparative 
liberty,  and  of  what  is  called  the  free-air  treat- 
ment, these  patients  are,  upon  the  whole,  contented, 
tranquil,  and  healthy.  Violence  is  rare;  only  two 
suicides  have  occurred  in  four  years ;  and  morality  is 
less  outraged  than  in  more  jjrotected  classes.  Each 
individual  is  maincained  for  about  Ggfi-  to  74^^ 
'per  diem.  Until  recently,  this  colony  was  merely  a 
I)sychological  curiosit}' ;  recently,  the  anomaly  and 
absurdity  of  treating  all  cases  alike,  and  indepen- 
dently of  medical  aid,  have  led  to  the  institution  ol 
a  medical  staff",  the  erection  of  an  hospital,  and  the 
introduction  of  many  salutary  alterations  in  the 
relations  between  the  insane  and  their  ^j^ustodiers, 
in  classification  and  sui^ervision.  The  compatibility 
of  the  seclusion  of  the  insane  Avith  greater  freedom, 
with  domestic  life,  and  association  with  the  sane, 
have  suggested  the  introduction  of  cottage  asylums, 
as  a  modification  in  the  accommodation  of  this  class 
in  this  country.  {G/ieel  ou  une  Colonie  dAliema 
vivant  en  farn'de  et  en  liberU,  par  M.  Jules  DuvaL 
Paris,  1860.) 

GHENT  (Flem.  Gend.,  Ger.  Ge^it,  Fr.  Gond),  an 
important  city  of  Belgium, ♦capital  of  the  province 
of  East  Flanders,  is  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Lys  and  the  Scheldt,  81  miles  west-nc?th-west  of 
Brussels.  It  is  divided  by  canals  into  26  islands, 
connected  by  270  biidges,  and  is  encompassed  with 
gardens,  meadows,  and  pleasant  promenades.  It  is 
surrounded  by  walls,  pierced  by  seven  gates,  and 
enclosing  an  area  eight  miles  in  circuit,  and  is  in 
general  well  built ;  but  in  the  older  part  its  quaint 
and  fantastic  houses  render  it  in  the  highest  degree 
picturesque.  Among  the  chief  buildings  are  the 
Church  of  St  Bavon,  containing  the  famous  '  Adora- 
tion of  the  Lamb,'  by  the  brothers  Van  Eyck ; 
the  new  citadel,  finished  in  1830 ;  the  Palace  of 
Justice,  built  in  1844,  and  having  a  peristyle  of  the 
Corinthian  order ;  the  university,  connected  with  a 
school  for  civil  engineering,  and  for  trades  and  pro- 
fessions ;  the  Beguinage,  a  convent  containing  about 
700  nuns ;  the  royal  Gymnasium ;  and  the  Academy 
of  Painting.  The  cotton  and  woollen  manufactures 
are  carried  on  on  a  great  scale.  There  are  many 
cotton-mills,  and  upwards  of  25,000  workmen  are 
employed   in  the  spinning,  printing,   dyeing,  and 


OHERARDESCA— GHIKA- 


weaving  of  cotton,  woollen,  and  linen  fabrics.  Leather 
and  paper  are  also  manufactured,  and  a  flourishing 
trade  is  carried  on  in  floriculture.  Eiglit  extensive 
flower-dealers  are  engaged  in  this  branch  of  trade, 
and  upwards  of  400  hothouses  are  ref[uired.  The 
commerce  of  G.  is  important.  By  the  &reat  Canal, 
which  flows  into  the  Scheldt,  it  is  united  with  the 
Bea,  and  it  can  receive  into  its  docks  vessels  drawing 
18  feet  of  water.  The  new  dock  or  basin  on  the 
north-east  side  of  the  city  is  capable  of  holding  400 
vessels.    Pop.  (1873)  128,424. 

G.  is  mentioned  in  history  as  early  as  the  7th 
century.  About  the  year  S68,  Baldwin  Bras-de-Fer, 
the  first  Count  of  Flanders,  built  a  fortress  here 
as  a  defence  against  the  Normans.  Under  the 
Counts  of  Flanders,  G.  continued  to  prosper  and 
increase,  until,  in  the  14th  c,  it  was  able  to  send 
50,000  men  into  the  field.  The  wealth  of  the 
citizens  of  G.,  and  the  unusual  measure  of  liberty 
which  they  enjoyed,  encouraged  them  to  resist 
with  arms  any  attempt  to  infringe  upon  their 
peculiar  rights  and  privileges.  This  readmess  to 
arm  in  their  own  defence  is  exemplified  in  the 
famous  insurrection  of  Jacob  van  Artevelde  (q.  v.), 
tend  other  instances.  For  many  years,  it  maintained 
a  vigorous,  but  unavailing  resistance  against  the 
Dukes  of  Burgundy — who  Avished  to  be  recognised 
as  Counts  of  Flanders — and  the  kings  of  Spain. 
In  the  various  wars  of  which  the  Netherlands  has 
been  the  battle-ground,  G.  suffered  severely,  and 
was  freqiiently  taken.  In  1792,  the  Netherlands 
fell  under  the  power  of  France,  and  G.  was  made 
the  capital  of  the  department  of  the  Scheldt,  con- 
tinuing under  French  dominion  until  the  fall  of 
Napoleon,  in  1814,  when  it  was  incorporated  with 
Flanders  in  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands. 

GHERARDE'SCA,  a  family  of  Tuscan  origin, 
which  enacted  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  history  of 
the  Itali£*,n  republics  during  the  middle  ages.  Their 
vast  territorial  possessions  lay  between  Pisa  and 
Piombino.  In  the  13th  c,  the  Counts  G.  exercised 
a  preponderating  authority  in  the  republic  of  Pisa, 
and  were  prominent  supporters  of  the  popular 
interests,  in  opposition  to  the  encroachments  of  the 
nobles.  In  the  great  feud  between  the  Guelphs 
and  Ghibellines,  they  became  warm  partisans  of  the 
latter,  and  were  the  irreconcilable  enemies,  of  the 
Visconti,  who  headed  the  Guelphs.  The  most 
famous  of  this  family,  both  with  respect  to  the 
historical  events  of  his  career,  and  the  appalling 
tragedy  of  his  fate,  is  Count  Ugolino,  whose  name 
and  fate  have  been  invested  with  undying  interest 
by  Dante.  Count  Ugolino,  more  than  any  of  his  race, 
was  possessed  by  a  lawless  ambition,  and  a  subtle, 
unscrupulous  spirit.  Having  resolved  to  usurp 
supreme  power  over  Pisa,  he  formed  an  alliance 
with  Giovanni  Visconti,  the  head  of  the  Guelphic 
party,  who  promised  to  supply  him  secretly  with 
soldiers  from  Sardinia.  The  plot  was,  however, 
discovered,  and  both  Giovanni  and  Ugolino  were 
bamshed  from  the  city.  The  former  died  soon  after ; 
but  the  latter,  imiting  himself  with  the  Florentines 
and  the  Lucchese,  forced  the  Pisans,  in  1276,  to 
restore  him  his  territories,  of  which  he  had  been 
de^')rived.  No  sooner  was  he  reinstated  in  his 
possessions  than  he  began  to  devise  anew  ambi- 
tious schemes.  The  war  of  the  Pisans  with  the 
Genoese  afi"orded  him  the  opportunity  he  desired. 
Id  the  battle  fought  at  the  island  of  Malora,  6th 
August  1284,  Ugolino,  by  treacherously  abandoning 
the  Pisans,  occasioned  the  complete  annihilation  of 
their  fleet,  together  with  a  loss  of  11,000  prisoners. 
Whon  the  news  of  this  disaster  spread,  the  Floren- 
tines, the  Lucchese,  the  Sienese,  the  Pistoians,  and 
all  the  other  enemies  of  the  Pisan  republic,  gathered 
together  to  destroy  it,  as  the  stronghold  of  the 


Ghibellines  in  Italy.  Being  thx^s  brought  to  the 
brink  of  ruin,  the  Pisans  had  no  other  resource  left 
than  to  throw  themselves  into  the  arms  of  him 
whose  treachery  had  reduced  them  to  such  misery. 
From  the  time  of  his  election,  he  gave  free  scope 
to  his  vindictive,  despotic  nature,  persecuting  and 
banishing  all  who  were  privately  obnoxious  to  him, 
on  pretexts  of  state  delinquency,  till  at  length  a 
conspiracy  was  formed  against  him,  headed  l;y  his 
former  sui)porter,  the  Archbishop  of  Pisa.  Dragged 
from  his  })alace,  1st  July  1288,  after  a  d35;,)erate 
defence,  he  was  thrown  into  the  tower  of  Gualandi, 
with  his  two  sons  and  two  grandsons,  v.'liere  they 
all  perished  amid  the  agonies  of  starvation,  for 
which  reason  their  dungeon  has  since  borne  the 
ominous  name  of  the  '  Tower  of  Hunger.'  In  s[)ite 
of  this,  the  family  again  rose  into  imi)ortance;  and 
in  1329  we  find  Nieri  Donavatico  G.  at  the  head  of 
the  republican  authority  in  Pisa.  See  SismoncLi's 
History  of  the  Italian  liejmhllcs. 

GHI'BELLINES.    See  Guelphs  and  Ghibei^ 

LINES. 

GHIBE'RTI,  Lorenzo,  a  famous  Italian  sculptor, 
was  born  at  Florence  about  1378.  He  was  educated 
in  art  by  his  stepfather,  a  skilful  goldsmith,  and 
rapidly  acquired  dexterity  in  drawing,  painting, 
and  modelling.  At  the  age  of  19,  he  was  selected 
for  the  execution  of  a  noble  fresco  in  the  palatial 
residence  of  Prince  Pandolfo  Malatesta  at  Rimini. 
Along  with  seven  other  artists,  he  was  next  chosen 
by  the  Florentine  guild  of  merchants  to  compete  for 
the  execution  of  a  splendid  gate  in  bronze,  to  suit 
that  executed  by  Andrea  Pisano  in  the  baptistery 
of  Florence,  about  1340.  The  subject  of  the  design 
was  The  Sacr'ijice  of  Isaac,  to  be  executed  in  bas- 
relief  as  a  model  for  one  of  the  panels.  The  judges 
found  a  difficulty  in  deciding  between  Brunelleschi, 
Donatelli,  and  G.,  but  the  two  former  generously 
proclaimed  the  superiority  of  G.'s  design,  both 
with  respect  to  the  art  and  beauty  of  its  con. 
ception,  and  the  delicacy  and  skill  of  its  execution. 
When  G.  had  completed  his  great  work,  his  fellow- 
citizens  intrusted  him  with  the  execution  of  another 
gate,  to  emulate  the  beauty  and  colossal  dimensions 
of  the  two  already  adorning  the  baptistery.  From 
Michael  Angelo,  G.  received  a  noble  tribute  of 
admiration,  when  the  great  artist  asserted  that  the 
two  gates  were  worthy  of  Paradise.  G.'s  second  gate 
contains  ten  reliefs  on  a  larger  scale,  the  subjects  in 
this  case  also  being  wholly  biblical.  The  mingled 
grace  and  grandeur  of  these  compositions  are  beyond 
all  praise.  Not  the  least  of  G.'s  merits  was  the 
success  that  attended  his  efibrts  to  break  up  the 
conventionalism  that,  before  his  day  hampered  the 
free  development  of  sculptural  art.  Amon^  his 
other  works  m&y  bt>  mejitioned  a  bronze  relief  in 
the  Duomo  at  Floreiice,  representing  San  Zenobi 
bringing  a  dead  child  to  life,  and  bronze  statues  of 
St  John  the  Baptist,  St  Matthew,  and  St  Stephen. 
G.  died  at  Florence  in  1455. 

GHI'KA,  a  princely  family  of  Alb'inian  origin, 
which  has  given  many  hospodars  to  Moldavia  and 
Wallachia.  The  founder  of  the  House  was  George 
G.,  an  Albanian  by  birth,  who,  through  the  favour 
of  his  compatriot,  the  grand  vizier,  Mohammed 
Kiupruli,  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  Hospcdar  of 
Wallachia  in  1657.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Gregory  G.,  who  rided,  with  various  vicissitudes, 
till  1673,  and  received  from  the  Emperor  Leopold  I. 
the  title  of  Prince  of  the  Holj^-  Roman  Empire.  Of 
subsequent  members  of  the  family,  the  only  ones 
calling  for  special  notice  are  Alexander,  Gregory, 
and  Helena. 

Alexander  Ghika  IX.  was  born  in  1795,  and, 
through  the  influence  of  the  Russian  Count  Kisselefl" 

73i> 


GHILAN-GHIUSTENDIL. 


was  elevated  to  the  hospodarat  of  Wallachia  in 
]834.  Nevertheless,  he  soon  exhibited  liberal  and 
enlightened  tendencies.  He  founded  schools  for 
primary  instruction  in  every  village,  lightened  the 
burdens  of  the  peasantry,  commenced  the  enfran- 
chisement of  the  gipsies,  and  assisted  in  the  organ- 
isation of  a  national  party,  since  known  as  Young 
Eoumnnia.  Russia  naturally  took  the  alarm,  and 
gradually,  under  her  influence,  a  twofold  opposition 
was  excited  against  him,  viz.,  an  opposition  of  the 
extreme  liberals,  and  also  of  the  old  boyards  (the 
landed  proprietors),  who  formed  the  Tory  party,  and 
were  his  personal  enemies;  tlie  result  of  which, 
after  many  intrigues  and  plots,  was  that,  in  1842,  he 
was  ordered  to  resign  his  dignity  by  the  Turkish 
sultan.  He  now  betook  himself  to  Vienna,  where 
ne  lived  quietly  tdl  1853,  when  h-e  returned  to 
Wallachia,  to  find  himself  once  more  popular ;  and 
in  1856  he  was  elected  '  Caimacam '  of  the  princi- 
pality, to  the  great  joy  of  the  young  Koumanian 
party  both  in  Moldavia  and  Wallachia. 

Gregory  Ghika  X.,  hospodar  of  Moldavia,  bom 
at  Botochani,  in  Moldavia,  25th  Aiigust  1807,  was 
appointed  Iletman,  or  commander-in-chief  of  the 
militia,  in  1826,  Secretary  of  State  in  1842,  and 
Minister  of  Finance  in  1843,  under  the  hospodarat 
6i  Michael  Stourdza.  But  as  the  system  of  the 
government  became  more  and  more  llussian  in  its 
character,  he  resigned  his  functions,  and  passed  into 
the  ranks  of  the  liberal  opposition,  of  which  he  soon 
became  one  of  the  chiefs.  In  1849,  the  sultan 
a])pointed  him  hospudar,  in  order  to  counteract  the 
influence  then  exercised  by  Russia  in  the  adjoinmg 
princi))ality.  His  tenure  of  office  may  be  cli\aded 
into  three  distinct  periods.  In  the  first,  his  efi'orts 
at  reform  were  crippled  by  the  presence  of  Russian 
troops  in  the  Principalities,  in  violation  of  the  con- 
vention of  Balta-Liman.  The  second,  commencing 
vriih  the  dejjarture  of  the  Russians  in  1851,  was 
marked  by  many  excellent  measures  ;  he  organised 
a  good  police  system,  augmented  the  effective  force 
of  the  militia,  founded  schools  for  superior  and 
secondary  instruction  at  Niamtzo,  Houch,  Galatz, 
&c.-,  promulgated  an  administrative  code — the  first 
gi'eat  step  towards  the  reform  of  abuses — increased 
nnmicipai  resources,  and  at  his  own  expense  built 
aqueducts,  and  printed  important  historical  MSS. 
The  re-occupation  of  the  Principalities  by  Russia  in 
1853  suspended  his  labours,  and  resigning  the 
hospodarat  provisionally,  he  withdrew  to  Vienna, 
but  resumed  his  functions  in  the  end  of  the  following 
year.  The  third  period  of  G.'s  rule  was  initiated 
by  the  fonnation  of  a  liberal  ministry,  by  the 
Kupport  of  which  he  effected,  among  other  things, 
a  radical  reform  of  the  penitentiary  system,  the 
abolition  of  serfdom  (1855),  and  of  the  censorship  of 
public  journals  (1856),  and  the  establishment  of 
foreign  merchant  companies  for  the  navigation  of 
the  Pruth  and  the  Sereth  (1856);  v/hile  he  also 
encouraged  the  gro"\vth  of  a  union  feeling  among 
the  Roumanian  party  in  both  principalities.  His 
tenure  of  office  expiring  in  1856,  G.,  whose  private 
fortune  had  been  rather  diminished  than  increased 
by  his  dignity,  quitted  Moldavia,  and  went  to  reside 
in  France.  His  death  occurred  in  the  end  of  July 
1857. 

Helena  Ghika,  Princess  Koltzoff-Massalshy,  better 
knov^n  by  her  literary  pseudonym  of  Dora  b'' I  stria, 
is  niece  of  Prince  Alexander  Ghika,  ex-hospodar  of 
Wallachia,  and  was  born  at  Bucharest,  22d  January 
1829.  Profoundly  instructed  in  the  classics  under 
the  care  of  George  Pappadopoulos,  she  added  to 
these,  by  frequent  travels  through  Germany,  France, 
and  Italy,  an  extensive  knowledge  of  modern 
languages  and  literature,  and  at  the  age  of  15  j 
commenced  a  translation  of  the  Iliad  into  German,  | 
736 


and  not  long  after  WTote  several  pieces  for  the 
theatre.  On  her  marriage  with  Prince  Koltzofif- 
Massalsky,  who  belonged  to  one  of  the  oldest 
Russian  families,  she  accompanied  her  hiisband  to 
the  court  of  St  Petersburg.  Since  1856,  however, 
she  has  fixed  her  residence  at  Aarau,  in  the  canton 
of  Aargau,  in  Switzerland,  and  devotes  herself  wholly 
to  literary  labour.  Her  first  important  work,  La 
Vie  Monastique  dans  VEgllse  Orientate,  was  published 
at  Paris  and  Geneva  in  1855.  This  was  followed 
by  two  works  wnritten  in  Italian,  Oli  Eroi  della 
Rumenia  (The  Heroes  of  Roumania)  and  /  Rumem 
ed  il  Papato  (The  Roumans  and  the  Papacy).  Her 
studies  in  Switzerland  have  also  resulted  in  a  volume 
entitled  La  Suisse  Italienne.  Besides  these,  she  haa 
also  contributed  largely  to  various  foreign  reviews. 
Her  religious  writings  are  marked  by  a  pious  faith 
in  the  great  doctrines  of  Christianity,  an  indifference 
to  outward  forms,  and  a  tendency  to  mysticism, 
while  her  political  opinions  are  liberal  to  a  degree 
that  scandalised  the  court  of  St  Petersburg  during 
her  residence  there. 

GHILA'N,  a  border  province  of  Persia,  consists  of 
the  south-westei-n  portion  of  the  narrow  strip  of 
country  lying  between  the  Elburz  range  and  the 
Caspian  Sea.  It  extends  between  lat.  36"  30'  and 
38°  30'  N.,  and  long.  48°  33'  and  50°  30'  W.  It  is 
upwards  of  150  miles  in  length,  and  about  70 
miles  at  its  broadest  pai-t.  The  province  is  sub- 
ject, from  the  lowness  of  the  land,  to  frequent 
inundations,  and  indeed  during  greater  part  of  the 
year  is  little  better  than  a  swamp.  Forest  and 
mulberry  trees,  with  some  rice,  are  ^ovm.  Its 
extent  in  square  miles,  and  its  population,  have  not 
yet  been  ascertained.    The  climate  is  unhealthy. 

GHIRLANDAJO,  or  CORRADI,  Domentco, 
an  eminent  painter  of  the  early  Florentine  school, 
was  born  at  Florence  in  1451.  From  his  youth,  ha 
was  educated  to  the  craft  of  the  goldsmith  by 
his  father,  who  received  the  name  of  Ghirlandajo 
on  account  of  his  being  the  inventor  of  some 
silver  ornaments  of  great  elegance,  in  the  form 
of  a  wreath  or  gldrlanda,  which  became  the 
favourite  head-dress  of  the  Florentine  beauties 
of  his  day.  At  the  age  of  24,  G.  abandoned  work- 
ing in  gold,  and  set  about  qualifying  himself 
for  the  calling  of  a  painter.  He  lived  to  become 
not  only  a  famous  and  lauded  artist,  but  also  one 
of  the  most  progressive  and  original  masters  of  his 
age.  His  greatest  works  are  frescoes,  but  he  has 
also  left  fine  easel  paintings,  both  in  oil  and  dis- 
temper, and  his  composition  in  mosaic — or  '  eternal 
painting,'  as  he  termed  it — are  unrivalled  for  the 
brilliant  dyes  of  the  colouring  and  the  delicate  soft- 
ness with  which  they  are  blended  and  graduated. 
Ihe  Capella  di  Sassetti,  in  Florence,  contains  a  noble 
series  of  G.'s  frescoes,  illustrative  of  both  historical 
and  legendary  incidents  in  the  life  of  St  Francis. 
They  are  strongly  characterised  by  the  wonderful 
mastery  of  intense  and  varied  human  expression, 
which,  more  than  accurate  delineation  of  form,  was 
the  great  merit  of  G.'s  paintings.  The  Church  of 
Santa  Maria  Novella  is  also  rich  in  tlws  artist's 
works,  being  adorned  by  a  set  of  frescoes  representing 
scenes  from  the  fife  of  St  John  the  Baptist,  many  of 
the  figures  introduced  being  correct  likenesses  of 
some  of  the  leading  celebrities  of  the  day.  G.  was 
the  first  artist  who  adopted  correct  principles  of 
perspective,  just  gradations  of  shade  and  form,  and 
dramatic  art  in  grouping.  G.  died  at  the  early  age 
of  44,  in  the  year  1495. 

GHIUSTENDI'L,atown  of  Eiu-opean  Turkey,  in 
the  eyalet  of  Rumili,  is  situated  on  the  slope  of  a 
j  hill  about  two  miles  distant  from  the  right  bank  of 
I  the  Struma  or  Kara  Su,  192  miles  in  direct  Line 


GHIZEH— GHIZNEVIDES. 


west-north- west  of  Adrianople.  It  is  surrounded 
by  an  old  wall  flanked  with  towers,  is  the  see  of  a 
Greek  bishop,  and  contains  a  bazaar  and  sulphiirous 
baths.    Pop.  10,000. 

GHI'ZEH,  or  GIZEH  (Coptic,  Tpersioi),  a  villacre 
in  Egypt,  close  to  the  northern  border  of  Middle 
Egypt,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  and  about 
three  miles  west-soiitli-west  from  Cairo.  In  the 
immediate  vicinity,  the  line  of  great  pyramids  com- 
mences. See  Pyramid.  Here  one  may  still  witness 
the  process  of  egg-hatching  in  ovens,  a  practice 
which  has  been  continued  from  the  time  of  the 
Pharaohs  to  the  present  day.  G.,  formerly  adorned 
with  beautiful  palaces  and  mosques,  the  pleasant 
retreat  cl  the  Cairo  merchants,  is  now  a  mere 
village,  and  mounds  of  rubbish  are  almost  the  only 
indication  that  buildings  of  some  pretension  once 
existed  here. 

GHI'ZNEVIDES,  a  celebrated  dynasty,  which, 
in  the  height  of  its  power,  possessed  an  empire 
extending  from  the  Tigris  to  the  Ganges,  and  from 
the  Sihon  or  Sir-Daria  to  the  Indian  Ocean.  The 
founder  of  the  dynasty  was  Alepteghin,  originally 
a  slave  belonging  to  Abdulmelek,  the  Samani 
Ameer  of  Bokhara,  who  was  appointed  governor  of 
Khorassan  ;  but  on  the  death  of  his  benefactor  he 
rebelled,  and  proceeded  at  the  head  of  an  army  to 
Ghizni,  of  which  he  took  possession  in  901,  and  for 
15  years  successfully  withstood  the  whole  power  of 
the  Samani  (q.  v.).  On  his  death,  Sebekteghin  or 
Sabactagi  was  unanimously  chosen  as  his  Successor. 
He  was  distinguished  for  lais  prudence  and  valour, 
and  equally  so  for  his  humanity  and  justice.  By 
him  the  kingdom  was  extended  from  the  Indus  to 
Khorassan,  and  from  the  Gulf  of  Oman  to  the  Amfi- 
Daria  or  Jilion ;  and  in  the  latter  province  his  son, 
Mahmtld,  was  appointed  governor  under  the  nominal 
suzerainty  of  the  Samani.  Sebekteghin  died  in  997, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  younger  son  Ismfiil ;  but 
MahmCld  the  elder,  hearing  of  his  father's  death, 
hastened  to  Ghizni,  and  assumed  the  reins  of  govern- 
ment in  998,  with  the  title  of  Sultan.  In  the  year 
following,  he  took  complete  possession  of  Khoras- 
san, and  in  1001  commenced  a  series  of  destructive 
inroads  into  HiudClstan.  Falling  in  with  Jeypa,l,  the 
prince  of  North-Western  India,  at  Peshawur,  Sultan 
Mahmftd,  on  yjhe  8th  of  Mohurrim  (November  26), 
defeated  him  with  immense  slaughter.  In  1004, 
while  on  hia  second  expedition  to  India,  he  was 
recalled  by  the  news  that  Eylek  Khan  of  Khashgar, 
who  in  999  had  conquered  the  Samani  and  taken 
possession  ol  their  territory,  was  ravaging  Khorassan 
and  Balkh ;  on  hearing  which,  Sultan  Mahmud, 
leaving  his  conquests,  returned  in  an  incredibly 
short  time  to  Ghizni,  and  thence  proceeding  without 
deLiy  to  Balkh,  engaged  in  battle  with  the  enemy, 
suad  completely  defeated  them.  He  then  took  pos- 
sesion of  the  country  between  the  Silion  and  the 
Jii/on  (ancient  Transoxiana).  In  1007  and  1009, 
&'itan  Mahmfid  made  his  third  and  fourth  expedi- 
tions into  Hindustan,  and  each  time  carried  off  an 
immense  booty  in  money,  jewels,  and  slaves.  On 
his  return  to  Ghizni,  he  made  a  liberal  distribution 
from  lus  treasures  among  the  poor  and  the  mmisters 
of  religion.  About  this  time  he  reduced  Ghfir, 
Gherjistan,  and  Khaurezm,  bestowing  the  latter 
province  upon  Altun-Taush,  one  of  his  favourite 
generals.  In  1024,  he  was  engaged  in  his  last 
expedition  against  the  Hindfis,  the  famous  expedi- 
tion to  Somnaut  (q.  v.),  at  the  southern  extremity 
of  Guzerat.  MahmCld  here  obtained  an  enormous 
booty.  In  1027,  he  received  from  the  Calif  Ul  Kader 
a  ratification  of  all  his  conquests,  together  with 
aumerous  titles  of  honour,  and  in  the  two  following 
years  having  conquered  Irak,  TebriztJln,  and  Mazan- 
203 


dcran,  he  returned  to  his  capital,  where  he  died  oB 
the  29th  of  April  1030.  At  this  time,  the  euqiire  of 
Ghizni  was  at  the  summit  of  its  glory,  having  in  the 
short  space  of  09  years  extended  over  38  degrees 
of  longitude  and  20  of  latitude.  MahmCld  j)f)Ssessed 
some  of  tlie  most  exalted  qualities  that  dignify  and 
adorn  human  character,  but  they  were  much  obscured 
by  his  sanguinary  zeal  for  the  advancement  of  Islam 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  younger  son  Mahomed 
who  in  October  of  the  same  year  was  compelled  to 
resign  the  sovereignty  to  his  elder  brother,  MusyaClJ 
I.  This  prince  was  in  1037  signally  defeated  by 
the  SeljCiks  (q.  v.),  who  had  taken  possession  ol 
Khorassan  under  Toghrul  Beg  and  Tcliegher  Beg, 
the  grandsons  of  SeljCik.  •  Though  an  able  ami 
warlike  prince,  misfortunes  crowded  thickly  round 
his  declining  years,  and  in  1041  he  was  put  to  death. 
During  his  reign,  the  SeljClks  took  possession  of 
Balkh,  Khorassan,  Khaurezm,  ■  Herilt,  and  Irak, 
The  sovereigns  who  in  succession  reigned  in  Ghizni 
were  MCldud  (1041—1049),  MussaCld  II.  (1049),  Ali 
(1049—1052),  Abdurrashid  (1052—1053),  and  Furru- 
khzaud  (1053 — 1058),  during  whose  reigns  there  ia 
nothing  worthy  of  relation,  beyond  the  intestine 
quarrels  at  Ghizni,  and  the  encroachments  of 
the  SeljClks  on  the  west  and  north.  The  reign 
of  Furrukhzaud,  however,  slied  a  bright  lustra 
over  the  exj)iring  glory  of  Ghizni,  for  the  SeljClk 
prince,  Daoud,  thinking  to  take  advantage  of  the 
dissensions  at  Ghizni,  marched  towards  it ;  but 
on  the  way  he  was  met  by  NCishtekein,  one  of 
the  best  generals  of  the  age,  and  signally  defeated. 
Taking  advantage  of  this  victory,  NCishtekeia 
marched  into  Khorassan,  to  recover  that  province, 
and  encountering  Kellisaurek,  a  celebrated  TClrk- 
man  chief,  totally  defeated  him.  On  news  of  this 
second  defeat,  Alp-Arslan  ^q.  v.)  was  sent  by  hia 
uncle  Toghrul  Beg  to  stop  the  progress  of  the  G.  ; 
and  in  the  battle  which  ensued,  fortune  changed 
sides,  and  NCishtekein  was  totally  defeated.  A 
treaty  of  peace  was  then  concluded.  Furrukhzaud 
was  succeeded  by  Ibrahim  (1058 — 1098),  Massaftd 
III.  (1098—1114),  Arslan  Shah  (1114—1118),  and 
Behram  Shah  (1118—1152).  During  the  reigr.  of 
this  last  prince,  the  Ghdri,  a  tribe  inhabiting  the 
mountainous  country  of  Ghdlr,  began  to  make 
inroads  upon  the  territory  of  Ghizni,  and  growing 
bolder  by  success,  attacked  and  took  the  caiiital 
itself,  driving  Behram  Shah  across  the  Indus.  But 
on  the  retreat  of  part  of  the  Gh(lri  to  their  own 
country,  Behram  Shah  returned  and  retook  hia 
capital,  making  i^risoner  the  Prince  of  GhCir,  Seyfud' 
deen  Souri,  whom  he  put  to  death  with  the  most 
refined  cruelty.  On  learning  this,  the  brother  of 
the  unfortunate  prince,  Allah-ud-deen,  hastened 
from  Ghdr,  and  having  defeated  Behram  Shah,  gave 
up  Ghizni  to  be  pillaged  by  his  followers.  Behram 
Shah,  thus  driven  a  second  time  across  tla  Indus, 
desisted  from  all  further  attempts  to  regain  hia 
ancestral  dominions,  and  died  in  1152.  His  son 
KhosrCl  Shah  succeeded  him,  and  took  up  his  resi- 
dence in  Lahore ;  but  the  many  attempts  which  he 
made  to  repossess  himself  of  Ghizni  and  the  sur- 
ro.unding  territory  were  unsuccessful.  KhosrCi  !Melek, 
the  seventeenth  and  last  monarch  of  the  djmasty  of 
Ghizni,  occupied  himself  in  the  first  part  of  his 
reign  (1160 — 1166)  in  extending  and  consolidating 
his  Indian  possessions,  but  subsequently  his  vhole 
energies  were  required  to  repel  the  attacks  of  Shahab- 
ud-deen  Mahommed,  Prince  of  GhClr,  who,  having 
conquered  all  the  territory  west  of  the  Indus,  now 
sought  to  drive  the  race  of  Sebekteghin  from 
their  last  possession.  In  1184,  Lahore  was  aU  that 
remained  to  KhosrCl  Melek,  and  the  taking  of  that 
city  by  the  GhClrian  prince  in  1186  put  an  end  to 
the  power  of  the  Ghiznevides. 

737 


GHIZNI— GHCRT. 


CHI  ZNI,  a  river  of  Afghanistan,  loses  itself, 
after  a  southerly  course  of  about  80  miles,  in  the 
salt  lake  of  Abistada,  which  is  707G  feet  above  the 
t»ea.  Its  source  is  12  miles  to  the  north  of  the  city 
of  its  own  name,  and  its  mouth  is  about  lat.  32° 
35'  N.,  and  long.  68°  E.  Its  embankments,  dating 
from  the  11th  c,  are  still  fit  for  the  purposes  of 
irrigation. 

GHIZNI,  the  city  mentioned  in  the  preceding 
ai-ticle,  stands  at  an  elevation  of  7726  feet,  on  a 
scarped  rock,  which  rises  280  feet  above  the  adjacent 
plain.  Its  natural  strength  has  been  increased  by 
walls  of  35  feet  in  height,  and  a  wet  ditch.  It  has 
long  been  a  jilace  of  importance  in  Central  Asia, 
having  been,  in  the  llth  c,  the  seat  of  an  empire 
(sc*  GiiiZNEViDEs).  Some  of  the  most  interesting 
points  in  its  history,  however,  are  much  more 
recent.  In  the  July  of  1839,  G.  was  stormed  by 
the  British  under  Lord  Keane  ;  and  in  1842  it  was 
first  surrendered  to  the  Afghans,  and  then  retaken 
by  General  Nott.  Eventually  it  was  restored, 
with  the  rest  of  the  country,  to  Dost  Mohammed. 
It  is  situated  in  long.  68°  18'  R,  and  lat.  33° 
34'  N. — a  parallel  which,  under  the  influence  of  the 
remarkable  altitvide  of  the  spot,  yields,  in  winter, 
a  tem])erature  of  about  20°  Fall,  below  zero.  The 
[)0])ulatiou  has  been  variously  estimated  up  to 
10,000,  fluctuating  most  probably  with  the  season 
of  the  year.  G.  is  an  entrepot  of  the  trade  between 
A.fghanistan  and  the  Punjab. 

GHO'GRA,  or  GHAGRA,  one  of  the  largest 
ttfllucnts  of  tlie  Ganges,  joins  that  river  from  the 
left  in  lat.  25°  46'  N.,  and  long.  84°  40'  E.,  after  a 
generally  south-east  course  of  600  miles.  It  rises 
in  lat.  30'  28'  N.,  and  long.  80°  40'  K,  on  the 
Bouthern  declivity  of  a  moixntain-range,  which 
8ei)arates  the  district  of  Kumaon  from  South-West 
Thibet.  Tlie  actual  source,  being  between  17.000 
and  18,000  feet  above  the  sea,  is  hidden  under  per- 
petual snows  at  every  season,  while  in  winter  it  can 
scarcely  be  said  to  flow  at  all.  Throughout  the  first 
50  miles,  the  torrent,  tumbling  as  it  does  down  deep 
gorges,  is  in  many  places  entirely  concealed  by 
glaciers.  After  receiving  many  tributai'ies  on  both 
sides,  it  enters  the  great  plain  of  Hindustan  in  lat. 
29°  6'  N.,  and  long.  80'  13'  K,  being  now,  after  a  run 
of  148  miles,  798  feet  above  the  sea.  Here  it  has 
been  estimated  to  be  about  two- thirds  of  the  size  of 
the  Ganges  at  the  corresponding  point  of  Hurdwar. 
Hitherto  it  has  generally  formed  the  boundary 
between  Kumaon  and  Nepal.  Before  the  G.  has 
descended  70  miles  further,  it  has  become  navi- 
gable for  craft  of  considerable  burden.  Further 
down,  it  is  practicable  for  boats  of  all  sizes  at 
every  season,  but  is  here  and  there  beset  hj 
dangerous  and  intricate  shoals.  Like  other  great 
rivers  traversing  alluvial  tracts  (see  Ganges),  it 
sends  ofi"  lateral  water-courses,  which  in  the  rainy 
season  communicate  with  the  parent-flood  and 
with  each  other.  The  principal  auxiliaries,  to  take 
them  in  order,  are  the  Kalipani  on  the  left ;  the 
Dhouli,  on  the  right ;  the  Gorigunga,  also  on  the 
right ;  the  Chumalea,  on  the  left ;  the  Western 
Surju,  on  the  right ;  the  Lohogatalu,  on  the  right ; 
tl'.e  Ladhia,  the  last  of  its  hill-tributaries,  also  on 
the  right ;  the  Kurnalli,  on  the  left ;  the  united 
Chonka  and  Woel,  on  the  right ;  the  Eastern 
Surju,  on  the  left;  and  finally,  the  Rapti,  also  on 
tlio  left. 

GHOST-MOTH  {Ilepiahis  huwuli),  a  species 
of  moth  very  common  in  many  parts  of  Britain, 
and  of  which  the  caterpillar — popularly  known  as 
the  Otter — often  commits  great  ravages  in  hop 
plantations,  devouring  the  i-oota  of  the  hop.  It 
feeds  also  on  the  roots  of  the  nettle,  burdock, 
738 


and  some  other  plants.  This  moth  belongs  to  a 
family  (HepialidcB)  often  popularly  called  Svnfiti 
from  their  rapid  flight,  having  long  narrow  wingn, 
and  destitute  of  a  tongue.  The  antennae  are  short 
The  male  G.-M.  is  entirely  of  a  satiny  white  colour 
above  ;  the  female  yellowish  with  darker  markin£«> ; 


Ghost-Moth  {Hepialus  humuU) : 
1,  ogprs,  natural  size;  2,  the  same,  magnified;  3,  larva  of 
caterpillar;  4,  chrysalis;  5,  imago  or  perfect  insect,  malo. ; 
6,  the  same,  female. 

both  sexes  are  brown  on  the  under  side.  They  are 
to  be  seen  flying  about  in  the  twilight,  generally 
over  lawns  and  pastures,  not  unfrequently  in 
churchyards,  from  Avhich  circumstance,  and  from 
the  white  colour  of  the  males  and  their  sudden 
disappearance  in  the  imperfect  light  on  their  folding 
their  wings,  or  rising  above  the  level  of  the  specta- 
tor's eye  so  that  the  brown  part  is  turned  i/nvards 
him,  they  derive  their  name.  The  caterpillar  is 
yellowish  Avhite,  with  scattered  hairs,  sometimes 
nearly  two  inches  long.  It  spins  a  large  cylindrical 
cocoon  among  the  roots  on  which  it  has  been 
feeding,  and  there  becomes  a  chrysalis. 

GHOSTS.  See  Apparitions  ;  nlso  Supp.,  Vol.  X. 

GHUMURDJI'NA,  or  KOMULDSI'NA,  a  town 
of  European  Turkey,  in  the  eyalet  of  Eumili,  is 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Karadji,  about 
80  miles  south-west  of  Adrianople.  It  has  exten- 
sive bazaars  and  a  small  citadel,  and  is  supj)oserl 
to  contain  about  8000  inhabitants. 

GHUR,  or  GHORE,  a  mountainous  district  of 
Western  Afghanistan,  lying  south-east  from  HerS.t. 
It  was  conquered  by  the  famous  Sdnni  hero,  Mah- 
mftd  of  Ghizni  (q.  v.),  and  about  three  centuriea 
afterwards  was  overrun  by  Genghis  Khan,  who 
almost  completely  exterminated  the  ancient  inhabit- 
ants. It  is  celebrated  in  history  as  having  jeen  the 
original  possession  of  the  princes  who  established 
the  second  Mohammedan  dynasty  in  Hindtlstfln.  It 
is  inhabited  at  the  present  day  by  the  independent 
nomad  Tartar  tribes  of  the  ^azS-reh  and  Eim^k, 
principally  the  latter. 

GHUKI,  or  SULTANS  OF  GHUR,  were  a  race 
of  princes  who  had  the  seat  of  their  empire  in  the 
country  of  Ghiir  (q.  v.),  and  ruled  over  Persia, 
Northern  Hindftstfln,  and  Transoxiana.  The 
first  of  this  family  mentioned  in  history  is  Siiri, 
who  opposed  an  obstinate  but  unavailing  resist- 
ance to  Sultan  Mahmud  of  Ghizni.  One  of  his 
descendants,  named  Husscyne,  vfivn  subeequently 
appointed  governor  of  GhCir,  in  which  office  he  w&a 


GIANIBELLI— GIANTS  AND  DWARFS. 


BTLCceeded  by  his  sons.  But  Behram  Shah  having 
^iit  to  death  one  of  the  brothers,  the  others  threw 
off  their  allegiance  to  the  race  of  Sebekteghin, 
and  hostilities  ensued  (see  Ghiznevides),  in  which 
the  eldest  brotlier,  Seyf-ud-deen,  was  killed,  and 
his  brother  Allah-ud-deen,  surnamed  Jehaun-souz 
(the  Conflagrator),  succeeded  to  the  sovereignty. 
After  subduing  the  sultan  of  Ghizni,  Allah-ud-deen 
mvaded  Khorassan,  but  was  defeated  and  taken 
prisoner  by  Sultan  Sunjur  the  Seljdk.  He  was 
Bucceeded  by  his  son  Mahommed  in  1160,  who  was 
assassinated  at  the  end  of  the  first  year  of  his  reign. 
Gheiatheddin  Mahommed  ascended  the  throne  in 
1161,  and  after  a  long  and  bloody  contest  with  the 
Khaurezmians,  siicceeded  in  obtaining  possession  of 
Khorassan.  During  his  reign  the  affairs  of  Ghizni 
were  committed  in  charge  to  his  brother,  Shahab- 
ud-deen  Mahommed,  who,  having  subdued  the 
Ghiznevide  provinces  west  of  the  Indus,  crossed 
that  river  and  conquered  successively  the  provinces 
of  MMtan  (1176),  Lahore  (1186),  and  Ajmere  (1190), 
defeating  the  rajah  of  Ajmere's  army  niimbering 
300,000  horse  and  3000  elephants,  and  in  the  course 
of  the  next  six  years  conquering  Hindustan  as  far 
Bouth  as  Nag^)flr,  and  westward  to  the  Irrawady. 
It  is  from  this  epoch  that  the  preponderance  of 
Islam  in  Hindflst&,n  is  dated.  Shahab-ud-deeu 
succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1203,  on  the  death  of 
his  brother  (see  Ghiznevides).  The  house  of 
Ghur  had  now  reached  its  acme  of  power,  their 
territory  extending  from  the  Caspian  Sea  to  the 
Bay  of  Bengal,  and  from  the  Jilion  to  the  Indian 
Ocean.  Shahab-ud-deen,  having  invaded  Khaurezm 
in  1204,  was  attacked  by  the  sultan  of  that  cou.ntry, 
and  completely  routed.  In  the  following  year,  he 
undertook  an  expedition  into  Kojud,  on  the  south 
border  of  Cashmere,  in  order  to  reduce  that  rebel- 
lious province,  in  which  undertaking  he  obtained 
complete  success,  but  on  his  return  was  assassinated 
by  one  of  the  Fedayan,  or  followers  of  Hussun 
Sabah,  in  1206.  His  nephew,  Mahmud,  succeeded  ; 
but  after  a  short  reign  of  four  years  was  assassin- 
ated. After  his  death,  some  members  of  the  family 
made  feeble  efforts  to  revive  the  grandeur  of  their 
ancestors,  but  as  the  sultans  of  Khaurezm  had  by 
this  time  subjugated  the  whole  Persian  empire,  their 
attempts  were  fruitless. 

GIANIBE  LLI,  or  GIAMBELLI,  Federigo,  a 
famous  military  engineer,  was  born  at  Mantua 
about  the  year  1530.  After  serving  for  some  time 
in  Italy,  he  proceeded  to  Spain  and  offered  his 
services  to  Philip.  II. ;  but  having  failed  to  obtain  an 
audience  of  that  monarch,  and  conceiving,  moreover, 
that  he  had  been  personally  slighted,  he  abruptly 
quitted  Madrid,  swearing,  as  the  story  goes,  that  the 
Spaniards  wo  aid  yet  hear  of  him ;  and  after  a 
residence  for  some  time  at  Antwerp,  where  he 
acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  mechanist,  passed 
over  to  England  and  entered  the  service  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  who  granted  him  a  pension.  During  the 
War  of  Independence  in  the  Netherlands,  Alexander, 
Duke  of  Parma,  generalissimo  of  the  Spanish  forces, 
besieged  Antwerp  in  1585,  whereupon  Elizabeth 
Commissioned  G.  to  proceed  to  the  assistance  of  the 
inhabitants.  On  his  arrival,  he  found  that  the 
Spaniards  had  built  a  vast  bridge  across  the  Scheldt, 
interrupting  all  communication  with  the  sea,  by 
which  alone  the  city  could  get  provisions  or  help. 
Setting  his  wits  to  work,  G.  invented  an  infernal 
Toachine,  which  he  laimched  against  the  bridge  one 
stormy  night.  The  effect  was  frightful.  The  whole 
Spanish  army  was  roused  by  the  noise,  and  the 
Scheldt  was  found  to  be  quivering  to  its  lowest 
depths.  The  obstructing  bridge  was  blown  into 
the  air,  and  no  less  than  800  men — among  whom 
were  some  of  the  best  Spanish  officers — were  killed. 


Many  Spanish  ships  also  were  either  burned  or 
sunk.  The  want  of  unity,  however,  among  the 
citizens,  idtimately  rendered  G."s  aid  unavailing, 
and  he  was  obliged  to  return  to  England.  Here  he 
was  employed  at  the  time  of  the  threatened  Spanish 
invasion  in  fortifying  the  coast-line,  which  he  did 
in  a  very  skilful  manner.  When  the  Armada 
appeared  in  the  Channel,  it  was  G.  who  proposed 
and  carried  out  the  plan  of  sending  fire-ships  into 
the  midst  of  the  enemy,  and  in  tliis  wav  gieatly 
contributed  to  their  defeat.  After  thi^  he  di.^ap- 
pears  from  history,  and  all  we  know  of  him  is  thai 
he  died  in  London. 

GIANNO'NE,  Ptetro,  an  eminent  historian  and 
lawyer,  was  bom,  1676,  at  Ischitella,  a  village  o£ 
Capitanata,  in  Naples.  He  early  distinguished  him- 
self as  an  able  and  learned  practitioner  at  the  bar 
of  Naples,  and  soon  realised  an  easy  indejtendence, 
w^hich  enabled  him  to  devote  his  time  and  energies 
td  his  favourite  historical  researches.  En  his  beauti- 
ful villa,  adjoining  Naples,  he  labomed  during  tho 
space  of  twenty  years  at  his  greatest  historical 
work,  which,  in  1723,  he  published  in  four  volumes, 
under  the  title  of  Storia  Civile  del  Regno  di  NapoU. 
This  valuable  and  comprehensive  work,  not  only 
treats  of  the  civil  history  of  the  kingdom,  but  also 
contains  learned  and  critical  dissertations  on  the 
laws,  customs,  and  administrative  vicissitudes  of 
Naples  from  the  most  remote  times,  tracing  the 
successive  working  of  Greek,  Roman,  and  Christian 
influences  on  the  legislative  and  social  institutions. 
Some  severe  strictures  on  the  spirit  of  worldly 
aggrandisement,  and  progressive  corruption  of  the 
doctrines  and  practices  of  primitive  Christianity 
apparent  in  the  modern  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
so  enraged  the  ecclesiastical  party,  that  G.  was 
universally  denounced  and  anathematised  from 
pulpit  and  altar.  The  ignorant  fanaticism  of  the 
lower  classes  was  aroused  by  the  grossest  calumnies 
levelled  at  the  great  writer,  who  Avas  finally  forced 
to  yield  before  the  tempest  and  take  refuge  at 
Vienna.  The  history  was  solemnly  condemned  as 
heretical  and  libeUous  by  the  pope,  and  was  strictly 
prohibited.  G.  was  granted  a  small  pension  by  the 
Emperor  Charles  VL,  imder  whose  dominion  Naples 
then  was,  and  received,  in  some  degree,  compen- 
sation for  his  sufferings,  in  the  admiration  and 
sjrmpathy  of  the  enlightened  spirits  of  his  own 
land.  In  1734,  G.  was  deprived  of  his  pension  and 
returned  to  Venice,  from  whence  he  was  expelled 
and  forced  to  seek  shelter  in  Geneva.  There  he 
composed  his  famous  and  bitterest  diatribe,  entitled 
II  Triregno,  against  the  papal  pretensions,  and  even 
proclaimed  his  adoption  of  the  Calvinistic  doctrines. 
Shortly  after,  an  emissary  from  the  court  of  Turin, 
having  artfully  ingratiated  himself  into  the  con- 
fidence of  G.,  indiiced  him  to  enter  the  Sardinian 
states,  where  he  was  immediately  arrested  and 
conducted  to  the  fortress  of  Turin  a  close  prisoner. 
G.  beguiled  his  tedious  confinement  "svith  his  chosen 
studies,  and  retracted  his  change  of  religious 
opinions,  a  step  which  in  no  way  alleviated  hia 
persecution.  He  died  a  prisoner  in  the  fortress, 
in  1748,  after  an  incarceration  of  tw^elve  years. 
His  son,  Giovanni,  was  assigned  a  liberal  pen- 
sion by  the  new  king  of  Naples,  Don  Carlos 
of  Bourbon,  who  thus  sought  to  avert  from  hia 
house  the  reproach  which  overwhelmed  the  perse- 
cutors and  jaders  of  one  of  Italy's  most  illustrious 
citizens.  La  Storj:  Civile  has  parsed  through 
several  editions,  the  most  modern  is  that  of  Milan, 
1823,  in  13  vols.,  8vo.  See  Cornlani ;  Vita  di 
P.  Giannone  da  Leonardo  Panzini ;  Storia  delta 
Letteratura  Italiana  da  Maffei. 

GIANTS  ANP  DWATIFS.     A  giant  (from  the 

7afi 


GIANTS  AND  DWARFS. 


Greek  word  gigas)  is  an  individual  whose  stature  and 
Dulk  exceed  those  of  his  species  or  race  generally. 

Until  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  it  was 
universally  believed  that  giants,  of  a  size  far  exceed- 
ing those  who  are  exhibited  in  our  times,  formerly 
existed,  either  as  nations  or  as  individual  specimens. 
This  belief  was  based  (1)  on  the  asserted  discovery  of 
colossal  human  bones ;  (2)  on  supposed  scriptural  evi- 
dence ;  and  (3)  on  the  evidence  of  vai-ious  ancient  and 
medieval  authors. 

A  reference  to  the  first  volume  of  Cuvier's 
Ossements  Fossiles  will  shew  that  the  bones  of  ele- 
phants, rhinoceroses,  mastodons,  &c.,  have  been 
exhibited  and  accepted  as  evidence  of  pre-historic 
giants.  Even  so  good  a  naturalist  as  Buffon  fell 
into  this  popular  delusion,  and  figured  the  bones 
of  an  elephant  as  the  remains  of  human  giants. 
Isidore  Geoffroy  Saint-Hilaire,  in  his  Histoire  des 
Anomalies  de  V Organisation,  notices  several  of  the 
most  famous  of  these  cases.  A  gigantic  skeleton 
which  was  found  at  Trapani,  in  Sicily,  in  the  14th  c., 
was  at  once  pronounced  to  be  that  of  the  classical 
giant  Polyphemus,  and  his  height  was  calculated  at 
300  feet.  It  was  pointed  out  that  the  bones  diff"ered 
in  form  as  well  as  in  size  from  those  of  man,  but 
this  objection  was  easily  met  by  the  question : 
Why,  if  his  height  was  sixty  times  as  great  as  that 
of  an  ordinary  man,  should  not  his  form  be  also 
difterent  ?  Many  less  celebrated  giants  were  subse- 
quently exhumed  in  Sicily,  and  the  existence  of  the 
'  Osseous  Caverns,'  described  by  De  Quatrefages  in 
his  Rambles  of  a  Naturalist,  fully  accounts  for  such 
discoveries,  at  an  epoch  when  few  could  recognise 
the  diff"erences  in  form  between  the  bones  of  an 
elephant  and  those  of  man.  Passing  over  a  giant 
whose  bones  were  exposed  by  the  action  of  the 
Rhone  in  1456,  and  whose  height  was  estimated  at 
30  feet,  and  another  whose  skeleton  was  discovered 
near  Lucerne  in  1577,  and  wdio,  according  to  the 
calculation  of  the  learned  physician  Plater,  did 
not  exceed  19  feet,  we  come  to  the  case  of  King 
Teutobochus,  whose  remains  were  discovered  near 
the  Rhone  in  1613,  by  a  surgeon  named  Mazurier, 
whose  Histoire  Veritable  du  Geant  T'nitobochus 
(1618)  gave  rise  to  a  warm  controversy.  The 
anatomist  Riolan  endeavoured  to  expose  the  im- 
posture, but  the  Parisians  rushed  in  crowds  to 
see  the  mastodon's  bones,  which  w^ere  reported  to 
have  l)een  found  in  a  tomb  30  feet  long,  bearing 
the  inrcription  '  Teutobochus  Rex.'  Nor  have  our 
own  cumtrymen  been  less  credulous  than  their 
continental  neighbours.  In  1712,  Dr  Mather,  in  the 
Philof  ophical  l^ransactions,  announced  the  discovery 
of  en-jrmous  bones  and  teeth  w^hich  had  been  found 
in  tb,3  state  of  New  York,  and  w^hich  he  regarded 
as  affording  evidence  of  the  existence  of  giants  of 
enormous  size  in  ancient  times.  The  bones  were  in 
reality  those  of  a  mastodon. 

Tlie  Scripture  evidence,  when  carefully  examined, 
does  not  amormt  to  much.  The  Hebrew  words 
nephilini  and  giborim,  w^hich  occm*  several  times  in 
the  Book  of  Genesis,  and  which  are  translated 
giants,  might  as  well  be  translated  bearded,  cruel, 
or  violent  men.  The  height  of  Og,  king  of  Bashan, 
is  not  given;  we  are  only  told  the  length  of  his 
bed ;  and  excluding  his  helmet,  which  was  probably 
taken  into  account  in  the  recorded  measurement, 
Goliath,  at  most,  did  not  exceed  eight  feet  and  a  half 
in  stature,  and  consequently  was  not  taller  than 
f  ome  giants  of  modern  days. 

The  classical  evidence  is  abundant,  but  obviously 
untrustworthy.  Thus  Plutarch  relates  that  Ser- 
bonius  had  the  grave  of  Autseus,  in  the  city  of 
Tungis,  opened,  and  '  finding  there  his  body,  full  60 
cubits  long,  was  infinitely  astonished,  ordered  the 
toinb  to  be  closed,  gave  his  confirmation  to  the 
740 


storj'-,  and  added  new  honours  to  the  meraoiy  of  the 
giant.'  Pliny  reports  that  an  earth(j[uake  in  Crete 
disclosed  the  bones  of  a  giant  46  cubits  hi  .ength, 
who  was  held  by  some  to  be  Orion,  and  by  others 
Otus.  Descending  to  more  certain  evidence,  there 
is  no  doubt  that  a  height  of  between  8  and  9 
feet,  and  probably  of  more  than  9  feet,  has  been 
attained.  There  is  a  skeleton  in  the  Museum  of 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  8  feet  6  inches  in  height ; 
that  of  O'Brien  (or  Byrne),  in  the  Museum  of  the 
College  of  Surgeons  of  England,  is  8  feet  2  inches  ; 
and  that  of  a  giant  in  the  Museum  at  Bonn  is  8 
feet ;  and  the  actual  body  with  the  soft  pai-ta 
attached  was  probably  two  or  three  inches  longer 
than  the  skeleton.  (O'Brien,  for  example,  measured 
8  feet  4  inches  after  his  death,  as  we  find  recorded 
in  the  Annual  Register,  vol.  xxvi.  p.  209.) 

We  commonly  apply  the  term  Dwarf  to  any 
organised  being,  but  especially  to  individuals  of  the 
human  species,  whose  height  is  much  less  than  the 
average  height  of  their  race.  Strictly  speaking, 
however,  the  word  should  be  restricted  to  thoi^e 
cases  in  which  tliere  is  a  general  and  uniform  arrest 
of  growth,  excei)t,  perha])s,  in  the  nervous  system, 
which  is  often  fully  developed  in  dwarfs. 

The  ancients  believed  not  only  in  dwarfs  of 
extreme  minuteness,  but  in  nations  of  them.  Aris- 
totle, the  greatest  naturalist  that  perhaps  ever 
existed,  declared  that  the  report  of  trustworthy 
witnesses  testifies  to  the  existence  of  a  minute  race 
of  men,  witli  minute  horses,  living  in  the  caves 
which  are  washed  by  the  waters  of  the  Nile ;  and 
Pliny  gives  various  details  regarding  their  habits 
and  their  geographical  position.  Amongst  the 
extreme  cases  recorded  on  ancient  authority,  w^e 
may  notice  that  of  Philetas,  a  poet  who  was  a  con- 
temporary with  Hippocrates,  and  who  was  obliged 
to  ballast  himself,  to  avoid  being  blown  away  hy 
the  wind  ;  that  of  the  Egyptian  dwarf  mentioned 
by  Nicephorus  Calistus,  who,  at  the  age  of  25  years, 
did  not  exceed  a  partridge  in  size ;  and  lastly, 
that  of  the  poet  Aristratus,  of  whom  Athenceus 
records  that  his  stature  was  so  small  that  no  om 
could  see  him. 

We  shall  now  briefly  notice  a  few  of  the  most 
remarkable  dwarfs  of  modern  times.  All  the 
readers  of  Peveril  of  the  Peak  are  acquainted  with 
Sir  Geoffrey  Hudson.  Up  to  the  age  of  30,  hia 
height  was  only  18  inches ;  from  that  age,  he 
rapidly  grew  to  the  height  of  3  feet  9  inches.  Ho 
had  an  enormous  head,  and  large  hands,  but  in 
other  respects  was  well  proportioned.  He  died  at 
the  age  of  63.  Count  Joseph  Borowlaski  was  the 
son  of  well-formed  healthy  parents  of  the  ordinary 
size,  who  had  six  children,  of  w^hom  the  first,  third, 
and  fifth  were  dwarfs.  Joseph,  who  wrote  a  history 
of  his  own  life,  records  that  his  eldest  brother  was 
3  feet  6  inches  high ;  then  came  a  son  who  was 
5  feet  10  inches ;  then  came  Joseph  himself,  whose 
height  at  20  was  2  feet  4  inches,  and  at  30,  3  feet 
3  inches.  He  was  succeeded  by  three  others,  the 
middle  one  being  a  girl,  who  died  at  22  of  the 
small-pox,  being  then  2  feet  2  inches,  but  of  admir- 
able proportions.  Joseph  Borowlaski  was  very  well 
proportioned,  was  married  to  a  woman  of  ordinary 
size,  wdio  brought  him  several  w^ell-formed  children, 
and  died  at  Bank's  Cottage,  near  Durham,  in  1837, 
at  the  age  of  98 — a  great  age  for  an  ordinary  man,  and 
without  example  in  the  histoiy  of  dwarfs.  Nicholas 
Ferry,  commonly  known  under  the  name  of  Bebc, 
was  another  celebrated  dwarf.  His  parents  and  hia 
brothers  and  sisters  were  all  well-formed  jjersous. 
He  w^as  a  seven  months'  child,  and  at  birth  measured 
less  than  eight  inches,  and  weighed  less  than  a 
pound.  When  five  years  old,  a  physician,  who 
examined  him,   reported  that  he  then  weighed 


GIANTS  AND  DWARFS. 


9  pounds  7  ounces,  and  stood  22  inches  high,  but 
was  formed  like  a  young  man  of  20.  He  died 
in  his  23d  year,  being  then  under  three  feet  high. 
(Humphry,  On  the  Human  Skeleton,  p,  101.)  In  the 
Museum  of  the  Faculty  de  Medecine  of  Paris,  there 
is  a  wax- model  which  represents  him  at  the  age  of 
18 ;  and  in  the  Museum  d'Histoire  Naturelle  is  his 
Bkeleton,  which  in  the  complete  ossification  of  the 
bones,  and  in  the  disappearance  of  the  cranial 
sutures,  resembles  that  of  an  aged  person.  Accord- 
ing to  C.  G.  Cams  {Symbolik  der  menschlichen  Gestalt, 
Zivelte  Aujlage,  1858,  p.  83),  General  Tom  Thumb, 
the  well-known  dwarf,  exhibited  about  twelve  years 
ago  in  this  country,  was  25  inches  in  height,  and 
weighed  25  pounds  ;  and  Prince  Colobri,  a  Slesvig 
dwarf,  who  was  being  exhibited  in  Dresden  in  1851, 
was  of  a  similar  height  and  weight,  his  age  being  21 
years.  Carus  likewise  examined,  in  the  year  1857,  a 
Dutch  dwarf,  who  took  the  name  of  Tom  Thumb. 
He  was  aged  18  at  the  time  of  the  examination,  and 
then  measured  about  2  feet  4  inches.  (These  are 
probably  Prussian  measures,  which  slightly  exceed 
those  of  this  country.) 

On  comparing  the  data  in  our  possession  regarding 
giants  and  dwarfs — and  for  most  of  these  data  we 
mast  refer  the  reader  to  GeofFroy  Saint- Hilaire's 
Histoire  des  Anomalies — it  appears  (1)  That  giants 
are  of  rarer  occurrence  than  dwarfs :  (2)  That 
giants  are  usually  of  a  lymphatic  temperament, 
and  of  a  very  delicate  complexion,  often  deformed, 
and  almost  always  badly  proportioned ;  that  their 
muscles  are  flabby,  and  their  voice  weak ;  while 
dwarfs  are  often  perfectly  well  proportioned,  and 
are  strong  for  their  size :  (3)  That  giants  are  never 
long-lived — O'Byrne  died  at  22,  Magrath  at  20 
— v>^hile  dwarfs  seem  to  attain  the  full  ordinary 
period  of  human  existence — Borowlaski  died  at  98, 
H  udson  at  63  ;  and  although  we  do  not  know  the 
age  at  which  Therese  Souvray — a  dwarf  described 
by  Virey — died,  we  know  that  at  the  age  of  73 

•  elle  etait  encore  vive,  gaie,  bien  portant,  et  dansait 
^  la  mode  de  son  pays : '  (4)  That  while  giants 
usually  exhibit  a  want  of  activity  and  energy,  and 
are  feeble  both  in  body  and  mind,  dwarfs  are  in 
general  lively,  active,  and  irascible  (Borowlaski  in 
his  memoirs  gives  a  good  illustration  of  the  last 
characteristic,  as  exhibited  by  the  dwarf  Bebe  : 

•  When  he  perceived  that  the  king  took  pleasure  in 
my  society,  he  conceived  the  most  violent  jealousy 
and  hatred  of  me  ....  and  endeavoured  to  push 
me  on  to  the  fire  ;'  and  Sir  Geoffrey  Hudson's 
h-ascibility  is  well  depicted  in  Peveril  of  the  Peak). 
That  the  intellectual  power  of  dwarfs  is  sometimes 
considerable,  is  sufficiently  evidenced  in  the  cases 
of  Borowlaski,  General  Tom  Thumb,  and  the  Dutch 
Tom  Thumb,  who,  according  to  Carus,  spoke  four 
languages. 

We  know  little  of  the  causes  which  occasion  the 
excessive  development  or  the  arrested  growth  on 
vrhich  the  production  of  giants  and  dwarfs  depends. 
Bishop  Berkeley*  is  said  to  have  attempted  with 
considerable  success  to  manufacture  a  giant.  He 
took  a  poor  orphan,  named  Magrath,  and  reared  him 
on  certain  hygienic  principles  (Virey  conjectures 
that  he  fed  him  with  mucilaginous  foods  and 
drinks,  but  nothing  seems  known  on  this  point), 
which  were  so  far  successful  that,  at  the  age  of 
16,  he  was  7  feet  in  height,  and  that  at  the  time 
of  his  death,  which  occurred,  with  all  the  symp- 
toms of  old  age,  at  the  age  of  20,  he  was  7  feet 
8  inches  high.  If  food  in  this  case  did  really 
produce  a  giant,  why  cannot  our  farmers  be  as 

*  Our  authority  for  this  statement  is  Geoffrey  Saint- 
Hilaire,  who  quotes  "Watkinson's  Philmoj)hical  Survey 
*/  Ireland  (Lond.  1777).   The  bishop  died  m  1753. 


successful  as  the  bishop  ?   They  can  only  produce 

fatty  monstrosities,  not  giants. 

Geoffroy  Saint-Hilaire  devotes  a  special  section  of 
his  book  to  '  the  causes  of  dwarfism,'  but  he  only 
arrives  at  the  general  conclusion,  that  in  these  cases 
there  is  an  obstacle  to  the  pro])er  nuti  ition  and 
development  of  the  foetus ;  tliat  this  obstacle  may  be 
due  either  to  something  WTrong  in  the  maternal 
organism,  or  more  commonly  to  some  disease 
affecting  the  foetus  itself;  and  that  this  disease  is 
usually  rachitis  or  rickets. 

Mythological  Giants  and  Dwarfs. — Giants  play  a 
part  in  the  mythology  of  almost  all  nations  of  Aryan 
descent.  The  Greeks,  who  represented  them  aa 
beings  of  monstrous  size,  with  hideous  countea^^^ces, 
and  having  the  tails  of  dragons,  placed  their  abode 
in  volcanic  districts,  whither  they  were  fabled  to 
have  been  banished  after  their  unsuccessful  attempt 
upon  heaven,  when  the  gods,  with  the  assistance  of 
Hercules,  imprisoned  them  under  ^tna  and  other 
volcanoes.  Their  reputed  origin,  like  the  places  of 
their  abode,  points  to  the  idea  of  the  mysterious 
electrical  and  volcanic  convidsions  of  nature,  which 
they  obviously  typify ;  and,  in  accordance  with 
this  view,  they  are  said  to  have  been  of  mingled 
heavenly  and  earthly  descent,  and  to  have  sprung 
from  the  blood  that  fell  from  the  slain  Ouranos  upon 
the  earth,  Ge,  which  was  their  mother.  In  the 
cosmogony  of  the  northern  nations,  giants  occupy 
a  far  more  important  place  than  the  Greeks  assigned 
to  them,  for  here  the  first  created  being  was  the 
giant  Ymir,  called  also  '  Aurgelmir,'  or  '  the  ancient 
Chaos,'  the  progenitor  of  the  Frost-giants  (Hrim- 
thiirsar),  among  whom  dwelt  the  All-Father  before 
the  creation  of  heaven  and  earth.  The  mode  of 
origin  of  Ymir  was  as  follows  :  In  the  beginning  of 
time  a  world  existed  in  the  north,  called  Niflheim, 
in  which  was  a  well,  Hvergelmir,  from  whence 
issued  a  poisonous  stream  which  hardened  into  ice, 
the  accumulation  of  which  formed  the  northern 
part  of  Ginnungagap,  or  abyss  of  abysses,  whose 
southern  extremity  y^as  radiant  with  the  heat  and 
light  which  emanated  from  another  world,  known 
as  '  Muspelheim.'  The  meeting  of  heat  and  ice 
produced  drops,  which,  through  the  agency  of 
the  same  creative  power  (the  All-Father)  which 
had  sent  them  forth,  received  life  and  a  human 
form.  This  was  Ymir,  who  was  nourished  from 
four  streams  of  milk,  which  flowed  from  the  cow 
Audhumla,  or  the  nourishing-power,  which  had 
been  created  by  Surt,  the  guardian  watch  of  Mus- 
pelheim. While  Ymir  slept,  a  man  and  woman 
grew  from  imder  his  left  arm,  and  a  son  was 
produced  from  his  feet.  In  course  of  time,  other 
beings  were  generated  from  the  salt  and  frost- 
covered  stones  which  the  cow  Audhumla  licked, 
and  from  these  were  born  three  brothers,  Odin, 
Vili,  and  Ve,  who  were  gods,  and  who,  having 
slain  Ymir,  and  dragged  him  out  into  the  middle 
of  Ginnungagap,  formed  from  his  blood  the  sea  and 
all  waters,  and  from  his  huge  body  heaven  and 
earth  and  all  solid  things  in  natiite. 

With  Ymir  perished  all  the  ircst-giants  except 
Bergelmir,  who,  with  his  wife,  escapecl  on  a  ch^st 
or  drum,  and  became  the  father  of  the  new  giant 
dynasty  of  the  Jotuns.  The  gods  formed,  how- 
ever, of  the  eyebrows  of  Ymir,  a  wall  of  defence 
against  these  giants,  who  thenceforward  dwelt  in 
Jotunheim,  beyond  the  boundaries  of  the  ocean, 
which  encircled  ISIidgard,  the  future  abode  of 
the  sons  of  men.  The  ^sir  or  gods  lived  in  their 
own  Kty,  Asgard,  occupying  themselves  with 
works  of  industry  till  they  were  corrupted  by  the 
giantesses  who  came  to  them  from  Jotunheim. 
when  the  Golden  Age  ceased,  and  discord  arose 
among  the  gods.    At  the  instigation  of  the  maidens 

7*. 


GIANTS'  CAUSEWAY— GIBBON. 


from  Jotunheim,  the  gods  created  dwarfs  and  men; 
the  former  from  the  maggots  generated  within  the 
bod/  of  Ymir,  and  the  latter  from  trees ;  and  from 
this  time  the  giants  gradually  lost  their  power, 
mid  or  the  united  oj^position  of  gods  and  men.  In  the 
popular  belief,  common  in  all  countries,  that  tlirough 
the  agency  of  giants  mountains  and  islands  have 
arisen,  and  rocks  and  mountains  have  been  hurled 
from  thfetr  original  sites,  we  trace  the  ideal  per- 
sonification of  the  forces  of  nature,  which,  after 
long  periods  of  inert  repose,  exhibit  sudden  and 
uncontrollable  outbursts  of  violence:  thus  giants 
were  represented  as  good-humoured  and  comi)lacent 
when  at  rest,  but  implacable,  savage,  and  treacher- 
ous when  excited  ;  while  they  were  at  all  times 
impressed  with  a  consciousness  that,  notwithstand- 
ing their  huge  bulk,  and  the  excess  of  heads  and 
arms  with  which  many  of  them  were  gifted,  they 
were  but  stupid  monsters,  unable  to  co})e  with 
the  ready  wit  and  keen  intelligence  of  divine  or 
even  human  beings,  to  whom  they  believed  it 
was  the  decree  of  fate  that  tliey  must  ultimately 
succumb.  In  this  respect,  the  giants  tyi)ify  the 
heathen  element  in  its  conflict  with  Christianity, 
and  northern  Sagas  are  rife  witli  the  histories  of 
gigantic,  wild,  and  cruel  races,  known  as  Tliursar 
(Goth.  thuMrsjan,  to  thirst,  or  J  dinar ;  Anglo- 
Saxon  etan,  to  eat),  who  ate  and  drank  voraciously, 
and  subdued  all  things  to  their  sway,  until  there 
came  from  the  far  East  a  people,  who  knew  and 
worshii)j)ed  the  god  of  the  universe  under  the  name 
of  the  '  All-Father,'  and  who,  by  their  greater  skill, 
overcame  the  savage  giants  of  the  north,  and  com- 
pelled them  to  withdraw  more  and  more  into  the 
recesses  of  the  forests  and  mountams,  whence  they 
only  emerged  from  time  to  time  in  the  form  of 
mountain  trolls  and  giants. 

The  dwarfs  who  figure  in  the  Eddas  as  cun- 
ning and  crafty  elves,  skilled  in  magic  and  in 
the  working  of  metals,  are  conjectured  to  have 
been  a  race  of  Oriental  Lapps,  who  iromigrated 
into  Sweden  and  Norway  later  than  the  Finns, 
who  were  the  descendants  of  the  giants,  and 
therefore  the  oldest  of  the  races  that  now  occupy 
the  Scandinavian  peninsula.  When  considered 
under  the  broadest  signification  of  the  term,  dwarfs 
(Goth,  dvairgs,  which  Grimm  conjectures  may  be 
identical  with  the  Greek  theoiirgos,  one  who  does 
supernatural  works)  typify  the  transition  from  inor- 
ganic to  organic  nature,  and  thus  personify  the  sub- 
ordinate powers  of  nature ;  and  under  this  idea  they 
are  represented  as  assisting  men  by  combining  the 
primary  ores  into  new  mineral  bodies,  and  fostering 
the  development  of  fruits  and  seeds.  Considered 
from  this  point  of  view,  they  occupy  an  intermediate 
position  between  giants  and  men  ;  and  while  they 
fear  both,  they  incline  to  serve  the  latter  at  the 
expense  of  the  former,  and  thus  appear  under  the 
form  of  beneficent  elves  (q.  v.),  fairies,  and  brownies 
(q.  v.).  During  the  latter  part  of  the  middle  ages, 
vhen  the  traditionary  folk-lore  of  Western  Europe 
^as  being  supplanted  by  the  literature  of  the 
moi  t^,  which  consisted  mainly  of  legends  of  saints, 
the  devil  and  the  fallen  angels  took  the  place,  in 
the  minds  of  the  ilhterate,  that  had  hitherto  been 
occupied  by  giants  and  dwarfs;  and  the  various 
supernatural  feats  of  strength  which  had  in  earlier 
ages  been  ascribed  to  these  imaginary  beings,  were 
attributed  to  Satan  and  his  attendant  spirits,  or  in 
some  cases  to  the  saints  of  the  church. — See  Grimm's 
Deutsche  Mythologie,  Thorpe's  Northern  Mythology, 
Grundtvig's  Nordens  Mythologie,  and  Petersen's 
Nor  disk  Mythologie. 

GIANTS'  CAUSEWAY  (deriving  its  name 
fro-^  a  nxythical  legend  that  it  was  the  commence- 
ment of  a  road  to  be  constructed  by  giants  across 
Hi 


the  channel  to  Scotland),  is  a  sort  of  pier  oi  mole,  oj 
columnar  basalt,  projecting  from  the  northern  <!oa8t 
of  Antrim,  Ireland,  into  the  North  Channel,  about 
15  miles  from  Coleraine.  It  is  part  of  an  exten- 
sive and  overlying  mass  of  basalt,  from  300  to  500 
feet  in  thickness,  which  covers  almost  the  whole 
county  of  Antrim  and  the  eastern  part  of  London- 
derry, extending  over  an  area  of  nearly  1200 
square  miles.  The  basalt  occurs  in  several  beds, 
interstratified  with  layers  of  ash.  It  covers  secon- 
dary strata,  converting  the  chalk  into  granular 
limestone,  and  the  lias  shale  into  Lydiau  stone, 
where  it  comes  in  contact  with  them.  Several 
of  the  basaltic  beds  are  more  or  less  columnar,  but 
three  layers  are  remarkably  so.  The  first  a])peara 
at  the  bold  promontory  of  Fair  Head  ;  its  columns 
are  coarse  and  large,  exceeding  200  feet  in  height. 
The  otlier  two  are  seen  together  rising  above  the 
sea-level  at  Bengore  Head.  The  lower  one  forms  the 
Causeway  at  the  place  where  it  is  uncovered,  as  it 
again  gradually  dips  under  the  sea.  It  is  exposed 
for  300  yards,  and  exhibits  an  unequal  pavement, 
formed  of  the  tops  of  polygonal  columns,  fitting  so 
compactly  that  the  blade  of  a  knife  can  scarcely  bo 
inserted  between  them.  The  columns  are  chiefly 
hexagonal,  though  examples  may  be  found  with  5, 
7,  8,  or  9  sides  ;  and  there  is  a  single  instance  of 
a  triangular  prism.  The  diameter  of  the  pillar  is 
very  variable,  but  the  average  size  is  from  15  to 
20  inches.  Each  pillar  is  divided  by  joints  of 
unequal  length,  the  concave  hollow  at  the  end  of 
one  division  fitting  exactly  into  the  convex  pro- 
jection of  the  other.  The  rock  is  compact  and 
homogeneous,  and  is  somewhat  sonorous  when 
struck  with  a  hammer. 

The  Causeway  is  divided  into  the  Little,  Middle, 
and  Large  Causeways.  The  Large  Causeway,  which 
is  formed  by  the  lowest  of  the  three  columnar  beds 
of  basalt,  is  about  30  feet  wide,  and  runs  more 
than  200  yards  from  its  exposure  on  the  cliff  tiU 
it  is  covered  by  the  sea.  The  Little  and  Middle 
Causeways  are  formed  from  the  second  columnar 
stratum,  and  are  less  remarkable  than  the  other. 

GIAOUR,  a  Turkish  word,  corrupted  from 
the  Arabic  kiajir  {'  unbeliever '),  and  applied  by 
the  Turks  to  all  who  reject  Mohammedanism, 
especially  to  European  Christians.  Though  at  first 
used  exclusively  as  a  term  of  reproach,  its  signi* 
fication  has  been  since  modified,  and  now  it  ia 
frequently  employed  merely  as  a  distinctive  epithet. 
Sultan  Mahmfid  II.  forbade  his  subjects  to  apply 
the  term  G.  to  any  European. — was  the  title  of 
a  poem  written  by  Lord  Byron,  and  published  in 
1813.    Compare  with  G.  the  word  Guebres  (q.  v.). 

GIAVE'NO,  a  town  of  Piedmont,  stands  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  torrent  San  gone,  17  miles  west- 
south-west  of  Turin.  It  is  surroimded  by  walls, 
and  possesses  a  castle,  erected  in  1369  by  the 
abbot  of  the  monastery  St  Michel  della  Chiusa. 
In  1003,  Urban  II.,  Count  of  Savoy,  endowed  this 
abbey  with  the  lands  of  G.,  which,  however,  owing 
to  the  unproductiveness  of  the  soil,  were  not  of 
great  value.  The  town  was  formerly  a  thriving 
commercial  place,  with  a  considerable  trade  in  linen, 
leather,  &c.  It  still  possesses  some  manufactories 
of  linen,  cotton  and  silk  stufiFs,  besides  tanneries 
and  iron  forges.    Pop.  9931. 

GIBBET.    See  Hanging. 

GIBBON,  Edward,  the  historian  of  The  Deciin« 
and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  was  born  at  Putney, 
on  the  27th  April  (O.  S.)  1737,  and  was  the  first 
child  of  Edward  Gibbon  and  of  Judith  Porten,  both 
of  good  family,  and  the  only  one  of  seven  children 
that  survived  infancy.  Memoii's  of  his  Life  ana 
Writini/s  were  written  by  himself,  and  these,  with 


GIBBON. 


his  letters  and  other  miscellaneous  works,  were  pub- 
lished after  his  death  by  his  friend  Lord  Sheffield, 
with  whom  he  had  long  carried  on  a  most  confi- 
dential correspondence.  Few  autobiographies  are 
80  interesting  as  that  of  G.,  and  none  more  veracious. 
It  is  a  self -portraiture,  both  in  regard  to  what  is 
said  and  in  regard  to  the  manner  in  which  it  is  said 
— his  pride,  self-complacency,  integrity,  and  con- 
tempt for  the  contemptible,  and  much  beside,  being 
all  clearly  revealed  as  proposed  by  liim  with  '  truth, 
naked  unblushing  truth.'  He  reflects :  '  My  name 
may  liereaf  ter  be  placed  among  the  tliousand  articles 
of  a  Biographia  Britannica ;  and  I  nmst  be  con- 
scious that  no  one  is  so  wefl  qualified  as  myself  to 
describe  the  series  of  my  thoughts  and  actions.'  So, 
in  his  52d  year,  after  he  had  finished  his  '  arduous 
and  successfid  work,'  he  proceeded  to  do  it.  Like 
most  thinkers,  liis  actions  were  few,  and  apart 
from  his  thoughts  and  the  growth  of  his  mind 
quite  unimportant.  He  spent  a  sickly  childhood 
in  occasional  lessons  and  desultory  reading  and 
discussion  with  his  mother's  sister,  a  lady  of  a 
strong  understanding  and  warm  heart,  whom  he 
calls  '  the  mother  of  his  mind,'  and  to  whose  kind- 
ness he  ascribes  not  only  the  bringing  out  of  his 
intellectual  faculties,  but  the  preservation  of  his  life 
in  these  critical  early  years.  One  of  his  temporary 
masters  was  the  Hev.  Philip  Francis,  the  translator 
of  Horace.  His  father,  who  seems  to  have  been 
the  somewhat  imi)ulsive  possessor  of  the  WTreck  of 
a  fortune,  had  him  entered  at  Magdalen  College, 
Oxford,  at  the  age  of  15,  when  he  was  very  imper- 
fectly prepared  for  this  crisis ;  his  extensive  reading 
and  interru})ted  education  having  produced  '  a  stock 
of  erudition  that  might  have  puzzled  a  doctor,  and 
a  degree  of  ignorance  of  which  a  school-boy  would 
have  been  ashamed.'  Here  he  spent  14  idle  months, 
the  chief  residt  of  which  was,  that  in  his  incursions 
into  controversial  theology  he  became  a  convert  to 
the  Church  of  Eome,  and  found  himself  shut  out 
from  Oxford.  He  was  by  his  father  placed  under 
the  care  of  Mallet  the  poet,  and  a  deist,  but  by  his 
philosophy  the  young  enthusiast  was  '  rather  scan- 
dalised than  reclaimed.'  To  effect  his  cure  from 
popery,  he  was  sent  to  Lausanne,  in  Switzerland, 
to  board  in  the  house  of  M.  Pavillard,  a  Calvinist 
minister,  a  poor  but  sensible  and  intelligent  man, 
who  judiciously  suggested  books  and  arguments  to 
his  young  charge,  and  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing 
him  reconverted  to  Protestantism,  in  witness  of 
which  conversion  he  received  the  sacrament  in  the 
church  of  Lausanne  on  Christmas-day  1754,  his 
belief  in  popery  having  lasted  not  quite  18  months. 
He  lived  nearly  five  years  in  this  house,  resj)ecting 
the  minister,  ^and  enduring  with  more  or  less 
equanimity  the  '  uncleanly  avarice '  of  his  wife  ;  and 
it  was  here  that  he  began,  and  carried  out  steadily 
and  joyously  to  an  extent  that  will  astonish  very 
hard  students,  those  private  studies  which,  aided  by 
his  enormous  memory,  made  him  a  master  of  erudi- 
tion without  a  superior,  and  with  hardly  an  equal. 
Here  also  he  fell  in  love  with  Mademoiselle  Susan 
Curohod,  the  daughter  of  a  clergyman,  a  young  lady 
beautiful  and  learned,  who  afterwaixls  became  the 
wife  of  M.  Nei'.ker,  the  disting-uished  French  minister 
and  firancier.  G.'s  father  disapproved  of  this  alli- 
ance, and  he  yielded  to  his  fate.  After  his  return 
to  England  and  his  father's  house,  he  persevered 
in  his  studies  as  he  best  could. 

He  finished  a  little  work  in  French,  begun  at 
Lausanne,  and  published  it  under  the  title  of  Essais 
mr  V Etude  de  la  Litterature  in  1761.  In  the  same 
year  he  became  captain  in  the  Hampshire  militia, 
in  which  he  continued  for  two  and  a  half  years.  Of 
this  part  of  his  career  he  observes  :  '  The  discipline 
ajid  evolutions  of  a  modern  battalion  gave  me  a 


clearer  notion  of  the  phalanx  and  the  legion  ;  and 
the  captain  of  the  Hampshire  grenadiers  (the  readei 
may  smile)  has  not  been  useless  to  the  hi.ntojian  of 
the  Roman  Empire.'  The  mihtia  being  disbanded, 
he  revisited  the  continent,  and  travelled  into  Italy ; 
and  among  the  benefits  of  foreign  travel,  he  notes  its 
infkxence  in  suggesting  the  work  of  his  life  in  these 
words  :  '  It  was  at  Home,  on  the  15th  of  Octol)er 
17G4,  as  I  sat  musing  amidst  the  luius  of  the 
Capitol,  while  the  barefooted  friais  were  singing 
vespers  in  the  temple  of  Jupiter,  tliat  the  idea  of 
writing  the  decline  and  fall  of  the  city  first  started 
into  my  mind.'  His  j)lan,  originally  circumscribed 
to  the  decay  of  the  city,  grew  by  years  of  reading 
and  reflection  and  delay  to  embrace  the  empire. 
During  these  years  his  father  died,  leaving  his 
affairs  deranged,  and  he  entered  parliament  for 
the  borough  of  Liskeard  at  the  beginning  of  the 
struggle  with  America,  '  and  supported  with  man)' 
a  sincere  and  silent  vote  the  rights,  though  not,  per- 
ha]5s,  the  interest,  of  the  mother-country.'  He  sat 
eight  years,  but  never  had  courage  to  speak  ;  '  the 
great  speakers  filled  him  with  despair,  the  bad  ones 
with  terror.'  In  1776,  the  first  volume  of  The 
Decline  and  Fall  was  published,  and  its  success  was 
prodigious.  The  reputation  of  the  author  was 
established  before  the  religious  world  had  had  time 
to  consider  and  attack  the  last  chapters  of  the  work 
— the  15th  and  16th — in  which,  while  admitting, 
or,  at  least,  not  denying,  the  '  convincing  evidence 
of  the  doctrine  itself,  and  the  ruling  providence 
of  its  great  author,'  he  proceeds  to  account  for 
the  rapid  growth  of  the  early  Christian  church 
by  '  secondary '  or  human  causes.  Hume,  who  was 
then  slowly  dying,  in  a  highly  complimentary  letter, 
told  him  in  regard  to  these  chapters  :  '  I. think  you 
have  observed  a  very  prudent  temperament ;  but  it 
was  impossible  to  treat  the  subject  so  as  not  to 
give  grounds  of  suspicion  against  you,  and  you  may 
expect  that  a  clamour  v/ill  arise.'  The  prophetic 
criticism  was  correct  ;  the  grounds  of  the  '  clamour ' 
being,  at  the  best,  only  strong  suspicions  that,  in 
becoming  a  convert  from  Popery  to  Protestantism, 
Gibbon  had,  like  Bayle,  gone  on  '  to  protest  against 
all  sects  and  systems  whatsoever.'  That  he  did  not 
like  to  see  the  barefooted  friars  in  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  is  clear  enough  all  through  the  six  large  and 
compact  volumes  of  his  history.  He  finished  this 
great  work  on  the  27th  June  1787  at  Lausanne,  to 
which  he  had  retired  for  qi;iet  and  economy  after 
leaving  parliament,  and  holding  office  under  govern- 
ment for  a  short  time.  In  his  Memoirs,  he  tells 
the  hour  of  his  release  from  his  protracted  labours 
— between  eleven  o'clock  and  midnight— and  records 
his  first  emotions  of  joy  on  the  recovery  of  hi? 
freedom  and  the  sober  melancholy  that  succeeded 
it,  all  in  a  style  and  in  a  connection  which,  with 
much  beside,  must  be  studied  in  his  own  pages  by 
those  who  would  know  Gibbon  in  his  real  ga-eatness, 
self-complacency,  egotisia,  and  contemplative  sad- 
ness.  The  lady  of  Lord  Sheffield,  his  close  friend, 
having  died,  G.  left  Lausanne  for  England  to  con- 
sole him  ;  and  about  six  months  after  his  arrival,  ha 
died  without  apprehension  or  suffering,  on  the  16th 
January  1794,  in  St  James's  Street,  London,  of  an 
enormous  rupture  and  hydrocele,  which,  as  it  gave 
him  no  pain,  he  had  allowed  to  grow  neglected 
Mdthout  speaking  of  it  to  either  friend  or  physician 
for  thirty-two  years. 

In  person,  G.  became  very  corpulent,  and  the  small 
bones  of  the  big-headed  delicate  boy  were  in  after 
years  hardly  adequate  to  sustain  their  load.  Vanity 
was,  perhaps,  his  only  frailty.  He  aflfected  the 
manners  of  the  fine  gentleman  of  last  century  to 
the  end,  and  they  adjusted  themselves  grotesquely 
to  the  unwieldy  body  and  the  massive  mind. 


GIBBON— GIBBONS. 


It  is  not  easy  to  characterise  a  man  of  so  gigantic 
and  cultivated  an  intellect  in  few  or  many  phrases. 
He  w-^s  a  faithful  friend,  pleasant  and  hardly 
rivalled  in  conversation,  not  disliked  by  any  one 
who  came  near  him.  His  Decline  and  Fall  is  prob- 
ably t£\e  greatest  achievement  of  human  thought 
and  ei^idition  in  the  department  of  history ; .  at 
least  Niebiihr  gives  it  this  high  praise.  It  is  virtu- 
ally a  history  of  the  civilised  world  for  thirteen 
centuries,  during  which  paganism  was  breaking 
down  and  Christianity  was  superseding  it ;  and 
thus  bi-idges  over  the  chasm  between  the  old  world 
and  the  new.  Its  style  is  marked  by  the  highest 
power  of  condensation,  and  is  full  of  smiting  ])hrases 
And  ponderous  antithesis.    Byi'on  designates  him 

'The  lord  of  irony,  that  master-spell.* 

He  himself  was  not  unaware  of  this  part  of  his 
genius,  and  he  says  he  cultivated  it  by  reading  the 
Provincial  Letters  of  Pascal  every  year;  which  must 
have  become  eventually  a  mere  form,  for  two  care- 
ful readings  sufficed  to  iix  almost  any  composition 
indelibly  on  his  impressible  and  retentive  memory. 
His  accuracy  in  regard  to  fact  has  never  been  suc- 
cessfully unpeached,  and  his  industry  has  never 
been  questioned.  The  best  edition  of  The  Decline 
and  Fall  is  that  pul>lished  by  Dr  W.  Smith  in 
1854 — 1855,  containing  the  notes,  comments,  and 
corrections  of  Guizot,  Wenck,  and  Dean  Milman. 

GIBBON  (Hylohafes),  a  genus  of  apes,  or  tailless 
monkeys,  natives  of  the  East  Indies.  They  are 
nearly  allied  to  the  orangs  and  chimpanzees,  but 
are  of  more  slender  form,  and  their  arins  so  long  as 
almost  to  reach  the  ground  when  they  are  i)laced  in 
an  erect  posture ;  there  are  also  naked  callosities 
on  the  buttocks.  The  canine  teetli  are  long.  The 
gibbons  are  inhabitants  of  forests,  their  long  arms 
enabling  them  to  swing  themselves  from  bough  to 
bough,  which  they  do  to  wonderful  distances,  and 
with  extreme  agility.  They  cannot,  however,  move 
with  ease  or  rai)idity  on  the  ground.  The  confor- 
mation of  the  hinder  extremities  adds  to  their 
difficulty  i]i  this,  whilst  it  increases  their  adaptation 
to  a  life  among  the  branches  of  trees,  the  soles  of 
the  feet  being  much  turned  inwards.  None  of  the 
gibbons  are  of  large  size.  The  Common  G.,  or 
La^I  G.  (//.  lar) — black,  with  a  border  of  gray  hair 


White-handed  Gibbon  {Hylohates  albimana). 

8U  jund  the  face — is  found  in  some  parts  of  India, 
in  more  eastern  regiois.    The  White-handed 
O-  {H.  albimana) — black,  the  face  bordered  with 

74-i 


gray,  and  the  four  hands  white — is  a  native  of 
Sumatra.  The  Active  G.  (//.  agilis),  found  in 
Sumatra,  is  particularly  remarkable  for  the  power 
which  it  displays  of  flinging  itself  from  one  tree 
to  another,  clearing  at  once,  it  is  said,  a  distance 
of  forty  feet.  The  Wow-w^ow  (II.  leuciscun)  is 
a  G.  found  in  Malacca  and  the  Sunda  Isles.  The 
HooLOGK  {H.  Hoolock)  is  a  native  of  the  Garrow 
Hills.  The  Siamang  [II.  syndactyla),  a  Sumatraa 
species,  differs  from  the  rest  of  the  genus  in  having 
the  first  and  second  fingers  of  the  hinder  exti  emxkiet 
united  to  the  second  joint.  All  the  gibbons  ai-* 
of  gentle  disposition,  and  easily  domesticated. 

GIBBONS,  Orlando,  an  eminent  English 
musician,  was  born  at  Cambridge  in  1583.  At  the 
age  of  21,  he  became  organist  of  the  Chapel  Royal ; 
and  in  1622,  on  the  recommendation  of  the  learned 
Camden,  he  received  from  Oxford  University  the 
degree  of  doctor  in  music.  He  was  the  best  church 
composer,  and,  according  to  Anthony  Wood,  '  one 
of  the  rarest  nmsicians  of  his  time.'  His  madrigals 
have  always  been  popular.  Of  these,  three.  Dainty 
Sweet  Bird,  0  that  the  Learned  Poets,  and  The 
Silver  Swan,  are  considered  far  sujierior  to  most 
compositions  of  the  kind.  He  composed  the  music 
for  the  marriage-ceremonial  of  Charles  I.,  in  1G25 ; 
but  while  attending  it  officially,  he  caught  the 
small-pox,  and  died  at  Whitsunday  thereafter.  A 
monument  to  his  memory,  erected  by  his  wife 
over  his  burial-])lace  in  Canterbury  Cathedral,  is 
still  shewn.  His  anthems,  Hosannah  to  the  Son 
of  David!  Almi(/hty  and  Everlasting  God!  and 
0  Clap  your  Hands  together!  are  reckoned  by 
Wood  *  master-pieces  of  the  most  ingenious  and 
scientific  writing  in  fugue  that  musical  skill  ever 
l)rouglit  forth.'  His  two  brothers,  Edward,  organist 
of  Bristol,  and  Ellis,  organist  of  Salisbury,  were 
likewise  good  musicians.  Edward,  sworn  in  a 
gentleman  of  the  Chapel  Boyal  in  1604,  was 
master  to  the  famous  composer  Matthew  Lock 
During  the  civil  wars  he  lent  Charles  I.  £1000,  for 
which  he  was  afterwards  deprived  of  a  consider- 
able estate,  and,  with  his  three  grandchildren, 
thrust  out  of  his  house  at  a  very  advanced  age. 
In  the  Triumphs  of  Oriana  are  two  madrigals  by 
Ellis  Gibbons.  G.'s  son,  Dr  Christopher  Gibbons,  at 
the  Restoration,  was  appointed  principal  organist 
to  the  king  and  to  Westminster  Abbey,  and  by  a 
reconmiendatory  letter  from  Charles  II.  was  created 
doctor  in  music  by  the  university  of  Oxford.  Cele- 
brated for  his  organ  blowing,  he  is  said  to  have 
been  the  instructor  on  that  instrument  of  Dr  John 
Blow,  the  well-known  composer  of  the  pieces 
published  under  the  title  of  Ampliion  Anglicus,  who 
died  in  1708. 

GIBBONS,  Grinling,  an  eminent  English 
sculptor  and  wood  carver,  of  Dutch  extraction, 
was  born  in  London  in  1648.  On  the  recom- 
mendation of  Evelyn,  he  was,  by  Charles  II., 
appointed  to  a  place  in  the  Board  of  Works,  and 
employed  in  the  ornamental  carving  of  the  choir 
of  the  chapel  at  Windsor.  His  works  display  great 
taste  and  delicacy  of  finish,  and  his  flowers  and 
foHage  have  almost  the  lightness  of  nature.  For 
the  choir  of  St  Paul's,  London,  he  executed  the 
foliage  and  festoons,  and  those  in  lime-tree  which 
decorate  the  side-aisles.  At  Chatsworth,  the  seat 
of  the  Duke  of  Devonshire  ;  at  Burleigh  ;  at  South- 
wick,  Hampshire  ;  and  other  mansions  of  the  Eng- 
lish nobility,  he  executed  an  immense  quantity  of 
carved  embellishment.  At  Petworth,  he  devused 
the  ceding  for  a  room,  which  is  believed  to  be  his 
cJief-d'oeuvre.  In  marble  and  bronze,  he  also  pro- 
duced  several  tine  pieces.  Among  these  are  the 
statue  of  James  II.,  behind  the  Banqueting  HfdL 


GIBBOSITY— GIBRALTAR 


Wliitehall ;  of  Charles  I.,  at  Charing  Cross ;  and 
that  of  Charles  II.,  at  the  Bank  of  England.  The 
wooden  throne  at  Canterbury ;  the  monument  of 
Viscount  Camden  at  Exton,  Rutlandshire  ;  and  the 
bajitismal  font  at  St  James's  Church,  London,  are 
by  him.    He  died  August  3,  1721. 

GIBBO'SITY  (Lat.  gihhus,  Gr.  huhos,  huphos, 
humpbacked),  a  state  of  disease  characterised  by 
protuberance  of  a  part  of  the  body  ;  chiefly  applied 
to  humpl)ack  or  other  distortions  depending  on 
disease  (Ptickcts,  q.  v.)  of  the  spinal  column. 

GI'BBOUS,  a  term  signifying  'protuberant,' 
*  swelling  oiit,'  applied  to  bodies  which  are  double- 
convex,  and  particularly  to  the  moon,  wlien  she  is 
within  a  week  of  the  full. 

GI'BEAH,  a  Hebrew  word  signifying  a  'hill,' 
and  giving  name  to  several  towns  and  places  in 
Ancient  Palestine.  The  only  one  requiring  special 
mention  is  Gihcah-of- Benjamin,  a  small  city  about 
four  miles  north  of  Jerusalem.  It  was  the  scene  of 
the  horrible  story  of  the  Levite  and  his  concubine, 
related  in  the  19th  chapter  of  Judges,  and  subse- 
quently the  residence,  if  not  the  birth])lace  of  King 
Saul.  Gibeah -of -Benjamin  has  been  identified  with 
the  modern  ^'illage  of  Tuleil  el-Ful. 

GIBEL  {Cyprinus  glbelio),  a  fish  of  the  same 
genus  with  the  carp,  but  of  the  division  of  the 
genus  destitute  of  barbules  at*  the  mouth,  by  which 
it  is  easily  distinguished  from  the  carp,  whilst  from 
the  crucian  it  is  at  once  distinguished  by  its  forked 
tail.  The  weight  is  seldom  much  more  than  half  a 
pound,  although  specimens  have  been  caught  of  two 
pounds  weight.  The  G.  is  common  in  some  parts  of 
r  continental  Europe  ;  it  is  supposed  to  have  been 
introduced  into  England  from  Germany,  but  is  now 
fully  naturalised  in  ponds  near  London  and  in 
many  other  parts  of  the  country.  It  is  generally 
known  in  England  as  the  Prussian  carp.  It  is  a 
good  fish  for  the  table,  but  affords  little  sport  to  the 
angler,  seldom  taking  any  bait  readily.  It  feeds 
partly  on  aquatic  plants,  partly  on  worms  and 
molluscs.  It  is  very  tenacious  of  life  out  of  the 
water,  and  has  been  known  to  recover  after  thirty 
hours. 

GIBELLI'NA,  a  village  of  Sicily,  in  the  province 
of  Trapani,  and  34  miles  south-east  of  the  town  of 
that  name,  is  situated  amid  mountains,  has  a  castle, 
and  a  pop.  of  about  5000. 

GI'BEON"  (Heb.  signifies  'belonging  to  a  hill'), 
a  celebrated  city  of  ancient  Palestine,  about  5 
miles  north-west  of  Jerusalem.  At  the  conquest 
of  Canaan  by  the  Israelites  under  Joshua,  it  was 
inhabited  by  the  Hivites.  By  a  clever  stratagem, 
the  Gibeonites  insured  the  alliance  and  protection 
of  the  invaders,  and  so  escaped  the  fate  of  Jericho 
and  Ai ;  but  their  deceit  being  afterwards  found 
out,  they  were  reduced  to  a  condition  of  servitude, 
being  ai^pointed  '  hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of 
water  unto  all  the  congregation.'  When  the  five 
kings  of  the  Amorites  besieged  G.,  on  the  ground 
of  its  having  entered  into  a  traitorous  compact  with 
the  common  enemy  of  all  the  Canaanites,  Joshua 
hastened  to  its  help,  and  overthrew  the  besiegers 
with  great  slaughter.  The  battle  was  attended, 
we  are  informed,  with  supernatural  phenomena — 
viz.,  the  standing  still  of  the  sun  upon  Gibeon,  and 
of  the  moon  in  the  valley  of  Ajn.lon ;  but  as  the 
passage  where  this  occurs  (Joshua  x.  13)  is  imme- 
diately followed  by  these  words:  'Is  not  this 
written  in  the  book  of  Jasher?'  it  has  been  thought 
that  it  may  perhaps  be  only  an  extract  from  that 
collection  of  national  songs ;  and  the  fact  of  its 
forming  two  homistichs,  while  the  rest  ol  the 
narrative  is  in   prose,  certainly  does  not  weaken 


the  probability  of  this  theory.  If  such  a  suppo- 
sition be  adopted,  the  necessity  for  accejjting  the 
statement  literally  is  done  away  with,  and  the  sup 
posed  miracle  is  resolved  into  a  hyperbole  of  oriental 
poetry.  The  city  of  G.  is  mentioned  various  times 
in  the  history  of  David  and  his  captains ;  but  its 
sanctity,  in  the  eyes  of  the  Jews,  arose  from  the 
cii'cumstance  of  it — or  the  hill  near  it — having  been 
for  a  time  the  seat  of  the  tabernacle  of  the  congre- 
gation, and  the  brazen  altar  of  burnt-offering.  It 
was  at  the  horns  of  this  altar  that  the  ruthlcRC 
Joab  was  slain  by  Benaiah,  the  son  of  Jehoiadaj; 
and  here  Solomon,  in  the  l>eginning  of  his  reign, 
[  with  magnificent  ceremony  sacrificed  a  thousind 
j  burnt- offerings. 

GIBRA'LTAR,  a  rocky  promontory,  3  miles  ic 
I  length  and  |  mile  in  average  breadth,  forms  the 
southern  extremity  of  Spain.    It  is  situated  at  the 
extremity  of  a  low  peninsula,  which  connects  it  on 
the  north  with  Andalusia  ;  its  i^iost  soxithern  head- 
land, Point  Europa,  is  in  lat.  36°  2'  30"  N.,  and  long. 
5°  15'  12"  W.     Five  and  a  half  miles  distant  across 
the  sea  is  the  Spanish  town  of  Algesiras,  between 
'  which  and  G.  lies  the  Bay  of  Gibraltar,  called  also 
I  the  Bay  of  Algesiras.    On  the  east  side  of  this  bay 
I  is  the  town  of  G,  inhabited  by  a  motley  population 
I  of  from  15,000  to  20,000  English,  Spaniards,  Jews, 
and  Moors. 

!     The  strip  of  peninsula  connecting  G.  with  the 
Spanish  territory  is  called  the  '  neutral  ground.'  It 
is  so  low,  that,  seen  from  the  sea  but  a  few  miles 
'  off",  G.  has  the  ap})earance  of  a  detached  rock. 
:  The  aiij)roaches  both  from  this  neutral  ground 
and  from  the  sea  are  guai'ded  by  a  great  number 
of  very  powerful  batteries,  and  by  fortifications  so 
strong  in  themselves  and  in  their  relative  bearing 
on  each  other,  that  the  rock  may  fairly  be  regarded 
as  impregnable   so  long  as  a  sufficient  garrison 
remains  for  its  defence,  and  sufficient  provision  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  troops  and  any  civil  inhabit- 
ants su.ff"ered  to  reside  there  during  hostilities.  The 
rock  is  composed  of  gray  primary  marble,  deposited 
in  strata  from  20  to  40  feet  thick.    The  surface  near 
the  sea  is  sandy  and  red  in  appearance ;  higher 
j  u]),  the  rock  is  covered  only  with  short  and  scanty 
!  grass  or  moss.    Seen  from  the  sea,  its  aspect  is 
uninviting,  the  whole  appearing  denuded  of  trees 
and  verdure :  nevertheless,  there  are  grassy,  wooded 
glens  in  the  nooks  of  the  mountain.    In  the  cre\-ices 
j  of  the  rock  grow  asparagus,  capers,  palmitas,  aloes, 
and  cacti,  while  the  fauna  disporting  on  the  wild, 
rarely  trodden  upper  portions,  comprises  rabbits, 
partridges,  pigeons,  woodcocks,  and  fawn-coloured 
Barbary  apes.    For  various  militar}'  reasons,  shoot- 
ing is  discouraged,  and  these  animals  therefore  enjoy 
the  utmost  impunity.   The  rock,  at  its  highest  point, 
the  Sugar  Loaf,  attains  an  elevation  of  1439  feet 
above  the  sea.   It  is  perforated  by  numerous  caverns, 
the  largest  of  which,  called  the  '  Halls  of  St  Michael/ 
have  an  entrance  about  1000  feet  above  the  sea. 
,  Thence  there  is  a  descent  through  a  succession  of 
caves — some  ample  chambers,  others  mere  ])assages, 
through  which  it  is  barely  possible  to  creep— to  a 
depth  of  500  feet  below  the  entrance  :  at  this  point 
foul  air  has  barred  further  ingress ;  but  the  roariag 
of  the  sea  has  been  distinctly  heard,  which  leads 
to  the  inference  that  these  gloomy  hollows  have 
communication  with  the  waves  beneath.  Large 
stalactites  are  found  in  most  of  the  caverns,  and 
;  interesting  fossils  abound  throughout  the  peninsula, 
j     The  climate  of  G.  is,  as  a  rule,  healthy,  although 
:  the  period  from  July  to  November,  when  the  greatest 
'  heat  prevails,  is  attended  with  some  risk  to  English- 
I  men :  there  is,  however,  a  remarkable  exception  in 
;  the  case  of  infants  at  the  period  of  teeth- ciitting, 
.  to  whom  the  atmosphere  of  the  place  is  pecuUarly 

746 


GIBRALTAR. 


fatal.  Of  late  years,  the  energetic  measures  adopted 
by  the  engineer-officers  to  improve  the  drainage  of 
the  town  have,  coupled  with  stringent  police  regu- 
lations, greatly  diminished  the  death-rate;  and  G. 
IS  as  remarkable  now  for  its  cleanly  appearance  as, 
u]>  to  1814,  it  was  celebrated  for  being  one  of  the 
dirtiest  towns  in  Europe.  The  x>lace  is,  however, 
eubject  to  a  periodical  visitation,  once  in  twelve 
years,  or  thereabout,  called  the  G.  fever,  an  epi- 
denuc  which  works  sad  havoc  among  the  troops. 

There  are  no  springs  of  fresh  water  on  the 
rock,  and  the  inha]>itants  are  therefore  compelled 
to  depend  on  the  rain-fall.  In  consequence  of  this, 
every  precaution  is  adopted  to  preserve  as  much 
of  the  water  as  possible ;  tanks  are  fed  systematic- 
ally by  the  drops  collected  from  jjrivate  roofs, 
and  conduits  are  made  to  giude  the  drainage 
from  the  rock  surface  into  groat  public  reservoirs. 
Among  the  latter,  the  Navy  Tank,  for  the  supply 
of  Ehips  coming  to  the  port,  is  consi)icuous,  its 


capacity  being  from  9000  to  11,000  tons  of  water. 
Large  stores  of  grain  are  maintained  in  case  of 
siege;  but  the  peninsula  does  not  produce  suflli- 
cient  food  to  furnish  current  sustenance  for  its 
population.  Provisions  in  plenty  can,  how^ever, 
be  procured  at  a  cheap  rate  from  the  opposite 
African  shore. 

The  Bay  of  Algesiras  or  Gibraltar,  is  about  S 
miles  long  by  5  broad,  with  a  depth  in  the  centre 
of  upwards  of  100  fathoms.  The  anchorage,  how- 
ever, is  not  very  good,  and  the  bay  is  quite  exi)osed, 
especiaDy  to  the  south-west  winds,  which  sometimes 
drag  the  ships  from  their  anchors  and  drive  them 
ashore. 

G.  has  been  known  in  history  from  a  very  early 
period.  The  Phoenician  navigators  called  it  Alub<\ 
which  the  Greeks  cornipted  into  Caipe,  its  classical 
name.  With  Abyla  (now  Ceuta)  opposite,  it  formed 
the  Pillars  of  Hercules,  long  held  to  be  the  western 
boundary  of  the  world.    It  is  impossible  to  doubt 


Rock  of  Gibraltar. 


tnat  such  leaders  as  Hannibal  and  his  fello"\v-Car- 
thaginians  must  have  been  awake  to  the  im})ortance 
of  this  rock  in  their  expeditions  from  Africa  into 
Spain ;  but  we  have  no  certain  information  of  its 
natural  strength  being  made  available  for  defensive 
or  aggressive  jnirposes  until  the  year  711  a.d.,  when 
the  Saracens,  passing  into  Spain  under  Tarif  ebn 
Zarca,  a  general  of  the  Calif  Al  AValid,  for  the 
conquest  of  the  Visigothic  kingdom,  fortified  it,  as 
a  base  of  operations,  and  a  ready  point  of  access 
from  the  Barbary  coast.  From  this  chieftain  it 
took  the  name  of  Gebel-Tarif,  or  Hill  of  Tarif,  of 
which  Gibraltar  is  a  corruption.  One  of  the  old 
towers  of  this  early  castle  still  remains.  Subse- 
uently,  G.  shared  in  the  revolvitions  among  the 
loors  of  Spain,  being  now  in  the  hands  of  Almo- 
ravifle  princes  from  Africa,  and  again  in  the 
power  of  native  Arab  monarchs.  In  1300,  after  a 
gallant  defence,  it  succumbed  to  the  Christians  of 
Castile  under  Don  Antonio  de  Guzman.  The 
king  of  Castile  immediately  constructed  additional 
works  and  a  dock-yard  at  the  '  Old  Mole,'  and 
also  took  measures  to  induce  a  Christian  popu- 
lation to  settle  in  the  town.  The  Moors  besieged 
G.  in  1315  ineffectually,  but  in  1333  it  fell  to 
the  army  of  tlie  king  of  Fez,  whom  a  siege  by  the 
Castilian  monarch  failed  to  dislodge.  In  1436, 
746 


the  Spaniards  tried  once  more  to  take  the  strong 
hold ;  but  they  were  unsiiccessful,  until,  in  a  sub 
sequent  siege  in  1462,  the  place  was  caj^tured 
through  the  treachery  of  a  renegade  Moor.  From 
this  time  the  Moorish  power  was  too  thoroughly 
broken  for  any  serious  attemi)t  to  be  made  for  the 
recovery  of  G.,  which  remained  in  the  hands  of  tho 
Spanish,  and  was  so  strengthened  by  additionali 
fortifications,  that  the  engineers  of  the  17th  c. 
accounted  it  impregnable.  A  combined  Dutch  and 
English  force,  however,  under  Sir  George  Rooke 
and  the  Prince  of  Hesse  Darmstadt,  demonstrated 
that  G.  could  be  taken  ;  for  in  1704,  after  a  vigorous 
bombardment,  and  a  landing  in  force,  the  governor 
deemed  it  wise  to  capitulate.  How  great,  even  then, 
were  the  capabilities  of  the  rock  for  defence  is  seen 
from  the  fact  that  the  garrison,  only  150  strong, 
placed  276  of  the  English  hors-de-combat  befox-e 
they  surrendered. 

Since  1704,  G.  has  remained  continuously  in  the 
possession  of  the  British,  but  not  without  the  ueces' 
sity  of  their  resisting  many  desperate  efforts  on  the 
part  of  Spain  and  France  to  dislodge  them.  Before 
the  victors  had  been  able  to  add  to  the  defences,  their 
mettle  was  severely  tried  by  a  siege  in  1704— 1705^ 
In  1720,  it  was  threatened,  and  in  1727  actually 
attacked  by  an  overwhelming;  force  imder  the  Count 


GIBRALTAR. 


de  las  Torres.  During  this  siege,  the  place  was 
near  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  assailants.  The 
most  memorable,  however,  of  the  sieges  to  which 
G.  has  been  exposed,  commenced  in  1779,  when 
Britain,  being  engaged  in  the  struggle  Mdth  its 
revolted  colonies,  and  at  the  same  time  at  war  with 
France,  Spain  took  the  opportnnity  of  joining  the 
coahtion,  and  directed  her  whole  streng-th  against 
the  isolated  garrison  of  this  small  but  redoubtable 
fortress. 

The  communications  with  Spain  were  closed  on 
thn  21st  June  1779,  and  a  strict  blockade  established 
by  the  Spanish  fleet ;  the  strength  of  the  besieged 
force  being  at  this  period  5382  men,  including  1095 
Hanoverians,  under  General  Eliott,  the  governor. 
Famine  speedily  set  in ;  the  enemy  pushed  forward 
his  works  for  the  future  bombardment,  and  com- 
menced active  annoyance  on  the  12th  January 
1780,  by  firing  several  shots  into  the  town.  Five 
days  later,  Admiral  Rodney  overcame  the  Spanish 
admiral,  threw  a  good  supply  of  provisions  into  the 
fortress,  added  1000  men  to  the  garrison,  and,  remov- 
ing all  useless  mouths,  left  it  dependent  on  its  own 
strength.  During  1780  little  of  importance  happened ; 
scurvy  disabled  many  of  the  defenders  ;  the  besiegers 
advanced  their  works,  continually  increased  their 
force,  and  by  obtaining  possession  of  the  opposite 
African  ports,  cut  off  the  last  chance  of  provisions 
being  obtained  for  the  stronghold. 

In  April  1781,  starvation  stared  the  British  in 
the  face,  when,  on  the  12th,  Admiral  Darby  con- 
voyed 100  merchant-vessels  into  the  bay.  The 
Spaniards  instantly  opened  their  lire,  hoping  to 
reduce  the  debilitated  garrison  before  effectual  aid 
was  received.  114  jneces  of  artillery,  mcluding  50 
13-incli  mortars,  poured  their  deadly  missiles  into 
the  place  :  for  many  days  this  bonibardm.eut  lasted 
with  unabated  vigour,  and,  though  less  incessant, 
it  continued  without  intermission  until  the  26th 
November,  when,  in  a  desperate  midnight  sally,  the 
British  succeeded  in  destroying  the  more  advanced 
of  the  enemy's  lines,  in  setting  fire  to  many  of  his 
batteries,  and  in  blowing  up  his  principal  depot  of 
ammunition.  This  daring  enterprise,  successfully 
carried  out  against  lines  mounting  135  gims,  was 
attended  with  suqirisingly  small  loss,  and  forms 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  incidents  in  a  magnificent 
defence. 

After  this  repulse,  the  Spaniards  ceased  severe 
hostilities  for  several  days,  up  to  which  cessation 
the  garrison  had  been  incessantly  bombarded  for 
nearly  eight  months,  and  had  had  568  officers  and 
men  placed  hors-de-comhat.  The  siege  contimied, 
however,  throughout  the  winter  and  spring  of  1782 
without  any  remarkable  incident.  In  July,  the 
Due  de  Crillon  took  command  of  the  assailants, 
and  preparations  were  made  for  the  grand  assaidt. 
Additional  batteries  were  constructed  on  the  laud- 
side,  and  floating  batteries  built  for  this  special 
siege  to  batter  the  fortress  from  the  sea.  The 
latter  consisted  of  ten  large  vessels,  whose  sides 
were  fortified  by  seven  feet  of  timber  and  other 
Saaterials  supposed  to  be  obstructive  of  shot;  they 
were  covered  by  slanting  shot-proof  roofs,  and  were 
inten  led  to  be  moored  by  massive  chains  v»dthin 
half-range  of  the  rock.  Covered  boats,  destined  to 
disembark  40,000  troops,  were  at  the  same  time 
prepared.  The  effective  force  with  which  General 
Eliott  had  to  withstand  these  efforts  comprised, 
with  the  marine  brigade,  about  7000  men. 

The  great  attack  commenced  on  the  8th  September 
by  a  bombardment  simultaneously  on  all  sides ; 
9  line-of-battle  ships  poured  in  their  broadsides  ; 
15  gun  and  mortar  boats  approached  the  town ; 
while,  from  the  Spanish  lines,  170  pieces  of  ordnance 
of  »arge  calibre  opened  in  one  magnificent  discharge. 


This  terrific  fire  continued  till  the  12th,  when  the 
combined  Frcncli  and  Spanish  fleets,  numbering  47 
sail  of  the  line,  the  10  battering  ships  mentioned 
ahove,  esteemed  indestructible,  with  many  fiigatea 
and  smaller  vessels,  anchored  in  the  bay  of  Alge- 
siras.  On  the  13th  every  gun  of  besiegers  and 
besieged  was  in  i)lay.  The  battering  vessels  proved, 
as  anticipated,  invulnerable  to  shot  and  shell.  At 
noon  the  enemy  depressed  their  guns  and  did  much 
damage ;  and  the  defenders  then  resorted  to  the 
expedient  of  red-hot  balls.  These,  with  carcasses, 
and  incendiary  shells,  were  concentrated  on  the 
battering  ships  in  unceasing  volleys.  Success  was 
doubtful  for  some  hours,  but  towards  evening  the 
gigantic  efforts  of  the  British  force  began  to  produce 
fruit.  The  ship  of  the  Spanish  admiral  was  in 
flames,  the  second  in  command  was  soon  no  better 
off,  and  although  by  eight  o'clock  the  attacking 
squadron  was  completely  silenced,  the  fire  of  red- 
hot  shot  was  continued  without  intermission  till 
morning.  By  4  a.m.  on  the  14th,  eight  of  the 
battering  shijis  were  on  fire.  In  short,  of  the  ten 
invincible  batteries,  every  one  was  finally  burned ; 
the  Spaniards  lost  at  least  2000  in  killed  alone ; 
and  the  naval  attack  was  completely  repulsed  with 
a  loss  to  the  heroic  garrison  of  only  16  killed  and  68 
wounded.  It  is  worthy  of  record,  that  notwith- 
standing the  fury  to  which  the  British  soldiers  were 
wroitght,  Brigadier  Curtis,  with  a  devoted  band, 
made  gallant  and  successful  efforts  to  preserve  the 
poor  fellows  who  vrere  left  by  their  affrighted 
comrades  to  perish  in  the  burning  hulks. 

The  great  bombardment  of  the  13th  September 
1782.  was  the  crowning  triumph  of  the  siege;  but 
the  firing  continued  in  a  harassing  degree  from  the 
Spanish  lines,  until  the  2d  Febrixary  1783,  when  the 
Due  de  Crillon,  as  much  to  his  own  as  to  General 
Eliott's  satisfaction,  announced  the  conclusion  of 
peace.  The  Spaniards  welcomed  their  late  enemies 
with  the  enthusiasm  due  to  heroes.  The  thanks  of 
parliament  were  cordially  awarded  to  the  gallant 
band ;  while  brave  General  Eliott  received  the  deco- 
ration of  the  Bath,  and  subsequently  the  title  of 
Lord  Heathfield.  ]\Iore  space  has  been  allowed  to 
the  description  of  this  memorable  struggle  than 
we  can  ordinarily  spare  to  specific  wars  ;  but  the 
glorious  place  it  occupies  in  British  annals,  the 
length  to  which  it  extended  (3  years,  7  months,  and 
12  days),  the  disparity  of  force,  the  brilliant  defence, 
and  the  comparatively  small  loss  of  the  garrison — • 
333  killed,  536  died  of  disease,  1008  womided,  and 
43  deserted — seem  to  point  to  this  the  last  siege  of 
G.  as  an  exploit  not  to  be  passed  over  by  a  mere 
reference. 

Since  1783,  the  British  possession  of  G.  has  been 
unmolested,  and  few  events  have  happened  of  any 
interest,  apart  from  the  general  history  of  the  empire. 
At  present,  England  guards  this  formidable  rock 
with  jealous  care  ;  every  available  point  for  defence 
bristles  with  artillery ;  the  mountain  is  honey- 
combed with  galleries  and  bomb-proofs,  steep  escarps 
bar  all  approach,  and  batteries  hewn  in  the  solid 
stone,  frown  alike  on  friend  and  foe.  Immense 
stores  of  provision,  water,  and  mimitions  of  war 
are  constantly  maintained ;  and  the  whole  is  garri- 
soned by  a  thoroughly  efficient  force  of  about  5000 
infantry,  with  1000  artillery,  and  a  smaller  body  of 
engineers.  The  jealousy  for  its  safety  would  appear 
to  rest  rather  on  making  its  preservation  to  the 
croT^Ti  of  England  a  point  of  honour  than  a  matter 
of  national  importance;  for  beyond  being  a  standing 
menace  to  Spain,  and  a  source  of  constant  irritation, 
it  is  difficvdt  to  see  its  actual  use  to  Gi  eat  Britain. 
The  harbour  is  not  of  great  value,  and  the  fortress 
by  no  means  commands  the  strait. 

With  regard  to  the  internal  organisation  of  G, 

747 


GIBRALTAR-GIBSON. 


the  law  of  England  prevails,  the  governor's  de- 
rision heing  final  in  civil  cases  not  involving  more 
than  £800.  In  more  important  causes,  an  appeal 
lies  to  the  British  Privy  Council.  There  is  a  good 
police  force,  under  a  police  magistrate,  and  tolerable 
order  usually  prevails.  All  religions  enjoy  a  perfect 
toleration  ;  the  Catholics  are  most  numerous,  having 
a  bishop  and  a  cathedral;  next  the  Jews,  who 

f)ossess  four  synagogues ;  the  Protestants,  though 
ess  numerous,  have  also  a  bishop.  There  are  three 
good  public  libraries ;  the  best  and  oldest  being 
that  started  by  the  famous  Colonel  Drinkwater, 
the  historian  of  the  great  siege. 

G.  is  a  free  port,  and  a  resort  in  consequence  of 
Spanish  smugglers,  who  drive  an  amazing  trade  by 
introducing  contraband  goods  into  Spain.  The 
British  government  is  not  altogether  free  from  a 
charge  of  breach  of  faith,  in  the  toleration  it  has 
given  to  these  dishonest  men ;  for  it  is  bound  by 
many  engagements  to  use  its  best  exertions  to  pre- 
vent any  fraud  on  the  Si:)anish  revenues,  in  conse- 
quence of  its  possession  of  this  peninsula.  The 
colony  of  G.  was  for  many  years  a  most  costly  one  ; 
but  of  late,  by  judicious  management,  it  has  been 
made  to  defray  the  expenses  of  its  civil  government; 
the  heavy  charge  for  the  military  force  being,  of 
coiu'se,  payable  out  of  imperial  funds.  In  1871  the 
revenue  amounted  to  £38,156,  and  was  derived  from 
customs,  port,  and  quarantine  dues,  hind  revenues, 
stamps,  and  licences.  The  expenditure  for  the  same 
year  was  £42,015.  Improvements  in  the  works  and 
gunnery  occasionally  create  heavy  expenses. 

The  town  of  G.  consists  of  three  i)arallel  streets, 
in  which  the  curious  intermingling  of  English  archi- 
tecture with  the  Spanish  houses  spoils  the  effect 
of  the  whole.  English  domestic  building  is  emi- 
nently unsuited  to  a  climate  light  and  hot,  like 
Gibraltar.  There  are,  nevertheless,  some  handsome 
structures. 

GIBRALTAR,  Straits  of  (anciently  the  Straits 
of  Hercules),  extend  from  Cape  Spartel  to  Cape 
Ceuta  on  the  African  coast,  and  from  Cajie  Trafalgar 
to  Europa  Point  on  the  coast  of  Si)ain.  The  Straits 
narrow  toward  the  east,  their  width  between 
Euroi)a  €*oint  and  Cape  Ceuta  being  only  15  miles, 
while  at  the  western  extremity  it  is  24  miles.  The 
length  (from  east  to  west)  is  about  36  miles.  The 
tide  at  Tarifa  rises  from  7  to  8  feet.  Through  these 
Straits  a  continual  current  runs  from  the  Atlantic, 
and  is  so  strong  that  sailing  vessels  bound  westward 
can  pass  only  by  the  aid  of  a  brisk  wind  from  the 
Levant.  It  is  siipposed  tbat  the  waters  of  the 
Mediterranean  find  an  outlet  here  by  an  under- 
current, as  well  as  by  the  currents  which  flow 
Westward  along  the  European  and  African  sliores 
respectively. 

GIBSOli,  John,  one  of  the  first  sculptors  of  the 
day,  was  born  at  Conway,  in  North  Wales,  in  1791. 
His  father,  a  landscape-gardener,  removed  to  Liver- 
ol  about  the  beginning  of  this  century,  and  here 
received  his  education.  His  love  of  art  mani- 
fested itself  strongly,  even  while  lie  was  a  mere  boy 
at  school,  and  at  the  age  of  1 6  he  entered  the  marble 
works  of  the  Messrs  Francis,  by  whom  he  was  intro- 
duced to  Roscoe,  whose  art-treasu^res  were  placed  at 
his  service.  Through  the  kindness  of  some  wealthy 
friends  he  was  enabled,  in  his  26th  year,  to  proceed 
to  Rome,  where  he  became  a  pupil  of  Canova,  and 
after  his  death  of  Thorwaldsen.  G.  has  fixed  his 
residence  in  that  city,  and  has  very  seldom  revisited 
his  native  country.  His  first  reappearance  in  Eng- 
land was  after  a  lapse  of  28  years.  At  first.  G. 
showed  himself,  naturally  enough,  a  faithful  follower 
of  Canova,  whose  graceful  softness  he  made  his 
own.  But  he  did  not  stop  there.  By  the  study  of 
'748 


the  antique,  which  Thorwaldsen  was  the  very  man 
to  stimulate,  G.  finally  rose  to  ideal  purity,  and  a 
thorough  realisation  of  the  grace  of  form.  This 
advance  is  clearly  traceable  in  his  works.  His  first 
important  work  was  a  'Nymj^h  unfastening  her 
Sandal.'  This  was  followed  by  a  group  representing 
'  Psyche  borne  by  the  Zephyrs,'  which  he  executed 
for  Sir  George  Beaumont,  and  which  he  has  several 
times  repeated.  In  the  church  of  St  Nicholas,  in 
Liverpool,  there  is  a  bas-relief  of  G.'s  representing 
a  traveller  conducted  on  the  dangerous  path  of  life 
by  his  guardian  angel.  Among  his  greatest  works 
are  his  '  Aurora  rising  from  the  Waves  to  announce 
the  Day '  (belonging  to  Lord  Tovvnshend)  ;  '  The 
Wounded  Amazon'  (the  property  of  the  Marquis  of 
Westminster) ;  '  The  Hunter  and  his  Dog  ;'  '  Narcis- 
sus,' ' Helen,' ' Sappho,'  'Proserpine,'  and '  Venus.'  A 
si)irit  of  the  finest  jwetiy  breathes  through  these 
works  : — they  are  thoroughly  classical,  and  are 
marked  by  a  refined  and  noble  severity.  His  grand 
innovation,  however,  viz.,  that  of  tinting  his  figures 
— though  he  defends  the  ])ractice  by  a  reference  to 
Grecian  precedents — has  excited  much  keen  contro- 
versy, and  cannot  yet  be  said  to  have  commended 
itself  to  the  public  taste.  Among  his  portrait- 
statues,  those  of  Huskisson  and  Peel,  George 
Stephenson,  and  Queen  Victoria,  are  the  best.  G. 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1836. 
He  died  in  1866. 

GIBSON,  Thomas  Milner,  the  Right  Hon., 
politician  and  statesman,  only  son  of  Major  Milner- 
Gibson,  was  born  at  Trinidad,  1807,  and  educated 
at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  a 
wrangler's  degree  in  1830.  He  entered  parhament 
as  M.P.  for  Ipswich  in  1837,  on  the  Conservative 
interest.  As  his  ])olitical  views  expanded,  he  threw 
off  his  allegiance  to  Sir  Robert  Peel,  for  which  he 
I)aid  the  penalty  of  the  loss  of  his  seat  in  1839.  In 
this  year  he  assumed  the  name  of  Milner,  by  royal 
licence.  His  eloquence,  ability,  and  superiority  to 
party-ties  having  gained  for  him  the  confidence 
of  the  Liberals,  in  1841  he  successfully  contested 
Manchester  against  the  Conservative  candidate.  Sir 
G.  Murray.  He  had  previously  distinguished  himself 
by  his  advocacy  of  free-trade  ;  and  during  the  suc- 
ceeding five  years,  occupied  a  prominent  position, 
both  in  and  out  of  parliament,  among  the  orators  of 
the  League.  Wlien  the  measure  for  the  repeal  of  the 
Corn  Laws  was  carried,  and  the  Whigs  came  into 
office  in  July  1846,  he  was  made  a  privy  councillor, 
and  vice-president  of  the  Board  of  Trade ;  but, 
in  April  1848,  gave  up  a  post  which  was  by  no 
means  commensurate  with  his  powers  and  preten- 
sions. More  and  more  identifying  bimself  with  the 
opinions  held  by  Messrs  Cobden  and  Bright,  when 
the  war  with  Russia  broke  out,  he  espoused  the 
unpopular  doctrines  held  by  what  W'as  called  the 
'  Manchester  school,'  or  as  it  was  otherwise  desig- 
nated, the  '  Peace  party.'  In  1857,  the  Whigs  and 
Conservatives  of  Manchester  successfully  united  to 
unseat  him  and  his  colleague,  Mr  Bright.  Milner-G. 
was,  hoM^ever,  returned  at  the  end  of  1857  for 
the  borough  of  Ashton-under-Lyne,  which  he  has 
continued  to  represent.  In  1858,  he  moved  an 
amendment  to  the  second  reading  of  the  Conspiracy 
Bill,  expressing  the  abhorrence  of  the  House  at  the 
attempt  by  Orsini  upon  the  life  of  Napoleon  III., 
and  its  readiness  to  amend  defects  in  the  cripiinal 
law ;  but  censuring  the  government  for  not  reply- 
ing to  Count  Persigny's  despatch  of  January  20, 
1858.  The  amendment  was  carried,  and  the  govern- 
ment of  Lord  Palmerston  was  shattered  to  pieces. 
When  that  noble  lord  again  took  office  next  year, 
he  recognized  the  skilful  parliamentary  tactics  and 
influence  of  Milner  G.  by  offering  him  a  place  in 
his  cabinet.    He  becarue  ad  interim  president  of  the 


GIDDINESS— GIESSEN. 


Poor-law  Commission  in  June  1859,  and  President 
of  the  Board  of  Trade  next  month.  The  duties 
of  this  office  he  still  (1862)  efficiently  discharges. 
Milner-G.  will  be  honourably  and  gratefully  remem- 
bered for  his  strenuous  advocacy  of  the  abolition  of 
the  taxes  on  knowledge.  He  was  for  twelve  years 
president  of  the  association  for  the  repeal  of  these 
taxes.  His  labours  were  crowned  with  success,  first 
by  the  repeal  of  the  advertisement  duty  in  1853, 
aud  secondly,  by  the  repeal  of  the  compulsory  stamp 
on  newspapers  in  1855.  There  then  only  remained 
the  paper  duty.  Milner-G.  had  made  several 
attempts  in  previous  sessions  to  induce  successive 
chancellors  of  the  Exchequer  to  abolish  this  impost ; 
and  in  ]  858,  he  carried  a  resolution,  '  that  the 
maintenance  of  the  excise  on  paper,  as  a  permanent 
source  of  revenue,  would  be  impolitic'  Mr  Disraeli, 
then  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  consented  to 
accept  this  motion,  but  held  himself  at  liberty,  "with 
his  party,  to  oppose  the  Paper  Duty  Abolition  Bill 
proposed  by  the  government,  of  which  Milner-G. 
was  a  meml^er,  in  1800.  The  bill  was  thrown  out 
by  the  House  of  Lords  on  financial  groimds,  but 
was,  next  session,  incorporated  into  the  general 
financial  scheme  of  the  year  :  and  on  the  1st  of 
October  1861,  the  paper  duty  ceased  to  exist. 
Milner-G.  has  since  received  a  valuable  and  givatif}^- 
ing  commemorative  presentation  of  plate  from  the 
members  and  friends  of  the  Association  for  the 
Repeal  of  the  Taxes  of  Knowledge.  This  testimonial 
was  presented  to  the  right  honourable  gentleman 
at  a  public  banquet  in  Lonuon,  in  the  early  part  of 
1862.   In  1866  he  retired  from  office. 

GI'DDINESS.    See  Vertigo. 

GI'DEON  (Heb.  signifies  'a  hewer'  or  'cutter 
do-wn,'  i.  e.,  'a  brave  soldier')  was  the  name  of  the 
gi-eatest  of  all  the  judges  of  Israel.  He  was  the 
youngest  son  of  Joasli  the  Abiezrite,  and  lived  with 
his  father  at  Ophrah,  in  Manasseh.  The  period  in 
which  his  youth  was  cast  was  a  gloomy  one  for 
Israel.  The  i)eople  had  fallen  into  idolatry,  and  as 
a  punishment  '  the  Lord  had  delivered  them  into  the 
hand  of  Midian.'  It  does  not  appear  that  the 
Midianites  exercised  their  supremacy  by  any  actual 
form  of  government.  Being  chiefly  wandering  herds- 
men, like  the  Bedouin  Arabs  of  the  present  day, 
they  were  rather  in  the  habit  of  regidarly  coming  up 
from  the  desert  '  to  destroy  the  increase  of  the 
earth.'  So  terrible  were  their  marauding  exi)edi- 
tions,  that  it  is  said  they  '  left  no  sustenance  for 
Israel,  neither  sheep,  nor  ox,  nor  ass.'  Only  in  the 
mountain  strongholds,  and  in  dens  and  caves  among 
the  hiUs,  could  the  people  i^reserve  their  liberty  and 
the  produce  of  their  fields.  At  last,  however,  the 
Israelites  began  'to  cry  unto  the  liOrd,'  and  a 
prophet  is  sent  to  stir  up  their  religious  and  X)atriotic 
reelings.  They  were  now  obviously  ripe  for  resist- 
ance to  the  enemy,  at  leact  portions  of  them.  It  is 
at  this  point  that  G.  is  introduced  by  the  writer  of 
the  Book  of  Judges,  '  threshing  wheat  by  the  wine- 
press to  hide  it  from  the  Midianites.'  The  steps 
which  he  took  to  secure  the  freedom  of  his  country- 
men are  too  well  known  to  require  description.  It 
i3  sufficient  to  say  that,  with  a  small  but  resolute 
force  of  Jewish  patriots,  he  fell  suddenly  upon  the 
enemy  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Mount  Gilboa,  and 
utterly  routed  them.  The  pursuit  of  the  fugitives 
was  continued  far  across  the  Jordan  towards  the 
Syrian  Desert.  The  effect  of  the  victory  was  most 
decisive.  The  Midianites,  we  are  told,  '  lifted  up 
their  head  no  more,'  and  the  land  of  Israel  enjoyed 
quietness  forty  years  in  the  days  of  Gideon.'  The 
people  wished  to  make  him  king,  but  he  religiously 
refused  to  tamper  with  the  theocracy.  He  left 
behind  him  70  sons. 


GIEN",  a  small  manufacturing  town  of  France,  in 
the  dei)artment  of  Loirct,  is  situated  on  the  slope  ol 
a  hill  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Loire,  38  miles  east- 
south-east  of  Orleans.  It  is  well  built,  is  connected 
with  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river  l)y  a  handsome 
stone-bridge  of  12  arches,  has  an  old  church  (the 
church  of  St  Etienne),  which  has  been  much  hurt 
by  repairs,  and,  surmounting  the  hill,  it  has  an 
interesting  old  castle,  in  a  good  state  of  preser 
vation.  U.  has  important  manufactures  of  faience 
and  leather,  and  some  trade  in  wine,  corn,  salt, 
saffron,  and  wool.    Pop.  (1872)  6105. 

GIESELER,  JoHANN  Karl  Ludwtg,  German 
church  historian,  was  born  3d  March  1792,  at  Peters, 
hagen,  near  Minden,  where  his  father  was  a  clergy- 
man. After  attending  the  orphan-house  school 
and  university  of  Halle,  and  after  teaching  for  a 
year  in  that  town,  in  October  1813,  he  entered  the 
army  as  a  volunteer  during  the  war  of  liberation. 
On  the  re-establishment  of  peace,  however,  in  1815, 
he  returned  to  his  former  situation,  where  he  taught 
for  two  years,  and  then  became  conrector  of  the 
G;y^nnasium  at  Minden.  In  the  follownig  year,  he 
was  appointed  to  the  directorship  of  a  newly 
instituted  gymnasium  at  Cleves,  and  published  an 
essay  on  the  origin  and  early  fate  of  the  gospels 
{Historisch-K7-itischer  Versuch  iiber  d.  Entdeliung  u. 
d./riihern  Schichsale  d.  schrifdichen  EvaiKjeiien  (Leipz. 
1818).  This  and  other  works  were  the  occasion  of 
his  being  called,  in  1819,  as  ordinary  professor  of 
theology,  to  the  university  of  Bonn,  which  had  beer, 
established  but  shortly  before.  It  was  in  this  place 
that  he  began  his  great  work  on  church  history,  of 
which  3  vols,  appeared  during  his  life,  and  two  more 
after  his  death,  under  the  editorship  of  E.  1\.  llede- 
penning.  This  work,  which  brings  down  the  history 
of  the  church  to  the  most  recent  times,  has  been 
translated  into  English,  and  is  so  greatly  valued  for 
its  method  of  picturing  the  times  in  happy  quota- 
tions from  contemporary  writings,  that  the  first 
three  volumes  have  already  gone  through  several 
editions.  In  1831,  G.  was  called  to  a  chair  in 
Gottingen  ;  became,  in  1837,  a  consistorial  councillor; 
and  later,  also  knight  of  the  order  of  the  Guelphs. 
He  was  deeply  devoted  to  his  professorial*  duties, 
but  took  at  the  same  time  a  practical  interest  in 
many  benevolent  schemes,  esi')ecially  in  the  Gottin- 
gen oi'phan-house.  Besides  numerous  contributions 
to  periodicals  and  publications  on  contemporary 
questions,  he  edited,  among  other  things,  the 
Narratio  de  Bogomilis  of  Euthymius  Zygabenua 
(Gcitt.  1842),  as  well  as  Petrus  Siculus'  Historia 
MankJieorum  seu  Paulicianorum  (Gott.  1846),  aud 
left  behind  him  a  volume  on  the  history  of  dogmas, 
which  was  given  to  the  world  by  Redepenning  iu 
1856.  He  died  8th  July  1854.  A  notice  of  his  life 
will  be  found  prefixed  by  the  editor  to  the  5th  voL 
of  his  Church  History. 

GIE'SSEN",  the  principal  town  of  the  province  of 
Upper  Hesse,  in  the  Grand- duchy  of  Hesse,  or  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  is  pleasantly  situated  in  a  beautiful 
and  fertile  plain  at  the  confluence  of  the  Wieseck 
and  the  Lahn,  34  miles  north  of  Frankfurt-on-the- 
Maine.  Pop.  (1872)  12,245.  It  is  chiefly  deser\dng 
of  notice  for  its  well-endowed  miiversity  (founded 
in  1607),  which  possesses  commodious  buildings 
for  lecturing,  and  has  well-appointed  anatomical 
and  other  museums,  a  good  library,  observatory,  a 
famous  chemical  laboratory  (where  the  illustrious 
Liebig  experimented),  botanical  garden,  &c.  There 
are  also  various  endowed  schools,  as  the  Gym- 
nasium, Beal-Schule,  &c.,  and  several  institutions 
for  the  preliminary  instruction  of  different  branches 
of  medical  knowledge,  which  are  connected  with 
the  imiversity.     G.   has    manufactories   for  the 

749 


GIFFORD-GIL. 


preparation  of  tobacco,  liqueurs,  vinegar,  soap,  and 
leatlier,  and  ia  an  active  thriving  town. 

GIFFORD,  William,  an  English  poet,  translator, 
and  critic,  was  bora  at  Ashbnrton,  in  Devonshire, 
in  April  1756.  At  the  age  of  15  he  was  appren- 
ticed to  a  shoemaker,  but  exhibiting  a  very  decided 
bias  towards  learning  and  poetry,  he  was  enabled, 
through  the  kindness  of  some  friends,  to  acquire 
an  education,  and  to  proceed  to  Exeter  College, 
Oxford.  G.'s  tirst  publication  appeared  in  1704, 
being  a  satirical  poem,  entitled  the  Baviad,  directed 
against  the  Delia  Cruscans  (q.  v.).  It  ci-ushed 
them  in  a  moment,  like  the  fall  of  a  rock.  Flushed 
with  success,  G.  next  year  i)roduced  the  Mieviad, 
which  satirised  the  offences  in  the  high  places  of 
the  drama.  In  his  third  satire,  G.  assailed  Peter 
Pindar  (Dr  Wolcot) ;  and  the  coarse  and  witty 
doctor,  the  breath  of  whose  nostrils  was  literary 
warfare,  rushed  to  the  fray  with  A  Cut  at  a  Cobbler, 
and  bespattered  his  opponent  with  mud  from  the 
Kennels.  Canning  and  his  friends  having  at  this 
time  set  up  the  Anti- Jacobin,  G.  was  ai)pointed 
editor,  and  through  the  influence  he  acquired  among 
the  leaders  of  at  least  one  section  of  the  political 
world,  he  w^is  appointed  to  offices,  the  joint  emolu- 
ments of  which  amounted  to  £900  per  annum.  In 
1802,  he  translated  Juvenal,  and  appended  to  his 
work  a  sketch  of  the  i)oet's  life.  He  edited  the 
works  of  Massinger,  Ford,  Shirley,  and  Ben  Jonson, 
and  in  his  notes  assailed  former  editors  with  the 
utmost  ferocity.  In  1808,  he  was  appointed  editor 
of  the  Quarterly  Review,  started  by  Sir  Walter 
Scott  and  his  friends  in  opposition  to  the  Edinburf/h. 
The  periodical  under  his  charge  attained  great 
influence,  and  he  continued  his  editorial  duties  till 
within  two  years  of  his  death.  He  died  in  London 
on  the  ,31st  December  182G. 

G.  possessed  much  satirical  acerbity  and  poison, 
but  as  a  poet  he  holds  no  rank  whatever.  As 
annotator  and  editor  of  the  old  English  dramatists, 
he  did  good  service,  but  his  labours  in  this  field 
are  disfigured  by  suspicion  and  malignity.  As  a 
critic,  he  was  bitterly  partial  and  one-sided,  and 
his  praise  and  blame  depended  on  the  political 
leanings  of  the  writer.  Leigh  Hunt  was  to  be  pur- 
sued like  a  wild-beast,  because  he  was  a  Liberal ; 
and  the  flower-garden  of  Endymion,  every  rose 
of  which  was  fed  by  the  dews  of  paradise,  was 
to  be  trampled  upon  with  critical  hoof,  because 
Keats  was  known  to  have  written  a  sonnet  in 
praise  of  Hunt,  and  was  understood  to  be  his 
private  friend.  G.  had  been  rudely  nurtured ;  he 
lived  in  a  time  of  great  political  nncharity;  and 
if  a  portion  of  the  bitterness  he  displayed  may  be 
set  down  to  natural  disposition  and  turn  of  mind, 
the  larger  part,  perhaps,  must  be  explained  by  the 
pressure  of  the  times  in  which  he  lived. 

GIFT,  in  English  Law,  means  a  gratuitous 
transfer  of  property.  ■  Any  person  is  at  liberty  to  do 
what  he  pleases  with  his  own  property,  and  to  give 
it  away  with  or  without  consideration,  if  he  is  so 
inclined.  When  he  gives  away  goods  or  chattels, 
mere  delivery  of  possession,  accompanied  by  words 
of  gift,  is  sufficient  to  transfer  the  property ;  and 
then  the  transaction  is  irrevocable.  But  if  he  does 
not  give  possession  of  the  goods  at  the  same  time, 
then,  in  order  to  be  binding  upon  him,  he  must 
execute  a  deed  or  writing  under  seal.  The  reason 
of  this  is,  that  a  mere  verbal  promise,  without  some 
legal  consideration,  is  migatory  and  revocable ; 
whereas,  when  he  executes  a  deed,  he  is  stopped 
from  ever  afterwards  denying  it.  Where  the  pro- 
perty given  is  not  personal,  but  real,  then  a  deed 
IS  in  general  absohitely  necessary  to  transfer  the 
property.    A  will  is  the  most  familiar  example  of 


a  gift  of  property  both  real  and  personal,  for  the 
testator  generally,  in  such  a  case,  gives  away  his 
property  gratuitously.  Each  gift  of  personalty  by 
will  is  better  known  under  the  name  of  a  legacy ; 
and  a  gift  of  land  is  generally  called  a  devise. 

As  sometimes  the  power  of  giving  away  property 
gratuitously  is  abused,  in  order  to  defraud  and 
defeat  creditors,  it  is  provided  by  statute,  that  a 
voluntary  conveyance,  whether  of  chattels  or  land, 
made  by  a  person  who  is  at  the  time  insolvent,  shall 
be  void  as  against  such  creditors ;  and  they  are 
entitled,  accordingly,  to  recover  the  property  frona 
the  donee  (18  Eliz.  c.  5).  The  gift,  however,  even  in 
such  a  case,  stands  good  against  the  donor  himself. 
So,  if  any  person  give  by  deed  gratuitously  any 
land,  and  then  sell  the  same  land,  the  gift  will  h% 
void  against  the  bond-jide  purchaser  (27  Eliz.  c.  4). 

There  is  a  peculiar  kind  of  gift,  or  rather  a  gift 
made  in  peculiar  circumstances,  called  a  Dona.tio 
Mortis  Causa,  i.  e.,  a  gift  made  by  a  person 
on  death-bed  of  some  personal  property,  such  aa 
chattels,  money,  bills  of  exchange,  &c.  Such  gifts 
are  held  good,  if  they  comply  with  certain  conditions. 
This  is  in  substance  a  mode  of  giving  personal 
chattels  to  a  particular  individual,  without  the 
necessity  or  intervention  of  a  will ;  but  such  gifts 
are  so  often  afterwards  disputed,  that  it  is  better  to 
include  them  in  a  will. 

In  Scotland,  a  gift  may  be  made  of  goods  in 
the  same  manner  as  in  England  ;  but  it  is  usually 
called  a  Donation  (q.  v.).  Gratuitous  alienations 
by  persons  in  insolvent  circiimstanccs  are  also  held 
to  be  void  as  against  creditors  (stat.  1621,  c.  18), 
Though  it  is  competent  in  Scotland  to  make  a  gift 
of  goods  or  money  by  merely  delivering  th<3  posses- 
sion thereof,  accompanied  by  words  of  gift  to  the 
donee,  still  there  is  this  peculiai-ity,  that  if  the 
transaction  is  afterwards  imi)eached,  it  can  only  be 
proved  in  Scotland  by  the  donor's  writ  or  oath, 
no  matter  how  many  witnesses  may  have  been 
present ;  whereas,  in  England,  it  can  be  proved  by 
ordinary  witnesses,  like  any  other  fact. 

Gift,  in  the  Law  of  Scotland,  is  also  often  used 
to  denote  a  grant  or  appointment  by  the  crown  or  a 
court,  such  as  gifts  of  non-entry,  escheat,  bastardy, 
tutory,  &c. 

GIGG,  GIGA,  or  GIGUE,  the  name  of  a  short 
piece  of  music,  much  in  vogue  in  olden  times ;  of  a 
joyful  and  lively  chai-acter,  and  in  ~  or  ^  time, 
sometimes  in  f ;  used  formerly  as  a  dance-tune,  and 
often  introduced  as  a  movement  of  a  larger  com- 
position. It  consists  of  two  parts  of  eight  bai-a 
each,  and  the  shortest  notes  are  quavers. 

GIJO'N,  a  fortified  town  and  seaport  of  Spain,  in 
the  province  of  Oviedo  (the  former  Asturias\,  and 
20  miles  north-north-east  of  the  town  of  that  name, 
stands  on  a  low  peninsula  projecting  northward 
into  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  It  is  the  best  and  most 
regularly  built  town  in  the  province  ;  is  partly  sur- 
rounded by  old  walls,  and  is  defended  by  an  old 
castle  and  by  coast  batteries.  It  has  a  good  port, 
at  which  steamers  call  regidarly.  There  are  manu- 
factures of  stone-wares,  hats,  and  linen  fabrics ; 
nuts  and  other  fruits  are  exported.  Bermudez,  tlie 
historian  of  Sjianish  art,  was  born  here.  In  718, 
the  Moors  having  been  defeated  at  the  battle  of 
Canicas,  were  compelled  to  abandon  G.,  of  which 
they  had  made  themselves  masters.    Pop.  6100. 

GIL,  San  (sometimes  called  St.  Giles),  a  small 
town  of  the  republic  of  New  Granada,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Boyaca,  stands  in  lat.  6'^  25'  N.,  and  in  long. 
73"  40'  W.,  64  miles  south-west  of  Pamplona.  It 
was  founded  in  1690,  has  a  college,  and  manufactures 
of  tobacco  and  cotton  fabrics,  and  a  good  trade  in 
agricultural  produce.    Pop.  6000. 


GII^GILBERT. 


GIL,  Vicente,  the  father  of  the  Portuguese 
drama,  was  born  about  1470,  or,  according  to 
others,  about  1485,  whether  at  Guimaracs,  Bar- 
cellos,  or  Lisbon,  is  disputed.  In  accordance  with 
the  desire  of  his  parents,  he  studied  jurisprudence 
at  the  university  of  Lisbon  ;  but  his  poetical  tastes 
soon  drew  him  away  from  that  science,  and  his 
inclination  v/as  possibly  confirmed  by  the  favour- 
able reception  of  his  first  poetical  essay  at  the 
court  of  Emanuel  the  Great.  This  was  a  pastoral 
in  Spanish,  which  was  represented  before  the 
court  in  1502,  to  celebrate  the  birth  of  the  prince 
who  became  John  TIL  The  qxieen,  Beatrice, 
Emanuel's  mother,  was  so  pleased  with  the  piece, 
that  she  wished  it  to  be  repeated  at  the  following 
Christmas;  but  G.  produced  a  new  work  for  the 
occasion,  also  in  Spanish,  and  in  dramatic  form; 
BO  that  the  introduction  of  the  drama  into  Por- 
tugal coincides  with  the  year  of  the  birth  of 
John  III.  G.  continued  at  all  the  more  important 
festivals  to  produce  similar  dramatic  pieces,  in  the 
performance  of  which  not  only  he  and  his  daughter 
Paula,  who  was  a  distinguished  actress  and  poet, 
but  King  John  also  took  part.  His  fame  spread 
beyond  his  own  country,  and  Erasmus,  declaring 
him  to  be  the  greatest  dramatist  of  his  time,  is 
said  to  have  learned  Portuguese  for  the  purpose  of 
reading  his  works.  At  home,  however,  he  had 
detractors,  whom  he  sought  to  silence  once  at  a 
party  by  composing  impromptu,  on  a  given  proverb, 
the  farce,  Inez  Pereira,  which  is  his  best  piece. 
Complaia\ts  in  his  works  seem  to  indicate  that  the 
court  was  not  liberal  enough  to  keep  him  from  want 
in  his  later  years.  He  died  probably  soon  after 
1536.  His  works  were  edited  by  his  son  in  1561, 
and  again  in  1585,  after  undergoing  castigation  by 
the  Inquisition.  It  was  not  till  our  own  times 
that  a  reprint  of  G.'s  works,  as  complete  and  correct 
as  possible,  was  undertaken  by  Barreto  Feio,  and 
.Monteiro  (3  vols.,  Hamb.  1832).  Not  only  does  G. 
possess  historical  importance  as  having  laid  the 
toundation  of  a  national  theatre  in  Portugal,  but 
his  works  deserve  study  from  their  intrinsic 
poetical  and  dramatic  worth.  He  has  been  caUed 
the  Plautus  of  Portugal. 

GIL  POLO,  Gaspar,  a  Spanish  poet,  was  bom 
at  Valencia  in  the  first  half  of  the  16th  century. 
While  town-clerk  of  his  native  place,  his  talents 
for  office  became  known  to  Philip  II.,  who  appointed 
him,  in  1572,  coadjutor  to  the  president  of  the 
upper  financial  chamber  of  the  kingdom  of  Valencia, 
and  in  1580  sent  him  to  superintend  the  royal 
patrimony  at  Barcelona,  where  he  died.  Before, 
however,  his  time  was  absorbed  by  business,  G. 
had  occupied  himself  with  poetry.  Besides  various 
lyrics,  and  his  Canto  de  Turla  in  praise  of  his 
native  city,  he  wrote  a  continuation  of  Monte- 
mayor's  Diana,  under  the  title  Primer  a  Parte  de 
Diana  enamorada  Cinco  Lihros,  que  prosique  los 
Sieta  de  Jorge  Montemayor.  This  work  appeared 
first  at  Valencia  in  1564,  the  same  year  in  which 
another  continuation  of  Montemayor' s  pastoral  was 
given  to  the  world  by  a  physician  named  Perez. 
Tiiough  inferior  to  the  original  romance  in  inven- 
tion, G.'s  continuation  so  greatly  surpasses  it,  as 
well  as  the  other  continuation,  in  clearness  of 
thought  and  expression  throughout  the  metrical 
portions,  that  Cervantes  exempts  it  from  the  con- 
demnation of  Don  Quixote's  other  books  as  deserv- 
ing as  much  respect  '  as  though  Apollo  himself  had 
written  it.'  The  best  edition  of  the  Diana  enamo- 
rada is  that  of  Cerda,  which  is  accompanied  by  a 
commentary  on  the  Canto  de  Turia  (Madrid,  1778; 
new  cd.  1802).  Biographers  have  generally  con- 
foundcul  G.  Avith  a  son  of  his  own  name,  who  was 
*  distinguished  writer  on  jiuisprudence. 


GI'LA,  Rio,  a  river  of  North  America,  has  it# 
origin  in  the  state  of  New  Mexico,  in  lat.  about 
32°  45'  N.,  long,  about  108°  30'  W. ;  and,  after  a 
westward  course  of  nearly  450  miles,  joins  tho 
Colorado,  about  70  miles  above  the  fall  of  that  river 
into  the  Gulf  of  California.  For  more  than  one- 
half  of  its  course  it  passes  through  mountains, 
and  in  some  places  is  wholly  inaccessible,  being 
imprisoned  within  walls  of  perpendicular  rock 
nearly  1000  feet  high.  The  G.  is  navigable  for 
flat  boats  for  about  180  miles.  Numberless  ruini 
of  stone-buLlt  houses,  among  which  fragments  of 
pottery  are  found,  occur  all  along  tho  banks  of 
this  river,  proving  that  at  some  past  period  the 
district  must  have  been  much  more  populous  than 
it  now  is.  One  of  these  ruins,  a  structure  oi 
three  stories  in  height,  is  still  in  a  good  statt  olt 
preservation. 

GILBERT,  William,  a  distinguished  natuxfil 
philosopher  and  physician,  was  born  in  1540  at 
Colchester,  of  which  town  his  father  was  recorder. 
He  was  a  member,  and  subsequently  fellow  of  St 
John's  College,  Cambridge ;  was  B.A.  in  1560,  M.A. 
in  1564,  and  M.D.  in  1569.  About  the  year  1573,  he 
settled  m  London,  joined  the  College  of  Physicians, 
and  practised  vrith  so  much  reputation,  that  he 
was  appointed  phj^sician  to  Queen  Elizabeth.  The 
time  that  he  could  spare  from  the  duties  of  his  pro- 
fession was  employed  in  philosophical  experiments, 
particularly  in  relation  to  the  magnet ;  and  in  these 
he  was  assisted  by  a  pension  from  the  queen.  After 
holding  various  offices  in  the  College  of  Physicians, 
he  was  finally  elected  its  president  in  1600.  At  the 
death  of  the  queen,  he  was  continued  in  his  office 
of  court  i^hysician  by  James  I.,  but*  he  survived 
his  royal  mistress  only  a  few  months,  and  died  a 
bachelor  in  November  1603.  His  death  seems  to 
have  taken  place  in  London ;  but  he  was  buried  at 
Colchester,  in  the  church  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  where 
there  is  a  handsome  monument  to  his  memory.  He 
left  his  library,  globes,  instruments,  and  cabinet  of 
minerals  to  the  College  of  Physicians.  From  his 
birthplace,  he  is  generally  designated  as  Gilbert  of 
Colchester.  His  works  are  (1)  De  Magnete,  Magneti- 
cisque  Corporibtis,  et  de  Magno  Magnete,  Tellurey 
Physlologia  Nova,  fob,  Lond.  1600  (reprinted  at 
Stettin  in  1633),  of  which  there  are  several  edi- 
tions ;  (2)  De  Mundo  nostro  Sublunari  Philosophia 
Nova,  4to,  Amsterdam,  1651  (published  from  a 
MS.  in  the  library  of  Sir  William  Boswell).  The 
first  of  these  works  has  served  as  the  basis 
of  most  subsequent  investigations  on  terrestrial 
magnetism;  and  (to  use  the  words  of  Professor 
Whewell  in  his  History  of  the  Inductive  Sciences)  it 
'  contains  all  the  fundamental  facts  of  the  science, 
so  fully  examined,  indeed,  that  even  at  this  day 
we  have  little  to  add  to  them.'  He  establishes 
the  magnetic  nature  of  the  earth,  which  he  regards 
(as  the  title  of  his  work  indicates)  as  one  great 
magnet ;  and  he  conjectured  that  terrestrial  mag- 
netism and  electricity  were  two  allied  emanations  of 
a  single  force  ;  a  view  which  was  only  demonstrated 
with  scientific  strictness  more  than  two  centuries 
afterwards  by  Oersted  and  Faraday.  G.  was  the 
first  to  use  the  terms  '  electric  force '  and  '  electrio 
attraction,'  and  to  point  out  that  amber  is  not  the 
only  substance  which  when  rubbed  attracts  hght 
objects,  but  that  the  same  faculty  belongs  to  the 
resins,  sealing-wax,  sulphur,  glass,  &c. ;  and  he 
describes  how  to  measure  the  excited  electricity  by 
means  of  an  iron  needle  mo%ang  freely  on  a  point. 
Galileo  pronounced  him  'great  to  a  deoxee  that 
might  be  emaed ; '  and  the  publication  of  his  treatise 
De  Magnete  will  always  be  regarded  as  constituting 
an  epoch  in  the  history  of  magnetism  and  the  alliea 
sciences. 

751 


GILBERT  ISLANDS-GILDING. 


GI'LBERT  ISLANDS,  a  group  on  the  south-west 
coast  of  the  archipelago  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  offer  a 
good  harbour  in  Doris  Cove. — Another  cluster  of 
the  same  name,  comprising  15  coral  islands,  forms 
part  of  the  Mulgrave  Archipelago  in  the  Pacific, 
between  lat,  1°  S.  and  2°  30'  N.,  and  long.  172  and 
174°  30  E.,  and  contains  a  population  of  60,000. 
The  two  largest  are  known  as  Drurmnond's  Isle  and 
Knox's  Isle ;  the  former  30  miles  long  by  rather  more 
than  4  mile  broad,  the  latter  20  miles  long.  The 
inhabitants  reseml)le  the  Malays  in  appearance,  and 
are  divided  into  three  classes — chiefs,  landholders, 
and  slaves.  The  chief,  almost  the  only,  cultivated 
products  are  the  cocoa-nut  and  the  pandanus. 

GI'LBEIITINES,  a  religious  order  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  specially  noteworthy  as  being  of 
English  origin.  It  v/as  founded  in  the  twelfth  c. 
by  St  Gilbert,  a  native  of  Sem})i'ingham,  in  Lincoln- 
shire. The  rule  of  the  order  was  mainly  derived 
from  that  of  the  Canons  Regular  of  St  Augustine. 
St  Gilbert  also  founded  an  order  of  nuns  after  the 
Benedictine  institute.  Both  orders  were  approved, 
and  had  numerous  convents  in  England  at  the  time 
of  the  Reformation,  when  they  shared  in  the  general 
sup[)ression, 

GILBO'A,  a  Hebrew  word  signifying  *  bubbling 
foiuitain,'  is  the  name  given  in  the  Old  Testament 
to  a  range  of  hills,  between  500  and  GOO  feet  high, 
overhanging  the  city  of  Jezreel,  in  the  eastern  side 
of  the  ]>laiu  of  Esdraelon.  It  is  memoraljle  as  the 
scene  of  the  defeat  and  death  of  King  Saul  and  his 
three  sons. 

GILD.    See  Gihld. 

GILD  AS,  or  GILDUS,  by  some  surnamed  the 
Wise,  by  others  Badouicus,  appears  to  have  been 
born  in  the  year  516.  He  visited  France  in  550, 
and  Ireland  in  565.  He  died  in  570.  His  De 
Excidio  Britannlce  Liber  Querultis  was  first  printed 
at  London  in  1525,  and  has  been  often  reprinted 
both  in  England  and  on  the  continent.  The  best 
editions  are  Mr  Stevenson's,  published  by  the 
English  Historical  Society  (Lond.  1838),  and  Mr 
Petrie's  in  the  Monumenta  Historica  Bvltannica 
(Lond.  1848).  G.  is  a  weak  and  wordy  writer. 
Gibbon  has  justly  described  him  in  a  single  sen- 
tence :  '  A  monk,  who,  in  the  profound  ignorance  of 
human  life,  has  presumed  to  exercise  tlie  office  of 
historian,  strangely  disfigures  the  state  of  Britain 
at  the  time  of  its  separation  from  the  P^oman 
empire.'  His  obscure  and  meagre  narrative  may 
be  divided  into  two  periods — the  first  extending 
from  the  first  invasion  of  Britain  by  the  Romans  to 
the  revolt  of  Maximus,  at  the  close  of  the  4th  c. ; 
the  second,  from  the  revolt  of  Maxim.us  to  the 
author's  own  time.  The  second  portion  is  even 
more  unsatisfactory  than  the  first. 

GILDING.  There  are  many  processes  of  gilding, 
varying  with  the  nature  of  the  substance  to  be 
gilded,  and  the  kind  of  effect  required  to  be  pro- 
duced, but  they  may  all  be  classified  mider  three 
heads — namely,  1st,  mechanical  gilding ;  2d,  chemical 
gilding  ;  3d,  encaustic  gilding. 

The  first  is  used  chiefly  for  gilding  wood,  plaster 
of  Paris,  and  other  compositions,  in  imitation  of 
wood-carving.  It  consists  simply  in  laying  leaf- 
gold  upon  the  surface  of  the  article,  which  is  first 
prepared  with  a  layer  of  tldn  tvhite,  composed  of 
not  size  and  whiting  ;  then,  if  the  gilding  is  to 
be  burnished,  another  layer  of  thick  wldte  of  similar 
composition,  but  vnth  more  whiting,  is  added ; 
after  this,  a  coating  of  gold-size  (see  Gold-Size) 
is  brushed  over ;  this  is  Avetted,  and  the  gold-leaf 
is  laid  upon  it.  A  considerable  amount  of  skill 
is  required  in  picking  up,  cutting  into  the  proper 
iize,  and  laying  on  the  pieces  of  gold-leaf,  so  that 


there  shall  be  aa  little  waste  as  possible,  and  all 
the  inequalities  of  a  raised  design  equally  covered. 
The  gold-leaves  are  first  sjjread  upon  a  cufihion 
by  blowing  them  from  between  the  leaves  of  a 
book,  then  cut  into  the  required  sizes,  and  lifted 
and  laid  on  the  work  by  means  of  a  tip,  which  is 
a  sort  of  comb  formed  of  bristles.  When  the 
gold  is  thus  laid  on,  it  is  forcibly  blown  to  exi)el 
as  much  as  possible  of  the  moisture  under  it,  and 
then  further  pressed  and  smoothed  by  means  of  a 
camel-hair  brush.  When  it  has  reached  a  certain 
state  of  dryness,  it  is  burnished  by  rubbing  with  a 
burnisher  of  flint  or  agate.  The  use  of  the  under- 
layer  of  whiting  and  size  is  to  give  a  soraewhat 
yielding  surface,  which  renders  it  possible  to  rub 
the  gold-leaf  briskly  with  the  burnisher  without 
abrading  it.  Portions  of  the  surface  which  are  left 
unburnished  in  dead-gold  are  called  the  matt. 
The  above  process  is  called  burnish  f/ildim/.  Oil 
gilding  differs  somewhat  from  this  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  surface  to  receive  the  gold-leaf.  Two  or 
three  coatings  of  thin  white,  mixed  with  a  little 
mellow  clay,  are  applied ;  then  two  or  three  coats  oi 
l)lain  gelatine-size,  called  clear  cole;  and  finally, 
the  oil  gold-size  (see  Gold-Size),  upon  which  the 
gold  is  laid  when  it  is  nearly  dry  or  taccy.  Those 
parts  which  require  burnishing  are  treated  as  before 
described.  Japan  gilding  wiS  be  described  under 
Japanning. 

Chemical  gilding. — Metals  are  now  usually  gilded 
by  the  process  of  electro-gilding  (see  Galvanism), 
but  besides  this,  various  methods  of  chemical  gilding 
have  been  adopted,  and  some  are  still  in  use. 

Water  gilding,  as  it  is  very  inappropriately  termed, 
is  conducted  by  applying  to  the  surface  to  be 
gilded  a  thin  coat  of  an  amalgam  of  gold,  and  then 
by  heat  driving  off  the  volatile  mercuiy,  when  the 
gold  remains  adhering  firmly  to  the  surface,  but 
having  a  dull  and  dingy  brownish-yellow  colour. 
The  colour  and  lustre  of  gold  is  brought  up  by 
scratching  with  a  wire-brush,  or  burnishing  with  a 
bloodstone,  or  black  haematite  burnisher.  The 
amalgam  of  gold  is  made  by  dissolving  leaf-gold  or 
precipitated  gold  in  about  ten  times  its  weight  of 
mercury,  and  then  washing  and  strauiing  it  through 
wash-leather.  The  sui-face  to  be  gilt  is  usually 
prepared  by  dipping  it  in  a  solution  of  nitrate  o( 
mercury,  or  quick-water,  after  it  has  been  well 
cleaned ;  this  coats  it  with  a  film  of  mercury,  and 
insures  adhesion  of  the  amalgam.  Water  gilding 
is  very  injurious  to  the  men  and  women  who 
work  at  it,  on  account  of  the  mercurial  fumes. 
Modem  improvements  in  the  construction  of  the 
furnace,  where  the  'drying  off'  is  conducted,  have 
diminished  this  evil  considerably,  and  at  the  same 
time  economised  the  process  by  recondensing  and 
saving  the  evaporated  mercury ;  but  still,  with 
the  best  arrangements,  the  health  of  the  water 
gilders  is  affected.  This  process  is  only  applicable 
to  metals  that  readily  form  an  amalgam  with  mer- 
cury. Iron  and  steel,  therefore,  cannot  be  directly 
gilded  by  it.  It  is  stiU  in  use  for  buttons  and 
some  kinds  of  common  jewellery.  Thirty  thousand 
buttons,  one  inch  in  diameter,  may  be  gilded  with 
one  ounce  of  gold  ;  14  or  15  thousand  is  the  number 
over  which  this  quantity  is  commonly  spread. 

Gilding  by  immersion. — For  this  purpose  a  solu- 
tion is  used  which  slowly  attacks  the  metal  to  b« 
gilded,  and  at  the  same  time  deposits  on  its  surface 
an  equivalent  of  gold.  Elkington's  patent  solution 
is  made  by  dissolving  \  ounce  troy  of  fine  gold  in 
2^  ounces  of  nitro-muriatic  acid,  heating  this  until 
red  and  yellow  vapours  cease  to  be  evolved,  then 
diluting  with  1^  pint  of  distilled  water,  adding  to 
this  1  pound  of  bicarbonate  of  potass,  and  boiling 
for  two  hours.    The  article  to  be  gilded  is  dipped 


GILDING  METAL-GILLIES. 


into  this  at  nearly  the  boiling  heat,  and  agitated  in 
it  for  about  a  minute.  Talbot's  patent  solution  is 
made  by  adding  a  solution  of  gold  to  a  solution  of 
gallic  acid  in  water,  alcohol,  or  ether.  The  articles 
are  dipped  as  above. 

The  method  called  Grecian  gilding  is  a  process 
intermediate  between  the  above  and  water  gildir  ^. 
Sal  ammoniac  and  corrosive  sublimate  are  dissoi^ed 
in  nitric  acid,  and  gold  is  dissolved  in  this  solution, 
which  thus  becomes  a  mixture  of  chloride  of  gold 
and  nitrate  of  mercury  with  some  ammonia.  This 
solution,  on  being  applied  to  a  surface  of  silver, 
immediately  blackens  it,  but  upon  the  application 
of  heat,  it  is  richly  gilded. 

Most  articles  that  are  gilded  by  either  of  the 
above  chemical  methods,  or  by  electro-gilding,  are 
submitted  to  an  after-process  of  colouring.  This 
consists  either  in  acting  upon  the  surface  with 
a  saline  solution,  and  heating  the  article  after- 
wards, or  in  coating  it  with  a  kind  of  varnish 
of  bee's-wax  and  yellow-ochre,  and  then  burn- 
ing it  off.  Various  saline  solutions  are  used, 
many  of  which  are  carefully  guarded  trade  secrets. 
1  oz.  alum,  ]  oz.  of  common  salt,  and  2  oz. 
nitre  dissolved  in  half  a  i)int  of  water  is  recom- 
mende.1.  Also  24  parts  of  nitre,  10  alum,  5  sulphate 
of  iron,  5  sulphate  of  zinc  boiled  together  in  suffi- 
cient water  to  form  a  paste  when  cooled  with  con- 
tinual agitation.  The  articles  are  immersed  in  this, 
and  then  heated  till  the  desired  colour  is  obtained. 

Cold  Gilding. — For  this  a  gilding  powder  is  first 
prepared  by  dissolving  5  drams  of  pure  gold  and  1 
dram  of  cojjper  in  10  oz.  of  nitro-muriatic  acid, 
then  moistening  clean  linen  rags  with  the  solution, 
and  burning  them  to  ashes.  These  ihes  contain 
finely  di\dded  gold,  which  may  be  applied  to  surfaces 
of  coj)per,  brass,  or  silver,  by  simply  rubbing  it  over 
them  with  a  piece  of  cork  moistened  with  a  solution 
of  common  salt  in  water. 

Sword-blades,  lancets,  and  other  steel  articles  are 
gilded  in  fancy  devices  by  dra^ving  the  design  with 
a  camel's-hair  pencil  moistened  in  a  solution  of 
gold,  prepared  by  agitating  ether  with  a  solution  of 
terchloride  of  gold,  and  decanting  the  light  liquid 
which  floats  on  the  top.  Naphtha  may  be  used  in 
the  same  manner  for  this  purpose,  and  is  much 
cheaper. 

Silks,  satins,  ivory,  bone,  &c.,  may  easily  be  gilded 
by  immersing  them  in  a  neutral  solution  of  1  part 
of  terchloride  of  gold  to  4  or  5  of  water,  and  then 
exposing  them  to  the  action  of  hydi'ogen  gas,  which 
readily  combines  with  the  chlorine,  and  reduces  the 
gold  to  the  metallic  state.  Flowers,  and  other  orna- 
mental designs,  may  be  thus  produced  in  gold  by 
simply  painting  them  on  the  surface  with  a  camel's- 
hair  brush  dii)ped  in  the  gold  solution.  The  articles 
may  then  be  suspended  in  an  inverted  tumbler  or 
other  suitable  vessel,  which,^  if  placed  over  a  bottle 
containing  dilute  sulphuric  'acid  and  iron  filings  or 
zinc  scraps,  will  collect  sufficient  of  the  light  gas 
to  bring  out  in  a  few  minutes  a  beautiful  and 
permanent  pure  gold  surface. 

Encaustic  g'dding  is  usually  applied  to  glass  and 
porcelain.  The  gold  is  first  obtained  in  a  finely 
divi«led  state  by  precipitating  from  the  chloride 
with  pr.  tosulphate  of  iron,  or  by  simply  heating  the 
chloride.  This  powder  is  ground  up  with  ^  of  its 
weight  of  oxide  of  bismuth  and  some  borax  and 
gum  water,  and  then  painted  on  the  ware.  It  is 
then  heated  till  the  borax  is  vitrified  and  the  gold 
thereby  fixed.  Sometimes  the  gold  is  ground  with 
turi)entine,  or  an  amalgam  of  gold  is  used.  It  has  a 
brown  dingy  appearance  when  it  leaves  the  kiln ; 
the  gold  lustre  is  brought  up  by  burnishing. 

GILDING  METAL.  The  metal  of  Avhich  gilded 
goods  are  made,  is  required  to  have  as  nearly  as 


possible  the  colour  of  gold,  so  that  when  the  surface- 
gilding  is  worn  off  at  the  more  exposed  parts,  the 
difFereuce  of  colour  will  not  be  readily  apparent 
This  is  obtained  by  making  a  kind  of  brass  having  a 
much  larger  proportion  of  copper  than  in  common 
brass. 

The  following  are  three  receipts  from  among  a 
variety  in  use  :  1st,  6  parts  copper,  1  common  brass; 
2d,  4  parts  copper  to  1  Bristol  brass;  3d,  13  parts 
copper,  3  parts  brass,  12  parts  tin.  The  last  ia 
much  harder  than  No.  1  or  2. 

GI'LEAD  (in  Eng.  'region  of  rocks')  was  a 
mountainous  district  on  the  east  side  of  the  Jordan, 
bounded  on  tlie  N.  by  the  river  Hieromax  (the 
modern  Sheriat-al-Mandhur),  which  se])arated  it 
from  the  rich  levels  of  Bashan ;  on  the  E.  by  the 
desert  table-lands  of  Arabia ;  on  the  S.  by  Moab 
and  Ammon ;  and  on  the  W.  by  the  Jordan.  In 
spite  of  its  name,  the  vegetation  is  luxuriant,  espe- 
cially in  the  middle,  and  round  the  brook  Jabbok, 
where  forests  of  oak  and  terebinth  occur.  The  hilla 
are  not  very  high  ;  they  have  broad  summits  almost 
like  table-lands,  '  tossed,'  says  Professor  Stanley 
(Sinai  and  Palestine),  '  into  wild  confusion  of  undu- 
lating downs.'  G.  anciently  produced  gums  and 
spices.  It  was  given  by  Joshua  to  the  tribes  of 
Gad  and  Reuben,  because  of  the  multitude  of  their 
cattle,  and  as  a  frontier  land  was  much  exposed  to 
invasion. 

GILFI'LLAN,  George,  critic  and  essayist,  was 
born  at  Comrie  in  1813.  He  studied  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Glasgow,  and  at  the  divinity  hall  of  the 
Secession  body,  afterwards  the  United  Presbyterian 
Church,  and  in  1835  he  was  licensed  to  preach  the 
gospel.  In  March  1836  he  was  ordained  to  the 
School  Wynd  Church,  Dundee.  His  works  are 
numerous.  They  display  a  rich  but  reckless  fancy, 
and  wide  literary  sympathies,  although  deficient 
perhaps  in  refinement  of  taste.  The  principal  are, 
A  Gallery  of  Literan/  Portraits  (1845)  ;  a  second 
Gallery  (1849) ;  The  Bards  of  the  Bible  (1850) ;  The 
Martyrs,  Heroes,  and  Bards  of  the  Scottish  Covenant 
(1852) ;  a  third  Gallery  of  Literary  Portraits  (1854) ; 
History  of  a  Man  (1856) ;  Christianity  and  Our  Era 
(1857);  Alpha  n7id  Omega  (1860);  Niglit :  a  poem 
(1867);  Life  of  Sir  W.  Scott  {mo)  \  Life  of  Dr 
W.  Afiderson  (1873).  In  1853  he  commenced  an 
edition  of  \he  British  Poets,  which  extended  to  48  vols. 
His  contributions  to  periodicals  have  been  numerous. 

GILL  (Lw-Lat.,  gilla,  a  drinking-glass),  a 
measure  of  capacity,  containing  the  fourth  part 
of  a  pint,  or  the  32d  part  of  a  Gallon  (q.  v.). 

GILLE'NIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Rosacece,  sub-order  Spirreece ;  perennials,  natives 
of  the  temperate  parts  of  North  America.  Tha 
roots  are  used  in  medicin'*  as  a  mild  emetic,  and 
in  small  doses  as  a  tonio ,  and  are  often  called 
Indian  Physic,  sometimes  American  Ipecacuanha^ 
Indian  Hippo,  Dropwort,  and  Boioman''s  Boot.  They 
are  sometimes  planted  in  shrubberies,  on  account 
of  their  graceful  foliage.  They  grow  to  the  height 
of  about  two  feet. 

GILLES,  St,  an  old  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Gard,  is  situated  near  the  borders 
of  the  de]>artment  of  Benches  du  Rhone,  on  the 
Canal  de  Beaucaire,  12  miles  south-south-east  of 
Nimes.  Its  abbey  church,  the  west  front  of  which 
is  a  master-piece  of  Romanesque  architecture,  and 
is  covered  with  the  richest  decoration,  dates  from 
the  11th  c,  and  is  the  most  notable  building  in 
the  town.  The  neighbourhood  of  St  G.  produces  a 
strong  red  wine  which  is  exported.    Pop.  5730. 

GILLIES,  John,  LL.D.,  known  as  a  classical 
historian,  the  son  of  Robert  GiUies,  Esq.,  was  bom 

753 


GILLS— GILT  TOYS. 


at  Brechin,  Forfarshire,  January  18,  1747.  His 

youngest  brother,  Adam,  was  a  judge  of  the  court 
of  session  in  Scotland,  under  the  title  of  Lord  Gillies. 
G.  was  educated  at  the  university  of  Glasgow  ;  and, 
after  a  time,  took  up  his  residence  in  London,  with 
the  view  of  following  literature  as  a  profession. 
He  subsequently  acted  for  several  years  as  travel- 
ling tutor  to  the  sons  of  John,  second  Earl  of 
Hopetoun,  who  in  1777  settled  upon  him  an  annuity 
for  life.  In  1778  he  published  a  translation  of  the 
Orations  of  Isocrates  and  those  of  Lysias,  with  some 
Account  of  their  LiveJ^^  4to ;  and  in  1786  appeared 
the  first  part  of  his  Ilhstory  of  Ancient  Greece.  This 
■work  forms  2  vols.  4to,  and  4  vols.  8vo.  It  was 
extremely  popular  on  its  first  appearance,  and  is 
really  far  from  being  a  discreditable  performance, 
though  much  disfigured  by  verbosity,  and  dull 
and  pi-olix  disquisition  ;  but  it  has  dropped  out  of 
notice  nearly  altogether  since  the  advance  of 
Greek  scholarship  in  the  present  century,  and  the 
publication  of  the  histories  of  Thirlwall  and 
Grote.  His  View  of  the  Reign  of  Frederick  JI.  of 
Prussia  appeared  in  1780,  8vo.  In  1703,  on  the 
death  of  Dr  liobertson,  he  was  appointed  historio- 
graj)her  to  the  king  for  Scotland,  with  a  yearly 
salary  of  £200.  His  other  works  are,  a  translation 
from  the  Greek  of  Aristotle's  Ethics  and  Politics: 
comprising  his  Practical  Philosojihy,  with  Notes,  the 
Critical  History  of  his  Life,  and  a  new  Analysis  of 
his  Speculative  Works,  2  vols.  ;  Supplement  to  the 
Analysis  of  Aristotle's  Speculative  Works  (1804)  ; 
History  of  the  World  from  Alexander  to  Augustus,  2 
v'ols.,  4to  (1807—1810);  Translation  of  Aristotle' s 
Rhetoric  (1823).    He  died  February  5,  1836. 

GILLS.  See  Hespiration,  Organs  and  Pro- 
cess OF. 

GI'LLYFLOWER,  a  popular  English  name  for 
Bome  of  the  cruciferous  plants  most  prized  for  the 
beauty  and  fragrance  of  their  floweis,  as  wall- 
Uo wer,  stock,  &c.  The  clove- pink  also,  the  wild 
original  of  the  carnation,  is  called  Clove-GiUyflowei'. 
The  name  G.  has  been  regarded  as  a  corruption  of 
July-flower ;  but  in  Chaucer  it  appears  in  the  form 
gilofre;  and  the  French  giroflee  indicates  the  true 
derivation  from  girofle,  a  clov^e,  the  smell  of  the 
Clove-G.  being  somewhat  like  that  of  cloves. 

GJLO'LO,  or  ALMAHERA,  one  of  the  Moluccas 
or  Spice  Islands,  and  the  chief  of  a  group  of  the 
same  name,  is  crossed  by  the  equator  in  long. 
128°  E.  In  its  general  outline  it  bears  a  vague 
resemblance  to  its  western  neighbour  Celebes,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  the  Molucca  Passage,  both 
of  them  being  as  unlike  in  form  to  any  other  island 
Bs  they  are  like  to  each  other.  It  is  divided  towards 
the  east  from  New  Guinea  by  a  wide  channel  of 
its  own  name.  It  contains  about  6500  square 
miles,  comprising  several  petty  states,  wliich  are  con- 
nected chiefly  with  the  Dutch  settlements  in  the 
East  Indies.  The  imports  are  manufactured  goods, 
opiimi,  china-ware,  and  iron ;  and  the  exports  are 
sago,  cocoa-nuts,  spices,  fruits,  pearls,  gold-dust, 
horses,  sheep,  and  horned  cattle.  The  interior  is 
mountainous,  and  in  many  parts  densely  wooded. 

GILRAY,  James,  a  celebrated  caricaturist,  born 
in  London  about  the  middle  of  last  century.  He 
tirst  became  known  as  a  successful  engraver  about 
J  7 '34,  and  between  1779  and  1811  issued  as  many  as 
1200  caricatures,  numbers  of  which,  it  is  said,  'were 
etched  at  once  upon  the  copper  without  the  assist- 
ance of  drawings.'  They  are  full  of  broad  humour 
and  keen  satire,  the  subjects  of  his  ridicule  being 
generally  the  French,  Napoleon,  and  the  ministers, 
though  he  often  diverged  to  assail  the  social  follies 
of  his  day.  He  died  1st  June  1815.  G.'s  drawings 
have  often  been  published,  but  the  best  edition  is 
7M 


that  of  M'Lean  (accompanied  by  an  illustrative 
description),  in  304  sheets  (Lond.  1830).  More 
recently,  an  edition  has  been  issued  by  Bohn. 

GILTHEAD  [Chrysophrys),  a  genus  of  acan- 
thopterous  fishes  of  the  family  Sparidce,  having  a 
deep  compressed  body,  a  single  dorsal  fin,  the 
anterior  rays  of  which  are  spinous,  the  cheeks  and 
gill-covers  covered  with  scales,  the  teeth  of  two 
kinds,  six  conical  teeth  in  front  of  each  jaw,  and 
four  rows  of  oval  rounded  grinding-teeth  in  the 
upper  jaw,  three  rows  in  the  lower.  They  feed 
chiefly  on  molluscs,  the  shells  of  which  their  teeth 
enable  them  to  crush  to  pieces.  The  species  are 
numerous ;  inhabitants  of  the  warmer  seas.  One 


Common  Giltliead  {Chrysophrys  aurata). 


species,  the  Common  G.  [C.  aurata),  ia  found,  but 
rarely,  on  the  British  coasts ;  it  abounds  in  the 
Mediterranean,  and  is  very  much  esteemed  for  the 
tal)le.  It  seldom  attains  a  length  of  more  than 
twelve  inches.  It  is  generally  found  near  the  shore, 
in  small  shoals,  and  its  presence  is  sometimes 
betrayed  to  fishermen  by  the  noise  which  its  teeth 
make  in  crushing  shells.  It  is  said  to  agitate  the 
sand  with  its  tail,  in  order  to  get  at  the  molluscs 
concealed  in  it.  The  Ijack  is  silvery  gray,  shaded 
with  blue  ;  the  belly  like  polished  steel ;  the  sides 
have  golden  bands ;  and  there  is  a  half-moon-shaped 
golden  spot  between  the  eyes,  from  which  it  derives 
the  name  G.,  the  Latin  name  Aurata  (gilded),  and 
the  Greek  name  Chrysophrys  (golden  eyebrow). 
From  the  Latin  Aurata  comes  the  French  name 
Dorade.  This  fish  was  very  generally  kept  in  the 
Vivaria  of  the  ancient  Komans,  being  much  valued 
and  easily  fattened.  Another  species  (C.  microdon) 
is  also  found  in  the  Mediterranean.— The  name  G. 
is  also  given  to  a  British  fish  of  a  different  family 
{Lahridoi),  a  species  of  Wrasse  (q.  v.). 

GILT  TOYS.  This  term  is  known  in  trade 
as  a  designation  for  small  articles  wliich  are  gilded, 
but  is  chiefly  applied  to  the  cheap  jewellery  wiiich  is 
almost  exclusively  manufactured  at  Birmingham. 
In  that  town  this  trade  is  very  extensive,  and 
employs  thousands  of  persons  and  a  considerable 
amount  of  machine  power.  Cheap  jewellery  of  the 
most  elegant  forms  is  made  from  copper,  Avhich  is 
drawn  through  rollers  for  the  purpose,  into  small 
ribbons  and  wares,  with  elegantly  embossed  suiiaces 
to  represent  the  fine  chasing  employed  on  articles 
made  from  the  precious  metals.  These  the  gilt-toy 
maker  twists  and  solders  into  brooches,  bracelets, 
rings,  and  a  variety  of  trinkets,  usually  with  a  raised 
hezell  for  receiving  a  piece  of  polished  coloured 
glass,  or  a  cheap  stone.  Previous  to  setting  the 
glass  or  stone,  the  trinkets  are  strruig  on  copper 
wires,  and  sent  to  the  electro-jilater,  who  gives 
them  a  coating  of  gold  or  silver,  and  returns  tJiem 
to  the  gilt-toy  maker,  who  finishes  them  by  burnish- 
ing and  by  setting  the  imitation  gems.  In  this 
way  really  beautiful  imitation  jewellery  ia  produced 
at  an  incredibly  small  cost;  and  being  coated  with 
the  precious  metals  in  the  pure  state  in  which  they 
are  deposited  by  the  electro-plating  process,  their 


GIMBALS— GINGER- 


Bporious  character  is  not  easily  detected  by  tlie 
uuinitiated- 

GI'MBALS  (Lat.  gemellus,  a  twin),  are  two 
circular  brass  hoops  used  for  suspending  the  com- 
pass-box on  board  ship,  so  that  it  may  always  rest 
horizontally,  unaffected  by  the  ship's  motion.  The 
outer  hoop  is  attached  to  a  box  or  other  fixed 
object,  while  the  inner  is  constructed  so  as  to  allow 
of  its  moving  freely  witliin  the  outer,  to  which 
it  is  attached  by  two  jHvots  at  the  extremities  of 
a  diameter.  The  compass-box  is  attached  to  the 
inner  hoop  by  two  similar  pivots  at  right  angles 
to  the  former.  Thus,  the  compass  moves  freely 
in  two  directions  at  right  angles  to  each  other, 
and  can  always  retain  its  horizontal  position,  how- 
ever the  vessel  may  roll  or  pitch.  G.  are  often 
applied  to  other  instmments,  such  as  the  mountain 
barometer,  &c. 

GI'MBLET,  a  tool  for  boring  holes  in  wood  to 
receive  nails,  screws,  &c.,  and  generally  used  when 
the  hole  is  to  be  larger  than  can  be  bored  witli  a 
brad-awl.  It  has  a  conical  screw  point,  followed  by 
a  groove  for  clearing,  and  is  fitted  in  a  cross  or  T 
handle.  An  improvement  has  lately  been  made  by 
twisting  the  gi'ooved  part  of  the  gimblet,  so  that  it 
forms  a  long  spiral  groove. 

GIME'J^A,  or  XIMENA.    See  Jimena. 

GIMP,  or  GYMP,  a  kind  of  trimming  for  dress, 
curtains,  furniture,  &c.,  made  either  of  silk,  wool, 
or  cotton.  Its  peculiarity  is  that  line  wire  is 
twisted  into  the  thin  cord  of  which  it  is  made. 

GIN  is  a  machine  used  for  raising  -weights,  driving 
piles,  &c.,  and  consists  of  three  poles,  each  from  12 
to  15  feet  long,  and  5  inches  in  diameter  at  the  lower 
end,  tapering  to  3g  inches  at  the  upper.  The  poles 
are  united  at  the  top,  either  by  an  iron  ring  which 
passes  through  them,  or  by  a  rope  which  is  twisted 
several  times  round  each,  and  to  this  '  joint '  a 
pulley  is  fixed.  Two  of  the  poles  are  kept  at  an 
invariable  distance  by  means  of  an  iron  rod,  in 
order  that  they  may  support  the  windlass  which  is 
attached  to  them,  its  pivots  running  in  iron  cheeks 
fixed  to  the  poles.  AVlien  the  machine  is  to  be  used, 
it  is  set  up  over  the  weight  to  be  raised  ;  two  blocks 
arranged  according  to  the  Second  System  of  Pulleys 
(q.  V.)  are  fixed,  one  to  the  top  of  the  poles,  the 
other  to  the  weight ;  and  the  rope,  after  passing 
round  both  blocks,  and  over  the  pulley  before-men- 
tioned, is  attached  to  the  windlass,  by  the  revolution 
of  which  the  weight  can  then  be  raised. — The  name 
of  Gin  is  also  given  to  a  machine  used  for  raising 
coal,  &c.,  and  also  for  communicating  motion  to 
thrashing-mills.  It  consists  of  an  erect  axis  or  drum, 
firmly  fixed  in  sockets,  to  which  are  attached 
transverse  beams,  varying  in  number  according  to 
the  power  required.  To  the  extremity  of  each  beam 
a  horse  is  yoked,  and  they  are  then  driven  round 
in  a  circle.  If  coal  is  to  be  raised,  the  horses 
must  either  be  frequently  unyoked,  and  turned  in 
the  opposite  way,  or  the  machine  must  be  made 
reversible ;  the  latter  of  which  is  found  to  be  pre- 
ferable, as  a  saving  both  of  time  and  labour.  This 
machine  is  now  rapidly  disappearing  before  the 
Bteam-engine. 

GIN  is  a  machine  used  for  disentangling  the  fibres 
of  Cotton  (q.  v.). 

GIN,  or  GENEVA,  an  alcoholic  drink,  distilled 
from  malt,  or  from  unmalted  barley  or  other  grain, 
and  afterwards  rectified  and  flavoured.  The  gin, 
which  forms  the  common  spirituous  drink  of  the 
lower  classes  of  Ijondon  and  its  vicinity,  is  flavoured 
very  slightly  with  oil  of  turpentine  and  common 
aait ;  each  rectifier  has  his  own  particular  recipe 


for  regulating  the  quantities  to  be  used ;  but  it  is 
usually  about  5  fluid  ounces  of  spirit  of  turpentine 
and  34  lbs.  of  salt  mixed  in  10  gallons  of  water ; 
these  are  placed  in  the  rectifying  still,  ^vith  80 
gallons  of  proof  corn-si)irit,  and  distilled  until  the 
feints  begin  to  come  over.  It  is  then  used  either 
unsweetened  or  sweetened  with  sugar. 

We  derive  the  terms  gin  and  geneva  from  the 
Dutch,  who  call  the  Hollands-gin  (which  is  their 
national  spirit)  .71?? im,  which  they  have  derived  from 
the  French  f/eniem'e,  juniper.  The  origin  of  thia 
name  is,  doubtless,  to  be  found  in  the  employment 
of  juniper-berries  in  flavouring  the  spirit  made  from 
unmalted  Riga  rye  in  Holland,  where  it  is  an 
article  of  great  manufacture,  chiefly  at  Schiedam  ; 
hence  it  is  often  called  Schiedam  or  Hollands,  aa 
well  as  geneva  and  gin.  So  extensi\  e  is  the  manu- 
facture of  this  spirit  in  Holland,  that  in  Schiedam 
alone  there  are  175  distilleries,  employing  nearly 
1000  men,  besides  which  there  are  30  more  distil- 
leries in  Gouda,  and  17  in  Amsterdam,  and  others 
scattered  about  the  country.  Notwithstanding  thia 
immense  manufacture  of  alcohol,  the  Dutch  are  by 
no  means  an  intemperate  people  :  the  fact  is,  the 
larger  part  by  far  of  the  spirit  made  in  Holland  is 
exported  to  other  countries,  especially  to  North 
America  and  Northern  Europe.  It  was  formerly 
always  exported  in  bottles,  but  casks  are  now  much 
used  as  well.  The  chief  manufactories  of  gin  in 
England  are  those  of  Messrs  Booth  and  Messrs 
Smith  and  Nicholson,  in  London ;  Messrs  Coates  and 
Co.,  at  Plymouth  ;  and  one  or  two  large  distilleries 
in  Bristol. 

Perhaps  nothing  used  as  diet  by  man  is  liable  to 
greater  and  more  injurious  adulteration  than  gin. 
Almost  every  gin-shop  keeper  in  London  has  some 
vile  recipe  for  increasing  the  pimgency  and  giving 
a  factitious  strength  to  the  much  diluted  sweetened 
spirit  sold  under  this  name.  A  mere  enumeration 
of  the  articles  usually  employed  will  give  some  idea 
of  tlie  extent  to  which  sophistication  is  carried  on 
with  this  spirit :  roach  alum,  i5ai+  of  tartar  (car- 
bonate of  'potash),  oils  of  junip^'t,  cassia  nutmeg, 
lemons,  sweet  fennel,  and  caraway  j  coriander  seeds, 
cardamoms,  and  capsicums  ;  and  worse  than  all, 
creasote,  which  is  most  injurious.  It  is  said  that 
sulphm-ic  acid  is  even  added,  but  this  is  by  no 
means  probable. 

GI'NGAL,  a  weapon  used  by  Asiatic  armies  in 
the  defence  of  fortresses.  It  may  be  described  aa  a 
large  and  rude  musket,  which  is  fired  from  a  rest. 
The  Chinese  employ  it  to  a  considerable  extent. 

GI'NGEE  is  one  of  the  Virgin  Islands — the  group 
at  the  north-east  bend  of  the  grand  arch  of  the  West 
Indies. 

GINGER  (Zingiber),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  i:icitamineai  or  Zingiber acece,  having 
the  inner  limb  of  tlie  perianth  destitute  of  laterd 
inner  lobes,  and  the  fertile  stamen  prolonged  beyond 
the  anther  into  an  awl- shaped  horn.  The  species 
are  perennial  herbaceous  plants,  with  annual  stems, 
and  creeping  root-stocks  {rhizomes) ;  the  stems  pro- 
duce leaves  in  two  opposite  rows  ;  the  flowers  are  in 
compact  spikes  with  bracts.  They  are  natives  of 
the  East  Indies.  The  root-stocks  of  most  of  the 
specdes  ire  used  as  a  condiment  and  in  medicine. 
The  mo-'t  valuable  and  generally  used  are  those  of 
the  Common  G.  {Z.  qfjicinale),  sometimes  distin- 
guished as  the  Narrow-leaved  G.,  which  has  been 
cultivated  in  the  East  Indies  from  time  immemorial, 
and  is  now  also  cultivated  in  other  tropical  countries, 
particularly  the  West  Indies  and  Sierra  Leone,  from 
both  of  which,  as  weU  as  from  the  East  Indies,  its 
root-stocks — the  ginger  of  commerce — are  a  consider* 
able  article  of  export.    The  root-stock  is  about  the 


GmGER-BEER— < 


-GINGERBREAD. 


thickness  of  a  man's  finger,  knotty,  fibrous,  and  fleshy 
when  fresh.  The  stems  which  it  sends  up  are  reed- 
like, invested  with  the  smooth  sheaths  of  the  leaves, 
generally  three  or  four  feet  high.  The  leaves  are 
linear-lanceolate  and  smooth.  The  flowers  are  not 
produced  on  the  leafy  stems,  but  on  short  leafless  stems 
(scapes),  in  spikes  about  the  size  of  a  man's  thumb, 
and  are  of  a  whitish  colour,  the  lip  streaked  with 
purple.     The  cultivation  of  G.  is  extremely  easy 


Common  Ginger  {Zingiber  offi^inak) : 
a,  a  flower,  detached  ;  b,  perfect  anther. 

wherever  the  climate  is  suitable.  In  India  it  is 
carried  on  to  an  elevation  of  four  or  five  thousand 
feet  on  the  Himalayas,  in  moist  situations.  The 
root-stock  is  taken  up  when  the  stems  have  withered, 
and  is  prepared  for  the  market  either  by  seething 
and  scalding  in  boiling  water — in  order  to  kill  it — 
and  subsequent  drying,  or  by  scraping  and  wash- 
ing. The  first  method  yields  Black  G.,  the  second 
Whiie  G.  ;  the  blackest  of  Black  G.,  however,  being 
only  of  a  stone  colour,  and  the  whitest  of  White  G. 
very  far  from  perfectly  w^hite,  unless  bleaching  by 
chloride  of  lime  be  afterwards  employed,  as  it  not 
unfrequently  is,  to  improve  its  appearance,  a  process 
not  otherwise  advantageous.  There  is  a  consider- 
able difference,  however,  in  the  original  colour  of 
the  root-stock  in  the  G.  of  different  countries, 
which  is  supposed  to  be  owing  to  difference  in 
the  varieties  cultivated.  The  uses  of  G.  both  in 
medicine,  as  a  stimulant  and  carminative,  and  in 
domestic  economy,  as  a  condiment,  are  too  w^ell 
known  to  require  particular  notice.  Its  quahties 
depend  very  much  on  a  pale  yellow  volatile  oil, 
lighter  than  water,  called  Oil  of  Ginger.  It  contains 
also  a  considerable  quantity  of  starch. — Candied 
C,  or  Presei-ved  G.,  consists  of  the  young  root- 
stocks  preserved  in  sugar,  and  is  now  imported  in 
considerable  quantity  from  China,  as  well  as  from 
the  East  Indies  and  from  the  West  Indies.  It 
is  a  delicious  sweetmeat,  and  is  useful  also  as  a 
stomachic. — Essence  of  G.,  much  used  for  flavouring, 
is  in  reality  a  tincture,  prepared  of  G.  and  a-cohol. — 
Syrup  of  G.  is  used  chiefly  by  druggists  fo^  flavour- 
ing.— Ginger  Tea  is  a  domestic  remedy  very  useful 
in  cases  of  flatulence,  and  is  an  infusion  of  G.  in 
boiling  water. — Ginger-heer  (q.  v.)  is  a  well-known 
beverage,  flavoured  with  ginger, — Ginger  Wine  (q.v.) 
ia  a  cheap  liqueur  flavoured  with  ginger. — G.  was 
known  to  the  Romans,  and  is  said  by  Pliny  to  have 
been  brought  from  Arabia. — Another  species  of  G.  is 
ZcRUMBET  {Z.  zerumbet),  also  called  Broad-leaved 
756 


G.,  cultivated  in  Java,  and  of  which  the  root -stock 

is  sometimes  erroneously  called  Round  Zedoary. 
The  root-stock  is  much  thicker  than  that  of  common 
G.,  and  is  less  pungent. — The  root-stock  of  the  Cas- 
SUTMUNAR  (Z.  cassuniunar),  sometimes  called  Yellow 
Zedoary,  has  a  camphor-like  smell,  and  a  bitter 
aromatic  taste.  It  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a 
medicine  in  England  and  throughout  Euro])e  about 
the  close  of  the  17th  c,  but  having  been  extolled 
not  merely  as  a  stimulant  and  stomachic,  but  as 
possessing  virtues  which  did  not  in  reality  belong  to 
it,  it  soon  stuik  into  oblivion. — The  root-stock  of  the 
MioGA  (Z.  mioga)  is  less  pungent  than  G.,  and  is 
much  used  in  Jajmn. — Cattle  sent  to  graze  in  the 
jungles  of  Northern  India,  during  the  rainy  season, 
are  supplied  with  the  root-stocks  of  a  species  of  G. 
{Z.  capitaium),  to  preserve  their  health. — The  root 
of  Aristolochia  (q.  v.)  Canadense  is  sometimes  called 
Indian  G.  or  Wild  G.  in  North  America,  and  is 
used  as  a  substitute  for  ginger.  It  has  a  grateful 
aromatic  odour  and  taste,  and  is  stimulant,  tonic, 
and  diaphoretic. 

GINGER-BEER.  An  effervescing  drink  made 
by  fermenting  ginger,  sugar,  and  some  other  ingre- 
dients, and  bottling  before  the  fermentation  ia 
completed.  The  following  recipes  are  amongst  the 
best  known  :  Lump  sugar,  5  lbs. ;  crushed  Jamaica 
ginger  (the  unbleached  is  best),  5  oz. ;  cream  of 
tartar,  4  oz. ;  10  lemons,  sliced  ;  and  5  gallons  of  boil- 
ing water.  They  should  be  mixed  in  a  vessel  which 
can  be  kept  covered  until  cool,  but  require  stirring 
from  time  to  time  as  the  cooling  goes  on.  When 
lukewarm,  add  10  oz.  of  yeast,  and  keep  it  in  a 
warm  place  to  encourage  the  fermentation,  wdiich 
soon  commences ;  after  one  day's  fermentation, 
strain  through  a  flannel  filter,  and  let  it  stand 
to  ferment  again  for  a  short  time;  then  take  ofl 
the  scum,  and  bottle.  The  bottle  must  be  tied  or 
wired  down.  Another  recipe  is :  Cream  of  tartar, 
3  oz.  ;  ginger,  1  oz. ;  refined  sugar,  1^  lbs.  ;  1  sliced 
lemon  ;  1  \  gallons  boiling  water  ;  1  oz.  yeast ;  to  be 
treated  in  the  same  way.  A  spurious  ginger-beer, 
largely  used,  is  made  by  putting  a  few  drops  of 
tincture  of  ginger  and  a  little  syrup  in  a  bottle, 
and  filling  it  up  with  aerated  water  from  the  soda* 
water  machine. 

GI'NGERBREAD.  A  very  well-known  article 
of  food,  which  has  been  in  vogue  certainly  since 
the  14th  c,  when  it  was  made  and  sold  in  Paris, 
accordinp:  to  ISIonteil  in  his  Histoire  des  Francaia 
(tom.  ii.  pp.  47,  48) ;  it  was  then  made  of  ryQ 
dough,  kneaded  with  ginger  and  other  spice,  and 
honey  or  sugar.  It  was  probably  introduced  to 
England  by  the  court  of  Henry  IV.,  and  since 
that  time  has  played  an  important  part  in  the 
pleasures  of  young  and  old  at  the  fairs  and  festivals 
of  the  country.  Changes  were  no  doubt  wrought 
in  its  composition  as  soon  as  it  appeared  in  thia 
country,  and  the  expensive  honey  gave  w^ay  to  the 
cheaper  treacle  which  was  then  in  use,  and  tlie 
colour  was  hidden  under  some  colom-ing  matter 
or  gilding.  '  To  take  the  gilt  off  the  gingerbread,* 
has  become  a  proverb,  and  the  booths  glittering 
wdth  their  gilded  array  of  rude  devices  in  ginger- 
bread, so  familiar  to  our  boyhood,  still  make  an 
occasional  appearance  in  the  country  fairs. 

Three  forms  of  this  article  are  to  be  found  in  most 
pastry-cooks'  shops,  and  one  or  more  of  them  in  the 
sanctum  of  every  good  housewife.  1.  Square  soft 
cakes,  from  two  to  three  inches  in  thickness.  2. 
Thin  cakes  of  various  forms,  but  most  frequently 
round,  being  stamped  out  with  the  top  of  a  wine- 
glass, or  other  contrivance.  3.  Small  button-like 
cakes,  called  gingerbread-nuts.  The  two  last  should 
be  baked  very  quickly,  crispness  being  indispensabla 


GINGER- WINE-GINSENG. 


Tiie  constituents  of  modem  gingerbread  are  treacle, 
moist  sugar,  wheaten-fiour,  and  butter ;  a  little 
carbonate  of  magnesia  and  tartaric  acid,  or  car- 
bonate of  ammonia,  are  also  put  in  to  give  lightness 
by  many  makers. 

GINGER-WINE,  a  popular  and  cheap  liqueur, 
made  by  the  fermentation  of  sugar  and  water,  and 
flavoured  with  various  substances,  but  chiefly  with 
ginger.  It  is  partly  an  article  of  domestic  manu- 
facture, and  is  partly  made  on  a  larger  scale  for 
sale.  It  may  be  made  by  dissolving  about  six 
pounds  of  sugar  in  fourteen  gallons  of  water ;  add- 
ing four  ounces  of  bruised  ginger  and  the  whites  of 
two  eggs,  well  beaten ;  mixing  thoroughly  ;  boiling 
for  a  quarter  of  an  hour ;  skimming  carefully  ;  and 
when  the  liquor  has  cooled,  adding  the  juice  of 
four  lemons,  and  also  their  rinds  for  flavouring,  with 
a  tea-cupful  of  ale-yeast  to  promote  fermentation ; 
letting  it  ferment  in  an  open  vessel  for  twenty-four 
hours,  and  then  putting  it  into  a  cask  nf  suitable 
eize,  closely  bunged,  in  which  it  remains  for  a 
fortnight  before  it  is  bottled.  It  is,  however,  very 
common  to  increase  the  strength  of  ging«r-wine  by 
the  addition  of  spirits,  the  flavour  being  also  modi- 
fied by  the  kind  of  spirits  employed.  A  little 
spirits  added  makes  ginger-wine  keep  well,  and  it 
even  improves  in  quality  for  many  months.  Its 
quality  depends  much  on  that  of  the  sugar  and  of  i 
the  ginger  employed,  and  also  on  the  care  with 
which,  the  manufacture  is  conducted. 

GI'NGHAM.  A  cotton  fabric  originally  intro- 
duced with  its  present  name  from  India ;  it  is  now 
manufactured  to  an  immense  extent  in  Britain,  and 
our  manufacturers  sujiply,  to  a  very  gTeat  extent, 
the  Indian  markets.  It  differs  from  calico  in  the 
circumstance,  that  its  colours  are  woven  in  and  not 
afterwards  printed.  At  fii"st,  the  Indian  ginghams 
consisted  of  cotton  cloths,  with  two  or  more  colours 
arranged  as  a  small  checkered  pattern  ;  now,  a  great 
variety  of  designs  are  found  in  this  material,  and 
in  the  case  of  umbrella  ginghams,  the  whole  piece  is 
woven  with  yarn  of  one  colour.  The  following  are 
the  chief  kinds  of  gingham  knoAvn  in  the  markets 
of  Great  Britain  :  plain  common  light  groimds ; 
plain  common  dark  grounds  ;  Earlston  ginghams  ; 
power-loom  seersuckers  and  checks  (imitations  of 
the  Indian  patterns) ;  muslin  ground  (stripes  and 
checks) ;  furniture  stripes  and  checks ;  coloured 
diapers  ;  crossover  stripes ;  derries,  Hungarians ; 
jean  stripes,  and  umbrella  ginghams. 

GI'NGILIE  OIL,  a  name  often  given  to  the 
bland  fixed  oil  obtained  by  expression  from  the 
seeds  of  Sesamum  Indicum.    See  Sesaimum. 

GI'NGKO,  or  GINKO  [Salishuria  adianti folia),  a 
large  tree  of  the  natural  order  Taxacece  (yew,  &c.), 
with  straight  erect  trunk  and  conical  head,  aiid 
lea\es  remarkably  resembling  the  leaflets  of  the 
fronds  of  maidenhair,  somewhat  triang-ular,  cloven 
and  notched  at  the  upper  extremity,  shortly  stalked, 
leathery,  smooth,  shining,  yellowish  green,  with 
numerous  minute  parallel  ribs,  and  somewhat  thick- 
ened margins.  The  fruit  is  a  sort  of  drupe,  of  which 
the  fleshy  part  is  formed  by  the  persistent  calyx, 
about  an  inch  in  diameter  ;  the  nut  or  endocarp 
white,  a  thin  shell  with  a  farinaceous  kernel  resem- 
bling an  almond  in  flavour,  ^vith  a  little  mixtiu-e  of 
austerity.  The  tree  is  a  native  of  China,  but  has 
been  long  knowTi  in  Em'ope,  and  large  trees  are  now 
to  be  seen  in  England.  The  wood  is  easy  to  work, 
receives  a  fine  polish,  is  yellowish  white,  veined,  and 
not  resinous.  .  In  China  and  Japan  the  G.  is  grown 
chiefly  for  the  kernel,  which  is  freed  from  austerity 
by  boiling  and  roasting.  The  fleshy  part  of  the 
fruit,  altliough  resiuou^  nnd  astringent,  is  also  eaten 


after  being  slightly  roasted.  The  male  and  femalo 
flowers  are  on  different  trees,  but  the  Chinese  plant 


Gingko  Tree : 

a,  branchlct  of  female  tree  ;  b,  branchlet  of  male  tree,  in  flower; 
c,  male  flowers;      female  flowers;  e,  fruit;  /,  anther. 

several  close  together,  which  grow  into  a  monstroua 
tree,  producing  both  male  and  female  flowers. 

GI'NSENG,  a  root  highly  esteemed  in  China  as 
a  medicine,  being  universally  regarded  as  possessing 
the  most  extraordinary  virtues,  and  as  a  remedy  for 
almost  all  diseases,  but  particularly  for  exhaustion 
of  body  or  mind.  It  is  sometimes  sold  for  its  weight 
in  gold.  It  was  once  introduced  into  Europe,  but 
soon  forgotten.  It  is  the  root  of  a  species  of  Panax^ 
of  the  natural  order  Araliacece,  to  which  the  name 
P.  Ginseiig  has  been  given,  and  which  is  a  native 
of  Chinese  Tartary ;  having  a  stem  from  one  foot  to 
two  feet  high  ;  leaves  on  long  stalks,  five-fingered, 
and  almost  quite  smooth  ;  and  umbels  on  a  long 
terminal  stalk.    It  is  doubted  by  many  botanists  if 


Ginseng  {Panax  quinque folium). 

this  species  is  really  distinct  from  P.  quinquefoUum, 
a  common  North  American  plant ;  the  root  of  which 
is  now  an  article  of  export  from  North  America  to 
China,  and  is  used  as  a  domestic  medicine  in  the 
states  west  of  the  Alleghauies,  but  which  Eiu-opeau 
and  American  medical  practitioners  generally  regard 
as  almost  worthless.  It  is  mucilaginous,  sweetish, 
and  slightly  bitter  and  aromatic. — P.fruticosus  and 

757 


GIOBERTI— GIORDANO. 


i*.  cochleattts  are  fragrant  aromatics,  growing  in  the 
Moluccas,  and  used  by  the  native  practitioners  of 
India.  The  fruit  of  the  genus  Panax  is  succulent, 
compressed,  with  two  or  three  leathery  one-seeded 
•tells. 

GIOBE'RTI,  ViNCENZO,  a  remarkable  Italian 
writer  and  thinker  of  modern  times,  Avas  born  in 
1801  at  Turin.  He  was  educated  for  the  church, 
obtained  his  degree  of  doctor  of  theology  in  182.3, 
and  was  ordained  to  the  priesth(Jod  in  1825.  He 
was  'subsequently  appointed  professor  of  theology 
in  the  university  of  his  native  city,  and  on  the 
accession  of  Charles  Albert,  was  selected  as  cha[)- 
lain  to  the  court,  an  office  which  he  tilled  with  dis- 
tinction till  1833.  At  this  i)criod  of  rising  political 
agitation,  G.  was  accused  of  promoting  the  liberal 
movement,  was  dismissed  from  court,  and  suffered 
an  imprisonment  of  four  months.  Having  obtained 
permission  to  retire  into  banishment,  he  went  first 
to  Paris,  and  shortly  after  to  Brussels,  where  he 
spent  eleven  years  as  private  tutor  in  an  academy, 
pursuing  in  his  leisure  hours  his  private  studies. 
A  devout  Catholic,  G.  looked  upon  the  papacy  as 
the  divinely  ap])ointed  agency  for  the  elevation 
of  Italy  among  the  nations,  A  confederation  of 
states  subject  to  papal  arbitration,  and  having  in 
the  king  of  Piedmont  a  military  protector,  was  the 
scheme  devised  by  G.  for  the  unity  and  regeneration 
of  his  coimtry.  In  short,  in  the  19th  c.  he  advocated 
the  Guelpli  policy  of  the  middle  ages.  These  views 
he  elaborately  developed  in  his  work  entitled,  II 
Primato  Civile  e  Morale  degli  Italiani  (The  Civil 
and  Moral  Supremacy  of  the  Italians).  Its  publica- 
tion in  Paris  in  1842,  during  the  author's  exile,  was 
hailed  with  the  utmost  enthusiasm  by  Italy,  with 
the  exception  of  a  limited  and  far-sighted  section  of 
the  country.  The  liberal  and  conciliative  policy 
adopted  by  Pome  on  the  accession  of  Pius  IX., 
appeared  the  verification  of  G.'s  predictions,  and 
increased  the  popidarity  of  his  name.  On  his  return 
to  Italy,  he  was  received  with  universal  ovations 
from  all  classes  of  the  people,  and  was  honoured  by 
being  chosen  by  several  towns  as  their  representa- 
tive in  parliament.  The  king  apiJointed  him  senator, 
he  subsequently  was  elected  president  of  the  cham- 
ber of  deputies,  and  finally  prime  minister ;  owing 
to  the  great  divergence  of  opinion  which  divided  his 
ministry,  he  held  office  only  for  a  few  weeks,  and 
was  forced  to  resign.  His  siiccessor  des2)atched  him 
to  Paris  on  some  unimportant  mission,  in  order  it 
was  thought  to  remove  him  from  Turin ;  and  thus 
ended  G.'s  political  career,  as  from  that  period  he 
filled  no  official  position,  but  devoted  himself  exclu- 
sively to  literary  pursuits.  As  a  politician,  G.  failed 
in  far-sightedness  ;  and  with  the  course  of  events 
in  Italy,  his  influence  as  a  political  guide  inevitably 
declined ;  but  the  depth  and  range  of  thought  and 
strength  of  conviction  evinced  in  his  various  works, 
entitle  him  to  the  consideration  and  standing  which 
as  a  writer  he  enjoys.  G.'s  remarkable  gentleness 
in  private  intercourse  bore  no  trace  of  the  energetic 
force  with  which  his  writings  propound  an  opinion 
or  denounce  an  opponent.  He  died  at  Paris  of 
apoplexy  in  1853.  His  chief  writings  are  entitled, 
Jntroduzione  alio  studio  della  Filosojia  (Paris,  1839)  ; 
II  Primato  (Paris,  1842)  ;  II  Gemita  moderno,  8 
vols.  (Lausanne,  1847) ;  II  Rinnovamento  civile  degli 
Italiani  (Paris,  1851). 

GIO'JA,  the  name  of  four  towns  of  the  south  of 
Italy.  The  most  important  is  in  the  jwovince  of 
Terra  di  Bari,  26  miles  south  of  the  town  of  Bari. 
It  is  a  thriving  industrious  place,  surroimded  by  a 
fine  fertile  territory.  Pop.  14,000.  It  was  formerly 
famous  for  the  beauty  of  its  woods,  the  favourite 
hunting-grounds  of  the  Emperor  Frederic  II. 
758 


The  second  town  is  in  the  province  of  Calabria^ 
Ultra  I.,  situated  a  mile  from  the  sea,  and  28  miles 
north-east  of  Reggio.  It  is  said  to  be  of  ancient 
origin,  and  has  sustained  sev»Tal  severe  sieges.  It 
was  finally  all  but  destroyed  in  1783  by  an  f>arth- 
quake,  and  now  possesses  oidy  about  1000  inha- 
bitants.— The  third  G.  is  in  the  province  of  the 
Abruzzi,  Ultra  II.,  34  miles  south-south -east  of 
Aquila,  and  60  from  the  sea,  with  2409  inhabitants. 
Its  territory,  although  mountainous,  is  productive. 
— The  fourth  is  a  town  of  3560  inhabitants,  in  the 
province  of  Terra  di  Lavoro,  6  miles  north-west  of 
Cerreto. 

GIOJA,  Melchiorre,  a  famous  Italian  statis- 
tician, was  born  at  Piacenza,  20th  September  1767. 
He  was  educated  for  the  priesthood,  and  for  some 
time  discharged  the  duties  of  tutor  in  a  noble  family, 
but  through  the  liberality  of  bis  brother  waa 
enabled  to  resign  this  post,  and  to  follow  his  own 
bent,  which  was  towards  social  and  economic  science. 
When  the  invading  forces  of  France  descended  into 
Italy,  G.  had  already  attracted  much  notice  by  hia 
I)olitical  writings  ;  and  in  1797  he  quitted  Piacenza 
for  Milan,  and  was  there  api)ointed  state  historio- 
grapher, a  post  he  was  deprived  of  in  1803,  in 
consequence  of  his  work  on  divorce  giving  great 
dissatisfaction.  In  1806,  he  was  appointed  director 
of  the  statistical  department,  and  in  1809  the 
minister  Vaccari  intrusted  to  him  the  preparation 
of  a  grand  statistical  report  of  all  Italy.  Thia 
great  labour  was  still  in  progress  when  a  change 
of  government  interrupted  it.  G.  died  at  Milan, 
January  2,  1829.  His  laborious  habits  and  immense 
knowledge  of  the  subjects  he  wrote  upon,  enabled 
him  to  accomplish  an  incredible  amount  of  labour, 
but  he  is  justly  blamed  for  the  bitter  strain  of  per- 
sonal invective  with  which  he  resented  the  least 
unfavourable  criticism  of  his  works.  Some  of  hia 
chief  works  are  :  Sul  Commercio  tZe'  Commestlhili  e 
caro  prezzo  del  vitto  (Milan,  1802,  2  vols,  in  12mo) ; 
Teo7-ia  civile  e  penale  del  divorzio  ossia  necessitd,, 
cause  nuova  maniera  di  organizzarla  (Milan,  1803, 
in  8vo) ;  Nuovo  prospetto  delle  scienze  economiche^ 
ossia  somma  totale  delle  idea  teoriche  e  pratiche  in 
ogni  ramo  d' a.mministrazione  privata  e  puhhlica 
(Milan,  1815  to  1819,  6  vols,  in  4to) ;  Filosojia 
della  Statlstica  (Milan,  1826,  2  vols,  in  4to) ;  DelV 
ingiuria,  dei  danni,  del  soddis/aci  mento  e  relative 
basi  di  stima  (Milan,  1802,  2  vols,  in  Svo). 

GIOJO'SA,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of 
Reggio,  is  situated  about  7  miles  north-east  of 
Gerace,  in  a  fertile  and  beautiful  district,  and  is 
supposed  to  have  risen  on  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
city  of  Mitra,  mentioned  by  Pliny.  Its  air  is  remark- 
able for  purity,  and  its  inhabitants  for  physical 
vigour  and  beauty.    Pop.  estimated  at  8485. 

GIORDA'NO,  LucA,  an  Italian  painter,  was  bom 
of  impoverished  parents  at  Naples,  about  1632 ; 
studied  under  Ribrera  or  Spagnoletto,  and  made 
rapid  progress.  Singularly  enough,  considering  his 
fine  imagination  and  delicate  touch,  both  his  early 
productions  as  well  as  those  of  his  more  mature 
years,  indicate  rather  a  power  of  beautifully  correct 
imitation,  than  any  marked  originality  or  elevation 
of  genius.  On  leaving  Ribrera's  school,  G.  re]iaired 
to  Rome,  where  he  became  the  scholar  and  feUow- 
worker  of  Pietro  da  Cortona.  Subsequently,  he 
went  to  Lombardy  and  Venice,  to  familiarise  him- 
self with  the  styles  of  the  schools  of  art  there. 
After  some  time  he  proceeded  to  Madrid,  in  1692, 
at  the  request  of  Charles  II.,  king  of  Si>ain,  who 
desired  his  assistance  in  the  embellishment  of  the 
Escorial.  His  pleasing  freedom  of  manner  and  genial 
humour  rendered  him  a  special  favourite  during 
his  residence  at  the  Spanish  court,  which  he  onljT 


GIORGIONE-GIllAFFE. 


quitted  for  Italy  on  the  death  of  the  king,  ten  years 
later.  The  extremt  rapidity  of  execiitiou  for  which 
G.  was  remarkable,  cnallecl  him  to  produce  a  pro- 
digious number  of  works,  but  undoubtedly  told 
detrimentally  against  their  excellence.  With  some 
blemishes  they  possess,  however,  many  beauties,  and 
are  chiefly  admired  for  their  spirited  animation  of 
character,  and  harmonious  freedom  of  treatment, 
they  also  excel  in  boldness  and  perfection  of  the 
foreshortening.  The  palaces  lliccardi  and  Pitti 
Cvntaiii  some  fine  specimens  of  this  artist's  style, 
but  his  best  paintings  are  in  the  galleries  of 
Dresden  and  Naples,  and  the  Escorial  at  Madrid. 
G.  died  about  1704.  The  name  of  Fa  presto,  which 
distinguished  him  through  life,  referred  to  his 
father's  incessant  injunction  to  work  quickly,  in  order 
that  the  proceeds  of  his  labour  might  relieve  the 
indigence  of  the  family. 

GIORGIO'NE,  or  GIORGIO  BARBARELLI, 
one  of  the  most  poetical  and  fascinating  of  Italian 
painters,  was  born  about  1470  at  Castelfranco,  in  the 
Venetian  territory  of  Trevisano.  He  studied  under 
Giovanni  Bellini,  but  quickly  surpassed  his  master ; 
for  while  Bellini's  style  is  distinguished  for  its 
minute  finish  and  cramped  precision,  that  of  G. 
literally  revels  in  freedom  and  breadth  of  outline, 
and  gorgeous  dei)th  of  colour.  Unfortimately  for 
art,  G.  died  in  1511,  at  the  early  age  of  33.  His 
works  are  of  coiirse  limited  in  number,  but  they  \ 
are  among  the  most  rare  and  exquisite  examples 
of  the  Venetian  school.  Scriptural  scenes,  highly 
original  in  idea  and  treatment,  portraits,  and  a  few 
sweet  idyllic  scenes,  representing  pastoral  concerts 
and  sylvan  enjoyments,  form  the  subjects  of  these 
pictiu-es,  which  all  glow  with  the  fine  imagination, 
the  rich  colouring,  and  the  energy  c  E  touch,  that  are 
G.'s  distinctive  attributes.  The  Lombard  galleries 
and  the  Louvre  possess  the  best  authenticated 
originals  of  G.,  whose  imitators  were  numerous. 

GIO'TTO,  or  AMBROGIOTTO  BORDONE,  a 
great  painter,  architect,  and  sculptor,  born  in  1276,  * 
was  the  son  of  a  poor  sheplierd,  and  passed  the  \ 
earliest  years  of  his  life  in  watching  flocks  in  his  j 
native  Tuscan  valley  of  Vespignano.    Here  he  first  ! 
essayed  to  reproduce  on  a  fragment  of  slate  the  j 
forms  of  nature  surrounding  him,  and  to  the  subtle 
influences  of  these  early  associations  may  be  ascribed 
much  of  the  devotion  which  G.'s  perfected  works 
evince  towards  nature  in  her  purest  and  most 
winning  aspects.  One  of  these  simple  designs,  repre- 
senting a  sheep,  having  fallen  under  the  notice  of 
Cimabue,  the  latter  became  interested  in  G.,  and 
haAang  obtained  the  consent  of  the  youth's  father,  \ 
received  him  into  his  studio.    G.'s  intu.itive  percej)- 
tion  of  the  true  in  art  speedily  emancipated  him 
from  the  conventionalities,  although  it  is  true  that 
Cimabue  himself  had  previou&ly  taken  steps  in  this 
direction.     In  G.'s  paintings,  however,  we  first 
markedly  observe  instead  of  the  flat  elongated  i'orms 
and  lifeless  features  of  the  Byzantine  tyjjes,  fii';ures 
imbued  with  the  varied  action  and  expressioa  of 
natiire,  and  exhibiting  besides  an  ideal  eleva'^aon 
and  graideur  of  character.    He  first  also  practised 
the  art  of  grouping  with  due  regard  to  the  senti- 
ment and  action   of  the  composition,  and  gave 
simplicity  and  grace  to  the  draping  outline ;  in 
sliort,  he  effected  a  profound  reformation  in  the 
style  of  art,  which  from  his  era  assumed  its  rightfid 
alliance  with  the  beautiful  in  nature.    G.  was  also 
an  eminent  architect,  and  was  employed  in  tin', 
execution  of  the  dome  of  Florence,  while  from  his 
designs  the  Campanile  (q.  v.)  was  built.  The  beloved 
friend  of  Dantr,  and  of  all  the  great  souls  of  his  ' 
age,  he  himself  presented  a  rare  union  of  genius,  | 
knowledge,  and   ^^it,  combined  with  the  •itmost  I 


equanimity  of  humour  and  massive  good  sense.  Th« 
restorer  of  i)ortraiture,  his  pencil  has  transmitted  to 
our  day  the  featuies  and  personality  of  his  cherished 
Dante,  of  Brunetto  Latini,  Corso  Donati,  and  othei 
celebrities  ;  and  in  return  we  find  his  name  enshrined 
with  reverence  in  all  the  grand  literary  works  of  the 
times,  esi)ecially  in  those  of  Dante,  Boccaccio,  and 
Petrarca.  The  work^s  of  this  illustrious  man  are  too 
numerous  to  be  recorded  here,  but  we  may  mention 
some  of  the  principal.  '  The  Coronation  of  the 
Virgin,'  in  the  chui-ch  of  Santa  Croce  at  Florence ; 
'  A  Last  Sui)per,'  in  the  refectory ;  the  famous 
mosaic,  executed  at  Pi^ome  for  Pope  Boniface  VIII., 
named  '  La  Navicella,'  and  representing  Peter  walk- 
ing on  the  waves,  a  wonderfid  work,  which  has 
unhappily  severely  suff"ered  in  the  succeesive  repairs 
it  has  required ;  the  frescoes  of  the  '  Seven  Sacra 
ments,'  painted  at  Naples  in  the  church  of  the 
Incoronata,  one  of  the  most  perfect  of  his  works  in 
point  of  preservation ;  and  the  frescoes  of  Assisi, 
illustrating  the  life  of  St  Francis,  and  innumerable 
other  minor  works.  G.  died  at  Florence  in  1336, 
and  was  interred  in  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  del 
Fiore,  where  a  marble  monument  was  erected  to  his 
honour  by  Lorenzo  de'  Medici, 

GIOVA'NNI  (San)  A  TKDUCCIO,  a  town  of 
11,000  inhabitants,  three  miles  east  of  Naples,  is 
situated  near  the  sea-shore  in  a  fertile  plain.  Its 
neighboiu-hood  is  well  cidtivated,  and  embellished 
with  beautiful  villas.  Its  origin  is  supposed  to  be 
very  ancient,  and  its  name  is  attributed  to  the 
Emperor  Theodosius,  whose  name  is  carved  on  a 
small  ancient  column  discovered  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  town. 

GIOVENA'ZZO,  a  thriA-ing  little  town  in  the 
south  of  Italy,  province  of  Terra  Di  Bari,  is  situated 
on  the  shore  of  the  Adriatic,  14  miles  west- north- 
west of  the  town  of  Bari.  It  is  considered  the 
Natiolum  of  the  Romans,  and  possesses  soma 
remains  of  its  ancient  walls.  In  the  11th  c.  it 
belonged  to  the  Greeks,  and  eventually  passed  into 
the  possession  of  the  Gonzaga  family.  There  is 
here  an  excellently  organised  asylum  for  the  poor, 
conjoined  with  extensive  juvenile  reformatories.  G. 
is  encircled  by  vineyards  and  rich  plantations  of 
olive,  almond,  and  other  fruit-bearing  trees.  Pop. 
(1871)  9108. 

GIPSIES.    See  Gypsies. 

GIRA'FFE,  or  CAMELOPARD  {Camelopardalu 
Giraffa),  the  tallest  of  quadrupeds,  ranked  by  some 
naturalists  among  deer  {Cervidce),  but  more  pro- 
perly regarded  as  constituting  a  distinct  family 
of  ruminants,  which  contains,  however,  only  one 
species.  It  is  a  native  of  Africa,  from  Nubia  to 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  extensively  diffused,  but 
apparently  nowhere  abundant.  It  occurs  generally 
in  small  herds  of  from  five  to  forty.  It  feeds 
on  the  leaves  and  small  l>ranches  of  trees.  It3 
general  aspect  is  remarkable  from  the  height  of 
the  foreparts  and  great  elongation  of  the  neck, 
the  head  being  sometimes  18  feet  from  the  gi'ouncL 
The  number  of  vertebrae  m  the  neck,  however,  is 
not  greater  than  in  other  quadrupeds,  and  it  has 
no  extraordinary  flexibility,  although  its  form  and 
movements  are  very  graceful.  The  body  is  shoi-t, 
and  the  back  slopes  from  the  shoulder  to  the 
tail;  but  the  greater  height  of  the  foreparts  ig 
not  owing,  as  has  been  often  alleged,  to  the  greater 
length  of  the  fore-legs,  which  are  not  really  longer 
than  the  hind-legs,  but  to  processes  of  the  vertebrae, 
which  form  a  basis  for  the  muscidar  support  of  the 
neck  and  head.  The  articulation  of  the  skull  to  the 
neck  is  such  that  the  head  can  be  easdy  thrown 
back  untd  it  is  in  the  same  line  with  the  neck,  thus 
giving  the  animal  additional  power  of  reaching  its 


GIEAFFE— GIRALDUS  CAMBRENSIS. 


R,pj)ropriate  food.  The  skull  has  empty  cavities, 
whicli  give  lightness  to  the  head,  along  with  sufficient 
extent  of  surface  for  the  insertion  of  the  ligament 
which  su})ports  it.  The  legs  are  long  and  slender  ; 
tile  feet  have  cloven  hoofs,  but  are  destitute  of  the 


GiraflFe. 


Kraall  lateral  toes  or  spurious  hoofs,  which  occur  in 
the  other  cloven-footed  ruminants.  The  head  is 
long  ;  the  upper  lip  entire,  projecting  far  beyond  the 
nostrils,  and  endowed  with  consideral^le  muscular 
power.  The  tongue  is  remarkably  capable  of  elon- 
gation, and  is  an  organ  of  touch  and  of  prehension, 
like  the  trunk  of  an  elephant ;  it  can  be  thrust  far 
out  of  the  mouth,  and  employed  to  grasji  and  take  up 
even  very  small  objects  ;  it  is  said  that  its  tip  can  be 
BO  tapered  as  to  enter  the  ring  of  a  very  small  key. 
The  usefulness  of  such  au  organ  for  drawing  in 
leaves  and  branchlets  to  the  mouth  is  obvious.  The 
G.  adroitly  picks  off  the  leaves  of  acacias  and  other 
thorny  plants,  without  taking  the  thorns  into  its 
mouth.  The  dentition  of  the,G.  agrees  with  that  of 
antelopes,  sheep,  goats,  and  oxen  ;  the  upper  jaw  of 
the  male  is  destitute  of  the  canine  teeth,  which  are 

K resent  in  the  male  of  most  kinds  of  deer.  The 
ead  is  furnished  with  two  remarkable  protuberances 
between  the  ears,  generally  described  as  horns,  but 
very  different  from  the  horns  of  other  animals,  and 
each  consisting  of  a  bone  united  to  the  skull  by  an 
obvious  suture,  permanent,  covered  with  skin  and 
hair,  and  terminated  by  long  hard  bristles.  There 
is  also  a  projection  on  the  forehead.  The  ears  are 
moderately  long ;  the  tail  is  long,  and  terminates  in 
a  tuft  of  long  hair  that  nearly  reaches  the  ground. 
There  is  a  callosity  on  the  breast.  The  neck  has  a 
very  short  mane.  The  hair  is  short  and  smooth ; 
the  colour  is  a  reddish  white,  marked  by  numerous 
dark  ru&ty  spots.  The  eye  of  the  G.  is  very  large 
and  lustrous,  and  so  placed  that  the  animal  can 
look  all  around  without  turning  its  head,  so  that  in 
a  wild  state  it  is  not  easily  approached.  Its  nostrils 
have  a  muscle  by  which  they  can  be  closed ;  a  pro- 
vision, as  Owen  supposes,  for  excluding  particles  of 
sand.  It  is  an  inoffensive  animal,  and  generally 
seeks  safety,  if  possible,  in  flight,  although  it  is 
capable  of  making  a  stout  resistance,  and  is  said  to 
beat  off  the  lion.  It  fights  by  kicking  with  its  hind- 
legs,  discharging  a  storm  of  kicks  with  extraordinary 
rapidity.  It  is  not  easily  overtaken  even  by  a  fleet 
horse,  and  has  greatly  the  advantage  of  a  horse  on 
uneven  and  broken  ground.  Its  pace  is  described 
as  an  amble,  the  legs  of  the  same  side  moving  at  the 
B<arae  time.  The  G.  was  known  to  the  ancients,  and 
was  exhibited  in  Roman  sj)ectacles.  Representations 
of  it  appear  among  Egyptian  antiquities.    It  has 

7CU 


been  supposed  to  be  the  zemer  of  the  Jews,  trans- 
lated chamois  in  the  English  Bible  (Dent.  xiv.  5). 
In  the  year  1836,  giraffes  were  added  to  the 
collection  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  of  London,  and 
interesting  opportunities  of  studying  their  habits 
have  since  been  enjoyed.  They  are  fed  chiefly  on 
hay  placed  in  high  racks,  gi'eatly  enj'<y  carrotsi  and 
onions,  and  a  lump  of  sugar  is  a  favourite  delicacy. 
They  have  bred  in  England.  The  flesh  of  the  G.  ia 
said  to  be  i)leasant,  and  its  marrow  is  a  favourite 
African  delicacy. 

GIRALDUS  CAMBRE'NSIS,  the  literary 
name  of  Gerald  de  Barri.  He  was  fourth  son  cf 
William  de  Barri,  a  Norman  noble  who  had  settled 
in  Pembrokeshire,  and  allied  himself  by  marriage 
to  the  family  Rhys  ap  Theodor,  prince  of  South 
Wales.  G.  was  born  about  1146,  and  educated  by 
his  uncle  David,  who  was  Bishop  of  St  David's. 
He  entered  the  university  of  Paris  in  his  2(lth  year, 
and  after  three  years  of  much  literary  di.stinctiou 
he  returned  to  England,  entered  into  holy  orders 
in  1172,  and  was  soon  afterwards  appointed  Arch- 
deacon of  St  David's.  He  was  from  the  first  a 
zealous  churchman  ;  strenuous  in  ther  enforcement  of 
discipline,  and  especially  of  clerical  celibacy;  and 
was  the  chief  agent  in  the  establishment  of  the 
payment  of  tithes  within  the  principality.  On  the 
death  of  his  uncle,  the  chapter  of  St  David's  elected 
him  bishop ;  but  as  the  election  was  made  with- 
out the  royal  license,  G.  renounced  it.  The  king, 
Henry  II.,  directed  a  new  "election ;  and  on  the 
chapter's  persisting  in  their  choice  of  G.,  the  king 
refused  to  confirm  the  selection,  and  another  bisliop, 
Peter  de  Leia,  was  appointed.  G.  withdi  ?w  for  a 
time  to  his  old  residence  in  the  university  of  Paris, 
and  on  his  return  he  was  required,  by  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbiiry,  to  take  the  administration  of 
the  diocese  of  St  David's,  which  had  utterly  failed 
in  the  hands  of  De  Leia.  He  held  it  for  four  years, 
when  being  apjiointed  a  royal  chaplain,  and  after- 
wards preceptor  to  Prince  John,  he  accom])auied 
that  prince  in  1185  in  his  expedition  to  Ireland, 
where  he  remained  after  John's  return,  in  order  to 
complete  the  well  known  descriptive  account  of  that 
country,  which,  although  very  valuable  as  a  whole, 
has  in  many  of  its  details  called  forth  much  angry 
criticism  from  Irish  scholars  and  antiquaries.  Ou 
his  return,  in  1187,  he  read  this  work  publicly  in  the 
university  of  Oxford,  giving  a  full  day  to  each  of 
the  three  divisions  of  which  it  consists.  A  tour  of 
Wales  which  he  made  (1188)  in  the  company  or 
Baldwin,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  led  to  a  similai 
descriptive  work,  the  Jtinerariunt  Cambrioi.  In  the 
following  year  he  accompanied  the  king  to  France, 
where  he  remained  till  the  king's  death.  His  later 
years,  after  his  return,  were  full  of  disappointment. 
On  the  see  of  St  David's  again  becoming  vacant,  he 
was  again  unanimously  elected  by  the  chapters  ; 
but  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  having  interjx)sed, 
G.,  notwithstanding  an  appeal  to  Rome,  in  prose- 
cuting which  he  made  three  different  journeys  in 
the  course  of  five  years  of  the  contest,  failed  to 
obtain  a  confirmation  of  the  nomination.  He  soon 
afterwards  resigned  his  archdeaconry,  and  devoted 
the  remaining  seventeen  years  of  his  life  to  study. 
Once  again  the  see  of  St  David's  became  vacant, 
but  although  it  was  offered  to  G.  on  certain  condi- 
tions, he  declined  to  accept  it,  and  died  at  St 
David's  in  the  74th  year  of  his  age.  The  reason 
why  G.'s  appointment  to  the  bishopric  was  so  much 
oi)posed  is  not  clearly  known,  but  the  king,  it  ia 
said,  had  resolved  that  no  native  of  Wales  she  ild 
obtain  the  dignity.  G.'s  writings,  although  dis- 
figured by  credidity,  and  in  the  personal  narra- 
tives with  which  they  abound,  by  excessive  vanity, 
are  of  great  value  as  materials  for  the  history,  rmd 


GmARDlN— GIEDLE  OF  VENUS. 


tor  the  social  condition  of  the  age  and  the  countries 
which  he  describes.  But  they  must  he  read  with 
mt.ch  caution,  and  with  a  careful  critical  consider- 
ati  ,«n  of  the  sources  of  the  information  which  they 
embody.  Several  of  his  works  are  still  preserved  in 
manuscript  in  the  British  Museum,  the  Bodleian, 
the  Lambeth,  and  Corpus  Christi  College  Libraries. 
Hu  printed  works  are  the  It'merarlum  Cambrite  ; 
TopngrapMce  HihernicB ;  Expugnatio  Hihernice ; 
Descriptio  Camhrioe ;  and  several  smaller  i)ieces, 
wbich  are  printed  in  the  second  volume  of 
Wharton's  Anglia  Sacra.  Barry's  work  on  Ireland 
called  out  several  rejoinders,  the  most  valuable  of 
which  is  that  of  John  Lynch  (under  the  pseudonym 
of  Gratianus  Lucius),  entitled  Camhrensis  Eversus; 
a  less  valuable  work  is  that  of  Stephen  White, 
recently  published,  from  the  original  manuscripts; 
Sir  James  Ware  has  freely  criticised  Barry  in  the 
Anliquities  of  Ireland. 

GIRARDIN,  Emile  de,  a  French  journalist  and 
politician,  the  illegitimate  son  of  the  royalist  general 
Alexandre  de  Gii'ardin  and  Madame  Dupuy,  w^as 
born  in  Switzerland  in  1802,  educated  in  Paris, 
and  in  1823  was  appointed  general  secretary  of  the 
royal  museums.  After  the  July  revolution,  G. 
established  the  Journal  des  Connaissances  utiles,  for 
which  he  secured  120,000  subscribers ;  in  1832,  the 
Musee  des  Families ;  and  in  1834,  the  Almanack  de 
France.  He  also  published  an  Atlas  de  Frrime  and 
an  Atlas  Universel.  The  whole  of  these  publications 
were  set  forth  as  emanating  from  a  Societe  Nationale 
pour  V emancipation  intellectuelle,  and  were  not  with- 
out a  considerable  influence  on  the  progress  of 
public  instruction  in  France.  In  1836  he  founded 
the  Presse,  as  an  organ  of  political  conservatism, 
and  soon  found  himself  entangled  in  violent  contro- 
versies. One  of  the  unfortunate  results  of  these 
was  his  duel  with  Armand  Carrel,  editor  of  the 
National,  in  which  the  latter  fell.  From  this  time 
onward  to  the  E  evolution  of  1848,  he  was  ardently 
occupied  with  politics  both  as  a  journalist  and 
deputy ;  and  from  being  a  defender  of  Guizot  and 
moderate  liberalism,  he  became  a  decided  republican. 

G.  was  the  first  to  propose  Louis  Napoleon  as  a 
candidate  for  the  Presidentship,  but  only  four  weeks 
after  the  triumph  of  the  latter,  he  opposed  him  with 
the  greatest  Viridence — the  reason  generally  given, 
being  that  the  President  had  shewn  himself  unwill- 
ing to  agree  to  the  political  scheme  submitted  to 
him  by  his  advocate.  G.  now  threw  himself  into 
the  arms  of  the  Socialists.  In  1856,  he  sold  his 
share  of  the  Presse,  being  unable  to  submit  to  the 
restrictions  on  journalism.  G.  is  regarded  as  one 
of  the  ablest,  though  at  the  same  time,  one  of  the 
most  turn-coat  journalists  in  France.  He  is  very 
fertile  and  original  in  his  political  ideas,  which  he 
has  given  to  the  world  in  a  host  of  brochures. — 
Madame  de  Girardin,  wife  of  the  preceding,  whose 
maiden  name  was  Delphiue  Gay  (born  26th  January 
1804,  died  29th  June  1855),  enjoyed  during  her  life- 
time a  brilliant  reputation  as  a  poetess,  novelist, 
and  play-writer.  Her  best  known  work  is  her 
Lettres  Parisiennes,  which  appeared  in  her  husband's 
periodical  La  Presse,  under  the  pseudonym  of  Le 
Vicorate  de  Launay. 

GIRARDIN,  St  Marc,  an  eminent  French 
jouiTialist  and  professor,  born  at  Paris  in  1801.  He 
studied  at  the  College  Napoleon  and  the  College  Henri 
IV.  with  brilliant  success,  and  in  1827  obtained 
a  professorship  in  the  College  Louis-le-Grand.  Dur- 
ing a  visit  to  Germany  in  1830,  he  formed  a  close 
intimacy  with  Gans  and  Hegel,  and  on  his  return 
to  Paris,  was  appointed  to  succeed  Guizot  as  pro- 
fesRor  of  history  in  the  Faculty  of  Letters,  and  was 
named  master  of  requests  to  the  Council  of  State. 


In  1834  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  poetry  at  the 
Sorbonne.  About  the  same  time  he  was  eli^cted  a 
member  of  the  Chamber  of  De])uties,  and  acquired 
a  considerable  reputation  by  his  rejKjrt  upon  the 
organisation  of  secondary  instruction  presented  in 
1837.  In  1844  he  was  received  into  the  Academie. 
G.  took  no  si)ecial  part  in  the  Revolution  of  1848, 
and  still  continues  his  functions  as  professor  at 
the  Sorbonne.  His  influence  and  popularity  aa  a 
lecturer  are  very  great.  Clearness,  good  sense, 
moderation,  vivacity,  and  humour  are  his  leading 
characteristics.  Besides  his  numerous  contriljutiona 
to  the  Debats,  which  he  has  partly  edited  since 
1827,  and  to  the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  he  haa 
published  several  large  works,  among  which  may 
be  mentioned  Notices  Politiques  et  Litteraires  sur 
VAllemagne  (1834)  ;  Cours  de  Litteraiure  Drama- 
tique  (4  vols.  1843) ;  Essais  de  Litterature  et  de 
Morale  (2  vols.  1844) ;  and  Tablexiu  de  la  Litterature 
au  \Qth  Siecle,  suivi  d^ Etudes  sur  la  Litterature  du 
Moyen  Age  et  de  la  Renaissance  (1862). 

GI'RASOL,  a  precious  stone,  exhibiting  in  strong 
lights  a  peculiar  and  beautiful  reflection  of  bright 
red  or  yellow  light,  which  seems  to  come  from  the 
interior  of  the  stone.  From  this  it  derives  its  name 
(Ital.  'sun-turning').  There  are  different  kinds  of 
G.,  variously  referred  by  mineralogists  to  quartz  and 
opal,  species  which,  however,  are  very  nearly  allied. 
One  kind  is  also  known  as  Fire  0])al,  which  ia 
found  only  at  Zimapan,  in  Mexico,  and  in  the  Faroe 
Islands.  The  Mexican  specimens  are  of  a  rich  topaz 
yellow  colour,  and  the  reflection  is  very  bright. 
Another  kind  is  the  Quartz  Eesinite  of  Haliy,  so 
called  because  of  its  characteristic  resinous  fracture. 
It  is  found  of  various  colours,  sometimes  of  a  fine 
yellow  or  emerald  green,  more  generally  bluish 
white.  For  a  specimen  of  extraordinary  brilliancy, 
not  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter,  £1000  has  been 
refused.  The  ancients  held  this  stone  in  high  esti- 
mation. They  called  it  Asteria  (Gr.  aster,  a  star). 
They  obtained  it  both  from  Caramania  and  from 
India.  The  Caramanian  stones  were  preferred. 
The  brightest  are  at  present  brought  from  Brazil, 
but  fine  specimens  are  also  brougiit  from  Siberia. 
Imitation  girasols  are  made  of  glass,  in  which  a 
little  oxide  of  tin  is  mixed. — The  name  G.  is  some- 
times given  to  a  kind  of  sapphire,  also  called 
Asteria  sapphire,  exhibiting  a  similar  reflection  of 
liglit,  and  sometimes  to  Sunstone,  an  avanturina 
felspar. 

GIRDER,  a  main  beam  used  to  support  joisting 
walls,  arches,  &c.  Girders  may  be  of  wood  or  iron, 
and  are  now  very  commonly  made  of  cast  iron. 
They  are  much  used  in  supporting  the  upjjer  walla 
of  houses,  while  the  lower  part  is  cut  away  to  allow 
of  rearrangement.  Wooden  girders  are  sometimes 
strengthened  with  iron  trusses,  and  are  then  called 
trussed  girders.  Sometimes  a  beam  is  cut  in  two, 
and  an  iron  plate  inserted  between  the  pieces,  and 
the  whole  bolted  together  This  kind  of  girdei  Li 
called  a  sandwich  beam.  Girders  are  ranch  used  jb 
railway  works,  in  which  case  they  are  generally  oj 
wrought  iron.  The  Menai  and  Britannia  Bridgfca 
are  simply  very  large  boxed  gdi'ders.  The  lattki 
girder  is  another  form  in  which  the  sides  are  made 
somewhat  like  wooden  lattice-work.  See  SxiuiNorH 
OF  Materials. 

GIRDLE  OF  VENUS  [Cestum  Veneris),  a  very 
remarkable  animal,  one  of  the  Acalejyhce  (q.  v.),  inha- 
biting the  Mediterranean,  gelatinous,  of  a  ribbon- 
like  shape,  sometimes  fire  or  six  feet  in  apparent 
length  by  about  two  inches  in  breadth;  although 
considered  with  reference  to  the  structure  of  the 
animal,  the  apparent  length  is  really  its  breadth, 
and  the  apparent  breadth  its  length.    The  mouth  ia 

761 


GIRGEH— GmONDISTS. 


situated  in  the  middle  of  the  inferior  edge,  and  the 
Btcnuich  is  imbedded  in  the  gchitinous  substance, 
mie  edges  are  fringed  with  cilia,  by  the  movements 


Girdle  of  Venus  [Cctitum  Veneris). 

of  •\\hich  tlie  creature  seems  to  be  pro])clled  in  the 
■Nvater.  It  exhibits  lovely  iridescent  colours  by  day, 
and  brilliajit  phosphorescence  by  night.  Its  substance 
is  so  delicate  that  a  perfect  specimen  can  with  diffi- 
culty be  obtained. 

GI'liGEH,  the  third  largest  town  of  Egypt,  is 
situated  on  the  hift  hank  of  the  Nile,  in  lat.  26  20' 
N.,  and  long.  31°  58'  E.  It  was  here  that  the  dis- 
contented Mamelukes  rallied  against  Mohammed 
Ali.  It  contains  eight  handsome  mosciues,  a  large 
bazaar,  and  a  cotton  manufactory.  The  population 
is  about  10,000,  of  whom  800  arc  Christians,  and  it 
lias  a  convent  of  Catholic  missionaries. — Clot  Bey, 
Aper^u  Gen6rale  sur  VEcjypte,  i.  p.  214. 

GIRGE'NTI.    See  Agrigentum. 

GIRL,  in  Heraldry,  is  the  term  used  to  signify 
the  young  of  the  roe  in  its  second  year. 

GI'RNAR,  a  sacred  mountain  in  India  of 
most  remarkable  as])ect,  stands  in  the  peninsula 
of  Kattyw^ar,  which  forms  part  of  the  native  state 
of  Guzerat,  in  lat.  21°  30'  N.,  and  long.  70°  42'  E. 
Above  the  mass  of  luxuriant  hills  and  valleys  which 
surround  its  base,  rises  a  bare  and  black  rock  of 
granite  to  the  height  of  about  3000  feet  above  the 
sea.  The  summit  is  broken  into  various  peaks,  its 
northern  and  southern  sides  being  nearly  perpen- 
dicular. An  immense  boulder,  which  seems  to  be 
poised  on  one  of  the  scarped  pinnacles,  is  called  the 
Beiru  Jhap,  or  Leap  of  Death,  from  its  being  used 
by  devotees  for  the  purpose  of  self-destruction. 

GIRONDE,  a  maritime  department  in  the  south- 
west of  France,  is  formed  out  of  part  of  the  old 
province  of  Guienne,  and  is  bounded  on  the  W.  by 
the  Bay  of  Biscay,  on  the  N.  by  the  department 
of  Charente-Inferieure,  on  the  E.  by  those  of 
Dordogne  and  Lot-et-Garoune,  aud  on  the  S.  by 
that  of  Laiides.  It  lins  nn  area  of  4132  square  miles, 
and  a  pop.  (1872)  of  705.149.  It  is  watered  mainly 
by  the  Garonne  and  the  Dordogne,  and  by  the 
Gironde,  which  is  formed  by  the  union  of  these 
two  rivers.  The  surface  of  the  land  is  in  general 
flat ;  but  in  the  east  there  are  some  hills.  The 
climate  is  temperate,  and  except  in  the  Landes 
or  sandy  tracts,  which,  how^ever,  occupy  nearly  all 
the  western  half  of  the  department,  is  healthy. 
In  the  east  and  north-east  the  soil  is  chiefly 
calcareous.  Wine,  including  the  finest  clarets,  is 
the  great  product  of  the  department.  The  prin- 
cipal growths  are  those  of  Latitte,  Latour,  ChS,teau- 
Margaux,  Haut-Brion,  Sauterne,  Barsac,  and  the 
Vins  de  Grave,  and  the  quantity  produced  annually 
averages  44,000,000  gallons.  Grain,  vegetables, 
fruit,  and  hemp  are  also  produced  largely.  On 
the  west  coast,  on  the  downs  or  sand-hills,  there 
are  extensive  plantations  of  pine,  from  which  tur- 
pentine, pitch,  and  charcoal  are  obtained.  The 
shepherds  of  the  Landes  traverse  the  sands  on  high 
stilts,  and  travel  with  them  also  to  markets  and 


fairs.  Among  the  manufactures,  salt,  calico,  muslin^ 
chemical  products,  pottery,  paper,  vinegar,  aniS 
brandy,  are  the  chief.    Bordeaux  is  the  capital. 

GIRO'NDISTS  (Fr.  Girondins),  the  name  given 
during  the  French  Revolution  to  the  moderate 
republican  party.  When  the  Legislative  Assembly 
met  in  October  1701,  the  Gironde  department  chose 
for  its  representatives  the  advocates  Vergniaud, 
Guadet,  Gensonn6,  Grangeneuve,  and  a  young  mer- 
chant named  Ducos,  all  of  whom  soon  acquired 
great  influence  by  their  rhetorical  talents  and  poli- 
tical principles,  which  were  derived  from  a  rather 
hazy  notion  of  Grecian  republicanism.  They  were 
joined  by  Brissot's  party  and  the  adherents  of 
Roland,  as  well  as  by  several  leaders  of  the  Centre, 
such  as  Condorcet,  Fauchet,  Lasource,  Isnard,  and 
Henri  La  RiviJire,  and  for  some  time  had  a  par- 
liamentary majority.  They  first  directed  their 
efi'orts  against  the  reactionary  policy  of  the  court, 
and  the  king  saw  himself  comj)elled  to  select  the 
more  moderate  of  the  party,  Roland,  Dumouriez, 
Clavibre,  and  Servan,  to  be  ministers.  Ultimately, 
however,  he  dismissed  them,  a  measure  which  led 
to  the  insurrection  of  the  20th  June  1792.  The 
encroachments  of  the  populace,  and  the  rise  of 
the  Jacol)in  leaders,  compelled  the  G.  to  assume  a 
conservative  attitude ;  but  though  their  eloquence 
still  j^revailed  in  the  Assembly,  their  popularity 
and  j)Ow^er  out  of  doors  w'ere  wholly  gone,  and 
they  wei-e  quite  unable  to  jjrevent  such  hideous 
crimes  as  the  September  massacres.  The  principal 
things  which  they  attempted  to  do  after  this — for 
they  never  succeeded  in  accomplishing  anything — 
were  to  procure  the  arrestment  of  the  leaders  of  the 
Se])tember  massacres,  Dantou,  &c. ;  to  overawe  the 
mob  of  Paris  by  a  guard  selected  frOm  all  the 
j  departments  of  France ;  to  save  the  king's  life  by 
I  the  absurdest  of  all  possible  means,  viz.,  by  first 
voting  his  death,  and  then  by  intending  to  appeal 
!  to  the  nation  ;  and,  finally,  to  im2:)each  Marat,  who, 
I  in  turn,  induced  the  various  sections  of  Paris  to 
j  demand  their  expulsion  from  the  assembly  and 
I  their  arrestment.  This  demand,  backed  up  as  it 
I  was  by  170  pieces  of  artillery  under  the  disposal 
of  Henriot  (q.  v.),  leader  of  the  sans-cidottes,  could 
not  be  resisted ;  thirty  of  the  G.  were  arrested 
on  a  motion  of  Couthon,  but  the  majority  had 
escaped  to  the  pro^•inces.  In  the  departments  of  Eure, 
Calvados,  and  all  through  Brittany,  the  people  rose 
in  their  defence,  and  under  the  command  of  General 
Wimpfen,  formed  the  so-called  'federalist'  army, 
which  was  to  rescue  the  republic  from  the  hands  of 
the  Parisian  jiopulace.  Movements  for  the  cause  of 
the  G.  took  place  likewise  at  Lyon,  Marseille,  and 
Bordeaux.  The  progress  of  the  insurrection  was, 
however,  stopped  by  the  activity  of  the  Conven- 
tion. On  the  20th  July,  the  revolutionary  army 
took  possession  of  Caen,  the  chief  station  of  the 
insurgents,  whereupon  the  deputies  of  the  Conven- 
tion, at  the  head  of  the  sans-cidottes,  forced  their 
way  into  the  other  towns,  and  commenced  a  fearful 
retribution. 

On  the  1st  October  1793,  the  prisoners  were 
accused  before  the  Convention  by  Amar,  as  the 
mouthpiece  of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety,  of 
conspiring  against  the  republic  with  Louis  XVI., 
the  royalists,  the  Duke  of  Orleaiis,  Lafayette,  and 
Pitt,  and  it  was  decreed  that  they  should  be  brought 
before  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal.  On  the  24th, 
their  trial  commenced.  The  accusers  were  such  men 
as  Chabot,  Hebert,  and  Fabre  d' Eglantine.  The 
G.,  however,  defended  themselves  so  eff"ectually,  that 
the  Convention  on  the  SOth  was  obliged  \o  come 
forward  and  decree  the  closing  of  the  ir.vestigatiou. 
That  very  night,  Brissot,  Vergnia,ad,  GeasonnS^ 
Ducos,  Fonfr(Jde,  Lacaze,  Lasource,  Valaz6,  J^ery 


GIROVN^l— GIURGEVO. 


Fauchet,  Duperret,  Carra,  Lehardy,  Duchfltel,  Gar- 
dien,  BoiJeaii,  Beauvais,  Vigee,  Duprat,  Maiuvielle, 
and  Antiboid,  were  sentenced  to  death,  and,  with 
the  exception  of  Valaze,  who  stabbed  himself  on 
hearing  his  sentence  pronounced,  all  perished  l)y  the 
guillotine.  On  their  way  to  the  Place  de  Grbve,  in 
the  true  sjjirit  of  French  republicanism,  they  sang 
the  Marseillaise.  Coustard,  Manuel,  Cussy,  Noel, 
K.ersaint,  Eabaut  St  Etienne,  Bernard,  and  Mazuyer, 
were  likewise  afterwards  guillotined.  Biroteau, 
GicOgeneuve,  Guadet,  Salles,  and  Barbaroux  ascended 
the  scaffold  at  Bordeaux ;  Lidon  and  Chambon, 
at  Brives ;  Yalady,  at  Perigueux ;  Dechezeau,  at 
Rcchelle.  Rebecqui  drowned  himself  at  Marseille, 
P^;cion  and  Buzot  stabbed  themselves,  and  Con- 
dorcet  j)oisoned  himself.  Sixteen  months  later,  after 
the  fall  of  the  Terrorists,  the  outlawed  members, 
in:!luding  the  G.  Lanjuinais,  Defermou,  Ponte- 
coulant,  JiOuvet,  Isnard,  and  La  Rivi&i-e,  again 
ajjpearp-i  in  the  Convention.  A  rather  flattering 
pictcire  of  the  party  has  been  drawn  by  Lamartine, 
in  his  Histolre  des  Girondins  (8  vols.,  Paris,  1847). 

GIRONNB,  GYRONNE,  GYRONNY  (Latin, 
gyrus,  a  circle),  terms  used  in  Heraldry  to  indi- 
cate that  the  Field  (q.  v.)  is  divided  into  six,  eight, 
or  more  triangular  jiortions,  of  different  tinctures, 
the  points  of  the  triangles  all  meeting  in  the  centre 
of  the  shield.  Nisbet  (i.  28)  objects  to  this  as 
a  vulgar  mode  of  blazoning,  and,  in  speaking  of 
the  '  paternal  ensign  of  the  ancient  surname  of 
Camj)beU,'  he  says  (p.  31)  that  it  is  '  composed 
of  the  four  princijial  partition  lines,  parti,  coupe, 
traunche,  taille,  which  divide  the  field  into  eight 
gironal  segments,  ordinarily  blazoned  with  us 
girony  of  eight,  or,  and  sable.'  The  triangle  in 
dexter-chief  has  been  called  a  Giron  or  Gyron. 

GI'RVA^^,  a  seaport  town  and  burgh  of  barony, 
on  the  west  coast  of  Scotland,  is  beautifully  situated 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Girvan,  in  the  county  of 
Ayr,  and  about  21  miles  south-west  of  the  town  of 
that  name.  It  is  now  the  terminus  of  the  Glasgow 
and  South- Western  Railway,  and  owns  consider- 
able tonnage  in  shipping.  The  harbour  has  been 
much  improved  of  late,  and  a  considerable  trade, 
especially  in  the  shi[)ment  of  coal,  is  carried  on 
betwixt  G.  and  Belfast,  from  which  it  is  distant 
about  65  miles.  The  valley  of  the  Girvan  is  one 
of  tlie  most  beautiful  and  best  cultivated  districts 
in  the  south-west  of  Ayrshire,  and  abounds  with 
coal,  lime,  and  ironstone.  The  land  is  of  the 
richest  description.  The  town  is  situated  opposite 
the  celebrated  'Ailsa  Craig,'  and  has  been  much 
frequented  of  late  in  the  summer  season  by  parties 
in  quest  of  sea-bathing,  for  which  the  coast  is 
admirably  adapted.    Pop.  (1871)  4776. 

GISORS,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  Eure,  situated  on  the  river  Epte,  33  miles 
north-east  of  Evreux,  and  on  the  high-road  from 
Paris  to  Rouen.  Pop.  3245.  Here  a  battle  took 
place,  10th  October  1198,  between  the  French  and 
English,  in  which  the  former  were  completely 
defeated.  Richard  L,  who  commanded  the  English, 
gave,  as  the  '  parole,'  or  watchword  of  the  day, 
Dku  ei  mon  Droit  (God  and  my  Right),  and  ever 
since,  the  expression  has  been  the  motto  to  the 
royal  arms  of  England. 

GIULI'IsI,  Giorgio,  a  learned  historian  and 
antiquary,  was  born  at  Milan  in  1714  He  studied 
law  at  the  university  of  Padua,  and  received 
the  degree  of  Doctor  at  an  early  age.  G.  devoted 
his  decided  antiquarian  genius  to  researches  into 
the  monuments  and  remains  of  his  native  land ; 
and  after  twenty  years  of  patient  labour,  he 
\/ubjished  a  valuable  historical  work,  entitled 
Memoirs  concerning  the  Governiiieni  of  Milw^y  with 


Description  of  the  City  and  Milanese  Territory  from 
the  Early  Ages.  These  Memoirs,  in  4  vols.,  cmljrace 
the  period  from  the  destruction  of  the  Lombard 
domination  or  establishment  of  the  Franks  in 
Italy,  down  to  the  opening  of  the  14th  century. 
In  three  subsequent  books,  he  descends  to  1447, 
when  the  House  of  Visconti  was  elevated  to  sove- 
reign rule  in  Milan.  The  work  is  considered  by 
G.'s  countrymen  a  master-piece  of  learning,  impar- 
tiality, and  judgment.  Much  of  the  histoiy  is  based 
upon  the  evidence  of  coins,  seals,  docunioits,  and 
monuments  of  the  various  ages.  Milan  proudly 
recognised  G.'s  patriotic  labour  by  ai)pointing 
him  state  historian,  and,  at  the  request  of  the 
Empress  Maria-Theresa,  he  collected  materials 
for  four  additional  books,  with  the  view  of  bring- 
ing the  work  down  to  the  16th  century.  Before 
achieving  this  design,  he  died  of  apoplexy  on 
Christmas  Eve,  in  1780.  G.  was  distinguished 
for  active  benevolence  as  well  as  learning.  He 
likewise  cultivated  with  enthusiasm  both  poetry 
and  music. 

GIULIO  PIPPI,  sumamed  *  Romano,'  from  the 
place  of  his  birth,  was  born  at  Rome  in  1492,  and 
became  one  of  Raphael's  most  distinguished  and 
beloved  pupils.  His  excellence  as  an  architect  and 
engineer  almost  equalled  his  genius  as  a  ]>ainter.  G. 
assisted  Raphael  in  the  execution  of  several  of  hia 
finest  works,  and  by  special  desire  of  the  great 
master,  he  was  intrusted  with  the  completion  of  all 
his  unfinished  designs  after  his  death.  He  likewise 
inherited  a  great  portion  of  Raphael's  wealth.  The 
works  executed  by  G.,  in  imitation  of  Raphael, 
reflect  so  wonderfully,  not  alone  the  .style  and 
character,  but  the  sentiment  and  spirit  of  the 
original,  that  in  many  instances  uncertainty  haa 
arisen  as  to  the  hand  from  which  they  emanated; 
while,  on  the  contrary,  the  more  original  creations 
of  G.  are  deflcient  in  the  ideal  grace  of  his  master, 
and  display  rather  breadth,  and  power  of  treatment, 
and  boldness  of  imagination,  than  poetical  refine- 
ment or  elevation.  Unlike  Raphael,  the  chief 
excellence  of  G.  does  not  lie  in  his  conception  of  the 
divine  or  Christian,  but  rather  of  the  classical  ideal 
G.  died  in  1546. 

The  principal  architectural  works  designed  by  G. 
were  executed  at  Mantua,  during  his  lengthened 
residence  at  the  court  of  Duke  Frederick  Gonzaga. 
The  drainage  of  the  marshes  surrounding  Mantua, 
and  the  securing  the  city  from  the  frequent  inunda- 
tions of  the  rivers  Po  and  Mincio,  attest  his  skill  as 
an  engineer ;  while  his  genius  as  an  architect  found 
free  scope  in  the  restoration  and  adornment  of  many 
of  the  chief  public  edifices  of  Mantua,  and  especially 
in  the  erection  of  the  splendid  palace  knowTi  as 
II  Palazzo  del  Te,  which  he  also  embellished  with 
mythological  frescoes,  and  a  profusion  of  exquisite 
decorations.  Many  of  G.'s  finest  pictures  j^assed 
into  the  possession  of  Charles  I.  of  England,  who 
purchased,  in  1629,  the  celebrated  collection  of  the 
Dukes  of  Mantua.  Several  of  them  are  now  con- 
tained in  the  Hampton  Court  Gallery ;  but  the 
finest  of  all,  a  '  Nativity,'  was  sold  to  France,  and 
now  adorns  the  Louvre.  The  Naples  gallery  of 
Capi  d'Opera  possesses  a  Holy  Family  by  G.,  called 
the  '  Madonna  della  Gatta,'  and  considered  the 
greatest  of  his  pictures  ;  it  is  strongly  imbued  ^\n.th. 
the  spirit  and  influence  of  Raphael.  The  Loggia  of 
Raphael,  in  the  Vatican,  also  contains  some  tino 
frescoes  executed  by  G. ;  and  in  the  Palazzo 
Farnese  there  is  a  grand  frieze  attributed  to  him. 

GIURGE'VO,  an  important  trading  town  of 
Wallachia,  is  si^nated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Danube,  directly  opposite  Rustchuk,  and  40  nulea 
south-scuth-west  from  Bucharest,  of  which  towp 

763 


GIUSTI— GLAOim 


It  is  the  port.  It  was  originally  the  Genoese 
settlement  of  St  George.  It  ia  the  great  land-  | 
ing-place  for  steamers  in  Wallachia.  A  bridge  I 
across  a  narrow  channel  connects  G.  with  Slobodse, 
an  island  in  the  Danube,  on  which  stands  a 
fortified  castle.  Here  the  Turks  defeated  the 
Russians,  7th  July  1854.    Pop.  20,000. 

GIU'STI,  Giuseppe,  the  most  celebrated  and  \ 
popular  of  the  modern  poets  and  satirists  of  j 
Italy,  was  born  in  1809,  at  Pescia,  in  the  vicinity 
of  Florence.  Sprung  from  an  influential  Tuscan  i 
family,  G.  was  early  destined  to  the  bar,  and  at 
Pistoja  and  Lucca  commenced  the  preliminary 
studies,  wliich  were  completed  at  the  university  of 
Pisa,  V,  here  he  obtained  his  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Laws.  Sustained  earnestness  of  study  seems  to  have 
formed  no  feature  in  G.'s  collegiate  coirrse,  whose  ' 
natural  bent  rather  inclined  him  to  a  genial  i)arti- 
cipation  in  the  freaks  and  social  pleasures  of  his 
companions  than  to  the  erudite  investigation  of  the 
Pandects.  On  quitting  Pisa,  G.  was  domiciled  at 
Florence  with  the  eminent  advocate  Capoquadri, 
who  subsequently  became  Minister  of  Justice,  and 
here  he  first  attempted  poetry.  Lyrical  compositions 
of  the  romantic  school,  evincing  both  elevated  and 
nervous  thought,  were  his  eai-liest  efforts  ;  but  he 
speedily  comprehended  that  satire,  not  idealism,  was 
his  true  forte.  In  a  pre-eminent  degree,  G.  possesses 
the  requirements  of  a  great  lyrical  satirist — terse, 
clear,  and  brilliant,  he  depicts,  alternately  with 
the  poignant  regret  of  the  humanitarian,  and  the 
mocking  laugh  of  the  ironist,  the  decorous  shams 
and  conventional  vices  of  his  age.  His  impartiality 
only  lends  a  keener  sting  to  his  denunciation.  The 
stern  flagellator  of  tyrants,  he  is  no  less  merciless 
in  stigmatising  those  whose  pliant  servility  helps  i 
to  perpetuate  the  abasement  of  their  country.  Nor 
does  he  adulate  the  people,  whose  champion  he 
avowedly  is,  and  whose  follies  and  inconsistencies 
he  indicates  with  the  faithfulness  of  a  watchful 
friend.  The  writings  of  G.  exercised  a  positive 
political  influence.  When  the  functions  of  the 
press  were  ignored,  and  freedom  of  thought  was 
treason,  his  flaming  verses  in  manuscript  were 
throughout  all  Italy  in  general  circulation,  fanning 
the  hatred  of  foreign  despots,  and  powerfully 
assisted  in  preparing  the  revolutionary  insurrection 
of  1848.  Then,  for  the  first  time,  did  G.  discard 
the  pseudonym  of  '  The  Anonymous  Tuscan,'  and 
append  his  name  to  a  volume  of  verses  bearing 
on  the  events  and  aims  of  the  times.  All  his 
compositions  are  short  pieces,  rarely  blemished 
with  personalities,  and  written  in  the  purest 
form  of  the  po})ular  Tuscan  dialect.  The  elegant 
familiarity  of  idiom  which  constitutes  one  of 
their  chief  and  original  beauties  in  the  eyes  of 
their  native  readers,  presents  great  difficulties  to 
foreigners,  and  still  greater  to  the  translator.  G.'s 
writings  are  not  only  Italian  in  spirit  and  wit,  but 
essentially  Tuscan.  A  reverent  student  of  Dante,  | 
G.  himself  often  reaches  an  almost  Dantesque 
sublimity  in  the  higher  outbursts  of  his  scornful 
wrath,  while  he  stands  alone  in  the  lighter  play 
of  ironical  wit.  In  politics,  an  enlightened  and 
moderate  liberal,  averse  alike  to  bureaucracy  and 
nobocracy,  G.  was  also  beloved  in  private  life  for 
his  social  qualities,  and  his  loving  and  gentle  spirit. 
He  died  in  1850,  aged  41,  in  the  dwelling  of  his 
attached  friend,  the  Marqiiis  Gino  Capponi,  at 
Florence  ;  and  the  throng  of  citizens  who  followed 
him  to  the  grave,  in  the  teeth  of  Austrian  pro- 
hibition, attested  eloquently  the  repute  he  enjoyed 
in  life.  His  most  celebrated  pieces  are  entitled 
Stivale,  or  the  History  of  a  Boot  (Italy),  a  humor- 
ous narration  of  all  the  misfits,  ill-usage,  and 
patchiuj  allotted  to  this  unfortimate  down-trodden 
764 


I  symbol  of  his  country ;  Oingillino,  a  master-piece 
I  of  sarcasm,  portraying  the  ignoble  career  of  the 
I  sycophant,  whose  supple  back  and  petty  diplomacy 
finally  secure  for  him  the  highest  distinctions  ;  ll 
lie  Travicello,  or  King  Log,  the  subject  of  which 
is  indicated  by  the  title  ;  II  Brindisi  di  Oirella, 
or  the  Weathercock's  Toast,  one  of  his  best  pieces, 
j  dedicated  to  the  suggestive  name  of  Talleyrand ; 
j  and  the  Dies  Irce,  or  Funeral  Oration  of  the  Em- 
peror Francis  I.    The  only  authorised  and  correct 
edition  of  his  works  is  that  published  at  Florence 
in  1852  by  Le  Monnier. 

GIUSTINIA'NI,  an  illustrious  Italian  race,  to 
I  which  the  republics  of  Venice  and  Genoa  owed 
I  more  than  one  doge.  One  of  the  palatial  residences 
of  Rome  was  erected  towards  the  end  of  the  16th 
c.  by  a  descendant  of  the  family,  the  Marquis 
Giustiniani.  The  site  he  selected  for  the  palace 
was  a  portion  of  the  ruins  of  Nero's  baths,  and 
on  its  completion  he  enriched  it  with  a  magnificent 
private  gallery  of  paintings,  and  a  fine  collection 
of  sculptures.  He  also  formed  a  museum  of  anti- 
quities, the  treasures  of  which  were  discovered  on 
the  spot.  In  1807,  the  G.  family  conveyed  the 
collection  of  paintings  to  Paris,  where  they  disposed 
of  the  greater  part  by  auction,  and  privately  sold 
the  remainder,  consisting  of  170  fine  paintings,  to 
the  artist  Bonnechose,  who,  in  his  turn,  resold 
them  to  the  king  of  Prussia.  This  fragment  of  the 
famous  Giustiniani  Gallery  now  enriches  the  Berlin 
Museum,  and  a  very  few  of  its  former  treasures 
are  still  to  be  found  in  the  Giustiniani  palace  at 
Rome. 

GIVET,  a  town  of  France,  and  a  fortress  of  the 
^  first  rank,  is  situated  in  the  department  of  Ardennes, 
on  both  banks  of  the  Meuse,  close  to  the  border  of 
Belgium,  and  145  miles  north-east  of  Paris.  The 
town  consists  of  three  districts — Charlemont,  Givet 
St  Hilaire,  and  Givet  Notre  Dame,  all  lying  withia 
the  line  of  the  fortifications.  It  is  well  situated  in 
a  commercial  point  of  view,  is  regularly  built,  has 
handsome  squares,  a  good  port,  barracks,  a  mili- 
tary hospital,  and  manufactures  of  leather,  for  which 
G.  is  famous,  of  white-lead,  clay-pipes,  sealing-wax, 
and  nails  ;  breweries,  marble-works,  and  a  zinc  and 
copper  foundry  are  also  carried  on.    Pop.  6404. 

GIVORS,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
Rhone,  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  of 
that  name,  14  miles  south  of  Lyon.  Bottles  and 
window  glass  are  here  extensively  manufactured, 
and  a  trade  in  ironstone  and  coal  is  carried  on. 
Pop.  9352. 

GLA'CIER  is  a  name  given  to  immense  masses  of 
ice,  which  are  formed  above  the  snow-line,  on  lofty 
mountains,  and  descend  into  the  valleys  to  a  greater 
or  less  distance,  often  encroaching  on  the  cultivated 
regions.  The  materials  of  the  glaciers  are  derived 
from  the  snow  which  falls  during  summer  as  well  as 
I  winter  on  the  summits  of  high  mountains.  Every 
fresh  fall  of  snow  adds  a  little  to  the  height  of  the 
mountain,  and,  were  there  no  agents  at  work  to  get 
rid  of  it,  the  mountains  would  be  gradually  rising  to 
an  indefinite  elevation.  Avalanches  and  glaciers,  how- 
ever, carry  the  snow  into  warmer  regions,  where  it 
is  reduced  to  water ;  in  the  one,  the  snow  slips  from 
the  steep  mountain  slopes,  and  rushes  rapidly  down ; 
in  the  other,  it  gradually  descends,  and  is  converted 
into  ice  in  its  progress.  The  snow  which  forms  the 
glacier  at  its  origin  has  a  very  diff'erent  aj^pearance 
and  consistence  from  the  ice  of  which  it  consists  at 
its  lower  termination.  The  minute  state  of  division 
of  the  ice,  in  its  snow  condition,  and  the  quantity  oi 
air  interspersed  through  it,  gives  it  its  characteristic 
white  colour.  Two  causes  operate  in  causing  this 
change  into  ice :  first,  pressure  expels  the  air  by 


GLACIER. 


bringing  the  particles  of  the  lower  layers  of  snow 
more  closely  together;  and  second,  the  summer's 
heat  melting  the  surface,  the  M-ater  thus  o])tained 
percolates  through  the  mass  beneath,  and  as  it 
passes  amongst  the  particles  whose  temperature  is 
below  32°  F.,  it  increases  their  size  by  external 
additions  till  the  particles  meet,  and  the  whole 
becomes  a  solid  mass.     The  snowy  region  of  the 


Glacier  on  the  Alps. 

glacier  is  called  by  the  French  name  nev^,.  In  large 
glaciers,  the  neve  is  of  great  extent,  a  large  quantity 
of  material  being  required  to  make  up  the  waste. 
The  neve  is,  however,  often  confined  to  narrow 
valleys,  and,  as  a  consequence,  produces  glaciers 
which  soon  perish.  The  increase  of  a  glacier  by 
snow  falling  on  its  surface  takes  place  only  above 
the  snow-line — below  that  line,  all  the  accumulated 
■v\Tnter's  snows  are  speedily  melted  by  the  summer's 
heat.  The  ice  of  the  glacier  seldom  exhibits  any 
traces  of  the  horizontal  stratification  which  is  found 
in  the  neve,  but  is  generally  intersected  with  vertical 
veins  of  clear  blue  ice. 

The  most  remarkable  feature  of  glaciers  is  their 
motion.  It  has  been  long  known  to  the  natives  of 
the  Alps  that  they  move,  but  it  is  only  within  the 
last  few  years  that  it  has  received  due  attention 
from  scientific  men  ;  the  account  of  their  observa- 
tions, and  the  theories  based  upon  them,  form  one  of 
the  most  interesting  chapters  in  the  history  of 
glaciei's.  See  the  writings  of  Agassiz,  Forbes,  and 
Tyndall.  The  continual  waste  of  glaciers  below  the 
snow-Kne,  both  along  its  surface  and  at  its  extremity, 
is  ever  being  rej)aired,  so  that  the  glacier  does  not 
recede  from  the  valley,  nor  decrease  in  depth.  That 
the  materials  of  the  reparation  are  not  derived  from 
the  fall  of  the  winter's  snow,  and  the  influence  of 
the  winter's  frost,  is  evident,  inasmuch  as  these 
additions  speedily  disappear  with  the  return  of  the 
rammer's  heat,  and  in  the  end  form  but  a  small 
proportion  of  the  year's  total  loss.  The  true 
repairing  agent  is  the  motion  of  the  glacier,  which 
brings  down  the  giacified  snow  from  the  upper 
regions  to  be  melted  below.  To  account  for  this 
motion,  Charpantier  supposed  the  water  which 
saturated  the  glacier  in  all  its  parts,  and  filled  the 
innumerable  capillary  fissures,  was,  during  night 
and  during  the  winter,  frozen,  and  that  the  well- 
known  and  almost  irresistible  expansion  which 
woidd  take  place  in  the  conversion  of  the  water 
into  ice,  furnished  the  force  necessary  to  move  the 
glacier  forwards.  This  theory,  known  as  the  dilata- 
tion theory,  was  for  some  time  adopted  by  Agassiz, 
but  ultimately  abandoned.  Agassiz  shev/ed  that  the 
interior  of  the  glacier  had  a  temperature  of  32°  F., 
and  subsequent  observations  have  shewTi  that  the 
(ijlacier  moves  more  rapidly  in  summer  than  in 


winter.    In  1799,  De  Saussure  published  a  second 
theory,  known  as  the  gravitation  or  slidiiuj  theory,  in 
which  he  supposed  that  the  glacier  moved  by  slidini^ 
down  the  inclined  ])lane  on  which  it  rested,  and  that 
it  was  kei)t  from  adhering  to  its  bed,  and  sometimea 
j  even  elevated  by  the  water  melted  in  the  contact 
of  the  glacier  with  the  naturally  warmer  earth. 
While  correctly  attributing  the  motion  to  gravity, 
De  Saussure  erred  in  considering  glaciers  as  con- 
tinuous and  more  or  less  rigid  solids — indeed,  the 
motion  he  attributes  to  them  would,  if  commenced, 
be  accelerated  by  gravity,  and  dash  the  ghicier  fron. 
its  bed  as  an  avalanche.    Principal  Forbes  was  th* 
author  of  the  next  important  theory.  Considerable 
attention  had  in  the  meantime  been  paid  to  the 
subject  by  Rendu,  Agassiz,  and  others,    llendu  had 
shewn  that  the  glacier  possessed  a  serai-fluid  or  river- 
like motion,  in  explaining  the  difference  between 
observations  made  by  him  at  the  centre,  "vvhich 
'moves  more  rapidly,'  and  others  made  at  the  sides, 
'  where  the  ice  is  retained  by  tlie  friction  against 
its  rocky  walls.'     The  results  based  on  Rendu'a 
observations  were  established  by  the  repeated  and 
exact  measurements  of  Forbes,  who,  in  the  progress 
of  his  examinations,  made  tlie  further  discoveries, 
that  the  surface  moves  more  rapidly  than  the  ice 
near  the  bottom,  and  the  middle  than  the  sides ; 
that  the  rate  of  motion  is  greater  where  the 
glacier-'bed  has  the  greatest  inclination  ;  and  that 
the  motion  is  continued  in  winter,  while  it  is 
accelerated  in  summer  by  the  increase  of  the  tem- 
perature of  the  air.     The  only  theory  which,  as  it 
appeared  to  Forbes,  coiild  account  for  these  pheno- 
mena is  thus  expressed  by  him  :  'A  glacier  is  an 
imperfect  fluid  or  a  viscous  bod}'-,  which  is  urged 
down  slopes  of  a  certain  inclination  by  the  miitual 
pressure  of  its  parts.'    This  is  known  as  the  viscous 
theory.    He  considered  a  glacier  as  not  a  crystalline 
solid,  like  ice  tranquilly  frozen  in  a  mould,  but  that 
it  possessed  a  peculiar  fissu.red  and  laminated  struc- 
ture, through  which  water  entered  into  its  intrinsic 
composition,  giving  it  a  \'iscid  consistence,  similar  to 
that  possessed  by  treacle,  honey,  or  tar,  but  differ- 
ing in  degree.    Professor  Tyndall  has  published 
another  theory,  which  he  designates  the  pressure 
theory.     This  differs  little  from  that  of  Forbes, 
except  that  it  denies  that  glacier  ice  is  in  the  least 
\'iscid.  By  a  nitmber  of  independent  observations,  he 
established  the  facts  first  noticed  by  Rendu  and 
Forbes,  and  added  the  important  one,  that  the  place 
of  greatest  motion  is  not  in  the  centre  of  the 
glacier,  but  in  a  curve  more  deeply  sinuous  than 
the  valley  itself,  crossing  the  axis  of  the  glacier  at 
each  point  of  contrary  flexure — in  fact,  that  its 
motion  is  similar  to  that  of  a  river  whose  point  of 
maximum    motion    is    not    centi'al,  but  deWatea 
towards  that  side  of  the  valley  towards  which  the 
river  turns  its  convex  boundary.     This  seems  a 
further  corroboration  of  the  viscous  theory,  but 
Tyndall  explained  it  and  the   other  facts  by  a 
theory  which,  while  maintaining  the  gwa^-fluid 
motion  of  the  glacier,  denied  that  this  motion  was 
owing  to  its  being  in  a  viscous  condition.  The 
germ  of  his  theory,  as  he  tells  us,  was  derived  from 
some  observations  and  experiments  of  Faraday's  in 
1850,  who  shewed,  '  that  when  two  pieces  of  ice, 
with  moistened  surfaces,  were  placed  in  contact, 
they  became  cemented  together  by  the  freezing  of 
the  film  of  water  between  them,  whde,  when  the 
ice  was  below  32"  F.,  and  therefore  dry,  no  effect 
of  this  kind  coidd  be  produced.    The  freezing  was 
also  found  to  take  place  under  water.'   By  a  further 
series  of  experiments,  Tyndall  found  that  ice  at  32° 
F.  coidd  be  compressed  into  any  form,  and  that  no 
matter  how  great  the  bruising  of  its  particles  and 
the  change  of  its  shape,  it  woidd,  from  this  property 


GLACIER 


of  regcilation,  re-establish  its  continitous  solid  con- 
dition, if  the  particles  of  ice  operated  on  were  kept 
in  close  contact.  These  facts  he  applied  to  the 
motion  of  glaciers,  asserting  that  the  pressure  of 
the  parts  of  a  glacier  on  each  other,  in  a  downward 
direction,  produced  by  gravitation,  was  more  j)ower- 
fid  than  the  attraction  which  held  the  particles  of 
the  ice  together — that,  consequently,  the  ice  was 
ruptured,  to  permit  the  motion  of  the  glacier,  the 
particles  being,  however,  speedily  reunited  by  rege- 
lation.  The  sui)j)osed  viscous  condition  of  ice  he 
believed  to  be  refuted  by  the  fact  that,  whenever 
the  glacier  is  subjected  to  tension,  as  in  passing 
over  a  cascade,  it  does  not  yield  by  stretching,  but 
always  by  breaking,  so  as  to  form  crevasses.  This 
theory,  equal I3'  with  that  of  Forbes,  explains  the 
known  phenomena  of  glaciers,  while  the  advantage 
is  claimed  for  it  of  not  draM'ing  upon  our  imagination 
as  to  a  required  condition  of  the  ice,  but,  by  experi- 
ment, exhibiting  ice  from  known  causes  producing 
effects  on  the  small  scale  sinular  to  those  produced 
in  nature  on  the  large.  Forbes,  however,  maintains 
(Occasional  Papers,  &c.,  1859)  that  all  that  is 
peculiar  to  Tyndall's  theory  was  included  in  his 
own  ;  and  that  the  facts  discovered  and  expounded 
by  Faraday  in  1850  had  already  been  used  by  him 
as  part  of  his  theory  in  1846.  He  says  that  his 
viscous  theory  included  the  notion  '  of  an  infinity 
of  minute  rents  ;  that  it  also  embraces  the  'substi- 
tution of  the  finite  sliding  of  the  internally  bruised 
surfaces  over  one  another  ; '  and  that  it  includes 
*  the  recnsolidation  of  the  bruised  glacial  substance 
into  a  cohr-rent  whole  by  pressure  acting  upon  ice, 
softened  by  imminent  thaw.' 

Professor  Tyndall  re-introduces  and  re-asserts  the 
gravitation  theory  of  De  Saussui-e  as  in  part  the 
cause  of  the  glacier's  motion  ;  but  the  phenomena 
which  he  considers  produced  by  a  sliding  motiou 
of  the  wdiole  mass  over  its  bed — viz.,  the  polishing 
and  grooving  of  the  rock  below — can  be  produced 
by  a  substance  whose  motion  is  the  result  of  a 
yielding  of  its  parts,  if  that  substance  has  suffi- 
cient consistence  to  retain  firmly  imbedded  in  its 
lower  sm'face  portions  of  rock  to  act  as  polishers, 
and  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  ice  of  glaciers 
has  such  a  consistency. 

Some  of  tlie  more  remarkalile  phenomena  of 
glaciers  remain  to  be  noticed.  The  surface  of  the 
glacier  does  not  long  retain  the  puritj''  of  the  snow 
from  which  it  is  derived,  but  is  speedily  loaded 
with  long  ridges  of  debris  called  vioraines.  The 
mountains  which  rise  on  either  side  of  the  valley 
occupied  by  the  glacier  are  continually  suffering 
loss  from  the  action  of  the  rain,  disruption  by 
frost,  and  the  impulse  of  avalanches.  The  mate- 
rials thus  liberated  find  their  w^ay  to  the  glacier, 
and  form  a  line  of  rock  and  rubbish  on  its  tw^o 
borders,  of  greater  or  less  size,  dependent  on  the 
friability  or  compactness  of  the  adjacent  mountains. 
The  lateral  moraines  often  reach  to  a  great  height, 
as  much  as  foi'ty  or  fifty  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
glacier.  The  whole  ridge  appears  to  consist  of 
tlebris,  but  it  is  really  a  ridge  of  ice  with  a  covering 
of  foreign  materials,  which,  by  protecting  the  under- 
lying ice  from  the  heat  which  they  radiate  and 
only  partially  transmit,  leave  the  moraine  as  a  more 
and  more  elevated  ridge,  while  the  surface  of  the 
glacier  is  si^eedily  melting.  Glacier  tables  have  a 
similar  origin.  A  large  and  isolated  mass  of  rock, 
resting  on  the  glacier,  j^rotects  the  ice  below;  and 
as  the  glacier  melts,  it  leaves  the  rock  poised  on  the 
summit  of  an  icy  column.  As  the  rays  of  the  sun 
play  on  the  table  all  day  obliquely,  the  column  is 
gradually  melted  from  under  the  rock,  until  it  slips 
off,  and  begins  to  form  another  table ;  while  the 
unj  rotected  column  speedily  melts  and  disappears, 
708 


Where  two  glaciers  unite,  the  trails  of  rock  on  the 
iimer  margins  unite  also,  and  form  a  single  ridge, 
which  runs  along  the  middle  of  the  large  trunk 
glacier,  and  is  called  a  medkil  moraine.  It  is  evident 
that  the  number  of  the  medial  moraines  must  thus 
depend  upon  the  number  of  the  branch  glaciers, 
and  must  indeed  be  invariably  one  less.  The  glacier 
terminates  amidst  a  mass  of  stones  and  debris, 
which  having  been  carried  down  on  its  surface,  are 
finally  deposited  by  its  melting  at  its  extremity, 
forming  there  a  terminal  moraine.  Sometimes  a 
glacier  decreases  in  size,  either  withdrawing  from 
the  valley,  and  lea\'ing  the  terminal  moraine  as  a 
barren  waste  of  rocks,  or  melting  on  its  super- 
ficies throughout  its  length,  and  depositing  its 
lateral  moraines  as  a  ridge  of  d6bris  on  eithei  si'le 
at  some  height  above  it  on  the  mountain.  The 
existence  of  such  collections  of  rocks  is  plain 
evidence  of  the  former  position  and  altitude  of 
glaciers,  and  even  of  their  former  occuirence  in 
countries  where  they  are  now  unknown. 

It  has  been  stated,  that  when  the  glacier  is 
subjected  to  tension,  the  continuity  of  its  parts  is 
destroyed,  and  fissures,  called  crevasses,  are  formed. 
In  passing  over  a  brow  on  the  channel,  the  ice 
invariably  yields ;  at  first,  a  deep  crack  is  formed, 
which  gradually  widens  imtil  a  fissure  or  chasm  is 
in-oduccd  across  the  glacier.  Transverse  crevasses 
disappear  when  the  glacier  reaches  a  level  portion 
of  its  bed ;  the  pressure  bringing  the  walls  again 
together,  the  chasm  is  closed  up.  Longitudinal 
crevasses  are  produced  wdien  the  glacier  escapes 
from  a  confined  channel,  and  spreads  itself  over  a 
wider  area.  The  spreading  of  the  margins  causes  a 
tension  in  the  body  of  the  glacier,  which  yields,  and 
longitudinal  fissures  are  formed.  These  occasionally 
rend  the  terminal  front  of  a  glacier.  The  smaller 
marginal  crevasses  are  formed  from  the  tension  of 
the  ice,  produced  by  the  normal  motion  of  the 
glacier  being  retarded  by  the  friction  against  the 
sides  of  its  channel.  The  motion  of  the  glacier 
is  gradually  accelerated  from  the  margin  inwards, 
consequently  the  lines  of  greatest  tension  are 
inclined  downwards  and  towards  the  centre,  more 
or  less,  in  proportion  to  the  rapidity  of  the  motion. 
The  crevasses  formed  by  the  yielding  of  the  ice  are 
at  right  angles  to  the  lines  of  tension,  and  conse- 
quently point  up  the  glacier. 

The  veined  structure  is  apparently  the  result  of 
pressure.  The  veins  consist  of  blue  ice  penetrating 
the  white  mass  of  the  glacier,  and  occur  either  in 
irregular  directions,  or  producing  a  regidarly  lamin- 
ated structure.  The  blue  veins  are  portions  of 
ice  from  which  the  air-bubbles  have  been  expelled, 
and  which  are  conseqviently  more  compact  than  the 
general  substance  of  the  glacier.  The  pressure  is 
exerted  in  three  directions,  producing  veins  which 
are  comjjlementary  to  the  three  kinds  of  crevassea 
which  have  just  been  noticed.  Whe»  the  glacier 
passes  over  a  level,  or  perhaps  a  gently  rising 
channel,  transverse  veins  are  formed ;  when  it  is 
pressed  through  a  narrow^er  channel,  longitudinal 
veins  are  produced ;  and  the  pressure  at  the  margins 
produced  by  the  retardation  of  the  flow  by  friction 
causes  the  formation  of  marginal  veins  in  the  lines 
of  greatest  pressure,  that  is,  at  right  angles  to  the 
marginal  crevasses. 

The  melting  of  the  ice  on  the  surface  of  the 
glacier  produces  streams,  w^hose  course  is  often 
broken  by  crevasses,  down  which  the  water  descends, 
finding  egress  at  last  through  the  cavernous  mouth 
at  the  termination  of  the  glacier,  where  it  issues 
after  being  increased  by  other  streams,  which  have 
by  similar  channels  reached  the  bottom,  as  well  as 
by  the  melting  of  the  ice  from  the  contact  of  the 
earth.    The  rushing  water  wears  a  shaft  of  greatei 


GLACIS— GLADIOLUS. 


diameter  than  the  crevasse,  and  this  shaft  often 
reil.ains  after  the  margins  of  tlie  crevasse  have 
been  reunited.  In  the  progress  of  the  glacier, 
another  crevasse  intersects  the  bed  of  the  stream, 
and  down  this  the  water  is  diverted,  leaving  the 
formed  shaft  or  vioul'm,  as  it  is  called.  The  for- 
saken moulin  has  at  its  base  a  quantity  of  earth 
and  stones  collected  by  the  stream  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  glacier;  these  are  gradually  raised 
t'O  the  surface  by  the  melting  of  the  glacier,  and 
eventually  appear  as  cones  of  debris,  sometimes 
rising  high  on  columns  of  ice  under  the  same 
influences  as  the  glacier  tables. 

Glaciers  are  not  necessarily  peculiar  to  any 
country  or  zone,  but  wherever  there  are  mountains 
of  sufficient  height,  it  may  be  expected  that  they 
may  exist.  In  Europe,  they  are  chiefly  confined  to 
the  Alps  and  Norway,  Having  their  origin  in  the 
region  of  perpetual  snow,  they  reach  far  down  into 
the  valleys,  the  largest  pushing  themselves  furthest 
down.  That  of  Bossous  at  Chamouni,  which  comes 
from  the  highest  part  of  Mont  Blanc,  reaches  a 
point  5500  feet  below  the  snow-line,  where  it  is 
embosomed  amongst  luxuriant  wood,  and  is  almost 
in  contact  with  cornfields.  Hooker  and  others 
have  descri])ed  the  glaciers  of  the  Himalaya.  Ice- 
land and  Spitzbergen  also  abound  in  glaciers.  It  is  in 
Buch  northern  localities  that  the  ends  of  the  glaciers, 
resting  on  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  get  broken  off 
by  transverse  crevasses,  and  float  away  as  icebergs. 

It  has  already  been  noticed  that  the  former 
existence  of  glaciers  is  indicated  by  the  occurrence 
of  moraines.  These  have  been  noticed  in  various 
locaHtics  in  Wales,  England,  and  Scotland.  They 
are  referred  to  the  period  when  the  Boulder- Clay 
(q.  V.)  was  deposited ;  and  this,  with  the  sands  and 
gravels  which  are  associated  with  it,  are  some- 
times included  imder  the  title  Glacial  Deposits. 

GLA'CIS  (allied  to  glade  in  the  sense  of  a  lawn), 
in  Fortification  (q.  v.),  the  slope  of  earth,  usually 
turfed,  which  inclines  from  the  covered- way  towards 
the  country.  Its  object  is  to  bring  assailants,  as 
they  approach,  into  a  conspicuous  line  of  fire  from 
the  parapet  of  the  fortress,  and  also  to  mask  the 
general  works  of  the  place. 

GIj  A.'DIATOR,  in  Antiquity,  from  gladius,  a 
Bword,  was  one  who  fought  in  the  arena,  at  the 
amphitheatre  at  Rome,  and  in  other  cities,  for 
the  amiisement  of  the  public.  The  gladiators  were 
generally  slaves,  bought  and  trained  for  the  purj^ose, 
by  masters  who  made  this  their  business.  The 
custom  is  supposed  to  have  been  borrowed  from 
the  East,  and  to  have  had  its  origin  in  the  prac- 
tice of  human  sacrifices,  or  that  of  taking  the 
lives  of  captives  or  prisoners  of  war,  in  honour  of 
hei-oes  who  had  died  in  battle.  Thus,  in  the  Iliad, 
we  read  that  Achilles  sacrificed  twelve  Trojan 
prisoners  to  the  manes  of  his  friend  Patroclus,  and 
Virgil  speaks  of  captives  sent  to  Evander,  to  be 
bacrificed  at  the  funeral  of  his  son  Pallas.  The 
'great  custom'  of  the  king  of  Dahomey  thus 
finds  warrant  in  classic  antiquity ;  and  the  North 
American  Indians,  in  putting  their  prisoners  to 
death  with  tortures,  have  only  refined  upon  an 
ancient  barbarism. 

After  a  time,  all  considerable  funerals  were  solem- 
nised by  human  sacrifices,  which  took  the  form  of 
combats,  in  which,  to  increase  the  interest  of  the 
Epectators,  the  prisoners  were  required  to  sacrifice 
each  other ;  and  as  prisoners,  and  afterwards  other 
Blaves,  were  kept  for  this  purpose,  they  were  trained 
to  fight  with  skill  and  courage,  to  make  the  spec- 
tacle more  impressive.  These  contests  first  took 
place  at  mnerals,  but  afterwards  in  the  amphi- 
theatre ;  and  in  process  ')f  time,  instead  of  a  funeral 


rite,  became  a  common  amusement.  The  first  we 
read  of  in  Roman  history  was  the  show  of  a  con- 
test of  three  pairs  of  gladiators,  given  by  Marcus 
and  Decius  Brutus,  on  the  death  of  their  fatlier,  in 
the  year  of  Rome  490.  In  the  year  5.'i7,  a  show  of 
twenty-two  pairs  was  given  in  the  F orum.  In  547, 
the  first  Africanus  diverted  his  army  at  New  Car- 
thage with  a  gladiatorial  exhiljition.  The  fashion 
now  rapidly  increased.  Ma-gistrates,  pul^lic  oflicers, 
candidates  for  the  pojmlar  suffrages,  gave  shows  to 
the  peoj^le,  which  consisted  chiefly  of  these  bloody 
and  generally  mortal  encounters.  The  emperors 
exceeded  all  others  in  the  extent  and  magnificence 
of  these  cruel  spectacles.  Julius  Caesar  gave  a  show 
of  320  couples  ;  Titus  gave  a  show  of  gladiators, 
wild-beasts,  and  sea-Hghts,  for  100  days ;  Trajan 
gave  a  show  of  123  days,  in  which  2000  men  fought 
with  and  killed  each  other,  or  fought  with  wild- 
beasts  for  the  amusement  of  the  70,000  Romans, 
patricians  and  plebeians,  the  highest  ladies  and  the 
lowest  rabble,  assembled  in  the  Colosseum.  A  vast 
number  of  slaves  from  all  parts  of  the  world  were 
kept  in  Rome,  and  trained  for  these  exhibitions. 
There  were  so  many  at  the  time  of  Catiline's  con- 
spiracy, that  they  were  thought  dangerous  to  the 
public  safety,  and  it  was  proposed  to  distribute 
them  among  the  distant  garrisons. 

Efforts  were  made  to  limit  the  number  of  gladi- 
ators, and  diminish  the  frequency  of  these  shows. 
Cicero  proposed  a  law,  that  no  man  shoidd  give  one 
for  two  years  before  becoming  a  candidate  for  office. 
The  Emperor  Augustus  forbade  more  than  two 
shows  in  a  year,  or  that  one  should  be  given  by  a 
man  worth  less  than  half  a  million  sesterces  ;  but 
it  was  difEcult  to  restrain  what  had  become  a 
passion,  and  men  even  had  such  contests  for  the 
amusement  of  their  guests  at  ordinary  feasts. 

These  shows  were  announced  by  show-biUs  and 
pictures,  like  the  plays  of  our  theatres.  The  gladi- 
ators were  trained  and  sworn  to  fight  to  the  death. 
If  they  shewed  cowardice,  they  were  killed  with 
tortures.  They  fought  at  first  with  wooden  swords, 
and  then  with  steel.  When  one  of  the  combatants 
Avas  disarmed,  or  upon  the  ground,  the  victor 
looked  to  the  emperor,  if  present,  or  to  the  people, 
for  the  signal  of  death  ;  if  they  raised  their  thumbs, 
his  life  was  spared  ;  if  they  turned  them  •  down,  he 
executed  the  fatal  mandate.  A  gladiator  who  had 
conquered  was  rewarded  with  a  branch  of  palm,  and 
sometimes  with  his  freedom.  Though  the  gladiators 
at  first  were  slaves,  freemen  afterwards  entered  the 
profession,  and  even  knights.  Senators  and  knights 
fought  in  the  shows  of  Nero,  and  women  in  those 
of  Domitian.  The  Emperor  Constantine  prohibited 
the  contests  of  gladiators,  325  a.  d.  ;  but  they 
could  not  at  once  be  abolished.  In  the  reign  of 
Honorius,  Telemachus  went  into  the  arena  to  stop 
the  fight,  when  the  people  stoned  him.  They  were 
finally  abolished  by  Theodoric,  500  A.  d. 

GLADI'OLUS,  a  gemis  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Iridece,  with  a  tubular  perianth,  the  limb  of 
which  is  divided  into  six  unequal  segments,  thread- 
like, imdivided  stigmas,  and  Avinged  seeds.  Tha 
roots  are  bulbous ;  the  leaves  linear  or  sword-shaped, 
whence  the  name  (Lat.  a  little  sword).  The  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  produces  the  greater  number  of  the 
known  species,  as  well  as  of  several  allied  genera 
once  included  in  this.  A  few,  however,  are  natives 
of  other  countries,  and  two  or  three  are  found  in 
Europe.  None  are  British.  Most  of  the  species 
have  flowers  of  great  beauty  ;  and  some  of  them  ai-e 
among  the  finest  ornaments  of  our  flower-borders* 
and  green-houses.  They  are  propagated  either  by 
seed  or  by  offset  bulbs  ;  and  m  the  former  way 
many  fine  new  \  arieties  have  been  produced.  Extra- 
ordinary medicinal  vii'tues  were  formerly  ascribed 

767 


GLADIOLUS— GLADSTONE. 


to  the  bulb  of  O.  communis^  one  of  the  European 
Huecies,  found  as  far  north  as  Frankfort-on-the- 


Gladiolus  Ramosus. 

Oler.  The  Hottentots  eat  the  bulbs  of  some  of  the 
Bpecies,  which  contain  a  considerable  quantity  of 
starch. 

GLADSTONE,  The  Uight  Hon.  Williaji 
EwART,  statesman  and  orator,  the  third  son  of 
Sir  John  Gladstone,  Bart.,  of  Fasqne,  in  Kincar- 
dineshire, was  born,  1809,  at  Liverpool,  where 
his  father,  originally  of  Leith,  had  Avon  eminence 
and  wealth  as  a  West  India  merchant.  Mr  Can- 
ning was  a  frequent  guest  at  his  father's  house 
when  he  visited  his  Liverpool  constituents,  and 
from  the  conversation  of  the  great  statesman,  G. 
received  impressions  which  gave  a  colour  to  his 
subsequent  aims.  He  was  sent  to  Eton,  where 
he  distinguished  himself  as  a  student,  and  after- 
wards entered  himself  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
where  he  closed  a  brilliant  college  career  by  taking 
a  double  first-class  degree  in  1831.  He  entered 
the  House  of  Commons  in  1832  for  the  Duke  of 
Newcastle's  borough  of  Newark.  He  held  the 
post  of  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  and  afterwards  that 
of  Under-Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies  in  the 
Peel  government,  for  a  few  months  in  1834 — 1835. 
In  1838,  he  published  his  first  work,  The  State  in 
its  delations  with  the  Church,  which  gave  occasion  to 
Mr  Macaulay  to  describe  him,  in  a  celebrated  re\dew 
of  his  work,  as  a  '  young  man  of  unblemished  char- 
acter, the  rising  hope  of  those  stern  and  unbending 
Tories'  who  followed  Sir  Robert  Peel,  while  they 
abhorred  his  cautious  temper  and  moderate  opinions. 
In  1841,  G.  became  Vice-President  of  the  Board  of 
Ti'ade  in  the  Peel  administration,  and  in  1843, 
President  of  the  Board.  Next  to  his  chief,  he  took 
the  most  prominent  part  in  the  revision  of  the  tariff 
and  reduction  of  import  duties,  which  reached  their 
natural  development  in  the  repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws. 
He  resigned  office  in  February  1845,  when  Sir  E, 
Peel  proposed  to  increase  the  endowments  of  the 
College  of  Maynooth,  a  proposal  at  variance  %vath 
all  the  principles  laid  down  by  G.  in  his  work.  He 
rejoined  the  ministry  in  December  1845,  succeeding 
the  Earl  of  Derby  (who  refused  to  be  a  party  to 
the  repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws)  as  Colonial  Secretary. 
He  rendered  Sir  R.  Peel  eloquent  and  effective  aid 
in  carrying  the  great  measure  of  free  trade  through 
the  House  of  Commons,  but  paid  the  penalty  in 
the  loss  both  of  his  office  and  his  seat,  for  the  then 
Duke  of  Newcastle,  claiming  to  '  do  what  he  liked 
768 


with  his  own,'  refused  to  sanction  his  re-election  for 
Newark.  In  August  1847,  he  was,  Avith  tlie  lule  Sir 
Robert  Hurry  Inglis,  elected  M.P.  for  tlic  university 
of  Oxford.  During  a  visit  to  Naples  in  the  year 
1850,  he  was  induced  by  curiosity  to  attend  the  trial 
of  M.  Poerio,  who  was  sentenced  to  several  years' 
imprisonment,  and  subjected  to  indignities  and 
cruelties  which  roused  the  generous  indignation  of 
the  English  statesman.  The  dungeons  of  the  king- 
dom of  the  Two  Sicilies  at  this  period  swarmed  with 
political  prisoners,  and  G,  in  a  letter  to  the  Earl 
of  Aberdeen,  made  all  Europe  ring  with  the  story  of 
their  sufferings  and  their  wrongs.  He  has  since 
advocated  the  caiise  of  Italian  independence  in 
many  eloquent  speeches.  In  1851,  he  opposed  the 
Ecclesiastical  Titles  Bill,  brought  in  by  Lord  J. 
Russell,  thinking  that  no  legislation  was  necessary, 
and  that  the  act  savoured  of  religious  persecution. 
After  refusing  an  offer  to  hold  office  under  Lord 
Derby,  he  became  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  in 
the  coalition  government  formed  by  the  Earl  of 
Aberdeen  in  1852.  When  that  government  fell 
before  a  motion  in  the  House  of  Commona 
for  inquiring  into  the  state  of  the  army  before 
Sebastopol,  G.  continued  for  a  brief  i)criod  a 
member  of  the  cabinet  of  Lord  Palmerston,  but  soon 
retired,  from  an  unwillingness  to  consent  to  the 
appointment  of  the  Sebastopol  committee.  G.  then 
went  into  opposition,  and  in  1857  made  an  eloquent 
and  damaging  speech  on  Mr  Cobden's  motion  con- 
demnatory of  Sir  John  Bo^v^ing's  proceedings  in 
China,  which  brought  about  the  defeat  of  Lord 
Palmerston,  and  the  dissolution  of  parliament.  In 
1858,  G.  again  refused  to  take  office  under  Lord 
Derby,  but  consented  to  visit  the  Ionian  Islands  as 
Lord  High  Commissioner  Extraordinary.  In  the 
second  Palmerston  administration,  he  resumed  the 
post  of  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer.  In  1860,  he 
carried  through  parliament  the  commercial  treaty 
with  France,  which  has  largely  increased  the  trade 
between  the  two  countries.  His  financial  scheme, 
involving  the  repeal  of  duties  on  many  articles  of 
general  consumi>tion,  the  simplification  of  the  tariff, 
an  increase  in  the  income  tax,  and  the  abolition  ol 
the  paper  duty,  was  strongly  but  uns\iccessfully 
opposed  in  the  House  of  Commons.  In  the  Upper 
House,  the  paper  duty  repeal  bill  was  thrown  out 
on  financial  grounds.  G.  boldly  denounced  this  inter- 
ference with  the  taxing  privileges  of  the  Commons  aa 
'  the  most  gigantic  and  the  most  dangerous  innovation 
that  has  been  attempted  in  our  times.  In  1861  he  suc- 
ceeded in  obtaining  the  repeal  of  the  paper  duty.  As  an 
orator  G.  has  probably  no  superior  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  and  in  debate  he  stands  unrivalled.  His 
copiousness  and  wealth  of  diction  are  wonderful.  Ho 
possesses  a  voice  of  great  power  and  compass,  an  earn- 
est and  persuasive  intonation,  a  perfect  elocution,  and 
easy  and  expressive  gestures.  Best  of  all,  his  elo- 
quence is  animated  by  principle  and  conscience  as  Avell 
as  high  intellect.  He  continued  to  represent  Oxford 
University  until  1865,  when  he  was  defeated  by  the 
Tory  candidate.  After  the  death  of  Palmerston,  he 
became  leader  of  th3  House  of  Commons,  and  Avas 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  under  Earl  Russell  until 
his  resignation,  April,  1866.  G.  advocated  the  dis- 
establishment of  the  Episcopal  Church  of  Ireland, 
which  finally  passed  in  July,  1869.  In  1870  he  car- 
ried his  Irish  Land  Bill ;  in  1871  abolished  the  Army 
Purchase  System;  and  in  1872  carried  the  Ballot 
Bill.  In  1873  was  proposed  the  University  Education 
(Ireland)  Bill,  which  was  rejected.  In  1874  the  G. 
ministry  resigned.  In  1858,  appeared  his  Homer  and 
the  Homeric  Age  ;  in  1868  his  Erce  Homo  ;  in  1869, 
his  Juventns  Mundi,  the  Gods  and  Men  nf  the  Heroic 
Age  ;  and  in  1874,  The  Vatican  Decrees  in  their  Hear- 
ing on  Civil  Allegiance  ;  a  Political  EJxjJOstulation, 


GLAGOT^GLANDERS. 


GLAGOL,  GLAGOLITZA,  GLAGOLITES, 
an  ancient  Slavonic  alphabet,  principally  used  in 
several  Eoman  Catholic  dioceses  of  Istria  and 
Dalmatia,  in  the  psalms,  liturgies,  and  offices  of 
the  church.  Among  these  Illyrian  adherents  to  the 
communion  of  Kome,  mass  is  not  celebrated  in 
Latin,  but  in  an  ancient  Slavonic  dialect,  written 
in  this  peculiar  alphabet,  the  invention  of  which  is 

{)opularly  attributed  to  St  Jerome.  The  use  of  this 
iturgy  was  confirmed  to  the  priesthood  by  a  bull 
of  Pope  Innocent  TV.,  1248.  Of  the  antiquity  of 
this  alphabet,  the  savants  have  maintained  a  great 
variety  of  opinions.  Dobrowsky  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  a  critical  investigation  of  the  subject,  and 
has  been  followed  by  Kopitar,  Jacob  Grimm,  Ivan 
Preis,  &c.  A  Glagolitic  MS.  of  the  11th  c,  belong- 
ing to  Count  Kloz,  published  under  the  title  of 
Glagolita  Cloziamis  (Vienna,  1836),  j)roves  a  higher 
antiquity  than  some  had  heen  willing  to  allow. 
Grimm  supposes  the  Glagol  alphabet  very  ancient, 
from  its  Eunic  character ;  but  Preis  thinks  it  more 
modern  than  the  Kyrillick.  The  name  Glagol  is 
supposed  by  Kopitar  to  have  been  taken  from  the 
word  glogolati,  which  frequently  occurs  in  the 
liturgies,  and  which,  though  unknown  to  the  Servo- 
Croatians,  signifies  in  the  ecclesiastical  idiom,  to 
speak.    Glagol  means  word  or  speech. 

GLAMO'RGANSHIIIE,  the  most  southerly  of 
the  counties  of  Wales,  is  bounded  on  the  S.  and 
S.-W.  by  the  Bristol  Channel,  on  the  W.  by  the 
county  of  Caermarthen,  on  the  N.  by  Brecknock, 
and  on  the  E.  by  Monmouth.  Area,  .547,494  acres; 
pop.  (1851)  231,849;  (1871)  396,010.  The  coast- 
line, following  the  principal  windings,  is  about  90 
miles  in  length,  and  its  irregularities  occur  chiefly  in 
the  western  portion  of  the  county,  and  are  formed 
by  Swansea  Bay  and  the  peninsula  of  Gower  (q.  v.). 
The  whole  of  the  northern  district  is  covered  with 
mountains,  the  highest  of  which,  however,  Llan- 
geinor,  is  only  1859  feet  in  height.  This  district 
comprises  the  richest  coal-bed  in  the  kingdom.  The 
southern  portion  of  the  county,  called  the  'Vale  of 
Glamorgan,'  forms  a  great  level,  and  is  by  far  the 
most  fertile  part  of  South  Wales.  Its  soil  is  a 
reddish  clay,  resting  on  limestone,  and  is  excellently 
adapted  for  the  growth  of  wheat,  which  is  here 
raised  in  rich  and  heavy  crops.  The  mountainous 
district  is  intersected  by  numerous  and  deep  valleys, 
affording  good  pasturage  for  sheep  and  cattle,  and 
is  the  source  of  many  of  the  streams  of  the  county. 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  Rumney,  the  TafF,  the 
Neath,  and  the  Tawe ;  all  of  them  running  south- 
ward from  the  mountains  into  the  Bristol  Channel. 
Besides  coal,  anthracite  or  stone-coal  and  coking- 
coal,  with  iron-stone  and  lead,  are  found  in  greater 
or  less  quantity.  The  ironworks  at  Merthyr- 
Tydvil  are  probably  the  most  extensive  in  the 
world,  and  there  are  many  others  of  scarcely  less 
importance  throughout  the  county.  At  Neath 
and  Swansea  are  large  copper  smelting-works,  to 
whivjh  ore  is  brought  from  South  America,  and  even 
from  Australia.  Lead  and  tin  ores  are  also  brought 
from  considerable  distances  to  this  county  to  be 
smelted.  Wheat,  barley,  oats,  and  potatoes  are 
the  chief  crops  raised ;  and  butter  and  cheese  are 
largely  i)roduced  and  exported.  The  county  of  G. 
returns  two  members  to  the  House  of  Commons. 

Originally  included  in  the  territory  of  the  Silures, 
and  afterwards  (under  the  Ptomans)  in  that  of 
Britannia  Secunda,  and  possessing  some  interesting 
Roman  remains,  the  district  of  G.,  about  the  close 
of  the  11th  c,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Anglo- 
Norman  barons,  and  subsecjuently  became,  through 
marriage,  a  possession  of  the  Duke  of  Gloucester, 
afterwards  Kichard  III.  The  county  contains 
many  memorials  of  the  middle  ages,  in  its  ruined 


castles  and  religious  houses.  Of  these,  OyBtermoiiib 
Castle,  a  bold  and  noble  ruin  overlooking  Swan- 
sea Bay,  Caerphilly  Castle,  and  Margam  Abbey, 
may  be  taken  as  perhaps  the  finest  remaining 
specimens. 

GLANCE  (Ger.  Glanz),  a  term  often  applied  in 
popular  language,  and  also  by  mineralogists,  to  a 
numerous  order  or  family  of  minerals,  of  which  Galena 
(q.  V.)  or  Lead-G.  may  be  regarded  as  a  ty])e.  All  of 
them  are  metallic,  and  many  of  them  are  known  by 
names  indicating  the  metal  which  is  their  principal 
caistituent,  as  Lead-G.,  Silver-G.,  Bismuth-G.,^c.  In 
these  and  many  other  species,  the  metal  is  combined 
with  sulphur,  so  that  the  mineral  is  a  sulphuret, 
but  there  are  also  numerous  species  of  G.  in  which 
sulphur  is  not  present,  but  selenium,  arsenic,  or 
tellurium  takes  its  place.  In  some  kinds  also,  two 
or  more  metals  are  present  instead  of  one,  in  com- 
bination with  one  or  other  of  these  non -metallic  or 
semi-metallic  substances.  Thus,  Gold-G.,  or  SiU 
vaiiite,  consists  of  gold  and  silver  in  combination 
with  tellurium  :  it  occurs  in  veins  in  porphyry,  in 
Transylvania,  and  is  wrought  for  the  sake  of  both 
the  precious  metals  which  it  contains.  Several  kinds 
of  G.  are  very  valuable  ores,  as  Lead-G.  or  Galena^ 
Copper- G.  or  Bedniihite,  and  Silver-G.  or  Argentite, 
Although  mineralogists  have  adopted  the  names 
Pyrites,  Glance,  and  Blende  as  names  of  orders  or 
families,  the  limits  and  distinctions  of  these  groups 
are  not  well  marked.  All  kinds  of  G.  are  fused 
without  much  difiiculty  by  the  blowpipe.  They  are 
also  soluble  in  acids. 

GLANCE-COAL.    See  Anthracite  and  Coal. 

GLA'NDERS  is  a  malignant  disease  of  the  equina 
species,  characterised  by  the  appearance  within  the 
nostrils  of  little  holes  or  ulcers,  remarkable  for  their 
rugged,  inflamed,  undermined  edges,  their  discharge 
of  sticky,  greenish,  unhealthy  pus,  their  tendency  to 
spread,  and  their  resistance  of  treatment.  The 
blood  of  glanderous  subjects  is  deficient  in  red 
globules,  contains  an  excess  of  albumen  and  fibrine, 
and  in  this  vitiated  and  deteriorated  state  is  inade- 
quate properly  to  nourish  the  body,  which  conse- 
quently becomes  weak  and  wasted.  The  miicous 
membranes  are  also  irritable  and  badly  nourished  ; 
there  is  consequently  impaired  respiration,  an  obsti- 
nate choking  cough,  and  relaxed  bowels.  The  l>Tn- 
phatic  glands  and  vessels  become  inflamed,  and  in 
their  swollen  state  may  be  distinctly  felt  about  the 
throat  and  underneath  the  jaws,  and  also  in  the 
limbs,  where  they  frequently  run  on  to  ulceration, 
constituting  Farcy  (q.  v.).  Glanders  is  i)i'oduced 
by  any  cause  which  interferes  with  the  purity  or 
integrity  of  the  horse's  blood,  or  produces  a  dete- 
riorated or  depraved  state  of  his  system.  It  has 
been  frequently  develoj^ed  in  healthy  animals  by 
their  breathing  for  a  short  time  a  close,  impure 
atmosphere,  and  cases  of  this  sort  were  thus  pro- 
duced amongst  the  horses  of  several  of  our  cavab-y 
regiments,  whilst  being  transjwrted  in  badly  con- 
structed, overcrowded  vessels  to  the  Crimea  in  1854, 
Confined,  overcrowded,  badly  ventilated  stables  are 
almost  equally  injurious,  for  they  pi-event  the  perfect 
aeration  of  the  blood,  and  the  prompt  removal  of 
its  organic  impurities.  Bad  feeding,  hard  work,  and 
such  reducing  diseases  as  diabetes  and  influenza, 
also  rank  amongst  the  causes  of  glanders.  A  smaD 
portion  of  the  nasal  discharge  from  a  glandered 
horse  coming  in  contact  with  the  abraded  skin  of 
man,  communicates  the  loathsome  and  fatal  disease 
from  which  so  many  attendants  of  horses  have  died, 
and  government  by  the  act  Vict.  16  and  17,  of  date 
14th  August  1853,  very  properly  compels  the  imme- 
diate destruction  of  every  glandered  horse.  Whilst 
oxen  and  dogs  are  exempt  from  it,  donkeys  sufFei 


GLANDS. 


generally  in  the  acute  form,  often  dying  in  eight  or 
ten  days.  Horses  frequently  have  it  in  a  chronic 
form,  and  if  well  fed  and  managed,  sometimes  live 
and  work  for  years.  In  the  old  coaching-days,  some 
stages  were  known  to  be  worked  by  a  glandered 
team,  but  no  animal  with  glanderous  ulcers  or  dis- 
charge should  on  any  account  be  preserved,  for, 
besides  being  perfectly  incurable,  the  fatal  disease 
is  communicable  not  only  to  healthy  horses,  but  also 
to  human  beings. 

GLA^^DS  are  divided  by  anatomists  into  two 
gi'eat  classes,  viz.,  true  secreting  glands  and  ductless 
glands. 

The  first  class  constitute  special  organs  which  are 
destined  for  the  production  of  the  chief  secretions ; 
as,  for  example,  the  lachrymal,  mammary,  and  sali- 
vary glands,  the  hver,  pancreas,  kidneys,  &c. ;  while 
the  suprarenal  capsides,  the  spleen,  the  thymus,  and 
the  thyroid  belong  to  the  second  class. 

  An  ordinary  secreting 

gland    consists    of  an 
aggregation  of  follicles, 
all  of  which  open  into  a 
common  duct,  by  which 
the  glandular  product  is 
discharged.   TJie  follicles 
contain  in  their  interior 
Cells   (q.  v.),  which  are 
the  active  agents  in  the 
secreting  process;  while 
their    exterior    is  sur- 
Fig.  l.-Lobule  of  Parotid  rounded  by  a  net- work  of 
Gland  of  an  Infant :       capillaries,   from  whose 
Filled  with  mercury,  and     contents  the  materials  of 
magnified  50  diameters.       Secretion  are  extracted. 

The  simplest  form  of 
A  glaud  is  the  inversion  of  the  surface  of  a  secreting 
membrane  into  follicles,  which  discharge  their  con- 
tents upon  it  by  separate  mouths.  Of  this  we 
have  examples  in  the  gastric  glands  and  follicles 
of  Lieberklihn  described  and  figured  in  the  article 
Digestion.  Dr  Carpenter  very  well  exhibits  the 
commencement  of  the  progressive  compUcation 
which  is  observed  in  most  of  the  glandiUar  struc- 
tures occurring  in  man  and  the  higher  animals  in  the 
accompanying  diagram  (fig.  2),  where  A  represents  a 


while  the  fourth  and  fifth  are  glands  yielding  the 
acrid  matter  which  some  insects  secrete. 


Fig.  2. 

portion  of  the  proventriculus  of  a  falcon,  in  which 
follicles  formed  by  simple  inversion  occur,  while  B 
represents  a  gastric  gland  from  the  middle  of  the 
human  stomach,  and  C  a  still  more  complicated 
form,  produced  by  the  follicles  doubling  upon  them- 
eelves,  taken  from  near  the  pylorus. 

The  articulata  (for  example,  insects)  present  glan- 
dular structures  which  can  be  unravelled  much  easier 
than  the  glands  of  vertebrate  animals;  and  the 
forms,  in  all  of  which  a  large  amount  of  secreting 
surface  is  presented  in  comparatively  little  space,  are 
ofto'a  very  graceful.  In  the  accompanying  group 
(fig.  3),  the  first  two  represent  different  forms  of 
Bulavary  glands,  the  third  is  a  reproductive  gland, 
770 


Fig.  3. 

1,  part  of  the  salivary  glnnd  of  Nepa  Cinerea  (aftei  Ramdohr)} 
2,  Falivary  vessel  of  Cicada  Ormi  (after  Succow) ;  3,  testes  of 
Staphylinus  Maxillorus;  4,  secreting  gland  of  Chlaniua 
Veliuinus;  5,  secreting  gland  of  Calathus  Fulvipes 

^o  understand  the  structure  of  a  complex  gland 
like  the  liver  or  kidney,  it  must  be  followed  from  the 
simplest  form  in  which  it  is  known  to  occur  through 
its  various  degrees  of  complication.  In  this  way 
the  liver  may  be  traced,  from  the  lowest  mollusca 
(where  it  exists  as  simple  follicles,  lodged  in  the 
walls  of  the  stomach,  and  pouring  their  product  into 
its  cavity  by  separate  orifices)  up  to  man,  in  whom 
it  is  an  organ  of  extreme  intricacy ;  and  similarly  lo 
the  early  foetal  state  of  the  higher  animals,  the  liver 
and  other  secreting  organs  more  or  less  resemble 


Fig.  4. — Mammary  Gland  of  Ornithorhyncnus. 

the  persistent  state  of  those  parts  in  animals  lower 
in  the  animal  scale.  In  the  same  way,  the  Mammary 
Gland  (q.  v.),  which  is  a  structure  of  considerable 
comi)lexity  in  the  higher  mammals,  presents  a  very 
simple  arrangement  in  the  lowest  type  of  this  class, 
the  ornithorhynchus,  being  merely  a  cluster  of  csecal 
follicles,  each  of  which  discharges  its  contents  by  its 
own  orifice. 

Sometimes  a  gland  has  several  ducts  (as,  tor 
example,  the  lachrymal  gland),  but,  as  a  general 
rule,  the  most  im])ortant  glands  have  only  a  single 
canal,  formed  by  the  union  of  the  individual  ducts, 
which  conveys  away  the  product  of  the  secreting 
action  of  the  whole  mass. 

Whatever  be  the  complexity  in  the  general 
arrangement  of  the  elements  of  a  gland  in  the 
higher  animals,  these  elements  are  always  found 
to  resolve  tljemselves  into  folliclea  or  tubul%  which 
enclose  the  true  secreting  cells. 

The  second  class  of  glands  resemble  the  secreting 
glands  in  external  conformation,  iind  in  the  posses- 
sion of  a  solid  parenchymatous  tissue,  but  differ 
from  them  in  the  absence  of  a  duct  or  oj  ening  for 
the  removal  of  the  products  of  sc»  **etion ;  and  indeed 


/ 


GLANDS—" 


GLASGOW. 


except  in  the  case  of  the  thymus,  no  material 
resembling  a  oecreted  product  is  yielded  by  any  of 
them.  lii  all  of  them,  the  tissue  mainly  consists  of 
cells  and  nuclei,  with  a  great  abundance  of  blood- 
vessels. They  may  probably  be  regarded  as  api)end- 
ages  to  the  vascular  system ;  and  from  the  absence  of 
any  excretory  duct,  they  have  received  the  name 
of  vascular  ductless  glands. 

The  Lymphatic  Glands  belong  to  a  different  class 
of  structures,  and  will  be  described  in  the  article  on 
the  Lymphatic  System. 

GLANDS,  Diseases  of.  The  lymphatic  glands 
are  subject  to  enlargement  from  acute  inflammation 
and  abscess,  usually  in  consequence  of  irritation  of 
the  part  from  which  their  lym})hatics  spring,  as  in 
the  case  of  scarlet  fever,  in  which  the  glands  of  the 
throat  are  affected  ;  in  gonorrhoea,  the  glands  of  the 
groin,  &c.  The  treatment  of  such  abscesses  belongs 
to  the  ordinary  principles  of  surgery.  See  Abscess. 
A  much  more  troublesome  affection  of  the  glands  is 
the  slow,  comparatively  painless,  at  first  dense  solid 
swelling  which  they  undergo  in  Scrofula  (q.  v.),  which 
tends  very  slowly,  if  at  all,  to  suppuration,  and  some- 
times remains  for  years.  In  Syphilis  (q.  v.)  and 
Cancer  (q.  v.),  there  are  also  enlargements  of  the 
lymphatic  glands.  Scrofulous  or  tubercular  disease 
of  the  mesenteric  glands  in  children  constitutes 
Tabes  mesenterica  (q.  v.).  The  larger  glands,  as  the 
Liver,  Kidney,  Pancreas,  Spleen,  Thyroid,  Thymus, 
Testicle,  and  even  the  Pituitary  Gland,  have  all 
their  special  diseases,  which  will  be  noticed,  so  far 
as  necessary,  in  treatmg  of  these  organs. 

GLA'NVILLE.  The  earliest  treatise  on  the  laws 
of  England,  Tractatus  de  Legibus  et  Consiietudinihus 
Anglke,  is  witten  by  Glanville.  Of  this  work, 
Professor  Robertson  says  {Hist,  of  Charles  F.),  that 
it  is  supposed  to  have  Iseen  the  first  undertaking  of 
the  kind  in  any  country  in  Europe.  It  was  com- 
posed about  1181.  The  author  is  generally  supposed 
to  have  been  Eanulphus  de  G.,  chief- justice  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  II.  Sir  Matthew  Hale,  while  he 
admits  the  date  of  the  work  to  have  been  in  the 
reign  of  that  monarch,  appears  to  hesitate  to  ascribe 
the  authorship  to  the  chief -justice.  Lord  Campbell 
{Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices,  i.  25)  remarks  that  G., 
in  some  points,  is  still  of  authority,  '  and  may 
be  perused  with  advantage  by  all  who  take  an 
interest  in  our  legal  antiquities.  This  author  is  to 
be  considered  the  father  of  English  jurisprudence. 
Bracton,  who  writes  in  the  following  century,  is 
more  methodical,  but  he  draws  largely  from  the 
Roman  civil  law,  and  is  often  rather  specidative  ; 
while  Glanville  actually  details  to  us  the  practice  of 
the  Aula  Regis  in  which  he  presided,  furnishes  us 
with  a  copious  supply  of  precedents  of  wi'its  and 
othei  procedure  then  in  use,  and  explains  with  much 
prec-'iion  the  distinction  and  subtdties  of  the  system 
whiih,  in  the  fifth  Norman  reign,  had  nearly  super- 
eed<„d  the  simple  juridical  institutions  of  our  Anglo- 
Saxon  ancestors.'  This  work  was  first  printed  in 
the  year  1554,  at  the  instance  of  Sir  W.  Stanford,  a 
judge  of  the  Common  Pleas.  The  treatise  of  G. 
closely  resembles  the  Scottish  Regiam  Majestatem 
(q.  v.).  'The  latter,'  says  Coke  {Inst.  iv.  345), 
*  doth  in  -substance  agree  with  our  Glanville,  and 
most  commonly  de  verbo  in  verbum,  and  many  times 
our  Glanville  is  cited  therein  by  special  name.'  A 
dispute  has  arisen,  in  consequence  of  this  close 
similarity,  as  to  which  country  shall  clainfthe  honour 
of  producing  the  original  work.  Mr  Erskine  does 
uot  hesitate  to  claim  the  distinction  for  Scotland; 
but  Lord  Stair,  following  the  opinion  of  Craig, 
trankly  admits  '  that  those  books,  called  Regiam 
Majestatem,  are  no  part  of  our  law,  bijt  were  com- 
piled for  the  customs  of  England,  io  -airteen  books, 


by  the  Earl  of  Chester,  and  by  some  unknown  and 

inconsiderate  hand  stolen  thence,  and  resarcinate  in 
those  four  books  which  pass  amongst  us '  (Stair, 
i.  1,  s.  IG). 

GLA'IIUS,  a  canton  in  the  north-east  of  Switzer- 
land, is  triangular  in  shape,  and  is  bounded  on 
the  N.-E.  by  the  canton  of  St  Gall,  on  the  S.-E. 
by  that  of  the  Grisons,  and  on  the  W.  Ijy  those 
of  Schwytz  and  Uri.  It  has  an  area  of  202  square 
miles,  and  in  1870  had  35,151  inhalntants,  jihout 
one-sixth  Catholics,  the  others  mostly  CalvinistA, 
The  surface  is  mountainous,  the  highest  peak 
being  that  of  Todiberg  or  Dodiberg  in  the  south- 
west, which  reaches  a  height  of  11,880  feet.  From 
the  foot  of  this  mountain,  the  Linth,  the  chief 
river,  flows  north-north-east,  through  the  middle 
of  the  canton,  and  empties  itself  into  the  Lake  of 
Wallenstadt.  The  principal  valleys,  after  that  of 
the  Linth,  are  the  Sexnfthal  and  the  Klonthal,  both 
formed  by  tributaries  of  the  Linth.  The  climate  is 
very  severe,  and  only  one-fifth  of  the  land  is  arable. 
This  canton,  in  which  the  rearing  of  cattle  was 
formerly  the  main  pursuit  of  the  inhabitants,  is  now 
an  important  manufacturing  district.  The  principal 
manufactures  are  cotton,  woollen,  muslin,  and  silk 
goods,  and  paper  and  slates.  Great  part  of  the 
manufactures  are  exported  to  the  East,  to  North 
Africa,  America,  and  China.  The  green  cheese 
called  Schabziger,  which  is  wholly  made  here,  and 
other  agricultural  products,  a. exported.  In  none 
of  the  Swiss  cantons  does  the  population  so  slowly 
increase  as  in  that  of  Glarus.  The  old  homely 
manners,  and  many  even  of  the  customs  of  anti- 
quity, still  prevail  among  the  people.  In  the 
earliest  times,  G.  was  reckoned  sometimes  as  a  part 
of  Rhoetia,  sometimes  as  a  part  of  Svvabia,  and  was 
peopled  by  German  settlers.  After  various  changes, 
it  passed  into  the  possession  of  the  Dukes  of 
Austria,  but  ultimately  secured  its  independence  by 
the  victories  of  Niifels  in  1352  and  1388,  when  it 
joined  the  Swiss  confederation.  The  chief  town  is 
Glarus,  with  a  large  Gothic  church,  which  serves 
both  for  Catholics  and  Protestants  and  in  which 
Zwingli  was  parson  from  1506  to  1516.    Pop.  4082. 

GLA'SGOW,  the  industrial  metropolis  of  Scot- 
land, is,  after  London,  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
important  cities  in  the  kingdom.  It  is  situated  on 
the  Clyde,  in  the  lower  ward  of  Lanarkshire,  and 
occupies  chiefly  the  north  side  of  the  river,  but  has 
large  and  populovis  suburbs  on  the  south  side.  The 
river  is  crossed  by  three  stone  bridges,  two  of  which 
are  of  granite,  measuring  60  feet  in  breadth  ovei: 
the  parapets,  and  much  admired  for  their  light  and 
graceful  architecture,  and  by  two  suspension-bridges 
for  foot-passengers,  each  of  a  single  sjian.  Below 
the  bridges,  there  are  ferry-boats  plying  at  all  hom'S.- 

The  ground  upon  which  G.  is  built  is,  for  the 
most  part,  level,  but  in  the  north  and  north-west 
districts,  there  are  consiiderable  elevations.  Owing 
to  the  number  of  cotton-factories,  chemical  works, 
foundries,  and  work-shops  of  all  kinds,  the  city 
has  a  somewhat  dingy  and  smoky  asjject ;  ^vhile 
many  of  the  streets  are  continually  thronged  with 
j)assengers,  and  noisy  A\ath  carts,  cabs,  and  omni- 
buses. In  other  respects,  it  has  many  attractions. 
The  houses  facing  the  river  stand  well  back,  leaving 
spacious  thoroughfares  on  each  side,  and  affording 
full  and  noble  views  of  the  bridges,  of  several  hand- 
some street  ranges  and  public  buildings,  and  of  the 
harbour  with  its  steaming  funnels  and  forests  of 
masts.  Most  of  the  leading  streets  nm  from  east 
to  west,  i>arallel  with  the  river,  and  almost  all  the 
streets,  except  in  the  oldest  parts  of  the  city,  are 
laid  off  in  straight  lines.  The  houses  are  generally 
lofty,  and  built  of  freestone,  the  floors  of  each 

771 


GLASGOW. 


tenement  being  usually  occupied  by  separate  families, 
entering  by  a  common  staix*.  In  the  fashionable 
quarters,  what  are  called  'self-contained'  houses 
prevail.  G.  has  comparatively  few  squares  or  other 
open  spaces  ;  but  it  has  three  public  parks — two 
of  them  of  great  extent,  and  the  third  of  great 
beauty— namely,  the  Green  (140  acres),  occupying 
the  level  next  the  Clyde  at  the  east  end  ;  Queen's 
Park  (upwards  of  100  acres),  finely  situated  on  a 
rising-ground  to  the  south  ;  and  Kelvingrove  (40 
acres),  rounding  the  face  of  a  hill  crowned  with 
noble  terraces,  and  sloping  down  to  the  Kelvin,  at 
the  west  end.  The  city  is  about  three  miles  in 
length  from  east  to  west,  and  is  about  eight  miles 
in  circumference. 

G.  had  its  ^-st  nucleus  in  the  cathedral,  and 
afterwards  iin  the  university,  both  in  the  north- 
east part  of  the  city — the  former  on  a  height  on 
the  banks  of  the  Molendinar  stream,  which  runs 
between  the  old  burjnng-ground  and  a  steep  rocky 
eminence  formerly  known  as  the  Fir  Park,  but 
now  transfonned  into  the  Necropolis,  a  modern 
cemetery,  studded  and  crowned  with  monuments. 
It  is  from  this  ravine  that  the  name  G.  is  sup- 
posed to  have  l)ecn  deiived,  etj'^mologists  professing 
to  find  in  it  two  Celtic  words  signifying  a  '  Dark 
Glen.'  St  Kentigern,  or  St  Mungo,  founded  a 
bishopric  on  the  banks  of  the  Molendinar  about 
5G0  ;  but  for  more  than  five  hundred  years  after- 
wards, the  history  of  the  place  is  a  blank.  About 
the  year  1115,  David,  prince  of  Cumbria  (after- 
wards kiiig  of  Scotland),  restored  the  Sf>e,  and 
appointed  his  preceptor,  John,  to  the  bishopric, 
who  laid  the  foundations  of  a  cathedral,  which 
was  replaced  by  the  present  pile,  founded  by  Bishop 
Jocelin  in  1181.  In  1190,  King  William  the  Lion 
erected  G.  into  a  burgh,  vrith.  the  privilege  of  an 
Annual  fair  ;  but  for  a  century  and  a  half  later,  it 
continued  an  insignificant  town  of  not  more  than 
loOO  inhabitants.  In  1345,  Bishop  Rae  built  the 
first  stone  bridge  across  the  Clj'de  ;  and  in  1451, 
Bishop  Turnbull  esta]:)lished  the  university,  having 
obtained  a  ball  for  that  purpose  from  Pope  Nicholas 
V.  The  latter  event  gave  a  considerable  impetus 
to  the  place  ;  yet,  in  1558,  G.  only  ranked  eleventh 
in  importance  among  the  towns  of  Scotland. 

The  city  as  it  now  exists  is  almost  wholly  modem, 
having  quintupled  in  dimensions  diiring  the  last  60 
years.  This  immense  growth  has  arisen  from  its 
situation  in  the  midst  of  a  district  abounding  in  coal 
and  iron,  and  from  the  facilities  afforded  by  the 
Clyde  for  the  cultivation  of  a  world-^\^de  commerce. 
At  the  same  time,  it  must  be  admitted  that  much 
of  its  prosperity  is  due  to  local  ingenuity  and 
enterprise.  It  was  here  that  James  Watt,  in  1765, 
made  his  memorable  improvement  on  the  steam- 
engine;  it  was  here  that  Henry  Bell,  in  1812,  first 
(in  the  old  world)  demonstrated  the  practicability  of 
stpam-navigation.  On  the  widening  and  deepening 
of  the  river,  so  as  to  render  it  navigable  by  vessels 
of  2000  tons  burden,  an  enormous  sum  has  been 
expended.  The  harbour  of  Port-Dundas,  on  the 
Forth  and  Clyde  Canal,  situated  on  the  high 
■ground  north  of  the  city,  has  likewise  aflbrded 
facilities  to  its  commerce.  The  enterj^rising  spirit 
of  the  inhabitants  began  to  manifest  itself  during 
the  17th  century.  Sugar-refining,  the  distillation  of 
spirits  from  molasses,  and  the  manufacture  of  soap, 
were  among  their  earlier  industries.  The  opening 
up  of  the  American  colonies  to  Scotch  enterprise 
after  the  Union  gave  an  immense  increase  to  its 
commerce.  G.  became  the  chief  emporium  of  the 
tobacco  trade,  and  its  Virginian  merchants  formed  a 
local  aristocracy,  remarkable  for  wealth  and  hauteur. 
This  trade  was  at  length  paralysed  by  the  American 
war;  but  sugar  cultivation  in  the  West  Indies, 
772 


and  the  introduction  of  the  cotton  manufa'i^ure, 
opened  up  new  paths  to  opulence.  Calico-printing, 
turkey-red  dyeing,  beer-brewing,  and  other  branchea 
followed ;  and  with  the  rapid  expansion  of  the 
iron  trade,  including  machine-making  and  steam- 
boat building,  the  city  has  attained  its  present 
magnitude.  Among  its  thousand  chimney-stalks, 
there  is  one  of  460  and  one  of  450  feet,  being  the 
highest  in  the  British  dominions.  The  latter  carries 
aloft  the  noxious  vapours  of  8t  Rollox,  the  largest 
chemical  works  in  the  world,  covering  14  acres  of 
ground,  and  employing  upwards  of  1000  men. 

In  all  that  relates  to  lighting,  paving,  sewerage, 
and  the  like,  G.  deserves  laudatory  mention.  The 
city  is  governed  by  a  lord  provost,  8  bailies,  and 
39  councillors,  to  whom  are  added  the  dean  of  guild 
from  the  Merchants',  and  the  deacon-convener  from 
the  Trades'  House.  The  sheriff  and  four  sheriff- 
substitutes  exercise  within  the  city  a  co-ordinate 
jurisdiction  with  the  magistrates,  and  preside  over 
various  civil  and  criminal  courts.  Much  of  the 
spirit  which  characterises  the  manufacturing  and 
commercial  affairs  of  G.  has  been  carried  into  ita 
municipal  arrangements.  Corporation  halls,  com. 
prising  a  valual)le  gallery  of  })ainting3,  have  been 
secured  for  the  citizens  ;  public  parks  have  been 
purchased  at  great  cost,  and  laid  out  in  a  style 
of  unsurpassed  beauty ;  and  a  supply  of  water 
has  been  introduced  from  Loch  Katrine  at  the 
Imuntiful  rnte  of  .32,003.000  gallons  n  day.  G.  hns 
(1874)  54,374  registered  parliamentary  voters,  and 
sends  three  members  to  the  House  of  Commons. 

Many  of  the  public  buildings  deserve  notice. 
The  cathedral,  which  has  lately  been  restored,  and 
the  windows  enriched  with  stained  glass,  chiefly 
from  Munich,  is  one  of  the  finest  First  Pointed 
churches  in  the  kingdom.  The  Royal  Exchange, 
in  Queen  Street,  several  of  the  banks,  and  many 
of  the  churches,  likewise  present  fine  specimens 
of  architecture  in  a  variety  of  styles.  G.  has 
three  equestrian  statues,  one  of  William  III.  at 
the  Cross,  another  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington  in 
front  of  the  Royal  Exchange,  and  the  third  oi 
Queen  Victoria  in  St  Vincent  Place.  The  last  two 
are  by  Marochetti.  In  the  Green  there  is  an  obelisk, 
144  feet  high,  to  Nelson,  forming  a  conspicuous 
object  in  the  landscape.  This  tall  structure,  which 
stands  quite  alone,  has  been  twice  struck  by 
lightning,  once  in  1810,  and  again  in  1861.  In 
George's  Square  there  are  a  column  surmounted 
by  a  statue  of  Sir  Walter  Scott;  a  fine  statue  of 
Sir  John  Moore,  by  Flaxman ;  a  statue  of  James 
Watt,  in  a  sitting  posture,  by  Chantrey ;  and  a 
statue  of  Sir  Robert  Peel,  by  John  Mossman.  A 
marble  statue  of  Pitt,  by  Flaxman,  has  lately  been 
removed  from  the  old  town-hall  at  the  Cross  to 
the  new  Corporation  Galleries,  Sauchiehall  Street. 
Charitable  institutions  and  benevolent  societies 
abound ;  and  zealous  and  successful  efforts  have 
lately  been  made  to  provide  cheap  and  innocent 
amusements  for  the  working-classes.  There  are 
two  theatres,  two  museums,  and  numerous  halls  in 
which  soir6es  and  concerts  are  held  almost  nightly 
during  winter.  The  wealthier  inhabitants  migrate 
to  the  coast  in  shoals  during  the  summer,  and  cheap 
Saturday  excursions  by  river  and  rail  are  exten- 
sively taken  advantage  of  by  the  working-classes. 
To  the  north-west  of  the  city  is  a  botanic  garden  of 
about  40  acres,  which  is  thrown  open  every  sum- 
mer, diu-ing^the  fair  holidays,  at  a  merely  nominal 
charge.  In  the  fair  week  of  July  1861,  the  number 
of  visitors  to  the  garden  amounted  to  17,344. 
Besides  the  Necropolis,  there  are  several  other 
garden  cemeteries  in  the  vicinity,  of  which  Sight- 
hill,  occupying  a  northern  elevation,  is  the  most  pic 
turesque. 


GLASGOW— GLASS. 


G.  has  tlivee  daily,  and  upwards  of  a  dozen  weekly 
aewspapers.  It  has  175  churches  and  chapels, 
viz.  :  Established  Church.  40 ;  Free  Church,  43 ; 
United  Presbyterian,  37  ;  Roman  (. 'atholic,  12 ;  Inde- 
pendent, 9 ;  Bai)tist,  7  ;  Episcopalian,  5 ;  Reformed 
Presbyterian,  4;  other  bodies,  18.  In  1801,  the 
population  was  83,769;  in  1871  it  amounted  to 
477,144,  composing  107,087  separate  families,  and 
inhabiting  14,659  houses. 

GLASGOW,  The  University  of,  was  founded 
in  1451  by  Bishop  TurnbuU,  who  procured  a  bull 
of  ratification  from  Pope  Nicholas  V.  In  1460, 
James  first  Lord  Hamilton,  endowed  a  college 
on  the  site  of  the  present  buildings,  the  older 
portions  of  which  were  erected  between  1632  and 
1656.  During  the  stormy  times  of  the  Reformation, 
the  university  was  well-nigh  destroyed.  Queen 
Mary  exerted  herself  to  restore  the  tottering 
institution :  she  bestowed  on  it  the  manse  and 
kirk  of  the  Preaching  Friars,  with  13  acres  of 
adjacent  groimd.  In  1577,  James  VI.  endowed  it 
with  the  rectoiy  and  vicarage  of  the  parish  of 
Govan,  and  granted  a  new  charter,  which  still 
continues  in  force.  The  professoriate,  which  was 
originally  limited,  gradually  increased  with  the 
intellectual  necessities  of  the  times  and  the  advance- 
ment of  learning  and  science. 

Chairs,  Office-bearers,  Degrees. — The  office-bearers 
of  the  university  consist  of  Chancellor,  Rector, 
Principal,  and  Dean  of  Faculties.  The  Chancellor, 
holds  his  ofhce  for  life,  and  up  to  the  present  time 
has  been  elected  by  the  senate ;  but  the  next,  and  all 
futvu'e  elections,  will  take  place  by  the  university 
council,  as  in  Edinburgh  University ;  the  Rector 
is  elected  triennially  by  the  matriculated  students, 
who  are  divided,  according  to  their  place  of  birth, 
into  four  nations — Glottiana  (Lanarkshire),  Trans- 
forthana  (Scotland  north  of  the  Forth),  Rothseiana 
(Buteshire,  Renfrewshire,  and  K.yr^\XQ),Londoniana 
(all  other  places).  The  Dean  of  Faculties  is  elected 
annually  by  the  senate.  The  duties  of  Chancellor 
and  Ptector  are  chifly  honorary.  The  chairs  aj:e 
Latin,  Greek,  Mathematics,  Logic,  Natural  Philo- 
eophy.  Moral  Philosophy,  English  Language  and 
Literature,  Anatomy,  Physiology,  Materia  Medica, 
Practice  of  Physic,  Natural  Plistory,  Chemistry, 
Clinical  Surgery  and  Medicine,  Midwifery,  Botany, 
Siirgery,  Oriental  Languages,  Divinity,  Church 
History,  Biblical  Criticism,  Civil  Law,  Conveyancing, 
Civil  Engineering,  and  Practical  Astronomy.  The 
degrees  granted  are  Master  of  Arts,  Doctor  of 
Medicine,  Master  of  Surgery,  Bachelor  of  Divinity, 
Doctor  of  Divinity,  Doctor  of  Laws,  and  Bachelor 
of  Laws,  the  last  three  being  honorary  degrees. 
The  ceremony  of  graduation  was  of  old  conducted 
with  no  little  pomp  through  all  its  stages,  from  its 
beginning  in  what  was  called  '  the  Black  Stone 
Examination,'  to  its  close  in  the  act  of  '  Laureation' 
in  the  College  Hall,  or  one  of  the  city  churches. 
The  number  of  matriculated  students  now  averages 
about  1200 ;  they  reside  outside  the  college  walls ; 
and  those  in  attendance  on  classes  in  the  Faculty 
of  Arts  wear  scarlet  gowns. 

Bursaries  and  Exhibitions. — The  Senatus  Acade- 
micus  has  in  its  gift  about  30  bursaries,  and  the 
funds  attached  to  several  of  these  are  applicable  to 
from  four  to  six  students  :  their  yearly  values  range 
from  £6  to  £50,  and  some  may  be  held  for  a  period 
of  four  years.  The  Oxford  Exhibition. — In  1677, 
John  Snell,  a  native  of  Ayrshire,  afterwards  of 
Uifeton  in  Warwickshire,  presented  the  university 
with  an  endowment,  consisting  of  a  landed  estate, 
for  the  purpose  of  supporting  at  Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  ten  students  who  had  previously  studied 
at  Glasgow.  The  property  was  let  in  1809  on  a 
lease  of  21  years,,  at  an  annual  rental  of  £1500, 


and  the  ten  exhibitioners  received  £133,  6«.  Sdt 
per  annum  each. 

Libraries,  Museums,  dec. — The  library  was  founded 
prior  to  the  Reformation,  and  now  contains  about 
105,000  volumes.  It  is  supported  from  the  interest  of 
sums  bequeathed  by  individuals,  from  graduation 
fees,  and  from  contributions  of  students.  Subsidiary 
libraries  are  attached  to  several  of  the  classes,  the 
books  being  selected  with  a  view  to  the  subjects 
treated  of  in  each  claf?s.  In  July  1781,  the  cele- 
brated Dr  William  Hunter  of  London  framed  a 
win  leaving  to  the  principal  and  professors  of  the 
university  his  splendid  collection  of  coins,  medals, 
and  anatomical  preparations  ;  and  for  the  accom- 
modation and  conservation  of  these,  a  building  was 
erected  in  1804  within  the  college  precincts  at  a 
cost  of  £12,000.  The  university  also  possesses  an 
observatory  and  a  botanical  garden,  and  several  of 
the  professors  have  collections  of  apparatus  attached 
to  their  classes,  illustrative  of  the  courses  there 
delivered. 

Eminent  Professors  and  Students. — Among  the 
men  of  eminence  who  have  taught  or  studied  in  the 
university,  are  Bishop  William  Elphinstone,  Johr 
Major,  John  Spottiswoode,  Andrew  Melville,  James 
Melville,  Robert  Boyd  of  Trochrig,  John  Cameron^ 
Zachary  Boyd,  Robert  Baillie ;  James  Dalrymple, 
first  Viscount  of  Stair ;  Gilbert  Burnet,  bishop  of 
Salisbury ;  Dr  John  Douglas,  bishop  of  Salisbury ; 
Dr  Robert  Simson,  Francis  Hutcheson,  Dr  William 
Himter,  Dr  James  Moor,  Dr  Adam  Smith,  Dr 
Thomas  Reid,  Dr  William  CuUen,  Dr  Joseph 
Black,  Dr  Matthew  Baillie,  Professor  J ohn  Miller, 
Thomas  Thomson,  Francis  Jeffrey,  John  Gibson 
Lockhart,  Sir  William  Hamilton. 

GLASS,  from  the  Fr.  glace  (Lat.  glacics),  ice 
which  it  resembles  in  its  transparency.  Glass  is 
essentially  a  combination  of  silica  with  some  alkali 
or  alkaline  earth,  such  as  lime,  barytes,  &c.  Gene- 
rally speaking,  it  is  understood  to  be  a  silicate  of 
soda,  or  a  combination  of  silica  or  flint  with  one 
or  more  of  the  salts  of  sodium,  with  the  addition, 
for  some  purposes,  of  certain  metallic  oxides  and 
other  substances. 

History. — The  invention  of  glass  dates  from  the 
earliest  antiquity,  and  the  honour  of  its  discovery 
has  been  contested  by  several  nations.  As  the 
oldest  known  specimens  are  Egy^rtian,  its  inven- 
tion may  with  great  probability  be  attributed  to 
that  people.  It  is  mentioned  as  early  as  the 
5th  or  6th  dynasty,  and  called  bashnu,  the  Coptic 
bijni ;  and  articles  made  of  it  are  represented 
in  the  tombs  of  the  period ;  while  its  fabrication 
is  depicted  in  sepulchres  of  the  12th  dynasty 
— i.  e.,  about  1800  b.  c.  The  glass  of  Egj-pt 
was  generally  opaque,  rarely  transparent,  and 
always  coloured,  the  articles  made  of  it  being 
of  small  size,  and  principally  for  adornment,  as 
beads,  vases,  small  figures,  and  objects  for  inlaying 
into  wood  or  other  material.  Specimens  exist  of 
this  glass  bearing  the  name  of  the  queen  Hatasu 
of  the  18th  djTiasty,  1445  b.  c,  and  vases  of 
blue  glass,  with  wa\=y  lines  in  white,  light-blue, 
yellow,  black,  red,  and  green,  of  that  and  a  later 
age,  have  been  discovered.  The  Egyj^tians  also 
successfully  imitated  precious  and  other  stones  in 
glass — as  emeralds,  lapis  lazidi,  turquoises,  jaspers, 
onyx,  and  obsidian ;  for  this  purpose,  they  iised 
nearly  the  same  materials  as  at  present,  employ- 
ing manganese,  copper,  iron,  cobalt,  gold,  and  tin. 
Transparent  glass,  indeed,  does  not  appear  earlier 
in  Egypt  than  the  26th  dynasty,  about  750  b.  c, 
when  bottles  and  a  few  other  objects — as  figures 
for  inlaying,  and  beads  imitating  gems — were  made 
of  it.  According  to  Herodotus,  the  Ethiopians, 
two  centuries  later,  placed  theii"  mummies  in  glasa 


GLASS. 


coffins ;  but  the  fact  has  never  been  proved  by  any  as 
yet  discovered. 

Under  the  native  Pharaohs,  Egyptian  f,da8S  seems 
to  have  been  extensively  exported  to  Grreece  and 
Italy,  and  its  reputation  still  continued  under 
the  Ptolemies,  when  the  furnaces  of  Alexandria 
produced  glass  vases  of  numberless  shapes  and 
considerable  size.  At  this  period,  the  Egyptians 
invented  the  mlllejiori  glass,  consisting  of  small 
threads  of  glass  arranged  vertically  and  then 
fused,  so  that  the  whole  rod  thus  formed  was  of 
one  pattern ;  ajid  by  cutting  off"  slices,  each  i)iece 
reproduced  the  same  pattern.  The  glass  beads  of 
madrepore  glass,  which  are  found  in  the  tombs  of 
Greece  and  Italy,  and  are  formed  by  placing  slices 
of  such  rods  in  a  mould  and  fusing  the  whole,  are 
probably  of  Egyptian  or  Phoenician  origin.  Egypt 
Btill  retained  the  pre-eminence  in  the  manufacture 
of  glass  under  the  Romans,  the  sand  of  Alexandria 
being  indispensable  for  the  finest  qualities,  and  it 
expoited  glass  to  Home.  Hadrian,  on  his  visit, 
was  struck  with  the  activity  of  the  manufacture, 
and  sent  to  his  friend,  the  Consul  Servianus,  one  of 
the  vases,  called  allosontes,  or  '  opalescent ; '  and 
the  Roman  writers  mention  with  admiration  the 
melting,  turning,  and  engi'aving  of  Egyptian  glass. 
To  the  most  tlourishing  period  of  the  empire  are 
to  be  referred  certain  vases  and  slabs  with  white 
camei  figures  of  fine  execution  in  relief  on  a  blue 
background,  and  plates  of  opaque  glass  for  inlaying 
the  walls  of  rooms,  such  as  those  which  are  said  to 
have  decorated  the  mansion  of  the  usurper  Firmtis. 
The  art  of  glass-making,  in  fact,  has  never  become 
extinct  in  Egypt,  the  Fatimite  Califs  having  issued 
glass  coins  in  the  10th  and  11th  centui'ies,  and 
beautiful  lamps  of  glass  enamelled  on  the  surface 
with  various  colours  having  been  made  in  the  14th 
century.  i^..lthougli  the  art  of  glass-making  has 
fallen  to  the  lowest  ebb  in  Egypt,  the  workmen 
are  said  to  manifest  considerable  aptitude  in  its 
production. 

After  the  Egj'jjtians,  the  people  of  antiquity 
most  renowned  for  glass  were  the  Phoenicians,  who 
were  the  legendary  inventors.  Certain  of  their 
merchants,  it  is  said,  returning  in  a  ship  laden  with 
natron  or  soda,  and  having  been  compelled  by 
stormy  weather  to  land  on  a  sandy  tract  under 
Mount  Carmel,  placed  their  cooking-pots  on  lumps 
of  natron  on  the  sand,  which,  fused  by  the  heat 
of  the  fire,  formed  the  first  glass.  Sidon,  indeed, 
was  long  celebrated  for  her  glass-wares  made  of  the 
sand  brought  down  from  Mount  Carmel  to  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Belus.  The  natui-e,  however, 
of  the  earliest  Phoenician  glass  is  unknown,  unless 
the  opaque  little  vases  of  the  toilet  found  in  the 
tombs  of  Greece  and  Italy,  and  the  beads  of  the 
same  discovered  in  the  barrows  and  tiunuli  of  the 
old  Celtic  and  Teutonic  tribes,  were  imports  of 
the  Phoenicians.  The  vases  of  Sidon  were,  however, 
highly  esteemed  at  Rome  under  the  Antonines, 
fragments  of  bowls  of  blue  and  amber  glass,  with 
the  names  of  the  Sidonian  glass-makers,  Artas  and 
Irenpeus,  stamped  in  Latin  and  Greek,  having  been 
found  in  the  ruins.  Perhaps  the  Assyrian  glass 
vases  were  made  at  Sidon ;  at  all  events,  the 
earliest  dated  specimen  of  transparent  white  glass 
is  the  vase  having  upon  it  stamped  or  engraved  in 
Assyrian  cuneiform  a  lion  and  the  name  of  Sargon, 
■who  reigned  722  b.  c,  found  at  Nimrud  by  Mr 
Layard  ;  and  glass  seems  to  have  been  imported  or 
even  made  in  Assyria  as  late  as  the  time  of  the 
Parthians,  when  Nineveh  became  tlie  Roman  colony 
of  Claudiopolis.  Under  the  Sassanides,  moulded 
glass  vessels,  elaborately  decorated,  were  made,  as 
is  shewn  by  the  cup  of  Chosroes,  531 — 579  a.d., 
in  the  Louvre;  and  Persia  continued  to  mauu- 
774 


facture  glass  vessels  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
Arabs  seem  to  have  derived  their  giass  from  the 
Byzantines,  and  specimens  introduced  into  Europe 


Fig.  1. — Glass  Vase,  bearing  the  name  of  Sargon,  trom 
Nimrud. 

by  the  Crusaders  were  called  in  royal  and  other 
inventories  Dariiascus  glass ;  this  was  coloured,  and 
not  plain.  Although  the  art  of  glass-making 
appears  to  have  been  practised  in  remote  times, 
this  nation  does  not  appear  to  have  attained  any 
proficiency  in  it,  and  is  content  at  the  present 
day  to  re-melt  European  glass  ;  while  some  of  its 
highest  efi"ort3  do  not  exceed  the  imitation  of  jade, 
and  other  stones.  There  is  still  an  extensive  use  of 
glass-l)eads  in  the  East,  which  are  chiefiy  made  at 
Khalib  or  Hebron.  Glass  was  equally  unknown  to 
the  Hindus,  except  the  production  of  a  few  trinkets 
and  inferior  objects,  till  the  settlement  of  Europeans 
in  India ;  and  the  country  was,  at  the  remotest 
period,  supplied  by  Phoenician,  and,  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  by  the  Venetian  traders.  Although  Josei)hu3 
claims  the  invention  of  the  art  for  the  Jews,  no 
remains  of  J ewish  glass  are  known,  and  it  is  probable 
that  the  Jews  m  i  re  principally  indebted  for  their 
supplies  to  the  neighbouring  cities  of  T}Te  and 
Sidon.  Even  in  Greece  itself,  glass  was  by  no  means 
ancient.  In  the  days  of  Homer  it  was  unknown. 
Herodotus,  indeed,  mentions  its  employment  for 
ear-rings,  but  these  may  have  been  of  Phoenician 
fabric.  It  was  called  hyalos,  crystal  or  ice,  and 
Uthos  chyte,  or  fusible  stone.  Aristophanes,  450 
B.C.,  mentions  glass  or  crystal  vessels,  and  various 
inscriptions  confirm  its  use,  but  its  value  was  next 
to  gold,  which  could  hardly  have  been  the  case 
if  it  had  been  of  native  manufacture.  In  the 
4th  c.  B.  c,  Pausias,  a  celebrated  painter,  had 
depicted  Methe,  or  'Intoxication,'  drinking  from 
a  transparent  glass  bowl  wliich  revealed  her  face. 
Glasses  and  plates,  amphorae  and  diotze,  large  two- 
handled  jars,  were  made  of  it,  and  also  false  stones 
for  finger-rings,  called  sphragides  hyalenai.  These 
last,  called  by  archaeologists  pastes,  were  imitations 
of  engraved  stones  in  coloured  glasses,  used  for 
the  rings  of  the  poorer  classes,  and  were  no  doubt 
often  copies  or  impressions  of  engraved  stones  of 
celebrated  masters ;  false  gems  and  camei  having  » 
subject  in  opaque  white,  sometimes  like  the  sar- 
donyx, with  a  brown  layer  superposed  on  the  parts 
representing  the  hair,  and  the  whole  laid  on  a 
dark -blue  ground,  appear  before  the  Christian  era. 
Lenses  were  also  made  of  glass,  and  the  celestial 
sphere  of  Archimedes  was  made  of  the  same 
nuiterial.  The  supposed  Phoenician  coloured  glass 
vases  for  the  toilet,  found  in  the  oldest  sepulchres 
of  Greece,  it  must  be  observed,  have  Greek  shapes. 
Glass  makers,  hyaloj^soi,  Jiyalepsce^  are  also  mentioned 


GLASS. 


at  a  later  period,  when  there  can  be  no  doubt 
the  art  was  practised.  Of  the  Alexandrian  glass, 
mention  has  been  ah'eady  made ;  and  the  l)ody  of 
Alexander  the  Great  was  shewn  to  Augustus  in  a 
glass  coffin. 

The  glass-making  art  in  Italy  does  not  date  earlier 
than  the  commenceraant  of  the  Roman  Emi)ire, 
importations  from  Sidon  and  Alexandria  having 
pre"  iously  supplied  the  want  of  native  manufacture ; 
but  there  is  ample  evidence  of  its  extensive  manu- 
iActure  at  that  period  having  been  introduced  in 
the  days  of  the  Ptolemies,  large  plates  being  used 
for  incrusting  chambers,  vitrece  camera;;  and  hollow 
columns,  made  of  this  material,  with  lamps  inside, 
were  used  to  illumine  the  public  theatres.  As 
early  as  58  B.C.,  the  theatre  of  Scaurus  had  been 
decorated  with  mirrors  or  glass  plates,  disposed 
on  the  walls.  Glass  was  also  used  for  paving, 
and  foi  the  blue  and  green  tessera?  of  mosai<^s 
(see  Mosaic).  Window-glass  does  not  appear  till 
about  the  3d  c.  A.D.,  the  houses  at  Herculaneum, 
destroyed  in  the  reign  of  Titus,  being  glazed  with 
talc,  and  some  doubt  remaining  as  to  the  use  of 
glass  for  this  purpose  at  Pompeii.  Lactantius  in 
the  3d  c.  A.  D. ;  St  Jerome,  422  A.  D.,  mention  glass 
windows.  Older  windows  of  this  material  are 
said  to  have  been  found  at  Ficulnea,  and  even  in 
London.    Under  the  Romans,  coloured  as  well  as 


Rg.  2. — Moulded  Glass  Roman  Cup,  with  the  Circus 
and  Gladiators,  foimd  in  London. 

white  glass  was  extensively  used  ;  it  had  a  greenish 
tint  in  the  first  days  of  the  Empire,  but  had  sensibly 
impi'oved  in  colour  and  quality  in  the  days  of 
(yonstantine.  The  first  production  of  a  white  glass 
like  crystal  was  in  the  days  of  Nero.  Its  use  was 
iDC-st  extensive,  and  it  was  either  blown  or  stamped 
ikccording  to  the  objects  required.  Glass  vases,  vasa 
vitrea  escaria  j^otoria,  are  mentioned.  So  are  costly 
cups  of  many  colours,  pui-ple  ones  of  Lesbos,  and 
balsamarii,  especially  the  kind  long  called  lachry- 
aiatories,  which  Ireld  perfumes,  medicine,  drugs, 
and  other  substances  like  modern  vials,  amphorae, 
ampullae,  pillar-moidded  bowls,  bottles  for  wine 
{lagencs),  urns  (urnai)  for  holding  the  ashes  of  the 
dead,  and  pillar-moulded  bowls  or  cups  [pocula). 

Besides  these  articles  of  amusement  and  luxury, 
hair-pins,  beads,  rings,  balls,  draughtsmen,  dice, 
knuckle-bones  {astragali),  mirrors,  multiplying- 
glasses,  prisms,  magnifying-glasses,  telescopes,  and 
water-clocks  were  made  of  this  material. 

Many  vases  are  stamped,  and  some,  principally  of 
square  shape,  have  the  initials  and  devices  of  their 
makers  or  contents,  as  eye- waters,  impressed  on  the 
bottom.  Most  of  the  precious  stones  were  success- 
lidly  imitated  in  glass  pastes;  and  the  Empress 


I'ig.  3. — ^Portland  VasG. 


Salonina  was  cgregiously  cheated  by  a  fraudulent 
jeweller.  But  the  most  remarkable  works  in  glass 
are  the  cainei  vases  {toreumnta  vitri),  of  wliicli  tbe 
most  celebrated  is  the  Portland  vase  in  the  British 
INIuseum,  a  two-handled  vessel  about  10  inches  high, 
of  transparent  dark-blue  glass,  coated  with  a  layeop 
of  o])aque  white  glass, 
which  has  been  treated 
as  a  cameo,  the  white 
coating  having  been 
cut  down,  so  as  to  give 
on  each  side  groups 
of  figures  delicately 
executed  in  relief.  The 
subject  is  the  marriage 
of  Peleus  and  Thetis, 
and  the  urn  held  the 
ashes  of  a  member  of 
the  ';mperial  family  of 
Severus  Alexander,  who 
died  221—235  a.  d. 
This  emperor  had  im- 
posed a  tax  upon  glass. 
It  was  found  in  a  mag- 
nificent sarcophagus  in 
the  Monte  del  Grano, 
near  Rome.  A  vase  of 
smaller  size,  but  of  similar  fabric,  with  arabesques, 
found  at  Pompeii,  exists  in  the  Naples  Museum ; 
and  niunerous  fragments  of  even  finer  vases,  some 
with  five  colours,  exist  in  different  museums. 
In  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  an  adventiu^er  pretended 
that  he  had  invented  flexible  glass,  and  threw 
down  a  vase  which  only  bent,  and  which  he 
readjusted  with  a  hammer ;  he  seems  to  have 
connected  it  in  some  way  with  the  philosopher's 
stone,  and  the  emperor  is  said  to  have  banished 
him  or  put  him  to  death.  This  invention  is  said 
to  have  been  twice  reinvented  in  modern  times 
— once  by  an  Italian  at  the  court  of  Casimir, 
king  of  Poland.  In  the  3d  c.  a.d.  appeared  the 
diatreta  or  '  bored  vases,'  consisting  of  cups  (pouela) 
having  externally  letters,  and  net-work  almost 
detached  from  the  glass,  but  connected  by  sup- 
ports ;  all  which  must  have  been  hollowed  ^ut 
by  a  tool,  involving  great  labour.  One  vase  of 
this  class,  bearing  the  name  of  Maximianus,  who 
reigned  286 — 310  a.  d.,  fixes  their  age.  At  a  l?ter 
period,  boAvls  of  engraved  glass,  having  subjects 
of  gladiatorial  fights,  came  into  use.  Still  later, 
apparently  in  the  5th  c,  a  new  style  of  glass  orna- 
mentation was  introduced,  consisting  of  the  figures 
of  Christ  and  legends  of  saints,  and  the  portraits  of 
private  persons  laid  on  in  gold  upon  one  layer  of 
glass,  over  which  was  placed  another  through  which 
they  appeared.  At  the  close  of  the  Byzantine 
Empire,  the  glass  art  was  still  rich  and  ornamental. 
Achilles  Tatius  describes  a  vase  which,  when  filled 
vdth  wine,  made  the  portion  representing  the 
bunches  of  gra])es  seem  red,  as  if  ripened  by  the 
autumn.  The  numerous  beads  called  serpents'  eggs 
or  adder  stones  {glam  nerdryr),  found  throughout 
Roman  Britain,  were  imported  by  route  of  Gaul 
to  Britain,  or  made  in  Britain.  Glass  was  cheap 
under  the  Roman  Empire,  and  Strabo  informs  us 
that  in  his  days  in  Rome  a  glass  cup  and  saucei 
only  cost  an  as  (about  a  half -penny).  Such  articles, 
indeed,  can  only  have  been  of  the  commonest  kind, 
as  Nero  is  said  to  have  i^aid  6000  sesterces,  or 
about  £50,000,  for  two  cups  of  moderate  dimen- 
sions. Aurelian  made  the  Alexandrians  pay  a  ta^ 
of  glass.  A  peculiar  white  glass  seems  to  have  been 
made  at  Carthage  under  the  Roman  empire.  Gla«s 
gems  for  rings  [v'drece  gemmce)  were  in  most  exte'\- 
sive  use.  Glass,  however,  was  considered  ahva;*'* 
something  costly  and  rare,  and  is  mentioned  cui 

'lb 


GLASS. 


Buch  in  the  Revelations  and  in  the  Recognitions 
of  St.  Clement,  in  which  St.  Peter  is  described 
as  priiying  to  see  some  marvellous  columns  of 
this  material  in  the  island  of  Aradus,  At  the 
close  of  the  Roman  Empire,  only  two  kinds  of 
glasa  appear  to  have  been  manufactured — bottles 
of  a  greenish  glass  in  the  west,  and  the  hyalina 
diachri/sa,  or  gilded  glass  of  many  colours,  in  the 
east.  After  that  period,  a  few  glass  vessels  have 
been  found  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  graves  of  England, 
and  Frankish  sepulchres  of  France,  of  a  peculiar 
fabric  of  green  glass  with  projecting  knobs,  bent 
round  to  the  body  of  the  glass,  and  apparently  a 
rude  imitation  of  the  diatreta.  The  Romans  knew 
the  use  of  soda  and  lead  as  fluxes  for  glass,  and 
made  both  crown  and  flint  glass.  They  made  most 
of  the  fancy  varieties  at  present  in  use,  and  were 
acquainted  with  the  art  of  colouring  it  blue  by 
cobalt,  green  by  coi)per,  rose  or  ruby  by  gold.  Many 
of  their  imitations  of  gems  and  other  fanciful  colours 
were  also  of  Sclimeltz  glass.  But  the  great  site  of 
the  glass  manufactories  of  the  dark  and  middle  ages 
was  Venice,  whither  it  was  transplanted  on  the 
foundation  of  that  city  in  the  7th  c.  a.  d.  The  art, 
however,  seems  to  have  improved  on  the  conquest 
of  Constantinople  by  the  French  in  1204,  and  in 
1291  the  establishments  were  removed  to  the  island 
of  Murano,  the  manufacturers  forming  a  guild  with 
a  libro  d'oro,  or  register  of  nobility,  and  the  secret 
kept  with  the  greatest  jealousy.  In  1436,  their 
colour-glass  came  into  note,  and  continued  so  till 
the  close  of  the  century;  and  in  the  16th  c,  lace- 
patterns  and  mirrors  were  introduced.  In  the 
i5th  and  16th  centuries,  plain  glass  with  nice  orna- 
ments gilt  and  enamelled ;  in  the  16th,  crackled 
lace  and  reticulated  glass,  vitrodi  trino ;  and  in 
the  17th  c,  variegated  or  marbled  glasses  were 


Fig.  4. — German  Fig.  5.  —  Venetian  Glass  on 
Drinking-glass.  open-work  stem. 


produced.  The  millefiori  glass  extends  through  all 
periods,  and  seems  to  have  been  derived  from  the 
Koman,  being  continued  to  the  present  day,  when 
large  quantities  of  this  glass  are  annually  imported 
77<> 


to  England,  and  transported  to  Africa  and  Asia 
in  the  way  of  trade.  The  Venetian  glass  engaged 
for  a  long  time  the  monopoly  of  commerce,  their 
mirrors,  goblets,  and  cups  being  exported  all  over 
the  world,  but  it  has  been  superseded  by  manufac- 
tures of  England  and  Germany.  The  forms  of  the 
Venetian  glass  reflected  itS  oriental  origin,  and  the 
earlier  glass  of  other  countries  of  Europe  in  their 
turn  shev/  the  derivation  of  their  art  from  Venice. 
In  Germany,  the  oldest  glass  (which  was  flint)  dates 
from  the  16th  c,  and  consists  of  goblets  and  tank- 
ards of  white  colour,  enamelled  with  coloured  coata 
of  arms  and  other  devices,  millefiori,  and  schmfltz 
glass.  Engraved  glass  was  first  introduced  by 
Caspar  Lehmann  at  Prague  in  1609  under  imperial 
protection,  and  continued  by  his  pupil  G.  Schwau- 
hard  ;  and  ruby  glass  by  Kunckel  in  1679.  Glass  ia 
said  to  have  been  made  in  1294  at  Quinquengrone, 
in  Normandy,  before  the  16th  c,  in  the  reign  of 
Philip  VI. ;  and  John  and  the  Dukes  of  Lorraine 
established  manufactories  in  their  domains,  and  a 
common  kind  was  made  in  Dauphiny  and  Provence. 
Cast  plate  is  also  said  to  have  been  established  at 
Cherbourg  by  artists  from  Venice,  and  in  1688  the 
art  was  declared  noble.  Potash,  lime,  silica,  and 
no  lead  was  employed,  Thevart  introduced  glass 
casting  and  plate-glass  works  at  Paris.  In  France, 
oxide  of  lead  flint-glass  was  made  at  St  Cloud  ia 
1784  ;  another  manufactory  was  subsequently  estab* 
lished  at  St  Louis  in  1790  ;  and  the  St  Cloud  estab- 
lishment was  removed  to  the  vicinity  of  the  Mont 
Cenis,  where  it  flourished  till  1827.  It  is  uncertain 
whether  glass  was  made  in  England  before  the  16th 
c,  as  that  mentioned  may  have  been  imported  from 
Flanders  or  Venice.  Window-glass  is  mentioned  by 
Bede  in  674,  but  was  not  in  general  use  for  windows 
till  the  15th  century.  In  1557  flint-glass  was  manu- 
factured at  the  Savoy  and  Crutched  Friars;  in  1565, 
there  were  glass-works  under  Cornelius  de  Launoy ; 
and  in  1567,  Jean  Quarre  and  other  Flemish  manu- 
facturers established  works  at  Crutched  Friars, 
which  Quarre's  descendants  extended  to  Sussex.  In 
1615,  Sir  R.  Maunsell  obtained  a  patent  for  making 
glass,  in  consideration  of  using  pit  coal  instead  of 
wood,  and  oxide  of  lead  was  then  introduced  in 
1635 ;  and  in  1673,  Venetian  artists,  brought  over  by 
the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  manufactured  mirrors  of 
plate-glass  at  Lambeth,  and  driu king-glasses  wero 
made  at  this  period.  But  Venetian  glass  was 
extensively  imported.  In  1771,  the  company  of 
British  Plate-glass  Manufacturers  was  established  at 
Ravenhead,  near  Prescot,  Lancashire ;  and  in  1728, 
plate-glass  was  made  by  the  Cooksons  at  South 
Shields,  and  the  Thames  Plate-glass  Company  in 
1835—1836.  Patent  plate  was  first  made  in  1840. 
In  Scotland,  the  manufacture  was  introduced  in 
the  reign  of  James  VL,  and  George  Hay  obtained 
a  patent  for  31  years.  The  first  glass  was  manu- 
factured at  Wemyss,  in  Fifeshire,  afterwards  at 
Prestoupans  and  Leith.  In  1661,  only  the  prin- 
cipal chambers  of  the  king's  palace  had  glass.  In 
America,  attempts  seem  to  have  been  made  to 
establish  glass- works  in  1746  at  Jamestown,  Vir- 

finia ;  subsequently,  in  1780,  at  Temple,  New 
[ampshire  ;  in  1789,  at  Newhaven  ;  and  in  1809,  at 
Boston.  Plate-glass  was  first  made  there  in  1853. 
It  is  made  at  Boston,  Baltimore,  and  New  York. 

At  an  early  period  the  api)licatiou  of  glass  for 
magnifying  lenses  appears  to  have  been  known. 
Ptolemy  II.  had  a  telescope  mounted  at  the  Pharos, 
and  globes  filled  with  water  were  in  use  for  the 
purpose  of  magnifying  under  the  Pooman«».  Lenses 
are  mentioned  in  the  12th  century  A.  D.  by  Alhazan, 
and  by  Roger  Bacon  in  the  13th  century,  towards  the 
close  of  which  Salvino  d'Armato  invented  eye-glacses, 
which  were  subsequently  improved  by  Alessandro 


GLASS. 


Spinn.  Within  the  past  few  yenrs,  j^lass-reflectors 
for  telescopes,  of  jrreat  size  and  accuracy,  have  been 
made  in  France.    See  TELESCorE. 

As  regards  processes  of  making,  that  called  the 
cylindrical  was  used  by  the  ancients,  and  is  men- 
tioned by  Theophilus  at  the  end  of  the  12th  cen- 
tury. The  rotatory  process  was  first  introduced  in 
Bohemia,  subsequently  into  France  in  1730,  but  not 
into  England  till  1832".  Pressed  glass  was  invented 
in  America.  In  England,  the  tendency  has  been  to 
throw  the  trade  into  fewer  hands,  there  having 
been  24  window-glass  factories  in  1847,  and  only  8 
in  1858 ;  but  the  value  of  the  export  increased  from 
£26,694  m  1848  to  about  £500,000  in  1855.— Franks, 
A.  W.,  Vitreous  Art  in  the  Art  Treasures  of  the 
United  Kingdom  (Manchester)  Exhibition  (4to,  1858) ; 
Pellat,  A.,  Curiosities  of  Glass-making  (4to,  Loud. 
1849)  ;  Exhibition  of  Works  of  Industry  of  all 
Nations  (1851) ;  Reports  of  Juries  (1852),  CI  xxiv. 
p.  521. 

Manufacture. — The  manufacture  of  glass,  as  at 
present  carried  on,  may  be  classed  under  the  follow- 
ing heads  :  Bottle-glass,  Crown  Window-glass,  Sheet 
Window-glass,  Plate-glass,  Flint-glass,  Coloured- 
glass.  The  first  is  the  coarsest  kind  in  com- 
mon use.  In  this  country,  it  is  made  generally 
of  soap-makers'  waste  (which  contains  a  quantity 
of  soda-salts),  fresh-water  river-sand,  brick-dust, 
calcined-lime,  and  marl ;  to  these  a  quantity  of 
cullet,  or  the  broken  glass  of  the  works,  is  always 
added  at  a  certain  stage  of  the  manufacture.  This 
is  the  mixture  employed  in  making  what  are  called 
black  bottles,  used  for  wine,  beer,  &c.  Of  late 
years,  hght-green  coloured  glass  has  been  preferred 
for  many  purposes,  such  as  medicine  bottles,  soda- 
water  bottles,  &c.  This  colour  is  commonly  pro- 
duced by  adding  a  large  proportion  of  the  cidlet  of 
crown-glass,  which,  by  its  light  colour,  dilutes  the 
darker  material ;  if,  however,  it  is  wanted  of  a 
finer  quality,  it  is  made  of  sand  of  a  light  colour, 
containing  only  about  two-tenths  per  cent,  of  the 
oxide  of  iron.  To  50  parts  of  this  sand  are  added 
20  parts  of  heavy  spar  {Sulphate  of  Baryta),  30  parts 
tf  soap-makers'  waste,  and  about  two-tenths  per 
rent,  of  oxide  of  manganese. 

In  France,  kelp  and  wood-ashes  are  used  to  fur- 
nish the  alkaline  portion  of  the  mixture ;  in  other 
respects,  the  material  is  essentially  the  same.  In 
Germany,  where  a  rich  brown  tint  is  in  fashion  for 
bottles  for  the  light-coloured  Rhine  wines,  the 
materials  consist  of  a  light- coloured  clay,  16  parts  ; 
a  light  yellow-coloured  sand,  20  parts;  kelp,  8 
parts ;  wood-ashes,  38  parts ;  cullet,  15  parts ;  and 
oxide  of  manganese,  3  parts. 

One  of  the  first  essentials  to  a  successful  manu- 
facture of  glass,  is  the  preparation  of  the  melting- 
pots.  These  pots  are  composed  of  clay,  which  is 
required  to  be  as  free  as  j^ossible  from  lime  and 
iron.  A  clay  obtained  from  the  carboniferous  shales 
of  Worcestershire,  in  the  neighbom-hood  of  Stour- 
bridge, is  the  most  esteemed  for  this  purpose  ;  it 
consists  of  pretty  nearly  equal  proportions  of  silica 
and  alumina.  The  clay  is  carefidly  dried  and  sifted, 
after  which  it  is  mixed  with  hot  water,  and  worked 
into  a  paste  ;  it  is  then  transferred  to  the  knead- 
iug-floor,  and  when  sufficiently  kneaded — which  is 
done  by  men  treadmg  it  with  naked  feet — it  is  laid 
in  large  masses  in  a  damp  store-cellar  to  ripen,  a 
process  the  theory  of  which  is  not  well  imderstood. 
When  required  for  forming  the  pots,  a  sufficient 
quantity  is  taken  and  again  kneaded  with  one- 
fourth  of  its  quantity  of  the  material  of  old  pots, 
wnich  are  ground  to  fine  powder  and  carefully  sifted ; 
this  material  gives  firmness  and  consistency  to  the 
paAte.  and  renders  it  less  liable  to  be  aftected  by 
heat    The  pots  are  of  two  kinds,  the  open  (fig.  6) 


and  the  covered  (fig.  7).  The  first  is  used  for  melt- 
ing common  glass,  such  as  window  and  hottle  glass, 
the  other  for  flint  glass.    In  each  case  the  pots  ar« 


Fig.  6.  Fig.  7. 


made  by  hand,  and  require  great  skill  and  care. 
The  bottom  is  first  moulded  on  a  board.  When 
the  bottom  is  finished,  the  workman  begins  to 
build  up  the  side  of  the  pot  by  first  forming  a 
ring  of  the  same  height  all  round,  taking  care  to 
round  off  the  upper  edge  to  a  semicircular  curve 
of  great  regularity ;  upon  this  he  begins  bending 
over  other  lumps  of  the  paste  until  another  equal 
layer  is  formed,  and  these  are  continued  until  the 
pot  is  complete ;  but  the  workmen  do  not  work 
continuously  at  each  pot  imtil  it  is  finished,  they 
leave  off  from  time  to  time,  spreading  wet  cloths 
over  the  edge  when  they  discontinue  working. 
This  is  necessary,  to  admit  of  a  certain  amount  of 
drying,  otherwise  the  large  weight  of  clay  used 
would  prevent  the  form  from  being  kept,  and  the 
pot  would  fall  to  pieces,  or  lose  shape  seriously, 
the  building  of  the  pot  is  consequently  extended 
over  several  days.  Those  made  in  the  form  of 
fig.  6  are  from  three  to  four  inches  thick,  but  the 
flint-glass  pots  are  only  from  two  to  three  inches. 
After  the  potter  has  finished  his  work,  the  pots  are 
removed  into  the  first  drying- floor,  where  they  are 
only  protected  from  draughts,  so  that  the  drying 
may  be  conducted  with  the  greatest  possible  uni- 
formity. When  they  have  progressed  sufficiently, 
they  are  removed  to  the  second  drying-floor,  which 
is  heated  with  a  stove,  and  the  drjang  is  here  com- 
pleted. They  are  then  placed  in  the  store,  where 
usually  a  good  stock  is  kept  on  hand,  as  time 
improves  them,  and  they  are  seldom  kept  less  than 
six  or  nine  months.  When  required  for  use,  they 
are  placed  for  four  or  five  days  in  the  annealing 
furnace,  which  is  on  the  reverberatory  principle,  and 
they  are  there  kept  at  a  red  heat.  This  furnace  ia 
so  situated,  that  the  pots,  when  ready,  can  be  most 
quickly  transferred  to  the  main  furnace — an  oper- 
ation of  exceeding  difficulty,  and  requiring  great 
skill  and  dexterity,  as  they  have  to  be  removed 
whilst  red-hot,  and  it  must  be  done  so  quickly  that 
no  sudden  cooling  shall  injure  the  pot,  a  difficulty 
which  can  only  be  understood  by  remembering  that 
the  ordinary  pots  are  nearly  foiu-  feet  in  depth,  are 
the  same  in  width  at  the  mouth  by  about  thirty 
inches  at  the  bottom,  and  they  weigh  several 
hundredweights.  The  enormous  amoimt  of  labour 
bestowed  upon  these  pots  makes  them  very  expen- 
sive, their  value  being  from  £6  to  £10  each.  Their 
removal  from  the  annealing  oven  to  the  maia 
furnace  is  effected  by  an  immense  pair  of  forcepi 
several  feet  in  length,  which  are  placed  horizontally 
upon  an  upright  iron  pillar  about  three  feet  in 
height,  which  rises  from  a  small  iron  truck  on  four 
wheels,  so  that  the  whole  apparatus  can  be  aisily 
moved  from  place  to  place.  By  means  of  this 
instrument  the  pot  is  lifted  and  dexterously  with- 
drawn from  the  oven,  and  as  quickly  transferred  to 
its  position  in  the  main  furnace,  in  which  usually 
iowx  or  six  are  placed  on  a  platform  of  firebrick  or 
stone,  each  pot  being  opposite  to  a  small  arched 
opening,  through  which  it  can  be  filled  and  em»)tied. 


GLASS. 


The  entrance  to  the  main  furnace,  through  which 
the  pots  have  been  introduced,  is  then  closed  Avith 
a  movable  door  of  firebrick,  and  covered  over  with 
fireclay  to  prevent  the  escape  of  heat ;  the  pots  in 
the  furnace  are  filled  with  the  prepared  materials  for 
glass,  now  called /W«,  mixed  with  about  a  sixth  or 
eighth  part  of  cullet  or  broken  glass ;  the  openings 
are  closed  temporarily  for  two  or  three  hours,  by 
which  time  the  first  charge  of  material  has  melted 
down,  leaving  room  for  a  further  supply,  which 
is  then  thrown  into  the  pot,  and  this  is  repeated 
two  or  three  times  until  the  pot  is  completely 
full.  The  openings  are  then  closed,  and  the  heat 
increased  to  the  utmost  for  ten  or  twelve  hours  : 
this  part  of  the  operation  is  called  /ou7idwg,  and 
the  result  of  it  is  to  perfectly  melt  and  vitrify  the 
materials.  The  heat  of  the  furnace  is  now  some- 
what reduced,  and  the  scum  is  removed  from  the 
surface  of  the  melted  material,  now  technically 
called  metal,  by  a  workman  called  the  skimmer, 
whose  labour  requires  great  care  and  much  expe- 
rience, as  the  metal  is  at  a  glowing  white  heat, 
and  is  only  with  difficulty  distinguishable  in  the 
fierce  white  glare  of  the  furnace.  The  metal  is  now 
ready  for  the  commencement  of  the  journey,  as  the 
operation  of  working  it  up  is  called.  This  term, 
like  most  others  in  the  glass  trade,  is  derived  from 
the  French. 

The  arrangements  so  far  apply  equally  to  all 
kinds  of  glass.  We  now,  however,  return  to  the 
manufacture  of  glass  bottles,  in  order  the  more  fully 
to  understand  which,  we  ^Ive  the  following  ground- 
plan  of  one  of  the  houses  in  which  this  is  carnal  on 
(fig.  8).    a  is  the  main  furnace,  which  in  this  case 


rig.  8. 


is  square,  and  made  to  hold  only  four  pots ;  at  each 
comer  is  an  opening,  which  allows  the  fire  to  enter 
four  small  reverberatory  furnaces,  b,  b,  b,  b,  called 
arches;  two  are  called  the  coarse  arches,  and  the 
others  the  fine  arches.  In  the  two  former,  ih^  soap- 
makers'  waste  is  calcined  at  a  red  heat  for  at 
least  four  hours,  or  whilst  a  set  of  pots  is  being 
worked  out — that  is  to  say,  one  journey.  Then 
the  calcined  material  is  ground  and  sifted  in  the 
grinding  and  sifting  house,  h,  after  which  it  is 
mingled  with  the  sand,  &c.,  and  transferred  to  the 
fine  arches,  where  for  the  term  of  another  journey 
it  is  again  calcined.  At  the  end  of  that  time,  the 
pots  being  empty,  are  refilled  with  this  material. 

"When  the  furnaces  are  opened  for  a  journey,  the 
skimmer  first  removes  the  scum,  and  makes  the 
278 


way  clear  for  the  blower  and  moulder,  who  takes 
his  blow-pipe  of  iron,  six  feet  in  length,  the  part 
held  in  the  hand  being  guarded  by  a  covering 
of  wood  and  other  non-conducting  mateiials.  After 
heating  the  end  of  the  blow-pipe  in  the  furnace 
mouth,  he  dips  it  into  the  pot,  and  turning  it 
round,  gathers  as  much  metal  on  the  end  as  is 
sufficient  to  form  a  bottle  of  the  size  required. 
Usually,  in  bottle  making,  one  gathering  suflicea, 
but  in  larger  operations,  such  as  blowing  window- 
glass,  more  gatherings  have  to  be  made.  The 
operator  then  blows  gently  down  the  pipe,  and 
having  thus  slightly  distended  the  bulb  of  red 
hot  plastic  glass  (fig,  11,  a),  he  takes  it  to  a  plate 
of  polished  iron,  forming  a  low  bench  called  the 
maver,  or  mavering  table.  On  this  he  turns  it 
round,  moulding  the  round  lump  of  glass  into  a 
conical  form,  the  change  being  represented  in 
fig.  11,  6.  This  operation,  called  maver inr/,  is  per- 
formed in  all  cases  where  glass  is  blown ;  and 
as  it  is  necessary  that  the  glass  should  be  pretty 
firm  before  mavering,  it  is  often  cooled  by  sjjrink- 
ling  with  water,  and  even,  as  in  the  case  of 
window-glass  and  other  large  blowings,  turning 
it  in  a  cavity  containing  water,  which  is  made 
by  hollowing  out  a  block  of  wood,  usually,  if 
attainable,  that  of  the  pear-tree,  which  is  said  to 
be  best  for  the  purpose. 

After  being  mavered,  the  glass  is  held  to  the 
mouth  of  the  furnace,  and  the  0{)erator  blows  down 
his  blow-i)ipe,  and  further  distends  his  glass. 
Formerly,  he  commenced  movdding  it  into  the  form 
of  a  bottle  with  his  shears,  one  arm  of  which  was 
of  charred  wood,  and  the  concave  bottom  was  made 
by  pushing  a  little  piece  of  glass,  called  a  punty,  at 
the  end  of  an  iron  rod  called  the  pointel;  the  Ijlow- 
pipe  was  then  detached  by  a  slight  blow  of  the 
shears,  and  the  partly  formed  bottle  was  left  at  the 
end  of  the  pointel  attached  by  the  ymnty  in  the 
hands  of  a  boy  who  attends  upon  the  man,  and 
brought  and  applied  the  pimty.  The  man  then 
took  the  pointel  in  one  hand,  and  after  softening 
the  bottle  in  the  mouth  of  the  furnace,  moulded 
the  neck  by  means  of  his  shears,  regidating  the 
size  of  the  opening  by  means  of  a  small  brass 
moidd,  the  size  and  shape  of  a  cork,  attached  to 
the  middle  of  the  shears;  heating  the  neck  again, 
he  formed  with  a  small  i)ortion  of  metal  from 
the  pot  the  ring  round  the  mouth  of  the  bottle. 
Now,  however,  after  mavering,  and  the  first  slight 
blowing,  the  operator  inserts  the  glass  into  an  iron 
or  brass  mould,  which  is  formed  in  two  pieces, 
opening  or  closing  by  the  pressure  of  the  foot  on  a 
lever.  When  the  moidd  is  closed,  he  blows  down 
the  pipe,  and  the  bottle  is  completed  all  but  the 
neck,  the  ring  of  which  has  to  be  formed  by  the 
addition  of  a  fresh  piece  of  metal,  as  before  des- 
cribed. By  this  process,  bottles  are  made  with 
wonderful  rapidity  and  exactness.  At  this  stage 
of  the  manufacture,  by  either  process,  the  bottles 
are  taken  from  the  workman  by  a  little  boy, 
who  inserts  the  prongs  of  a  fork  into  the  necks, 
and  carries  them  to  one  of  the  annealing  arches, 
d,  d,  d,  d,  d,  d,  where  they  are  carefully  arranged 
in  proper  bins  until  the  arch,  which  usually  holds 
144  dozen,  is  full;  it  is  then  closed,  and  the  heat 
is  raised  nearly  to  melting  point,  and  then  allowed 
gradually  to  subside  until  it  becomes  cold,  when 
the  bottles  are  removed  to  make  room  for  a  fresh 
charge.  In  the  plan,  fig.  8,  e  and  /  are  the  sand 
and  alkali  stores ;  g,  g,  are  stores  for  the  prepared 
frit ;  and  i,  j,  are  sifting-cribs  in  the  sifting- house. 

Window-glass,  whether  a'own  or  sheet,  is  made  of 
much  more  carefully  selected  materials.  They  are 
slightly  varied  by  different  maniifactui-ers,  but  the 
foUowing  are  the  ingredients  used  in  one  of  tha 


GLASS. 


largest  glass-houses  in  Great  Britain:  Sand  (well 
dried),  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Leigh  ton  Buz- 
zard, in  Bedfordshire;  sulphate  of  soda,  ground; 
Bubcarbonate  of  soda,  white  oxide  of  arsenic,  man- 

fanese,  Welsh  anthracite,  chalk;  limestone  from 
[opton  Wood,  Derbyshire ;  nitrate  of  soda ;  cxdlet, 
about  as  much  as  is  equal  to  an  eighth  part  of  the 
other  ingredients.  The  exact  proportions  are  only- 
known  to  the  manufacturers.  Each  ingredient  is 
carefully  powdered  before  mixing,  and  they  are 
afterwards  calcined  or  fritted,  except  the  anthra- 
cite, which  is  added  in  the  pot  for  the  purpose  of 
decomposing  the  sulphate  of  soda,  and  dissipating 
its  acid ;  and  the  manganese  and  arsenic,  which  are 
only  added  in  very  small  quantities,  to  improve  the 
colour ;  too  much,  however,  of  each  is  sure  to  injure 
the  glass,  and  therefore  these  materials  can  only 
be  safely  used  by  experienced  manipulators.  The 
bulk  of  the  glass,  however,  consists  of  the  sand,  and 
carbonate  and  sulphate  of  soda. 

The  arrangement  of  the  window-glass  houses  is 
different,  and  on  a  much  larger  scale  than  in  the 
houses  for  bottle-glass,  and  excepting  in  gathering 
and  mavering,  all  the  operations  subsequent  to  the 
founding  are  different    Fig.  9  will  give  a  general 


Kg.  9. 

plan  of  the  house  for  crown  window-glass,  and  fig.  10 
gives  an  elevation  of  one  side  of  the  main  furnace, 
with  the  three  openings  through  which  the  glass  is 
gathered  from  the  pots.  In  fig.  9,  a  is  the  main 
furnace;  b,b,  two  flashing  furnaces;  the  projecting 
piece  of  brick-work,  b',  being  the  screen  which 
protects  the  workman  from  the  fire;  and  c,  c  are 
two  annealing  furnaces  or  ovens. 

When  the  founding  or  melting  and  the  skimming 
are  completed,  the  workman  takes  his  blow-pipe, 
which  is  about  seven  feet  in  length,  heats  it  at  the 
end,  and  dipping  it  into  the  pot  of  melted  glass 


G^c^  ^EJo^  Qoa 

n  n 


TT 


Fig.  10. 

or  metal  through  the  opening  (a,  fig.  10),  he  gathers, 
by  a  slight  turn  or  two,  a  quantity  of  glass,  about 
a  pound  and  a  half  in  weight ;  this  he  withdraws, 


and  after  turning  it  about  for  a  minute  or  two 
in  the  air  until  sufficiently  cooled,  he  then  dips 
it  in  again,  and  over  the  first  he  makes  a  second 
gathering,  which  increases  the  weight  to  abr.ut 
three  pounds  weight ;  the  same  cooling  \  rocess  la 
1  repeated,  and  a  third  gathering  is  macL;,  which 
I  brings  up  the  weight  to  about  nine  pounds ;  he 
then  holds  his  blow-pipe  perpendicularly  with  the 
glass  downward,  so  that  it  may  by  its  own  weight 
!  pull  downward  from  the  pipe  in  the  form  of  a 
symmetrical  pear-shaped  bulb ;  he  next  takes  it  to 
the  hollowed  block  before  mentioned,  and  turns 
it  round  in  the  water  placed  in  the  cavity  by 
which  it  is  made  ready  for  the  mavering  table. 
The  workman,  by  skilful  management,  wxivers  the 
bulb  of  glass  into  the  form  6,  fig.  11,  and  then  forms 
a  little  knob  at  its  apex,  by  turning  it  on  a  fixed 
bar  of  iron  called  the  bullion  bar ;  he  then  com- 
mences blowing,  and  soon  the  bulb  of  nearly  solid 
glass  is  expanded  into  a  large  hollow  sphere 
(c,  fig.  11),  still,  however,  with  the  little  nipple  made 
by  the  bullion  bar.  A  little  boy  now  comes  forward 
with  an  iron  rod,  the  pointel,  upon  the  end  of 
which  has  been  gathered  a  smaU  lump  of  metal, 
called  the  punty,  about  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg, 
this  he  applies  to  the  nipple,  to  which  it  firmly 
adheres,  the  workman  meanwhile  resting  his  blow- 
pipe on  a  fixed  rest  called  the  casher-box,  placed  for 
the  purpose ;  by  the  pressure  of  the  pointil  the  globe 
of  glass  is  flattened  as  in  d,  fig.  11.   The  application 


Fig.  11. 

of  a  piece  of  iron,  cooled  for  the  purjiose  by  keeping 
it  in  water,  to  the  junction  of  the  glass  with  the  blow- 
pipe, detaches  it  instantly,  and  the  globe  of  glass  is 
now  held  with  the  pointd.  The  operator  carries  it 
next  to  the  nose-hole  {b,  fig.  10),  and  presents  the 
opening  formed  by  the  detachment  of  the  blow-jjipe, 
to  the  action  of  the  furnace ;  this  again  softens  the 
glass,  which  is  kept  continually  revolving  by  turning 
the  pointil  on  an  iron  rest  or  hook  fixed  to  the 
masonry  of  the  furnace.  The  revolutions  are  at  first 
slow,  but  are  gradually  accelerated  as  the  softening 
of  the  glass  goes  on,  and  the  centrifugal  force  so 
produced  throws  the  edges  of  the  orifice  outwards, 
as  in  €,  fig.  11.  As  the  glass  flattens,  it  is  revolved 
with  greater  rapidity,  and  advanced  so  near  to  the 
mouth  of  the  nose-hole  as  to  draw  the  flames  out- 
ward, by  contracting  the  draught.  This  completes 
the  softening  of  the  glass,  which  is  done  suddenly, 
with  a  rushing  noise  like  the  unfurling  of  a  flag  in 
the  wind,  caused  by  the  rapid  flj'ing  outward  of  the 
softened  glass  and  the  rush  of  the  flames  outwards. 
It  becomes  perfectly  flat,  and  of  equal  thickness, 
except  at  the  bidlion  or  centre,  formed,  as  before 
described,  by  the  bullion-bar  and  the  punty.  The 
flashing  is  now  complete  ;  and  the  workman  removes 
it  from  the  nose-hole,  and  still  continuing  to  turn 
it  in  his  hands,  in  order  to  cool  and  harden  it,  as  he 
walks  along,  carries  it  to  the  annealing  oven,  where 
another  one  receives  it  on  a  large  flattened  fork-like 
implement  at  the  moment  the  flasher,  who  has  hold 
of  the  pointil,  suddenly  detaches  it  by  a  toueh  of  hia 
shears.  It  is  then  passed  through  the  long  horizontal 
!  slit  which  forms  the  ojjening  into  the  annealing 
I  oven,  and  when  fairly  in,  it  is  dexterously  turned  on 


GLASS. 


Its  edge  ;  liere  it  remains  at  a  temperature  somewhat 
below  that  required  to  soften  glass,  until  the  oven 
is  filled  with  these  so-called  tables  of  glass,  when 
the  heat  is  suffered  to  decline,  until  the  whole  is 
cold,  when  they  are  removed  to  the  packing-room, 
to  be  packed  in  crates  for  sale. 

Until  lately,  crown-glass  was  almost  universally 
employed  for  windows,  but  now  that  which  is  called 
German  sheet  has  become  quite  as  common,  besides 
which  British  sJieet,  which  is  the  same  glass  polished, 
and  plate-glass  are  much  used.  The  operation  of 
makmg  the  sheet-glass  is  very  different  from  that 
employed  in  making  crown-glass,  inasmuch  as  a 
long  and  perfect  cylinder  is  sought  to  be  produced 
by  the  blower  instead  of  a  sphere  of  glass.  This 
necessitates  also  a  different  arrangement  of  the 
glass-house,  as  is  seen  by  the  groimd-plan  shewn  in 
fig.  12 :  aa  is  the  furnace,  b  is  the  annealing  oven, 


Tig.  12. 


he?. bed  by  the  flue  6',  which  opens  into  the  main 
fu/nitco ;  the  leer,  or  annealing  oven,  is  often,  how- 
f;ve/,  an  independent  structure  ;  c,  c,  c,  c,  c,  c,  c,  c, 
are  th-6  eight  pots,  which  is  the  number  usually 
f.mployed  in  these  works.  These,  of  course,  are 
opposite  to  the  openings  for  working  them,  and  in 
front  of  each  opening  is  a  long  opening  in  the  ground, 
about  eight  feet  deep  and  three  feet  in  width ; 
d,  d,  d,  d,  d,  d,  d,  d.  The  workman  stands  on  the 
edge  of  this  pit,  and  having  made  his  gathering,  as 
m  the  crown-glass  manufacture  (a,  fig.  13),  he  next 
mavers  it,  without,  however,  using  the  bullion-rod 
(J,  fig.  13).  He  next  proceeds  to  blow  his  glass, 
holding  it  downward  whilst  doing  so,  that  its  weight 
may  widen  and  elongate  the  bulb,  and  from  time 
to  time  dexterously  swdngs  it  round,  which  greatly 
increases  its  length  (c,  d,  fig.  13).  As  it  cools  rapidly 
in  this  operation,  he  from  time  to  time  places  his 
pipe  in  the  rest  which  is  fixed  before  the  furnace- 
mouth,  and  gently  turning  it  round,  he  brings  it 
figain  nearly  to  the  melting-point,  then  he  repeats 
^he  blo^ving  and  swinging,  standing  over  the  pit, 
to  enable  him  to  swiiig  it  completely  round  as  it 
lengthens  out.  These  operations  are  continued  until 
the  cylinder  has  reached  its  maximum  size,  that  is, 
until  it  is  of  equal  thickness  throughout,  and  suffi- 
ciently long  and  broad  to  admit  of  sheets  of  the 
required  size  being  made  from  it  (e,  fig.  13).  Some- 
times these  cylinders  are  made  C'J  inches  in  length, 
allowing  sheets  of  glass  49  inches  in  length  to  be 
made  from  them.  The  next  operation  is  to  place  the 
pipe  in  the  rest,  and  apply  the  thumb  so  as  to  close 
'  780 


the  opening  at  the  blowing  end ;  the  heat  of  the  fur 
nace  soon  softens  the  glass  at  the  dlosed  extremity 
of  the  cylinder,  and  as  the  enclosed  air  is  prevented 
escaping,  as  it  rarefies,  by  the  thumb  placed  on 
the  opening  of  the  blow-pipe,  it  bursts  at  the  soft- 
ened pai-t  (fig.  13,  /•) ;  the  operator  then  quickly 


Fig.  13. 


turns  the  cylinder,  still  with  its  end  to  the  fire,  and 
the  softened  edges  of  the  opening,  which  at  first  are 
curved  inwards,  are  flashed  out  until  they  are  in  a 
straight  line  with  the  sides  of  the  cyhnder  [g,  fig. 
13).  It  is  then  removed,  and  placed  on  a  rest  or 
casher-box,  when  a  small  punty  of  melted  glass  at 
the  end  of  a  pointil  is  brought  by  a  boy  ;  this  the 
workman  aj)plies  to  one  side  of  the  cylinder,  just 
below  the  shoulder  formed  at  the  blow-pipe  end 
(fig.  13,  g),  and  drawing  it  out  to  a  thin  string,  wraps 
it  quickly  so  as  to  draw  a  line  round  the  cylinder ; 
after  a  second  or  two,  he  withdraws  this  line  of 
red-hot  glass,  and  touching  it  quickly  with  his  cold 
shears,  the  shoulder  and  neck  drop  off  as  neatly  as 
if  cut  \\dth  a  diamond. 

The  cylinder  (fig.  13,  h)  is  now  placed  for  a  short 
time  in  the  annealing  oven  [b,  fig.  12),  where  it  is 
prepared  for  cutting ;  it  is  next  placed  in  a  groove 
lined  with  green  baize,  and  a  diamond  fixed  to  a 
sliding  rule  makes  a  perfectly  straight  cut  from 
end  to  end.  The  split  cylinder  is  then  taken  to 
the  flattening  arch  or  furnace,  where  it  is  laid  on 
the  bottom,  with  the  diamond-cut  upwards.  The 
bottom  is  a  perfectly  smooth  stone,  kept  constantly 
free  from  dust  by  the  workman ;  here  the  heat 
is  sufficient  to  soften  without  melting  the  glass, 
and  the  fliattener,  as  it  softens,  opens  the  two  edges 
of  the  crack  until  they  fall  outward  flat  on  the 
stone ;  he  then  takes  an  implement  in  the  form 
of  a  rake,  made  by  placing  a  piece  of  charred 
wood  transversely  at  the  end  of  a  long  handle,  and 
this  is  gently  rubbed  over  the  glass,  producing  a 
very  smooth  surface.  At  the  back  of  the  flatten- 
ing arch  is  an  annealing  oven,  communicating 
with  the  arch  by  a  narrow  horizontal  slit,  through 
which  the  sheet  of  glass  is  now  pushed  on  to 
a  plate  of  iron,  which  receives  it ;  and  as  this 
plate  is  one  of  a  series  linked  together  so  as  to 
form  an  endless  band,  which  can  be  turned  round, 
the  sheets  move  forward  into  the  annealing  oven, 
where  the  workman  gently  lifts  them  on  edge  until 
the  oven  is  filled,  when,  as  in  the  case  of  crown- 
glass,  the  heat  is  allowed  to  decline  until  perfectly 
cool,  the  sheets  are  then  ready  for  use.  Very  much 
larger  sheets  are  obtained  by  this  process  than 
by  the  former  one,  hence  it  is  becoming  of  great 
importance ;  but  it  is  not  easy  to  obtain  workmen 
sufficiently  powerful  and  dexterous  to  blow  and 
twirl  the  largest-sized  cylinders ;  at  present,  -wq 
obtain  almost  all  the  operatives  so  employed  from 
Belgium. 

Glass-shades  are  made  in  the  same  manner  iia 
above  described  ;  indeed,  they  are  nothing  more 
than  the  rounded  ends  of  the  cylinders  before  being 
burst.  When  wanted  oval  or  square,  these  forma 
are  produced  by  boxes  of  wood  charred  inside,  of 
the  size  the  shades  are  required,  through  which  the 


GLASS. 


eylinder  is  passed  when  being  blown,  until  the  soft 
glass  touches,  and  receives  shapes  from  the  inside 
of  the  box  or  mould  :  they  are  afterwards  annealed, 
and  cut  to  the  lengths  required.  If  of  large  diame- 
ter, they  require  immense  strength  and  gi-eat  skill 
in  the  operator,  who  sometimes  aids  the  power  of 
his  breath  by  taking  into  his  mouth  a  little  spirit, 
which  he  blows  down  the  pipe ;  this,  of  course,  is 
instantly  converted  into  vapour,  when  it  reaches 
the  red-hot  cylinder,  and  by  its  expansion  aids  in 
distending  the  glass. 

Plate-glasH  is  made  in  a  totally  different  manner ; 
and  as  its  value  depends  chiefly  on  its  purity,  the 
greatest  possible  care  is  taken  to  procure  materials 


of  the  best  quality,  and  almost  every  mADufacturer 
has  his  own  private  formula  for  tho  mixture.  Ifl 
may,  however,  be  said  to  consist  chieify  of  sand  and 
alkaline  salts,  as  in  other  kinds  of  gJass,  and  the 
following  is  one  receipt  known  to  be  in  use :  Fine 
white  sand  well  washed,  to  free  it  from  impurities, 
720  lbs. ;  sulphate  of  soda,  450  lbs. ;  slaked  lime, 
80  lbs. ;  nitrate  of  potash,  25  lbs. ;  and  cullet  of  plate- 
glass,  425  lbs.  These  ingredients,  when  meltd  and 
skimmed,  should  yield  about  1200  ll)s.  of  perfectly 
clear  metal,  which  is  the  quantity  usually  required 
for  a  casting.  When  melted  and  ready  for  use,  the 
pot  is  lifted  out  of  the  furnace  (aa,  f^g.  14)  by  means 
of  the  forceps,  and  wheeled  up  to  the  casting-tablft 


Kg  14. 


(cc,  fig.  14) ;  here  it  is  seized  by  a  crane  and  tackle, 
by  which  it  is  lifted,  and  so  nicely  poised  over 
the  table,  that  it  can  be  easily  tilted  so  as  to  pour 
out  its  contents.  All  this  requires  so  much  care 
and  steadiness,  that  the  men,  impressed  with  the 
great  danger  of  carelessness,  usually  preserve  perfect 
silence  during  their  work.  The  table  is  of  large  size 
— 20  feet  or  more  in  length,  by  8  or  10  feet  in  width. 
"When  the  red-hot  liquid  glass  is  poured  on,  it  imme- 
diately begins  to  spread ;  two  bars  of  iron,  a  little 
thicker  than  the  plate  is  intended  to  be,  are  quickly 
laid  on  each  side  of  the  table,  and  a  steel  roller  is  laid 
across,  resting  on  these  bars  :  this  roller  is  worked 
by  hand,  and  rapidly  spreads  the  glass  all  over  the 
table,  the  bars  preventing  it  from  running  over 
the  sides,  and  regulating  its  thickness.  In  a  very 
short  time,  it  begins  to  cool ;  the  men  then  seize 
the  end  of  it  with  pincers,  and  pull  it  forward  with 
great  dexterity  on  to  an  endless  band  of  wire-gauze, 
which,  being  made  to  revolve,  moves  the  immense 
plate  forward  to  a  slit-like  opening  to  the  annealing 
oven  (fig.  14,  ff),  wh^re  it  is  worked  on  to  another 
table  on  wheels,  which  is  pushed  forward  to  make 
room  for  another.  The  a.  nealing  oven  is  usually  of 
immense  length,  as,  in  tht,  case  of  plate-glass,  the 
sheets  cannot  be  set  on  edgu  At  the  works  at  St 
Helen's,  in  Lancashire,  Avhere  ^lass  of  all  kinds  is 
exterjivsly  made,  there  are  usually  two  annealing 
ovens  to  each  shed,  the  furnaces  being  placed 
between  them ;  each  oven  runs  to  the  end  of  the 
shed,  and  these  sheds  are  usually  over  300  feet  in 
length.  The  groiind-plan  shewn  in  fig.  14  will  give 
a  general  idea  of  the  arrangement  of  one  of  these 
vast  work- shops.  The  main  building  is  a  shed, 
with  the  doors  at  each  end,  and  both  doors  and 
windows  are  made  so  as  to  exclude  drafts  of  air, 
which,  if  admitted  during  the  operation  of  cast- 
ing, are  highly  injurious  to  the  quality  of  the 
manufacture,  a,  a,  are  the  two  melting- furnaces ; 
6,  6,  6,  6,  6,  6,  the  pots  ;  c,  c,  the  casting-tables  ; 
i,  dy  the  endless  bands  of  wire-gauze  for  moving  the 
olates  to  the  annealing  ovens  ;  e,  e,  where  they  enter 


by  the  narrow  openings,  ff ;  and,  after  they  have 
sufficiently  cooled,  are  removed  through  tne  open- 
ings at  each  end,  g,  g. 

The  plates  are  next  removed  to  the  first  polishing- 
shed,  where  each  is  imbedded  in  a  matrix  of  stucco, 
leaving  one  surface  exposed ;  the  whole  is  enclosed 
in  a  frame,  which  holds  both  glass  and  stucco 
securely.  Two  of  these  frames  are  placed  one  over 
the  other,  with  the  two  exposed  surfaces  of  glass  in 
contact.  The  lower  frame  is  fixed,  and  the  upper 
is  made  to  move  by  machinery  with  great  rapidity 
backward  and  forward  with  a  swinging  motion,  so 
as  to  describe  an  opposite  curve  with  each  backward 
and  forward  motion.  Sand  and  water  are  continu- 
ally thrown  on  the  surface  of  the  fixed  plate,  and 
thus  the  first  stage  of  polishing  is  performed.  The 
plates  are  then  readjusted  in  the  frames,  and  the 
other  surfaces  are  brought  upwards,  and  receive  a 
similar  rubbing  down  with  sand  and  water.  The 
plates  are  next  removed  to  the  second  polishing- 
room,  where  women  are  usually  employed ;  here 
they  are  again  fixed  on  low  tables,  and  each  woman 
rubs  the  surface  for  a  long  time  with  a  piece  of 
plate-glass,  covering  from  time  to  time  the  whole 
face  of  the  plate  with  emery-powder  and  water. 
After  both  sides  have  received  this  hand-poHshing, 
the  plates  are  removed  to  a  third  room,  where 
they  are  again  imbedded  on  tables  which  are 
movable  by  machinery,  so  that  the  whole  surface 
of  the  plate  may  be  brought  under  the  action  ol 
the  polishers.  These  are  large  movable  blocks, 
covered  with  woollen  cloth  and  leather,  and  loaded 
so  as  to  press  on  the  glass ;  the  polishing  material 
used  is  colcothar,  the  red  oxide  of  iron ;  this  com- 
pletes the  polish  which  givea  so  much  beauty  to 
plate-glass.  It  is  a  long  and  laborious  process,  and 
is  the  chief  cause  of  the  high  price  of  plate  as  com- 
pared with  other  sheet-glass.  British  plate  is  only 
the  cylinder  glass  polished  by  the  processes  just 
dee>.,  Ibed ;  its  comparative  cheapness  is  due  to  the 
rapidity  with  which  the  cylinder  can  be  blown.  Of 
thi"  rapidity,  the  best  estimate  may  be  formed  from 

761 


GLASS. 


R,  single  well-authenticated  statement  concerning 
tlve  first  Crystal  Palace,  which  had  18  acres  of  roof ; 
when  the  sides  are  added  to  this,  and  a  fair  addition 
for  the  increase  caused  by  the  ridge-aud-furrow 
system  of  the  roof,  the  whole  extent  may  be  stated 
at  25  acres ;  and  yet  this  vast  surface  of  glass  was 
supplied  by  Messrs  Chance  &  Co.  of  Birmingham, 
with  only  an  interruption  of  three  weeks  to  their 
ordinary  business. 

Flint-glass  and  Optical  Glass. — The  general  prin- 
ciple of  the  manufacture  of  these  two  varieties  of 
glass  is  identical  with  those  already  described,  the 
cliief  difference  consisting  in  the  great  care  taken 
to  insure  perfect  purity  in  the  materials.  The  pots 
used  are  so  made,  that  the  metal  is  protected  from 
the  chance  of  l)eing  contaminated  by  any  accidental 
impurities  falling  in  or  from  the  gases  of  the  fur- 
nace ;  they  are  made  with  a  dome-shaped  roof  and  a 
lateral  arch-shaped  opening  (fig.  7),  which  is  j)laced 
opposite  the  furnace-mouth,  so  that  the  workman 
has  easy  access  to  the  contents  of  the  pot,  which  is 
necessarily  smaller,  otherwise  the  workman  could 
not  dij)  to  the  bottom. 

The  materials  used  for  the  best  Jiint-qlass  are 
varied  in  their  proportions,  according  to  the  judg- 
ment of  the  manufactui'er ;  they  consist  of  the 
whitest  sand  which  can  be  procured,  fine  American 
pearl-ashes  (im]>ure  carbonate  of  potash,  which  is 
purified  by  dissolving  out  the  carbonate  from  its 
impurities,  and  evaporating  it  to  dryness  in  leaden 
evaporating  pans),  red  lead,  or  else  litharge  (the 
semi-vitrified  protoxide  of  lead),  and  a  small  quan- 
tity of  nitre  (nitrate  of  potash).  To  these,  according 
to  their  greater  or  less  purity,  the  manipidator  adds 
more  or  less  of  oxide  of  manganese  and  arsenic,  as 
correctives ;  the  former  removes  the  green  discolora- 
tion which  the  presence  of  even  a  small  quantity 
of  iron  in  the  sand  ^\dll  produce  ;  and  the  latter 
corrects  the  tendency  the  manganese  has  to  give  a 
purjile  tint  to  the  glass.  Both  substances  require 
the  utmost  care  and  judgment  in  their  use,  other- 
wise they  are  more  injiirioas  than  beneficial.  The 
following  are  the  usual  proportions :  Sand,  51  ; 
pearl-ashes,  prepared,  16 ;  litharge,  28  (or  red 
lead,  29) ;  nitre,  4f  ;  white  arsenic,  \  ;  peroxide  of 
manganese,  \  ;  cullet  of  flint-glass  in  any  proportion 
the  manufacturer  thinks  proper. 

Formerly,  the  silica  was  obtained  by  calcining 
flints,  hence  the  name  applied  to  this  kind  of  glass, 
but  now  sand  is  used  instead ;  and  although 
beautifully  white  sauds  are  obtained  from  Lynn, 
in  Norfolk,  from  the  Isle  of  Wight  and  other 
parts  of  Hampshire,  from  Aylesbury,  from  France, 
and  even  from  North  America  and  Australia,  it 
nevertheless  requires  most  careful  preparation  by 
washing,  calcining,  and  sifting. 

But  however  carefully  flint-glass  is  made,  and 
however  pure  and  transparent  the  crystal  may  be 
which  is  so  made,  it  nevertheless  possesses  some 
defects,  which  interfere  with  its  fitness  for  tele- 
scopes, microscopes,  light-houses,  and  other  optical 
purposes.  These  defects  consist  in  almost  imper- 
ceptible striaj  in  the  material,  which  produce  certain 
0[)tical  aberrations.  These  striee  are  known  to  be 
causeil  by  the  imjierfect  mixture  of  the  materials, 
and  the  want,  consequently,  of  a  imiform  density. 
This  has  beeii  obviated  by  M.  Guinaud  and  his 
associate,  M,  Frauenhofer,  by  stirring  the  metal  in 
the  pot  with  an  iron  rod  ;  but  greater  improvemen'^s 
have  been  effected  by  our  own  chemist  Faraday,  who 
not  only  improved  upon  the  manipulation  of  Messrs 
Guinaud  and  Frauenhofer,  but  suggested  also  au 
improvement  in  the  materials,  by  the  addition  of 
carbonate  of  baryta  and  a  little  carbonate  of  lime, 
which  produces  a  glass  of  the  greatest  density  and 
clearness  that  has  ever  been  known  before.  Instead 
782 


of  the  iron  rod  for  stirring,  which  of  itself  is  apt  to 
discolour  the  glass,  an  iron  rod  coated  with  platina 
is  used.  In  the  manufacture  of  this  particidar  kind 
of  glass,  the  Messrs  Chance  of  Birmingham  are 
unrivalled,  and  they  have  produced  very  i)erfect 
discs  for  lenses,  weighing  as  much  as  two  hundred- 
weights each. 

Flint-glass  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  all 
the  articles  of  utility  and  ornament  for  table  and 
other  domestic  uses ;  and  as  the  manufacture  of  each 
article  requires  different  management,  it  would  be 
impossible  here  to  give  any  satisfactory  exi)lanation 
of  the  manipulative  processes.  Suffice  it  to  say,  that 
at  present  Great  Britain  is  unrivalled  in  the  pro- 
duction of  so-called  crystal  or  flint-glass,  which  we 
manufacture  of  the  greatest  purity  and  brilliancy ; 
but  in  the  coloured  kinds  the  Bohemians  take  the 
lead,  and  excel  both  in  design  and  in  the  art  of 
colouring. 

Much  flint-glass  is  now  moulded  into  drinking- 
vessels,  bottles,  and  other  common  articles ;  but 
these  are  always  greatly  inferior  to  those  which 
are  made  by  the  handicraft  of  the  regular  glass- 
blower. 

Coloured  glass  is  a  general  term  which  includes 
several  distinct  varieties  :  first  may  be  mentioned  the 
glass  made  for  windows  and  other  similar  purposes. 
Coloured  sheet-glass  is  made  both  by  the  crown- 
glass  and  cylinder-glass  processes.  Sometimes  it  is 
of  pot-metal — that  is,  the  glass  and  the  colouring 
materials  are  all  melted  and  worked  from  one  pot- 
generally,  however,  this  glass  is  of  too  dark  a  colour, 
and  the  kind  called  flashed  glass  is  most  generally 
used  ;  in  this,  two  pots  are  employed,  one  containing 
the  coloured  glass,  as  if  for  pot-metal,  the  other 
colourless  glass.  The  workman  makes  his  first 
gatherings  from  the  colourless  glass,  and  the  last 
only  from  the  coloured  pot ;  the  consequence  is  that 
the  glass  when  finished,  although  it  cannot  be  per- 
ceived, has  only  a  thin  skin  of  the  coloured  material 
on  one  side,  and  the  colour  is  thus  as  it  were  diluted. 
This  has  other  advantages,  because,  by  skilful  grind- 
ing, the  colour  may  be  removed,  and  transparent 
patterns  produced  on  the  coloured  ground  ;  and  the 
same  may  be  done,  and  even  dehcate  shading  of 
the  colour  effected,  by  eating  away  the  coloured 
side  more  or  less  by  means  of  fluoric  acid,  which 
is  frequently  employed,  and  most  beautiful  effects 
are  produced. 

The  colours  usually  employed  consist  of  metallic 
oxides,  other  substances  are,  however,  occasionally 
used.  Gold,  in  the  state  called  Purple  of  Cassius, 
invented  by  Dr  Andrew  Cassius  of  Leyden  in  1632, 
and  also  in  the  state  of  a  simple  solution,  without 
tin,  yields  the  most  beautiful  ruby,  crimson,  rose, 
and  piu'ple  colours.  Copper,  as  a  sub-oxide,  yields  a 
fine  ruby  red,  and  the  black  oxide  gives  an  emerald 
green.  Cobalt  yields  the  rich  deep  blues.  Iron,  as 
a  protoxide,  gives  a  dull  green ;  combined  with 
alumina,  it  gives  flesh  colour,  or  pale  rose,  and  com- 
bined with  chloride  of  silver,  it  yields  an  orange 
yellow ;  as  a  peroxide,  it  gives  a  common  red  and  a 
brownish  red.  Silver,  with  alumina,  also  yields  a 
yellow  colour  of  great  beauty;  and  commoner  and 
less  beautiful  yellow  tints  are  produced  by  glass  of 
antimony,  and  even  by  carbon,  either  in  the  form 
of  soot  or  charcoal.  Uranium  gives  the  beautiful 
chrysoprase  green  and  canary  yellow,  with  a  slight 
degree  of  opalescence  ;  it  also  gives  an  emerald 
green.  Arsenic,  or  arsenious  acid,  produces  an 
opaque  white.  Manganese  gives  a  purple  or  ame- 
thystine colour  as  an  oxide ;  and  as  a  peroxide,  with 
a  little  cobalt,  a  fine  garnet-red  colour.  These  are 
some  of  the  materials  generally  employed,  but  there 
are  numerous  others,  the  use  of  which  depends  upon 
the  skill  of  the  manufacturer. 


GLASS— GLASS-PAINTINO. 


The  applications  of  coloured  glass  to  ornamental 
purposes  are  very  numerous ;  one  has  already  been 
tuJly  described  under  the  head  of  Gems,  Arti- 
ficial. In  the  hands  of  skilful  glass- workers, 
BHpecially  those  of  Bohemia,  articles  of  ornament 
and  utility,  combining  the  most  exquisite  combin- 
ations of  form  and  colour,  are  produced.  But 
not  the  least  interesting  api)lication  of  coloured 
glass  is  the  art  of  producing  windows  exhibiting 
beautiful  pictorial  designs.  So  beautifid  are  the 
designs  of  some  of  the  windows  formed  from  this 
material,  that  they  deservedly  rank  as  works  of 
high  art.  This  art  originated  at  the  commencement 
of  the  9th  c,  and  received  its  greatest  develop- 
ment in  the  15th  century.  It  then  began  to 
decline,  until,  at  the  commencement  of  the  present 
century,  it  was  slowly  revived,  at  first  with  but 
\ittle  success,  a  conviction  having  been  formed 
that  the  true  secrets  of  the  art  of  producing  the 
rich  colours  seen  in  ancient  windows  were  lost. 
Gradually,  chemistry  and  the  microscope  removed 
the  errors,  the  former  demonstrating  the  exact 
constituents  of  the  best  kinds  of  ancient  glass, 
enabled  the  manufacturer  to  imitate  it  exactly. 
Still,  however,  with  the  same  ingredients,  there  was 
a  remarkable  want  of  richness  in  the  modern  mate- 
rial :  the  cause  of  this  was  revealed  by  the  micro- 
scope, which  shewed  that  it  was  due  to  minute 
pores,  which  are  produced  by  weathering  of  the 
outer  surface,  the  alkaline  parts  of  the  glass  being 
washed  out,  as  it  were,  by  the  rain,  &c.  This  porosity, 
by  bieaking  up  the  surface,  destroyed  the  flatness 
and  glcire  of  the  glass,  and  by  mixing  more  thoroughly 
the  rays  of  light,  produced  that  richness  for  which 
the  ancient  glass  is  so  famous.  Various  methods  were 
adopted  to  produce  this  effect :  one  which  became 
common  was,  to  stipj^le  the  surface  with  dots  of  a 
dark  opaque  colour  ;  now  it  is  still  better  and  more 
ingeniously  done  by  sprinkling  sand  thickly  over 
the  gathering  of  glass  before  receiving  the  coloured 
coat,  so  that  when  blown  and  flashed,  it  has  the 
grains  of  sand  thinly  scattered  through  its  sub- 
stance, and  these  being  refractive,  very  successfully 
produce  a  richness  nearly  equal  to  that  acquired 
by  age. 

So  far,  indeed,  from  the  art  being  lost,  there  is 
no  doubt  that  a  better  material  and  better  colours 
are  now  made ;  and  those  who  examine  the  works 
produced  by  Ballantyne,  Chance,  and  other  manu- 
facturers of  our  country,  and  those  of  Munich  and 
other  continental  works,  will  not  easily  believe  that 
the  ancients  were  more  successfid  in  their  designs 
than  the  modems.  But  besides  the  pot-metal  and 
flashed  glasses  before  mentioned,  there  are  two  other 
methods  of  colouring  and  producing  i)ictorial  efl"ects 
on  glass.  The  first  is  by  staining,  that  is  to  say, 
painting  the  glass  with  various  materials,  usually 
metallic  oxides  finely  powdered,  and  mixed  with  oil 
of  spike  or  some  other  volatile  medium ;  the  glass 
is  then  placed  in  a  furnace,  in  which  it  is  made  red 
hot,  and  a  deep  stain  of  the  colour  required  is  pro- 
duced on  the  glass.  This  process  enables  the  artist 
to  produce  a  complete  picture  on  one  piece  of  glass ; 
whereas,  by  the  older  method,  the  picture  had  to  be 
made  up  of  a  vast  number  of  pieces  set  in  a  slender 
lead- framing.  Generally,  both  methods  are  employed 
in  pictorial  windows,  as  the  staining  enables  the 
artist  to  give  the  human  features.  But  staining 
does  not  produce  the  same  brilliancy  of  colour,  and 
lessens  the  transjiarency  of  the  glass,  hence  it  is  in 
less  esteem. 

Another  mode  of  decorating  glass  is  by  using  the 
opaque  or  nearly  opaque  enamel  colours,  and  after 
the  design  i3  produced  with  these,  to  fix  them  by 
firintr :  this  is  a  beautiful  art,  and  is  variously 
em]>r»yed 


Lately,  another  and  very  i-emarkable  invention 
for  decorating  glass  has  been  i)atented  by  M. 
Joubert  of  Bayswater,  London — the  fixing  of 
photographic  pictures  upon  this  material.  The 
sensitive  salt  used  to  receive  the  picture  ia  one 
which  will  stain  glass  ;  therefore,  on  firing,  the 
picture  is  deeply  burned  into  the  glass,  and  cannot 
be  effaced ;  most  beautiful  effects  are  thus  produced ; 
natiiral  landscapes  and  pictures  may  be  transferred 
with  most  perfect  fidelity. 

Glass- grinding  and  Engraving. — Glass  can  be 
easily  ground  with  sand  and  water,  so  that  the 
ornamental  effect  of  vesf.'els  and  other  objects  of 
flint-glass  may  be  very  greatly  enhanced.  Sand, 
however,  leaves  a  rough  surface,  and  destroys  the 
transparency ;  but  this  is  easily  restored  by  other 
polishing  materials,  as  emery,  putty- powder  (oxide 
of  tin),  tripoli,  red  oxide  of  iron,  or  colcothar, 
&c.  The  cutting  and  polishing  are  effected  with 
wheels  or  discs  of  sandstone,  wood,  and  rnetal.  Very 
fine  engraving  is  done  with  pointed  metal  tools  and 
diamond-dust,  the  same  as  in  seal-engraving,  &c. 

The  polishing  of  lenses  for  optical  instruments 
and  for  light-houses  is  an  art  of  very  great  import- 
ance, requiring  extraordinary  skill.  Much  of  ihe 
polishing  of  the  larger  lenses  is  effected  by  the 
aid  of  machine ly,  and  perhaps  no  combinations 
of  mechanical  art  are  more  wonderful  than  the 
machines  by  which  the  Messrs  Chance  of  Birming- 
ham polish  the  prisms  and  lenses  for  catoptric  and 
dioptric  light-houses. 

Glass  in  a  liquid  form  has  lately  been  exten- 
sively made  under  the  name  of  soluble  glass  or 
silicate  of  soda ;  it  is  silica,  or  sand,  dissolved  in 
a  solution  of  caustic  soda.  This  liquid,  when  used 
as  a  varnish,  is  said  to  protect  stone  and  other 
materials  from  the  injurious  action  of  the  weather, 
and  for  this  purpose  is  now  employed  to  arrest 
the  decay  of  the  stone  of  the  new  Houses  of 
Parliament.  It  is  also  extensively  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  soap  (see  SoAr) ;  and  this,  or  a 
similar  soluble  glass  made  with  potash,  has  been 
recommended  to  be  used  as  a  dressing  for  muslins 
and  other  fabrics  to  render  them  fireproof.  The 
soluble  soda-glass  has  also  been  successfully  employed 
in  mounting  microscopic  objects,  instead  of  Canada 
balsam  or  glycerine. 

GLASS-PAINTIN-G  (in  Art).  The  appHcation 
of  coloured  glass  to  the  artistic  decoration  of  win- 
dows has  been  previously  alluded  to,  but  the  very 
high  position  which  it  formerly  attained,  and  which 
it  is  again  rapidly  approaching,  renders  it  necessary 
to  devote  a  short  space  to  its  relationship  to  the 
fine  arts. 

Originally,  there  was  but  one  method  of  making 
ornamental  glass  windows,  and  that  was  to  produce 
the  pattern  in  outline  with  finely  made  leaden 
frames,  into  the  grooves  of  which  pieces  of  coloured 
glass  or  of  stained  glass  were  fitted.  Modern 
chemistry  has,  however,  so  improved  the  art  of 
glass -staining,  that  large  pictures  may  now  be 
produced  on  single  sheets  of  glass,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  windows  shewn  by  the  St  Helen's  Crown 
Glass  Company  in  the  Exhibition  of  1851,  one  of 
which,  designed  by  ISIr  Frank  Howard,  representing 
'  St  Michael  Casting  out  the  Great  Dragon,'  was 
upwards  of  nine  feet  high  by  three  feet  broad. 
It  was  on  plate -glass,  and  had  to  be  fired  or  sub- 
mitted to  intense  heat  fifteen  times,  notwithstand- 
ing which  it  was  perfectly  smooth,  and  although 
somcM^at  deficient  in  brilliancy  of  ;;olour,  was  an 
excellent  and  effective  composition. 

One  of  the  best  known  of  the  early  applications 
of  glass  to  the  window  decoration  is  that  in  the 
monastery  of  Tegernsee,  in  Ujjper  Bavaria,  which 
was  secularised  in   1802,  and  is  now  a  private 

7o8 


GLASS  PAPEIU-GLASSITES. 


refiidence  ;  but  these  windows  (executed  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  10th  c),  like  all  of  the  first  attempts, 
were  only  tasteful  arrangements  of  coloured  glass  in 
imitation  of  the  stone  mosaics  used  for  floors,  &c. 
Nor  did  the  art  rise  much  above  this  for  at  least 
three  centuries  after  its  origination ;  but  in  the  13th 
c,  owing  to  the  full  development  of  the  Gothic 
style  of  architecture,  it  became  of  immense  import- 
ance, coloured  glass  taking  the  place  of  tapestried 
curtains  in  filling  up  the  spaces  within  the  groined 
arches.  The  mosaic  patterns  were  superseded  by 
elaborate  designs,  not  only  in  beautiful  arabesque 
and  other  styles  of  decorative  art,  but  even  pictorial 
compositions  were  attempted ;  and  to  such  perfec- 
tion did  this  anse,  that  many  of  the  works  pro- 
duced in  the  15th  c.  are  marvels  of  art.  In  all  of 
these,  the  figures,  with  the  exception  of  the  faces, 
were  made  up  of  })iece3  of  self-coloured  glass  com- 
bined with  great  skill  and  taste  ;  the  features  were 
painted  in  enamel  colours,  and  burned  in,  and  the 
art  of  the  artist  was  shewn  by  giving  ease  and 
grace  to  the  figures  corresponding  to  the  expression 
of  the  faces.  Gradually  the  art  of  shading,  by 
removing  certain  portions  of  the  coloured  surface, 
and  other  improvements  were  effected.  This  was 
the  culminating  point  in  the  history  of  the  first 
period  of  the  art  of  glass-painting,  as  it  is  called, 
and  seemed  to  have  attained  the  highest  perfection 
of  which  it  is  susceptible,  for  the  efforts  which 
followed  to  improve  it  by  assimilating  it  to  oil-paint- 
ing signally  failed,  and  with  this  failure  began  that 
decline  in  the  art  which  was  perhaps  more  remark- 
able in  the  instance  of  glass-painting  than  in  any 
other,  for  in  a  comparatively  short  time  it  began 
to  be  felt  that  the  true  art  was  lost.  Since  the 
commencement  of  the  present  century,  rapid  strides 
have  been  made  towards  improvement;  and  the 
renaissance  bids  fair  to  eclipse  the  glory  of  the  first 
epoch.  The  great  seats  of  this  art  are  now  in 
Munich,  NUrnberg,  Paris,  Birmingham,  Edinburgh, 
and  one  or  two  more  places ;  and  it  never  received 
more  liberal  jmtronage  in  its  palmiest  days  thhn  it 
now  does. 

GLASS  PAPER,  or  CLOTH,  is  made  by  powder- 
ing glass  more  or  less  finely,  and  sprinkling  it  over 
paper  or  calico  still  wet  with  a  coat  of  thin  glue  : 
the  powdered  glass  adheres  as  it  dries.  Glass  paper 
is  very  extensively  employed  as  a  means  for  polish- 
ing metal  and  wood- work  ;  it  is  sold  in  sheets,  and 
is  very  largely  manufactured  at  Birmingham  and 
other  places. 

GL  A'SSCHORD,  a  musical  instrument,  with  keys 
like  a  pianoforte,  but  with  bars  of  glass  instead  of 
strings  of  wire.  It  was  invented  in  Paris  in  1785 
by  a  German  called  Beyer.  The  name  glasschord 
was  given  to  the  instrument  by  Franklin.  When 
the  glasschord  was  completed,  it  was  exhibited 
publicly  in  Paris,  and  performed  on  by  the  inventor ; 
but  it  never  was  received  with  favour  by  the  instru- 
ment-makers, so  that  no  more  were  ever  made,  as 
possibly  its  construction  and  mechanism  remained 
a  secret  with  its  inventor. 

GLASS-CRABS  [Phyllosomata),  a  family  of  crus- 
taceans, of  the  division  Malacostraca,  order  Stovia- 
poda  of  Cuvier,  remarkable  for  the  transparency  of 
their  bodies,  whence  their  popular  name,  whilst  the 
scientific  name  (Gr.  leaf-body)  refers  to  the  great 
horizontal  exi)ansion  of  the  carapace.  They  have 
little  resemblance  to  crabs.  The  head  is  represented 
by  a  large  oval  plate,  bearing  eyes  mounted  on  very 
long  stalks;  a  second  plate,  the  breadth  of  which 
much  exceeds  its  length,  represents  the  thorax,  and 
bears  the  feet,  most  of  which  are  long,  and  some  of 
them,  as  in  a  few  other  crustaceans,  bifid,  with  one 
branch  much  longer  than  the  other.  The  abdomen 
7»1 


is  small.  Milne-Edwards  supposes  these  creatures 
to  have  no  special  organs  of  respiration,  but  that  the 
blood  is  aerated  through  the  general  surface  of  the 


Glass  Crab : 
o,  head  ;  b,  thorax  ;  c,  abdomen. 


body.    They  are  found  in  tropical  and  sub-tropical 

seas;  and  so  transparent  are  they,  that,  when  float- 
ing on  the  surface  of  the  water,  they  would  not  be 
perceived  but  for  the  beautiful  blue  of  their  eyes. 

GLA'SSITES,  a  religious  sect,  which  sprung  up 
in  Scotland  about  1730,  when  its  founder,  John 
Glass,  a  native  of  Auchtermuchty,  in  Fife,  and 
minister  of  the  parish  of  Tealing,  near  Dundee, 
was  deposed  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland,  chiefly  on  account  of  viewa 
which  he  had  adopted  and  published  concerning 
the  nature  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ.  In  his  Testi- 
many  of  the  King  of  Martyrs  concerning  his  King' 
clom,  founded  on  the  words  of  our  Saviour  recorded 
in  John  xviii.  36,  37,  Mr  Glass  maintained  that 
all  national  establishments  of  religion  are  incon- 
sistent with  the  true  nature  of  the  church  of 
Christ,  and  was  thus  probably  the  first  assertor  ot 
the  Voluntary  principle  in  Scotland.  He  also  advo- 
cated a  system  of  church-government  essentially 
Independent  or  CongregatAonal.  After  his  deposition 
by  the  General  Assembly,  he  became  the  pastor  of  a 
congregation.  He  died  at  Dundee  in  1773.  His 
personal  worth  and  piety  were  acknowledged  even 
by  the  most  strenuous  opponents  of  his  peculiar 
opinions.  A  number  of  small  congregations  or 
churches  were  soon  formed  on  Glassite  principles,  not 
only  in  Scotland,  but  in  England  and  America  ;  but 
both  in  England  and  America,  the  name  of  a  follower 
of  Glass,  Robert  Sandeman,  prevailed  over  his  own, 
and  the  sect  received  the  name  of  Sandemanians. 
Sandeman,  a  native  of  Perth,  is  chiefly  known  from 
his  advocacy  of  certain  views  respecting  the  nature 
of  saving  faith,  now  commonly  designated  Sonde- 
mayiian,  essentially  consisting  in  representing  faith 
as  '  a  bare  belief  of  the  bare  truth,'  which  belief, 
however,  both  Glass  and  Sandeman,  with  at  least 
their  immediate  adherents,  regarded  as  the  fruit 
of  Divine  grace  and  the  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
The  G.  have,  since  the  beginning  of  the  19th  c, 
decreased  in  numbers.  In  1851,  there  were  only  six 
Glassite  churches  in  Scotland,  none  of  which  con- 
tained very  many  members;  and  at  the  same  date 
onl}'-  six  Sandemanian  churches  existed  in  England 
The  G.  maintain  the  necessity  of  a  plurality  ol 
teaching  elders  in  every  church,  biit  do  not  require 
any  s])ecial  education  for  this  office  or  separation 
from  secular  employments ;  they  hold  a  second  mar- 
riage a  disqualification  for  it;  they  deem  it  un- 
lawful to  join  in  prayer  with  any  one  who  is  not  a 
brother  or  sister  in  Christ ;  they  observe  the  liOrd's 
Supper  weekly ;  they  maintain  love-feasts  or  dinners 
between  morning  and  afternoon  services,  at  which  it 
is  incumbent  on  every  member  of  the  church  to 
be  present;  they  are  rigid  in  abstaining  from  things 


GLASS-MEN-GLAUBER. 


Btrangled  and  from  blood ;  and  in  general  hold  by 
the  most  literal  interpretation  of  other  Scripture 
rules,  as  concerning  the  kiss  of  charity,  and  the 
washing  of  the  feet  of  fellow-disciples ;  they  dis- 
approve of  games  of  chance,  and  of  all  use  of  the 
lot  except  for  sacred  purposes.  Their  charity,  both 
to  their  own  poor  and  to  the  poor  of  other  denomi- 
nations, is  said  to  be  exemplary. 

GLASS-MEN  were  wandering  rogues  or  vagrants, 
under  the  statutes  39  Elizabeth  c.  4,  and  1  James  I. 
C.  7. 

GLA'SSWORT  [Salkornia),  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Chenopodiacece,  having  uniform 
hermaphrodite  flowers,  with  a  single  fleshy  obscurely 
lobed  perianth  imbedded  in  an  excavation  of  the 


Glasswort  {Salicomia  herhacea) : 
c,  Joints  of  stem  bearing  flowers  ;  b,  style ;  c,  stamen. 

rachis,  one  stamen  or  two,  and  a  short  style,  the 
fruit  a  utricle  enclosed  in  the  enlarged  perianth. 
One  species  [S.  herbacea),  a  leafless  plant  with  jointed 
Btems,  is  common  in  the  salt  marshes  of  the  Atlantic 
coast,  and  at  Salina,  New  York,  and  other  interior 
Bait  springs.  Several  species  grow  abundantly  on  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean ;  and  as  they  contain  a 
large  quantity  of  soda,  are  used  in  making  barilla, 
along  with  the  species  of  Saltwort  (q.  v.). 

GLA'STONBURY,  an  ancient  municipal  burgh 
and  market-town  in  the  county  of  Somerset,  25 
miles  south  west  of  Bath,  is  built  in  the  form  of  a 
cross,  and  occupies  a  peninsula  formed  by  the  river 
Brue,  or  Brent,  called  the  Isle  of  Avalon.  It  has 
Bmall  manufactures  of  silk,  and  some  export  trade  in 
timber,  slates,  tiles,  and  agricidtural  produce,  by 
means  of  a  canal  connecting  it  with  the  Bristol 
Channel,  and  the  railway  between  the  Bristol  and 
Exeter  and  Wilts  and  Somerset  lines  which  passes 
through  Glastonbury.  Pop.  (187])  3670.  The  town 
owes  its  origin  to  its  celebrated  abbey,  which,  accord- 
inf;  to  tradition,  was  founded  in  60  a.  d.,  and  was  one 
of  the  earliest  seats  of  Christianity  in  Britain.  Its 
traditionary  founder  was  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  and 
the  'miraculous  thorn,'  which  flowered  on  Christ- 
mas-day, was,  till  the  time  of  the  Piiritans,  believed 
by  the  common  people  to  be  the  veritable  staff 
with  which  Joseph  aided  his  steps  from  the  Holy 
Land.  The  tree  was  destroyed  during  the  civil 
wars,  but  grafts  from  it  still  flourish  in  the  neigh- 
bouring gardens.  In  605  A.  d.  the  monks  adopted 
the  dress  and  rules  of  the  Benedictine  order.  This 
magnificent  pile  at  one  time  covered  60  acres ,  but 
as  most  of  the  houses  in  G.,  and  also  ?,  causeway 
206 


across  Sedgemoor,  have  been  constructed  of  tlw 
materials,  the  extent  of  the  ruins  is  now  much  dimin 
ished.  The  most  interesting  remains  are  the  Abbey 
Church,  with  St  Joseph's  Chapel,  St  Mary's  Chapel, 
and  the  Abbot's  Kitchen.  St  Joseph's  Chapel 
is  one  of  the  most  elegant  specimens  in  existence 
of  the  transition  from  Norman  to  Early  English 
architecture,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  erected 
during  the  reigns  of  Henry  II.  and  Pdchard  L 
It  is  now  roofless,  and  the  vaulting  of  the  crypt  ia 
nearly  destroyed.  The  entrance  is  adorned  with 
sculpture.  Below  the  floor  is  a  Norman  crypt, 
within  which  is  St  Joseph's  Well.  Of  the  Aljbey 
Church,  few  fragments  remain.  The  Chapel  of 
St  Mary  is  roofless,  but  the  remains  of  its  pointed 
windows  and  archways  are  exceedingly  elegant. 
The  Abbot's  Kitchen,  now  separate  from  the  rest 
of  the  ruins,  is  a  square  massive  structure,  the 
walls  strongly  buttressed,  and  dates  from  about 
the  15th  century.  G.  has  the  honour  of  ranking 
St  Patrick  (415  A.  d.)  and  St  Dunstan  among  its 
abbots.  In  1539,  Henry  VIII.  summoned  Abbot 
Whiting  to  surrender  G.  and  all  its  treasures ;  and 
on  his  refusal,  condemned  him  to  be  hanged  and 
quartered,  and  the  monastery  confiscated  to  the 
king's  use,  which  sentence  was  immediately  earned 
into  execution.  According  to  tradition,  King  Arthur 
and  his  Queen  Guinevere  were  buried  in  the  ceme- 
tery of  the  abbey ;  and  Giraldus  Cambrensis  states 
that  '  a  leaden  cross,  bearing  the  following  inscrip- 
tion, "Hie  jacet  sepultus  inclytns  Ilex  Arthurus  in 
insula  Avalionia,"  was  found  under  a  stone  seven 
feet  below  the  surface ;  and  nine  feet  below  this 
was  fornd  an  oaken  coffin,  containing  dust  and 
bones.'  This  disinterment  took  place  by  order  of 
Henry  II.  The  only  other  objects  of  interest  at  G. 
are  the  Church  of  St  Benedict ;  the  Church  of  St 
John  the  Baptist,  with  a  tower  of  140  feet  high  •! 
the  Weary-all  Hill,  where  Joseph  of  Arimathea 
rested  from  his  weary  pilgrimage ;  and  the  Tor 
Hill,  where  the  last  abbot  of  G.  M^as  put  to  death, 
500  feet  above  the  sea-level,  crowned  by  a  beautiful 
tower,  the  ruin  of  a  pilgrimage  chapel  of  St  Michael. 

GLATZ,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of 
Silesia,  is  a  fortress  of  the  second  rank,  and  ia 
situated  between  two  fortified  hills,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Neisse,  52  miles  south-south-west  of  Breslaiu 
It  has  iouv  Catholic  churclies  and  a  Catholio 
gymnasium ;  and  carries  on  considerable  manufac- 
tures of  linen,  damask,  and  woollen  fabrics,  as  well 
as  of  leather  and  rose  garlands.  Pop.  13,577,  includ- 
ing 2162  of  a  garrison.  During  tlie  Thirty  Years' 
and  the  Seven  Years'  Wars,  G.  was  frequently  be- 
sieged and  taken. 

GLAUBER,  JoHANN  Rudolph,  a  German  chemist 
and  pliysician,  was  born  at  Karlstadt,  in  Franconia, 
in  1G04,  and  died  at  Amsterdam  in  1068.  No 
details  regai'ding  his  life  are  known,  except  that 
he  resided  for  a  long  time  at  Salzbitrg,  then  at 
Kissingen,  tlien  at  Frankfurt-on-the-Maine,  then 
at  Cologne,  from  whence  he  probably  removed  to 
Amsterdam.  Although  a  believer  in  the  philosopher'i 
stone  and  in  the  universal  medicine,  he  contri- 
buted very  materially  to  the  progress  of  chemistry. 
Poggendorff  (in  his  Biographisch-Uterarische  Hand- 
worterhnck)  gives  a  list  of  about  thirty  of  his  works, 
of  which  a  collected  edition  up  to  the  date  of 
publication  appeared,  in  two  quarto  volumes,  in 
1658 — 1659,  at  Frankfurt,  and  another  edition,  in 
seven  octavo  volumes,  in  1661,  at  Amsterdam.  An 
English  translation  by  Packe,  in  one  large  folio 
volume,  was  published  in  London  in  1689.  His 
name  at  the  present  day  is  chiefly  known  for  his 
discovery  of  sulphate  of  soda,  which  he  termed  sal 
mirabile,  and  regarded  as  a  universal  medicine,  and 

7S5 


GLAUBER'S  SALT— GLEANING. 


n  cure  fcr  all  diseases.  See  Kopp's  Geschicate  der 
Chemie,  vol.  i.  pp.  128 — 133. 

GLAU'BER'S  SALT  (so  called  from  Glauber, 
who  discovered  it  in  1658)  is  the  po[)ular  name  of 
the  neutral  sulphate  of  sodium,  whose  chemical  com- 
position is  represented  by  the  formula  NazSOi+l^^iq' 
It  occurs  in  long  four-sided  translucent  jjrisms, 
terminated  by  diheflral  summits,  and  containing  ten 
atoms  of  water.  On  exposure  to  the  air,  the  crystals 
lose  all  their  water,  and  become  resolved  into  a 
white  powder.  Wlien  heated,  they  readily  melt  in 
their  water  of  crystallisation ;  and  if  the  heat  is 
sufficiently  continued,  the  whole  of  the  water  is 
expelled,  and  the  anhydrous  salt  remains.  Glauber's 
Bait  has  a  cooling,  bitter,  and  saltish  taste  ;  it  is 
readily  soluble  in  water ;  its  solubility  (in  the 
ordinary  crystalline  form)  increasing  up  to  92  , 
when  it  appears  to  undergo  a  molecular  change,  and 
to  be  converted  into  the  anhydrous  salt,  which  at 
this  temi)erature  is  less  soluble  than  the  liydrated 
compound,  and  separates  in  minute  crystals.  This 
and  other  anomalies  v/hich  occur  in  the  solubility 
of  this  salt  have  been  carefully  studied  by  Lowel 
(Aim.  de  Chemie,  3d  ser.  vol.  ix.  p.  50). 

Glaubers  salt  is  a  constituent  of  many  mineral 
waters,  and  occurs  in  small  quantity  in  the  Idood 
and  other  animal  fluids.  It  occurs,  under  the  name 
of  The)iard'de,  near  Madrid,  in  the  form  of  anhy- 
drous octahedra  deposited  at  the  bottom  of  some 
saline  lakes  ;  and  is  found  combined  with  sul])hate 
of  lime,  as  Olauherite  (CaNa2(S04)"),  in  the  valley  of 
the  Ebro. 

The  anhydrous  salt  is  prepared  in  enormous 
quantity  from  common  salt  and  oil  of  vitriol,  with 
the  view  of  being  afterwards  converted  into  carbon- 
ate of  soda.    See  Soda. 

For  medical  use  a  piu-er  form  is  required.  The 
salt  which  remains  after  the  distillation  of  hydro- 
chloric acid — this  salt  being  sulphate  of  soda  con- 
taminated with  free  sulphuric  acid — is  dissolved 
in  water,  to  which  is  added  powdered  white  marble 
(carbonate  of  lime),  to  neutralise  tlie  free  acid, 
and  to  precipitate  it  as  an  insoluble  sulphate ;  the 
solution  is  boiled  down  till  a  pellicle  appears,  is 
straiued,  and  set  aside  to  crystallise. 

It  is  used  as  a  common  purgative,  and  is  espe- 
cially applicable  in  fevers  and  inflammatory  affec- 
tions, when  it  is  necessary  to  evacuate  the  bowels 
withoiit  increasing  or  exciting  febrile  disturbance. 
The  usual  dose  is  from  half  an  ounce  to  an  ounce ; 
but  if  it  is  previously  dried,  so  as  to  expel  the 
water  of  crystallisation,  it  becomes  doubly  efficient 
as  a  purgative.  It  is  now  much  less  frequently 
used  in  domestic  medicine  than  formerly,  having 
given  place  to  milder  aperients. 

GLAUBER'S  SPIRIT  OF  NITRE  is  one  of 

the  old  terms  for  nitric  acid. 

GLAU'CHAU,  a  thriA^ing  manufacturing  town 
of  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  is  picturesquely  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Mulde,  8  miles 
north-noi-th-east  of  Z^dckau.  Owing  to  the  uneven- 
ness  of  its  site,  it  is  irregularly  built ;  but  its 
appearance  is  striking.  It  is  the  second  in  rank 
among  the  manufacturing  towns  of  Saxony.  Here 
and  in  the  neighbourhood,  the  weaving  of  every 
kind  of  goods  flourishes ;  there  are  also  important 
dye-works,  print-works,  iron-foundries,  and  machine 
Victories.    Pop.  (1871)  22,036. 

GLAUCO'MA  (Gr.  glaukos,  sea-green),  an  opacity 
of  the  vitreous  humour  of  the  eye,  characterised  by 
a  bluish  tint  seen  from  without,  and  the  absence  of 
the  peculiar  characters  of  Cataract  (q.  v.),  which, 
in  some  respects,  it  resembles  as  regards  the  gradual 
obscuration  of  vision.  It  is  an  almost  incurable 
disease. 


Glaucus  Atlanticus. 


GLAUCOjSIE,  a  French  term  introduced  by  M. 
Brogniart  as  the  name  of  several  strata  of  diUcrcnt 
ages.  The  Glauconie  Crayeuse  and  Sableuse  are 
equivalent  to  the  Upper  and  Lower  Greensand, 
while  the  Glauconie  Grossier  is  an  Eocene  deiX)sit 
contemporaneous  with  the  Bracklesham  beds. 

GLAU'CUS,  a  genus  of  molluscs,  referred  to  the 
class  Gasteropoda,  but  having  no  distinct  respir- 
atory organs.  The 
body  is  long,  slender, 
gelatinous,  furnished 
with  three  pair  of 
digitated  finlike  ap- 
pendages, which  were 
formerly  supposed  to 
be  gills.  The  mouth 
has  horny  jaws, 
adapted  for  preying 
on  other  small  marine 
animals.  These  small 
molluscs — about  an 
inch  and  three- 
quarters  long,  of  a 
blue  colour,  and  extremely  delicate  and  beautiful 
— inhabit  the  tropical  parts  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
and  float  inertly  with  irregular  movements  of  the 
slender  branches  of  their  fins  on  the  surface  of  the 
water. 

GLAUX,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 

Primulacece,  having  a  5-lobed 
calyx,  no  corolla,  and  a  5-valved 
capsule  with  about  five  seeds. 
G.  maritima,  sometimes  called 
Sea  Milkwort  and  Black 
Saltwort,  is  one  of  the  most 
common  plants  of  our  sea- 
coasts,  growing  in  almost  every 
muddy  situation.  It  is  a  small 
plant,  with  branching  stems, 
often  procumbent,  and  small 
fleshy  leaves.  It  makes  a  good 
pickle. 

GLAZE.    See  Pottery. 

GLEA'NING.  In  confor- 
mity wath  the  positive  com- 
mand contained  in  the  Mosaic 
law,  to  leave  t!ie  gleanings  of 
the  harvest  to  the  poor  and 
to  the  stranger  (Levit.  xix.  9, 
and  xxiii.  22),  there  has  been 
almost  everywhere  a  popular 
feeling  to  the  effect  that  the 
farmer  was  not  entitled  to 
prevent  the  poor  from  gather- 
ing what  the  reaper  had  left  Sea  MHk wort  (G^^aita 
behind.  In  England,  the  maritima) : 
custom  of  gleaning  had  very  a,  a  flower, 
nearly  passed  into  a  legal  right, 
for  there  is  an  extra-judicial  dictum  of  Lord  Hale,  in 
which  he  saj's  that  those  who  enter  a  field  for  this 
purpose  are  not  guilty  of  trespass,  and  Blackstone 
(iii.  12)  seems  disposed  to  adopt  his  opinion;  but  the 
question  has  since  been  twice  tried,  and  decided 
in  the  negative  in  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  the 
court  finding  it  to  be  a  practice  incompatible  with 
the  exclusive  enjoyment  of  property,  and  productive 
of  vagrancy  and  many  mischievous  consequences, 
1  H.  Bl.  Rep.  51.  It  is  stiU,  however,  the  custom 
all  over  England  to  allow  the  poor  to  glean,  at 
least  after  the  harvest  is  carried.  The  privilege  is 
one  which,  both  from  motives  of  humanity  and  of 
economy,  ought  certainly  to  be  continued  within 
proper  limits,  because  it  not  only  adds  to  the  com- 
fort and  well-being  of  the  poor,  but  by  preserving 
from  waste  a  portion  of  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  and 


GLEBE 


:— GLEIG. 


by  employing  children  and  infirm  persons  whose 
labour  would  not  be  available  for  any  other  i)ur- 
pose,  it  diminishes  the  expenditure  for  the  support 
of  the  indigent,  which  already  presses  so  heavily 
on  the  industrious  portion  of  the  community.  It 
is  a  privilege,  however,  which  is  apt  to  be  abused 
by  able-bodied  persons,  who,  by  rising  early  in  the 
morning,  and  going  into  fields  from  which  the 
crop  has  only  been  partially  carried,  contrive  to 
carry  off  grain  to  a  greater  value  than  the  wages 
which  they  could  have  earned  by  honest  harvest- 
work.  With  a  \dew  to  checking  this  abuse,  farmers 
in.  various  districts  have  established  rules  for  regu- 
lating the  practice  of  gleaning.  Some  curious 
statistics  on  the  subject  of  gleaning  were  published 
in  the  Journal  of  the  Statistical  Society  of  London. 
In  Bohn's  Political  Dictionary,  under  the  head 
'Gleauing,'  a  statement  is  made  shewing  that  the 
total  gleanings  of  388  families  was  £423,  \2s.,  and 
the  average  for  each  family  £1,  \s.  lOcZ.,  which 
was  one- fifth  of  the  average  harvest-wages  of  each 
of  the  same  number  of  families. 

In  Scotland,  it  has  been  more  than  once  decided 
that  the  poor  possess  no  right  to  glean,  at  common 
law,  and  that  the  farmer  may  exclude  them  from 
his  fields  (Hutch.  Justice  of  the  Peace,  ii.  47 ; 
Dunlop's  Paroch.  Law,  223). 

GLEBE  (Lat.  gleha,  a  clod  or  lump  of  earth),  the 
land  possessed  as  part  of  an  ecclesiastical  benefice, 
or  from  which  the  revenues  of  the  benefice  arise. 
The  assignment  of  glebe-lands  was  formerly  held  to 
be  of  such  absolute  necessity,  that  without  them  no 
church  could  be  regularly  consecrated.  In  England, 
the  w^ord  manse  includes  both  the  parsonage-house 
and  the  glebe,  whereas  in  Scotland  it  is  applied 
exclusively  to  the  house.  The  fee-simple  of  the 
glebe  is  held  by  the  law  of  England  to  be  in  abey- 
xnce,  from  the  French  hayer,  to  expect — that  is  to 
eay,  it  is  only  *  in  the  remembrance,  expectation, 
and  intendment  of  the  law;'  but  after  induction, 
the  freehold  of  the  glebe  is  in  the  parson,  and  he 
possesses  most  of  the  powers  of  a  proprietor,  with 
the  exception  of  the  power  of  alienation.  Previous 
to  the  Eeformation,  the  clergy  possessed  certain 
powers  of  alienation  at  common  law ;  and  if  a  bishop, 
with  the  assent  of  his  chapter,  or  an  abbot,  with 
the  assent  of  his  convent,  or  the  like,  alienated  glebe- 
lands,  the  deed  would  not  have  been  void,  because 
the  fee-simple  was  in  the  holder  of  the  benefice  for 
the  time  being ;  but  by  1  Eliz.  c.  19,  and  13  Eliz. 
c.  10,  all  gifts,  grants,  feoffments,  conveyances,  or 
other  estates,  shall  be  utterly  void  and  of  none  effect, 
notwithstanding  any  consent  or  confirmation  what- 
soever. Neither  could  the  incumbent  exchange  the 
lands  or  any  portion  of  them  without  the  authority 
of  an  act  of  parliament.  This  restriction  was  done 
away  by  55  Geo.  III.  c.  147,  for  enabling  sj^iritual 
persons  to  exchange  parsonage  or  glebe  houses  or 
glebe-lands  for  others  of  greater  value  or  more 
conveniently  situated  for  their  residence  and  occu- 
pation. By  5  and  6  Vict.  c.  54,  it  is  now  provided 
that  the  commissioners  appointed  to  carry  into 
effect  the  commutation  of  tithes  shall  have  power 
tx)  ascertain  and  define  the  boundaries  of  the  glebe- 
lands  of  any  benefice,  and  also  power,  with  consent 
of  the  ordinary  and  patron,  to  exchange  the  glebe- 
lands  for  other  lands  within  the  same  or  any  ad- 
joining parish,  or  otherwise  conveniently  situated. 
The  subsequent  act,  17  and  18  Vict.  c.  84,  moreover 
provides  that  the  incumbent  of  any  benefice  entitled 
to  glebe  shall,  with  such  consents  as  are  specified 
in  the  act,  be  entitled  to  annex  such  glebe  or  other 
lands  hy  deed  to  any  church  or  chapel  within  the 
parish,  district,  or  place  wherein  such  glebe  or 
land  is  situate.  In  addition  to  his  glebe-lands, 
tne  rector  or  vicar  is  also  seized  in  the  edifice  of 


the  church  itself  (see  Church).  It  was  long  ago 
provided  (28  Henry  VIIL  c.  11,  s.  6),  that  if  an 
incumbent  died  after  having  manured  and  sown  the 
glebe-lands,  he  might  make  his  testament  of  the 
profits  of  the  corn  ;  but  if  his  successor  be  inducted 
before  the  severance  thereof  from  the  ground,  he 
shall  have  the  tithe  ;  for  although  the  executor 
represent  the  person  of  the  testator,  yet  he  cannot 
represent  him  as  parson. 

Glebe,  in  Scotland. — In  Scotland,  as  in  England,  a 
glebe  forms,  as  a  general  rule,  a  portion  of  every 
ecclesiastical  benefice  of  the  Established  Church,  and 
is  thus  an  addition  to  the  stipend,  and  sometimes 
a  very  important  one.  JNIinisters  in  royal  burghs, 
however,  cannot  claim  glebes,  unless  in  the  case  in 
which  there  is  a  landward  district  attached  to  the 
parish.  Even  then,  if  there  are  two  ministers,  only 
the  first  can  claim  a  glebe.  Where  parishes  are 
disjoined,  or  separated  into  two  portions,  moreover, 
it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  the  portion  erected 
into  a  new  parish  shall  contain  a  glebe.  By  5  Geo. 
IV.  c.  72,  provision  is  made  for  payment  of  compen- 
sation out  of  the  public  revenue,  in  lieu  of  manse 
and  glebe,  to  ministers  whose  stipends  do  not  exceed 
£200.  If  there  are  arable  lands,  the  glebe  must  not 
be  less  than  four  acres.  If  there  is  no  arable  land, 
the  minister  is  entitled  to  sixteen  soums  of  grass 
adjacent  to  the  church.  A  soum  is  as  much  as 
will  23asture  ten  sheep  oi:  one  cow,  so  that  the  actual 
extent  varies  with  the  richness  of  the  soil  and 
consequent  quality  of  the  pasture.  The  presbytery 
possesses  the  power  of  designing  glebes,  the  heritor 
from  whose  property  the  glebe  is  designed  having 
recourse  against  the  other  heritors  of  the  parish. 
By  1572,  c.  48,  it  is  enacted  that  the  glebe  shall 
not  be  alienated  by  the  incumbent.  As  the  act 
limits  its  prohibition  to  such  alienation  as  may 
be  detrimental  to  the  successor  of  the  incumbent, 
it  has  been  doubted  whether  the  latter  might  not 
feu.  The  court,  however,  has  been  very  unwilling 
to  sanction  this  proceeding  ;  and  from  the  fact  that 
laud  tends  steadily  to  increase,  whereas  money 
diminishes  in  value,  it  seems  of  very  doubtful 
propriety  even  where  the  arrangement  is  very 
advantageous  at  the  time.  When  the  church  is 
changed,  or  transported,  as  it  is  called,  to  a  new 
site,  the  court  will  authorise  the  sale  or  excambion 
of  the  glebe,  but  such  excambions  must  be  sanc- 
tioned by  the  presbytery.  Where  minerals  are 
found  on  the  glel)e,  they  are  worked  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  heritors  and  presbytery 
for  the  behoof  of  the  incumbent.  Trees  growing 
on  the  glebe  are  thought  to  belong  to  him.  See 
Teind  Court. 

GLEE,  the  English  name  of  a  vocal  composition 
for  three  or  more  voices,  and  in  one  or  more  move- 
ments. The  style  of  music  of  the  glee  is  peculiar  to 
England,  and  quite  different  from  the  part-songs  of 
Germany. 

GLEET.    See  Gonorrhcea. 

GLEIG,  the  Rev.  George  Robert,  M.A.,  a 

popular  author  and  di\dne,  son  of  the  Jxight  Rev. 

George  Gleig,  LL.D.,  Bishoj)  of  Brechin,  pnd  Priuius 

of  the  Scots  Episcopal  Church,  was  born  at  Stirliiiij, 

in  Scotland,  in  1796.    In  1812,  while  a  student  at 

the  university  of  Oxford,  he  joined  as  a  volunteer 

a  regiment  then  marching  through  that  city  on  its 

way  to  Lisbon.    Soon  obtaining  a  commission  in  the 

85th  Regiment  of  light  infantry,  he  served  in  tht 

Peninsula.  During  the  American  war  in  1812 — 1814, 

he  was  engaged  in  the  campaign  of  Washington, 

at  the  capture  of  which  city,  in  August  1814, 

he  was  severely  wounded.    In  1821  he  published 

an  account  of  the  Carnpaigns  of  Washington  and 

New  Orleans,  Svo.    At  the  close  of  the  war,  he 

"8- 


GLEIWITZ— GLENDOWER. 


retired  on  half  pay.  He  now  completed  his  studies 
at  Oxford,  entered  into  holy  orders,  and  in  1822 
was  presented  by  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
to  the  livincr  of  Ivy  Church,  Kent.  In  1825,  he 
published  The  Subaltern,  a  novel  founded  on  his 
experience  in  the  Peninsular  War.  In  1844,  he 
Avas  appointed  chaplain  of  Chelsea  Hos])ital,  and 
in  184G,  Captain-(>:eneral  of  the  Forces.  Ilavin<^ 
devised  a  scheme  for  the  education  of  soldiers,  he 
was  appointed  Inspector-general  of  Military  Schools. 
In  1848,  he  was  made  a  prebendary  of  St,  Paul's 
Cathedral,  London.  G.  has  written  a  great  variety  of 
biographical,  historical,  and  religious  books.  The 
most  interesting  and  important  of  all  his  works  is  his 
Life  of  the  Great  Duke  of  Wellington  (1859,  new  ed. 
1802). 

GLEI'WITZ,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  south-east 
of  the  proA'ince  of  Silesia,  is  pleasantly  situated  on 
the  Klodnitz,.  a  small  afilueut  of  the  Oder,  43  miles 
south-east  of  Oppeln.  It  contains  three  churches,  a 
synagogue,  and  a  Catholic  gymnasium,  and  is  noted 
for  its  royal  foundries,  iron-works,  leather  manu- 
factures, spinning  and  weaving.    Pop.  (1871)  12,939. 

GLENCOE',  a  valley  well  known  not  only  for 
the  terrible  massacre  through  which  it  has  become 
historically  famous,  but  also  for  the  wildness  and 
sublimity  of  its  scenery,  is  situated  in  the  north  of 
Argyleshire,  near  the  border  of  Inverness,  at  Loch 
Leven.  It  is  about  eight  miles  in  length,  and  is 
divided  into  an  upper  and  lower  valley  by  a  gentle 
ridge.  It  is  traversed  by  a  mountain-stream  called 
the  Cona,  and  its  scarred  sides  shew  the  beds  of 
numerous  mountain-torrents.  After  entering  the 
glen,  the  traveller  looks  in  vain  for  any  token  of 
social  life  or  of  civilisation. — Massacre  of  Glen- 
COE.  The  principal  circumstances  of  this  famous 
tragedy  are  briefly  as  follows.  The  state  of  the 
Highlands  in  the  year  which  followed  the  parlia- 
mentary session  of  1690  was  such  as  to  give  the 
government  much  anxiety.  The  civil  war  which 
had  recently  been  flaming  there  continued  still  to 
smoulder,  and  at  length  it  was  determined,  at 
court,  to  employ  £12,000  or  £15,000  in  quieting 
and  reconciling  the  refractory  clans.  The  Edin- 
burgh authorities  issued  a  proclamation  exhorting 
the  clans  to  submit  to  William  and  Mary,  and 
offering  pardon  to  every  rebel  who  would  swear 
on  or  before  the  31st  December  1G91  to  live  peace- 
ably under  the  government  of  their  majesties,  and 
threatening  to  treat  all  who  refused  to  do  so  as 
enemies  and  traitors.  All  the  chiefs  submitted 
before  the  31st  December  except  Maclan,  the  chief 
of  the  Macdonalds  of  Glencoe,  whose  submission, 
from  unforeseen  causes,  was  delayed  till  the  Gth  of 
January.  The  magistrate  before  whom  he  took  the 
oath  of  allegiance  transmitted  a  certificate  to  the 
Council  at  Edinburgh,  explaining  the  circumstances 
of  the  case.  That  certificate  was  never  laid  before 
the  Council,  but  was  suppressed  by  an  intrigue, 
directed  (it  is  supposed)  by  the  Master  of  Stair 
(Sir  John  Dalrymple,  afterwards  second  Viscount 
t.nd  Earl  of  Stair),  on  whom,  u  idoubtedly,  rests 
the  chief  blame  of  this  odious  t.-ansaction.  The 
enemies  of  Maclan  now  hurried  on  their  plans  for 
his  destruction.  The  Master  of  Stair  obtained  the 
king's  signature  to  an  order  directed  to  the  com- 
mander of  the  forces  in  Scotland,  and  which  runs 
thus:  'As  for  Maclan  of  Glencoe  and  that  tribe, 
if  they  can  be  well  distinguished  fi'om  the  other 
Highlanders,  it  will  be  proper,  for  the  \dndication 
of  public  justice,  to  extir2)ate  that  set  of  thieves.' 
Accordingly,  on  the  1st  of  February,  120  soldiers — 
most  of  them  Campbells,  who  had  a  personal  spite 
against  the  Macdonalds — led  by  a  Captain  Campbell 
and  a  Lieutenant  Lindsay,  marched  to  Glencoe. 


They  had  been  warned  by  Stair  to  do  nothing  by 
halves  ;  they  were  exhorted  to  be  *  fc'ecret  and  sud- 
den ; '  and  they  obeyed  their  instnictions.  Arrived 
in  the  glen,  they  told  the  Glencoe  men  that  they 
were  conie  as  friends,  and  only  wanted  quarters. 
For  twelve  days  the  soldiers  lived  in  the  glen.  Cap- 
tain Campbell,  or  Glenlyon  as  he  was  called  from 
the  name  of  his  estate,  while  visiting  daily  at  the 
chief's  house,  employed  himself  in  observing  care- 
fully what  avenues  and  passes  there  were  by  means 
of  which  the  Macdonalds  might  escape,  and  report- 
ing the  result  of  his  observations  to  Lieutenant- 
colonel  Hamilton,  who  was  approaching  with  troops 
to  secure  the  passes.  The  morning  of  the  13th  of 
Febniary  was  fixed  for  the  slaughter,  and  on  the 
night  of  the  12th,  Glenlyon  was  supping  and  playing 
at  cards  with  those  whom  he  meant  to  assassinate 
before  dawn.  At  five  in  the  morning  the  murder- 
ous work  began.  When  the  day  dawned,  38  corj)se3, 
I  among  which  were  several  of  women,  and  more 
dreadful  still,  the  hand  of  an  infant  that  had  been 
struck  off  in  the  murderous  tumult,  were  lying 
in  or  around  the  village  in  their  blood.  But  the 
massacre  comi)rehended  only  a  small  portion  of 
the  tribe,  for  Hamilton  not  having  come  up  in  time, 
the  passes  were  open,  and  about  150  men,  and 
probal)Iy  as  many  women,  escaped,  but  only  in 
many  cases  to  perish  from  cold  or  hunger  among 
the  snows  in  the  high  mountain-gorges.  When 
Hamilton  did  arrive,  he  was  disappointed  in  finding 
the  work  so  imperfectly  done,  and  seizing  an  old 
Highlander,  whom,  being  above  seventy,  the  other 
butchers  had  agreed  to  let  live,  murdered  him 
in  cold  blood.  The  huts  of  the  village  were  then 
set  on  fire,  and  the  troops  de})arted,  driving  away 
with  them  all  the  flocks  and  herds  of  the  glen. 

The  question  as  to  the  share  of  King  William 
in  the  guilt  of  this  transaction  has  been  discussed 
with  no  little  warmth  on  both  sides.  Lord 
Macaulay  i)leads,  in  vindication  of  the  king's  con- 
duct, that  the  certificate  detailing  the  submission 
of  Maclan  had  been  supi)ressed ;  that  he  knew 
the  Macdonalds  only  as  a  lebellious  clan,  who  had 
rejected  his  conciliatory  offers  ;  and  that,  in  signing 
the  order  for  their  extirpation,  he  certainly  never 
intended  them  to  be  murdered  in  their  sleep,  but 
merely  that  their  organisation  «,s  a  predatory  gang 
should  be  broken  up. — The  scene  of  the  massacre  is 
visited  annually  by  tourists,  who  are  accommodated 
with  conveyances  in  connection  with  Hutcheson'a 
steam-vessels  from  Glasgow. 

GLENDOWER,  or  GLENDWR,  Owen,  a  Welsh 
chief,  who  was  one  of  the  most  active  and  formid- 
able enemies  of  Henry  IV.  of  England.  He  was 
descended  from  Llewelyn,  the  last  Prince  of  Wales, 
and  followed  the  fortunes  of  Richard  II.  to  the  close, 
when,  in  1399,  Henry  of  Bolingbroke  usurped  the 
crown,  and  assumed  the  title  of  King  Henry  IV. 
Taking  advantage  of  G.'s  known  attachment  to  the 
dethroned  monarch,  Lord  Grey  of  Ruthyn  seized 
part  of  his  land.  G.'s  suit  for  its  restitution  was 
dismissed  by  parliament,  and  then  Lord  Grey  seized 
the  rest  of  his  land.  Revenge  and  despair,  conspir- 
ing wdth  a  martial  disposition,  and  the  encouragi  ug 
prophecies  of  the  Welsh  bards,  drove  him  to  take 
up  arms,  and  provided  him  with  followers.  In  1400, 
he  commenced  operations  by  seizing  the  estates 
of  Lord  Grey.  The  king  ordered  his  subjugation, 
and  granted  his  estates  to  his  brother  the  Earl  of 
Somerset.  G.'s  forces  were  inferior  in  number  to 
those  of  his  adversaries.  He  was  sometimes  victor- 
ious, chiefly  through  surprises,  ambushes,  and  the 
like,  but  sometimes  defeated,  and  forced  to  retire 
to  the  hills,  where  his  positions  and  rude  fortifications 
could  not  be  aj^proached.  In  1402,  he  drew  Lord 
Grey  into  an  ambush,  and  took  him  prisoner  This 


GLENELG— GLENROY. 


Aoblenican  was  ransomed  on  paying  10,000  marks, 
and  the  king,  out  of  jealousy  of  the  Earl  of  March 
(a  boy  of  ten,  the  true  heir  to  the  crown),  or  some 
similar  cause,  allowed  him  to  pay  his  own  ransom,  j 
Immediately  on  his  release.  Lord  Grey  married  a  • 
daughter  of  G.  ;  and  it  would  ai)])ear  that  Sir  i 
Edmund  Mortimer,  the  uncle  of  the  Earl  of  March,  ! 
married  another,  having  been  captured  also  a  little 
later  by  G.,  in  a  battle  in  which  1100  of  Mortimer's  | 
followers  were  left  dead  upon  the  field.  Treason  | 
Beems  to  have  been  falsely  imputed  to  Mortimer  as  | 
the  cause  of  his  defeat ;  but  Henry  IV. 's  suspicions 
and  G.'s  kindness  soon  made  the  treason  sufficiently 
real,  for  Mortimer  induced  his  sister's  husband,  Earl 
Percy  (Hotspur),  to  conspire  with  him  and  G.  (now 
proclaimed  Prince  of  Wales)  against  the  govern- 
ment. Percy  led  with  him  into  the  same  enterprise 
the  Scotch  Earl  Douglas,  whom  he  had  just  taken 
prisoner  at  Homildon  Hill.  This  coalition  against 
royalty  ended  in  the  battle  of  Shrewsbury,  in  July 
1403,  in  which  the  fall  of  Hotspur  and  the  late 
arrival  of  G.  gave  the  victory  to  the  king  and  his 
forces.  In  June  of  the  following  year,  G.  entered 
into  a  treaty  with  Chai-les  VI.  of  France  against 
the  English.  Little  came  of  it,  for  next  year,  G. 
sustained  severe  reverses,  and  was  driven  to  wander 
among  the  caves  of  the  mountains  with  a  handful 
■  of  adlierents.  Another  two  or  three  years  saw  his 
fortunes  somewhat  in  the  ascendant,  and  they  fluctu- 
ated in  the  ordinary  levels  of  the  petty  warfare 
of  a  bold  barbarous  chief,  with  mountains  to  escape 
to  against  the  advance  of  superior  civilised  numbers, 
which  he  coidd  no  more  resist  on  the  plains  than 
they  could  destroy  him  among  the  mountains.  He 
died  a  natural  death  in  the  house  of  one  of  his 
da\ighters,  on  the  20th  September  1415,  aged  about 
65,  having  spent  the  last  fifteen  years  of  his  life  in 
constant  turmoil  and  warfare.  His  successes  shew 
that  he  had  about  the  highest  talents  of  his  class, 
and  he  had  their  faidts  also.  The  popxilar  idea  of 
him  is  to  be  found  in  Shakspeare's  King  Henri/ 
I  v.  From  the  first,  he  has  been  a  kind  of  mythical 
hero,  and  the  la]ise  of  centunes  does  not  clear  up 
the  exact  facts  of  his  history.  His  rebellions  were 
the  expiring  fires  of  the  independence  of  Wales, 
which  the  English  kings  had  been  treading  out  for 
nearly  a  century  and  a  half. 

GLENE'IjG  is  a  shallow  river  of  considerable 
length,  which  rises  in  the  south-west  part  of 
Victoria,  and  which,  after  crossing  the  boundary 
into  South  Australia,  enters  the  Southern  Ocean 
between  Capo  Northumberland  on  the  west,  and 
Cape  Bridgewater  on  the  east.  Its  mouth  is  about 
lat.  38°  S.,  and  long.  141°  E. 

GLENLI'VET,  a  vale  or  district  in  the  south- 
west of  Banffshire,  extends  along  the  course  of  the 
}.iivet,  a  small  feeder  of  the  Avon,  at  the  distance 
of  about  21  miles  south-west  from  Huntly.  It  con- 
tains iron  ore  and  lead,  and  has  long  been  famous 
for  its  finely  flavoured  whisky.  Here  a  battle  took 
place  Ijetwoen  the  Earl  of  Argyle  and  the  Earl  of 
Il'jntly  in  1594,  resulting  in  the  defeat  of  the 
fo'-inei. 

GLENROY',  Parallel  Rcads  of.  The  Ptoy  is 
a  small  stream  in  the  district  of  Lochaber,  Inver- 
ness shire,  having  a  course  of  about  15  miles,  and 
f.i.lliiig  into  the  Spean  at  Inverroy,  opposite  to  Ben 
Chlinaig,  the  eastern  s])ur  of  Ben  Nevis.  The  steep 
narrow  valley  through  which  the  Roy  runs  is 
remarkable  for  having  its  faces  marked  with  three 
shelves,  which  appear  as  lines  running  right  round 
it ;  they  are  everywhere  perfectly  horizontal  and 
parallel  to  each  other,  and  in  each  case  the  line  on 
one  side  of  the  glen  corresponds  exactly  in  elevation 
to  that  on  the  other.    The  granitic  and  metamorphic 


rocks,  of  Avhich  the  mountains  are  composed,  are 
covered  with  a  greater  or  less  thickness  of  angular 
fragments  and  earth,  and  an  examination  of  the 
shelves  shews  that  they  are  worn  out  of  this  soft 
alluvial  coating.  The  accompanying  sketch  explains 
their  structure.  They  almost  invariably  form  a 
gentle  slope  from  the  hillside,  and  are  from  3  to 
30  feet  wide.  The  protrusion  of  the  rocky  body  of 
the  mountain,  and  the  furrows  of  mountain  torrents, 
break  their  continuity,  ljut  with  these  exceptions, 
one  or  more  of  them  may  be  traced  along  the 
whole  valley.  The  highest,  which  is  1139^  feet 
above  the  sea-level,  is  easily  followed  from  the 
watershed  between  the  Roy  and  the  Spey  (which 


Glenroy. 

is  at  the  same  elevation),  along  both  sides  of 
the  valle}^  as  far  down  as  the  point  at  which  the 
valley  narrows  above  Glen  Glaster.  The  second 
shelf  is  80  feet  lower,  runs  parallel  with  the  first 
all  round  the  head  of  the  valley,  and  is  continued 
further  down  until  it  includes  Glen  Glaster.  The 
thii-d  line  is  212  feet  lower  than  the  second  ;  it 
may  be  traced  along  both  sides  of  Glenroy,  and 
round  the  mouth  of  the  glen  into  the  valley  of  the 
Spean,  whose  sides,  at  the  same  elevation  of  847 
feet,  is  marked  from  within  3  miles  of  the  river 
Lochy  up  nearly  as  far  as  Loch  Laggan.  What  is 
very  curious,  the  elevation  of  the  highest  shelf 
corresponds  "with  that  of  the  watershed  at  the  head 
of  Glenroy  (where  it  opens  towards  the  valley  of  the 
Spey)  ;  the  second  corresponds  with  the  watershed 
at  the  head  of  Glen  Glaster  (where  it  opens  towards 
Glen  Spean) ;  and  the  third  is  at  the  same  level 
with  the  valley  of  passage  between  Spean  and  Spey 
at  Muckall.  There  is  yet  a  higher  shelf  in  the 
neighbouring  Glen  Gluoy,  at  an  elevation  of  lloOi 
feet  above  the  sea. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  ex2)lain  the 
origin  of  these  remarkable  shelves.  Their  forming 
somewhat  level  roads  around  the  valley,  originated 
the  popular  notion,  that  they  were  made  for  the 
convenience  of  the  heroes  whose  exploits  are  sung 
by  Ossian.  Play  fair,  in  1816,  supposed  they  were 
aqueducts  for  artificial  irrigation.  Macculloch 
believed  them  to  be  the  shore-lines  of  fresh-water 
lakes,  which  gradually  washed  aAvay  their  barriers, 
remaining  for  a  longer  space  at  the  height  of  the 
various  shelves.  Sir  T.  D.  Lauder  embraced  and 
illustrated  the  same  \aew.  Darwin  considered  that 
the  glens  were  former  arms  of  the  sea,  and  that  the 
shelves  mdicated  periods  of  rest  in  the  elevation  of 
the  land.  Agassiz  and  Buckland  returned  to  the 
opinion  of  Macculloch,  but  finding  no  indication  or 
remains  of  any  solid  land  barrier,  they  referred  the 
lake  to  the  glacial  period,  and  held  that  tw  t  largti 


GLENTILT— GLOBE-FLOWER. 


glaciers  came  down  from  Ben  Nevis,  the  one  near  the 
mitre  of  the  mountain,  and  the  other  along  the 
basin  of  Loch  Treig,  and  that  tlicse  dammed  up  the 
water  in  the  included  portion  of  Glen  Spean  and  in 
Glenroj.  In  a  paper  subse(iucntly  jjublishcd  by  Mr. 
David  Milne,  the  lacustrine  theory  was  reverted  to, 
with  several  new  and  plausible  illustrations.  The 
i-eader  is  I'eferred  to  a  work  of  Mr.  K.  Chambers 
(Ancient  Sea-margins,  1848)  for  a  full  account  of  this 
remarkable  district.  He  enumerates  no  less  than  21 
terraces  or  shelves,  in  addition  to  the  four  prominent 
ones  already  described,  at  heights  varying  from  325 
to  1495  feet.  And  uniting  all  these  into  a  regular 
series,  he  endeavours  to  show  that  they  are  owing  to 
the  recession  of  the  sea  from  these  glens,  and  that  the 
intensity  of  the  shore-markings  depended  upon  the 
angle  at  which  the  hill  met  the  water,  the  nature 
of  the  surface  of  the  hill,  and  the  quietness  of  the 
water. 

GLENTI'T4Tj  a  deep,  narrow  valley  in  the  north 
Perthshire,  extends  in  a  south-west  direction 
from  the  Grampians  on  the  north  to  Strathgarry 
on  the  south,  and  is  15  miles  in  length.  I'hrough 
the  bottom  of  the  glen  the  Tilt  rushes  with  great 
impetuosity,  aud  the  mountains  on  each  side  are 
scored  with  innumerahle  torrents.  Its  upper  half 
is  enclosed  among  mountains  of  from  8350  to  3589 
feet  high,  and  its  left  boundary  is  mainly  formed 
by  the  huge  Ben-y-Gloe,  which  rises  from  a  broad 
base,  and  has  many  summits,  the  highest  being  3725 
feet  above  sea-level.  The  lower  half  is  less  wild. 
This  glen  is  classic  ground  to  the  geologist.  Two 
elaborate  accounts  of  its  geological  phenomena  have 
been  published — one  by  Dr  M'Culloch,  to  be  found 
in  the  Transactions  of  the  Geological  Society ;  and  the 
other  by  Lord  Webb  Seymour,  which  appears  in 
the  Transactions  of  the  Boyal  Society  of  Edinburgh. 

GLIDDON",  George  R.,  American  Egyi^tologist, 
antiquary,  and  ethnologist,  was  born  in  1807  in 
Grand  Cairo,  Egypt,  where  his  father,  John  Gliddon, 
was  for  many  years  United  States  consul.  He 
resided  for  32  years  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile  and 
in  the  Levant,  and  had  extraordinary  opportunities 
for  pursxiing  those  scientific  researches  to  which  he 
appears  to  have  devoted  a  large  portion  of  his  life. 
He  filled,  for  several  years,  the  post  of  United 
States  consul  at  Cairo. 

About  the  year  1840,  Mr  G.  visited  London, 
Paris,  and  his  own  country,  to  which  he  had 
been  so  entirely  a  stranger.  In  the  United  States, 
he  gave  lectures  in  all  the  principal  cities  from 
Boston  and  New  York  to  Mobile  and  New  Orleans 
on  Egyi)tian  and  other  Oriental  antiquities.  His 
earliest  work,  ^wci'en^  Egypt,  her  Monuments,  Hiero- 
glyphics, History,  and  Archaology,  &c.,  was  so 
successful,  that  18,000  gopies  were  sold  in  America 
alone  in  three  years.  It  has  passed  through  many 
editions.  He  published  also,  at  about  the  same 
period,  an  Appeal  to  the  Antiquaries  of  Europe  on 
tlie  Destruction  of  the  Monuments  of  Egypt;  Dis- 
courses on  Egyptian  Archceology ;  A  Memoir  on  the 
Cotton  of  Egypt ;  and  Otia  .Egyptiaca. 

In  the  course  of  his  travels  in  the  United  States, 
Mr  G.  formed  acquaintances  with  men  of  science 
who  were  interested  in  his  Egyptian  researches, 
and  who,  in  turn,  interested  him  in  a  broader  range 
of  ethnological  investigations.  Conspicuous  among 
these  were  Dr  Morton  of  Philadelphia,  distinguished 
for  his  craniological  investigations ;  Dr  Nott  of 
Mobile,  Alabama ;  Professor  Agassiz,  the  naturalist ; 
and  others.  He  wished  now  to  avail  himself  of 
the  advantages  of  European  museums  and  libraries, 
but  had  not  the  necessary  means.  He  found,  how- 
ever, a  generous  friend  in  Mr  Richard  K.  Haight  of 
New  York,  who  imported  costly  works  from  Europe, 
790 


not  then  to  be  found  in  America,  and  also  furnished 
him  with  money  for  a  visit  to  London,  Paris,  and 
Berlin.  The  results  of  his  studies  are  to  be 
found  in  two  quarto  volumes,  published  by  Mr 
G.,  with  the  co-operation  of  Dr  Nott,  and  several 
other  savants,  both  European  and  American.  In 
1854  was  published  Types  of  Mankind,  or  Ethno^ 
logical  Researches  based  upon  the  Ancient  Monuments, 
Paintings,  Sculptures,  and  Crania  of  Races,  &c.,  by 
J.  C.  Nott,  M.D,,  of  Mobile,  Alabama,  and  George 
P.  Gliddon ;  and  containing  papers  by  Dr  Morton, 
Professor  Agassiz,  and  Drs  Usher  and  Pattison  of 
Philadelphia.  In  1857  was  published,  also  in  a 
handsome  quarto  volume,  Indigenous  Races  of  the 
Earth,  or  New  Chapters  of  Ethnological  Inquiry^ 
including  Monographs  by  M.  Alfred  Maury,  Libra- 
rian of  the  French  Institute ;  Francis  Pulszky,  a 
learned  Hungarian  ;  and  Professor  Meigs  of  Phila- 
deli)hia.  This  work  bears  also  the  joint  names  of 
Nott  and  G. ;  and  Mrs  Gliddon,  an  accomplished 
artist,  gave  her  assistance  in  drawing  xipon  the  wood 
the  engravings  with  which  it  is  profusely  illustrated. 
Just  as  this  work  was  published,  Mr  G.  died  at 
Panama,  Isthmus  of  Darien,  whither  he  had  gone 
to  pifrsue  his  ethnological  researches. 

Mr  G.  was  an  enthusiast,  not  only  in  his  inves- 
tigations, but  in  the  advocacy  of  his  theories  or 
convictions,  and  is  unsparing  in  his  criticisms  of 
his  opponents.  He  has  laboured  to  prove  the 
great  antiquity  and  diversity  of  origin  of  the 
human  races.  His  works  have  been  severely 
criticised  and  condemned  by  those  who  hold  to 
the  i)opular  chronology  and  the  unity  of  the  race. 
The  materials  he  has  brought  together  are  valuable 
and  suggestive ;  but  his  treatment  of  them  can 
scarcely  be  considered  satisfactory ;  and  he  is  not 
free  from  the  suspicion  of  a  bias  in  favour  of  the 
enslavement  of  certain  of  those  whom  he  con- 
sidered inferior  races. 

GLI'KES  (Lat.  plural  of  glis,  a  dormouse),  in  the 
Linnpean  system  of  zoology,  an  order  of  Mammalia 
almost  exactly  corresponding  to  the  Rodentia  (q.  v.) 
of  Cuvier  and  other  more  recent  naturalists. 

GLOBE-FISH.    See  Diodon. 

GLOBE-FLOAVER  {TrolUus),  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Ranunculaceoe,  having  a  calyx 
of  coloured  (yellow) 
sepals,  in  number  five 
or  some  multiple  of  five, 
the  petals  small  and 
linear.  There  are  several 
species,  natives  of  the 
colder  parts  of  the 
northern  hemisphere. 
The  common  G.,  the 
LucKEisr  GowAN  of  the 
Scotch  [T.  Europceus), 
is  the  only  species  found 
in  Britain,  and  chiefly 
in  the  northern  parts, 
where  it  is  one  of  the 
finest  ornaments  of  moist 
grounds  and  river-banks 
in  somewhat  elevated 
districts.  It  is  sometimes 
cultivated  in  flower- 
gardens.  The  name  G. 
is  derived  from  the 
appearance  which  the 
flower  presents,  the  sepals 
being  curved  so  that  it  forms  almost  a  perfect  yellow 
globe  or  ball.  It  is  a  native  of  all  the  northern  parts 
of  Europe,  and  also  of  the  Alps. 

GLOBES.  A  globe  is  a  round  or  spherical  body 
(see  Sphere),  and  in  the  singular  number  the  word  ii 


Globe-Flower  (Trollitu 
Europa-.us). 


GLOBULINE-GLOGGNITZ. 


often  used  to  signify  the  earth,  as  in  the  phrase,  *  the 
terraqueous  globe but  by  'globes,'  or  'the  globes,' 
we  usually  mean  a  pair  of  artificial  globes  used  as 
a  part  of  school-room  apparatxis.  Tliese  globes  are 
hollow  spheres  of  card-board,  coated  with  a  com- 
position of  whiting,  glue,  and  oil,  upon  which  paper 
bearing  certain  delineations  is  laid.  On  one  of  the 
pair— the  celestial  globe — are  rejiresented  the  stars, 
BO  placed  that,  to  an  eye  supposed  to  observe  them 
from  the  centre  of  the  globe,  their  relative  position 
and  distance  correspond  to  those  actually  observed  ; 
whilo  on  the  terrestrial  globe,  the  distriljution  of 
land  and  water,  the  divisions  and  subdivisions  of  the 
^ormer,  together  with  a  few  of  the  most  important 
places,  are  laid  down  in  the  positions  corresponding 
to  those  which  they  actually  occupy  on  the  surface 
of  the  earth. 

The  usual  mode  of  manufacture  is  as  follows :  A 
ball  of  wood  or  iron  is  used  as  a  matrix,  and  a  layer 
of  damped  paper  is  carefully  and  closely  placed  upon 
this,  without  paste,  and  other  layers  are  successively 
pasted  over  the  first  one ;  ordinary  card-board  is  thus 
produced,  but  instead  of  being  flat,  as  usual,  it  forms 
a  spherical  shell.  When  sufiiciently  thick,  this  is 
cut  into  two  hemispheres,  the  section  being  made  in 
the  line  of  the  intended  equator.  The  hemispheres 
are  then  taken  ofT  the  matrix,  and  again  glued 
together  on  an  axis,  and  the  whiting  com4)osition 
laid  on,  the  outside  of  which  is  smoothed  and 
finished  to  shape  in  a  lathe.  The  workman  has  to 
lay  on  this  composition  so  as  to  balance  the  globe,  in 
order  that  it  may  rest  at  whatever  point  it  is 
turned.  The  smooth  surface  is  now  marked  with 
the  lines  of  latitude  and  longitude,  and  is  covered 
•v\'ith  the  paper  on  which  the  required  geographical 
or  astronomical  delineations  are  engraved.  In  order 
to  adapt  the  ])lane  surface  of  the  paper  to  the 
curvature  of  the  sphere,  it  is  printed  in  pieces,  small 
circles  for  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  regions,  and  the 
rest  in  lens-shaped  gores,  varying  from  20°  to  30° 
of  longitude,  and  meeting  these  circles  which  are 
pasted  first.  Great  care  is  required  in  laying  on 
these  curved  pieces,  so  that  their  edges  shall  meet 
exactly  without  overlapping.  The  surface  is  then 
coloured,  and  strongly  varnished,  and  mounted  in 
its  frame  and  stand. 

Globes  of  india-rubber  and  gutta-percha  have  also 
been  made,  others  of  thin  pai)er,  to  be  inflated  and 
suspended  in  a  school-room.  Betts's  paper-globes 
fold  up  when  not  in  use.  Embossed  globes  shew,  in 
exaggerated  relief,  the  elevations  and  depressions 
of  the  earth's  surface.  Compound  globes  including 
the  celestial  and  terrestrial,  are  made  with  an  outer 
glass  sphere  for  the  celestial,  and  orrery  mechanism 
to  shew  the  varjdng  relative  positions  of  the  sun  and 
moon,  &c. 

As  school-room  apparatus,  globes  are  used  for 
the  purpose  of  illustrating  the  form  and  motion 
of  the  earth,  the  position  and  apparent  motion  of 
the  fixed  stars,  and  for  the  mechanical  solution 
of  a  number  of  problems  in  geogi-aphy  and  prac- 
tical astronomy.  For  this  purpose,  each  globe  is 
suspended  in  a  brass  ring  of  somewhat  greater 
diameter,  by  means  of  two  pins  exactly  opposite 
to  each  other — these  pins  forming  the  extremities 
of  the  axis  round  which  it  revolves,  or  the  north 
and  south  poles.  This  brass  circle  is  then  let  into 
a  horizontal  ring  of  wood,  supported  on  a  stand, 
as  represented  in  the  art.  Armillary  Sphere  ;  in 
which  the  lines  dra\vn  on  the  surface  of  globes 
-  are  also  explained.  The  globes  in  common  use  in 
schools  are  12  inches  in  diameter;  those  to  be 
found  in  private  hbraries  are  more  frequently  18 
inclies. 

The  problems  to  which  the  globes  are  applied  are 
such  as  :  To  find  when  a  star  rises,  sets,  or  comes 


to  the  meridian  on  a  given  day  at  a  given  jilarr. 
The  mode  of  solution  will  be  found  in  any  scliool 
book  on  the  subject.  The  answers  obtained  in  this 
way  to  such  questions  are  only  very  rough  approxi- 
mations, and  are  in  themselves  of  little  <;r  no  value. 
But  '  the  use  of  the  glo})es,'  as  it  is  called,  serves 
the  purpose  of  making  evident  to  the  senses  how 
many  of  the  appearances  connected  vs'ith  the  motions 
of  the  earth  and  the  heavenly  bodies  are  caused, 
and  enabling  the  nature  of  the  problems  connected 
with  these  appearances  to  be  clearly  conceived. 
It  is  only  by  trigonometrical  calculation  that  the 
accurate  solutions  can  be  obtained. 

GLO'BULINE,  or  CRY'STALLINE,  is  one  of 
the  proteine  bodies  or  albuminates.  In  association 
with  hcejuatine,  as  hismato-globidin,  it  is  the  main 
ingredient  of  the  blood  globules ;  and  it  occurs, 
mixed  with  albumen,  in  the  cells  of  the  crystalline 
lens  of  the  eye,  forming,  according  to  Simon,  from 
10  uO  14  per  cent,  of  the  dry  lens.  Hence  its  two 
names.  In  most  of  its  relations  it  resembles  albu- 
men, but  differs  from  that  substance  in  being  preci- 
pitated both  from  acid  and  alkaline  solutions  by 
exact  neutralisation,  and  in  being  completely  thrown 
down  from  its  solutions  by  carbonic  acid  gas. 

GLO'BUS  HYSTE'RICUS,  or  Ball  in  the  Throat, 
the  name  applied  to  a  pecidiar  sensation  described 
under  Hysteria. 

GLO'CKNER,  or  GROSS  GLOCKNER,  the 
highest  peak  of  the  Noric  Alps,  is  situated  on  tlxe 
boundary  between  Tyrol,  Carinthia,  and  Upper 
Austria,  and  is  12,431  feet  in  height. 

GLO'GAU,  or  GROSS-GLOGAU,  a  town  and 
important  fortress  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of 
Silesia,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Oder, 
35  miles  north-north-weft  of  Liegnitz.  It  is  ^r- 
rounded  by  walls,  and  is  otherwise  fortified ;  and 
is  connected  by  a  wood'in  bridge  with  a  strongly 
fortified  island  in  the  Oder.  It  has  a  beautifid 
castle,  two  gymnasiums*,  one  Catholic,  and  the 
other  Protestant  ;  and  numerous  religious  and 
educational  institixtions  On  the  island  in  the 
Oder  is  a  cathedral  dating  from  1120,  and  containing 
a  Madonna,  the  masterpiece  of  Cranach,  Sen.  ISIanu- 
factures  of  woollens,  printed  calicoes,  hosiery,  tobacco, 
paper,  and  sugar,  and  some  trade  and  commerce  are 
carried  on.  Pop.  (1871)  18,265,  besides  a  garrison  of 
about  4000  men. 

GLO'GGNITZ,  a  small  town  of  Austria  w  the 
province  of  Lower  Austria,  is  situated  on  the 
Schwarza,  at  the  northern  base  of  the  Semme-ing 
Alp,  a  branch  of  the  Noric  chain.^  45  miles  so^th- 
south-west  from  Vienna.  Population  1200.  It  is  a 
station  on  the  Vienna  and  Trieste  Railway,  and 
stands  at  the  northern  extrenuty  of  that  portion 
of  it  known  as  the  Semmeriiigbahn^  or  railway  of 
the  Semmering.  This  portion  of  railway  is  per- 
haps the  most  extraordinary  work  of  its  kind  in 
Europe.  It  s^veeps  up  the  steep,  rocky  face  of  t.he 
mountain  in  many  curves,  and  descends  its  southprn 
slope,  after  having  passed  through  fifteen  tunnels 
and  crossed  as  many  bridges.  It  extends  from 
G.  on  the  north  to  Murzzuschlag  on  the  south, 
a  distance  of  25  miles.  The  greatest  elevation  is 
reached  23|  miles  south  of  G.,  Avhere  the  line  is 
2872  feet  above  sea-level,  and  1504  feet  a])ove  its 
height  at  Gloggnitz.  To  this  point  the  line  rises  in 
gradients  of  from  1  in  40  to  1  in  100;  the  average 
rate  of  ascent,  however,  is  1  in  82.  At  its  greatest 
elevation  the  line  pierces  the  Semniei-ing  in  a  tunnel 
4633  feet  long;.  Quick  trains  take  1  hour  and  42 
minutes  to  traverse  these  25  miles ;  slow  trains 
require  2  hours  33  minutes.  The  Semmcrivghahn 
was  constructed  for  the  Austrian  government  hj 


GLOMMEN— GLOUCESTER. 


(Jarlo  Chcga,  aa  eniineut  engineer,  between  the  years 
1«48  and  1853. 

GLO'MMEN,  or  Stor-Elv  (i.  e.,  great  river),  the 
largest  river  in  Norway,  rises  from  Lake  Aursund, 
at  the  toAvn  of  Roros,  in  lat.  about  62  40'  N.,  and 
long.  11°  16'  E.  Its  source  is  2419  feet  above 
sea-level,  and  its  course  is  interrupted  by  frequent 
water-falls,  the  last  of  which,  with  a  descent  of  60 
feet,  is  called  the  Sarpenfos  or  Sarp-fos,  and  occurs 
at  about  10  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river. 
Large  boats  can  ascend  to  the  Sarpenfos.  The 
Gr.  flows  first  in  a  south-west  direction  for  about 
60  miles,  then  bends  toward  the  south-east,  and 
pursues  that  direction  until  it  i)asse3  the  foi-tress 
of  Kongsvingcr,  after  which  it  again  turns  south- 
west, and  empties  itself  into  the  Skager  Eack  at 
Frederickstadt,  after  a  course  of  about  400  miles. 
Its  most  important  affluents  are  the  Rena  on  the 
left,  and  the  Vormen  on  the  right. 

GLO'KIA,  a  hjonn  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
service,  beginning  with  the  words,  '  Gloria  in  cxcelsis 
Deo.'  Its  place  in  the  mass  is  after  the  '  Introitus,' 
except  on-  the  penitential  days  in  Advent  and 
dmiug  Lent,  when  it  is  omitted.  It  is  founded  on 
the  2d  chapter  of  St  Luke,  14th  verse.  It  has  been 
BO  long  in  use  that  it  is  not  known  by  whom  it 
was  introduced  into  the  service  in  its  present  fomi. 
It  is  also  called  '  The  Great  Doxology,'  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  '  Gloria  patri  hiio  et  sjtiritui,'  which  is 
sung  at  the  end  of  the  Psalms  and  antiphonal 
hymns. 

GLORIO'SA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Liliacece,  having  a  perianth  of  6  elongated  and 
reflexed  segments,  a  3-lobed  stigma,  a  3-celled  su])e- 
rior  germen,  and  globose  seeds.  The  best  known 
epecies,  G.  snperba,  a  native  of  India,  is  a  herbaceous 
peainnial  with  a  weak  stem,  6 — 10  inches  high, 
alternate  leaves  terminating  in  tendrils,  and  very 
beautifiil  flowers,  finely  coloured  with  red  and 
yellow. 

GLORIOUS  VIRGIX,  or  ST  MARY  THE 
GLORIOUS,  an  order  of  knighthood  in  Venice, 
founded  by  Bai-tholomew  of  Vicenza,  and  approved 
by  Pope  Urban  IV.  in  1262.  This  institution  was 
ecclesiastical  as  well  as  military,  and  its  ol)jccts 
were  the  protection  of  widows  and  orphans,  and  the 
furtherance  of  the  peace  of  Italy.  The  badge  was  a 
purple  cross  between  certain  stars,  and  the  costume 
a  white  surcoat  on  a  russet  cloak. 

An  order  of  knighthood  of  St  Mary  the  Glorious 
rIso  existed  in  Rome  in  the  17th  c,  whose  purpose 
was  the  sujipression  of  the  Barbary  corsairs  who 
infested  the  Mediterranean. 

GLOSS  (in  Biblical  criticism),  Gr.  glossa 
(tongue,  or  language),  an  explanation  of  purely 
verbal  difficulties  of  the  text,  to  the  exclusion  of 
those  which  arise  from  doctrinal,  historical,  ritual, 
or  ceremonial  sources.  The  words  which  are  com- 
monly the  subject  of  these  glossarial  explanations 
are  reduci])le  to  hve  classes:  (1)  foreign  words; 
(2)  provincialisms  or  dialects ;  (3)  obsolete  words ; 
(4)  technical  words  ;  and  (5)  words  used  by  the 
author  in  some  abnormal  or  exceptional  significa- 
tion. From  an  early  period,  these  verbal  difficulties 
"were  the  object  of  attention,  and  the  writers  who 
devoted  themselves  to  the  elucidation  were  called 
glossatores,  and  their  works  glossaria.  The  principal 
Greek  glossatores  are  Hesj'chius,  Zonaras,  Suidas, 
Phavorinus.  Most  of  the  Rabbinical  writers  have 
doue  the  same  work  for  the  Hebrew  text ;  so  that 
it  would  be  difficult  to  name  any  in  particular  as 
Hebrew  glossatores.  The  chicif  glossatores  of  the 
liatin  Vulgate  are  the  celebrated  Walafried  Strabo 
in  tlie  9th  c,  and  Anselra  of  I<aon  in  the  12th,  for 
the  Latin  Tulgate. 


In  Roman  and  canon  law,  the  practice  of  intro- 
ducing glosses  was  of  early  origin,  and  probably 
was  an  imitation  of  the  biblical  glosses.  Among 
jurists,  the  gloss  was  not  purely  verbal,  but  regarded 
the  true  interpretation  of  the  law,  and  in  aome 
cases  it  was  held  to  be  of  equal  autnority  with  the 
text  itself.  From  the  position  which  it  occupied 
in  the  MS.,  being  generally  written  between  the 
lines  of  the  text  and  on  the  margin,  it  was  called 
glosm  interlinearis.  The  gloss  of  the  Roman  law 
is  written  in  very  jnu-e  Latinity,  that  of  the  canon 
law  in  the  Latinity  of  the  medieval  schools. 

GLOSSI'TIS  (Gr.  glossa,  the  tongue),  inflam- 
mation of  the  tongue.  The  disease  in  its  moafc 
acute  form  is  rare  ;  it  is  sometimes  due  to  injury, 
or  to  scald ;  in  other  cases,  to  the  action  of  mer- 
cury on  the  system.  The  tongue  becomes  enor- 
mously swollen,  and  one  of  the  chief  dangers  of 
the  attack  is  suffocation  from  swelling  of  the  parts 
about  the  hyoid  bone,  and  closure  thereby  of  the 
glottis  (see  Larynx).  The  only  really  eflective 
treatment  is  to  make  pretty  deep  incisions  into  the 
inflamed  part,  keeping  in  view  that  the  lesulting 
wound  is  likely  to  be  much  less  than  appears  at 
the  time  ;  for  the  enlargement  of  the  organ  has 
stretched  the  mucous  membrane,  and  irfllti'ated  all 
the  textures  w^th  fluid,  while  the  vessels  also  are 
distended  with  blood.  A  straight  bistoury  should 
be  boldly  })lunged  into  the  upper  surface,  and 
several  incisions  made  lengthways  sufliciently  deep 
to  evacuate  the  conflned  fluids.  A  good  deal  of 
blood  will  usually  follow,  but  if  care  has  licen  taken 
not  to  injure  the  lingual  artery  or  its  branches  (see 
Tongue),  there  is  no  real  danger  from  tLis  cause. 
In  places  at  a  distance  from  medical  advice,  this 
operation  might  require  to  be  performed  by  unskilled 
hands,  and  with  a  penknife  or  any  other  cutting 
instrument  at  hand ;  care  should  be  taken  in  this 
case  to  make  the  incisions  on  the  upper  surface, 
and  not  too  far  from  the  middle  line. 

GLOTTIS.    See  Larynx. 

GLOU'CESTER,  a  city  and  county  in  itself, 
the  chief  town  of  the  county  of  the  same  name,  an 
inland  port,  cathedral  town,  watering-place,  and  the 
seat  of  some  important  manufactures,  situated  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  river  Severn,  distant  west- 
north- west  from  London  107  miles  by  road,  and 
114  by  rail,  and  from  Bristol  36  miles  north-north- 
east. G.  is  clean  and  well  built,  with  four  principal 
streets,  of  convenient  width,  meeting  at  right  angles 
in  the  centre  of  the  city.  The  docks  are  spacious, 
and  communicate  with  the  open  part  of  the  Severn, 
below  Sharpness  Point,  by  means  of  a  ship-canal  17 
miles  in  length,  while  the  wharfs,  about  1000  feet 
in  length,  are  directly  connected  with  the  several 
railways.  The  foreign  trade  is  principally  with  the 
Black  and  Baltic  seas,  Canada,  the  West  Indies, 
and  France.  In  1872,  there  entered  in  the  foreign 
and  colonial  trades  898  vessels,  of  205,862  tons; 
cleared  168  vessels,  of  41,416  tons.  Coasting-trade 
— inwards.  952  vessels,  of  41.685  tons;  outwards, 
3318  vessels,  of  143,150  tons.  G.  is  connected  hy  the 
Midland  Railway  with  the  north,  by  the  Bristol 
and  Gloucester  Railway  wdth  the  west  and  south, 
by  the  Great  Western  with  London  and  the  cast, 
and  by  the  South  Wales  Railway  with  the  prin- 
cipality. Besides  affording  a  market  for  the  pro- 
duce of  the  surrounding  districts,  G.  imports  corn, 
timber,  wines,  and  spirits  in  considerable  quantities, 
has  a  large  export  trade  in  iron  and  steel  goods, 
coal,  soap,  malt,  and  potter  ware,  railway  fittings, 
agricultural  implements,  bells,  pins,  chemicals,  and 
hempen  goods. 

The  principal  building  in  G.  is  the  cathedral, 
cruciform  in  structure,  and  presenting  beautiful 


GLOUCESTER-GLOVES. 


examples  of  several  different  eras  of  ecclesiastical 
architecture,  427  feet  in  length,  and  154  in  width  ; 
the  height  of  tiie  central  tower,  its  greatest  external 
ornament,  is  223  feet ;  the  cloisters  also,  of  great 
beauty,  form  a  large  square.  Formerly  the  church  of 
a  Benedictine  abbey,  it  was  converted  into  a  cathe- 
dral in  1541.  There  are,  besides  the  cathedral,  12 
churches  of  the  Establishment ;  2  Wesleyan  and  2 
Independent  chapels ;  1  Catholic,  Baptist,  Methodist, 
Friends,  Unitarian,  and  Lady  Huntingdon's  Chapel, 
a  gi'ammar-school,  many  excellent  public  and  private 
schools,  a  neat  theatre,  assembly  rooms,  town- hall, 
jail,  and  lunatic  asylum.  G.  returns  two  members 
to  purliament.  Top,  (1851)  17,572;  (1871)  18,330. 
It  is  noted  as  one  of  the  three  cities  (Worcester 
and  Hereford  being  the  other  two)  at  which  the 
musical  festivals  of  the  three  choirs  are  alter- 
nately held.  The  history  of  G.  is  traceable  to  a 
very  remote  antiquity  ;  it  was  the  Caer  Glow  of 
the  Britons,  Colonia  Glevum  of  the  Komans,  and 
an  important  town  in  Mercia  under  the  Saxons, 
by  whom  it  was  called  Glean-Ceaster — whence  its 
present  name.  Here  the  celebrated  single  combat 
between  Edmund  Ironsides  and  Canute  is  said 
to  have  taken  place.  G.  was  repeatedly  visited 
by  AViUiam  I.,  afforded  a  refuge  and  support  to 
Queen  Matilda  in  her  contest  with  Stephen,  saw 
Hemy  III.  crowned,  and  parliaments  held  under 
Eichard  II.  and  Henry  iV.,  and  sided  success- 
fully with  the  parliament  in  the  civil  war  against 
Charles  I.  Robert  of  Gloucester,  the  metrical 
historian ;  Miles  Smith,  biblical  translator ;  the 
Poet  Taylor ;  and  II.  Eaiks,  the  founder  of  Sunday 
Bchools,  were  natives  of  Gloucester. 

GLOU'CESTER,  a  city  and  seaport  in  Massachu- 
setts, on  the  south  side  of  Cape  Ann,  about  28  miles 
nortli-north-cast  of  Boston,  with  which  it  is  connect- 
ed by  railvva3%  It  contains  16  churolies,  4  banks,  a 
savings  bank,  3  insurance-offices,  and  2  newspaper- 
offices.  The  interests  of  G.  are  almost  enfirely  com- 
mercial. It  has  a  greater  amount  of  tonnage  engaged 
in  the  domestic  fisheries  than  any  other  town  in  tlie 
United  States — amounting  to  about  35,000  tons — and 
employing  about  5000  men  in  the  cod-  and  mackerel- 
fisheries.  There  is  also  a  large  herring  and  shell-fish 
trade.  The  only  other  important  industries  are  a 
large  granite  trade  (from  quarries  in  the  immediate 
vicinity)  and  the  building  of  schooners.  The  har- 
bour is  one  of  the  best  on  the  coast.  G.  was  occu- 
pied as  a  fishing-station  as  early  as  1624.  It  became 
a  city  in  1874.  Two  newspapers  are  published  here. 
Pop."^  in  1860,  10,904;  in  1870,  15,389;  in  1880, 
19,329. 

GLOU'CESTERSHIRE,  a  county  of  England, 
lying  around  the  lower  course  of  the  Severn  and 
the  estuary  of  that  river,  is  bounded  on  the  W.  by 
Monmouth  and  Hereford,  on  the  N.  by  Worcester 
and  Warwickshire,  on  the  E.  by  Oxfordshire,  and 
on  the  S.  by  Somerset  and  Wilts.  Area,  805,102 
acres;  pop.  (1851)  4.58,805;  (1871)  534,320.  The 
shape  of  the  county  resembles  a  parallelogram, 
and  though  its  outline  is  still  somewhat  irregular, 
especially  in  the  north,  it  is  much  less  so  than 
formerly,  as  by  act  7  and  8  Vict.  c.  61,  out- 
lying portions  of  the  county  of  G.  were  annexed 
to  tne  counties  in  which  they  were  respectively 
situated ;  and,  in  like  manner,  detached  pieces  of 
land  belonging  to  other  counties,  but  situated  in  G., 
were  declared  portions  of  that  county.  There  are 
three  distinct  districts  in  this  county,  the  natural 
features  of  each  being  different.  These  are  the 
Hill,  the  Vale,  and  the  Forest  districts ;  the  first 
formed  by  the  Coteswold  or  Cotswold  Hills  (q.  v.), 
the  second,  comprising  the  vales  of  Gloucester  and 
Oeikeley,  V.y  the  rich  and  low  meadow  lands  lying 


along  the  banks  of  the  Severn ;  and  the  third  con 
sisting  of  the  land  west  of  the  Severn,  which  is 
occupied  chiefly  by  the  Forest  of  Dean.  The  county 
is  watered  })riucipally  by  the  Severn,  the  Wye, 
the  Upper  and  Lower  Avon,  and  the  Thames  or 
Isis,  which  receives  all  the  streams  on  the  east  of 
the  Cotswold  Hills.  The  soil  is  thin  on  the  hills, 
but  produces  good  pasturage  for  sheep,  while  the 
lower  tracts  abound  in  excellent  grass  and  arable 
lands.  The  vales  of  G.  are  remarkable  fov  the 
early  maturity  of  their  agricultural  i)roduce.  The 
famous  Double  and  Single  Glo'ster  cheese  is  pro- 
duced at  Berkeley,  in  the  vale  of  that  name,  and 
is  sold  throughout  the  kingdom.  1'he  Forest  of 
Dean,  20,000  acres  of  which  are  still  crown  property, 
is  highly  picturesque  in  appearance,  and  contains 
many  apple- orchards,  from  which  a  favourite  cider 
is  made.  A  lord- warden,  who  is  constable  of  the 
castle  of  St  Briavel's,  with  six  deputj'^-wardens,  and 
other  officer's,  superintend  the  government  of  the 
forest.  In  this  county,  numerous  and  important 
manufactures  are  carried  on ;  of  these,  the  manu- 
facture of  woollen  cloth,  of  the  better  qualities,  ia 
the  chief  ;  hats,  felt,  stockings,  pins,  cheese-cloths 
and  other  linens  are  also  produced  in  considerable 
quantities.  The  county  sends  four  members  to  the 
House  of  Commons. 

G.,  previous  to  the  Roman  invasion,  was  inha- 
bited by  a  tribe  called  the  Dobuni ;  and  after  that 
event,  the  county,  or  the  greater  part  of  it,  was 
included  in  the  province  named  Flavia  Ccesariensis. 
From  the  earliest  of  the  Danish  invasions  down 
to  the  battle  of  Tewkesbury,  in  1471,  and  to  the 
civil  wars  between  the  crown  and  parliament,  G. 
has  been  the  scene  of  many  and  disastrous  encoun- 
ters. It  contains  numerous  Roman  relics  in  camps, 
roads,  coins,  fragments  of  statuary  and  pottery, 
tesselated  pavements,  &o.  There  are  also  many 
traces  of  British,  Saxon,  and  Danish  works  in  the 
county. 

GLOVER,  Richard,  was  born  in  London  in 
1712,  and  was  educated  at  Cheam,  in  Surrey.  Ho 
was  a  merchant  in  his  native  city,  and  in  1760, 
became  member  of  parliament  for  Weymouth.  His 
first  poem,  to  the  memory  of  Sir  Isaac  Xewton,  was 
written  in  his  16th  year.  His  chief  poem,  entitled 
Leonidas,  was  published  in  1737,  and  passed  through 
several  editions.  A  continuation  of  it,  the  At/ienlad, 
was  published  in  1787.  These  poems  are  in  blank 
verse,  and  of  prodigious  extent.  Although  not  defi- 
cient in  a  certain  majesty  and  elevation  of  tone, 
they  are  in  the  main  turgid  and  heavy,  and  are 
now  almost  entirely  forgotten.  He  wrote  several 
tragedies,  which  did  not  meet  with  success.  His 
most  popular  poem,  Hos'ier\'i  GIlosI,  written  on  the 
taking  of  Carthagena  from  the  Spaniards,  \vas  pub- 
lished in  1739.  He  died  in  1785;  and  in  1813, 
appeared  a  diary,  or  part  of  a  diary  written  by  him. 

GLOVES.  Gloves  are  made  of  various  materials, 
such  as  silk,  wool,  linen,  cotton,  fur,  and  various 
kinds  of  leather  The  latter  material  is  the  most 
abundantly  used,  and  the  mode  of  making  it  up 
is  the  most  characteristic  of  this  branch  of  manu- 
facture. We  need  scarcely  inform  the  reader  that 
the  term  'kid'  is  a  mere  technicality,  as  the 
quantity  annually  consumed  of  leather  bearing 
this  name  is  largely  in  excess  of  what  could  be 
supplied  from  the  skins  of  all  the  young  goats  that 
are  annually  slaughtered.  It  is  chiefly  made  from 
lamb's  skin.  A  few  of  the  finest  gloves  are  made 
from  real  kid  skins,  obtained  from  those  countries 
where  goats'  milk  and  flesh  are  articles  of  food. 
Dogskin,  buckskin,  and  doeskin  gloves  are  made 
chiefly  from  sheepskin  ;  some  of  the  thickest  kinds 
of  leather  gloves  ai'e  made  from  calf-skm.  The 

793 


GLOVES— GLOWWORM. 


ifiather  in  all  cases  undergoes  a  much  lighter 
dressing  than  when  used  for  boots  and  shoes. 

Worcester  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  English  leather 
plove-manufactory ;  gloves  are  also  made  at  Lud- 
low, Leominster,  and  Yeovil,  besides  Woodstock, 
where  a  peculiar  and  superior  doeskin  glove  is 
made  bearing  the  name  of  the  town.  Limerick 
and  the  neighbourhood  has  long  been  celebrated 
for  gloves. 

The  French,  however,  still  excel  us  in  this  branch 
of  manufacture.  Up  to  1825,  the  importation  of 
French  gloves  was  prohibited,  and  the  competition 
consequent  upon  the  removal  of  this  prohibition  had 
the  usual  effect  cf  producing  a  rapid  improvement 
in  the  English  manufacture.  Very  cheap  and  good 
gloves  are  made  at  Naples ;  and  they  are  much  in 
request  on  the  continent. 

After  the  leather  has  been  properly  prepared,  it  is 
cut  into  pieces  of  the  required  size,  then  folded  ov(;r 
somewhat  unequally,  as  the  back  should  be  larger 
than  the  front.  Three  cuts  are  then  made  through 
the  doubled  piece  to  produce  the  four  fingers  ;  an 
oblong  hole  is  cut  at  the  bending  of  the  fold  for 
the  insertion  of  the  thuml)-piece  :  the  cutting  of 
this  of  the  exact  shape  and  size  requires  consider- 
able skill.  The  first  and  fourth  fingers  are  com- 
pleted by  gussets  or  strips  sewed  only  on  their 
inner  sides,  while  the  second  and  third  fingers 
require  gussets  on  each  side  to  complete  them. 
Besides  these,  small  pieces  of  a  diamond  shape  are 
EC  wed  in  at  the  base  of  the  fingers  towards  the  palm 
oi  the  baud.  The  stitching  together  of  these  pieces 
requires  much  cai-e,  as  the  junction  must  be  made 
as  closely  as  possible  to  the  edge  of  each  piece,  and 
yet  with  suflicitnt  hold  to  keep  the  stitches  from 
cutting  through  the  material.  A  kind  of  vice  or  clamp, 
with  minute  teeth  to  regulate  the  stitches,  is  some- 
times used  for  this  piirpose  ;  and  sewing-machines 
are  ai>plied  as  far  as  practicable,  especially  for  the 
ornamental  or  embroidery  stitchmg  on  the  backs. 
The  putting  in  of  the  thuml)-piece  requires  special 
skill  and  management.  Badly  made  gloves  com- 
monly give  way  at  this  part.  The  superiority  of 
the  French  and  the  best  English  glov^es  depends 
chiefly  upon  the  adaptation  of  their  shape  to  the 
Bti'ucture  of  the  hand  hy  giving  additional  size 
where  the  flexure  of  the  hand  requires  it.  The  best 
woollen,  thread,  and  silk  gloves  are  made  as  abov^e 
by  cutting  and  sewing  together,  but  commoner 
gloves  are  made  to  a  great  extent  by  knitting  and 
weaving  in  like  manner  to  stockings. 

Glove-dyeing. — The  dye  is  lightly  washed  over 
the  stretched  glove,  a  second  and  third  coat  being 
given  after  the  first  is  dry.  When  this  is  thoroughly 
dried,  the  superfluous  colour  is  rubbed  off,  and  the 
surface  smoothed  by  rubbing  with  a  polished  stick 
or  piece  of  ivory.  The  surface  is  then  sponged  over 
with  the  white  of  eg^. 

Glove-cleaning. — Od  of  turpentine  or  camphine  was 
the  material  chiefly  used  for  cleaning  kid  gloves,  but 
of  late  this  has  been  to  a  great  extent  superseded 
by  Benzole  (q.  v.)  or  benzine,  which  is  abundantly 
obtaim  d  in  sufficient  purity  for  this  purpose  by  the 
careful  lectification  of  coal-naphtha.  The  chief 
ad  vantages  of  this  latter  material  is,  that  it  is  more 
volatile,  and  its  odour  less  persistent  than  that  of 
ordinary  turpentine,  or  even  of  the  best  rectified 
camphine  which  has  been  much  exposed  to  the 
atmosphere.  The  mode  of  using  either  of  these  is 
to  stretch  the  gloves  over  a  wooden  hand  of  suit- 
able size,  and  then  sponge  them  with  the  fluid, 
removing  the  first  or  dirty  portion  with  a  second 
wash  of  clean  fluid.  By  collecting  the  washings 
separately,  and  allowing  them  to  stand  till  the  dirt 
settles,  the  same  turpentine  or  benzole  may  be  used 
over  and  over  again. 


An  inodorous  composition  may  be  made  by 
dissolving  one  part  of  soap-shavings  in  two  parts  of 
rain  or  distdled  water,  using  heat  to  aid  the  solu- 
tion. This  is  improved  by  adding  to  it  a  small 
quantity  of  liquor  ammonia  and  any  ordinary  per- 
fume. It  should  be  ajjplied  to  the  glove  stretched 
on  the  stock  by  rubbing  with  a  piece  of  flannel 
always  in  one  direction. 

Doeskin  and  wash-leather  gloves,  when  not  very 
dirty,  may  be  cleaned  dry  by  rubbing  them  when 
stretched  on  a  stock  with  a  mixture  of  finely 
powdered  fullcr's-earth  and  alum,  then  sweeping  o& 
this  powder  with  a  brush,  and  dusting  M'ith  dry 
bran  and  whiting.  If  the  gloves  are  very  dirty,  they 
should  be  washed  with  the  soap  solution,  then 
rubl)ed  with  pipe-clay  mixed  with  yellow  ochre  or 
amber  (according  to  the  shade  reqxdred),  made  into 
a  paste  with  ale  or  beer,  then  carefully  dried  and 
dusted  to  remove  the  superfluous  powder. 

Glove  Powder,  for  cleaning  gloves,  is  made  by 
carefidly  drying  Castile  soap,  and  then  pounding  it 
in  a  mortar ;  or  of  pipe-clay  coloured  with  yellow 
ochre  or  Irish  slate,  or  it  may  be  made  of  a  mixture 
of  pipe-clay  and  powdered  soap. 

GLOVES  (in  Law).  It  is  an  old  custom  in  Eng- 
land on  a  maiden  assize — i.  e.,  an  assize  on  which 
there  is  no  offender  to  be  tried — for  the  sheriff  to 
present  the  judge  with  a  pair  of  white  gloves.  The 
clerk  of  assize  and  the  judges'  officers  have  money 
given  to  them  on  the  same  occasion,  which  is  called 
<jluve  silver.  The  custom  of  presenting  white  gloves 
to  the  judges  on  a  maiden  circuit  is  also  observed 
in  ScotlandL 

GLOWWORM,  the  name  given  to  the  wingless 
females  of  certain  coleopterous  insects  of  the  family 
Lanipip-ldce,  remarkable  for  the  luminosity  of  some 
of  the  last  segments  of  the  abdomen.  The  insects 
of  the  family  Lanivyrldce  have  five  joints  in  all  the 
tarsi,  the  antennje  toothed,  the  elytra  (wing-covers) — 
at  least  of  the  males— covering  the  whole  abdomen. 


Glo^'Avorm  [Lampyris  noctiluca) : 
1,  male  ;  2,  female. 


the  whole  body  soft  and  the  elytra  flexible,  tno 
females  often  destitute  both  of  wings  and  elytra, 
the  thorax  projecting  over  and  almost  concealing 
the  head.  When  seized,  they  place  their  feet  and 
antennae  close  to  the  body,  many  of  them  also 
curving  the  abdomen  downward,  and  simidate  death. 
The  Common  G.  {Lavipyris  noctiluca)  is  abundant 
in  some  parts  of  England,  and  rare  in  the  south  of 
Scotland.  The  antennae  are  short.  The  male  has 
very  large  eyes.  The  female,  which  is  larger  than 
the  male,  is  fully  half  an  inch  in  length,  of  a 
blackish  colour,  the  legs  dusky  red,  and  the  thorax 
and  abdomen  margined  with  that  colour.  The 
female  is  perfectly  destitute  both  of  wuigs  and 
elytra.  The  habits  of  the  insect  are  nocturnal.  The 
male  emits  a  faint  light,  the  female  a  soft  Init  strong 
light,  of  which  the  use  is  supposed  to  be  to  attract 
and  guide  the  male.  The  female  G.  is  generally  to 
be  foimd,  during  the  summer  months,  among  grass, 
or  on  mossy  bardcs.  There  is  reason  to  think  that 
the  G.  has  the  power  of  displaying  and  extinguish- 
1  ing  its  light  at  <  i)leasm-e,  so  that  it  may  not  be 


GLUCHOV--GLUCK. 


lunecessarily  exposed  to  enemies  ;  but  if  the  lumin- 
oas  portion  of  the  abdomen  be  removed,  it  retains 
its  luminosity  for  some  time.  If  placed  in  hydrogen 
gas,  it  sometimes  detonates.  The  luminous  matter 
IS  capable  of  being  mixed  with  water,  and  warm 
water  increases  its  brilliancy.  Two  sjiots  on  the  last 
segment  of  the  abdomen  are  more  luminous  than 
any  other  part,  and  a  constant  motion  of  this  seg- 
ment seems  to  be  connected  with  the  emission  of 
the  light.  The  two  segments  next  to  this  are 
each  surrounded  by  a  band  brighter  than  the  rest 
of  the  segment.  The  larva  of  the  G.  is  very 
similar  to  the  perfect  female  insect,  but  is  very 
faintly  luminous.  It  is  very  voracious,  attacking 
and  devouring  snails,  whereas  the  perfect  insect 
eats  little,  and  is  supposed  to  prefer  the  tender 
leaves  of  plants. — Several  species  of  G.  are  foimd 
in  tiie  warmer  parts  of  Europe,  and  in  other  parts 
of  the  world.  The  luminosity  of  the  males  of  the 
genus  Lampyris,  and  of  other  winged  insects  of  the 
family  Lampijridce,  has  obtained  for  them  the  name 
of  Fireflies  (q,  v.). 

GLUCHO'V,  a  town  in  the  south-west  of  Eussia, 
in  the  government  of  Tchernigov,  and  112  miles  in 
direct  line  east-north-east  of  the  town  of  that  name. 
It  is  surrounded  by  earthen  walls,  contains  eight 
churches,  has  manufactures  of  cloth,  and  some  trade 
in  grain  and  brandy.  In  the  vicinity,  porcelain 
clay  is  obtained,  and  is  sent  north  to  the  imperial 
manufactory  at  St  Petersburg.    Pop.  8856. 

GLUCI'JS'A  (more  correctly,  Glycina,  from  Gr. 
glyhjs,  sweet),  derives  its  name  from  its  salts  having 
a  sweetish  taste.  It  was  discovered  by  Vauquelin, 
in  1797,  in  the  emerald,  and  has  since  been  found  in 
cymophane,  chrysoberyl,  phenokite,  the  gadolinites, 
leucopliane,  and  belvine ;  but  in  consequence  of  the 
great  difficidty  of  preparing  it,  its  properties  and 
combinations  have  not  been  much  studied.  Berzelius 
regarded  it  as  the  sesquioxide  of  Glucinum  (q.  v.),  in 
which  case  its  formula  would  be  GI2O3,  but  Debray, 
regarding  glucinum  as  monatomic,  assigns  to  G.  the 
formula  GI2O.  For  the  mode  of  extracting  it  from  the 
emerald  or  other  mineral  containing  it,  we  must  refer 
to  Debray's  Memoir  on  Olucinum  and  its  Compounds 
(a  translation  of  which  is  given  in  the  eighth  volume 
of  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Chemical  Society), 
or  to  any  of  the  larger  works  on  chemistry. 
Glucina  is  a  white,  loosely  coherent  powder,  with- 
out taste  or  smell.  It  is  infusible,  but  volatilises 
at  a  very  high  temperature. 

Amongst  the  salts  of  glucina  that  have  been 
studied  by  Debray  and  others,  we  may  mention  the 
sulphates  of  glucina,  and  of  glucina  and  potash  ;  the 
carbonates  of  glucina,  and  of  glucina  and  potash  ; 
and  the  oxalates  of  glucina,  of  glucina  and  potash, 
and  of  glucina  and  ammonia.  They  are  colourless, 
and  much  resemble  those  of  alumina. 

The  mineral  phenakite  is  a  pure  silicate  of  glucina. 
The  heryl,  of  whicli  the  eynerald  is  a  variety,  is  a 
double  silicate  of  glucina  and  alumina.  The  mineral 
mclase  is  also  a  double  silicate  of  the  same  earths; 
while  the  chrysoberyl  is  an  aluminate  of  glucina, 
coloured  with  peroxide  of  iron. 

GLUCI'NUM  (symbol,  Gl),  known  also  as 
GiyciNUM,  Glycium,  and  Beryllium,  is  a  metal 
whose  atomic  weight  is  4*65  (as  deduced  by 
Awdejew  from  the  analysis  of  sulphate  of  glucina), 
and  whose  specific  gravity  is  2"1.  It  is  white, 
malleable,  and  fusible  below  the  melting-point  of 
silver.  It  does  not  burn  in  air,  oxygen,  or  sidphur, 
but  in  the  first  two  substances  it  becomes  covered 
with  a  thin  coat  of  oxide.  It  combines  readily 
with  chlorine,  iodine,  and  silicon.  Even  when 
heated  co  redness,  it  does  not  decompose  water. 
It  dissolves  readily  in  hydrochloric  and  siilphuiic 


acids,  and  in  a  solution  of  potash,  but  ii  insoluble 
in  ammonia,  and  only  slightly  acted  on  by  nitric 
acid.    It  forms  one  oxide,  Glucina. 

From  the  researches  of  Debray,  it  follows  that  G. 
should  be  placed  side  by  side  with  aluminium. 
These  bodies  are  intermediate  between  the  precious 
and  the  ordinary  metals,  and  both  of  them  are 
characterised  by  the  following  properties :  They 
are  permanent  in  the  air  at  high  as  well  as  at 
low  temperatures ;  do  not  decomi)03e  water,  even 
when  they  are  at  a  white  heat ;  are  not  attacked 
by  sulphur,  suli)hurctted  hydrogen,  or  the  alkaline 
sidphides  ;  are  not  attacked  by  strong  nitric  acid 
at  ordinary  temperatures,  and  only  slow]}'-,  even 
with  the  aid  of  heat ;  but  dissolve  readily  in  dilute 
sulphuric  and  hydrochloric  acids. 

G.  was  first  obtained  from  glucina  by  Wohler,  in 
1827,  who  procured  it  by  decomjjosing  the  chloride 
of  G.,  which  is  obtained  by  evaporating  a  solution 
of  glucina  in  hydrochloric  acid.  Debray  has  since 
(1854)  obtained  it  much  more  abundantly  by 
applying  a  similar  mode  of  proceeding  to  that 
employed  by  Sainte  Claire  DeviUe  for  the  reduction 
of  aluminium. 

GLUCK,  JoHANN  CimiSTOPH  VON,  a  German 
musical  composer,  who  may  be  considered  the 
father  of  the  modern  opera,  was  born,  Jidy  2,  1714, 
at  Weissenwangen,  in  the  Upper  Palatinate.  Ho 
learned  the  rudiments  of  music  in  one  of  the  com- 
mon schools  of  Prague,  and  as  a  wandering  musi- 
cian went  to  Vienna,  where  he  found  oj)portunity 
to  master  the  rules  of  coimterpoint  and  hannony. 
In  1738,  he  went  to  Italy,  to  comi)lete  his  musical 
education,  and  found  a  worthy  master  in  San- 
Martini.  After  four  years  of  study  he  wrote  hia 
iii"st  opera,  Aj^taxerxes,  v/hich  was  i)erformed  at 
Milan,  1741.  This  was  followed  by  Ipermnestra  and 
Demetrio,  given  at  Venice,  1742,  and  several  ochera 
in  the  two  followdng  years,  produced  at  Milan  and 
Turin.  Having  achieved  a  high  reputation,  G.  was 
invited  to  London,  where  his  Fall  of  the  Giants 
was  represented  in  1745.  He  found  a  formidable 
rival  in  Handel,  whose  genius  he  honoured,  and 
he  derived  great  advantages  from  the  friendship  of 
Dr  Arne,  the  English  composer,  and  his  lady,  an 
excellent  singer.  It  was  here  that  he  began  to 
develop  the  full  force  of  that  lyric  genius  which 
was  destined  soon  to  create  a  new  order  of  mtisical 
composition  ;  but  the  outbreak  of  the  Kebellion  in 
Scotland  closed  the  opera,  the  singers  and  musicians 
being  mostly  Eoman  Catholics,  and  G.  returned  to 
Vienna.  In  1754,  he  was  called  to  Rome,  where  he 
wrote  La  Clemenza  di  Tito,  Antigono,  and  several 
others.  But  he  did  not  rise  to  that  high  style  of 
art  which  distinguished  his  later  works  until  he 
found  at  Florence,  in  Eanieri  di  Calzabigi,  a  poet 
w^hose  dramas  were  worthy  of  his  music.  He 
then  com])osed  the  three  operas,  Alceste,  Paride  e 
Elena,  and  Orfeo,  which  became  the  foundation  of 
an  imperishable  fame.  He  made  music  the  inter- 
preter of  poetry,  giving  to  it  the  fxdlest  expres- 
sion. His  simple,  noble,  and  grand  style  tilled 
Europe  with  admiration.  He  changed  no  less  the 
action  of  the  stage  than  the  music.  Before  him  all 
was  artificial  and  insipid.  He  made  evcr}i;hing 
natural  and  effective.  At  Paris,  1777,  he  became 
the  rival  of  the  great  Italian  composer  Picini,  and 
the  city  was  divided  into  two  rival  factions  of  the 
Gluckists  and  the  Picinists.  He  conquered  A\'ith  his 
Iphigenie  en  Tauride,  1779.  Picini,  who  had  com- 
posed an  opera  on  the  same  subject,  woidd  not 
allow  his  to  be  performed  after  listening  to  that 
of  his  rival.  His  great  triumph  was  followed  by 
several  successfid  works,  and  he  enjoyed  the  highest 
patronage  and  prosperity.  He  died  of  apoplexy, 
November  25,  1787.    B  irney  has  characterised  hiao 


GLtfCKSTADT— GLUCOSE. 


in  a  single  phrase,  when  he  calls  him  '  the  Michael 
jvngelo  of  music' 

GLU'CKSTADT,  a  town  of  Denmark,  capital 
of  the  duchy  of  Holstein,  is  situated  on  the  ri^ht 
bank  of  the  Elbe,  on  the  Kremper  Marsh,  32  miles 
below  Hamburg.  It  is  a  pretty  town,  regularly 
built,  and  intersected  by  canals.  The  chief  buildings 
are  the  high  school,  the  school  of  navigation,  the 
house  of  correction,  the  workhouse  for  Slesvig  and 
Holstein,  and  the  theatre.  It  has  a  safe  port  capable 
of  containing  200  ships,  and  furnished  with  wharfs. 
The  water  with  which  the  town  is  supplied  requires 
to  be  gathered  into  cisterns  and  artificially  puritied. 
Weaving  is  carried  on  here  to  some  extent ;  but 
trade,  navigation,  and  whale-fishing  employ  the 
inhabitants  chiefly.  G.  was  founded  in  1620  by 
Christian  IV.  of  Denmark,  fortified,  and  endowed 
with  various  commercial  privileges.  During  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  it  successfidly  withstood  three 
sieges;  its  fortifications  were  demolished  in  1815. 
It  has  been  a  free  port  since  1830.    Pop.  (1871)  5073. 

GLU'COSE  (or,  more  correctly,  Gi.ycose),  known 
also  as  GRAno  Sugar,  Starch  Sugar,  and  Diabetic 
Sugar  (CeHiaOe  +  2aq),  seldom  occurs  in  dis- 
tinct well-formed  crystals,  but  may  be  obtained  in 
warty  concretions,  which,  when  examined  under  the 
microscope,  arc  found  to  consist  of  minute  rhombic 
tablets.  It  never,  however,  crystallises  readily.  It 
is  less  sweet  than  ordinary  (cane)  sugar,  is  soluble 
in  water  and  in  dilute  alcohol,  and  its  solutions 
rotate  the  plane  of  polarisation  from  left  to  right, 
this  effect  on  a  ray  of  polarised  light  being  more 
marked  than  M'ith  cane  sugar.  At  212°,  it  fuses, 
and  loses  its  water  of  crystallisation,  and  at  a  higher 
temperature  (al;out  400°)  it  undergoes  change,  loses 
the  elements  of  water,  and  becomes  converted  into 
Caramel,  a  compound  brown  substance,  which  is 
neither  sweet  nor  capable  of  undergoing  fermenta- 
tion, but  which  is  readily  soluble  in  Avater,  and  is 
much  used  by  cooks  and  confectioners  as  a  colouring 
matter.  At  a  still  higher  temperature,  it  becomes 
entirely  decomposed  into  carbonic  oxide,  carbonic  acid, 
light  carburetted  hydrogen  (CHi),  acetic  acid,  alde- 
hyde, f urf urol,  and  a  very  bitter  substance,  to  Avhich 
the  name  Ansamar  has  been  applied. 

With  bases,  glucose  forms  various  definite  but 
unstable  compounds,  which  have  been  termed 
eaccharates,  a  term  which  ought  to  have  been 
restricted  to  tlie  salts  of  saccharic  acid.  On  heat- 
hig  an  alkaline  solution  of  glucose,  decomposition 
ensues,  and  a  dark-brown  uncrystallisable  substance 
is  formed,  which  possesses  'acid  properties,  and  is 
known  as  melassic  acid.  This  reaction  is  sometimes 
employed  for  the  detection  of  glucose,  and  is  known 
as  Moore's  test. 

Glucose  has  a  strong  reducing  power,  and  upon  this 
property  several  of  its  tests  are  based.  It  reduces 
the  oxide  of  copper,  even  without  the  aid  of  heat, 
in  alkaline  solutions  to  the  state  of  the  yellow  sub- 
oxide, and  this  reaction  is  apparent  when  only 
0*0001  of  glucose  is  present  in  the  fluid.  This  is 
knov/ii  as  Trommer's  test,  and  Fehling's  mode  of 
determining  glucose  quantitatively  is  based  on  the 
same  reaction.  In  consequence  of  this  reducing 
power,  sugar  is  sometimes  employed  in  the  solution 
of  the  silver  salts  used  for  the  silvering  of  mirrors. 

Glucose  readily  undergots  fermentation.  On  mix- 
ing a  solution  of  it,  kept  at  a  moderate  temperature, 
with  yeast,  each  equivalent  of  it  breaks  up  into 
two  equivalents  of  alcohol,  and  four  equivalents  of 
carbonic  acid,  or — 


Carbonii  Acid. 


CeHuOo  =  2(021160)  -f  2CO2 

r'ndcr  the  influence  of  other  exciters  of  fermentation, 
798 


as,  for  instance,  putrid  animal  membrauc^a,  01 
other  nitrogenous  substances,  glucose  becomes  con« 
verted  first  into  lactic  acid,  and  subsequently  into 
butyric  acid.  These  reactions  are  exhibited  in  the 
two  following  formulae : 

Carbonic  Hydro- 
Glucose.  Lactic  Acid.       Butyric  Acid.       Acid.  gen. 

c^nl^  =  2(cnhio3)  =  cai^2  +  2CO2  +  411 

Under  certain  conditions,  which  are  not  accurately 
known,  solutions  of  glucose  undergo  a  change  which 
is  termed  vm'.oiis  fermentation.  The  sugar  becomes 
converted  into  a  viscous  or  ropy  substance,  while 
lactic  acid  and  mannite  (CeHuOe)  are  formed.  This 
kind  of  fermentation  sometimes  occurs  in  light-bodied 
Avhite  wines.  Water  is  pi-obably  decomposed,  and  ics 
hydrogen  unites  with  a  portion  of  the  glucose  to  form 
mannite. 

Glucose  is  a  constituent  of  the  juice  of  grapea, 
plums,  cherries,  figs,  and  many  other  sweet  fruits, 
and  may  often  be  oljservcd  in  a  crystalline  form  on 
raisins,  dried  figs,  &c.  It  likewise  occurs  in  honey. 
In  the  animal  kingdom,  it  is  found  sometinies  as  a 
normal  and  sometimes  a  pathological  constituent  of 
various  fluids  and  tissues.  Thus,  it  occurs  normally 
in  the  contents  of  the  small  intestine,  and  in  the 
chyle  after  the  use  of  amylaceous  and  saccharine 
f  d,  in  the  blood  of  the  hepatic  veins  (see  Liver), 
1  c\iQ  tissue  of  the  liver,  in  both  the  yolk  and 
white  of  birds'  eggs,  in  the  \irinary  secretion  in 
minute  quantity  (according  to  Briicke,  Bence  Jones, 
and  others),  &c. ;  while  in  the  disease  known  aa 
diabetes,  it  exists  in  large  quantity  in  the  urinary 
secretion,  and  may  be  detected  in  nearly  all  the 
fluids  of  the  body.  By  injuring  a  certain  part  of 
the  medidla  oblongata  (the  part  of  the  spinal  ccrd 
contained  within  the  cavity  of  the  cranium),  an 
artificial  diabetes  can  be  produced. 

The  mode  of  formation  of  glucose,  whether  in  the 
laboratory  or  in  the  organisms  of  i)lants  and  animals, 
requires  some  notice.  It  can  be  obtained  chemically 
from  starch  and  from  dextrine  by  boiling  them  with 
dilute  sulphuric  acid,  or  by  the  action  of  Diastase 
(q.  v.),  and  from  cellulose  and  gum,  and  from  most 
of  the  varieties  of  sugar,  by  treatment  with  dilute 
acids.  In  the  liver,  it  is  formed  from  the  Glycogen 
(q.  V.)  which  occurs  in  that  organ,  under  the  influ- 
ence of  a  ferment  which  has  been  chemically  separ- 
ated from  the  hepatic  tissue,  but  with  the  nature  of 
which  we  are  not  acquainted ;  while  in  the  rest  of 
the  organism  it  is  formed  from  the  starch  which 
is  taken  with  the  food,  the  starch  undergoing  this 
transformation  under  the  influence  of  ptyaline  (a 
ferment  occurring  in  the  sahva),  pancreatine  (a 
ferment  occurring  in  the  pancreatic  juice),  and  an 
uiiknowTi  but  corresponding  ferment  existing  in 
the  intestinal  fluid. 

The  simplest  method  of  preparing  pure  glucose  is 
by  treating  honey  with  cold  rectified  spirit,  which 
extracts  the  uncrystallisable  sugar ;  the  residue  is 
dissolved  in  water,  and  the  solution  is  decolorised 
with  animal  charcoal,  and  allowed  to  crystallise. 

It  is  manufactured  on  a  large  scale,  especially  on 
the  continent,  from  starch.  A  mixture  of  starch 
and  water  at  a  temperature  of  about  130  is  made 
to  flow  gradually  into  a  vat  containing  water  acidu- 
lated with  1  per  cent,  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  kept 
at  the  boiling-point.  In  about  half  an  hour,  the 
starch  is  converted  into  sugar.  The  liquid  is  drawn 
ofl",  and  the  sidphuric  acid  is  neutrahsed  by  the 
gradual  addition  of  chalk,  till  there  is  no  longer 
any  effervescence.  The  sulj^hate  of  lime  is  depo- 
sited, and  the  clear  aqueous  solution,  after  being 
concentrated  by  evaporation,  is  set  aside  to  crystal- 
lise. The  molasses  is  drained  oft",  and  the  sugar  ia 
dried  at  a  gentle  heat  in  a  current  of  air.  'Th« 


GLUCOSURIA-GLUTTON. 


cliief  use,*  says  Dr  Muspratt,  in  his  Chemistry 
Ax^plicd  to  Arts  and  Manufactures,  'to  which 
glucose  is  applied  on  the  continent,  is  for  the  maiiii- 
tocture  of  beer  and  a  coarse  kind  of  alcohol,  which 
is  said  to  he  extensively  converted  into  French 
brandy  by  the  addition  of  oil  of  raisins,  colouring 
matter,  (fee' 

As  all  alcoholic  drinks  (ales,  wines,  and  spirits) 
are  obtained  from  fluids  containing  this  variety  of 
sugar  as  the  essential  constituent,  and  as  their 
quality  mainly  depends  upon  the  amount  of  sugar 
that  is  present,  it  is  very  important  to  have  some 
ready  means  of  determining  its  amount.  A  similar 
determination  is  also  of  great  value  in  reference  to 
the  urinary  secretion  in  diabetes,  as  it  is  mainly  by 
ascertaining  whether  the  daily  amount  of  excreted 
glucose  is  diminishing  or  increasing  that  we  can 
trace  the  favoxu-able  or  unfavourable  progress  of  the 
case. 

Without  entering  into  details,  we  may  mention 
that  there  are  three  different  modes  of  determining 
the  amount  of  glucose  in  a  fluid :  the  lirst  is  by 
determining  the  specific  gravity ;  the  second  is  the 
optical  test,  which  is  based  upon  the  fact  (ah-eady 
noticed),  that  solutions  of  sugar  (whether  graj^e,  cane, 
or  milk  sugar)  exert  right-handed  rotation  upon  a 
ray  of  polarised  light,  the  angle  of  rotation  being 
proportional  to  the  percentage  of  sugar.  Soleil's 
ajiparatus  for  determining  siigar  in  this  way  is 
described  in  the  article  Polartsing  Apparatus. 
The  third  is  by  chemical  means,  of  which  the  most 
important  are  Barreswil's  method  and  the  ferment- 
ation test.  Barreswil's  method  is  based  upon  the 
property  which  glucose  possesses  of  throwing  down 
suboxide  of  copper  from  alkaline  solutions  of  oxide 
of  copper. 

In  employing  the  products  of  the  fermentation  of 
glucose  as  a  means  of  determining  its  quantity,  we 
take  a  given  quantity  of  the  saccharine  fluitl,  add  a 
little  well-washed  yeast,  and  collect  the  carbonic 
acid  that  is  evolved  over  mercury.  Roughly  speak- 
ing, a  cubic  inch  of  carbonic  acid  corresponds  to  a 
grain  of  sugar. 

There  are  two  A^arieties  of  G.  composing  fruit  sugar, 
distinguished  by  their  action  on  ]tolarized  light,  viz. : 
dextro-glucose,  or  ordinary  G.,  which  turns  the  plane 
of  polarization  to  the  right,  and  lajvo-glucose,  which 
turns  it  to  th§  left. 

GLUCOSU'RIA,  a  modern  name  for  Diabetes 
Mellitus  (see  Diabetes),  and  indicative  of  its  char- 
acteristic symptom,  the  presence  of  sugar  in  the 
urine. 

GLUE.    See  GELATI^^E. 

GLUE,  Marine,  a  cementing  composition  used 
in  ship-building,  and  for  other  purposes,  where 
the  materials  are  expor.ed  to  the  influence  of  wet. 
It  consists  of  india-rubber  cut  very  small  —one  i)ai-t 
digested  at  a  gentle  heat  in  a  closed  vessel  with 
twelve  parts  of  mineral  naphtha  until  it  is  dissolved, 
then  twenty  parts  of  powdered  shell-lac  are  added, 
and  the  dicr^^stion  continued  until  it  also  is  dissolved. 
During  bo£L  stages  of  the  i)rocess,  the  mixture  must 
be  stirred  or  shaken  occasionally.  It  requires  to  be 
liquefied  by  heat  before  using,  and  must  be  quickly 
apj)lied,  as  it  very  soon  hardens.  It  is  particularly 
valuable  in  consequence  of  its  power  to  cement  not 
only  wood,  but  glass  and  metals,  and  also  to  resist 
tlie  action  of  moisture.  Its  employment,  however, 
requires  some  care  and  skill. 

GLUME,  in  Botany,  a  small  bract  or  scale,  in 
the  axil  of  which  there  grows  either  a  single  flower 
destitute  of  perianth,  as  in  the  Cyperacece,  and  in 
some  of  the  Grasses ;  or,  as  in  others  of  the  Grasses, 
a  spikelet  composed  of  a  number  of  flowers  {jlorets). 
The  Grasses  {Graminete)  and  Cyperacece  are  some- 


times conjoined  under  the  appellation  Olumaceous 
Plants. 

GLU'TEN  is  one  of  the  most  important  con- 
stituents of  the  varieties  of  corn  used  as  food.  It 
is  obtained  by  mixing  flour  with  water,  and  thua 
forming  a  paste  or  dough.  This  paste  is  placed  in 
a  bag  of  fine  linen,  and  kneaded  in  water,  which 
must  he  repeatedly  changed,  till  it  ceases  to  assume 
a  milky  appearance.  A  gray,  tenacious,  viscous, 
tasteless  substance,  having  the  appearance  of  bird- 
lime, is  left  in  the  bag.  This  substance  consists 
mainly  of  gluten,  mixed  with  traces  of  bran  starch 
and  of  oily  matter.  The  gluten  thus  obtained  from 
wheat  and  from  rye  is  far  more  tenacious  than  that 
which  is  obtained  from  the  other  cereals,  and  it  ia 
the  great  tenacity  of  this  constituent  that  especially 
fits  these  flours  for  conversion  into  bread.  It  ia 
found  by  analysis,  that  the  proportion  of  gh^ten  con- 
tained in  wheat  grown  in  Algeria  and  other  hot 
countries  is  considerably  higher  than  in  wheat 
grown  in  England,  or  still  colder  countries ;  and 
the  hard,  thin-skinned  M'heats  contain  more  of  this 
ingredient  than  the  softer  varieties  of  the  grain. 
It  forms  about  IG  per  cent,  of  Algerian  wheat ; 
about  15  per  cent,  of  wheat  from  the  Black  Sea; 
and  nearly  14  per  cent,  of  South  Carolina  wheat ; 
about  10"7  per  cent,  of  English  wheat ;  9'8  per  cent, 
of  Canadian  wheat;  and  less  than  9  per  cent,  of 
Danzig  wheat. 

Gluten  in  a  moist  state  rapidly  putrefies,  the 
mass  acquiring  the  smell  of  decaying  cheese  ;  but 
when  dry,  it  forms  a  hard,  brownish,  horny-lookiiig 
mass,  that  does  not  very  readily  decompose.  On 
treating  gluten  with  hot  alcohol,  we  find  that  it 
resolves  itself  into  at  least  two  distinct  substances, 
one  of  which  is  soluble,  and  the  other  insoluble  m 
that  fluid. 

The  insoluble  portion  is  regarded  by  Liebig  as 
vegetable  fibrine.  It  is  a  gray,  tough,  elastic  sub- 
stance, insoluble  in  water  or  in  ether,  but  readily 
soluble  in  dilute  alkalies,  from  which  it  is  precipi- 
tated by  neutralisation  with  acetic  acid.  It  is  also 
soluble  in  very  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  from  which 
it  is  thrown  down  by  the  neutral  salts. 

The  soluble  portion  is  in  part  precipitated  from 
the  alcohol  on  cooling,  in  the  form  of  flakes,  which 
have  the  composition  and  properties  of  caseine; 
while  a  third  substance  remains  in  solution,  giving 
to  the  alcohol  a  sirupy  consistence.  It.  separates, 
on  the  addition  of  water,  as  a  white  substance 
resembling  albumen.  It  is  usually  known  as  gliadin^ 
but  some  chemists — Dumas  and  Cahours,  and 
others — have  termed  it  glutin,  a  name  which  ia 
objectionable  on  the  ground  that  it  is  already 
engaged  for  the  chief  form  of  gelatine.  AU  these 
constituents  of  gluten  contain  carbon,  hydrogen, 
nitrogen,  oxygen,  and  sulphur,  in  much  the  same 
proportion  as  the  animal  albuminates  or  proteine 
bodies,  and  they  all  doubtless  belong  to  the  flesh- 
forming  group  of  foods. 

The  action  of  gluten  in  the  manufacture  of  bread 
is  probably  a  double  one  ;  it  induces,  by  constant 
action,  an  alteration  of  the  starch,  and  subsequent 
fermentation,  while  by  its  tenacity  it  prevents  the 
escape  of  carbonic  acid  gas. 

GLU'TTON  {Gulo),  a  genus  of  quadrupeds  usually 
referred  to  the  bear  family  [Ursidce),  but  which 
constitutes  an  interesting  connecting-link  between 
that  and  the  weasel  family  {Mmtelidce),  agreeing 
more  nearly  with  the  latter  in  dentition,  although 
approaching  to  the  former  in  the  plantigrade 
character.  There  are  three  false  molars  in  the  upper, 
and  four  in  the  lower  jaw,  anterior  to  the  carnivor- 
ous tooth,  which  is  large  and  sharp.  The  body  ia 
long,  the  legs  are  short,  the  feet  have  each  five 

797 


GL  \^CERIA-  GLYCERIN. 


deeply  divided  toes,  terminated  by  loni?  curved  claws.  [ 
The  tail  is  rather  short,  a  fold  beneath  the  tail  sup- 
plies the  place  of  the  glandular  pouch  of  the  badgers;  { 
but  when  hard  pressed  by  enemies,  the  gluttons 
emit  a  peculiar  fluid  of  a  strong  musky  odour.  Their 


Glutton  {Gulo  lusoMs). 

habits  are  nocturnal.  The  species  commonly  called 
Glutton,  and  also  Wolverene  {G.  lusc?is),  is  a 
native  of  the  northern  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and 
America.  It  is  more  common  in  the  arctic  regions 
than  towards  the  southern  limits  of  its  distribution, 
which  are  about  the  forests  of  Conrland,  in  Enrojie, 
and  the  mountainous  ])arts  of  JNIassachusetts,  in 
America.  It  is  about  two  feet  six  inches  or  two 
feet  nine  inches  in  length,  from  the  tip  of  the  nose 
to  the  root  of  the  tail ;  the  tail  about  seven  or  eight 
inches  long,  both  body  and  tail  covered  with  long 
hair,  under  which  the  body  is  covered  with  a  rich 
thick  fur.  The  general  colour  of  the  long  hair  is 
brown,  sometimes  approaching  to  black,  lighter 
bands  passing  from  the  neck  along  the  flanks,  and 
meeting  at  the  tail.  The  short  fur  is  chestnut 
brown.  The  muzzle  is  black.  A  light-brown  band 
runs  across  the  forehead  from  ear  to  ear.  The 
fur  of  the  G.  is  sometimes  of  considerable  value,  and 
IS  used  for  muffs,  cloaks,  &c.,  but  varies  not  a  little 
in  glossiness  and  other  qualities.  The  most  extra- 
ordinary stories  were  at  onetime  credited  concerning 
the  ferocity,  voracity,  and  cunning  of  this  animal, 
and  have  not  altogether  disappeared  from  books 
of  natural  histrry.  It  is  very  capable  of  domesti- 
cation, and  even  in  a  wild  state  exhibits  no  remark- 
able ferocity  ;  nor  is  there  any  reason  to  believe  that 
it  leaps  from  trees  on  deer,  or  pursues  any  of  those 
artful  methods  of  procuring  food  which  were  once 
ascribed  to  it.  It  often  preys  on  animals  which  it 
has  not  itself  killed.  The  smaller  quadrupeds  are 
its  principal  food,  and  it  devours  young  foxes  in 
^eat  numbers.  Its  speed  is  not  great,  but  it  excels 
m  strength  and  perseverance.  The  traps  set  for 
the  smaller  kinds  of  animals  in  the  fur  countries 
of  North  America  are  very  often  robbed  by  the 
wolverene,  and  it  has  been  known  to  remove  a 
great  pile  of  wood,  in  order  to  get  at  provisions 
which  had  been  hidden  under  it. — Closely  allied 
to  the  G.  are  the  Grison  and  the  Ratel.  Bone- 
caverns  and  some  of  the  newest  deposits  exhibit 
remaiixs  of  more  than  one  species  of  Glutton. 

GLYCE  RIA.    See  Manna  Grass. 

GLY'CERIN  (CaHsOs),  known  also  as  hydrated 
oxide  of  lipyl,  or  norntml  hydrate  of  glyceryl,  was 
discovered  by  Scheele  in  1779,  who  obtained  it  in 
the  preparation  of  lead-plaster,  and  named  it  'the 
sweet  principle  of  oils.'  It  is  a  colourless,  viscid, 
Deutral,  uucrystallizable,  inodorous  fluid,  of  a  sweet 
79S 


taste,  ia  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol  in  all  propor- 
tions, but  is  nearly  insoluble  in  ether.  Its  specifio 
gravity  at  59°  is,  according  to  Miller  and  moat 
aiithorities,  1*28,  but  Gorup-Besanaz  makes  it  aa 
high  as  197.  At  40°,  it  becomes  gummy  and  almost 
solid;  at  212°,  it  is  slightly  volatile;  but  if  distiPcd 
alone,  the  greater  part  of  it  becomes  decomposed; 
it  may,  however,  be  distilled  without  alteration  in 
a  current  of  superheated  steam  which  has  l)f.on 
raised  to  a  temperature  of  between  500°  and  GOO". 
By  this  means  heated  fats  are  separated  into  hydrated 
glycerin,  and  the  acids  with  which  it  was  previously  in 
combination,  the  glycerin  being  in  a  high  state  of  coii- 
centration  as  a  colourless,  syrupy  liquid,  which  can  be 
thus  prepared  in  unlimited  quantity.  Glycerin  forms 
soluble  compounds  with  baryta,  strontia,and  lime,  and 
it  dissolves  oxide  of  lead  and  numerous  salts.  Berthol- 
let  has  found  that  glycerin,  like  Mannite  (q.  v.),  is  con- 
vertible into  a  true  fermentable  sugar,  when  digested 
with  certain  animal  tissues.  Glycerin  occurs  ready 
formed  in  a  few  fats  (as,  for  example,  old  palm  oil), 
and  according  to  Pasteur  is  contained  in  all  fermented 
li(piors,  and  especially  in  wine,  its  quantity  amounting 
to  three  per  cent,  of  the  fermented  sugar.  It  is  a  pro- 
duct of  the  saponification  of  the  various  fats,  although 
it  does  not  exist  as  glycerin,  but  rather  as  a  substance 
having  the  composition  rcpres^ented  by  the  formula 
CiUeO-i.  Accoriling  to  BerthoUet's  view,  glycerin  is  a 
triatomic  alcohol,  an  opinion  now  generally  adopted. 
The  neutral  fats  of  the  animal  body,  stearin,  pal- 
mitin,  olein,  etc.,  consist  of  glycerin,  in  which  three 
atoms  of  hydrogen  are  replaced  by  acid  radicles  ;  and 
by  heating  glycerin  with  acids  in  difi^erent  proportions, 
a  large  number  of  compounds  may  be  formed  in  which 
\,  f,  or  the  whole  of  the  replaceable  hydrogen  is  thus 
replaced,  and  1,  2,  or  3  atoms  of  Avater  eliminated. 
Thus  with  one  proportion  stearic  acid  the  following 
compounds  are  obtained : 

Glycerin.      Stearic  Acid.  Water. 

Monostearin   ^CoiHiaOi^C^E^S+MI^— H^O 

Glycerin.     Palmitic  Acid.  TVater. 

Monopalmitin  =Ci9H3804=C3ll803+Ci6n3202— H2O 

Glycerin.       Oleic  Acid.  Water. 

Monolein       =C2iH4o04=cSl^3-f  C18H34O2— iHo 

The  saponification  of  these  fats  by  {he  action  of 
alkalis  is  the  converse  of  etherification,  consisting  in 
the  separation  of  the  glyceryl  (C3H5)  and  the  acid 
radicle,  and  an  interchange  between  the  glyceryl  and 
the  metal  of  the  alkali,  resulting  in  the  formation  of 
an  alkaline  salt  of  the  fat  acid — that  is  to  say,  a  soap — 
and  glycerin. 

We  have  already  referred  to  the  best  mode  (Wil- 
son's process)  of  obtaining  glycerin  on  a  large  scale ; 
the  usual  method  of  obtaining  it  on  a  small  scale  is 
from  olive  oil,  which  we  saponify  by  treating  it  with 
an  equal  weight  of  oxide  of  lead  (litharge),  which  is 
mixed  with  water  and  added  ,  to  the  oil,  with  which  it 
is  boiled  till  the  saponification  is  complete.  The  gly- 
cerin is  dissolved  by  the  water,  and  is  easily  separated 
from  the  insoluble  lead-plaster  (a  mixture  of  oleate 
and  palmitate  of  lead).  Any  traces  of  lead  are  re- 
moved by  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  the  water  is 
then  expelled  171  vacuo,  or  over  the  water-bath.  The 
former  is  preferable,  as  in  the  open  air  the  glycerin 
becomes  brown. 

The  uses  of  glycerin  are  numerous.  In  medicine, 
it  is  employed  as  a  local  application  in  diseases  of 
the  skin  and,  of  the  ear;  and  it  is  u.sed  internally 
as  a  solvent  for  many  drugs.  It  is  a  valuable  pre- 
servative fluid  for  small  and  delicate  anatomical 
pi-eparations,  and  it  has  been  applied  to  the  preser- 
vation of  meat.  It  has  been  added  to  the  water 
in  gaf  metres  with  the  view  of  preventing  it  froir 


GLYCINE— GMUND. 


freezing  in  winter,  or  from  evaporating  too  rapidly 
in  summer.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  copy- 
ing-ink, and  is  of  general  application  wherever  a 
lubricating  agent  is  required. 

Many  interesting  researches  have  been  carried^  on 
during  the  last  few  years  regarding  the  true  chemical 
nature  and  the  artificial  production  of  glycerin  ;  they 
are,  however,  for  the  most  part  of  a  too  purely  chemi- 
cal nature  to  be  made  intelligible  to  the  general  reader. 
We  will  merely  remark  that,  like  the  alcohols  in  gen- 
eral, to  which  class  glycerin  is  now  assigned,  it  forms 
several  classes  or  series  of  derivatives,  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  are  its  combinations  with  acids,  form-, 
ing  (jlycerides,  or  compound  etliers  of  glycerin,  Avhich 
are  analogous  in  their  composition  to  tlie  various  fats 
and  oils.  Berthollet  has  succeeded  in  forming  these 
bodies  synthetically,  and  has  thus  not  only  reproduced 
several  of  the  natural  fats,  but  has  obtained  a  large 
class  of  similar  bodies  which  were  not  previously 
known.    See  Watts'  Diet,  of  Chemistry. 

Treated  with  sulphuric  acid,  glycerin  yields  glyeero- 
suJp7mric  acid  (CsHsSOe),  and  treated  with  phosphoric 
acid,  it  yields  glycero-phosphoric  acid  (CsHgFOe),  a 
substance  which  occurs  normally,  in  combination  with 
soda  and  ammonia,  in  the  brain  and  in  the  yolk  of  egg. 

GLY'CINE,  GLY'COCINE,  GLY'COCOL,  or 
SUGAR  of  GELATINE  (C2H5NO2)  occurs  in  col- 
ourless, transparent,  rhombic  prisms,  which  have  a 
sweet  taste,  and  are  devoid  of  odour.  It  is  very  solu- 
ble in  water,  the  solution  having  no  eifect  on  vege- 
table colours,  but  is  insoluble  in  alcohol  and  in  ether. 
Glycine  combines  both  with  acids  (as  hydrochloric, 
nitric,  sulphuric,  and  oxalic  acid),  and  with  metallic 
oxides,  and  the  compounds  in  both  cases  are  soluble 
and  crystallizable ;  they  are,  however,  of  no  great  im- 
portance. 

It  is  usually  described  as  an  animal  base,  but  is  now 
regarded  as  belonging  to  a  class  of  bodies  termed 
amides,  and  as  being  an  acetamide  body,  which  may 
be  obtained  by  the  action  of  acetate  of  ethyl  with 
strong  aqueous  ammonia,  or  by  that  of  ammonia  on 
acetic  acid.    The  reaction  may  be  thus  represented : 

Acetate  of  Ethyl.        Ammonia.  Acetamide.  Alcohol. 

C2H3O.C2H5.6  +  NH3  =  NnTcSbO  +  C2H5.ii.d 

Glycine  is  a  product  of  various  processes  of  decompo- 
sition of  animal  matters. 

GLY'COGEN  (C12II11O11HO,  according  to  the 
analysis  of  Pelouze)  is  a  -siibstance  which  in  its 
properties  seems  intermediate  between  starch  and 
dextrine;.  In  contact  with  saliva,  pancreatic  juice, 
diastase,  or  with  the  blood  or  parenchyma  of  the 
liver,  it  is  converted  into  glycose,  and  hence  its 
name  of  glycogen.  It  occurs  only  in  the  cells  of 
the  liver,  where  it  exists  as  an  amorphous  matter; 
but  in  the  early  stage  of  foetal  life,  before  the  liver 
begins  to  discharge  its  functions,  instead  of  being 
found  in  that  organ,  it  exists  in  special  cells  in  the 
fcetai  structures  known  as  the  placenta  and  the 
amnion,  and  in  the  muscles,  horny  tissues,  &c.  In 
severe  forms  of  disease,  and  especially  in  febrile 
affections,  it  seems  to  be  temporarily  absent  from 
the  liver.  Its  uses  in  the  animal  economy  are 
noticed  in  the  article  Liver. 

GLYCOL  is  the  type  of  a  n^w  class  of  artificial 
compounds,  whose  existence  was  inferred,  and  after- 
wards discovered,  a  few  years  ago,  by  Wurtz.  In 
their  chemical  relation  and  properties,  they  form  an 
intermediate  series  between  the  monobasic  or  mona- 
tomic  alcohols,  of  which  common  alcohol  is  the  type 
on  the  one  hand,  and  the  class  of  bodies  of  which 
ordinary  glycerin  is  the  type,  on  the  other.  The 
name  of  glycol,  formed  from  the  first  syllable  of 
glycerin  and  the  last  of  alcohol,  has  been  given  to 
express  this  relation.     According  to  the  Theory  of 


Types  Avhich  is  now  commonly  accepted  (see  Ti'PEa, 
I'HEORY  or  Chemical),  the  glycols  are  termed  dia- 
tomic alcohols,  ordinary  alcohol  being  a  monatomic 
and  glycerin  being  a  triatomic  alcohol. 

Ordinary  glycol  is  formed  iuom  ethylene  (C2H4), 
and  hence  it  may  be  called  cthyl-glycol,  to  distinguish 
it  from  propyl-glycol,  which  is  formed  from  propylene 
(Calle),  from  butyl-glycol,  which  is  formed  from 
butylene  (C4H5),  or  from  ainyl-glycol,  which  is  formed 
from  amylene  (CsHio)- 

Glycol  is  a  colourless,  slightly  viscid  fluid,  with  a 
sweet  taste,  and  its  composition  is  expressed  by  the 
formula  C2II6O2.  For  further  information  on  this 
class  of  bodies,  we  must  refer  to  any  of  the  recent 
works  on  organic  chemistry,  or  to  a  lecture  on  the 
Ilistoire  generale  des  Glycols,  delivered  by  Wurtz  be- 
fore the  Chemical  Society  of  Paris,  and  published  in 
the  Lecons  de  Chimie  profcssees  en  1860,  and  Watt.s' 
Diet,  of  Chemistry,  18GG— 09. 

GLYCO'SMIS,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Aurantiacece,  trees,  natives  of  the  East  Indies 
and  the  Mascarene  Islands.  The  fruit  of  G.  citrifolia^ 
an  East  Indian  species,  is  delicious. 

GMELIN,  Leopold,  a  celebrated  chemist,  was 
born  at  Gottingen,  in  August  1788,  and  died  at 
Heidelberg,  in  April  1853.  His  father  was  professor 
of  natural  history  and  botany  at  Tubingen,  and 
afterwards  of  chemistry  at  Gottingen  ;  and  for  at 
least  four  generations  members  of  the  Gmelin  family 
have  distinguished  themselves  in  chemistry  and 
natural  history.  After  taking  his  degree  in  medi- 
cine, he  spent  several  years  at  Tiibingen,  Vienna, 
and  Naples,  in  the  study  of  chemistry  and  miner- 
alogy;  and  in  the  autumn  of  1813,  he  began  his 
public  career  as  a  teacher  of  chemistry  at  Heidel- 
berg, where,  twelve  months  afterwards,  he  was 
appointed  extraordinary  professor  of  chemistry. 
He  discharged  the  duties  of  his  office  with  unre- 
mitting zeal  until  1848,  when  he  had  an  attack 
of  paralysis  ;  and  in  1850,  in  consequence  of  a 
second  attack,  he  was  obliged  to  resign  his  pro- 
fessorial office.  He  published  numerous  contribu- 
tions to  chemistry  and  mineralogy  in  Schweigger's 
Journal,  Poggendorff's  Annalen,  Liebig's  Atmalen, 
and  in  Leonhard's  Jahrhuch,  laetween  the  years 
1815  and  1844.  In  1820,  he  undertook,  in  con- 
junction with  Tiedemann,  a  series  of  experiments 
on  digestion ;  and  in  1826,  these  philosophers 
published  their  celebrated  work  on  this  subject, 
under  the  title  of  Die  Verdauung  7iach  Versuchen,  in 
two  volumes.  '  But '  (Ileport  of  the  Council  of  the 
Chemical  Society  for  1854)  '  the  greatest  service 
which  Gmelin  rendered  to  science — a  service  in 
which  he  surpassed  all  his  predecessors  and  all  his 
contemporaries — consists  in  this  :  that  he  collected 
and  arranged  in  order  all  the  facts  that  have 
been  discovered  in  connection  with  chemistry. 
His  Ilandbuch  der  Chemie  stands  alone.  Other 
wi-iters  on  chemistry  have  indeed  arranged  large 
quantities  of  materials  in  systematic  order,  but 
for  completeness  and  fidelity  of  collation,  and  con- 
secutiveness  of  arrangement,  Gmelin's  Handbook  is 
imrivalled.'  The  first  edition  of  this  great  work 
appeared  in  1817 — 1819,  and  included,  in  two  vols, 
of  moderate  size,  the  whole  extent  of  chemical 
knowledge  as  it  then  existed.  The  fourth  and  last 
appeared  between  the  years  1843  and  1855,  and 
extended  to  six  vols.,  the  last  volimie  being  edited, 
after  G.'s  death,  by  Schlossberger  and  List.  An 
English  translation  of  this  edition  (under  the 
auspices  of  the  Cavendish  Society),  vrit\i  important 
additions  by  Mr  Watts,  the  translator,  is  now  in 
coiu'se  of  publication,  and  nearly  completed. 

GMUND,  a  town  of  Wurtemberg,  in  the  circle  of 
Jaxt,  stands  Ln  a  beautifid  and  highly  cidtivated 

7d» 


GNAPHALIUM-GNOMB. 


district  on  the  Rema,  29  miles  east-north-east 
from  Stuttgart.  G.  has  important  mannfactures  of 
bijouterie  and  hardware,  and  carries  on  spinning 
and  stocking-weaving.  Hops  are  produced  in  the 
neighbonrliood  in  great  quantity.  G.  was  formerly 
an  imperial  free  city,  and  in  the  middle  ages  had  a 
popidation  of  18,000.  It  was  added  to  the  kingdom 
of  WUrtemberg  in  1803.    Pop.  (1871)  10,739. 

GNAPHA'LIUM.    See  Cudweed. 

GNAT  {Culex),  a  genus  of  dipterous  insects, 
having  the  wings  laid  flat  on  the  back  when  at 
rest  ;  the  antennaj  thread-like,  14- jointed,  feathery 
in  the  male,  and  hairy  in  the  female ;  the  mouth 
fui'nished  with  a  long  projecting  prol)oscis,  adapted 
for  piercing  the  skin  of  animals  and  sucking 
their  hlood.  They  are  said  to  feed  also  on  veget- 
able juices.  The  species  are  numerous,  and  abound 
in  almost  all  parts  of  the  world,  particularly 
in  marshy  regions ;  and  some  of  them,  under  the 
name  of  Mosquitoes  (q.  v.),  are  known  in  many 
countries  as  most  annoying  pests.  An  irritating 
fluid,  injected  through  the  proboscis,  makes  their 

{)uuctm-es  painful,  and  causes  swelling.  The  pro- 
)0scis  of  a  gnat  is  an  extremely  intoi'esting  micro- 
scopical object.  It  is  a  membranous  cylindrical 
tube,  clothed  with  minute,  feather-like  scales,  and 
terminated  by  two  lips,  which,  M'hen  closed,  form  a 
kind  of  knob,  and  by  six  sharp  bristles  or  very  small 
lancets.  The  female  gnats  have  the  most  powerful 
proboscis,  and  are  the  princii)al  blood-suckers.  Some 
persons  are  much  more  liable  to  tlie  assaults  of 
gnats  than  others.  The  flight  of  gnats  is  very  swift, 
and  the  extremely  rai)id  vibration  of  their  AAangs 
causes  the  loud  and  sharp  buzzing  sound,  which  so 
often  prevents  sleep  wlien  even  one  of  these  insects 
has  fomid  its  way  into  a  bedroom  on  a  summer 
niaht.    The  eggs  of  gnats  are  deposited  on  the 


Gnat,  magnified : 
1,  i/isect  depositing  eggs  ;  2,  insect  escaping  from  pupa  case; 
3,  larva  of  gnat;  4,  floating  raft  uf  eggs. 


B\irface  of  shallow  stagnant  water,  placed  side  by 
side,  united  by  an  unctuous  matter,  and  fastened  to 
the  bottom  by  a  thread,  which  prevents  their  float- 
ing away.  They  are  soon  hatched ;  indeed,  a  single 
summer  sees  several  generations  of  gnats.  The 
larvae  are  to  be  seen  in  immense  numbers  in  stag- 
uant  waters ;  they  are  of  an  elongated  worm-like 
form  ;  are  destitute  of  feet,  but  swim  and  dive  by 
means  of  fin-like  organs ;  they  feed  on  insects,  and 
a]so  on  vegetable  substances  ;  and  often  suspend 
themselves  at  the  surface  of  the  water,  head  down- 
wards, for  the  purpose  of  respiration,  by  means  of 
radiating  bristles  attached  to  a  long  spiracle  or  tube 
at  the  caudal  extremity  of  the  body,  by  which  air  is 
600 


admitted  to  the  trachece  or  air-tubes.  The  pupse  also 
inhabit  water,  and  are  active ;  they  remain  almost 
constantly  at  the  surface  of  the  water,  with  the 
body  recurved  ;  and  the  respiratory  openings  of  the 
air-tul)os  are  now  in  the  thorax. — The  Common  G. 
(C  pipiens)  is  of  very  wide  geographic  distribution. 
It  is  about  three  lines  in  length,  browni,  with  whitish  * 
rings  on  the  abdomen,  the  wings  unspotted.  It  so 
abounds  in  some  of  the  fenny  parts  of  England  that 
beds  are  occasionally  surrounded  with  gauze  cur- 
tains, as  in  India  on  account  of  mosquitoes.  It  is 
extremely  abundant  in  Lapland  and  Iceland. — A 
number  of  genera,  allied  to  Cnlex,  are  united  by 
many  entomologists  into  a  family  called  Culicidce. 

GNEISS,  a  term  introduced  from  the  German, 
as  the  name  for  a  variety  of  Metamorphic  rock, 
which  has  the  same  component  materials  as  granite, 
and  differs  from  it  only  in  these  materials  being 
arranged  in  layers,  rather  than  in  an  apparently 
confused  aggregated  mass.  The  minerals  of  which 
it  is  composed  are  quartz,  fels])ar,  and  mica.  The 
mica  is  sometimes  replaced  by  hornblende,  pro- 
ducing a  gneiss  corresponding  to  the  variety  of 
gi'anite  called  Syenite.  The  different  ingredients 
occur  in  various  proportions,  altering  the  character 
and  appearance  of  the  gneiss  accordingly.  It  is 
often  difficult  to  determine  hand  specimens  of  gneiss ; 
for,  on  the  one  hand,  they  are  sometimes  so  crystal- 
line that  they  resemble  granite,  while,  on  the  other, 
the  schistose  varieties  a[)proach  so  near  to  mica- 
schist,  that  even  in  the  field,  under  the  most 
favourable  circumstances,  it  is  not  easy  positively 
to  separate  them. 

Gneiss  was  originally  deposited  as  sand  or  mud, 
and  has  been  converted  into  a  hard  tou^h  crystalline 
rock  by  long  and  continuous  subjection  to  meta- 
morphic action,  induced,  perhaps,  chiefly  by  heat. 
It  has  generally  been  considered  as  an  azoic  rock, 
that  is,  deposited  before  the  existence  of  life  on  the 
globe.  The  older  strata,  classified  by  Logan  under 
the  title  Laurentian,  the  equivalents  of  which  have 
been  recently  observed  by  Murchison  in  Scotland, 
have  as  yet  proved  destitute  of  fossils,  but  this  may 
be  owing  to  the  extreme  metamorphism  they  haA'e 
undergone.  The  Cambrian  and  Silurian  strata  of 
the  north  of  Scotland  have  also  been  to  a  large 
extent  converted  into  gneissose  rocks,  which  contain 
intercalated  with  them  fossiliferous  Hmestones.  It 
would  seem,  indeed,  that  gneiss  and  its  allied 
stratified  rocks  are  not  necessarily  *  primary  rocks,' 
but  may  occur  wherever  an  agency  sufficiently 
powerfid  has  acted  upon  ordinary  sandstone  and 
shale. 

GNE'SEN,  a  small  town  of  Prussia,  is  situated  in 
a  district  abounding  in  hills  and  lakes,  in  the 
province  of  Posen,  and  thirty  miles  east-north- 
east of  the  town  of  that  name.  It  was  the  earliest 
capital,  and  is  said  to  be  the  oldest  town  of  Poland. 
Pop.  (1871)  9917. 

GNETA'CE^.    See  Sea  Grape. 

GNOME  (Gr.  gnome),  a  pithy  and  sententious 
saying,  commonly  in  verse,  embodying  some  moral 
sentiment  or  precept.  The  gnome  belongs  to  the 
same  generic  class  wdth  the  proverb ;  but  it  differs 
from  a  proverb  in  wanting  that  common  and  popu- 
lar acceptance  which  stam])s  the  i)roverb,  as  it  were, 
wath  public  authority.  The  use  of  gnomes  pre- 
vailed among  all  the  early  nations,  especially  the 
Orientals ;  and  the  literatures,  both  sacred  and  pro- 
fane, of  most  countries  abound  with  them.  In  the 
Bible,  the  book  of  Proverbs,  part  of  Ecclesiastes, 
and  still  more  the  apocryphal  book  of  Ecclesiasticus, 
present,  so  far  as  regards  language  and  struc- 
ture, numberless  illustrations  of  the  highest  form 
of  this  composition.    The  other  books  of  the  01  d 


GNOME— GNOSTICS. 


Testament  contain  many  examples;  and  in  the 
New  Testament  the  familiar  lessons  of  our  Lord 
are  frequently  presented  in  this  striking  form, 
which  was  peculiarly  adapted  to  impress  and  move 
the  classes  whom  he  addressed.  The  Indian,  the 
Arabian,  and  the  Persian  literatures  also  are  rich 
»  in  gnomes,  as  are  those  of  the  northern  nations.  But 
the  most  interesting  form  which  they  have  taken 
is  that  in  which  we  find  them  in  Greek  literature, 
in  which  the  writers  who  have  cultivated  this  form 
of  composition  are  known  as  a  distinct  class — the 
Gnomic  Poets  (gnomikoi).  The  Greek  gnome  is 
commonly  couched  in  the  elegiac  distich ;  and  the 
most  celebrated  gnomic  -poets  were  Solon,  Theognis, 
Phocylides,  Simonides,  Tyrtseus,  and  Xenophaues  of 
Colophon.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  is  Theognis, 
whose  gnomes  extend  to  above  1200  hues.  The  remains 
of  gnomic  wTiters  have  been  repeatedly  edited  under 
the  title  of  Gnomici  Poetce  GrcBci,  from  the  days  of 
Melancthon  downwards.  The  standard  editions  are 
those  of  Bekker  (1815)  and  Welcker  (1826).  There 
is,  moreover,  a  popular  edition  by  Brunck,  which  is 
reprinted  in  the  Tauchnitz  Classics ;  and  the  gnomic 
poets  are  also  commonly  included  in  the  collections 
of  Minor  Greek  Poets, 

In  Latin  literature,  the  Disticha  of  Dionysius 
Cato,  the  authorship  of  which  has  proved  so  fertde 
a  source  of  controversy,  may  be  mentioned  as 
belonging  to  the  class  of  gnomes. 

GNOME,  the  name  given  in  the  cabalistic  and 
mediaeval  mythology  to  one  of  the  classes  of 
imaginary  beings  which  are  supposed  to  be  the 
presiding  spirits  in  the  mysterious  operations  of 
nature  in  the  mineral  and  vegetable  world.  They 
have  their  dwelling  within  the  earth,  where  they 
preside  specially  over  its  treasures,  and  are  of  both 
sexes,  male  and  female.  The  former  are  often  repre- 
sented in  the  form  of  misshapen  dwarfs,  of  whom 
the  well-known  '  Rubezahl,'  or  '  Nimiber-nip,'  of 
German  legend  is  a  familiar  example.  Pope,  in  the 
R  ipe  of  the  Lock,  and  Darwin,  in  the  Loves  of  the 
J'lants,  have  drawn  upon  the  more  pleasing  associa- 
tions of  this  curious  branch  of  mythology.  See 
Elemental  Spirits. 

GN'O'MO?^.  When  a  rectangle  is  divided  into 
four  parts  by  cross  lines  parallel  to  its  sides,  the  sum 
of  any  three  of  the  parts  is  called  the  gnomon.  See 
Euclid,  b.  ii.  prop.  5,  and  seq. — Gnomon  has  also  a 
meaning  in  Dialling  (q.  v.). 

GNOMO'NIC  PROJECTION.    See  Projec- 

TIOXS. 

GNO  STICS  (from  Gr.  Gnosis,  knowledge),  the 
collective  term  for  a  number  of  early  Christian  sects 
w})ich  were  known  besides — with  one  insignificant 
ex^^eption — by  special  names  derived  from  their 
respective  founders.  The  word  gnosis,  when  first 
applied  to  revealed  religion,  in  many  passages  both 
of  the  Septuagint  (for  the  Hebr.  Deah)  and  the  New 
Testament,  expressed  a  full  and  comprehensive 
acquaintance  with,  and  insight  into,  the  received 
laws  and  tenets,  ritual  and  ethical,  and  was  conse- 
quently praised  as  a  desirable  acquirement ;  by  St 
I'aul  even  called  a  special  gift  {Charisma)  (1  Cor.  xii. 
8,  &c.).  Gradually,  however,  there  was — first  by 
the  Judoeo- Alexandrine  schools — ingrafted  upon  it  a 
meaning  more  akin  to  that  in  which  it  was  occasion- 
ally used  by  Pythagoras  and  Plato  ;  it  designated  a 
knowledge  of  certain  mysteries,  which  lay  hidden 
beneath  the  letter  of  the  religious  records,  and 
c;>uld  be  received  only  by  a  few  superior  minds, 
while  the  multitude  had  to  be  satisfied  with  the 
outward  apparent  meaning.  The  remarkable  form 
ci  Christianity  to  which  the  word  in  this  sense 
was  applied,  is  a  religious  phenomenon  as  extra- 
ordiiiary  as  were  the  times  and  causes  that  gave  it 
30  < 


birth.  Rome  had  conquered  well-nigh  the  whole  «jf 
the  then  known  civilised  world,  and  within  her 
vast  dominions  the  barriers,  which  had  hitherto 
separated  the  multifarious  nations  of  east  and 
west,  were  broken  down.  From  the  remotest 
corners  of  the  empire  philosophers  and  priests, 
scholars  and  teachers,  flocked  to  Rome,  to  Athens, 
to  Alexandria,  and  communicated  to  each  other, 
discussed,  and  frequently  amalgamated  their  widely 
diS"ering  creeds  and  systems  to  such  a  degree  that 
the  former  national  or  personal  individuality  of 
opinion  was  almost  effaced,  making  room  either 
for  a  vacillating  indecision,  or  at  the  best  a 
shadowy  and  passive  eclecticism.  And  while,  on 
the  one  hand,  Greek  philosophy,  which  formed  a 
principal  part  of  the  education  of  the  higher  classes, 
had  become  almost  exclusively  a  Platonism,  sliding 
into  overt  scepticism ;  on  the  other  hand,  the 
naturalisation  in  the  Roman  empire  of  a  promis- 
cuous Pantheon,  whose  gods  M^ere  gathered  from 
Egypt,  Greece,  Persia,  India,  and  countries  still 
more  remote,  had  at  length  produced,  out  of  an 
unparalleled  mixture  of  religious  ideas  and  fancies, 
a  superstition  so  abject  and  unnatural,  that  it  too,  at 
last,  was  ready  to  give  place  to  despairing  unbelief, 
Judaism,  again,  had  outlived  its  political  existence, 
and  began  to  assert  itsf  If  as  a  faith,  independent  of 
any  state  or  dominion  of  its  own,  divided,  however, 
into  different  schools,  according  to  the  more  or  less 
strict  adherence  to  the  letter  of  its  written  and 
oral  laws.  Nay,  the  influence  of  Hellenism  had, 
among  the  Alexandrines,  produced  such  effect  that, 
of  the  living  body  of  Judaism,  little  remained 
but  a  skeleton  framework,  round  which  allegory 
and  symbol  had  woven  their  fantastic  fabric. 
Christianity,  as  yet  not  clearly  defined,  swept  all 
the  more  irresistibly  over  the  regions  from  the 
Euphrates  to  the  Ganges,  the  Nile  to  the  Tiber,  aa 
it  offered  a  code  of  morals  sublime  and  yet  simple, 
a  faith  human  and  withal  divine,  superior  to  any  of 
the  abstruse  and  exploded  Polytheisms,  to  a  world 
agitated  to  its  lowest  depths,  and  yearning  for  some 
new  and  more  satisfying  doctrine ;  while,  at  the  same 
time,  it  denounced  the  stringent  and  severe  ritual 
tenets  of  its  mother-religion,  Judaism,  as  inconsistent 
with  the  freedom  of  the  human  mind.  Yet  it  waa 
not  to  be  expected  that  the  old  pagan  creeds  and 
the  old  philosophies  would  expire  without  a  struggle. 
They  made  a  last  stand,  and  produced  in  theii 
and  the  ancient  world's  dying  hour  Gnosticism.  It 
sprang  suddenly  out  of  a  monstrous  chaos,  a  con- 
summate religious  eclecticism,  bold,  consistent,  to 
a  certain  degree  even  sublime.  The  wildly  oppo- 
site ideas  of  Polytheism,  Pantheism,  Monotheism, 
the  most  recondite  philosophical  systems  of  Aris- 
totle, Plato,  P3rthagoras,  Heraclitus,  Empedocles. 
&c.,  together  with  the  awe-striking  Mysticism 
and  Demonology  which  after  the  Babylonian  cap- 
tivity had  created,  in  the  very  heart  of  Judaism, 
that  stupendous  and  pre-eminently  anti-Jewish 
science  of  Cabbala  (q.  v.) — all,  it  would  appear, 
had  waited  to  add  something  of  their  own  to  the 
new  faith,  which  coidd  not  hold  its  own  under  all 
these  strange  influences.  An  open  attack  was  no 
longer  of  any  use ;  so,  assuming  the  garb  of  the 
enemy,  they  sought  to  carry  destruction  into  the 
centre  of  the  hostile  camp.  Moreover,  an  aristo- 
cracy of  mind,  powerful  and  numerous  as  none  had 
ever  been  before,  could  not  but,  even  when  it  had  out- 
wardly assumed  the  new  religion,  loathe  the  thought 
of  sharing  it  completely  and  unreservedly  with  the 
herd  of  freed  and  unfreed  slaves  aroimd  them,  with 
the  low  and  the  poor  in  spirit ;  and  the  exclusive- 
ness  of  Gnosticism  was  undoubtedly,  next  to  the 
fascination  of  its  dogmas,  one  of  the  chief  reasons  of 
its  extraordinarily  rapid  propagation. 

801 


GNOSTICS. 


W e  have  stated  at  the  outset,  that  Gnosticism  was 
!nit  a  general  name  for  a  great  number  of  diverging 
Christian  schools.  But  all  these  had  some  funda- 
mental points  in  common,  which  we  will  attempt 
to  specify  briefly,  as  far  as  the  fragmentary  and 
adulterated  nature  of  the  evidence  will  permit ;  for 
unluckily,  all  we  know  of  the  G.,  we  know  from 
their  Jewish  and  Christian  adversaries,  who  con- 
fessedly took  especial  pride  in  representing  them  and 
their  belief  in  their  darkest  hues. 

There  is  a  Divine  Being,  whose  essence  is  love, 
grace,  and  mercy.  He  is  enthroned  in  the  highest 
neight,  enclosed  in  an  abyss  (Buthos).  He  is  the 
sum  of  being.  He  is  silence,  abstraction,  incom- 
prehensible, for  human  minds  almost  non-existing 
{Ouk  On).  The  Mosaic  Cosmogony  has  not  seemmgly, 
they  said,  brought  us  one  step  nearer  to  the  solu- 
tion of  the  problem  of  the  creation.  Out  of  nothing, 
nothing  can  come,  notwithstanding  a  Divine  Fiat ; 
for  God  can,  through  his  spii'itual  nature,  have  no 
connection  whatever  with  corporeal  things,  and  he 
could  not  have  originally  made  them.  They,  there- 
fore, assumed  a  pre-existing  matter  [Tlyle],  out  of 
which  the  universe  was  merely  formed.  A  corro- 
boration for  this  opinion  was  found — according  to 
the  peculiar  Gnostic  mode  of  interpretation — in 
the  two  adjectives  Tohii  vabohu  (without  form  and 
void)  (Gen.  i.  2),  apj)lied  to  the  earth,  and  which 
were  by  them  interpreted  as  substantives  (Kenoma, 
Kenon)  intended  to  express  the  original  substance 
of  the  universe  (Cf.  Gen.  Rab.  i.).  Between  this 
Hyle,  or  visible  world,  ivowever,  which  was  either 
represented  as  the  darkness  or  shadow  alongside 
the  divine  light,  as  a  sluggish,  stagnant  mass,  or 
as  a  turbulent,  active  kmudom  of  evil :  and  that 
supreme  incompreliensibie  Being,  whose  goodness 
could  have  nothing  to  do  vnth.  the  evils  of  the 
world,  no  more  than  his  perfection  vnth  its  defects 
and  misery,  there  existed  a  Pleroma,  or  fulness  of 
Light.  In  this  fulness  dwelt  embodied  attributes 
of  Di^dnity,  the  abstract  ideas  of  Wisdom,  Justice, 
Right,  Power,  Truth,  Peace,  and  many  more  which 
^ad  emanated  or  flowed  out  (in  pairs,  as  some  held, 
male  and  female)  from  the  supreme  central  point,  as 
rays  innumerable  How  out  of  the  sun,  as  countless 
Dumbers  from  one  unit,  as  echoes  from  a  sound,  or 
as,  primarily,  all  the  founts  and  rivers  arise  from 
the  waters  below.  At  the  head  of  these  emana- 
tions or  ^ons  (Everlasting  ones — hke  their  source) 
which,  descending  lower  and  lower,  form  a  link 
between  heaven  and  earth,  stands  the  Nous;  and 
one  of  the  lowest  .^ons  is  the  Demiurgos.  He  is 
the  real  framer  and  master  of  the  Adsible  world,-  and 
pai-takes  to  a  certain  degree  of  its  nature.  On  the 
nature  of  this  Demiurgos  (Jaldabaoth,  Archon), 
however,  the  two  principal  divisions  of  Gnosticism, 
which  might  be  termed  Judjeo-Alexandrine  and 
Syrian  respectively,  widely  differed.  The  former 
took  him  as  the  representative  and  organ  of  the 
highest  God.  It  was  he  who  had  been  put  by  the 
divine  mil  over  Israel,  especially  under  the  name 
of  Jehovah.  As  other,  though  inferior,  angels 
presided  over  the  destinies  of  other  nations,  so  this 
higher  ^on  had  to  protect  the  peculiar  people  of 
God.  It  was  he,  therefore,  who  revealed  himself — 
he  who  gave  the  laws — he  who  sent  the  prophets. 
But  in  all  this  he  acted  rather  as  an  unconscious 
medium  ;  he  was  no  more  able  to  comprehend  the 
full  meaning  of  the  ideas  revealed  through  him  in 
the  Old  Testament,  than  he  understood  the  scope 
and  significance  of  the  creation.  His  principal 
attributes  are  justice  and  severity,  which,  carried  out 
with  stern  consistency,  become  cruelty.  These  G. 
distinguished  also  among  the  Jews  themselves, 
those  '  after  the  Hesh'  who,  confounding  the  likeness 
VTith  the  original,  the  s3anbol  with  the  idea,  took 
802 


I  the  Demiurgos  to  be  the  supreme  God,  and  those 

I  'after  the  Spirit,'  or  Israelites  indeed — the  privileged 
few  who,  divining  at  least  the  veiled  ideas  of  the 
j  supreme  God,  needed  no  such  education  by  fear  or 
hope,  punishment  or  reward,  at  the  hands  of  the 
I  Demiurgos,  but  rose  above  him  in  understanding  and 
conception  of  things  human  and  divine.    The  other 
j  principal  party  of  the  G.,  however,  the  Syrian, 
j  under  the  influence  of   the  Parsic  (Zoroastrian) 
Dualism,  so  far  from  considering  the  Demiurgos 
I  as  an  instrument  of  divinity,  willing  but  poor  in 
I  intellect,  looked  upon  him  rather  as  a  rival,  and 
consequently  conflicting  power.    He  is  the  primary 
I  evil  opposed  to  the  primary  good.     The  divine 
I  germs  which,  according  to  both  parties,  had  been 
j  communicated  through  the  lowest  emanations  in 
their  downward  course  to  matter  and  to  mankind, 
the  Demiurgos  of  the  Alexandrians  had  not  known 
how  to  develop  in   a  proper  manner,  but  had 
weakened,  sometimes  neutralised  them  from  want  of 
knowledge,  thus  engendering  all  earthly  sin  and 
misery  against  his  will,  while  the  Syrian  Demiurge 
spitefully  and  maliciously  stifled  these  germs  in 
order  to  wrest  the  power  over  the  world  from  the 
Divine  Being  altogether.    His  base,  revengeful,  and 
withal  limited  nature,  they  said,  is  fully  and  clearly 
stamped  \x]}oi\  the  Old  Testament — exclusively  his 
work. 

Man — in  this  all  the  schools  were  agreed — was 
divided  into  three  classes,  corresponding  more  or 
]  less  to  these  predominant  powers  of  the  world : 
[  Divinity,  Matter,  and  Demiurgos.    There  were  first 
I  the  spiritual  men  or  Pneumatikoi,  inspired  by  the 
I  highest  (xod,  striving  towards   him,  with  him ; 
i  initiated  intoliis  counsels,  understanding  bis  essence. 
;  They  were  free  from  the  yoke  of  law,  for  terrestrial 
I  nature  had  no  power  over  them;  they  were  the 
I)ro})liets,  guiding,  but  not  guided  ;  the  i)ossessors  of 
the  true  Gnosis.    Diametrically  opposed  to  these, 
I  as  was  Hyle  to  divinity,  are  the  terrestrial  men, 
I  Sarkikoi  or  Choiks~oi  the  earth  earthy — who  are 
j  tied  and  bound  by  matter ;  they  can  neither  aspire 
to  the  height  of  spiritual  men,  nor  are  they  to  be 
I  ruled  by  the  precepts  of  law.    Between  these  stand 
I  the  Ps^ychikoi,  the  blind  servants  of  the  lawgiving 
I  Demiurgos,  who  are,  through  the  restraints  put 
I  upon  them  by  his  either  stupid  or  spiteful  pre- 
cepts, free  to  a  certain  degree  from  the  terrestrial 
powers,  but  they  can  never  reach  the  height  in 
which  the  pneumatics  habitually  dwell.    And  again, 
corresponding  to  these  three  classes  of  men,  there 
were  three  principal  religions  ;  Christianity  above. 
Heathenism  below,  Judaism  in  the  intermediate 
space. 

The  two  leading  tendencies  of  Gnosticism,  of 
which  we  have  spoken,  also  manifested  themselves, 
accordingly,  in  the  view  they  each  took  of  tne 
person  of  Christ  himself.  According  to  both,  he 
was  the  highest  JEon,  suddenly  sent  down  by  the 
Supreme  Being,  to  rescue  and  reclaim  ce-tain  higher 
natures — for  the  lowest  stratum  of  men,  the  carnal 
or  terrestrial,  was  irredeemably  lost — "^hich  had 
either  been  led  astray  by  the  Demiurgos,  or  had 
become  entangled  in  the  net  of  matter.  At  the 
same  time  the  harmonious  combination  of  the 
human  and  divine  in  Christ,  which  the  New  Testa- 
ment assumed,  stood  in  direct  opposition  to  the 
very  basis  of  Gnosticism.  The  Visible  and  the 
Invisible,  the  Finite  and  the  Infinite,  God  and  Man, 
cannot  combine :  in  this  they  all  agreed.  But 
while  the  Judaising  schools  divided  Christ  into 
two  distinct  persons,  one  of  heaven  aod  one  of 
earth,  who  had  only  become  one  at  the  ba2)tism 
in  the  Jordan,  and  who  had  separated  at  Lde 
crucifixion  ;  the  other  oriental  section  of  Gnjstica 
held  that  Christ's  earthly  manifestation  in  the  fleshy 


GNOSTIC'S. 


that  his  whole  himanity,  was  a  mere  shadow  or 
delusion. 

It  might  well  be  asked  how,  with  this  extraor- 
dinary conglomeration  of  Monotheism,  Pantheism, 
Spiritualism  and  Materialism,  the  G.  could  possibly 
take  their  stand  on  the  Bible,  which,  from  first 
to  last,  it  would  seem,  denounces,  and  in  the 
rtrougest  manner,  doctrines  such  as  the  foregoing. 
The  only  answer  to  this  is,  that  they,  and  they  only, 
were  the  Pneumatikoi — the  Initiated.  It  was  well 
Cor  the  other  portions  of  manldnd,  the  natural  men, 
to  take  everything,  including  Scripture,  and  its 
historical  as  well  as  its  dogmatical  parts,  literally. 
As  in  creation,  so  in  the  book ;  the  G.,  guided 
by  their  inner  lights,  saw  beneath  the  surface,  and 
saw  everywhere,  the  most  complete  affirmation  of 
their  pecidiar  ideas.  If  the  Midrash  (q.  v.)  gave 
the  most  fanciful  and  allegorical  interpretations 
of  the  Old  Testament,  for  the  sake  of  inculcating 
moral  principles,  for  edifying,  elevating,  comforting 
the  congrer;?.tion,  but  without  the  faintest  pretence 
that  any  but  the  fixed  traditional  interpretation 
was  binding  and  authoi-itative — Gnosticism,  with 
a  proud  contempt  of  the  laws  of  language  and 
thought,  did  the  same  for  its  own  purposes,  but 
made  its  wildly  symbolical  and  erratic  interpreta- 
tions of  the  religious  records  binding.  We  are  far 
from  saying  that  they  were  in  all  cases  guilty  of 
intentional  deception,  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the 
word ;  although  they  must  frequently  have  known  the 
real  meaning  to  be  totally  opposed  to  their  explana- 
tions, as  most  of  their  teachers  were  learned  J ews  ; 
but  they,  like  other  enthusiasts,  gradiially  lost  the 
poAVer  of  discriminating  between  that  which  was, 
and  that  which  might  be.  Some,  however,  more 
consistent,  assumed  that  Christ  and  his  apostles 
had  still  been  partially  under  the  influence  of  the 
Demiurgog,  and  also  that  what  they  had  taught, 
they  had  expressed  in  accordance  with  the  blindness 
of  those  whom  they  addressed.  Proceeding  con- 
sistently, they  by  degrees  excluded  from  the  code 
most  of  the  Ijooks  of  the  New  Testament,  especially 
those  in  which  there  were  distmct  attacks  against 
themselves  ;  and  substituted  a  number  of  other 
epistles  and  religious  documents  of  their  own  in 
Greek  and  Syriac,  such  as  the  Prophecies  of  Cain, 
Writings  of  Poxhur,  Psalms  by  Valentinus  and 
Bardesanes,  Gnostic  Hymns  by  Marcos,  Books  of 
Adam,  Enoch,  Moseh,  Ellah,  Isajah,  &c.,  not  to 
mention  a  host  of  writings  by  newly  invented 
prophets  of  such  peculiar  names  as  Pachor,  Barkor, 
Annagil,  Barbelon,  Balsamum,  Lensiboras,  &c.  (Hier. 
ad  Theod.  iii.  6,  &c.). 

Practically,  Gnosticism  influenced  the  lives  of  its 
adherents  in  two  totally  distinct  waj'-s  :  according 
to  the  view  they  took  of  the  nature  and  office  of 
the  Hyle  and  Demiurgos.  The  Hellenising  Gnostics, 
striving  to  free  themselves  as  much  as  in  them  lay 
from  their  stupid  and  degrading  bonds,  became 
ascetics,  austere,  rigid,  and  uncompromising.  The 
oriental  view,  however,  of  the  dualistic  and  antagon- 
istic powers  of  light  and  darkness,  good  and  evil, 
which  was  adopted  by  the  other  portion  of  the  G., 
led  them,  on  the  other  hand,  to  the  practice  of  the 
grossest  sensuality,  in  token,  they  said,  of  their 
utter  contemi>t  for  matter,  and  still  more  for 
the  Demiur-gos — Body,  and  its  enjoyments;  every- 
thing teiTcstrial,  in  short,  had  as  little  to  do  with 
theii-  mind,  which  was  one  with  the  Suj^reme  Deity, 
as  had  matter  with  God.  Transgression  there 
was  none,  because  there  was  no  law  ;  there  could 
be  no  law  for  them  who  were  better  even  than 
tlie  angels — who  were  subject  to  none :  a  dis- 
tortion of  a  dictum  in  the  Midrash,  that  'the 
law  was  not  given  to  angels,  hut  to  mortal  men,' 
and  was   therefore  to   be  adnunistercd  leniently. 


They,  indeed,  knew  not  how  to  express  to  the  full 
their  utter  contempt  for  this  Jewish  Jehovah,  or 
Demiurgos.  There  were  others  among  them  who 
called  themselves  after  the  sequent  (Ophile^),  which 
by  tempting  Eve  brought  into  the  world  the  bless- 
ing of  knowledge,  and  had  thus  become  its  greatest 
benefactor.  Others  took  the  name  of  Cainites 
(Balamites),  contending  that  Cain  had  been  the 
primeval  representative  of  Gnosis,  as  opposed  to 
the  Pistis,  or  blind  unreasoning  faith  of  Ahel,  the 
representative  of  the  Psychikoi  (the  Jews) — Scth 
being  the  type  of  the  Pneumatikoi.  Another  class  of 
similar  tendencies  styled  themselves  simply  Anil- 
tacts  (opi)onents  to  the  Law),  a  name  indicative  of 
their  readiness  to  take  under  their  especial  protec- 
tion, not  only  all  those  persons  condemned  in  the 
Biblical  records,  but  all  the  offences  prohibited  in 
them. 

It  is  as  hopeless  a  task  to  foUow  the  development 
of  this  metaphysical  and  unique  abnormity  called 
Gnosticism,  of  which  we  have  attempted  here  to 
give  a  faint  outline,  through  the  bewildering  maze 
of  its  ramifications  from  its  beginning  in  history  to 
its  final  disappearance,  as  it  would  be  to  fully  trace 
its  component  parts  to  their  original  sources.  It 
sprang  up  in  the  first  c,  it  had  spread  over  the  whole 
civilised  world  in  the  second,  and  it  was  fiercely 
and  unremittingly  combated  from  the  second  to  the 
sixth  c.  by  Judaism,  Platonism,  Neo-Platonism,  and, 
above  all,  by  Christianity.  With  respect  to  the  rela- 
tion of  the  Gnostics  to  the  orthodox  church,  how- 
ever, we  must  observe  that  they  all  the  while  feigned 
a  naive  surprise  at  not  being  fully  recognised  as 
most  faithful  followers  of  Christianity,  and  members 
of  the  large  Christian  body.  All  they  aspired  to, 
they  said,  was  to  be  allowed  to  form  a  small  central 
circle  within  the  large  outer  circle,  to  be  a  kind 
of  theosoj^hic  community,  consisting  of  the  more 
advanced  members  of  the  church  ;  indeed,  they  not 
only  adhered,  for  the  most  jiart,  to  the  outward 
forms  of  Christian  worship,  but  occasionally  even 
surpassed  it  in  pomp  and  si^lendour.  And  such  was 
the  fascination  Gnosticism  exercised  over  the  minds, 
that,  had  it  not  ])een  for  the  innumerable  schisms  in 
its  own  camp,  which  prevented  its  alliance  with  the 
political  power  of  the  day,  it  would  have  stood  its 
ground  much  longer.  On  its  influence  upon  the 
Judaism  of  its  time,  as  it  is  recognisable  in  many 
passages  of  contemporaneous  Jewish  literature  ;  on 
its  lasting  influence  upon  Christianity ;  and  on  its 
frequent  revivals  in  the  middle  and  modern  cen- 
turies, we  can  as  little  dwell  here  as  on  its  embodi- 
ment in  many  philosophical  systems,  ancient  and 
modern. 

We  can  only  take,  in  conclusion,  a  cursory  glance 
over  some  of  its  principal  schools,  in  giving  a 
brief  list  of  their  founders  (of  whom,  and  their 
chief  doctrines,  special  notices  wdll  be  found),  and 
the  places  where  they  flourished,  without  attempt- 
ing to  divide  them  minutely,  as  has  been  done  in 
different  ways,  by  Neander,  Gieseler,  Matter,  Baur, 
Schaff,  into  Judaising  and  Christianising ;  specu- 
lative, practical  and  antinomian ;  dualistic  and 
emanationistic  ;  or  to  classify  them  strictly  by  origin 
and  locality.  Suffice  it  to  mention,  that  among  the 
precursors  of  Gnosticism  are  recorded  some  half- 
mythical  personages,  such  as  Euphrates,  mentioned 
cursorily  by  Origen ;  Simon  Magus,  M'hose  histc  iry, 
as  given  in  the  Acts,  has  been  made  the  ground- 
work of  innumerable  legends  ;  Menander,  his  suc- 
cessor ;  Cerinthus,  the  apostle  of  the  Millennium ;  and 
Nicolaus,  the  father  of  the  i)re-eminently  immoral 
sect  of  the  Nicolaitans.  Founders  of  special  schools 
were,  in  Syi-ia,  Saturninus  of  Antiocli,  about  125 
A.D.  under  Hadrian ;  Bardesanes  of  Edessa,  161 
A.D.,  the  author  of  many  hymns,  and  who  looked 

803 


GNU— GOAT. 


npon  the  Holy  Ghost  as  at  once  wife  and  sister 
of  Christ ;  Harmodius  and  Marinus,  his  disciples ; 
Tatian  of  Kome,  the  founder  of  the  Encratites, 
who  wrote  a  still  extant  Oration  to  the  Greeks.  Of 
Egyptian  founders  of  Gnostic  schools  we  may  men- 
tion Basilides  of  Alexandria  (125 — 140),  who  as- 
sumed 365  iBona  or  circles  of  creation,  two  Demiurgi, 
and  a  threefold  Christ,  and  whose  mystic  use  of 
numbers  and  names  reminds  us  most  strikingly  of 
the  Cabalistic  Geometria ;  his  no  less  famous  son 
and  follower,  Isidorus,  the  author  of  a  system  of 
ethics ;  and  Valentinus  of  Rome,  who  died  160 
A.T>.  at  Cyi)rus,  a  Jew — as  indeed  was  Markos  his 
disciple,  and,  very  likely,  Basilides  and  Jaherninus. 
Of  Valentin's  successors  who  founded  schools  of 
their  own,  are  mentioned  besides  Markos,  Secundus, 
Ptolemy,  Colarbasus,  Heracleon,  Theodorus,  and 
Alexander.  To  the  Syrians  may  also  be  reckoned 
the  Ophites,  Cainites,  and  Sethites  (see  above). 
In  Asia  Minor,  we  have  Marcion  about  the  middle 
of  the  second  c,  who  is  rather  remarkable  for  his 
consistency  in  scornfully  rejecting  the  whole  of  the 
Old  Testament  and  all  apostolic  authority  save 
Paul.  His  school  flourished  up  to  a  very  late  period. 
Among  non-localised  G.  may  be  enumerated  the 
schools  of  Carpocrates  and  Epiphanes,  the  Borto- 
nians,  Antitacts  (see  above),  Phibionites,  Arcliontics, 
and  a  great  many  others. 

Irenseus,  Adv.  Harr. ;  Tertullian,  De  PrcescHpt. 
Hcerti.  and  Contra  Gn.  Scoi'piacum ;  Epiphanius, 
Adv.  Hcercs.  ;  Theodoret,  Hairet.  Fabh. ;  Plotinus 
(Ennead.  ii.  9)  ;  Mosheim,  De  liebiLS  Christ,  ante 
Const,  comm.;  Munter,  Vers.iiber  die  Kirchl.  Alterth. 
d.  Gn. ;  Lewald,  De  Doctrina  Gnostica  (Heidelb. 
1818) ;  Neander,  Genet.  Entw.  d.  Gnost.  Syst.  (Berl. 
1818);  Mohler,  Urspr.  d.  Gn.  (Tubingen,  1831); 
Matter,  Hist.  Crit.  du  G.  (Par.  184.3—1844,  2d  edit. 
3  vols.) ;  Baur,  Die  Chr.  G.,  &c.^  (Tubingen,  1835). 
See  also  Neander's  and  Gieseler's  Histories  of  the 
Church;  D orner' s  Christology ;  Bimsen' s  Hippohjtus 
and  his  Age,  and  Gratz,  Gnosticismus  und  Juden- 
thum,  besides  many  of  the  histories  of  Philosophy 
and  of  Christian  dogma. 

GNU  {CatoUepas),  a  genus  of  ruminant  quad- 
rupeds, which  naturalists  generally  rank  wdth  the 
antelope  family  {AntilopidcB),  but  which  some  place 
in  the  o:.  family  [Bovidoi),  and  of  which  the  best- 
known  species  has  been  often  described  as  apparently 


Gnu  {Catohlepas  Cfnv). 


made  up  of  parts  of  different  animals,  not  only  of 
the  antelope  and  the  ox  or  buffalo,  but  even  of  the 
horse.  This  species  (C.  Gnu  or  Antilope  Gnu)  is  a 
native  of  South  Africa  ;  it  has  disappeared  from  the 
more  settled  parts  of  Cape  Colony,  but  is  to  be  seen 
in  herds  on  the  arid  plains  beyond  these  boundaries 
in  company  with  the  zebra,  or  the  quagga,  and  with 
flocks  of  ostriches.  The  fonn  and  action  of  gnus 
d04 


so  much  resemble  those  of  zebras  and  quaggaa^ 
that  at  a  distance  they  may  be  readily  mistaken 
for  them.  The  size  of  the  gnu  is  that  of  a  large 
ass  ;  the  general  colour  is  yellowish  tawny.  Both 
sexes  have  horns.  The  limbs  are  slender,  like  those 
of  deer  and  antelopes.  The  gnu  gallops  with  g-eat 
speed.  It  has  been  usually  represented  as  a  very 
fierce  animal,  and  certainly  shews  much  ability  to 
defend  itself  with  its  horns,  when  unable  to  es  cape 
from  danger  by  flight ;  but  when  taken  young,  it  ia 
easily  tamed,  and  readily  associates  with  oxen, 
accompanying  them  to  and  from  the  field.  There 
are  two  or  three  species,  all  South  African,  nraily 
resembling  the  common  gnu,  and  one  of  them  at 
least  is  very  considerably  larger.  Their  flesh  ia 
said  to  be  palatable. 

GO' A,  a  city  of  Hindustan,  on  the  Malabar  coast, 
in  lat.  15°  30'  N.  and  long.  74°  E.,  while  the 
dependent  territory  of  the  same  name  stretches  in 
N.  lat.  from  14°  54'  to  15^  45',  and  in  E.  long,  from 
73°  45'  to  74°  26',  containing  1066  square  miles,  and 
417,000  inhabitants.  G.  was  once  the  capital  of 
the  Portiiguese  dominions  in  India,  but  is  now  in  a 
state  of  hopeless  decay.  It  was  valuable  chiefly  ou 
account  of  its  harbour,  one  of  the  best  on  the  west 
coast  of  Hindustan,  from  which  it  was  about  5 
miles  distant;  but  having  the  misfortune  to  be 
ravaged  by  the  cholera  in  the  beginning  of  the 
18th  c,  most  of  the  Portuguese  left  it,  and  settled 
nearer  the  sea,  at  Panjim  or  New  Goa,  which 
is  the  present  seat  of  government,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  about  20,000.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
old  city  are  almost  entirely  ecclesiastics,  the  place 
being  the  see  of  an  archbishop,  the  primate  of 
the  Portuguese  Indies.  G.  was  conquered  by 
Albuquerque  in  1503,  at  which  time  it  was  inhabited 
by  an  Arabic  people. 

GOALPA'RA,  a  district  of  India  which  belongg 
geographically  to  Bengal  Proper,  but  politically  to 
Assam,  stretches  in  N.  lat.  from  25°  40'  to  26°  31', 
and  in  E.  long,  from  80°  42'  to  91°  8',  containing 
3506  square  miles,  and  about  400,000  inhabitants. 
On  the  N.  it  is  bounded  by  the  native  state  ol 
Bhotan.  Its  capital,  of  its  own  name,  stands  on 
the  river  Brahmaputra,  in  lat.  26°  8'  N.,  and  long. 
90°  40'  E. 

GOAT  (Capra),  a  genus  of  ruminant  quadrupeds 
of  the  family  Capridce  (q.  v.),  so  closely  allied  to  the 
sheep  that  it  is  not  easy  exactly  to  define  the  dis- 
tinction, although  the  common  domestic  goat  and 
sheep  are  of  widely  different  appearance.  One  of 
the  most  marked  of  the  distinguishing  charactera 
is,  that  the  horns  of  goats  are  directed  upwards, 
backwards,  and  outwards,  whilst  those  of  sheep  are 
more  or  less  spirally  twisted.  Another  character 
is  the  beard  on  the  chin  of  the  male  goats,  which 
is  wanting  in  the  sheep;  but  these  characters  are 
not  perfectly  constant.  Perhaps  a  more  constant 
character  is  the  straight  line  of  the  face  in  goats, 
as  compared  with  the  arched  line  in  sheep.  The 
tail  of  goats  is  also  much  shorter  than  that  of  sheep. 
A  curious  but  constant  mark  of  distinction  is  the 
want  of  a  small  pit,  producing  a  fatty  secretion 
between  the  toes,  in  goats,  which  exists  in  sheep, 
and  is  peculiar  to  them.  And  another  constant 
mark  is  the  strong  smell  of  male  goats,  particiJarly 
during  the  rutting  season,  which  is  wanting  in 
sheep.  Equally  constant  are  the  differences  of 
temper  and  manners,  goats  being  in  a  high  degree 
curious  and  confident,  and  the  very  term  copricknis 
referring  to  their  exhibition  of  the  quality  which  it 
denotes.  In  both  goats  and  sheep,  both  sexes  are 
usually  furnished  with  horns,  the  want  of  which  is 
a  variation  apparently  caused  by  domestication,  and 
is  most  frequent  in  females.    The  horns  And  beard 


GOAT— GOAT-MOTH. 


of  female  goats  are  always  smaller  tlian  those  of  the 
male.    Some  goats  have  horns  three  feet  long. 

Goats  are  found  wild  only  in  mountainous 
countries ;  they  all  exhibit  a  great  aptitude  for 
scramblin<|  among  rocks  and  bushes,  are  extremely 
sure-footed  on  narrow  ledges  and  pinnacles,  and 
display  great  strength  and  agility  in  leaping.  They 
also  prefer  as  food  the  leaves  and  small  branches 
of  shrubs,  and  the  strongly  aromatic  herbs  which 
abound  in  moimtainous  situations,  to  the  herbage 
of  the  richest  pastures.  The  Greeks  and  Romans 
eacriticed  the  goat  to  Bacchus,  as  an  enemy  of  the 
vine.  It  is  difficult  in  this  genus  to  determine  what 
are  species  and  what  are  varieties.  The  Common 
or  Domestic  Goat  (C.  hircus)  has  existed  as  a 


Common  Goat  {Capra  hircus). 


domestic  animal  from  the  earliest  ages;  it  is  fre- 
quently mentioned  in  the  books  of  Moses,  and 
formed  a  large  portion  of  the  flocks  of  the  patriarchs. 
It  adapts  itself  to  almost  all  climates,  and  thiives 
under  the  care  of  man  in  the  hottest  parts  of  India 
End  Africa,  and  with  the  protection  only  of  a  shed 
from  the  severity  of  winter,  in  the  northern  districts 
of  Scandinavia.  Amidst  such  diversity  of  circum- 
Btances,  considerable  diversity  of  breeds  might  be 
expected,  and  accordingly,  besides  the  variety  com- 
mon in  Britain,  there  are  the  Syrian  G<»at,  the 
Angora  (q.  v.)  Goat,  the  Cashmere  (q.  v.)  Goat,  all 
remarkable  for  the  greater  length  and  fineness  of 
their  hair;  a  beautiful  dwarf  variety  from  West 
Africa,  called  the  Guinea  Goat,  and  many  others. 
Some  of  these,  as  the  Syrian  goat,  have  large 
pendent  ears.  In  nothing  does  variation  seem 
more  readily  to  result  from  the  influence  of  climate 
and  other  circumstances,  than  in  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  the  hair,  and  in  the  relative  abundance 
of  the  two  kinds  of  it,  both  of  which  are  well 
exliibited  in  the  common  goat,  the  long  soft  hair, 
and  the  softer  woolly  hair  beneath  it.  But  in  many 
other  respects,  also,  the  domestic  goat  is  subject  to 
variation,  more  than  perhaps  smy  other  domestic 
quadruped  except  the  dog. 

Goats  can  be  kept  with  advantage  in  situations 
too  rocky,  or  where  the  herbage  is  too  scanty  for 
oxen  or  sheep.  They  were  formerly  kej^t  in  gi'eater 
numbers  in  Britain  than  they  now  are.  On  some  of 
the  mountains  of  Wales  and  of  Scotland,  the  goat  is 
almost  as  completely  wild  as  if  it  were  indigenous, 
and  even  to  get  within  shot  of  it  is  difficult.  It  is 
capable,  however,  of  the  most  perfect  domestication, 
and  becomes  extremely  attached  and  familiar.  It 
is  apt,  indeed,  to  prove  a  troublesome  pet,  and 
makes  use  of  its  horns,  although  not  angrily,  much 
more  freely  than  is  at  all  agreeable. 

The  uses  of  the  goat  are  numerous.  The  flesh 
is  good ;  that  of  the  kid,  or  young  goat,  is  in  most 
countries  esteemed  a  dehcacy.  The  milk  is  very 
rich  and  nutritious,  more  easy  of  digestion  than 
thAt  of  the  cow,  and  is  often  useful  to  consumptive 


patients.  Some  goats  yield  as  much  as  four  quarts 
of  milk  daily,  althougli  the  average  quantity  is  more 
nearly  two.  Both  cheese  and  butter  are  made  of 
goats'  milk ;  they  have  a  peculiar  but  not  disagree- 
able flavour.  Goats'  milk  is  still  very  much  used 
in  Syria  and  other  j)arts  of  the  East,  as  it  was  in 
the  days  of  the  i)atriarchs.  The  skin  of  the  goat 
was  early  used  for  clothmg,  and  is  now  dressed 
as  leather  for  many  uses,  particularly  for  making 
gloves  and  the  finer  kinds  of  shoes.  The  hair, 
which  may  be  advantageously  clipped  annually,  ia 
used  for  making  ropes  which  are  indestructible  in 
water,  and  lor  making  wigs  for  judges,  barristers, 
and  ecclesiastical  dignitaries.  For  the  latter  pur- 
pose, the  hair  of  white  goats  is  used.  The  use  of 
the  hair  or  wool  of  certain  varieties  of  goat  for 
making  valuable  fabrics  is  noticed  in  the  articles 
Angora  and  Cashmere  Goat.  The  horns  are  used 
for  making  knife-handles,  &c.,  and  the  fat  is  said 
to  be  superior  to  that  of  the  ox  for  candles.  In 
Holland,  goats  are  employed  in  drawing  children's 
coaches,  to  which  as  many  as  four  are  sometimes 
harnessed  together,  and  they  are  sufficiently  tract- 
able and  obedient  to  tJie  rein. 

The  goat  generally  produces  two  young  ones  at  a 
time.  A  hybrid  between  the  goat  and  the  sheep 
has  been  produced,  and  it  has  been  described  as 
fertile,  but  there  is  no  evidence  of  fertility  except 
in  connection  with  one  of  the  parent  races. 

The  origin  of  the  domestic  goat  is  with  greatest 
probability  traced  to  the  Aegagrus  {C.  Aegagrus], 
which  many  naturalists  confidently  identify  with 
it,  and  which  is  found  on  Caucasus  and  on  many 
of  the  mountains  of  Asia.  It  is  called  Paseng 
in  Persia.  Its  legs  are  longer  than  those  of  the 
domestic  goat;  its  horns  are  very  large,  larger  in 
proportion  than  those  of  any  other  known  ruminant. 
— Another  wild  species  is  the  Jemlah  Goat  {O. 
Jemlaica),  which  inhabits  the  district  of  Jemlah, 
between  the  sources  of  the  Sargew  and  the  Sanpoo, 
the  most  elevated  range  of  Central  Asia;  very 
similar  to  which,  if  really  distinct,  is  the  Jahral 
{C.  Jahral)  of  Nepal.  These,  however,  have  no 
true  beard,  although  they  otherwise  abound  in  long 
hair. — Other  sj)ecies  or  varieties  of  goat,  of  which 
the  BouQUETiN  (q.  v.)  is  one,  are  associated  under 
the  name  Ibex  (q.  v.). — All  the  species  are  natives 
of  the  Old  World. 

GOAT,  Rocky  Mountain  {Antilope  lanigera^ 
or  Aploceros  lanigera),  an  auimtti  of  the  antelope 
family,  inhabiting  the  lofty  peaks  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  of  North  America,  from  about  the 
40th  to  the  65th  degree  of  latitude.  Its  size  is 
about  that  of  an  ordinary  sheep,  and  its  general 
appearance  is  not  unlike  that  of  a  sheep  of  the 
Merino  breed,  its  long  straight  hair  hanging  down 
in  an  abundant  white  fleece.  The  flesh  is  in  little 
esteem  as  food,  having  a  musky  odour. — This 
animal  has  been  called  the  Sheejy  Antelope  and  the 
Wool-hearing  Antelope.  It  has  beeji  thought  that 
its  fleece  might  be  available  for  some  of  the  finer 
kinds  of  manufactures,  and  that  it  might  be  intro- 
duced with  hojDe  of  advaixtage  into  the  Highlands  of 
Scotland. 

GOAT-MOTH  {Cossus  Ugnipcrda),  a  Inpidop. 
terous  insect  of  the  same  family  with  the  Ghoirt;- 
moth,  Hepialidce..  The  genus  Cossus  has  long 
antennse ;  a  large  body,  a  very  small  head ;  the 
ujiper  wings  larger  and  longer  than  the  lower. 
The  larvge  feed  on  the  wood  of  trees,  and  the 
pupte  are  enclosed  in  cocoons,  made  chiefly  of  the 
saw-dust  which  the  mandibles  of  the  larvae  have 
produced.  The  G.  is  one  of  the  largest  of  British 
moths,  measurmg  from  3  to  3^  inches  from  tip 
to  tip  of  its  expanded  wings.     It  is  of  a  gray 


OOAT'S-BEARD— GOBLINS  AND  BOGLES. 


colour,  the  upper  wings  mottled  with  white,  and 
marked  with  many  irregular  black  lines,  the  lower 
wings  of  an  almost  unifoi-m  brownish  ash  colour, 


Caterpillar,  Chrysalis,  and  Imago  of  the  Goat-Moth 

{Cossus  ligniperda). 

The  larva  is  about  3  inches  long  when  full  grown, 
yellowish,  the  upper  parts  pink,  the  head  black. 
The  larva  inhabits  and  feeds  on  the  wood  of  willow^s, 
poplars,  and  elms,  making  holes  large  enough  to 
admit  the  linger,  and  often  causing  the  dcstniction 
of  trees.  It  emits,  when  alarmed  or  handled,  a 
jjeculiar  and  disagreeable  goat-like  odour,  which 
cannot  be  removed  from  the  hands  even  by  frequent 
washings. 

GOAT'S-BEARD.    See  Salsafy. 

GOAT'S  RUE  (Galegn),  a  genus  of  i)lants  of  the 
natural  order  Leguniinosce,  sub-order  PapiLionace(B, 
of  which  one  species  [G.  officinalis),  a  perennial 
herbaceous  plant,  about  three  feet  in  height,  with 
pinnate  leaves,  long  pointed  leaflets,  racemes  of 
generall}'-  purphsh  or  pink-coloured  flowers,  and 
upright  nearly  cylindrical  pods,  has  been  recom- 
mended for  ciiltivation  in  Britain  as  a  forage  plant, 
on  account  of  the  great  bulk  of  ])roduce  which  it 
yields.  It  has,  hoT'ever,  a  peculiar  smell,  and  is 
not  relished  by  cattle  unaccustomed  to  it.  The  G.  R. 
of  the  United  States  is  the  Tephrosia  Virginiana. 

GOATSUCKER  {Caprimulgus),  a  genus  of  birds 
of  the  family  CaprimuJgidce,  (q.  v.),  having  the  upper 
mandible  curved  at  the  point,  and  furnished  along 
i^ach  margin  with  a  row  of  strong  hairs  or  bristles 
(vibrissce)  directed  forwards ;  the  hind  toe  capable 
of  being  directed  forwards ;  the  claws  short,  except 
^hat  of  the  middle  toe,  which  is  remarkably  long, 
^d  sei-rated  on  its  inner  edge,  so  as  to  form  a  kind 
of  comb  attached  to  the  toe.  Although  the  bill  is 
very  short  and  weak,  the  gape  is  extremely  w^ide, 
as  if  the  head  itself  were  divided.  The  goatsuckers 
feed  on  insects,  perhaps  chiefly  on  moths,  whence 
they  are  called  Moth-hunters,  and  pursue  their 
prey  either  in  the  evening  twilight  or  during  the 
riight,  in  a  manner  similar  to  bats  and  swallows. 
I;ike  them,  they  seem  to  confine  themselves  very 
much  to  a  limited  space,  in  which  they  often  pass 
and  rei)ass  at  no  great  height  above  the  groimd. 
They  have  great  rapidity  and  power  of  flight. 
Of  course,  their  great  width  of  gape  is  favour- 
able for  the  capture  of  insects.  Goatsuckers  are 
birds  of  light,  soft  plumage,  in  general  minutely 
mottled  with  gray  and  brown.  One  species  alone 
is  found  in  Britain,  the  Common  G.  or  European 
8oe. 


G.  (C.  Europceus),  also  called  the  Night-Cburr.  oi 

Night-Jar,  from  the  sound  which  it  produces; 
and  not  unfrequently,  from  the  resemblance  of  ita 
plumage  to  that  of  owls,  the  Churn  Owl  or  Fern 
Owl.  It  is  a  summer  visitant  of  Britain,  coming 
very  late,  and  de])arting  generally  very  early  ;  it  ia 
more  common  in  England  than  in  Scotland,  although 
its  migrations  extend  northward  to  Scandinavia, 
Sil)eria,  and  Kamtchatka.  In  winter,  it  retires 
from  Europe  altogether,  passing  to  ^he  south  of 
the  Mediterranean.  The  goatsuckers  of  Europe  are 
rejirescnted  in  the  United  States  by  the  ^Yhip-))oor- 
wili,  Antro-stomus  vociferus,  and  the  lSig]ii-hin\ k, 
Chordeiles  popctue,  in  the  North  ;  and  Chm-k-wills- 
widow,  C.  Caroiinensis,  in  the  South.  The  Night- Jar  is 
the  Caprimulgus  of  Pliny,  the  Aigothelas  of  Aris- 
totle, both  these  names  being  exactly  equivalent  to 
the  English  G.,  and  exi)ressive  of  the  ancient  and 
long  entertained  popular  notion,  that  this  bird 
sucks  the  teats  of  goats,  a  notion  probably  founded 
on  the  habit— which,   at  aU  events,  has  been 


Common  Goatsucker  {Caprimulgus  Europceua)- 

observed  in  some  of  this  family — of  hunting  inPista 
under  the  bellies  of  grazing  cattle. — Species  of  tidd 
and  closely  allied  genera  are  very  widely  distributed 
over  the  world. 

GOBBE,  orYOANDZOV  {Voandzeia  suMcrranea),  • 
an  annual  plant,  allied  to  the  kidney-bean,  but  of 
which  the  pod  is  thrust  into  the  ground  in  the 
same  manner  as  that  of  the  Ground-nut  {Arachia 
hijpogcea,  see  Arachis),  to  ripen  the  seeds  there. 
It  is  a  native  of  the  north-east  of  South  America, 
and  of  some  parts  of  the  west  of  Africa.  Its  seeds 
are  used  as  food,  being  wholesome  and  agreeable 
when  boiled. 

GO'BBO,  GOBBIO,  or  GOMBO.   See  Hibiscus. 

GO'BELINS.    See  Tapestry. 

GOBI,  Desert  of.    See  SmvMO. 

GO'BLINS  AND  BOGLES,  familiar  demons 
of  popxdar  superstition,  in  Er.  gohelin,  Gor.  kobold, 
Gr.  kohalos,  a  spirit  which  lurks  about  houses.  It 
is  also  called  hobgoblin,  perhaps  a  corruj^tion  of 
hopgoblin.  Some  have  derived  the  word  goblin 
from  the  French  gober,  to  swallow,  to  devour  ;  and 
others  the  words  elf  and  goblin  from  the  Guelpha 
and  Ghibellines,  each  name  being  used  by  the  other 
party  as  a  name  of  terror.  Goblin  is  used  in  a 
serious  sense  by  Shakspeare  in  Hamlet,  where  the 
ghost  is  supposed  to  be  a  '  spirit  of  health  or  goblin 
damned.'  Gobelet,  in  French,  is  applied  to  juggler's 
tricks  and  instruments,  and  our  word  goblet  comes 
from  the  juggler's  cup. 

Bogle,  bogle-boe,  or  bugaboo,  may  be  from  the 
Welsh  brogwh/,  to  terrify ;  and  boe  or  boo,  a  sound. 
Bugaboo  was  the  popular  name  of  Avide-mouthed,  ug?y 
pictures,  formerly  carried  in  May-games.  Wan/^ 


GOBONY— GOD. 


Bays  Boh  was  the  designation  of  a  fierce  Gothic 
chieftain,  whose  name  was  used  in  after-times  to 
fi'i^^hten  children.  The  belief  in  benevolent  and 
malevolent  spirits  belongs  to  all  countries,  and 
appears  to  be  as  old  as  the  world. 

GOBO'NY,  in  Heraldry,  the  same  as  Compone 
(q.  v.).  A  gobonated  bordiire  is  frequently  carried  in 
place  of  the  baton  sinister,  not  only  by  the  lawful 
issue  of  bastards,  who,  after  the  third  lawful  gener- 
ation, are  considered  entitled  to  make  the  change, 
but  by  bastards  themselves.    See  Bastard  Bar. 

GOBY  {Gohiits),  a  genus  of  acanthopterous  fishes, 
the  type  of  the  family  Gobiidce.  This  familj'-  is 
distinguished  by  the  thinness  and  flexibility  of  the 
rays  of  the  dorsal  fin  ;  by  the  union— in  most  of  the 
genera — of  the  ventral  fins,  which  are  thoracic, 
into  a  disc  more  or  less  capable  of  being  used  as  a 
sucker ;  by  the  want  of  an  air-bladder ;  and  by  a 
long  intestinal  canal  without  coeca.  The  Blenny 
(q.  V.)  family  {Blmiidce)  have  by  some  ichthyologists 
been  united  with  the  Goby  family,  whilst  others 
unite  with  them  the  Discoboli  (q.  v.).  The  true 
gobies  [Gobius]  are  generally  small  fishes,  some  of 
them  inhabiting  the  shallow  water  of  the  coasts, 
and  others  found  in  dee])er  water ;  the  species  very 
numerous,  and  found  in  the  seas  both  of  the  northern 
and  southern  hemispheres.  They  are  very  inter- 
esting on  account  of  their  habits ;  and  are  of  the 
number  of  nest-building  fishes,  employing  algce  and 
grass-wrack  [Zostera  marina),  in  the  spring  season, 
for  making  their  nests.  When  the  female  has 
deposited  her  eggs  in  the  nest,  the  male  watches 
over  them  till  they  are  hatched.  There  are  several 
British  species,  the  largest  of  them— the  Black  Goby 


The  Black  Goby  and  the  One-spotted  Goby 
{Gohixis  niger  and  Gobius  unipunctatus). 


{O.  niger) — about  five  or  six  inches  long,  some  of 
ihem  pretty  common  on  all  parts  of  the  coast,  and 
much  in  request  for  aquaria,  of  which  they  are 
among  the  most  interesting  occupants.  They  are 
often  found  in  rock-pools  on  the  coast.  The  disc 
formed  by  the  ventral  fins  is  often  used  for  adhesion 
to  stones.  Most  of  the  gobies  prefer  seas  of  clayey 
or  muddy  bottom,  in  which  they  excavate  canals  to 
pass  the  winter  in.  The  species  are  more  numerous 
m  tl'3  Mediterranean  than  in  the  British  seas. — 
The  Goby  <"amily  includes  the  Dragonets  (q.  v.),  and 
several  other  interesting  genera,  among  which  are 
the  Boleophthalmi  of  the  Chinese  seas,  remarkable 
for  their  power  of  thrusting  out  their  eyes  in  order 
to  look  aroimd  them. 

GOB  (Lat.  Deua;  Gr.  Theos),  the  self -existent 
aiid  Supreme  Being,  creator  and  preserver  of  all 
tilings,  and  the  object  of  human  worship.  The 
came  is  of  Saxon  origin.  The  idea  is  more  or 
^ss  definitely  expressed  m  every  language,  as  it 
may  be  said  to  be  in  some  form  or  another  a  uni- 
versal element  of  the  human  consciousness.  There 
have  been  many  nations,  indeed,  in  every  age  of 


the  world,  that  have  been  far  from  attaining  any 
such  conception  of  God  as  is  expressed  above.  The 
Supreme  has  been  to  them  the  cimception  not  of  a 
single  Being,  but  of  many  beings  superior  to  man, 
and  claiming  his  worship.  In  the  general  history  of 
tlie  world,  polytheism  precedes  monotheism ;  the 
idea  of  many  gods  goes  before  the  idea  of  one  God, 
infinite  and  self-existent. 

The  general  character  of  polytheism  is  everywhere 
the  same. — A  dualistic  concei)tion  of  nature  and 
life  underlies  it,  and  shews  itself  in  varied  expres- 
sions. In  looking  forth  on  nature — in  looking  within 
himself — man  seems  to  see  two  princii)les  striving 
for  the  mastery — an  active  and  passive,  a  creative 
and  recipient  principle — a  good  and  evil,  a  productive 
and  destructive,  a  joyous  and  gloomy  agent.  On 
one  side,  there  seems  a  power  rich,  benignant,  and 
gracious,  giving  light  to  the  day,  verdure  to  the 
spring,  abundance  in  autumn,  scattering  fecundity 
and  blessing  around  ;  on  the  other  side,  there  seems 
a  power  cruel  and  malevolent,  quenching  the  light 
in  darkness,  consuming  the  verdure  and  fertility 
with  scorching  heat,  or  destroying  them  with  cold. 
These  contrasts  seem  eternal — they  take  possession 
of  the  imagination,  and  clothe  themselves  in  diverse 
shapes.  In  every  polytheistic  religion,  they  will  be 
found  in  the  recognition  of  male  and  female,  of  good 
and  evil  divinities — Baal  and  Baaltis,  Baal-Adonia 
and  Baal-Moloch,  in  the  old  Phoenician  religion ; 
Osiris  and  Isis  and  the  evil  j)riuciple,  Tyjihon,  in 
Egypt ;  and  the  more  familiar  opposites  of  Ahriman 
and  Ornmzd,  Jupiter  and  Juno,  &c.  The  dualism 
assumes  various  shapes,  now  male  and  female, 
productive  and  passive  ;  and  now  good  and  e\'il, 
conservative  and  destructive. 

Whether  this  dualistic  mode  of  conception,  and  the 
polj^heistic  view  of  nature  that  springs  from  it,  be 
a  later  or  an  earlier  type  of  thought  than  the  mono- 
theistic, has  been  a  good  deal  disputed.  Some  see  in 
it  the  corruption  of  monotheism — the  worship  of  the 
Supreme  gradually  fallmg  to  a  worship  of  the  great 
forms  of  nature  which  most  strikingly  rei)resent 
Him — the  sun  and  storm,  the  light  and  darknes-s, 
&c.  Others,  again,  regard  the  polytheistic  as  the 
primitive  view  of  nature,  above  which  man  gradu- 
ally rises,  by  the  growth  and  exercise  of  his  reason. 
There  is  truth  in  this  latter  view,  even  to  those  wh<. 
believe  that  man  originally  received  a  Divine  Reve- 
lation, which  he  has  gradually  corrujited.  Pol;yi;heism 
is  the  natural  religion  of  savage  tribes  throughout 
the  world ;  and  as  man  advances  in  civilisation, 
he  rises  to  purer  and  more  comprehensive  concep- 
tions of  Deity.  His  reason  compels  him  to  recognise 
the  One  in  the  many  everywhere,  to  carry  up  all  his 
conceptions  into  a  unity.  Polytheism,  consequently, 
everywhere  disappears  before  the  march  of  civilisa- 
tion. It  is  incompatible  with  the  lowest  stage  of 
speculative  development. 

But  while  the  growth  of  reason  and  the  rise  of 
specidation  everywhere  destroy  jDoly theism,  they  do 
not  necessarily  substitute  a  genuine  monotheism 
— the  doctrine,  that  is  to  say,  of  one  living  and 
true  God,  infinite  in  i:)ower,  wdsdom,  gootbiess,  and 
truth,  a  free  personal  Being  exalted  above  the 
world,  and  apart  from  it,  yet  intimately  related 
to  all  its  creatiu-es,  who  *  suffereth  not  a  sparrow 
to  fall  to  the  ground  without  his  permission.' 
This  is  the  doctrine  of  Christian  theism,  as  opposed 
alike  to  polytheism  (the  doctrine  of  many  gods), 
pantheism  (the  doctrine  that  all  things  ar^"  God  , 
that  God  is  a  unity,  yet  only  a  unity  of  comprehen- 
sion, not  a  self-subsistent  and  independent  unity), 
and  atheism  (the  assertion  that  there  is  no  God). 

The  course  of  argument  on  which  the  theistic 
conclusion  supports  itself  may  be  sketched  as  fol- 
lows :  There  are  everywhere  in  the  world  the  traces 

H07 


GOD-GOD  SAVE  THE  KING  (OR  QUEEN). 


of  order ;  a  unity  of  plan  or  design,  shcvvn  in  many 
'•eautiful  effects,  pervades  creation.  Science  is  al- 
Avays  more  unfolding  it.  Of  Uie  fact  of  this  order 
or  unity  of  plan,  there  is  no  question.  The  progress 
of  science,  if  nothing  else,  has  effectually  exploded 
the  old  dualistic  or  polytheistic  conception  of  nature. 
What  appeared  to  be  the  result  of  opposing  prin- 
ciples, is  really  found  to  be  the  issue  of  general 
laws  working  on  some  great  although  unexplored 
scheme  of  harmony.  There  is  no  disturbance,  no 
disorder;  amidst  the  infinite  diversity  of  nature 
—order  reigns  universally. 

But  this  '  order,'  what  is  it  ?  The  mere  recogni- 
tion of  order  does  not  necessarily  imply  the  recogni- 
tion of  God — of  a  '  Being  all-powerful,  wise,  and 
good,  by  whom  everything  exists.'  The  materialist 
and  ])antlieist  equally  admit  the  fact  of  order,  but 
equally  deny  the  theistic  conclusion  founded  upon 
it ;  and  the  argument,  accordingly,  is  carried  up 
from  nature  and  its  facts  to  a  higher  region  of  dis- 
cussion. Whence  arises  the  conception  of  order — of 
design  ?  Nature  illustrates  it,  but  nature  does  not 
itself  give  it.  The  general  laws  of  which  science 
speaks  so  much  pervade  all  phenomena  of  creation, 
but  they  are  not  a  part  of  these  phenomena.  'Order' 
and  law  are  ideas  which  we  convey  to  nature,  not 
which  nature  brings  to  us.  They  come  from  within, 
not  from  witliout.  It  is  with  mind,  and  not  with 
matter  that  we  start.  The  latter  in  itself  presents 
a  mere  series  of  endless  movements.  It  is  in  the 
presence  of  mind  only  that  it  assumes  meaning 
and  order.  Mind  is  the  true  image  of  the  Deity. 
We  discern  causation  in  nature,  because  we  ourselves 
are  agents,  conscious  of  exerting  power.  We  discern 
order  in  nature,  because  we  everyw^liere  bring  our 
conceptions  into  a  unity,  and  ai)prehend  our  several 
modes  of  consciousness  with  reference  to  the  indi- 
visible self  which  they  all  involve.  '  In  our  life 
alone  does  nature  live.'  '  It  is  from  the  little  world 
of  our  own  consciousness,  with  its  many  objects 
marshalled  in  their  array  under  the  rule  of  the  one 
conscious  mind,  that  we  are  led  to  the  thought  of 
the  great  luiiverse  beyond — that  we  conceive  this 
also  as  a  world  of  order,  and  as  being  such  by  virtue 
of  its  relation  to  an  ordering  and  presiding  mind.' 

The  existence  of  Deity,  therefore,  is  a  j)Ostulate 
of  the  human  consciousness.  Kecognise  a  living 
mind  in  man,  independent  of  matter — a  rational 
will,  as  constituting  the  essential  and  distinguishing 
element  of  his  being — and  the  inference  is  inevit- 
able of  an  infinite  mind — a  supreme  will  governing 
the  world.  A  true  natural  theology  is  based  upon 
a  true  psycbolugy.  A  philosophy  which  denies  to 
man  a  higher  existence  than  nature.,  which  would 
make  his  rational  consciousness  the  mere  growth  of 
material  conditions,  leaves  no  ground  of  argument 
for  the  existence  of  Deity — for,  as  J acobi  says : 
'  Nature  reveals  only  fate,  only  an  indissoluble 
chain  of  causes  (sequences),  without  beginning  and 
without  end,  excluding  with  equal  necessity  botli 
providence  and  chance.  Working  without  wall,  she 
takes  counsel  neither  of  the  good  nor  of  the  beauti- 
ful ;  creating  nothing,  she  casts  up  from  her  dark 
abyss  only  eternjll  transformations  of  herself,  uncon- 
Bciously  and  without  end.  But  man  reveals  God — 
for  man,  by  his  intelligence,  rises  above  nature,  and 
in  virtue  of  this  intelligence,  is  conscious  of  himself, 
as  a  power  not  only  independent  of,  but  opjiosed  to, 
nature,  and  capable  of  resisting,  conquering,  and 
controlling  her.  As  man  has  a  living  faith  in  this 
power  superior  to  nature,  which  dwells  in  him, 
so  has  he  belief  in  God — a  feeling,  an  experience 
of  his  existence.  As  he  does  not  believe  in  this 
power,  so  does  he  not  believe  in  God;  he  sees,  he 
experiences  nought  in  existence  but  nature,  and 
uecessit}',  and  fate.' 
808 


The  argument  for  the  existence  of  God  rests, 
accordingly,  on  certain  fundamental  principles  of 
our  mental  and  moral  being,  such  principles  bjsk 
causation  and  design,  or  final  cause.  It  implies  a 
sinritual  philosophy  of  human  nature.  Apai't  from 
such  a  philosophy,  theism  has  no  argumentative 
basis,  however  it  may  prevail  as  a  tradition  or 
superstition. 

But  some  philosophers  have  sought  not  merely  to 
rest  the  argument  for  the  existence  of  God  upco 
such  principles,  but  to  evolve  it  in  all  its  complete- 
ness from  them  alone.  From  a  single  datum  oi 
consciousness — sometimes  from  a  single  datum  of 
experience — they  have  tried  to  construct,  by  pro- 
cesses of  mere  abstract  reasoning,  a  '  demonstration 
of  the  being  and  attributes  of  God.'  This  has  been 
styled  the  ci  priori  method  of  argument,  although 
to  all  the  arguments  to  which  this  name  has  been 
given  it  does  not  strictly  apply.  The  mode  of  argu- 
ment, again,  which  reasons  from  special  effects  in 
nature  to  a  First  Cause,  has  been  styled,  in  contra- 
distinction, d  posteriori.  The  argument  from  desig).;, 
for  example,  as  conducted  by  Paley  and  others,  is 
d  posteriori.  The  arguments  of  Descartes,  and  the 
'  demonstration '  of  Dr  Samuel  Clarke,  are  what 
have  been  termed  d  priori.  Either  of  these  modes 
of  proof,  taken  by  itself,  has  been  rightly  considered 
inconclusive  by  recent  writers  on  natural  theology. 
Mere  d  priori  trains  of  reasoning  fail  to  carry  up 
the  mind  to  any  real  and  living  conception  of  Deity ; 
they  yield  merely  a  theoretical  or  abstract  idea. 
Arguments  such  as  Paley's  and  the  Bridgewater 
treatises,  again,  are  rather  illustrations  than  argu- 
ments. They  derive  all  their  logical  frrce  from 
certain  princii^les  which  are  implied  in  their  details, 
and  without  which  these  details  could  have  no 
bearing  on  the  existence  of  God.  The  very  idea  of 
Design  itself  is  such  a  principle.  It  is  the  die  which 
the  mind  stamps  upon  nature ;  it  is  not  in  nature 
itself.  Any  complete  argument  for  the  Being  of 
God,  therefore,  involves  equally  d  priori  and  d 
posteriori  elements.  The  former  are  necessary  as 
the  rational  foundation  of  the  argument ;  the  latter 
are  necessary  to  illustrate,  to  give  life  and  body 
to  the  general  principles  w^hich  lie  at  the  foundation. 

The  Christian  doctrine  of  the  Godhead  will  be 
considered  under  the  several  names  of  Trinity, 
Son  of  God,  and  Holy  Spirit. 

GOD,  Offences  against.    See  Sacrilege. 

GOD  SAVE  THE  KING  (or  QUEEN),  the 
noble  national  anthem  of  Great  Britain,  and  by 
adoption  that  of  Prussia  and  the  German  states,  and 
which  is  played  and  sung  in  every  part  of  the 
British  empire  alike  on  solemn  and  festive  occasions, 
has  been  a  subject  of  controversy  with  respect  to 
its  origin.  Its  words  are  apparently  imitated  from 
the  Domine  Salvum  of  the  Catholic  Church  service. 
In  England,  the  authorship  has  been  generally  attri- 
buted to  Dr  John  Bull,  born  1563,  in  1591,  organist 
in  Queen  Elizabeth's  Chapel,  1596,  professor  of  music 
in  Gresham  College,  and  chamber-musician  of  James 
L  About  the  period  of  the  discovery  of  the  Gun- 
powder Plot,  he  composed  and  played  on  a  small 
organ  before  the  king  an  ode  beginning  with  the 
words,  '  God  save  great  James  our  king.  He  died 
at  Liibeck,  1622.  It  does  not  appear,  however,  that 
this,  or  any  other  old  composition  of  a  similar  title, 
had  any  connection  with  that  which  we  now  possess. 
Chappell,  in  his  Popular  Music  of  tJie  Olden  Tim^, 
and  Dr  Fink,  a  German  musical  antiquary,  have 
settled  the  question ;  the  honour  of  this  great 
work,  both  words  and  melody,  must  be  given  to 
Dr.  Henry  Gary,  an  English  poet  and  musician, 
born  in  London  about  1696,  die<;l  1743.  The  words 
and  music  were  composed  in  honour  of  a  birthday 


GOD  AVERY— GODFREY  OF  BOt/ILLON. 


5f  George  II.,  and  performed  for  tlie  first  time  at 
a  dinner  given  on  that  occasion  in  1740  by 
the  Mercers'  Company  of  London.  The  words  and 
music  were  first  published  in  the  Haimonia  A  ngli- 
cana,  1742,  and  appeared  in  the  Gentleman'' 8  Maga- 
zine, 1745.  The  air,  according  to  Dr  Arne,  has 
preserved  its  original  form,  but  its  harmonies  have 
been  modified  hy  various  artists ;  and  the  words 
were  changed  on  the  accession  of  William  IV.,  and 
on  that  of  Queen  Victoria. 

GODA'VERY,  or  GODAVARI,  one  of  the 
principal  rivers  of  the  peninsula  of  Hindustan,  and 
the  largest  of  the  Deccan,  rises  within  50  miles  of 
the  Arabian  Sea,  and  flows  south-east  across  the 
penuisula  into  the  Ba}'-  of  Bengal.  Its  source  is  in 
the  eastern  face  of  the  Western  Ghauts,  in  lat.  19" 
58'  N.,  and  long.  73°  30'  E. ;  and  its  two  mouths, 
diverging  in  lat.  16°  57'  N.,  and  long.  81°  49'  E., 
enter  the  sea  resiiectively  in  lat.  16°  48'  and  long. 
82°  23',  and  in  lat.  16°  IS'  and  long.  81°  46'.  About  23 
miles  al)ove  the  head  of  the  delta,  the  G.  emerges 
at  Polaveram  from  the  Eastern  Ghauts,  through 
which  it  has  ]mssed  with  so  moderate  a  descent 
as  to  be  na\'igable  in  either  direction.  The  southern 
arm  of  the  G.  admits  vessels  drawing  eight  or  nine 
feet ;  and  the  northern  one  shews  a  depth  of  two  or 
three  feet  more.  Like  tropical  streams  in  general, 
the  river  varies  greatly,  according  to  the  season,  in 
breadth  and  depth.  But  a  dam  or  annicut  (see 
Cauvery)  has  been  constructed,  so  as  to  mitigate 
the  evil  for  the  purposes  alike  of  navigation  and  of 
irrigation.  The  entire  length  of  the  G.  is  about  900 
miles. 

GOD-BOTE,  an  ecclesiastical  fine,  paid  for 
crimes  and  ofi"ences  against  God.  The  word  bote, 
the  same  as  boot,  is  the  old  Saxon  bot  or  bote,  a 
reparation  or  satisfaction — e.  g.,  man-bote  was  the 
compensation  due  for  the  life  of  a  man. 

GO'DESBERG,  a  village  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  with 
a  fine  ruin,  is  situated  on  a  conical  hill  in  the  midst 
of  a  plain,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  and  four 
miles  south  of  Bonn.  It  has  a  mineral  spring,  is  a 
favouiite  summer  residence,  and  has  a  population 
of  1170.  It  derives  its  name,  not  from  Woden,  who 
is  said  to  have  been  worshipjied  here,  but  more 
probably  from  the  Gau-ding,  or  Goding,  the  district 
court  which  may  have  held  its  sittings  at  this  place. 
The  castle  was  erected  by  Dietrich,  the  Archbishop 
of  Cologne  (1208 — 1213),  with  materials  taken  from 
the  ancient  chapel  of  St  Michael,  the  niins  of  which 
are  stiU  standing  near  the  castle.  In  1582,  Geb- 
hard,  the  deposed  archbishop,  took  refuge  liere,  and 
intrusted  the  castle  to  a  Dutch  garrison.  It  was, 
however,  soon  after  taken  by  his  successor,  on  which 
occasion  it  sustained  much  injury.  During  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  it  was  alternately  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Swedes  and  the  Imperialists,  and  was 
finally  almost  demolished  by  the  French.  Only  one 
fine  tower,  90  feet  in  height,  is  still  standing.  It 
commands  a  magnificent  prospect  of  the  Siebenge- 
birge  and  great  part  of  the  valley  of  the  Rhine,  and 
is,  on  this  account,  much  visited  by  strangers. 

GODFATHER  and  GODMOTHER,  the  per- 
son who,  by  solemnly  presenting  to  the  minister 
of  baptism  the  candidate  for  that  sacrament,  which 
is  regarded  as  a  new  spiritual  birth,  is  reputed  to 
contract  towards  the  newly  baptized  the  relation 
of  spiritual  paternity  or  maternity.  The  effects  of 
the  usage  are  difi'erently  estimated  in  the  different 
communions. 

Ir^  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  parties  pre- 
senting a  child  for  baptism  are  called,  from  the 
ppiritua]  parental  relations  which  they  contract, 
'godfather'  [patrinus)  and  'godmother'  {matrina); 
AflJ  from  the  enjagement  into  which  they  enter  on 


behalf  of  the  baptized,  *  sponsors '  {/tponsores).  The 
spiritual  bond  resulting  from  this  relation  is  regarded 
as  a  species  of  kindred  (whence  the  name  gondp,  or 
God-sib,  spiritually  akin),  and  constitutes,  by  the 
canon  law,  an  impediment  of  marriage  between  the 
sponsors  upon  the  one  hand  and  the  baptized  and 
the  parents  of  the  baptized  on  the  other.  Anciently, 
this  impediment  arose  also  between  the  sponsors 
themselves,  who  were  often  very  numerous,  and 
extended  besides  to  the  other  members  of  the 
kindred ;   but  the  Council  of  Trent  limited  tlie 
I  number  of  sponsors  to  '  one  or  two,'  and  restricted 
j  the  matrimonial   impediment   within   the  limits 
I  above  described.    The  parents  of  the  baptized  are 
j  not  permitted  to  act  as  sponsors  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  one  of  the  objects  of  the  insti- 
{  tution  being  to  provide  instructors  in  case  of  the 
death  of  parents ;  nor  are  memljers  of  religious 
I  orders,  because  their  inclusion  within  their  convent 
:  is  supposed  to  render  it  impossible  for  them  to 
discharge  permanently  and  regularly  the  duties  of 
I  instructors  to  the  newly  baptized.    In  the  Roman 
i  Catholic  sacrament  of  conlirmation  also,  the  candi- 
I  date  is  commonly  presented  by  one  sponsor,  genei- 
ally,  though  not  necessarily,  of  the  same  sex  with 
I  the  candidate  for  confirmation.     It  is  difficidt  to 
j  assign  the  precise  date  of  the  origin  of  this  insti- 
!  tution.    No  trace  of  it  occurs  in  the  New  Testa- 
'  ment,  but  it  is  believed  to  have  been  in  use  in  the 
2d  c,  and  it  certainly  was  an  established  practice  in 
the  fourth. 

In  the  Church  of  England,  two  godfathers  and 
a  godmother  are  required  at  the  baptism  of  a  male, 
and  two  godmothers  and  a  godfather  at  that  of  a 
1  female.    In  order  to  be  admitted  as  such,  the  person 
must  be  baptized,  must  be  of  full  age,  acquainted 
i  with  the  Lord's  Prayer,  Creed,  and  Ten  Command- 
j  ments,  and  familiar  with  the  ftmdamental  truths 
of  Christianity.    No  impediment  of  marriage  arises 
in  the  English  Church  from  the  relation  of  the 
sponsors  to  the  baptized.    Practically,  the  usage  in 
the  Church  of  England  has,  for  the  most  part, 
'  degenerated  into  a  mere  form  ;  godfathers  and  god- 
I  mothers  usually  giving  themselves  little  concern 
in  the  future  fate  of  the  infant  whose  spiritual 
condition  they  become  bound  to  watch  over.  In 
the  Chitrch  of  Scotland,  and  other  nou- Episcopal 
\  Churches,  the  parents  of  the  infant  occupy  the 
I  place  of  sponsors ;  the  father  expressly  taking  the 
j  vows  on  the  occasion. 

I     GODFREY  OF  BOUILLON,  Dulce  of  Lower 
;  Lorraine,  born  about  1061,  at  Baisy,  a  village  of 
j  Belgian  Brabant,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Count 
Eustace  11.  of  Boulogne,  and  Ida,  sister  to  Gott- 
I  fried  or  Godfrey,  the  Hunchback,  Duke  of  Lower 
i  Lorraine  and  Bouillon,  whom  he  succeeded  in  the 
!  government  of  the  latter  duchy  in  1076.    He  served 
with  great  gallantry  in  the  armies  of  the  Emperor 
Henry  IV.,  both  in  Germany  and  Italy ;  and  it 
was  from  his  hand  that  the  competitor  for  the 
I  imperial  crown,  Rodolf  of  Swabia,  received  his 
deathblow  at  the  battle  of  Merseburg.  When 
the  first  Crusade  was  set  on  foot,  the  fame  of 
his  exploits  caused  him  to  be  elected  one  of  the 
principal  commanders.     In  order  to  defray  the 
expenses  of  the  Crusade  of  1095,  he  mortg;iged 
Bouillon  to  the  Bishop  of  Liiige,  and  set  out,  accom- 
panied by  his  brothers  Eustace  and  Baldwin,  in 
the  spring  of  1096.    For  a  detailed  account  of  hia 
career  up  till  the  taking  of  Jerusalem,  see  Ceusadks. 
Eight  days  after  the  taking  of  Jerusalem,  G.  was 
proclaimed  king  by  the  unanimous  voice  of  the 
crusading  army  ;  but  the  piety  and  humility  of  the 
conqueror  forbade  him  to  'wear  a  crown  of  gold 
where  his  Saviour  had  worn  one  of  thorns.'  Ho 
dechned  the  regal  title,  contenting  himself  with  that 

b09 


GODIVA— GOD'S  TRUCE. 


nf  Defender  and  Guardian  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 
The  Sultan  of  Egypt,  learning  that  the  army  of 
3U(),()()0  Crusaders  who  had  taken  Antioch  had 
dwindled  away  to  20,000,  advanced  against  them 
with  an  army  said  to  have  amounted  to  400,000  men ; 
but  G.  gave  him  battle  in  the  j)lain  of  Ascalon,  and 
the  victory  gained  on  this  occasion  put  him  in 
possession  of  the  whole  of  Palestine,  a  few  forti- 
fied towns  only  excepted.  He  now  directed  his 
endeavours  to  the  organisation  of  the  new  state  ; 
he  installed  a  patriarch,  founded  two  cathedral 
chapters,  built  a  monastery  in  the  valley  of 
Jahoshaphat,  and  drew  up  laws.  He  died  in  1100, 
and  his  body  was  interred  on  Mount  Calvary,  near 
fche  Holy  Sepulchre.  History  represents  this  prince 
as  a  model  of  piety,  valour,  and  all  kingly  virtues  ; 
and  his  praises  have  been  worthily  sung  by  Tasso 
iu  his  Jerusalem  Delivered. 

GODI'VA,  Lady,  patroness  of  Coventry.  About 
the  year  1040,  Leofric,  Earl  of  Mercia,  and  Lord  of 
Coventry,  then  an  important  market-town,  imposed 
certain  onerous  services  and  heavy  exactions  upon 
the  inhabitants,  of  which  they  loudly  complained. 
His  wife,  the  Lady  G.,  having  the  welfare  of  the 
town  at  heart,  besought  her  husband  to  give  them 
relief,  and  was  so  earnest  in  her  entreaties,  that  at 
length,  to  escape  from  her  importunities,  the  earl 
said  he  would  grant  her  the  favour,  but  only  on 
condition  that  she  would  ride  naked  through  the 
town,  supposing,  from  the  modesty  of  Lady  G, 
that  he  had  required  an  impossible  condition  ;  but 
he  was  surprised  with  the  answer :  '  But  will  you 
give  me  leave  to  do  so  ?'  As  he  could  not  in  justice 
refuse,  she  ordered  that  proclamation  be  made  that 
on  a  certain  day  no  one  should  be  away,  or  even 
look,  from  their  houses,  when,  clothed  only  by  her 
long  hair,  she  rode  through  the  town  ;  and  her 
husband,  in  admiration  of  her  intrepid  devotion, 
performed  his  promise.  This  circumstance  was  com- 
memorated by  a  stained-glass  window,  mentioned 
in  1690,  in  St  Michael's  Church,  Cov^entry;  and  the 
legend  that  an  unfortvmate  tailor,  the  only  man 
who  looked  out  of  a  window,  was  struck  blind, 
has  also  found  commemoration  in  an  ancient  effigy 
of  '  Peeping  Tom  of  Coventry,'  still  to  be  seen  in 
a  niche  of  one  of  the  buildings.  By  a  charter  of 
Henry  III.,  1218,  a  fair  is  held  at  Coventry,  begin- 
ning on  Friday  of  Trinity- week,  and  lasting  eight 
days.  The  fair  was  opened  with  a  grand  civic 
procession,  a  part  of  which  was,  in  1678,  the 
representation  of  the  ride  of  Lady  Godiva.  These 
processions  were  continued  at  intervals  of  from 
three  to  seven  years,  imtil  1826.  Some  beautiful 
woman,  who  rei)resented  Lady  G,  was  the  prin- 
cipal figure,  but  many  other  historical  and  emble- 
matic personages  were  introducecL  In  1848,  the 
procession  was  revived  with  great  splendour,  and 
the  spectacle  attracted  more  than  15,000  strangers. 
The  fair  of  1862  was  opened  with  a  similar  pro- 
cession. 

GODOLO,  a  market-town  in  Hungary,  formerly 
the  residence  of  the  princely  family  Grassalkovich, 
is  distinguished  for  its  manorial  castle,  as  well  as 
for  the  surrounding  parks.  It  was  on  the  woody 
heights  of  G.  and  Isaszeg  that  the  combined  armies 
of  Austria,  under  Prince  Windischgratz  and  Count 
Jellachich,  were  defeated  in  two  bloody  battles  by 
the  Hungarians  under  Gorgei.  On  the  eve  of 
victory.  Governor  Kossuth  held  a  conference  with 
Tihe  generals  Gorgei,  Klapka,  and  Damjanich,  for 
laying  down  the  principles  of  the  famous  Declara- 
tion of  Independence,  issued  on  the  14th  of  April 
1849,  by  tlie  diet  at  Debreczin.  It  was  this  declar- 
ation which  sei-ved  the  emperor  of  Russia  as  a 
;)retext  for  the  invasion  of  Hungary.    Pop.  3661. 

810 


GODOLPHIN,  Sydney,  Ea-Jil  of  Godolphin, 

an  English  statesman,  was  deBcended  from  an  old 
Cornish  family,  and  was  born,  it  is  thought,  about 
1640.  After  the  Restoration  he  became  one  of  the 
grooms  of  the  bed-chamber  to  Charles  II.,  was 
appointed  one  of  the  secretaries  of  state  in  1664,  and 
soon  after  first  commissioner  of  the  treasury ;  waa 
twice  despatched  to  Holland  in  1678  on  business  of 
importance,  and  argued  and  voted  for  the  exclusion 
of  the  Duke  of  York  from  the  succession  in  ]  680. » 
Nevertheless,  when  the  latter  mounted  the  thron", 
G.  (now  Baron  Godolphin  of  Rialton,  in  Cornwall) 
was  made  lord-chamberlain  to  the  queen  ;  and  on 
the  landing  of  the  Prince  of  Orange,  he  was  one  of 
the  commissioners  sent  by  King  James  to  treat  with 
the  invader — a  difficult  piece  of  business,  which  he 
is  considered  to  have  managed  with  much  tact  and 
prudence.  William  was  not  slow  to  perceive  the 
admu-able  abilities  of  G,  and  in  1690  appointed  him 
first  lord  of  the  treasury.  In  1695  he  was  one  of 
the  seven  lords  justices  for  the  administration  of 
the  government  during  the  king's  absence.  In  1702, 
on  the  accession  of  Anne,  he  accepted  the  office  of 
lord  high  treasurer,  mainly  at  the  solicitation  of 
Marlborough,  who  paid  him  a  splendid  compliment 
by  declaring  that  otherwise  he  could  not  venture  to 
assume  the  command  of  the  British  armies,  as  he 
could  depend  on  him  alone  for  punctual  remittances, 
G.  fully  realised  the  expectations  of  the  great 
Captain.  He  raised  .the  public  credit,  induced 
the  queen  to  contribute  £100,000  towards  the  war, 
firmly  opposed  the  selling  of  offices  and  places,  and 
increased  the  stipends  of  the  inferior  clergy.  In 
1706,  G.  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  Earl  of  Godol- 
phin and  Viscount  Rialton ;  after  this  period  he 
took  part  with  the  Whigs,  as  being  more  patriotic 
and  English  than  the  Tories.  The  contest  between 
him  and  Harley  for  the  premiership,  resulted  finally 
in  the  defeat  of  G,  who  was  dismissed  from  office 
in  1710.  He  died  at  St  Albans,  September  15, 
1712,  and  was  interred  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
The  title  became  extinct  in  his  son  Francis,  second 
Ead  of  Godolphin.  G.  was  the  best  business -man 
of  his  age.  He  had  the  clearest  and  quickest 
understanding,  and  liked  to  do  his  work  in  such  a 
way  that  it  would  not  require  to  be  done  over 
again.  In  an  age  of  corruption,  G.  was  believed 
to  be  incapable  of  bribery,  and  he  never  employed 
as  his  agents  any  except  men  of  integrity.  His 
'  talent  for  silence'  equalled  William's  own. 

GODOY.    See  Alcudia. 

GOD'S  TRUCE  (Lat.  Treuga  Dei,  or  Trma  Dei, 
from  the  Ger.  Treit,  true),  one  of  the  most  singular 
among  the  institutions  of  the  middle  ages,  which 
prevailed  specially  in  France  and  the  Germanic 
empire,  but  was  also  received  for  a  time  in  the 
other  countries  of  Europe.  It  consisted  in  the 
suspension  for  a  stated  time,  and  at  stated  seasons 
and  festivals,  of  that  right  of  private  feud  for  the 
redress  of  wrongs,  which,  under  certain  condiuons, 
was  recognised  by  medieval  law  or  usage.  Private 
feuds,  it  is  true,  could  only,  by  the  medieval  law, 
which  was  called  Faustrecht  and  Fehderecht,  be 
vindertaken  when  judicial  redress  had  failed  or 
could  not  be  enforced,  and  after  formal  notice  had 
been  served  upon  the  party  against  whom  they 
were  levied.  But  even  with  this  limitation,  private 
feuds  multiplied  exceedingly.  The  public  peace  waa 
subj.ect  to  constant  interruption  ;  the  weak  were 
without  resource  ;  the  strong  bore  down  all  by  the 
terror  of  their  arms  ;  and  the  whole  social  frame- 
work was  so  utterly  disorganised,  that  men,  by  one 
of  those  religious  impulses  of  which  this  age  offers 
so  many  examples,  fell  back  upon  the  aid  of  the 
church,  and  invoked  her  influence,  as  the  only  effectual 


GODWIN. 


means  of  staying  the  evil.  It  was  in  this  crisis 
that  the  'God's  Truce '  originated.  In  the  end  of  the 
10th  c,  a  council  assembled  at  Limoges,  at  which 
the  princes  and  nobles  bound  themselves,  by  solemn 
vow,  not  only  to  abstain  from  all  unlawful  feuds, 
but  also  to  keep  the  peace  mutually  towards  each 
other,  and  to  protect  from  violence  all  defenceless 
persons,  clerics,  monks,  nuns,  women,  merchants, 
jiilgTims,  and  tillers  of  the  soil.  A  similar  engage- 
•  ment  was  entered  into  in  a  council  at  Orleans 
in  1016 ;  and  the  whole  body  of  the  bishops  of 
Burgundy  enforced  it  upon  their  flocks  everywhere 
throughovit  that  duchy.  A  plague  which  visited 
a  great  part  of  Europe  soon  afterwards  gave  a  fresh 
impulse  to  the  movement ;  and  in  the  year  1033, 
the  'Holy  Peace'  was  almost  universally  received, 
and  for  a  time  continued  to  be  religiously  observed. 
But  as  the  old  abuse  began  to  revive  by  degrees,  it 
was  felt  that  the  observance  Would  carry  with  it 
more  of  religious  authority,  if,  instead  of  being,  as 
it  had  originally  been  instituted,  universal,  it  was 
limited  to  certain  times  and  days,  which  themselves 
had  certain  religious  associations  connected  with 
them.  Accordingly,  in  1041,  the  bishops  of  Aqui- 
taine  limited  the  God's  Truce  to  the  week-days 
specially  consecrated  by  the  memory  of  the  Passion 
and  Resiu-rection  of  Christ — that  is,  from  the  sunset 
of  Wednesday  to  simrise  of  Monday.  The  same 
decree  was  renewed  at  Narbonne  in  1054,  and  at 
Troyes  in  1093.  At  Clermont,  in  1095,  it  was 
extended  to  the  whole  interval  from  the  beginning  of 
Advent  to  the  Epiphany,  and  from  the  beginning 
of  Lent  to  Pentecost,  to  which  times  were  after- 
wards added  several  other  festivals.  These  enact- 
ments were  adopted  or  renewed  at  several  later 
coxmcils ;  and  although  they  were  often  disregarded, 
it  is  impossible  to  doubt  that  they  had  a  wide  and 
lasting  influence  in  mitigating  the  evil  against 
which  they  were  directed.  This  singular  institution 
fell  gradually  into  disuse,  and  at  last  disappeared 
altogether,  when  the  riglit  of  private  redress  was 
restricted,  and  at  last  entii'ely  aboHshed,  by  the  law 
of  the  empire. 

GODWIjS",  William,  an  English  author,  was 
bom  at  Wisbeach,  in  Cambridgeshire,  March  3, 
1756.  His  father  and  grandfather  were  Presbyterian 
ministers,  and  he  was  educated  to  the  same  profes- 
sion, first  at  a  school  at  Norwich,  to  which  place  his 
father  had  removed  in  1767,  where  he  made  rapid 
progress  in  classical  studies,  and  afterward  at  a 
Presbyterian  college  at  Hoxton,  where  he  pursued 
his  theological  studies.  From  1778  to  1783,  he  was 
minister  to  a  congregation  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
London  ;  but  the  zeal  with  which  he  fiirst  entered 
uj)on  his  duties  declined,  and  a  change  in  his  theo- 
logical opinions  made  it  necessary  for  him  to  resign 
his  change.  His  only  resource  was  to  remove  to 
the  irilropolis,  and  engage  in  literatitre.  His  first 
wort ,  a  seriess  of  Historical  Sketches,  in  the  form  of 
ser::j.jn3,  was  unsuccessful,  and  he  was  reduced  to 
penury  and  despnir  ;  but  they  made  him  acquainted 
with  Fox,  Sheridan,  and  other  Whig  leaders,  and  he 
turned  his  attention  to  politics.  The  American 
revolution,  closely  followed  by  that  of  France, 
excited  the  public  mind,  and  G.  wrote  his  Inquiry 
Concerv.inrj  Political  Justice,  1793.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  Tlce  Adventures  of  Caleb  Williams,  a 
remarkable  novel,  which  is  still  popular,  and  The 
Iron  CJiAist,  a  tragedy,  which  keeps  its  place  upon  the 
stage.  An  able  defence  of  Horne  Tooke  and  others, 
■publislied  in  the  Morning  Chronicle,  advanced  his 
reputation  ;  and  in  1797,  he  published  The  Inquirer, 
a  collection  of  essays  on  morals  and  politics.  About 
this  time,  he  formed  an  alliance  with  Mary  Woll- 
Btonecraft,  the  celebrated  author  of  the  Bights  of 
Woman,  and  adopted  and  defended  her  extreme 


social  views.  Afler  some  months,  however,  they 
yielded  so  far  to  custom  as  to  be  married.  His 
wife  died  a  short  time  after  in  giving  birth  to  a 
daughter,  who  afterwards  became  the  second  wife 
of  the  poet  SheUey.  In  1799,  he  published  St 
Leon,  a  romance  ;  and  the  next  year  visited  Ireland, 
where  he  associated  with  Curran,  G rattan,  and  other 
eminent  Irish  political  leaders.  He  also  consoled 
himself  for  the  loss  of  his  wife  by  writing  her 
Memoirs.  In  1801,  he  married  again,  and  had  {» 
son,  who  died  of  cholera  in  1832.  To  secure  a  more 
certain  support,  G.  and  his  wife  opened  a  circu- 
lating library,  but  he  also  worked  indefatigably 
with  his  pen  to  the  end  of  his  life.  He  wrote  many 
school-books,  an  admirable  Life  of  Chaucer  (1801); 
Fleetwood,  a  novel,  3  vols.  (1805) ;  Mandeville,  in 
1817  ;  a  Treatise  on  Population,  a  refutation  of 
Malthus,  in  1820  ;  a  History  of  the  Republic  of  Eng- 
land, in  4  vols.  (1824—1828)  ;  Cloudesley  (1830)  ; 
Thoughts  on  Man  (1833).  As  he  grew  old,  he 
modified  his  opinions  on  politics  and  society, 
and  especially  on  marriage,  which  be  warmly 
commends  in  some  of  his  later  works.  Being  now 
77  years  old,  he  was  appointed  to  a  place  under 
government,  which  removed  him  from  the  apprehen- 
sion of  want ;  but  he  knew  not  how  to  be  idle,  and 
v/rote  Deloraine,  a  novel,  and  the  Lives  of  the  Necro- 
mancers.  Many  of  his  works  were  translated  into 
foreign  languages.  He  died  in  London,  April  7, 
1836. 

GODWIN,  Earl  of  Wessex,  a  famous  Saxoa 
noble,  was  born  towards  the  end  of  the  10th  cen- 
tury. Originally,  it  is  said,  he  followed  the  occu- 
pation of  a  cow-herd;  but  having  found  means  to 
ingratiate  himself  with  Ulfr,  the  brother-in-law  of 
King  Canute,  the  latter  gave  him  his  daughter  in 
marriage,  and  he  soon  became  one  of  the  most 
powerful  of  the  English  nobles.  More  than  any 
other  person,  he  contributed  to  the  elevation  of 
Edward  to  the  English  throne  (1044  a.d.)  ;  and  the 
principal  reward  of  his  ser^'^ces  was  the  marriage 
of  his  beautiful  and  accomplished  daughter  Editha 
with  the  English  king.  This  union,  however,  was 
not  a  happy  one.  Editha  was  cruelly  neglected  by 
Edward,  and  her  father,  on  account  of  his  dislike 
of  the  Nonnans,  incurred  the  royal  enmity.  Hia 
estates  were  seized,  and  given  to  favourites,  and  he 
and  his  family  fled.  Queen  Editha  was  made  to 
feel  even  more  bitterly  than  any  one  the  misfor- 
tunes of  her  family.  Her  own  husband  seized  her 
dower ;  he  took  from  her  her  jewels  and  her  money, 
'  even  to  the  uttermost  farthing ;'  and  allowing  her 
only  the  attendance  of  one  maiden,  he  closely  con- 
fined her  in  the  monastery  of  Wherwell,  of  which 
one  of  his  sisters  was  lady-abbess.  Meanwhile, 
shoals  of  Normans  visited  England  for  the  pur^jose 
of  making,  or  rather  getting  fortunes.  Among 
Edward's  most  favoured  guests  for  a  time  was  Duke 
William  of  Normandy,  better  known  as  William 
the  Conqueror.  The  banished  earl,  however,  had 
not  been  idle  ;  through  frequent  correspondence  with 
his  countrymen  at  home,  he  kept  alive  the  anti- 
pathy of  the  English  to  the  Norman  favourites  of 
Edward,  and  in  the  summer  of  1052  he  landed  on 
the  southern  coast  of  England.  The  royal  troops, 
the  navy,  and  vast  numbers  of  the  burghers  and 
peasants,  went  over  to  him  ;  and  finally  the  king  was 
forced  to  grant  his  demands.  The  Normans  were  for 
the  most  part  expelled  from  the  country,  the  G. 
family  was  restored  to  all  its  j)ossessions  and  digni- 
ties ;  and  at  a  meeting  of  the  W^itenagemdte,  '  the 
earls  and  all  the  best  men  of  the  land '  declared 
that  the  foreigners  alone  were  to  be  held  guilty  of 
the  late  dissensions  that  had  distracted  the  country. 
G.  did  not  long  survive  his  triumpL ;  he  died 
April  7,1054. 


GODWIT— GOETHE. 


GO'DWIT  {Limosa),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
I'amily  Scolopacidce,  with  very  long  bill,  slightly 
curved  upwards,  and  long  slender  legs,  great  part  of 
the  tibia  bare.  All  the  species  frequent  marshes  and 
shallow  waters,  chiefly  those  of  the  sea-coast,  where 
they  seek  their  food  by  wading  and  by  ])lungiug  the 
long  bill  into  the  water  or  mud  like  snipes.  They 
sometimes  also  run  after  small  crustaceans  or  other 
animals,  and  catch  them  on  the  sands,  from  which 
the  tide  has  retired.  Two  species  occur  in  Britain, 
the  Black-tailed  G.  {L.  melanura)  and  the  Bar- 
TALLED  G.  (L.  rufa\  both  birds  of  passage,  and  not 


Bar-Tailed  Godwit  [Limosa  rufa). 

antrequent  visitors  of  the  marshy  parts  of  the  east 
coast  of  England,  where  the  first  occasionally  breeds  ; 
but  both  generally  breed  in  more  noi-thern  countries, 
and  are  seen  in  Britain  chiefly  in  their  migrations 
northward  and  southward.  Both  species  are  very 
widely  distributed  over  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa. 
The  females  are  rather  larger  than  the  males,  and 
the  whole  length  of  the  female  black-tailed  G., 
which  is  rather  the  largest  species,  is  about  17 
inches,  the  bill  alone  being  four  inches  long.  Several 
s{»ecies  occur  in  North  America,  of  which  the  L.  fedoa 
is  the  largest  of  the  genus,  and  is  known  under  the 
n.ime  of  Oodwit. 

GOES,  or  TERGOES,  a  town  and  fortified 
seaport  of  Holland,  in  the  province  of  Zeeland,  is 
eituated  in  a  fruitful  district  in  the  island  of  South 
Beveland,  about  34  miles  from  its  northern  coast, 
and  17  miles  west  of  Bergen -op -Zoom.  It  is  well 
built ;  has  a  harbour  formed  by  a  canal  commu- 
nicating with  the  East  Scheldt,  ship-building  docks, 
besides  an  active  trade  in  hops,  salt,  and  agricultural 
produce.    Pop.  5400. 

GOETHE,  Johann  Wolfgang  von,  the  acknow- 
ledged prince  of  German  poets,  and  one  of  the 
most  highly  gifted  and  variously  accomplished  men 
of  the  18th  century.  He  was  born  in  the  year 
1749  at  Frankfurt-on-the-Maine,  where  his  youth- 
ful years  were  spent.  His  father,  Johann  Kaspar 
Goethe,  was  an  imperial  councillor,  in  good  circum- 
utances,  and  in  a  respectable  position.  In  the 
;year  1765,  he  went  to  the  university  of  Leipsic, 
of  which  Ernest  and  Gellert  were  then  the  most 
notable  ornaments.  As  a  student,  he  pointed, 
by  external  profession,  towards  the  law ;  but  his 
real  studies  were  in  the  wide  domain  of  literature, 
philosophy,  and  above  all,  life  and  living  charac- 
ter. In  the  year  1770,  he  went  to  Strasburg,  to 
finish  his  juridical  studies ;  but  here  also  anatomy 
and  chemistry,  Shakspeare,  Bousseau,  and  archi- 
tecture— anything  rather  than  the  statute-book — 
occupied  his  time  and  exercised  his  soul.  Here  it 
was  that  one  of  the  earliest,  certainly  the  most 
812 


famous  of  those  youthful  love-adventures  took  place, 
which,  in  his  biography,  as  in  that  of  Bobert  Burns, 
play  such  a  prominent  part — the  well-known 
affair  of  Frederica  Briov  of  Seisenlieim.  With 
regard  to  these  matters  in  general,  it  may  be  said 
that  he  was  more  readily  moved  to  love  than 
intense  in  love  ;  and  that  the  objects  of  his  admira- 
tion generally  seem  to  have  had  more  reason  to 
boast  of  the  delicacy  of  his  susceptibility,  than  of 
the  perseverance  of  his  devotion.  How  far  there  * 
was  anything  more  than  commonly  culpable  in 
these  connections,  will  always  be  a  question ;  cer- 
tain it  is  that  they  will  always  tarnish  to  some 
extent  the  otherwise  fair  reputation  of  the  poet. 
The  female  sex  wiU  never  forgive  the  man  who 
was  so  light  to  lend  his  heart,  and  so  fearful  to 
give  his  hand  ;  and  British  morality  will  always  be 
mclined  to  pass  a  severe  judgment  on  the  man  who, 
professing  the  profoundest  subjection  to  law  and 
order  in  everything  else,  seems  to  have  shrunk 
from  the  golden  clasp  of  legitimate  marriage  as 
from  some  conventional  shackle,  which  a  free  and 
great  nature  shoidd  avoid.  In  the  year  1771,  the 
youug  poet,  now  22  years  of  age,  took  his  degree  as 
Doctor  of  Laws,  and  went  for  a  short  while  to 
Wetzlar  on  the  Lahn,  the  seat  of  the  imperial 
chamber  of  the  then  German  empire,  and  which 
afforded  peculiar  facilities  for  youug  men  engaged 
in  the  study  of  public  law.  Here,  however,  as  in 
other  places,  his  knowledge  of  the  human  heart, 
and  of  human  character,  altogether  overgrew  hia 
professional  studies  ;  and  Wet/lar  became  to  1dm 
the  scene  of  the  famous  Sorrows  of  Wertlier,  a 
glowing  leaf  from  the  life  of  the  human  soul,  fidl  of 
interest  and  beauty  at  all  times,  but  which,  in  the 
then  state  of  European  thought  and  feeling,  stirred 
the  whole  literary  mind  of  Europe  like  a  breeze 
sweeping  over  a  forest.  The  book  was  not  puljlished 
till  1774.  After  returning  from  Frankfurt,  G.  spent 
some  years  in  his  native  city,  engaged  chiefly 
in  literary  productions.  His  first  great  work  was 
Gotz  von  Berlichhigen,  translated  into  English  by  Sir 
Walter  Scott,  published  at  Frankfurt,  1773,  which 
at  once  set  the  Germans  free  from  the  painful  con- 
straint of  French  and  classical  models,  and  opened 
up  to  them  that  career  of  bold  originality,  which 
they  have  since  prosecuted  in  so  many  departments 
of  literature,  learning,  and  speculation.  In  the  year 
1775,  G.,  who  had  had  the  good-fortune  to  gain 
the  good  opinion  of  Karl  August,  Grand  Duke  of 
Saxe- Weimar,  accepted  an  invitation  from  that 
l^rince  to  settle  in  his  little  capital,  since  become 
so  famous  as  the  Athens  of  the  great  legislative  age 
of  German  literature.  Here  the  poet  became  a 
little  statesman ;  and  occupying  himself  in  various 
ways  in  the  service  of  his  benefactor,  passed 
quickly  through  stages  of  court  preferment,  till,  in 
1779,  he  became  'actual  privy-councillor,'  at  the 
age  of  30,  holding  the  highest  dignity  that  a  German 
subject  coidd  then  attain ;  a  great,  a  rich,  and  an 
influential  man.  In  1782,  he  received  a  patent 
of  nobility;  and  in  the  following  years,  till  1788, 
travelled  much  in  Switzerland  and  Italy,  of  which 
last  journey  we  have  the  beautiful  fruits  in  Iphir/eniaf 
Egmont,  Tasso,  and  the  Venetian  and  Roman  Elegies. 
Of  this  last  work,  thoroughly  German  both  in  form 
and  feeling,  the  heroine  was  Christiana  Vulpius,  a 
highly  attractive  though  not  a  highly  gifted  woman, 
who  bore  him  a  child — his  eldest  son — in  1789 ;  but 
whom,  though  he  always  treated  her  as  his  wife 
he  did  not  formally  marry  till  1806.  In  1792,  he 
took  part  in  the  German  campaign  against  Franco, 
of  which  he  has  left  a  memoir.  In  the  year  1815, 
he  was  made  minister  of  state.  After  the  death  of 
the  grand  duke,  in  1828,  he  lived  much  in  retire- 
ment, occupied  occasionally  with  poetry,  but  much 


GOG  AND  MAGOG— GOGARL 


mere  intensely  and  constantly  with  the  study  of 
nature  and  the  fine  arts,  which  from  his  eariiest 
years  had  possessed  the  strongest  attractions  for 
him.  He  died  in  March  1832,  in  his  eighty-fourth 
year. 

To  give  a  detailed  accoiant  of  the  literary  and 
scientific  productions  of  G.'s  pen,  is  altogether 
impossible  within  the  limits  of  the  present  work  ; 
much  less  can  we  attempt  any  detailed  criticism  of 
•  these  works.  The  best  source  of  reference  to  the 
mere  English  reader  is  the  biography  of  the  poet, 
by  G.  H.  Lewes  ;  along  with  which  may  be  taken 
G.'s  interesting  conversations  with  Eckermann, 
translated  by  Oxenford.  On  the  general  character 
and  literary  position  of  G.,  however,  a  few  words 
are  necessary.  It  is  as  a  poet,  no  doubt,  that 
this  remarkable  man  is  generally  known  and  recog- 
nised in  this  country;  but  it  is  not  as  a  poet 
only  that  a  just  measure  can  be  taken  of  his 
intellectual  calibre  or  of  his  European  significance. 
It  is  as  poet,  thinker,  critic,  and  original  observer 
of  nature,  all  combined  in  one  admirable  harmony, 
that  his  rare  excellence  consists.  We  do  not  find 
in  literary  history  any  intellect  that  can  fitly  be 
placed  on  the  same  platform  with  G. ;  that  pre- 
sents, in  such  grand  and  graceful  completeness,  so 
much  severe  thought,  combined  with  so  much 
luxuriant  imagination;  so  much  accurate  science 
with  so  much  playful  fancy  ;  so  much  simplicity 
with  so  much  art ;  so  much  freshness  and  origin- 
ality of  productive  power,  with  so  much  justness 
and  comprehensiveness  of  critical  jiidgment.  As 
a  dramatist,  G.  will  not  compare  for  a  moment 
with  the  great  masters  of  that  art  among  ourselves. 
His  English  biographer  detects  in  the  constitution 
of  his  mind,  most  justly,  '  a  singular  absence  of 
historic  feeling  and  dramatic  power.'  Not  less 
correct  is  the  judgment  of  the  same  writer  when  he 
says :  '  Goethe  was  attached  to  character  and  picture, 
indifferent  to  action  and  event.'  In  this  respect,  the 
poet  was  a  true  tyj^e  of  his  nation.  As  contrasted 
with  the  French  and  English,  the  Germans  are 
deficient  in  nothing  so  remarkably  as  in  stirring 
passion  and  progi'essive  energy ;  the  relation  of 
G.  to  Sliakspeare  and  the  English  dramatists  is 
exactly  the  same.  Nevertheless,  Faust  is  a  great 
poem,  even  a  great  dramatic  poem,  for  it  is  full 
of  dramatic  scenes,  though  they  are  not  sufficiently 
moved  by  the  living  current  of  dramatic  action. 
Faust  is  essentially  a  Gennan  poem,  and  yet  a 
poem  which  all  foreigners  can  read  and  enjoy.  It 
is  the  great  drama  of  that  moral  and  metaphysical 
questioning  which  thoughtful  minds  must  go  through 
in  all  times  and  places,  but  which  has  received  the 
fullest  and  most  fruitful  develoi)ment  in  modern 
Germany.  Of  the  other  poetical  works  of  G., 
Iphigenia,  Hermann  and  Dorotltea,  and  Tasso,  are 
those  which  most  strongly  bear  the  type  of  the  ripe 
Bianhood  of  the  author.  The  form  and  style  of 
these  classical  works  are  characteristically  Greek ; 
by  which  we  mean  they  are  chiefly  remarkable 
for  profundity  of  thought  and  truth  of  feeling, 
<X]>ressed  in  the  most  simple,  graceful,  and  impre- 
tending  manner.  In  soul,  however,  they  are  essen- 
tially German  ;  and  the  most  deei^-thinking  of  the 
Germans  are  always  the  first  to  claim  G.  as  the 
most  German  of  all  German  poets  in  spirit,  though 
very  few  great  German  writers  have  so  carefully 
avoided  the  most  characteristic  German  defects  of 
Btyle.  In  the  extraordinary  value  which  he  attaches 
to  '  the  form,'  G.  a  ithenticates  himself  everywhere 
as  at  once  a  great  modem  Greek  and  a  great  artist. 

G.  is  a  poet  who  is  thoroughly  relished  only 
by  those  who  understand  thoroughly  the  German 
language,  and  whose  minds  are  not  so  typically 
English  as  to  exclude  a  ready  sympathy  with 


German  thoughts  and  feelings.  With  general 
English  readers,  for  various  reasons,  Schiller  will 
always  be  the  favourite  poet.  Nevertheless,  the^c 
has  been  a  considerable  amount  of  literary  powe^' 
in  this  country  spent  in  the  translation  of  G.V 
works,  specially  of  his  great  work,  the  Faust;  c( 
this,  at  least  a  dozen  translations  exist,  tlie  mow* 
notable  being  by  Anster,  Blackie,  and  Hayward 
Some  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  lyric  poem& 
have  been  aptly  rendered  in  a  conjunct  volume  by 
Professor  Aytoun  and  Theodore  Martin. 

GOG  AND  MAGOG,  names  several  times  used 
in  the  Bible,  and  the  names  given  to  the  famous 
figures  of  giants  in  Guildhall,  London.  Magog  is 
spoken  of  by  the  writer  of  Genesis  as  a  son  of 
Japhet ;  Ezekiel  speaks  of  Gog,  prince  of  Magog ; 
Gog  and  Magog  are  spoken  of  in  the  Kevelation, 
Magog  is  considered  by  some  the  father  of  the 
Scythians  and  Tartars.  The  Persians  have  also 
been  derived  from  Magog,  and  the  Goths  from  Gog 
and  Magog.  The  Caucasus  is  supposed  by  Bochart 
to  derive  its  name  from  Gog  Chasan — fortress 
of  Gog.  Our  Guildhall  giants  boast  of  almost  aa 
high  an  antiquity  as  the  Gog  and  Magog  of  the 
Scriptures,  as  they,  or  their  living  prototypes,  are 
said  to  have  been  found  in  Britain  by  13rate,  a 
younger  son  of  Anthenor  of  Troy,  who  invaded 
Albion,  and  founded  the  city  of  London,  at  first 
called  Troy-novant,  3000  years  ago.  Albion,  at 
this  period,  was  inhabited  by  a  race  of  tremendouH 
giants,  the  descendants  of  the  thirty-three  infam- 
ous daughters  of  the  Emperor  Diocletian,  who, 
having  miu'dered  all  their  husbands,  wero  sent 
to  sea  in  a  ship,  and  were  happy  enough  to  reach 
Albion,  where,  cohabiting  with  wicked  deraons, 
they  gave  bii-th  to  the  giants,  whom  the  Trojans 
finally  conquered,  leading  the  last  two  sur\avor3 
prisoners  to  London,  where  they  were  chained  to 
the  gates  of  a  palace  on  the  site  of  GuildhaU,  and 
there  kept  as  porters.  When  they  died,  their 
effigies  were  set  up  in  their  place.  This  is  Gaxton'a 
account ;  but  there  is  another,  which  represents  one 
of  the  giants  as  Gogmagog,  and  the  other  as  a 
British  giant  who  killed  him,  named  Corineus, 
However  the  fact  may  ha,ve  been,  the  two  giants 
have  been  the  pride  of  London  from  time  imme- 
morial. On  London  Bridge,  they  welcomed  Henry 
V.  in  1415 ;  they  welcomed  Henry  VI.  to  London 
in  1432;  and  in'  1554,  Philip  and  Mary.  In  1558, 
they  stood  by  Temple  Bar,  when  Elizabeth  passed 
through  the  city  gate.  The  old  giants  were  burned 
in  the  great  fire,  and  the  new  ones  were  constructed 
in  1708.  They  are  14  feet  high,  and  occupy  suitable 
pedestals  in  Guildhall.  The  ancient  effigies,  which 
were  made  of  wicker-work  and  pasteboard,  were 
carried  through  the  streets  in  the  Lord  Mayor's 
Shows,  and  copies  of  the  present  giants  were  in  the 
show  of  1837.  Formerly,  other  towns  in  England 
had  their  giants,  and  there  are  famous  and  some 
very  large  ones  in  several  continental  cities.  The 
Antigonus  of  Antwerp  is  40  feet  high,  and  was 
formerly  carried  in  the  most  solemn  religious  aa 
well  as  civic  processions.  Gayant,  the  giant  of 
Douai,  is  22  feet  high.  There  are  also  giants,  and 
families  of  giants,  at  Lille,  Malines,  Brussels,  &c., 
each  connected  with  some  popular  tradition  of  their 
respective  cities.  The  arms  of  Antwerp,  a  castle 
with  severed  hands,  are  connected  with  the  legend 
of  the  giant  who  lived  in  the  castle,  and  cut  ofl 
the  hands  of  those  who  failed  to  pay  his  exac- 
tions. Though  it  is  now  impossible  to  ascertain 
the  facts,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  all  these 
civic  giants  are  exaggerated  representatives  of  reaX 
persons  and  events. 

GO'GARI,  a  river  rising  in  Nepaul,  about  lat^ 


GOGO— GOLD. 


27°  20'  N.,  and  long.  85°  46'  R,  joins  the  Coosy, 
an  alBr.ent  of  the  Ganges,  in  lat.  25'  24'  N.,  and 
long.  87  '  16'  E.,  after  a  course  of  235  miles. 

GO'GO,  a  large  town  and  a  seaport  of  British 
India,  in  the  presidency  of  Bombay,  is  situated 
on  the  west  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Cambay,  and  has 
safe  anchorage  during  the  soutli-west  monsoon, 
with  smooth  water  and  a  muddy  bottom.  It  is  in 
lat.  21°  39'  K,  and  long.  72°  15'  E.  Pop.  (1872)  9571. 

GOGOL,  Nikolai,  a  Russian  author  of  great 
and  original  genius,  was  born  at  the  village  of 
Wassiljewka,  in  the  government  of  Poltova,  in 
1810.  On  finishing  his  studies,  he  went  to  St 
Petersburg,  and  solicited  government  employment, 
which  was  refused,  on  the  ground,  that  'he  did 
not  knoAV  Russian.'  Shortly  after,  he  proved  that 
the  officials  were  in  the  wrong  by  publishing  a 
collection  of  novels  and  sketches,  entitled  Vechara 
na  Klmtorie  "(Evenings  at  a  Farmhouse).  The  first 
and  most  important  of  these  tales  contains  a  vivid 
picture  of  Cossack  manners,  enabling  us,  according 
to  M.  Sainte-Beuve,  to  comprehend  the  profound 
antii)athies  that  have  for  ages  characterised  tlie 
relations  of  certain  branches  of  the  Slavic  family 
to  each  other.  Then  come  the  '  King  of  the 
Gnomes;'  the  'History  of  a  Fool,'  which  is  more 
a  satire  than  a  psychological  stiuly ;  and  '  The 
House-keeping  of  Former  Times,'  a  little  master- 
piece of  its  kind.  The  success  of  Evenings  at  a 
Farmliovse  was  immense,  and  Russian  critics  com- 
pared G.'s  style  to  that  of  Washington  Irving.  It 
was  followed  by  Mirr/owd,  a  supplementary  volume, 
of  the  same  character,  containing  stories  lull  of 
poetry,  and  exciting  astonishment  not  less  by  the 
vigour  and  grasp  of  mind  displayed  in  tlie  delinea- 
tion of  character,  than  by  the  extraordinary  skill 
with  which  the  plots  are  formed  and  imravelled. 
G.  now  turned  his  attention  to  the  dramatic  art, 
and  produced  the  Re  visor,  a  comedy  of  brilliant 
genius,  whoiL^e  appearance  on  the  stage  excited  quite 
a  furor.  Tho  purpose  of  this  piece  was  to  expose 
the  rooted  abuses  of  the  internal  administration  of 
Russian  affairs.  The  Emperor  Nicholas  was  the 
first  to  applaud  its  morality,  and  shewed  his  appro- 
bation by  a])pointing  the  author  professor  of  history 
in  the  university  of  St  Petersburg.  While  holding 
this  office,  he  pulilished,  in  1842,  Pokhozhdeniija 
Chichagova  Hi  Mertvuiiia  Dushi  (Adventures  of 
Chichagov,  or  Dead  Souls),  of  which  a  bad  transla- 
tion appeared  in  English  in  1854,  under  the  title  of 
Home-life  in  Russia).  The  aim  of  this  novel  was 
to  extinguish  serfdom  by  ridicule.  Exhausted  by 
his  laboiu^s,  G.  sought  permission  to  travel,  and 
visited  Italy,  where  he  took  up  his  residence. 
There,  however,  his  opinions  appear  to  have  under- 
gone a  change.  From  being  an  ardent  Russian 
liberal  and  reformer,  he  became  an  apologist  of 
despotism,  an  aj)ostasy  which  he  lived  to  regret. 
After  the  commotions  of  1848,  he  returned  to 
Russia,  and  died  at  Moscow  in  1851. 

GOHILWA  R,  or  GOHELWAD,  a  native  prin- 
cipality, tributary  at  once  to  the  Guicowar  of 
Guzerat  and  to  the  British  government,  lies  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  the  peninsida  of  Kattywar,  stretch- 
ing in  N.  lat.  from  20°  56'  to  22°  3',  and  in  E. 
long,  from  71°  14'  to  72°  13',  and  containing  3500 
square  miles,  and  247,980  inhabitants.  The  chief's 
revenue  is  about  740,000  rupees  a  year,  out  of 
which  he  pays  two  tributes,  about  80,000  rupees  to 
the  government  of  Bombay,  and  about  40,000  to 
the  Guicowar. 

GOIL,  Loch,  a  small  but  highly  picturesque  loch 
in  Argyleshire,  Scotland,  is  a  branch  of  Loch  Long 
(q.  v.),  and  is  six  miles  in  length,  and  about  one 
oiiJe  in  breadth.  Its  shores  are  for  the  most  part 
814 


wild  and  rugged ;  but  the  general  character  of  the 
scenery  is  modified  by  extensive  natural  woods  of 
hazel,  which  stretch  along  the  shore.  The  moun- 
tains in  the  neighbourhood  rise  to  the  height  of 
about  2500  feet.  It  may  be  visited  by  steamers 
from  Glasgow. 

GO'ITO,  a  small  town  in  Lombardy,  about  15 
miles  north-west  from  Mantua,  occupies  a  beautiful 
though  somewhat  marshy  position  on  the  Mincio. 
This  town,  owing  to  its  vicinity  to  the  stronghold' 
of  Mantiia,  has  been  the  field  of  various  military 
operations.  In  1630,  it  was  carried  by  assault  by 
the  imperialists,  who  entered  Mantua  on  the  same 
night,  and  took  it  by  surprise  ;  during  the  war  of 
the  Spanish  Succession  in  1701,  it  wan  alternately 
captured  by  the  allies  and  the  imperialists  ;  and  in 
1796  the  French  took  it,  Imt  were  expelled,  after  a 
brief  tenure,  by  the  Austrians.  In  1814,  a  severe 
engagement  took  place  at  G.  between  the  Austrian 
and  Italian  troops;  and  during  the  war  of  independ- 
ence in  1848,  it  became  the  theatre  of  two  further 
battles  between  the  same  powers,  to  which  it  owes 
its  modern  celebrity.    Population  3600. 

GOI'TRE,  an  enlargement  of  the  Thyroid  Gland 
(q.  v.),  occupying  the  front  of  the  neck,  and  some- 
times of  such  a  size  as  to  project  downwards  over 
the  breast,  and  even  to  admit  of  being  thrown  over 
the  slioulder.  Goitre  is  for  the  most  part  an  endemic 
or  local  disease,  being  found  in  the  mountainous 
regions  of  the  Alps,  Andes,  and  Himalaya,  especially, 
it  IS  said,  where  lime  prevails  largely  as  a  geological 
formation.  Tlie  proofs  of  goitre  being  connected 
with  a  calcareous  impregnation  of  the  drinking- 
water  are  rather  strong,  but  perhaps  not  quite 
sufficient,  especially  as  regards  this  country,  though 
the  chief  seat  of  goitre  in  England,  Derbyshire,  is 
subject  to  this  alleged  cause.  Goitre  is  met  with 
endemically,  to  a  slight  extent,  in  various  parts  of 
Scotland ;  but  on  a  very  small  scale  indeed  as  com- 
pared with  Switzerland,  in  which  it  is  a  very  im- 
portant deformity,  especially  when  connected  with 
Cretinism  (q.  v.).  Goitre  is  of  two  kinds  :  the  one 
due  to  increased  development  of  the  vessels  of  the 
gland,  the  other  to  the  growth  of  Cysts  (q.  v.)  in 
its  substance.  To  these  might  perhaps  be  added  a 
third,  which  is  found  in  connection  with  functional 
disease  of  the  heart,  but  which  is  perhaps  only  a 
variety  of  the  vascular  goitre.  The  usual  treatment 
of  goitre  is  by  the  administration  of  very  minute 
doses  of  Iodine  (q.  v.)  for  a  long  time  together.  The 
use  of  this  remedy  is  due  to  Coindet  of  Geneva, 
who  recognised  it  as  the  principal  source  of  the 
virtues  of  burned  sponge,  long  of  high  repute  in  the 
treatment  of  goitre. 

GOLCO'NDA,  a  fortress  o^  the  Nizam,  situated 
seven  miles  to  the  north-west  of  his  capital,  Hyder- 
abad, stands  in  lat.  17°  22'  N.,  and  in  long.  78°  25' 
E.  In  its  immediate  neighbourhood  are  the  ruins 
of  an  ancient  city,  once  the  metropolis  of  the  king- 
dom of  Golconda.  The  place  itself  is  stiU  strong ; 
but  its  strength  is  seriously  impaired  through  its 
being  overtopped,  within  breaching-range,  by  the  yet 
solid  mausolea  of  its  former  sovereigns,  which  form 
a  vast  group  at  a  distance  of  600  yards.  These 
tombs  are  dome-crowned  structures  of  gray  granite, 
each  having  its  own  mosque,  and  occupying  the 
centre  of  its  own  elevated  terrace.  G.  is  prover- 
bially famous  for  its  diamonds ;  but,  in  truth,  they 
are  merely  cut  and  pohshed  here,  being  generally 
found  at  Parteall,  near  the  southern  frontier  of  the 
Nizam's  dominions. 

GOLD  (symbol  Au,  atomic  weight  196.)  haa 
been  known  and  regarded  as  the  most  precious  of 
the  metals  from  the  earliest  ages  of  the  world,  and 
has  been  universally  employed  as  a  medium 


GOLD. 


exchange.  Although  the  quantity  of  G.  which  is 
found,  when  compared  with  that  of  many  other 
metals,  is  small,  yet  there  are  few  parts  of  the  globe 
in  which  it  does  not  occur  more  or  less  abundantly. 

In  the  native  state,  it  occurs  crystallised,  the 
primary  form  being  the  cube,  or  in  plates,  ramifica- 
tions, or  nodules — popularly  known  as  nuggets — 
which  sometimes  are  of  very  considerable  size. 
Jt  is  almost  always  alloyed  with  silver,  and  some- 
times with  tellurium,  bismuth,  lead,  &c.  It  some- 
times occurs  in  small  quantity  in  metallic  sulphides, 
as  in  galena,  iron  and  copper  pyrites. 

The  extraction  of  G.  from  the  substances  with 
is'hich  it  is  associated  is  effected  more  by  mechan- 
ical than  by  chemical  means.    See  below. 

The  following  are  its  most  important  properties. 
In  its  compact  state,  it  possesses  a  characteristic 
yellow  colour  and  high  metallic  lustre,  is  nearly  as 
soft  as  lead,  and  is  the  most  malleable  of  all  metals. 
It  can  be  beaten  into  leaves  of  a  thinness  not 
exceeding  ■^oooocii  or,  according  to  some  authors, 
■aoooo  of  an  inch,  through  which  light  passes  with 
a  green  tint ;  one  grain  may  thus  be  distributed 
over  56  square  inches  of  surface ;  and  the  ductility  of 
the  metal  is  so  great,  that  the  same  quantity  may 
be  drawn  out  into  500  feet  of  wire.  In  its  tenacity, 
it  is  inferior  to  iron,  platinum,  copper,  and  silver; 
but  a  wire  whose  diameter  is  0"787  (or  rather 
more  than  one-third)  of  a  line  (which  is  one-twelfth 
of  an  inch),  will  support  a  weight  of  about  150  lbs. 
It  fuses  at  about  2016°,  according  to  Daniell's 
pyrometer,  and  when  in  fusion,  is  of  a  bluish- 
reen  coloiu".  It  is  scarcely  at  all  volatile  in  the 
eat  of  the  furnace,  but  by  a  powerful  electric  dis- 
charge, by  the  concentration  of  the  sun's  rays  by  a 
powerful  burning-glass,  or  by  the  oxy-hydrogen  jet, 
it  is  dispersed  in  purple  vapours.  G.  has  very  little 
affinity  for  oxygen ;  it  undergoes  no  change  on 
exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  and  is  unaffected  by 
hydrochloric,  sulphuric,  or  nitric  acid,  or,  in  short, 
by  any  simple  acid  excejjt  selenic  acid  ;  nor  do  the 
alkalies  affect  it.  It  is,  however,  dissolved  by  any 
mixture  which  liberates  chlorine,  its  usual  solvent 
being  aqua  regia,  which  is  generally  prepared  by 
mixing  1  part  of  nitric  acid  v/ith  4  parts  of  hydro- 
chloric acid.  Hydrochloric  acid  to  which  binoxide 
of  manganese  has  been  added,  acts  equally  well, 
the  G.  in  these  cases  being  converted  into  a 
chloride.  This  metal  is  one  of  the  most  perfect 
conductors  both  of  heat  and  of  electricity.  When 
recipitated  in  a  finely  comminuted  state,  it  is  of  a 
rown  colour  ;  but  when  suspended  in  water,  and 
viewed  by  transmitted  light,  it  appears  purple. 
The  specific  gravity  of  this  metal  is  less  than 
that  of  platinum  and  iridium,  ranging  from  19 '2 
to  19*4,  according  as  it  is  fused  or  hammered. 

The  alloys  of  G.,  or  its  combinations  with  other 
metals,  are  very  numerous,  those  with  copper  and 
saercury  being  the  most  important.  Copper  and 
G.  combine  in  all  proportions  without  materially 
Affecting  the  colour  of  the  latter,  except  that  it  is 
somewhat  redder.  The  density  of  the  compound 
IB  less  than  that  of  G.,  but  the  hardness  is  greater, 
and  it  is  more  fusible.  It  is  this  alloy  which  is 
employed  in  our  gold  coinage,  11  parts  of  G.  being 
combined  with  1  of  copper,  without  which  the  coin 
would  not  be  sufficiently  hard  to  stand  the  wear 
to  which  it  is  exposed.  Hence  British  standard 
G.  contains  8-33  per  cent,  of  copper.  In  France, 
and  in  the  United  States,  standard  G.  contains  10 
per  cent,  of  the  latter  metal.  Jewellers  alloy  their 
G.  with  other  metals,  partly  on  economical  grounds, 
and  partly  for  the  purpose  of  evolving  special  tints. 
Thus,  red  G.  is  obtained  by  combining  75  parts 
of  fine  G.  with  25  of  copper ;  green  G.,  by  combining 
75  parts  of  fine  G.  with  25  of  silver ;  dead-leaf 


G.,  by  combining  70  parts  of  fine  G.  with  30 
of  silver ;  water-green  G.,  by  comb"jiing  60  parts 
of  fine  G.  with  40  of  silver blue  G.,  by  combining 
75  parts  of  fine  G.  with  25  of  iron. 

Mercury  and  G.  combine  very  readily,  and  yield 
a  white  alloy,  termed  an  amalgam,  which  is  used 
in  gilding.  In  consequence  of  the  readiness  with 
which  these  metals  unite  even  at  ordinary  tempera- 
tures, mercury  is  used  for  the  extraction  of  gold. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  ductility  of  G.  is  much 
impaired  by  alloying  other  metals  with  it,  whilo 
its  hardness  and  sonorousness  are  increased. 

Two  oxides  of  G.  are  known — aurous  oxide,  AuzO, 
and  auric  oxide,  AU2O3.  Neither  of  these  oxides  can 
be  formed  by  the  direct  union  of  the  elements,  and 
both  of  them  are  reduced  by  heat.  The  protoxido 
is  a  dark-green  or  bluish- violet  powder.  It  foima 
no  definite  salts.  It  is  obtained  by  the  decomi)osi- 
tion  of  protochloride  of  G.  with  a  solution  of  potash. 
The  teroxide  is  a  brown  powder,  which  is  1  educed, 
not  only  by  heat  and  light,  but  by  many  other 
reducing  agents.  It  combines  more  readily  with 
bases  than  with  acids,  and  hence  has  been  termed 
auric  acid.  We  obtain  it  by  mixing  a  solution  of 
terchloride  of  G.  wvth  magnesia  or  carbonate  of 
soda,  and  boiling. 

Two  chlorides  of  G.  are  known,  corresponding  to 
the  oxides,  viz.,  a  protochloride,  AuCl,  and  a  tri- 
chloride, AuClg.  Of  these,  the  latter  is  th&  most 
important :  it  is  obtained  by  dissolving  G.  in  aqua 
regia,  and  evaporating  the  solution  to  dryness,  at  a 
temperature  not  exceeding  300°,  when  we  obtain 
this  compound,  as  a  deliquescent  yellowish  brown 
or  reddish  mass,  which  is  soluble  in  water,  alcohol, 
and  ether,  vdtb.  which  it  forms  orange-coloured 
solutions. 

The  chlorides  of  many  of  the  organic  bases 
form  crystallisable  double  salts  with  the  terchloride 
of  G. ;  and  these  compounds  are  often  employed 
to  determine  the  combining  power  of  the  organic 
alkali. 

Metallic  G.  in  the  form  of  a  brown  powder  is 
thrown  down  from  the  solution  of  the  terchloride  by 
most  reducing  agents.  This  reducing  power  of  pro- 
tosulphate  of  iron  is  employed  in  the  preparation 
of  chemically  pure  gold. 

A  bisulphide  of  G.  is  obtained  in  the  form  of  a 
black  powder  by  passing  a  current  of  sulphui*etted 
hydrogen  through  a  cold  solution  of  terchloride  of 
gold.  '  If  finely  divided  gold  be  heated  with  sulphur 
in  contact  with  carbonate  of  potash,  a  double 
sulphide  of  gold  and  potassiiun  is  formed  ;  it  resists 
a  red  heat,  and  is  very  soluble  in  water  ;  this 
sidphur  salt  is  used  for  gilding  china,  and  pro- 
duces the  colour  known  as  Burgos  lustre.'' — Miller's 
Elements  of  Chemistry,  2d  edit.  vol.  ii.  p.  74. 

Fulminating  G.,  a  compound  known  to  the 
alchemists,  who  (Basil  Valentine,  for  example)  formed 
solutions  of  terchloride  of  G.,  occurs  as  a  green 
powder,  when  prepared  by  immersing  teroxide  of 
G.  (or  auric  acid)  in  caustic  ammonia.  By  modify- 
ing the  mode  of  preparation,  we  obtain  it  of  a 
brownish-yellow  colour.  From  Dumas's  analysis  of 
the  green  powder,  it  seems  to  be  represented  by  the 
formula  2NH3,Au03,  the  brownish-yellow  powder 
having  a  more  complicated  formula.  These  powders 
detonate  when  rubbed,  struck,  or  beaten,  or  when 
an  electric  spark  is  passed  through  thein,  with  a 
loud  sharp  report  and  a  faint  light,  aiid  they  jneld 
nitrogen  gas,  ammonia,  and  water.  None  but  pro- 
fessed chemists  should  attempt  to  prepare  them,  in 
consequence  of  their  dangerous  explosive  character. 
On  one  occasion,  a  drachm  of  fulminating  G.  intro- 
duced into  a  bottle  buist  it  as  the  sto]iper  waf? 
being  turned  round,  in  consequence  of  small  particles 
of  it  "having  adhered  about  the  mouth,  and  both  th€ 


GOLD. 


operator's  eyes  were  destroyed  by  the  projected  frag- 
ments of  glass. 

The  Purple  of  Cassius  is  an  important  gold  com- 
pound. It  derives  its  name  from  its  having  been  first 
described  by  Andreas  Cassius  in  1 685.  See  Cassius, 
Purple  of. 

None  of  the  salts  of  the  oxides  of  G.  are  of  suffi- 
cient importance  to  require  notice  in  this  article. 

For  the  description  of  Mosaic  Gold,  see  TlN. 

Gold  was,  in  all  probability,  one  of  the  earliest 
discovered  of  the  metals.  The  fact  of  its  being 
found  very  generally  distributed  over  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  and  that,  too,  in  its  simple  metallic 
state,  combined  with  its  beautiful  colour,  and  many 
valuable  properties,  would  cause  it  very  early  to 
attract  the  attention  of  man.  Accordingly,  we  learn 
that  gold  was  used  by  the  Hebrews,  the  Egyptians, 
and  other  ancient  nations,  for  much  the  same 
purposes  as  it  is  at  the  present  day. 

Previous  to  the  great  Californian  discovery  in 
1847,  Europe  was  to  a  great  extent  sui)plied  Avith 
G.  from  Mexico,  Brazil,  New  Granada,  Chili,  and 
Peru  in  North  and  South  America ;  a  large  cpian- 
tity  was  also  obtained  from  Asiatic  Russia  and  the 
islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago ;  the  east  and 
west  coast  of  Africa  furnished  a  less  but  still  con- 
siderab]  e  quantity.  All  these  countries  still  produce 
G.,  but  their  total  yield,  including  Europe,  is  only 
aboiit  one-fourth  that  of  California  and  Australia. 

The  most  famous  mines  in  Europe  are  those  of 
Hungary  and  Transylvania,  which  j)roduce  annually 
about  £300,000  worth  of  this  metal.  Piedmont 
and  Spain  are  almost  the  only  other  European 
countries  where  G.  is  worked  ;  but  it  is  found  in 
all  districts  where  the  rivers  flow  over  primary 
rocks,  though  rarely  in  sufficient  quantity  to  repay 
the  expense  of  working  it. 

G.  has  been  found  in  several  parts  of  the  British 
Islands.  The  most  jiroductive  district  yet  discovered 
was  that  of  Wicklow,  in  Ireland,  where,  towards 
the  close  of  the  last  centmy,  the  stream-works  were 
prosecuted  for  some  time  \vith  considerable  success. 
In  Scotland,  the  Leadhills,  on  the  borders  of  Dum- 
friesshire, as  well  as  the  Highlands  of  Perthshire, 
have  at  various  times  produced  G. ;  so  also  have 
Cornwall  and  Devonshire  in  England,  and,  at  the 
present  time,  a  small  quantity  is  being  obtained 
from  North  Wales. 

First  among  the  celebrated  gold  discoveries  of 
recent  times,  in  point  of  date,  though  not  in  import- 
ance, come  those  of  Eastern  Siberia,  where  extensive 
auriferous  tracts  were  discovered  in  the  govern- 
ments of  Tomsk  and  Yeniseisk  in  1842.  The  quantity 
obtained  in  these  eastern  regions  raised  the  annual 
produce  of  the  Russian  empire  to  three,  and  ulti- 
mately to  four  millions  sterling — more  than  triple 
its  former  yield.  Concerning  Russia,  it  may  be 
well  to  remark  that  an  examination  of  the  aurifer- 
ons  deposits  of  the  Ural  Mountains  led  Sir  Roderick 
Mnrcluson,  in  1S44,  on  comparing  their  rocks  with 
those  brought  home  by  Count  Strzelecki  frolfe 
Australia,  to  predict  the  presence  of  G.  on  the  latter 
continent.  Subsequent  discoveries,  as  is  well  known, 
have  proved  the  accuracy  of  this  conclusion  in  a 
very  remarkable  degree. 

The  rich  gold  region  of  California  was  discovered 
in  September  1847.  Mr  Marshall,  the  contractor 
for  a  saw-mill  on  the  estate  of  Captain  Suter — a 
Swiss  emigrant,  settled  on  the  banks  of  the  Sacra- 
mento River — detected  particles  of  G.  in  the  sand 
of  the  mill-race,  and  on  further  examination,  it  was 
found  that  valuable  deposits  existed  throughout 
the  bed  of  the  stream.  Intelligence  of  the  dis- 
covery soon  reached  the  town  of  San  Francisco, 
whose  scanty  population  at  once  abandoned  their 
usual  occupations  to  join  in  the  exciting  search  for 


gold.  The  supply  was  soon  found  to  be  abundant 
over  a  large  area;  it  occuned  in  the  tributaries 
of  the  Sacramento  as  well  as  in  the  bed  of  the  river 
itself,  in  old  water-courses,  and  on  the  sides  ot  the 
hills.  Emigrants  quickly  i)oured  in  from  all  parts 
of  the  American  continent,  and  ere  long  from  Britain, 
Germany,  and  other  European  countries,  till  the 
population  of  San  Francisco  alone  rose  from  under 
200  in  1 84.5  to  40,000  in  1 858.  The  largest  amount  of 
gold  mined  in  California  in  a  single  year  was  $65,000,- 
000,  in  1853.  The  gold  bullion  assayed  in  California 
in  1867  was  valued,  in  coin,  at  |'27,844,81  l,and  all  other 
gold  assnyed  in  the  United  Suites  at  {^17,319,239; 
total,  $45,161,051.  In  1878  the  product  in  the  United 
States  was  about  $45,000,000. 

In  1851,  before  the  excitement  of  the  Califomiiin 
discovery  had  time  to  subside,  the  world  was 
startled  by  the  announcement  of  another,  or  rather 
by  a  series  of  others,  of  not  less  importance,  in 
Australia.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  not  only  Sir  R, 
Murchison,  as  stated  above,  but  also  the  Rev.  W. 
B.  Clarke,  a  native  geologist,  had  pointed  out  tho 
likelihood  of  G.  being  found  in  the  eastern  chain  of 
the  Australian  mountains,  several  years  before  the 
value  of  the  gold-fields  near  Bathurst  was  discovered 
by  Mr  Hargraves  in  April  1851.  This  discovery 
was  no  sooner  made,  however,  than  several  other 
jjlaces  in  Bathm-st  and  the  adjoining  counties  were 
found  to  contain  rich  deposits  ;  so  that,  before  many 
months  had  passed,  6000  i)ersons  were  emj)loye(l  at 
these  di(j(jings.  In  August  of  the  same  year,  further 
discoveries  of  G.  were  made  at  Ballarat,  in  Victoria^, 
which  excelled  in  richness  those  of  the  Sydney 
district ;  and  these,  in  turn,  were  soon  sur])assed  by 
fresh  discoveries  in  the  Mount  Alexander  range. 
During  the  climax  of  the  excitement  created  by 
the  Victoria  gold-fields,  the  number  of  diggers  rose 
to  upwards  of  20,000,  withdrawing  for  a  time  the 
great  mass  of  the  population  from  Melbourne  and 
Geelong. 

The  modes  of  working  adopted  at  the  first  start 
of  the  diggings  were  necessarily  rude  and  wasteful ; 
the  fortunes  of  the  gold-seekers,  too,  were  of  course 
very  variable  under  such  a  system,  many  of  them 
having  made  large  profits — as  much,  in  a  few 
instances,  as  a  thousand  pounds  and  upwards  in  a 
single  week— but  many  more  met  with  nothing  but 
disappointment.  A  more  systematic  plan  of  mining, 
however,  has  now  been  introduced,  by  which  the 
auriferous  deposits  are  more  completely  worked  out, 
and  the  labour  of  the  miners  rendered  less  pre- 
carious. The  total  value  of  the  gold  obtained  in  Aus- 
tralia up  to  the  end  of  1867  was  £136,000,000  sterling, 
The  yield  in  1868  amounted  to  1,657,598  ounces.  In 
the  same  year  63,000  miners  were  at  work,  of  whom 
15,000  were  Chinese.  In  the  International  Exhibi- 
tion of  1862,  there  was  a  gilded  pyramid  10  ft.  square 
at  the  base  and  45  ft.  high,  representing  the  mass  of 
gold  exported  from  Victoria  between  the  1st  October 
1851,  and  the  1st  Oct.,  1861.  Its  weight  in  solid  gold 
would  have  been  26,162,432  ounces  troy,  and  its  value, 
£104,649,728.  The  produce  of  California,  since  the 
discoA'Cry  of  its  gold  fields  in  1847  up  to  the  present 
time,  may  be  estimated  at  about  $1,0U0,000,000,  and 
the  aggregate  product  of  the  western  mining  terri- 
tories at  about  $1,400,000,000. 

Since  the  two  great  gold  regions  of  California  and 
Australia  became  known,  three  new  ones  of  consi- 
derable promise  have  been  discovered — one  of  them 
in  British  Columbia,  the  value  of  w^hich  was  proved 
m  1858,  although  previously  it  was  to  some  extent 
known  to  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company ;  another 
is  being  successfully  developed  in  Nova  Scotia; 
and  a  third  in  the  i)rovince  of  Otago,  in  New 
Zealand,  the  recent  accoimta  from  which  are  very 
encouraging.     It  wovdd  appear  that  there  is  a 


GOLD-BEATER'S  SKIN— GOLD-BEATING. 


^r3at  similarity  between  the  general  rock  systems  and 
auriferous  deposits  of  this  region  and  those  of  Aus- 
tralia. Gold  has  been  extensively  discovered  in  Africa, 
between  17^^  and  21"  30'  S.  lat,,  and  about  400  miles 
from  Pretoria,  the  nearest  point  of  civilization  in  the 
S.  African  Republic  of  Transvaal.  The  kingdom  of 
Sofala,  on  the  coast,  to  the  eastward  of  the  alleged 
gold  formation,  has  been  considered  the  Ophir  of  Solo- 
mon's time.    The  gold  is  here  found  in  quartz  veins. 

The  mnual  produce  of  G.  in  the  whole  world 
fit  the  t  resent  time  is  somewhere  between  30 
and  4(  » lillions  sterling.  Wherever  G.  is  foimd, 
ita  origin  can  generally  be  traced  to  quartz  veins 
in  the  primary  or  volcanic  rocks,  such  as  granite, 
gneiss,  porphyry,  clay-slate,  or  greenstone.  As 
tb?se  rocks  become  decomposed  by  the  action  of 
tho  weather,  portions  of  the  auriferous  veins  are 
carried  do^\Ti  by  streams  and  floods,  and  so  find 
their  way  into  the  deposits  of  sand,  clay,  and 
shingle  in  river-beds,  and  in  the  gullies  and  flats 
of  hills.  Many  auriferous  drifts  are  of  great  thick- 
ness, formed  by  long-continued  wasting  of  the 
rocks  of  neighbouring  hills,  and  therefore  require 
mining  to  a  considerable  depth.  G.  for  the  most 
part  is  found  in  small  grains,  or  scales,  called  gold- 
dust  ;  some  of  it,  however,  in  pieces,  or  nuggets  of 
considerable  size.  The  largest  yet  met  with  was 
found  at  Ballarat  in  1858,  called  '  The  Welcome ; ' 
it  weighed  2 166  oz.,  and  its  value  was  £8376, 10<s.  lOtZ. 
A  good  deal  of  the  Mexican  and  European  G.  is 
obtained  from  auriferous  pyrites ;  that  is,  the 
sulphuret  of  iron,  copper,  or  arsenic,  with  the 
G.  disseminated  through  it. 

Nearly  all  the  metals  except  G.  are  found,  for 
the  most  part,  at  least,  as  ores  chemically  combined 
with  oxygen,  sulphur,  or  other  substances ;  and 
they  therefore  require  to  be  separated  by  chemical 
processes.  Gold  ores,  if  we  may  use  the  term,  gene- 
rally only  require  to  be  mechanically  treated  by 
the  processes  of  crushing,  stamping,  grinding,  and 
washing.  The  amalgamation  process,  however,  is 
resorted  to  when  the  G.  occurs  in  a  state  of  fine 
division. 

The  crushing-mill  consists  of  two  large  cast-iron 
cylinders  or  rollers  revolving  in  opposite  directions, 
which  break  the  ore  into  small  pieces  as  it  passes 
through  between  them.  To  reduce  it  further,  a 
stamping-mill  is  used  with  iron-shod  piles  of  wood, 
or  ^sometimes  vdih  stampers  entirely  of  iron,  Avrought 
by  an  axle  >vith  j)rojecting  cams  after  the  fashion 
of  flint-mills  and  beetling-machines.  To  pulverise 
it  still  further,  any  form  of  grinding-mill  is  used,  but 
the  grinding  surfaces  should  be  of  iron  or  of  some 
hard  rock  like  granite.  The  pounded  ore  is  finally 
sifted  and  washed  by  machines,  which  vary  in 
shape  and  mode  of  working,  but  they  all  consist 
essentially  of  sieves,  to  separate  the  larger  from  the 
smaller  particles,  and  an  inclined  table  or  frame, 
across  which  a  stream  of  water  flows.  The  gold 
particles,  on  account  of  their  greater  specific  gravity, 
reiiiain  at  the  head  of  the  board,  and  the  quartz  and 
othef  ijinpurities  are  can-ied  forward  and  separated 
by  the  current. 

By  the  above  treatment,  the  greater  part  of  the 
Q.  is  extracted,  but  there  still  remain  minute 
[Mirticles  invisible  to  the  naked  eye  mixed  with  the 
gangue ;  indeed,  some  auriferous  soils  contain  all 
theii  jr.  .n  a  state  of  extreme  division.  To  recover 
this,  the  ore  is  partially  concentrated  by  washing, 
and  then  an  amalgam  is  rcjide ;  that  is,  it  is  mixed 
with  mercury,  which  has  the  power  of  seizing  on 
and  dissolving  the  gold  particles,  however  minute. 
The  mercury  is  afterwards  distilled  off  in  a  cast-iron 
retort,  leaving  the  G.  nearly  pure. 

To  give  some  idea  of  the  quantity  of  G.  used  in 
the  arts,  of  which  very  httle  can  be  recovered,  it 

308 


may  be  stated  that  in  the  United  Kingdom  somu 
30,000  ounces  ,in  the  shape  of  leaf  gold,  10,000 
ounces  in  the  electroplate  and  other  processes  of 
gilding  metals,  and  about  the  same  quantity  in 
gilding  and  making  colours  in  the  x>ottery  |districts. 
are  annually  consumed. 

The  quantity  of  G.  poured  into  England  durin]^ 
recent  years  has  been  immense.  See  Great  Britain. 
What  has  become  of  it  all  is  often  matter  of  sur- 
I)rise.  Much  has  been  sent  to  the  oint,  and  much 
sent  to  foreign  countries  for  their  gold  coinage. 
Though  21  years  have  elapsed  since  the  supplies 
of  California  gold,  and  18  since  those  of  Aus- 
tralia, have  been  pouring  into  the  markets  of  Eurojje 
and  America,  there  has  not,  during  that  period,  been 
anything  like  a  general  rise  of  prices.  Art.  PREClOUa 
Metals  ;  McCullocJi,  Did.  of  Commerce,  1869. 

GOLD-BEATER'S  SKIN,  a  delicate  membrane 
prepared  from  the  large  intestine  of  the  ox,  and 
used  as  a  dressing  for  slight  wounds,  as  the  fabric 
for  court-plaster,  &c.,  but  chiefly  by  gold-]>eaters. 
See  GoLD-BEATiNO.  The  outer  or  peritoneal 
membrane  is  used  for  this  pur];)ose.  The  intestine 
is  first  subjected  to  a  partial  putrefaction,  by 
which  the  adhesion  of  the  membranes  is  sufficiently 
diminished  to  enable  them  to  be  sej^aratcd ;  the 
separated  membrane  is  then  further  cleaned  from  the 
adhering  muscular  fibres,  dried,  beaten,  antl  ])ressed 
between  paper,  besides  being  treated  with  alum, 
isinglass,  and  white  of  egg,  the  object  of  which  is 
to  obtain  the  pure  continuous  membrane  free  from 
grease  and  impurities,  without  allowing  the  putre- 
factive processes  to  weaken  it.  A  packet  of  900 
pieces  of  skin,  each  four  inches  square,  is  worth  £8. 
They  may  be  beaten  continuously  for  several  mouths 
with  a  tw^elve-pound  hammer  without  material 
injury.  The  intestines  of  500  oxen  are  required  to 
furnish  the  900  leaves  that  form  one  packet,  or 
mould,  as  it  is  technically  called.  The  manufacture 
is  an  extremely  off'ensive  one.  Chlorine  has  been 
introduced  both  as  a  disinfectant  and  to  assist  in 
the  separation  of  the  membrane. 

GOLD-BEATING,  the  process  by  which  gold  is 
extended  to  thin  leaves  used  for  gilding.  The  gold 
used  for  this  purpose  is  usually  alloyed  with  silver 
or  copper,  according  to  the  colour  required.  See 
Gold.  For  deep  gold,  an  alloy  containing  about 
I  part  of  copper  to  20  of  pure  gold  is  used.  As 
goldleaf  is  not  sold  by  weight,  but  by  superficial 
measm-e,  and  as  increasing  the  quantity  of  alloy 
diminishes  the  malleability,  there  is  but  little  tem|> 
tation  to  use  the  baser  metals  as  an  adidteration. 

The  gold  is  first  cast  into  oblong  ingots  about 
fths  of  an  inch  wide,  and  weighing  two  ounces.  The 
ingot  is  flattened  out  into  a  ribbon  of  about  -g^^th 
of  an  inch  in  thickness  by  passing  it  between 
polished  steel  rollers.  This  is  annealed  or  softened 
by  heat,  and  then  cut  into  pieces  of  one  inch  square ; 
150  of  these  are  placed  between  leaves  of  vellum, 
each  piece  of  gold  in  the  centre  of  a  square  vellum 
leaf,  another  i)laced  above,  and  so  on  till  the  pile  of 
150  is  foiTaed.  This  pile  is  enclosed, in  a  double 
parchment  case,  and  beaten  with  a  16-pound  ham- 
mer. The  elasticity  of  the  packet  considerably 
lightens  the  labour  of  beating,  by  causing  the 
hammer  to  rebound  with  each  blow. 

The  beating  is  continued  until  the  inch-piecea 
are  spread  out  to  four-inch  squares ;  they  are  then 
taken  out,  and  cut  into  four  pieces,  and  squares 
thus  produced  are  now  placed  between  gold-heater'' & 
skin  instead  of  vellum,  made  into  piles,  and 
enclosed  in  a  parchment  case,  and  beaten  as  before; 
but  with  a  lighter  hammer.  Another  quarterina 
and  beating  produces  2400  leaves,  having  an  area  ol 
about  190  times  that  of  the  ribbon,  or  a  thickness 

81/' 


GOLD  COAST— GOLD  OF  PLEASURE. 


yf  about  TTTff.innj*^  of  an  inch.  An  ounce  of  gold  is 
th'os  extended  to  a  surface  of  about  100  square  feet. 
A  still  greater  degree  of  thinness  may  be  obtained, 
but  not  profitably.  After  the  last  beating,  the 
leaves  are  taken  up  with  wood  pincers,  placed  on  a 
cushion,  blown  oiit  flat,  and  their  ragged  edges  cut 
away,  by  which  they  are  reduced  to  squares  of  3^ 
inches.  Twenty-five  of  these  are  placed  between 
the  leaves  of  a  paper- book,  previously  rubbed  with 
red  chalk,  to  prevent  adhesion  of  the  gold,  and  are 
Bold  in  this  form. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  apply  machinery  to 
gold-beating,  but  though  very  ingenious,  their  appli- 
cation is  very  limited ;  most  of  the  goldleaf  is  still 
beaten  by  hand. 

GOLD  COAST.   See  Guinea. 

GOLD-EYE  {Flyodon),  a  genus  of  malacopterous 
fishes,  inhabiting  the  lakes  and  rivers  of  North 
America ;  the  type  of  a  family,  Hyodontidce,  of  which 
other  members  are  found  in  tropical  America  and 
in  Borneo.  They  are  small  fishes,  much  compressed 
like  herrings,  feed  on  insects  like  trouts,  and  like 
them  are  often  taken  by  anglei-s  with  artificial 
flies.  They  have  the  mouth  abundantly  armed 
with  teeth,  having  teeth  far  back  on  the  palate  as 
well  as  on  the  tongue  and  jaws. 

GOLDFISH,  or  GOLDEN  CARP  (Cyprinus 
auratus),  a  fi«jh  of  the  same  genus  with  the  carp, 
a  native  of  China,  but  now  domesticated  and 
naturalised  in  many  parts  of  the  world.  It  is 
said  to  ha.ve  been  originally  confined  to  a  lake 
near  the  moimtain  Tsien-king,  in  the  province 
of  The-kiang,  in  China;  but  this  statement  is 
of  questionable  accuracy.  It  has  been  long  com- 
mon in  many  of  the  fresh  waters  of  China,  and 
was  introduced  into  England  about  the  end  of 
the  17th  or  beginning  of  the  18th  century.  On 
account  of  the  brilliancy  of  its  colours  and  the 
ease  with  which  it  is  kept  in  glass  globes  or  other 
vessels,  in  apartments,  it  soon  became,  and  has 
continued  to  be,  a  general  favourite.  Its  ordinary 
length  is  five  or  six  inches,  but  it  has  been  known 
to  reach  a  foot.  When  young,  it  is  of  a  blackish 
colour,  but  acquires  its  characteristic  golden  red  as 
it  advances  to  maturity,  some  individuals  {Silver- 
becoming  rather  of  a  silvery  hue.  Monstrosi- 
ties of  various  kinds  are  frequent,  particularly  in 
the  fins  and  eyes.  The  G.  is  now  plentiful  in  some 
of  the  streams  of  Southern  Europe,  from  which  it  is 
imported  into  Britain ;  but  it  also  breeds  in  ponds 
in  Britain,  and  in  the  River  Schuj  lkill,  Philadelphia, 
having  escaped  from  neighbouring  ponds.  In  con- 
finement, it  may  be  fed  with  worms,  insects,  crumbs 
of  bread,  yolks  of  eggs  dried  and  powdered,  etc. 
Frequent  changing  of  the  water  is  advantageous,  not 
only  because  of  its  being  more  fresh  and  better 
aerated,  but  because  of  the  animalcules  thus  supplied 
for  food. 

GOLDLACE,  a  fabric  formed  by  weaving 
silken  threads  that  have  been  previously  gilded. 
The  peculiarity  of  this  manufacture  consists  in  the 
gilding  of  the  silk  in  such  a  manner  that  it  shall 
retain  sufficient  flexibility  for  weaving.  A  deep 
yellow  or  orange  coloured  silk  is  used  for  the  pur- 
pose. The  usual  method  of  doing  this,  is  by  what 
IS  called  '  fibre  plating.'  A  rod  of  silver  is  gilded  by 
simply  pressing  and  biurnishing  leaves  of  gold  upon 
it.  This  gilded  silver  is  then  drawn  into  very  fine 
wire,  so  fine  that  one  ounce  of  metal  can  be  extended 
to  the  length  of  more  than  a  mile.  It  is  then  flat- 
tened between  pohshed  steel  rollers,  and  further 
extended  so  that  a  mile  and  a  quarter  weighs  only 
one  ounce ;  for  the  last  drawing,  the  wire  is  passod 
fchiough  ruby  dies.  The  film  of  gold  upon  this 
Battened  wire  is  much  thinner  than  beaten  goldleaf, 


and  has  frequently  been  quoted  as  an  example  of 
the  divisibility  of  matter,  as  one  inch  of  the  highly 
gilded  wire  contams  but  the  eighty-millionth  part 
of  an  ounce  of  gold,  or  of  an  inch,  which  ia 
a  visible  quantity  exhibiting  the  colour  and  lustre 
of  gold,  contains  but  iToTooo.ooo'  of  an  ounce,  or 
one  ounce  of  gold  covers  more  than  100  miles  of 
wire.  This  flattened  gilded  wire  is  then  wound  over 
the  silk,  so  as  to  enclose  it  completely,  and  produce 
an  apparently  golden  thread. 

Other  means  of  directly  gilding  the  thread  havo 
been  tried,  and  for  some  purposes  are  successful, 
but  none  have  yet  been  discovered  which  give  the 
thread  the  same  degree  of  lustre  as  the  above,  which 
was  first  practised  in  a  ruder  manner  by  the  Hindus. 

Mr  Hock's  method  of  fibre  gilding  is  to  })as3 
the  silk  through  a  mucUaginous  solution,  and  then 
receive  it  on  a  brass  cylinder,  over  which  it  is 
closely  rolled.  Goldleaf  is  then  laid  upon  this  coil 
of  gunmaed  silk,  and  thus  one  side  is  coated.  The 
other  side  is  gilded  by  rolling  it  from  the  first  on 
to  a  second  cylinder  in  the  opposite  direction,  thus 
the  plain  side  falls  outermost,  and  is  then  coated 
with  goldleaf  as  before.  This  is  ratlier  cheaper 
than  the  fibre  plated  silk,  and  more  flexible,  but  not 
so  brilliant. 

GOLD  MINES.  In  England,  the  crown  has 
prima  facie  the  right  to  ^old  mines;  but  where  the 
gold  is  foimd  in  other  mines,  the  crown  is  entitled 
only  to  take  the  gold  at  a  fixed  price.  In  Scotland, 
by  an  ancient  act  of  1592,  the  owner  of  the  ground 
can  demand  a  feu  thereof  from  the  crown,  on 
paying  one-tenth  of  the  produce. 

GOLD  OF  PLEASURE  {Camelina),  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Cruciferce,  having  an  erect 
calyx,  small  bright  yellow  flowers,  and  inflated  pear- 
shaped  or  wedge-shaped  pouches.  The  species  aro 
few.  The  common  Gold  of  Pleasure  {C.  sativa), 
(Ft.  Cameline,  Germ.  Dotter)  is  an  annual  plant  1^ — 3 
feet  high,  with  terminal  racemes  and  pear-shaped 
pouches ;  the  leaves  smooth,  bright  green,  entire 
or  slightly  toothed,  the  middle  stem-leaves  arrow- 
shaped  and  embracing  the  stem.  Notwithstanding 
its  high-sounding  English  name,  the  plant  is  of 
humble  and  homely  appearance.  It  grows  in  fields 
and  waste  places  in  Europe  and  the  north  of  Asia ; 
it  is  not  regarded  as  a  true  native  of  Britain, 
although  often  found  in  fields,  particularly  of  flax, 
its  seed  being  very  commonly  mingled  -svith  flaxseed 
imported  from  the  continent.  In  many  parts  of 
Germany,  Belgium,  and  the  south  of  Europe,  it  ia 
extensively  cidtivated  for  the  sake  of  the  abundant 
oil  contained  in  its  seeds.  The  seeds  and  the  oil- 
cake made  from  them  are  also  used  for  feeding 
cattle,  although  inferior  to  linseed,  and  to  the  oil- 
cake obtained  from  linseed.  The  oil,  although  sweet 
and  pure  at  first,  is  very  apt  to  become  rancid,  and 
is  less  valued  than  that  of  rapeseed  or  colza ;  the 
seeds  of  Gold  of  Pleasure  are  often  mixed  with  rape- 
seed  for  the  production  of  oil.  The  value  of  the 
plant  in  agriculture  depends  much  on  its  adap- 
tation to  poor  sandy  soils,  although  it  prefers  those 
of  a  better  quality;  and  on  the  briefness  of  its 
period  of  vegetation,  adapting  it  for  being  sown  after 
another  crop  has  failed,  or  for  being  ploughed  down 
as  a  green  manure.  The  seed  is  sown  either  broad- 
cast or  in  drills.  The  crop  is  cut  or  pulled  when 
the  pouches  begin  to  turn  yellow ;  but  the  readiness 
with  which  seed  is  scattered  in  the  field,  rendering 
the  plant  a  weed  for  future  years,  is  an  objection  to 
its  cultivation.  It  is  not  much  cultivated  in  any 
part  of  Britain.  The  stems  are  tough,  fibrous,  and 
durable,  and  are  u&ed  for  thatching  and  for  making 
brooms ;  their  fibre  is  even  separated  like  that  of  flax, 
and  made  into  very  coarse  cloth  and  packing-t)ax«r, 


GOLDAU— GOLDEN-CRESTED  WREN. 


The  seeds  are  used  for  emolient  poultices,  which  allay 
pain,  particularly  in  cutaneous  diseases. 

GO'LDAU,  formerly  a  small  town  of  Switzerland, 
in  the  canton  of  Schwytz,  was  situated  in  a  valley 
between  Mount  Rossber^  on  the  north  and  Mount 
Rigi  on  the  south,  five  miles  north-west  of  the  town 
of  Schwytz,  and  is  memorable  for  its  destruction 
by  one  of  the  most  stupendous  and  fatal  landslips 
on  record.  The  upper  portion  of  the  slope  of  the 
Rossberg,  consisting  of  a  layer  of  stone  resting  on 
light  soil,  had  been  loosened  by  continuous  rains, 
which  percolated  under  the  rock,  and  in  a  measure 
washed  the  soil  from  beneath  it.  On  the  2d  Sep- 
tember 1806,  toward  the  evening,  the  outer  layer  of 
rock  became  completely  detached,  and  rushed  down 
the  mountain  in  a  south-western  direction  into  the 
valley.  In  a  few  minutes  not  only  G.  but  the 
neighbouring  villages  of  Busingen  and  Rothen  were 
overwhelmed  in  destruction,  a  jiart  of  the  Lake  of 
Lauwerz  was  filled  up,  and  by  the  sudden  over- 
floAving  of  the  water  the  land  to  the  west  of 
Seewen  was  devastated.  Two  churches,  111  dwell- 
ing-houses, 220  outhouses  containing  many  cattle, 
and  400  men  were  buried  in  one  moment.  Only 
a  few  of  the  unhappy  inhabitants  who,  at  the 
moment  of  the  landslip,  were  at  some  distance 
from,  the  scene,  were  saved.  A  niimerous  company 
of  travellers,  w^ho  were  on  the  point  of  commencing 
the  ascent  of  Mount  Rigi,  were  overtaken  on  the 
bridge  of  G.  by  the  landslip,  and  perished.  The 
valley  is  now  a  wild  rocky  waste,  but  grass  and 
moss  are  gradually  creeping  over  and  veiling  its 
more  rugged  features.  On  a  height  in  this  valley 
through  w^hich  the  highway  leads  from  Arth  to 
Schwytz,  a  chapel  has  been  erected.  Compare 
Zry's  G.  vnd  seine  Uingegend{^G.  and  its  Neigh- 
bourhood,' Lucerne,  1829). 

GO'LDBERG,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Prussia 
(of  great  antiquity),  in  the  province  of  Sdesia,  is 
situated  on  an  eminence  on  the  banks  of  the 
Katzbach,  10  miles  south-west  of  Liegnitz.  It 
owes  its  origin  and  name  to  the  gold-mines,  which 
were  worked  here  from  the  earliest  times.  At 
the  commencement  of  the  12tli  c,  they  are  said 
to  have  yielded  150  pounds  of  pure  gold  weekly. 
After  the  great  victory  won  by  the  Mongol  hordes 
near  Liegnitz  in  1241,  in  which  600  of  the  miners 
of  G.  perished,  the  town  was  taken  by  the  con- 
querors. It  also  suffered  greatly  during  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  and  in  1813  was  the  scene  of  two 
engagements,  the  first  between  the  French  and 
Russians,  and  the  second  between  the  French  and 
Prussians.  G.  is  surrounded  by  double  walls  pierced 
by  four  gates  ;  and  is  now  celebrated' for  its  manu- 
factures of  broadcloth,  hosiery,  and  gloves,  and  for 
its  fruit.    Pop.  6,688. 

GOLDEN  AGE.  In  the  mythologies  of  most, 
peoples  and  religions,  there  exists  a  tradition  of  a 
better  time,  when  the  earth  was  the  common  pro- 
perty of  man,  and  produced  spontaneously  all  things 
necessary  for  an  enjoyable  existence.  The  land 
flowed  wnth  milk  and  honey,  beasts  of  prey  lived 
peaceably  with  other  animals,  and  man  had  not  yet 
by  selfishness,  pride,  and  other  vices  and  passions, 
fallen  from  a  state  of  innocence.  At  the  foundation 
of  this  legend  lies  the  deeply-rooted  opinion,  that 
the  world  has  degenerated  with  the  progress  of 
civilisation,  and  that  mankind,  while  leadmg  a 
simple,  patriarchal  life,  were  happier  than  at  pre- 
sent. The  Greeks  and  Romans  placed  this  golden 
age  under  the  rule  of  Saturn ;  and  many  of  their 
poets — as,  for  example,  Hesiod,  in  his  Works  and 
Pays,  Aratus,  Ovid,  and,  above  all,  Virgil,  in  the 
first  book  of  the  Georgics — have  turned  this  poetic 
natSriel  to  idmirable  account,  and  defined  the 


I  gradual  decadence  of  the  world,  as  the  silver,  th« 
brass,  and  the  iron  ages,  holding  out  at  the  same 
time  the  consolatory  liope  that  the  pristine  state 
of  things  will  one  day  returru 

GOLDEN  BEETLE,  the  name  popularly  given 

to  many  of  a  genus  of  coleopterous  msects,  Chryao- 
mela,  and  of  a  tril^e  or  family,  Chrysomdinoi  or 
Chrysomelidce,  belonging  to  the  tetramerous  section 
of  the  order.  The  body  is  generally  short  and 
convex,  the  antennae  are  simple  and  wide  apart  at 
the  base  ;  some  of  the  s]iecies  are  destitute  of  wings. 
Many  are  distinguished  by  great  splendour  of  colour. 
None  are  of  large  size.  The  finest  species  are 
trojiical,  but  some  are  found  in  Britain.  Some  of 
them,  in  the  larva  state,  commit  ravages  on  the 
produce  of  the  field  and  garden. 

GOLDEN  BULL  (Lat.  Bulla  Aurea,  Ger.  Goldent 
Bulk),  was  so  called  from  the  gold  case  in  which 
the  seal  attached  to  it  was  enclosed.  The  imperial 
edict  known  in  German  history  under  this  title, 
was  issued  by  the  Emperor  Charles  IV.,  mainly  for 
the  purpose  of  settling  the  law  of  imperial  elections 
Up  to  this  time  much  uncertainty  had  prevailed  as 
to  the  rights  of  the  electoral  body,  claims  having 
frequently  been  made  by  several  members  of  the  lay 
electoral  families,  and  divisions  having  repeatedly 
arisen  from  this  uncertainty ;  the  effect  of  such 
divisions  being  to  throw  the  decision  for  the  most 
pai't  into  the  hands  of  the  pope.  In  order  to  obviate 
these  inconveniences,  the  golden  bull  defines  that 
one  member  only  of  each  electoral  house  shall  have 
a  vote — viz.,  the  representative  of  that  house  in 
right  of  primogeniture,  and  in  case  of  his  being  a 
minor,  the  eldest  of  his  uncles  paternal  On  the 
great  question  as  to  the  dependence  of  the  imperial 
office  on  the  pope,  and  as  to  the  right  of  the  pope 
to  examine  and  approve  the  imperial  election,  the 
golden  bull  is  silent,  although  it  declares  the 
emperor  competent  to  exercise  jurisdiction  in  Ger- 
many from  the  moment  of  election.  It  invests  the 
vicariate  together  with  the  government  of  the  empire 
during  the  interregnum,  in  the  Elector  Palatine,  and 
the  Elector  of  Saxony ;  but  it  is  remarkable  that 
this  only  applies  to  Germany.  On  the  vicariate  of 
Italy,  which  was  claimed  jy  the  popes  nothing  is 
said.  The  golden  bidl  also  contains  some  pro\dsions 
restraining  the  so-called  Faustrecht  (literally,  'fist- 
law'),  or  right  of  private  redress.  It  was  solemnly 
enacted  in  two  successive  diets  at  Nurnberg  and 
Metz,  in  the  year  1336,  and  original  copies  of  it 
were  furnished  to  each  of  the  electors,  and  to 
the  city  of  Frankfurt.  The  electoral  constitution, 
as  settled  by  this  bull,  Avas  maintained  almost 
unaltered  till  the  extinction  of  the  empire. 

In  Hungarian  history  there  is  a  constitutional 
edict  called  by  the  same  name.  It  was  issued  by 
Andrew  II.  in  the  early  part  of  the  13th  century. 
Without  entering  into  details,  it  will  be  enough  to 
say  that  the  Golden  Bull  of  Andrew  II.  changed 
the  government  of  Hungary  from  an  absolutism 
to  an  aristocratic  monarchy,  and  that  it  contained 
till  recent  times  the  charter  of  the  liberties  of 
Hungary,  or  perhaps  of  the  privileges  of  the 
noble  class.  See  Schmidt's  Gesdiichte  der  DeutscIcerVy 
iii.  638. 

GOLDEN-CRESTED  WREN  {Regius  auroca 
pillus),  a  very  beautiful  bird  of  the  family  Sylviadre^ 
the  smallest  of  British  birds.  Its  entire  length  is 
scarcely  three  inches  and  a  half.  Notwithstanding 
its  English  name,  it  is  not  really  a  WTen,  but  this 
name  continues  in  popular  use  rather  than  Begulas 
and  Kinglet,  which  have  been  proposed  instead.  The 
golden-crested  "wren  is  greenish-yello^v  on  the  upper 
parts,  the  cheeks  and  throat  ^-ayish- white ;  the 
crown  feathers  elongated,  and  forming  a  bright 


GOLDEN-EYE— GOLDEN  NUMBER. 


yellow  crest.  In  its  habits,  it  is  intermediate  between 
(he  warblers  and  the  tits.  It  particularly  affects 
fir  woods.  It  is  not  uncommon  in  Britain,  from  the 
most  southern  to  the  most  northern  parts ;  but 
many  come  also  from  more  northern  countries  to 
spend  the  winter,  and  it  is  on  record  that,  in  Octo- 
ber 1S22,  thousands  were  driven  on  the  coast  of 
Northumberland  and  Durham  by  a  severe  gale  from 
the  north-east.  The  nest  of  this  bird  is  suspended  ! 
from  the  outermost  twigs  of  a  branch  of  fir,  some  of 
them  being  interwoven  with  it. — Another  species  i 
(B.  ignicapillus),  with  more  vividly  red  crest,  is 
Bometimes  found  in  Britain,  and  species  are  found 
in  Asia  and  North  America. 

GOLDEN-EYE.    See  Garrot. 

GOLDEN-EYE  FLY  {Hemerohius  perla,  or 
Chrysopa  pei'la),  a  neuropterous  insect,  common  in 
Britain  ;  pale  green,  with  long  threadlike  antennae, 
long  gauze-like  wings,  and  brilliant  golden  eyes. 
Its  flight  is  feeble.  The  length,  from  the  tip  of  the 
antennae  to  the  tip  of  the  wings,  is  almost  an  inch 
and  a  half,  but  the  insect  without  wings  and 
antennae  is  not  above  one-third  of  this  length.  The 
female  attaches  her  eggs,  in  groups  of  12  or  16, 


Golden-eye  Fly  {Chrysopa  perla) 
(Copied  from  Morton's  Encyclopccdia  of  Agriculture) '. 
o,  cocoon ;  b,  the  same  magnified  ;  c,  larva ;  d,  the  same 
magnified,  and  freed  from  adhering  substances ;  e,  perfect 
insect,  on  a  branch  to  which  its  eggs  are  attached. 

by  long  hairlike  stalks,  to  leaves  or  twigs.  They 
have  been  mistaken  for  fungi.  The  larvae  are 
ferocious-looking  little  creatures,  rough  with  long 
hairs,  to  which  i)articles  of  lichen  or  bark  become 
attached  ;  they  are  called  aphis-lions,  and  are  very 
useful  by  the  destruction  of  aphides,  oji  which  they 
feed.  The  pupa  is  enclosed  in  a  white  silken 
cocoon,  from  which  the  fly  is  liberated  by  a  lid. 

GOLDEN  FLEECE,  m  Greek  tradition,  the 
deece  of  the  ram  Chrysomallus,  the  recovery  of 
which  was  the  object  of  the  Argonautic  expedition. 
See  Argonauts.  The  Golden  Fleece  has  given 
its  name  to  a  celebrated  order  of  knighthood  in 
Austria  and  Spain,  founded  by  Philip  III.,  Duke 
of  Burgundy  and  the  Netherlands,  at  Bruges,  on 
th**  10th  January  1429,  on  the  occasion  of  his 
marriage  with  Isabella,  daughter  of  King  John  I. 
of  Portugal.  This  order  was  instituted  for  the 
protection  of  the  church,  and  the  fleece  was  prob- 
ably assumed  for  its  emblem,  as  much  from  being 
the  material  of  the  staple  manufacture  of  the  Low 
Countries,  as  from  its  connection  with  heroic 
times.  The  founder  made  himself  Grand- Master 
of  the  order,  a  dignity  appointed  to  descend  to 
his  successors ;  and  the  number  of  knights,  at  first 
limited  tt)  24,  was  subsequently  increasedl  After 
the  death  of  Charles  V.,  the  Burgundo-Spanish  line 
of  the  House  of  Austria  renxnined  in  possession  of  the 
f20 


order ;  but  at  the  close  of  the  Spanish  war  of  sno* 
cession,  the  emperor,  Charles  VI.,  laid  claim  to  it  in 
virtue  of  his  possession  of  the  Netherlands,  and 
taking  with  him  the  archives  of  the  order,  cele 
brated  its  inauguration  with  great  magnificence  ai 
Vienna  in  1713.  Philip  V.  of  Spain  contested  the 
claim  of  Charles ;  and  the  dispute,  several  times 
renewed,  was  at  last  tacitly  adjusted  by  the  intro- 
duction of  the  order  in  both  cotmtries.  The  insignia 
I  are  a  golden  fleece  han^ng  from  a  gold  and  bluo 
I  enamelled  flintstone  emitting  flames,  and  borne  in 
its  turn  by  a  ray  of  fire.  On  the  enamelled  obverse 
is  inscribed  Pretium  lahorum  non  vile.  The  decora- 
tion was  originally  suspended  from  a  chain  of  altei- 
nate  firestones  and  rays,  for  which  Charles  V. 
allowed  a  red  ribbon  to  be  substituted,  and  the 
chain  is  now  worn  only  by  the  Grand-Master.  The 
Spanish  decoration  differs  slightly  from  the  Austrian. 
The  costume  consists  of  a  long  robe  of  deep  red 
velvet,  lined  with  white  taffetas,  and  a  long  mantle 
of  purple  velvet  lined  with  white  satin,  and  richly 
trimmed  with  embroidery  containing  firestones  and 
steels  emitting  flames  and  sparks.  On  the  hem, 
which  is  of  white  satin,  is  embroidered  in  gold,  Je 
Vay  empris.  There  is  also  a  cap  of  purj>le  velvet 
embroidered  in  gold,  with  a  hood,  and  the  shoes 
and  stockings  are  red.  In  Austria,  the  emperor 
may  now  create  any  number  of  knights  of  tho 
Golden  Fleece  from  the  old  nobility ;  if  Protestants, 
the  pope's  consent  is  required.  In  Spain,  princes, 
grandees,  and  personages  of  peculiar  merit  are 
alone  eligible. 

GOLDEN  LEGEND  (Lat.  Aurea  Legenda),  is 
celebrated  collection  of  hagiology,  which  for  a  tima 
enjoyed  almost  unexampled  popularity,  having  passed 
through  more  than  a  hundred  editions,  and  transla- 
tions into  almost  all  the  European  languages.  It  is 
the  work  of  James  de  Voragine,  also  written '  Vragine* 
and  '  Varagine,'  who  was  born  about  the  year  1230. 
He  entered  the  Dominican  order,  and  was  elected, 
at  a  comparatively  early  age,  provincial  of  the  order 
in  Lombardy  in  1267.  Towards  the  end  of  that 
century,  he  was  elected  Archbishop  of  Genoa ;  and 
by  his  ability,  his  moderation,  and  his  exemplary 
life,  he  played  a  most  influential  part  in  the  liublio 
affairs  of  his  time,  being  called  more  than  once  into 
the  councils  of  the  popes  themselves,  in  affairs  o\ 
difficulty.  The  Legenda  consists  of  177  sections, 
each  of  which  is  devoted  to  a  particular  saint  or 
festival,  selected  according  to  the  order  of  the 
calendar.  In  its  execution,  the  work,  as  may  well 
be  supposed  from  its  age,  is  far  from  critical,  but  it 
is  deserving  of  study  as  a  literary  montmaent  of  the 
period,  and  as  illustrating  the  religious  habits  and 
views  of  the  Christians  of  that  time.  It  presents 
a  very  different  phase  of  the  medieval  mind  from 
that  which  is  exhibited  in  the  acute  and  severely 
'philosophical  lucubrations  of  the  schools  ;  but  both 
must  be  read  together,  in  order  to  make  up  the 
intellectual  ideal  of  the  time. 

GOLDEN  NUMBER  for  any  year  is  the  number 
of  that  year  in  the  Metonic  Cycle  (q.  v.),  and  as  this 
cycle  embraces  19  years,  the  golden  numbers  range 
from  1  to  19.  The  cycle  of  Meton  came  into  general 
use  soon  after  its  discovery,  and  the  number  of 
each  year  in  the  Metonic  cycle  was  ordered  to  be 
engraved  in  letters  of  gold  on  pillars  of  marble, 
hence  the  origin  of  the  name.  Since  the  intro- 
duction of  the  Gregorian  calendar,  the  point  from 
which  the  golden  numbers  are  reckoned  is  1  B.  c, 
as  in  that  year  the  new  moon  fell  on  tho  1st  of 
January;  and  as  by  Meton's  law  the  new  moon  falls 
on  the  same  day  (1st  of  January)  every  19th  year 
from  that  time,  we  obtain  the  following  rule  for 
finding  the  golden  number  for  any  particular  yeai 


GOLDEN-ROD-GOLDSCHMIDT. 


'^^1  to  the  number  of  years,  and  divide  by  19,  the 
quotient  gives  the  number  of  cycles  and  tl\^  remainder 
gives  the  golden  number  for  that  year ;  and  if  there 
he  no  remainder,  tJien  19  is  the  golden  number,  and 
that  year  is  the  last  of  the  cycle.''  The  golden  number 
is  used  for  determining  the  Epact  (q.  v.),  and  the 
time  for  holding  Easter  (q.  v.). 

GOLDEN-ROD  (Solidago),  a  genus  of  phmts 
of  the  natural  order  Composilf^,  sub-ortler  Corym- 
biferce^  closely  allied  to  Aster,  but  distinguished  by 
the  single-rowed  pappus  and  tapering — not  com- 
pressed— fruit.  The  species  are  natives  chiefly  of 
temperate  climates,  and  are  most  numerous  in  North 
America.  A  few  are  European ;  only  one  is  British, 
the  Common  G.  {S.  Virgaurea),  a  perennial  plant  of 
very  variable  size,  as  there  is  a  small  alpine  variety 
(sometimes  called  S,  Cambi'ica)  only  a  few  inches 
high,  whilst  the  common  variety,  found  in  woods 
and  thickets  in  most  parts  of  Britain,  is  from  one 
to  four  feet  high.  It  has  erect  panicled  crowded 
racemes  of  small  yellow  flowers.  It  is  an  ornamental 
plant,  and  is  sometimes  seen  in  gardens.  It  had  at 
one  time  a  great  reputation  as  a  vulnerary,  whence 
the  name  Solidago,  it  is  said,  from  Lat.  solidare,  to 
unite.  The  leaves  of  this  and  a  fragrant  North 
American  species,  S.  odora,  have  been  used  as  a 
substitute  for  tea.  They  are  mildly  astringent  and 
tonic. 

GOLDEN  ROSE,  a  rose  formed  of  wrought 
gold,  and  blessed  with  much  solemnity  by  the 
pope  in  person  on  Mid-lent  Sunday,  which  is 
called,  from  the  first  word  of  the  festival,  'Laetare 
Sunday.'  The  prayer  of  blessing  contains  a  mvstic 
allusion  to  our  Lord  as  'the  flower  of  the  'field 
and  the  lily  of  the  valleys.'  The  rose  is  anointed 
with  balsam,  fumigated  with  incense,  sprinkled 
with  musk,  and  is  then  left  upon  the  altar  until 
the  conclusion  of  the  mass.  Formerly,  in  the 
solemn  papal  procession  of  the  day,  the  pope 
carried  it  in  his  hand.  It  is  usually  presented  to 
some  Catholic  prince,  whom  the  pope  desires  espe- 
cially to  honour,  with  an  appropriate  form  of  words. 
The  origin  of  the  ceremony  is  uncertain,  but  the 
most  probable  opinion  as  to  its  date  is  that  of 
Martene  and  Du  Cange,  who  fix  it  in  the  pontifi- 
cate of  Innocent  IV.  See  Wetser's  Kirchen  Lexi- 
con, vol.  ix.  397. 

GOLDEN  RULE,  a  process  in  arithmetic,  so 
called  from  the  universality  of  its  application-  See 
Proportion. 

GOLDFINCH  [Fringilla  carduelis,  or  Carduelis 
degans),  a  pretty  little  bird  of  the  family  Fringil- 
lidae,  a  favourite  cage-bird,  on  account  of  its  soft 
and  pleasing  song,  its  intelligence,  its  liveliness, 
and  the  attachment  which  it  forms  for  those  who 
feed  and  caress  it.  The  genus  Carduelis  is  distin- 
guished by  a  thick  conical  bill,  without  any  bulging, 
attenuated  and  very  sharp  at  the  tip.  There  are 
two  groups,  and  one  British  species  of  each — a  group 
with  gay  plumage  and  more  prolonged  bill,  of  which 
the  G.  is  the  British  representative,  and  another 
with  darker  plumage  and  shorter  bill,  represented 
bv  the  Aberdevine  (q.  v.),  or  Siskin.  The  G.  is 
about  five  inches  in  entire  length  ;  black,  blood-red, 
yellow,  and  white  are  beautifully  mingled  in  its 
plumage.  The  colours  of  the  female  are  duller  than 
those  of  the  male.  It  is  widely  diffused  throughout 
Europe,  and  is  found  in  some  parts  of  Asia.  It  is 
a  common  bird  in  Britain,  more  abundant  in  England 
than  in  Scotland,  but  somewhat  local.  It  is  to  be 
Been  in  small  flocks  on  open  grounds,  feeding  on  the 
seeds  of  thistles  and  other  plants,  and  in  the  earlier 

f arts  of  the  ser;son  frequents  gardens  and  orchards. 
t8  nc«t  is  made  in  a  tree,  bush,  or  hedge,  is  reraark- 
Role  for  its  extreme  neatness,  and  is  always  lined 


I  with  the  finest  downy  material  that  can  be  procured 
!  The  eggs  are  four  or  five  in  number,  bluish  white, 
I  with  a  few  spots  and  lines  of  ])ale  purjile  and  brown. 
The  G.  is  much  employed  by  bird-catchers  as  a  oall- 
bird-  It  can  be  trained  to  the  performance  of  many 
little  tricks ;  that  which,  most  of  all,  the  trainers 
seem  to  prefer  being  the  raising  of  water  for  itself 
as  from  a  well,  in  a  bucket  the  size  of  a  thimble. — 
The  American  G.  {F.  or  C.  trlstis)  is  very  similar 
to  the  European  species,  has  very  similar  habits 
and  song,  and  displays  the  same  interesting  live* 
liness  and  affectionateness  in  domestication.  The 
nest  is  also  of  the  same  elegant  structure.  It  is  a 
common  bird  in  most  parts  of  North  America. 

GOLDO'NI,  Carlo,  the  most  celebrated  writer 
of  comedy  among  the  Italians,  was  born  at  Venice 
in  1707,  and  received  his  first  education  at  Rome. 
His  father  originally  intended  him  for  an  actor, 
I  and  fitted  up  a  private  theatre  for  his  diversion 
at  home,  but  the  boy  showed  no  aptitude  for  his- 
trionic performances,  and  in  consequence  he  was 
sent  to  Paris  to  study  for  the  church.  G.,  how- 
ever, was  still  less  fitted  for  being  an  ecclesiastic 
than  an  actor,  and  was  finally  expelled  from  college 
for  writing  scurrilous  satires.  In  1731,  after  his 
father's  death,  he  was  received  as  advocate ;  but 
finding  the  legal  profession  by  no  means  lucrative, 
he  relinquished  its  practice,  and  set  about  compos- 
ing comic  almanacs,  which  became  highly  popular. 
Several  of  his  minor  comedies  were  represented 
about  this  time,  and  attracted  much  public  favour 
by  their  novelty  as  well  as  their  real  merit.  In 
1736  he  esi)oused  the  daughter  of  a  notary  of 
Genoa,  and  subsequently  went  to  Bologna,  where» 
having  obtained  an  introduction  to  Prince  liob- 
kowitz,  he  was  intrusted  with  the  composition 
of  an  ode  in  honour  of  Maria  Theresa,  and  with 
the  organisation  of  the  theatrical  entertainments 
of  the  Austrian  army.  We  next  hear  of  him 
at  Florence,  working  assiduously  at  comedies, 
which  were,  however,  but  an  earnest  of  his  best 
pieces.  On  his  return  to  Venice  he  made  very 
lucrative  arrangements  with  the  manager  of  the 
theatre  of  St  Luke,  and  after  a  visit  to  Rome  passed 
into  France,  and  was  appointed  Italian  master  to 
the  royal  children,  which  situation  allowed  him  to 
devote  himself  tranquilly  to  his  literary  occupa- 
tions. In  Paris  he  produced  one  of  his  most  admired 
comedies,  written  in  French,  and  entitled  Le 
Bourru  bienfalsant  (The  Benevolent  Grumbler).  It 
excited  universal  admiration,  and  drew  forth  a 
most  eulogistic  criticism  from  the  pen  of  Voltaire. 
On  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution,  G.  lost  his 
pension,  and  died  (January  1793)  shortly  before 
its  restoration  by  decree  of  the  Convention.  The 
greater  part  of  it  was  allowed  to  his  widDw,  who 
likewise  received  the  arrears  due  from  the  time  of 
its  cessation.  G.  has  left  150  comedies  of  unequal 
merit.  The  larger  part  are  inimitable  representa.- 
tions  of  the  events  of  daily  life,  under  both  their 
simplest  and  most  complex  aspect.  One  aim  per- 
vades steadily  all  G.'s  compositions — the  advance- 
ment and  elevation  of  honourable  sentiments  and 
deeds,  and  the  flagellation  of  the  prevailing  vices 
and  follies  of  the  day. 

GOLDSCHMIDT,  Madame  (Jenny  Lind),  a 
celebrated  Swedish  singer,  was  born  at  Stockholm, 
October  6,  1821.  She  was  of  humble  parentage, 
and  her  musical  gifts  were  first  noticed  by  an 
actress,  by  whose  influence  she  was  admitted,  at  the 
age  of  nine,  into  the  Conservatory  of  Stockholm, 
where  she  received  lessons  of  Croelius  and  Berg. 
She  sang  before  the  court  with  success,  and  at  the 
age  of  16  appeared  in  the  rdle  of  Agatha,  in  Det 
Freischiitz.    Four  years  later,  she  went  to  Paris,  tc 

821 


GOLDSINNY— GOLDSMITH. 


receive  lessons  from  Garcia.  Her  voice  was  now 
thought  wanting  in  volume,  and  when  she  appeared 
at  the  Grand  Opera  two  years  later,  her  failure  was 
80  mortifying,  that  she  is  said  to  have  resolved  never 
again  to  sing  in  France.  Returning  to  Stockholm, 
she  was  heard  with  enthusiasm  in  liohtrt  le  Diable, 
and  at  the  instance  of  Meyerbeer  was  engaged  at 
Berlin  in  1845.  After  singing  two  years  in  Prussia, 
she  visited  Vienna,  and  other  German  cities,  and 
made  her  debut  in  London  in  1847,  with  a  very 
marked  success.  Her  return  to  Stockholm  was 
greeted  with  an  ovation,  and  the  tickets  to  the 
opera  in  which  she  apj)eai'ed  were  sold  at  auction. 
Sne  returned  to  London  in  1849,  and  won  an  inamense 
triumph.  The  royal  family  and  court  were  present 
at  nearly  every  representation,  and  the  receipts  were 
often  over  £2000.  The  London  season  was  followed 
by  a  concert  tour  in  the  provinces,  with  a  similar 
success,  and  her  great  popularity  was  increased  by 
the  distribution  of  a  large  part  of  her  receipts  in 
charities.  In  1850  she  made  an  engagement  with 
Mr  P.  T.  Barnum  of  New  York,  for  a  concert  tour 
in  America,  extending  through  the  United  States, 
British  provinces,  Mexico,  and  the  West  Indies. 
The  receipts  of  this  well-managed  tour  were  610,000 
dollars,  of  which  Mademoiselle  Lind  received  302,000 
dollars.  While  in  America,  she  was  married  to  M. 
Otto  Goldschmidt,  the  pianist  who  accompanied  her, 
born  at  Hamburg  1828.  They  returned  to  Europe 
in  1852,  and  resided  at  Dresden  after  she  had 
visited  Stockholm,  and  expended  £40,000  in  endow- 
ing schools  in  her  native  country.  Since  this  period 
Madame  G.  has  sun^  only  at  concerts  in  Eng- 
land and  on  the  continent,  and  on  rare  occasions. 
Hev  kind  manners  and  benevolence  have  contributed 
greatly  to  her  popularity  and  success,  and  she  has 
been  instrumental  in  adding  large  sums  to  the  char- 
ities of  the  countries  which  she  has  visited. 

GO'LDSINNY,  or  GOLDFINNY,  a  name  given 
to  certain  small  species  of  Crenilabrus,  a  genus  of 
fishes  of  the  Wrasse  family  {Lahridce).  They  are 
rare  on  the  British  coasts,  but  are  more  plentiful 
on  those  of  the  north  of  Europe.  They  freqiient 
rocky  coasts,  and  are  sometimes  taken  by  anglers 
from  the  rocks.  They  receive  their  name  from  their 
prevalent  yellow  colour.  Like  the  wrasses,  they 
have  a  very  elongated  dorsal  fin. 

GOLDSMITH,  Oliver,  was  born  in  the  village 
of  Pallas,  in  the  county  of  Longford,  Ireland, 
10th  November  1728.  His  father,  the  Rev.  Charles 
Goldsmith,  a  clergyman  of  the  Established  Church, 
held  the  living  of  Kilkenny  West.  At  the  age 
of  six,  G.  was  placed  under  the  care  of  the 
village  schoolmaster,  when  an  attack  of  small-pox 
interrui^ted  his  studies.  On  his  recovery,  he 
attended  school  at  various  places.  On  the  11th 
June  1745,  he  entered  Trinity  College,  Dubhn,  as  a 
sizar ;  the  expense  of  his  education  being  defrayed 
by  his  uncle,  the  Rev.  Thomas  Contarine.  At 
the  university — where  Burke  was  his  contem- 
porary— G.  gave  no  evidence  of  the  possession 
t)f  talent,  and  becoming  involved  in  some  irre- 
nilarity,  quitted  his  studies  in  disgust.  He 
lingered  in  Dublin  till  his  fimds  were  exhausted, 
then  wandered  on  to  Cork,  where,  he  being  in  great 
distress,  a  handful  of  peas  was  given  him  by  a  girl 
at  a  wake,  the  flavour  of  which  remained  for  ever 
sweet  in  his  memory.  By  his  brother  Henry,  he 
was  brought  back  to  college,  where,  on  the  27th 
February  1749,  he  received  the  degree  of  B.A. 
His  uncle  was  now  anxious  that  his  nephew  should 
enter  the  church;  but  when  he  appeared  before 
the  bishop,  he  was  rejected.  His  kind-hearted 
relative  then  gave  him  £50,  and  sent  him  to  Dublin  to 
Btudy  law ;  but  G.,  being  attracted  to  a  gaming-table, 


risked  his  entire  capital,  and  of  course  lost  it 
Another  sum  was  then  raised,  and  he  proceeded  tc 
Edinburgh  to  study  medicine,  where  he  remained  IS 
months,  but  did  not  take  a  degree.  He  then  pro- 
ceeded to  the  continent,  hovered  about  Leyden  for 
some  time,  haunting  the  gaming-tables  with  but 
indifferent  success  ;  and  in  February  1755,  he  loft 
that  city  to  travel  on  foot  through  Europe,  scantily 
provided  as  to  purse  and  wardrobe,  but  rich  in  hia 
kindly  nature  and  his  wonder-working  flute. 

After  taking  his  degree  of  B.M.  at  Padua  o? 
Louvain,  G.  returned  to  England  in  February  1756^ 
when,  by  the  assistance  of  Dr  Sleigh,  a  feUow- 
student,  he  set  up  as  a  physician   among  the 

})oor.  He  did  not  succeed  in  his  profession,  and 
le  is  represented  as  having  become  usher  in  tho 
academy  of  Dr  Milner  at  PeckhauL  During  this 
period  he  supported  himself  by  contributions  to  tho 
Monthly  Review.  He  became  candidate  for  a  medical 
appointment  at  Coromandel,  but  was  rejected  by 
the  College  of  Surgeons.  The  clothes  in  which  he 
appeared  for  examination  had  been  procured  on 
the  seciuity  of  Mr  Griflliths,  editor  of  the  Monthly 
Review;  and  as  G.,  urged  by  sharp  distress,  had 
pawned  them,  his  publisher  threatened  him  with 
the  terrors  of  a  jail.  He  had  now  reached  the 
lowest  depths  of  misery ;  but  the  dawn  was  about 
to  break. 

His  first  publication  of  note  was  an  Inquiry  into 
the  Present  State  of  Polite  Learninfj  in  Europe,  and 
was  published  in  April  1759.  In  January  1760,  Mr 
Newbery  commenced  the  Public  Ledger,  to  which 
G.  contributed  the  celebrated  Chinem  Letters,  after- 
wards republished  under  the  title  of  The  Citizen  oj 
the  World.  He  also  wrote  a  Life  of  Beau  Nash^ 
and  a  History  of  England,  in  a  series  of  lettera 
On  the  31st  May  1761  he  was  introduced  by  Di 
Percy  to  Dr  Johnson,  who,  in  his  turn,  introduced 
his  new  friend  to  the  Literary  Club.  In  Decembei 
1764,  T/ie  Traveller  appeared,  and  at  once  placed 
him  in  the  front  rank  of  English  authors.  Two 
years  after  this  he  published  the  Vicar  of  Wake- 
field, which  has  now  charmed  four  generations.  In 
rapid  succession  he  produced  his  other  works.  The 
comedy  of  the  Good  Natured  Man,  in  1767 ;  the 
Roman  History,  in  1768 ;  and  TJie  Deserted  Village 
— the  sweetest  of  all  his  poems — in  1770.  In  1773, 
his  comedy  of  She  Sloops  to  Conquer  was  produced 
at  Covent  Garden  with  great  applause.  His  other 
works  are — Grecian  History,  1774;  Retaliation,  a 
oem,  1777 ;  and  History  of  A  nimated  Nature,  which 
e  did  not  live  to  complete.  Although  now  in  receipt 
of  large  sums  for  his  works,  G.  had  not  escaped 
from  pecuniary  embarrassment.  He  was  extrava- 
gant, loved  fine  livin^  and  rich  clothes,  his  charities 
were  only  bounded  by  his  purse,  and  he  haunted 
the  gaming-table  quite  as  frequently,  and  with  as 
constant  ill  success,  as  of  old.  In  March  1774,  he 
came  up  to  London,  ill  in  body  and  harassed  in 
mind,  and  took  to  bed  on  the  25th.  With  charac- 
teristic wilfulness  and  imprudence,  he,  contrary  to 
the  advice  of  his  medical  advisers,  persisted  in  tho 
use  of  James's  Powders.  He  became  rapidly  worsen 
and  Dr  Turton  said :  '  Your  pidse  is  in  greater  dis- 
order than  it  should  be  from  the  degree  of  fever 
you  have.  Is  your  mind  at  ease?'  'No,  it  is  not,' 
was  the  poet's  reply,  and  the  last  words  he  uttered. 
He  died  on  the  4th  April,  £2000  in  debt,  and  mon 
sincerely  lamented  than  any  literary  man  cf  his 
time.  Old  and  infirm  people  sobbed  on  the  stairs 
of  his  apartments,  Johnson  and  Burke  grieved  and 
Reynolds,  when  he  heard  the  news,  laid  aown 
his  pencil,  and  left  his  studio.  He  was  buried  in 
Temple  Church,  and  a  monument  was  erected  to 
him  in  Westminster  Abbey,  bearing  an  epitaph  by 
Dr  Johnson. 


GOLDSMITHS'  NOTES— GOLF. 


G.  was  the  most  natural  genius  of  his  time.  He 
did  not  possess  Johnson's  mass  of  intellect,  nor 
Burke's  passion  and  general  force,  but  he  wrote 
the  finest  poem,  the  most  exquisite  novel,  and — with 
the  exception  perhaps  of  the  School  for  Scandal — 
the  most  delightful  comedy  of  the  period.  Blun- 
dering, impulsive,  vain,  and  extravagant,  clumsy 
in  manner  and  undignified  in  presence,  he  was 
laughed  at  and  ridiculed  by  his  contemporaries ; 
but  with  pen  in  hand,  and  in  the  solitude  of  his 
chamber,  he  was  a  match  for  any  of  them,  and 
took  the  finest  and  kindliest  revenges.  Than 
hia  style — in  which,  after  all,  lay  his  strength — 
tothing  could  be  more  natural,  simple,  and  grace- 
ful It  is  full  of  the  most  exquisite  expressions,  and 
tha  most  cunning  turns.  Whatever  he  said,  he  said 
in  the  most  graceful  way.  When  he  wrote  nonsense, 
he  wrote  it  so  exquisitely  that  it  is  better  often 
than  other  people's  sense.  Johnson,  who,  although 
he  laughed  at,  yet  loved  and  understood  him,  criti- 
cised him  admirably  in  the  remark :  '  He  is  now 
writing  a  Natural  History,  and  will  make  it  as 
agreeable  as  a  Persian  tale.'  The  best  life  of  Gold- 
smith is  that  by  Forster,  entitled  The  Life  and 
Times  of  Oliver  Goldsmith  (Lond.  1854). 

GOLDSMITHS'  NOTES ;  the  earliest  form  of 
bank-notes ;  so  called  because  goldsmiths  were  the 
first  bankers.    See  Bank-notes. 

GOLF,  or  GOFF,  a  pastime  almost  peculiar  to 
Scotland,  derives  its  name  from  the  club  (Gter. 
Kolbe;  Dutch,  Kolf)  with  which  it  is  played.  It  ia 
uncertain  when  it  was  introduced  into  Scotland,  but 
it  appears  to  have  been  practised  by  all  classes  to 
a  considerable  extent  in  the  reign  of  King  James  I. 
Charles  I.  was  much  attached  to  the  game,  and 
on  his  visit  to  Scotland  in  1641,  was  engaged  in 
it  on  Leith  Links  when  intimation  was  given  him 
of  the  rebellion  in  Ireland,  whereupon  he  threw 
down  his  club,  and  returned  in  great  agitation  to 
Holyroodhouse.  The  Duke  of  York,  afterwards 
James  II.,  also  delighted  in  the  game ;  and  in 
our  own  day,  the  Prince  of  Wales  occasionally 
practises  it. 

Until  late  years,  golf  was  entirely  confined  to 
Scotland,  where  it  still  maintains  its  celebrity  as  a 
national  recreation;  but  latterly  it  has  been  estab- 
lished south  of  the  Tweed,  as  well  as  in  many  of 
the  British  colonies.  It  is  played  on  what  are 
called  in  Scotland  links  (Eng.  downs),  that  is,  tracts 
of  sandy  soil  covered  with  short  grass,  which  occur 
frequently  along  the  east  coast  of  Scotland.  St 
Andrews  and  Leven  in  Fife,  Prestwick  in  Ayrshire, 
Musselburgh  in  Mid  Lothian,  North  Berwick  and 
Gullane  in  East  Lothian,  Carnoustie  and  Montrose 
in  Forfarshire,  and  Aberdeen,  are  examples  of 
admirably  suited  links,  as  the  ground  is  diversified 
by  knolls,  sand-pits,  and  other  hazards  (as  they 
are  termed  in  golfing  phraseology),  the  avoiding  of 
which  is  one  of  the  most  important  points  of  the 
game. 

A  series  of  small  round  holes,  about  four  inches 
in  diameter,  and  several  inches  in  depth,  are  cut 
In  the  turf,  at  distances  of  from  one  to  four  or 
fi?t>  himdred  yards  from  each  other,  according  to 
the  Lature  of  the  ground,  so  as  to  form  a  circuit 
or  round.  The  rival  players  are  either  two  in 
number,  which  is  the  simplest  arrangement,  or  four 
(two  against  two),  in  which  case  the  two  partners 
Btrike  the  ball  on  their  side  alternately.  The  balls, 
V^eighing  about  two  ounces,  are  made  of  gutta- 
percha, and  painted  white  so  as  to  be  readily  seen. 

An  ordinary  golf-club  consists  of  two  parts  spliced 
together — namely,  the  shaft  and  head :  the  shaft 
>fl  usually  made  of  hickory,  or  lance-wood ;  the 
handle  covered  with  leather;  the  head  (heavily 


weighted  with  lead  behind,  and  facod  with  horn)  ol 
well-seasoned  apple-tree  or  thorn.  Every  plajej 
has  a  set  of  clubs,  diflfering  in  length  and  shape  to 
suit  the  distance  to  be  driven,  and  the  position  of 
the  ball ;  for  (except  in  striking  off  from  a  hole, 
when  the  ball  may  be  teed — i.  e.,  placed  advan- 
tageously on  a  little  heap  of  sand,  called  a  tee)  it  ia 
a  rule  that  the  ball  must  be  struck  as  it  happens  to 
lie.    Some  positions  of  the  ball  require  a  club  wiUi 


Club  Heads: 

1,  play-club  ;  2,  putter;  3,  spoon ;  4,  sand-iron;  5,  oleei:| 
6,  niblick  or  track.iion. 

an  iron  head.  The  usual  complement  of  clubs  is  hix  j 
but  those  who  refine  on  the  gradation  of  implements 
use  as  many  as  ten,  which  are  technically  distin- 
guished as  the  play-club,  long-spoon,  mid-spoon,  short' 
spoon,  haffing -spoon,  driving-putter,  putter,  sand-iron^ 
cleek,  and  niblick  or  track-iron — the  last  three  have 
iron  heads,  the  others  are  of  wood.  Every  player 
is  usually  provided  with  an  attendant,  called  a 
caddy,  who  carries  his  clubs  and  '  tees'  his  baUs. 

The  object  of  the  game  is,  starting  from  the  first 
hole,  to  drive  the  ball  into  the  next  hole  with  aa 
few  strokes  as  possible ;  and  so  on  round  the 
course.  The  player  (or  jjair  of  players)  whose  ball 
is  holed  in  the  fewest  strokes  has  gained  that  hole  ; 
and  the  match  is  usually  decided  by  the  greatest 
number  of  holes  gained  in  one  or  more  rounds  ; 
sometimes  it  is  made  to  depend  on  the  aggregate 
number  of  strokes  taken  to  '  hole '  one  or  more 
rounds. 

To  play  the  game  of  golf  well  requires  long 
practice,  and  very  few  attain  to  great  excellence 
who  have  not  played  from  their  youth.  But  any 
one  may  in  a  year  or  two  learn  to  play  tolerably, 
so  as  to  take  great  jjleasure  in  the  game  ;  and 
for  all  who  have  once  entered  upon  it,  it  possesses 
no  ordinary  fascination.  It  has  this  advantage  over 
many  other  outdoor  games,  that  it  is  suited  both 
for  old  and  young.  The  strong  and  energetic  find 
scope  for  their  energy  in  driving  long  balls  (crack- 
players  will  drive  a  ball  above  200  yards) ;  but 
the  more  important  points  of  the  game — an  exact 
eye,  a  steady  and  measured  stroke  for  the  short 
distances,  and  skill  in  avoiding  hazards — are  called 
forth  in  all  cases.  Along  with  the  muscular  exer- 
cise required  by  the  actual  play,  there  is  a  mixture 
of  walking  which  particularly  suits  those  whos« 

823 


GOLFO  DULCE-GOLOSHES. 


pursuits  are  sedentary — walking,  too,  on  a  breezy 
common,  and  under  circumstances  which  make  it 
far  more  beneficial  than  an  ordinary  *  constitutional.' 


Putting. 


In  the  accompanying  illustration,  the  method  of 
holding  the  club,  when  putting  the  ball  into  the 
hole,  is  shewn. 

Golf  Associations  are  niunerous  in  Scotland,  and 
In  many  instances  the  members  wear  a  uniform 
when  playing.  Many  professional  players  make 
their  livelihood  by  golf,  and  are  always  ready  to 
instruct  beginners  in  the  art,  or  to  play  matches 
ndth  amateurs. 

The  rules  laid  down  by  the  St  Andrews  Royal 
and  Ancient  Union  Club  are  those  that  govern 
nearly  all  the  other  associations,  and  may  be  found 
In  Chambers's  Information  for  tlie  People,  No.  96. 

GOLFO  DULCE,  in  English,  Sweet  or  Fresh 
Gulf  lies  in  the  state  of  Guatemala,  in  Central 
America,  measuring  26  miles  by  11,  and  having 
an  average  depth  of  6  or  8  fathoms.  It  communi- 
cates with  the  outer  sea,  here  known  as  the  Gulf 
of  Honduras,  by  a  narrow  strait  or  stream  called 
the  Rio  Dulce. 

GO'LGOTHA,  a  Hebrew  word  signifying  a  'skull,* 
affd  so  it  is  interpreted  by  Luke ;  but  by  the  other 
three  evangelists,  '  the  place  of  a  skull.'  The  Latin 
equivalent  is  Calvarla,  'a  bare  skull.'  This  place, 
the  scene  of  the  crucifixion  of  Christ,  was  situated 
without  the  gates  of  Jerusalem,  on  the  eastern  side 
of  the  city,  although  the  common  opinion  handed 
down  from  the  middle  ages  fixes  it  in  the  north- 
vrest  (see  Calvary).  It  was  probably  the  ordinary 
spot  of  execution,  though  this  is  to  be  inferred 
rather  from  the  fact  that,  in  the  eyes  of  the  Roman 
officers  of  justice,  Christ  was  simply  a  common 
criminal,  than  from  any  supposed  connection  between 
the  word  *  skull '  and  a  place  of  execution ;  G. 
receiving  its  name  in  all  likelihood  from  its  round 
bkuU-like  form.  A  church  was  built  over  the  spot 
in  the  4th  c.  by  Constantine.  What  is  now  called 
the  '  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre '  to  tlie  north-west 
of  Jerusalem,  but  within  the  walls  of  the  city,  has 
manifestly  no  claim  whatever  to  be  considered  the 
building  erected  by  Constantine ;  but  while  recent 
bibUcal  scholars  and  travellers  generally  have 
asvumbd  that  the  scene  of  our  Saviour's  crucifixion 


and  sepulture  is  not  ascertainable,  a  writer  in 
Smith's  Dict'i07iary  of  the  Bible  offers  strong  reasons 
for  believing  that  the  present  mosque  of  Omar, 
called  by  the  Mohammedans  *The  Dome  of  the 
Rock,'  occupies  the  site  of  the  sacred  Golgotha. 
GOLI  ATH.    See  Gath. 

GOLIATH  BEETLE  {Goliathus\  a  genus  ol 
tropical  coleopterous  insects,  of  the  section  Pentamtt'a 


Goliath  Beetle  {Goliathus  magnm). 


and  remarkable  for  the  large  size  of  some  of  tha 
species,  particularly  the  African  ones.  They  are 
also,  in  respect  of  their  colours,  splendid  insects. 
Little  is  knovvTi  of  their  habits. 

GO'LLNITZ,  a  small  town  in  the  north  of  Hun- 
gary, in  the  county  of  Zips,  is  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  a  river  of  the  same  name,  a  feeder  of  the 
Hernad,  17  miles  south-west  of  Eperies.  It  has 
important  iron  and  copper  mines,  and  manufactures 
of  wire  and  cutlery.    Pop.  5200. 

GO'LLNOW,  a  small  manufacturing  to\\Ti  of 
Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Pomerania,  is  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ihna,  15  miles  north-east 
of  Stettin.  It  was  formerly  a  Hanse-town,  and 
is  surrounded  by  walls,  and  defended  by  two  forts. 
The  manufactures  are  woollen  cloth,  ribbons,  paper, 
and  tobacco ;  there  are  also  copper-works.  Popu 
6207. 

GOLOMY'NKA  {Comephorus  Baihalensis),  a 
remarkable  fish,  found  only  in  Lake  Bailcal,  the 
only  knowni  species  of  its  genus,  which  belongs  to 
the  goby  family.  It  is  about  a  foot  long,  is  destitute 
of  scales,  and  is  very  soft,  its  whole  substance 
abounding  in  oil,  which  is  obtained  from  it  by 
pressure.    It  is  never  eaten. 

GOLO'SHES  (formerly  called  galoshes),  from 
Galoche,  a  word  through  the  French,  from  Galocha, 
the  Spanish  for  a  patten,  clog,  or  wooden  shoe.  The 
French  applied  the  term  at  first  to  shoes  partly 
of  leather  and  wood,  the  soles  being  wood,  and  the 
uppers  of  leather.  The  term  was  introduced  to  this 
country  as  a  cordwainer's  technicality,  to  sisjjnify  a 
method  of  repairing  old  boots  and  shoes  by  ])utting 
a  narrow  strip  of  leather  above  the  sole  so  as  to 
surround  the  lower  part  of  the  upper  leather.  It 
was  also  adopted  by  the  patten  and  clog  makers  to 
distuiguish  what  were  also  called  French  clogs  from 
ordinary  clogs  and  pattens.  Clogs  were  mere  soles 
of  wood  with  straps  across  the  instep  to  keep  them 
on ;  pattens  were  the  same,  with  iron  rings  to  raise 
them  from  the  ground ;  but  the  galoshes  were 
wooden  soles,  usually  with  a  joint  at  the  part  where 
the  tread  of  the  foot  came,  and  with  upper  leathers 
lUce  very  low  shoes. 

Now,  however,  these  clogs,  pattens,  and  goloshes 


GOLPE— GOMBROON. 


have  completely  passed  away  except  in  some  rural 
districts  which  are  almost  inaccessible  to  modern 
inventions :  the  American  goloshes  have  entirely 
superseded  them.  These  are  manufactured  of  vul- 
canised India  rubber  or  caoutchouc,  and  are  now 
made  in  the  most  elegant  forms  ;  being  elastic,  they 
are  worn  as  overshoes  in  wet  weather,  and  are  an 
excellenx;  protection  to  the  feet.  At  first,  India- 
rubber  goloshes  were  all  imported  from  the  states 
of  America,  and  in  1856  the  value  of  the  imports  of 
this  article  reached  the  enormous  sum  of  £75,442 ; 
now,  however,  vast  numbers  are  made  in  this 
country,  chiefly  by  the  North  British  Rubber  Com- 
pany (Limited),  whose  works  are  called  the  Castle 
Mills,  in  Edinburgh.  In  this  vast  building,  when  in 
full  work,  10,500  pairs  of  goloshes  are  daily  made ; 
and  so  perfect  is  the  arrangement  of  the  manufac- 
ture, which  is  chieflj'  conducted  by  Americans,  that 
in  a  few  hours  large  masses  of  the  raw  material 
are  converted  into  overshoes,  boots,  sheets,  bands, 
rings,  washers,  and  a  great  variety  of  other  useful 
articles.  The  process  of  making  goloshes  consists, 
first,  in  preparing  the  raw  material;  secondly, 
kneading  it  up  with  certain  chemical  materials,  the 
composition  of  which  is  carefully  concealed  by  the 
manufacturers,  but  the  principal  constituent  is 
sulphur ;  thirdly,  rolHng  it  out  into  sheets  of  the 
thickness  required;  and  lastly,  fashioning  it  into 
goloshes. 

In  the  first  operation,  the  rubber  is  first  placed  in 
warm  water  violently  agitated  ;  this  softens  it,  and 
removes  a  considerable  quantity  of  dirt  and  other 
impurities ;  it  is  then  put  into  a  machine,  which 
tears  it  into  very  small  pieces  in  water,  thus  also 
remo^^ng  much  impurity.  Still  warm,  and  somewhat 
adhesive  in  consequence,  the  small  fragments  into 
which  the  rubber  has  been  torn  are  spread  out  into 
a  thick  sheet,  which  travels  between  two  rollers 
about  an  inch  apart ;  these  press  the  fragments 
together,  and  they  adliere  slightly  in  the  form  of 
a  thick  blanket,  about  two  feet  wide,  and  from  four 
to  six  feet  in  length.  The  slight  adhesion  of  the 
very  irregularly  sYiaped  morsels  of  rubber  renders 
this  flattened  sheet  very  porous,  and  in  this  state  it 
is  hung  in  the  drying-room,  to  remove  the  moisture 
with  wliich  it  is  loaded.  These  sheets  are  next 
passed  between  large  cylindrical  iron  rollers  heated 
with  steam  internally,  which  compress  the  material 
into  thin  soft  sheets.  The  chemical  materials  are 
now  spread  equally  over  the  sheet,  and  it  is  folded 
up  and  kneaded  so  as  to  work  the  vulcanising  mate- 
rials and  rubber  well  together.  This  kneading 
process  is  performed  by  passing  it  several  times 
through  the  hot  rollers,  folding  it  after  each  rolling 
into  a  dough-lilce  mass.  When  this  operation  is 
completed,  it  is  finally  rolicd  out  into  thin  sheets 
8e\'eral  yards  in  length,  which  are  reeled  off  on  cold 
rollers  at  some  distance,  so  as  to  allow  cooling,  and 
it  is  then  ready  for  the  uppers  of  the  commonest 
kind  of  goloshes,  which  are  unlined  ;  but  the  Ijetter 
sorts  are  lined  with  cotton  cloth  of  different  colours, 
and  sometimes  with  other  materials ;  the  lining  is 
effected  by  passing  the  piece  of  cloth  through  the 
rollers  simultaneously  with  the  rubber  in  the  last 
process,  and  a  firm  adhesion  of  the  two  is  effected 
Dy  the  heat  and  pressure. 

Another  machine  has  rollers  so  modelled  that 
it  produces  a  sheet  thick  enough  for  the  soles, 
and  on  one  surface  the  roughening  is  made  by 
engiaved  lines  crossing  each  other,  to  prevent  the 
sole  from  slipping  in  wet  weather.  An  ingenious 
arrangement  of  this  machine  forms  about  two  inches 
of  each  side  of  the  sheet  which  passes  through  it 
a  little  thicker  than  the  middle  portion,  and  this 
■erves  for  the  raised  heels.  After  the  sheets  for  the 
uppers  and  heels  have  been  cooled  and  reeled  off, 


they  pass  through  the  cutting  machines.  In  these 
are  fitted  sharp  cutting  moulds  of  different  sizes 
and  shapes  :  some  cut  out  the  inside  linings  and  the 
outside  uppers  for  fronts  and  heel-steppings ;  whilst 
others  with  great  nicety  cut  the  heeled  soles  out. 

These  various  parts  are  now  taken  to  the  makers, 
who  are  usually  females ;  and  the  last — which  is 
now  made  of  cast  iron  as  an  improvement  on  the 
wooden  ones  formerly  in  use — is  rapidly  covered 
over  with  the  various  parts,  beginning  with  the 
lining  and  insole,  the  edges  of  which  are  cemented 
with  a  composition  probably  containing  liquefied 
India  rubber  or  gutta-[)ercha  ;  but  its  real  composi- 
tion is  another  secret  of  the  manufacture,  and  ia 
held  to  be  a  very  important  one :  it  produces  an 
instantaneous  and  firm  adhesion.  The  outer  parts 
and  the  sole  are  fitted  on  with  equal  facility,  and 
the  workwoman  then  runs  a  wheel-tool  round  the 
edges  and  other  parts,  to  produce  the  representation 
of  seam  marks.  In  this  way  a  pair  of  shoes  is 
produced  in  little  more  than  five  minutes.  They 
are  next  coated  with  a  varnish,  which  gives  them  a 
highly  polished  appearance  ;  and  when  the  varnish 
has  hardened,  which  it  does  very  quickly,  they  are 
transferred  to  the  vidcanising  ovens  or  chamber^.,  in 
which,  for  some  time,  they  are  submitted  to  a  high 
degree  of  heat,  which  produces  a  chemical  union 
between  the  caoutchouc  and  the  other  materials 
which  were  mixed  in  with  it  at  the  beginning  of 
the  operations.  When  taken  from  the  oven,  they 
are  removed  to  the  packing-room,  and  are  sent 
in  boxes  to  all  parts  of  the  kingdom,  and  to  most 
parts  of  Europe,  especially  Germany,  where  they  are 
very  extensively  worn.  The  North  British  R,ubber 
Company  produces  nearly  three  million  pairs  of  over- 
shoes and  boots  annually. 

GOLPE,  in  Heraldry,  a  Roundel  purpure.  It  is 
sometimes  called  a  Wound.    See  Roundel. 

GOMARISTS,  or  CONTRA-REMONSTRANTS, 
the  name  by  which  the  opponents  of  the  doctrines  of 
Arminius  (q.  v.),  the  founder  of  the  Dutch  Remon- 
strants, were  designated.  The  party  received  this 
appellation  from  its  leader,  Francis  Gomar.  Th^s 
theologian  was  born  at  Bruges,  30th  January  1563, 
stiidied  at  the  universities  of  Strasburg,  Heidelberg, 
Oxford,  and  Cambridge,  in  the  last-mentioned  of 
which  he  took  his  degree  of  B.D.  in  1584.  In  1594, 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  divinity  at  Leyden, 
and  signalised  himself  by  his  vehement  antipathy 
to  the  views  of  his  colleague,  Arminius.  In  the 
disputation  between  the  Armenians  and  Calvinists, 
held  at  the  Hague  in  1608,  his  zeal  was  very  con- 
spicuous; and  at  the  synod  of  Dort  in  1618,  he  was 
mainly  instrumental  in  securing  the  expidsion  uf  the 
Arminians  from  the  Reformed  Church.  He  died  at 
Groningen  in  1641,  An  edition  of  his  works  was 
published  at  Amsterdam  in  1645.  G.,  though  still 
and  bigoted  in  the  last  degree,  and  more  Calvin- 
istic  than  Calvin  himself,  was  a  man  of  various  and 
extensive  learning. 

GOMBROO'N,  called  also  Bender  or  Bunder 
Abbas,  a  town  and  seaport  of  Persia,  stands  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Persian  Gidf,  in  the  Strait  oi  Ormuz, 
and  opposite  the  island  of  that  name.  Bender 
Abbas  owed  its  name  and  importance  to  Shah  Abbas, 
who,  assisted  by  the  English,  drove  the  Portuguese 
in  1622  from  Ormuz,  or  Hormuz,  then  a  flourishing 
commercial  town  on  the  island  of  the  same  name, 
ruined  the  seaport,  and  transferred  its  commerce  to 
Gombroon.  For  some  time  G.  prospered  abimdantly, 
French,  Dutch,  and  Enghsh  factories  were  erected 
here,  and  the  population  rose  to  about  30,0: '0.  A 
dispute  among  the  natives,  however,  resulted  in  tho 
destruction  of  the  European  factories  and  houses, 
and  only  the  remains  of  these  now  exist.  Trade  then 

825 


GOMERA— GONGORA, 


almost  entirely  forsook  G. ;  it  is  now  inhabited 
by  only  about  4000  Arabs  under  a  sheikh,  who  is 
subject  to  tke  sultan  of  Muscat,  in  Arabia.  The 
town  is  surrounded  by  a  mud  wall ;  its  streets  are 
narrow  and  dirty. 

GOME'RA,  one  of  the  Canary  Islands  (q.  v.). 

GOMO'RRAH.    See  Sodom  and  Gomorrah. 

GOMU'TO,  ARENG,  or  EJOO  PALM  {Arenga 
eaccharifera,  or  Saguerus  Rumphii),  an  important 
palm  which  grows  in  Cochin  China  and  in  the  islands 
of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  particularly  in  moist  and 
shady  ravines.  The  stem  is  20 — 30  feet  high  ;  the 
leaves  15—25  feet  long,  pinnated.  The  flowers  are 
in  bunches  6—10  feet  long ;  the  frrat  is  a  yellowish- 
brown,  three- seeded  berry,  of  the  size  of  a  small 
apple,  and  extremely  acrid.  The  stem,  when  yoimg, 
is  entirely  covered  with  sheaths  of  fallen  leaves,  and 
black  horse-hairlike  fibres,  which  issue  in  great 
abundance  from  their  margins;  but  as  the  tree 
increases  in  age,  these  drop  off,  leaving  an  elegant 
naked  columnar  stem.  The  strongest  of  the  fibres, 
resembling  porcupine  quills  in  thickness,  are  used  in 
Sumatra  as  styles  for  writing  on  the  leaves  of  other 
palms.  But  the  finer  fibres  are  by  far  the  most 
valuable  ;  they  are  well  known  in  eastern  commerce 
as  Gomuto  or  Ejoo  fibre,  and  are  much  used  for 
making  strong  cordage,  particularly  for  the  cables 
and  standing-rigging  of  ships,  European  as  well  as 
native.  Waut  of  pliancy  renders  them  less  fit  for 
runuing-riggiiig,  and  for  many  other  purposes.  They 
need  no  preparation  but  spinning  or  twisting.  No 
ropes  of  vegetable  fibre  are  so  imperishable,  when 
often  wet,  as  those  made  of  Gomuto  fibre.  At  the 
'  base  of  the  leaves  of  the  Gomuto  palm  there  is 
a  fine  woolly  material,  called  bara,  which  is  much 
employed  in  caulking  ships  and  stuffing  cushions. 
The  stem  contains  a  large  quantity,  150 — 200  lbs., 
of  a  kind  of  sago.  The  saccharine  sap,  obtained 
in  great  abundance  by  cutting  the  spadices  of  the 
flowers,  is  a  delicious  beverage,  and  by  fermentation 
yields  an  intoxicating  palm  ^\'ine  {neroo),  from  which 
a  spirituous  liquor  called  hrumx's  made. 

GONAI'VES,  a  seaport  of  Hayti,  with  an  excel- 
lent harbour,  stands  on  a  bay  of  its  own  name, 
which  deeply  indents  the  west  coast  of  the  island. 
It  is  65  miles  to  the  north-west  of  Port  Bepublicain, 
formerly  Port  au  Prince,  the  capital. 

GO'NDAR,  a  city  of  Abyssinia,  capital  of  the 
kingdom  of  Gondar  or  Amhara,  is  situated  in  lat. 
12°  36'  N.,  and  long.  37°  29'  E.,  on  an  insulated  hill 
lit  an  elevation  of  7420  feet  above  sea  level,  and 
is  30  miles  distant  from  the  northern  shore  of 
Lake  Derabea  or  Izana  (see  Abyssinia).  G.  is  the 
residence  of  the  emperor  or  Negus,  whose  authority 
is  now  merely  nominal,  and  at  one  time  had  from 
50  to  100  churches  and  about  50,000  inhabitants; 
but  since  the  dismemberment  of  the  kingdom,  it 
has  greatly  declined,  and  its  extent  or  population 
cannot  now  be  accurately  stated.  It  is  poorly  and 
irregularly  built,  and  resembles  a  wood  rather  than 
a  city,  on  account  of  the  number  of  trees  surround- 
ing the  houses.  The  palace  of  the  emperor,  a  square 
stone  structure  flanked  with  towers,  is  the  most 
important  building.  There  are  no  shops  or  bazaars, 
aU  the  articles  for  sale  being  exposed  on  mats  in 
the  market-place.  G.  has  manufactures  of  fire- 
arms, sword-blades,  knives,  scissors,  razors,  shields, 
pottery,  &c. ;  and  a  considerable  transit  trade 
between  Massuah  on  the  Red  Sea  and  the  south 
of  Abyssinia,  in  slaves,  musk,  wax,  ivory,  coffee, 
honey,  &c.  The  mean  temperature  of  G.,  as  observed 
by  RUppell  during  the  seven  months  from  October 
\o  April  inclusive,  was  69°,  and  the  lowest  tempera- 
ture during  that  time  was  53*09°.  A  great  quantity 
of  rain  falls  here. 
6:^6 


GO'NDOLA  (Italian),  a  long  narrow  boat  (aver* 
aging  30  feet  by  4)  used  chiefly  on  the  canals  of 
Venice.  The  i)row  and  st'3rn  taper  to  a  point,  and 
cuiTe  out  of  the  water  to  a  height  of  at  least  5  feet. 


Venetian  Gondola. 


In  the  centre  there  is  a  curtained  chamber,  for  the 
occupants  :  the  boat  is  propelled  by  means  of  oars  or 
poles  by  one,  two,  or  occasionally  four  men.  The 
rowers  stand  as  they  row,  and  wear  the  livery  of 
the  family  to  which  the  gondola  belongs. 

The  term  gondola  is  also  applied  to  passage-boats 
having  six  or  eight  oars,  used  in  other  parts  of 
Italy. 

GONDWANA,  the  land  of  the  Gonds,  is  a  hilly 
tract  of  Hindustan,  lying  between  19°  50'  and  24' 
I  30',  and  in  E.  long,  between  77'  38'  and  87°  20'.  It 
I  occupies  a  somewhat  central  position,  sending  its 
drainage    at   once  northward   into  the  Jumna, 
eastward  through  the  Mahanadi  into  the  Bay  of 
Bengal,  and  westward  through  the  Tapti  and  the 
Nerbiuida  into  the  Arabian  Sea — the  water-shed  in 
j  some  places  attaining  an  elevation  of  5000  feet.  So 
j  isolated  a  locality,  besides  being  in  itself  unfavour- 
I  able  to  civilisation,  is  rendered  still  more  so  by 
;  the  extreme  barbarism  of  the  inhabitants,  who  are 
I  regarded,  with  some  appearance  of  probability,  as 
the  genuine  aborigines  of  India.    Certain  it  is,  that 
I  the  country  has  never  really  formed  a  part  of  any 
of  the  great  empires  in  the  east. 

GO'NFALON  (Ital.  gonfalone),  an  ensign  or 
standard;  in  virtue  of  bearing  which,  the  chief 
magistrates  in  many  of  the  Italian  cities  were 
known  as  gonfaloniers. 

GONG,  an  Indian  instrument  of  percussion,  made 
of  a  mixture  of  metals  (78  to  80  parts  of  copper, 
and  22  to  20  parts  of  tin),  and  shaped  into  a  basin- 
like form,  flat  and  large,  with  a  rim  of  a  few 
inches  deep.  The  sound  of  the  G.  is  produced  by 
striking  it,  while  hung  by  the  rim,  with  a  wooden 
mallet,  which  puts  the  metal  into  an  extraordinary 
state  of  vibration,  and  produces  a  very  loud  piercing 
sound. 

GONGORA,  Luis  Y.  Argote,  a  Spanish  poet, 
was  born  at  Cordova,  11th  July  1561;  studied  law 
at  the  university  of  Salamanca,  where  he  composed 
the  greater  part  of  his  erotic  poems,  romances, 
and  satires.  At  the  age  of  45,  he  took  orders, 
and  obtained  a  small  prebend  in  the  cathedral  of 
Cordova.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  chaplain  to 
Philip  III.,  and  died  in  his  native  city  24th  May 
1627.  G.'s  poetic  career  divides  itself  into  two 
periods.  In  his  first  or  youthful  period,  he  yielded 
himself  up  entirely  to  the  natural  tendencies  of 
his  genius,  and  to  the  spirit  of  the  nation.  Hia 
lyrics  and  romances  of  this  period  are  in  the  old 


GONIATITES— GONZAGA. 


genuine  Spanish  style ;  and  in  respect  to  their 
caustic  satire  and  burlesque  wit,  are  among  the 
most  admirable  specimens  of  the  class  of  poems  to 
which  they  belong.  G.,  however,  wished  to  outdo 
all  his  predecessors,  and  to  furnish  something 
wholly  new  and  unheard  of  ;  the  result  of  which 
unfortunate  ambition  was  the  introduction  of  a 
new  poetic  phraseology,  called  the  estilo  culto,  or 
the  '  cultivated  style.'  From  this  point  the  second 
period  in  G.'s  literary  career  dates.  To  popularise 
the  estilo  culto,  he  wrote  his  Polifemo,  Soledades,  and 
the  Fables  of  Pyramus  and  Thisbe,  productions  of 
the  most  pedantic  and  tasteless  description,  poor  in 
invention  and  thought,  but  rich  in  high-sounding 
pompous  phrases,  and  overloaded  with  absurd 
imagery,  and  mythological  allusions,  expressed  in 
language  of  studied  obscurity.  In  this  way  he 
became  the  founder  of  a  new  school,  the  Oongoristas, 
or  Cidtoristas,  who  even  surpassed  their  master  in 
the  depravity  of  their  literary  tastes.  The  most 
complete  edition  of  G.'s  works  is  that  by  Gonzalo 
de  Florez  y  C6rdoba  (Mad.  1633).  Some  of  his 
romances  have  been  translated  into  German  by  J. 
G.  Jacobi  (Halle,  1767). 

GONIATI'TES,  a  genus  of  fossil  cephalopodous 
mollusca,  belonging  to  the  same  family  as  the  ammo- 
nites. The  genus  is  characterised  by  the  structure 
of  the  septa,  which  are  lobed,  but  without  lateral 
denticulations,  as  in  ammonites ;  they  consequently 
exhibit,  in  a  section,  a  continuous  undulating  line. 
Some  forms  with  slightly  waved  septa  approach 
very  near  to  the  nautilus,  from  which,  however, 
they  are  at  once  separated,  by  the  position  of  the 
Bmall  and  delicate  siphuncle,  which  is  on  the  dorsal 
or  external  side  of  the  shell.  The  lines  of  growth 
on  the  external  surface  have  a  sigmoid  direction. 
The  siphonal  portion  is  shorter  than  the  sides,  form- 
ing a  sinus  at  the  back,  as  in  the  nautilus.  The 
last  chamber,  the  one  tenanted  by  the  animal, 
occupies  a  whole  whorl,  and  has  besides  a  consider- 
able lateral  expansion.  The  shells  are  small, 
seldom  exceeding  six  inches  in  diameter. 

This  genus  is  confined  to  the  Palaeozoic  strata  : 
upvvards  of  150  species  have  been  described  from 
the  Devonian,  Carboniferous,  and  Triassic  measures. 

GONI'DIA  (Gr.  gone,  generation,  and  eidoSy  an 
appearance),  small  green  bodies  which  in  some 
cryptogamous  plants  serve  the  purjjose  of  reproduc- 
tion, but  apparently  after  a  manner  analogous  to 
that  of  bulbils  in  i)hanerogamous  plants,  rather  than 
by  true  fructification.  It  is  not,  however,  certain 
that  the  bodies  called  gonidia  in  different  classes  of 
cryptogamous  plants  are  all  of  exactly  the  same 
nature.  The  gonidia  of  Lichens  (q.  v.)  are  found  in 
layers  in  the  interior  of  the  thallus.  In  some  of  the 
lowest  vegetable  organisms,  as  Desmidiacece,  the 
gonidia  are  fonned  by  the  endochrome  or  contents 
of  the  cell  breaking  up  into  gi'anules,  sometimes 
invested  with  cilia,  and  moving  as  zoospores,  at 
first  within  the  cavity  of  the  cell  in  which  they 
are  formed,  and  afterwards  without  it. 

GONIO'METER,  an  instrument  for  measuring 
the  angles  of  crystals.  The  simplest  instrument  is 
that  invented  by  Carangeau,  which  consists  of  two 
brass  rulers  turning  on  a  common  centre,  between 
which  the  crystal  is  eo  placed  that  its  faces  coin- 
cide with,  the  edges  tf  the  rulers,  and  the  angle  is 
measured  on  a  graduated  arc.  For  large  crystals 
this  is  sufficiently  accurate,  but  as  many  minerals 
are  found  crystallised  only  in  smull  crystals,  and  as 
email  crystals  of  any  mineral  are  generally  the 
most  perfect,  an  instrument  capable  of  measuring 
more  exactly  was  required.  The  one  generally 
use  is  the  reflecting  goniometer  invented  by 
WoUaaton,  and  improved  by  Nauman.     This  is  a 


more  complicated  instrument,  yet  easy  of  applica- 
tion, and  it  will  measure  very  small  crystals  with 
certainty  to  within  a  single  minute  (1').  The  angle 
is  meafiured  by  the  reflection  of  the  rays  of  light 
from  the  surface  of  the  different  faces  of  the  crystaL 
GONORRHOE'A  {gonos,  progeny  or  seed,  and 
rheOy  I  flow),  a  name  originally  applied  almost 
indiscriminately  to  all  discharges  from  the  genital 
passages  in  both  sexes,  but  especially  in  the  male. 
In  the  course  of  usage,  the  term  has  been  almost 
entirely  restricted  to  the  designation  of  one  parti- 
cular kind  of  discharge,  which,  from  its  connection 
with  a  conta^ous  poison,  was  originally  called,  in 
strict  nosological  language,  G.  virulenta.  This  form 
of  the  disease  is  usually  caused  by  the  direct  com 
munication  of  sound  persons  with  those  already 
afiected ;  and  accordingly  G.  is  one  of  the  numeroua 
penalties  attending  an  indiscriminate  and  impure 
intercourse  of  the  sexes.  See  Syphilis.  G.  ia 
a  very  acute  and  painful  form  of  disease ;  it  ia 
liable,  however,  to  leave  its  traces  in  the  more 
chronic  form  of  gleet,  which  may  last  for  a  con- 
siderable time,  and  may  give  rise  to  alarm  from 
being  mistaken  for  other  disorders.  A  description 
of  the  symptoms  and  cure  of  G.  would  of  course 
be  out  of  place  in  a  work  like  the  present ;  but 
we  may  avail  ourselves  of  this  opportunity  to 
warn  the  victims  of  G.,  and  the  allied  disorders, 
against  consulting  any  but  medical  men  of  the 
highest  standing,  and  of  undoubted  character.  An 
unworthy  class  of  practitioners  exists,  who  live 
chiefly  by  inveighing  and  frightening  the  unwary, 
and  who  not  unfrequently  extort  vast  sums  of 
money  by  threats  of  exposure  of  what  is  commu- 
nicated to  them  in  confidence.  The  advertise- 
ments of  these  men  are  an  offence  to  decency,  and 
should  act  as  beacons  to  the  public,  rather  than 
as  they  are  intended. 

GONVILLE  AND  CAIUS  COLLEGE,  CAM- 
BRIDGE, was  originally  founded  in  1348  by  Edmund 
Gonville,  son  of  Sir  Nicholas  Gonville,  rector  of 
Terrington,  in  Norfolk,  and  endowed  for  a  master 
and  three  fellows.  In  1353,  William  Bateman, 
Bishop  of  Norwich,  whom  Gonville  had  appointed 
his  executor,  changed  the  situation  of  the  college  to 
its  present  site,  and  altered  the  name  to  the  '  HaU  of 
the  Annunciation  of  Blessed  Mary  the  Virgin.'  In 
1558,  Dr  Cains  obtained  a  royal  charter,  founding 
the  college  for  the  third  time,  and  altering  the 
name  to  that  which  it  now  bears.  By  the  present 
statutes,  the  college  consists  of  a  master,  thirty 
fellows,  and  thirty- six  scholars.  There  are  also  at 
this  college  four  studentships  in  medicine,  founded 
by  Christopher  Tancred,  each  of  the  annual  value 
of  £113. 

GONZA'GA,  a  town  of  Northern  Italy,  14  milea 
south-south-east  of  Mantua,  with  14,580  inhabit- 
ants, is  the  chief  town  of  the  district  of  Gonzaga, 
of  which  the  population  is  24,841.  The  town  was 
formerly  fortified  and  protected  by  a  strong  castle, 
and  some  assert  that  the  family  of  Gonzaga,  who 
ruled  for  four  centuries  over  Mantua,  originated  in 
this  locality.  The  territory  surrounding  G.  is  a 
well- watered  and  fertile  plain. 

GONZAGA,  House  or,  a  princely  family  of 
German  origin,  from  which  sprang  a  long  line  of 
sovereign  Dukes  of  Mantua  and  Montferrat.  The 
sway  of  this  race  over  Mantua  extended  over  a 
period  exceeding  three  centuries,  and  many  of  its 
members  were  magnificent  promoters  and  cultivators 
of  arts,  science,  and  literature.  "Wielding  originally 
in  the  state  the  vast  civic  influence  which  in  so 
many  instances  we  find  exercised  by  families  of 
weight  in  the  history  of  Italy,  the  Gonzagas  gi-adu- 
ally  monopoHsed  all  the  chief  posts    f  command, 


GONZAGA--GONZALVO  DI  CORDOVA. 


both  civil  and  military ;  and  finally,  in  1432,  were 
invested  with  the  title  and  jurisdiction  of  hereditary 
marquises,  and  in  1530  with  that  of  dukes  or 
sovereigns  of  the  state.  After  their  elevation  to 
ducal  dignity,  they  continued  to  own  the  feudal 
supremacy  of  the  empire,  and  were  the  faithful 
champions  of  the  imperial  interests  in  their  policy 
with  other  states.  The  House  of  G.,  and  that  of 
the  Visconti  Dukes  of  Milan,  were  perpetually  at 
war.  The  most  illustrious  personages  of  this  race 
were  Giovanni  Francesco  (1407 — 1444),  in  whose 
favour  Mantua  was  created  a  marquisate  by  the 
Emperor  Sigismund,  in  return  for  his  services  to 
the  empire.— Gian  Francesco  (1484 — 1519),  who 
defeated  Charles  VIII.  of  France  at  the  battle 
of  Fornovo,  on  the  banks  of  the  Taro,  1495,  when 
G.  left  3500  troops  on  the  field,  and  Charles  was 
forced  to  a  hasty  retreat.  G.  also  took  part  in  the 
engagement  of  Atella,  1490,  which  led  to  the  capitu- 
lation of  the  French  forces.  His  son,  Frederick 
XL  (1519 — 1540),  in  recognition  of  the  services  he 
rendered  the  imperial  forces  in  their  contest  with 
France,  was  invested  by  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 
with  the  ducal  dignity  in  1530,  and  also  obtained 
the  marquisate  of  Montferrat  in  153G.  During 
the  reign  of  this' prince,  the  court  of  Mantua  was 
one  of  the  most  magnificent  and  gay  of  Europe. — 
GtJGLiELMO  (1550 — 1587),  the  sou  of  Frederick,  was 
humpbacked,  but  proved  a  wise  and  enlightened 
ruler ;  his  secretary  was  Bernardo  Tasso,  father  of 
the  poet. — ViNCENZO  (1587 — 1612),  son  of  Gugli- 
elmo,  was  the  warm  friend  and  patron  of  Tasso, 
and  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  poet's  freedom,  when 
he  was  confined  as  insane  by  the  Duke  Alfonso 
d'Este. — Vincenzo  was  much  esteemed  for  his 
piety,  justice,  and  liberality.  He  was  successively 
followed  by  his  three  sons,  Francesco,  Ferdinando, 
and  Vincentio,  who  died  without  heirs,  and  thus 
the  direct  line  of  the  ducal  branch  became  extinct. 
A  collateral  branch,  in  the  person  of  Charles  I., 
Duke  of  Nevers,  son  of  Ludovico,  the  brother  of 
Guglielmo  the  humpbacked,  claimed  the  duchy, 
which  was  contested  by  his  cousin  Csesar,  Duke  of 
Guastalla.  This  family  feud  led  to  a  general  war, 
in  which  France  supported  Nevers,  and  the  empire 
claimed  the  right  of  adjudging  Mantua,  as  an 
imperial  fief,  to  a  candidate  of  imperial  election. 
Mantua  in  1629  was  stormed,  sacked,  and  stripped 
of  all  its  magnificent  possessions,  by  the  imperialists, 
and  never  regained  its  former  splendour.  Charles 
de  Nevers  submitted  finally  to  the  emperor,  and 
was  installed  in  the  duchy.  The  artistic  treasures 
collected  for  ages  by  the  G.  princes  were  scattered 
throughout  Europe,  and  came  into  the  possession  of 
several  of  the  reigning  sovereigns.  The  successors 
of  Charles  were  dissipated  and  silly,  and  the  tenth 
uid  last  Duke  of  Mantua,  Ferdinand-Charles,  was 
the  moet  contemptible  and  dissolute  of  alL    As  he 

82A 


had  countenanced  the  French  in  the  War  of  the 
Succession,  the  Emperor  Joseph  I.  deprived  hiri 
of  his  states,  placing  him  under  tlie  ban  of  the 
empire.    He  died  in  exile  in  1708,  leaving  no  issue. 

GONZALVO  DI  CORDOVA  (G.  Hernandez  y 
Aguilar),  a  celebrated  Spanish  warrior,  was  bom 
at  Montillo,  near  Cordova,  in  1453.  He  served 
with  great  distinction  lirst  in  the  war  with  the 
Moors  of  Granada,  and  afterwards  in  the  Portu- 
guese campaign.  At  the  close  of  the  final  contest 
with  Granada,  he  concluded  the  negotiation  with 
Boabdil  (Abu  Abdallah),  king  of  the  Moors,  in 
such  a  masterly  manner,  that  the  rulers  of  Spain 
bestowed  upon  him  a  pension  and  a  large  estate 
in  the  conquered  territory.  He  was  next  sent 
to  the  assistance  of  Ferdinand,  king  of  Naples, 
against  the  French.  In  less  than  a  year,  G.,  with 
his  limited  resources,  had  conquered  the  greater 
part  of  the  kingdom,  and  obtained  the  appellation 
of  *  El  Gran  Capitano.'  In  conjunction  with  King 
Ferdinand,  he  succeeded  in  completely  expelling  th*4 
French  from  Italy ;  and  in  August  1498  returned  to 
Spain,  having  received  in  return  for  his  valuable 
services  an  estate  in  the  Abruzzi,  M'ith  the  title 
of  Duke  of  San  Angelo.  When  the  partition  of 
the  kingdom  of  Naples  was  determined  upon  by  k 
compact  entered  into  at  Granada,  11th  November 
1500,  G.  again  set  out  for  Italy,  with  a  body 
of  4300  men,  tud  on  the  way  took  Zante  and 
Cephalonia  from  the  Turks,  and  restored  them  to 
the  Venetians.  He  then  landed  in  Sicily,  occupied 
Naples  and  Calabria,  and  demanded  from  the 
French  that,  in  compliance  with  the  compact,  they 
should  yield  up  Capitanata  and  Basilicata.  This 
demand  being  rejected,  a  war  broke  out  between 
the  two  belligerent  powers,  which  was  waged  with 
varied  success.  After  the  victory  of  Cerignola,  in 
April  1503,  G.  took  possession  of  Calabria,  Abruzzo, 
Ajjulia,  even  the  city  of  Naples  itself,  and  then  laid 
siege  to  Gaiita,  but  was  forced  to  retreat  before  a 
superior  force  of  the  enemy.  On  the  29th  Decem- 
ber of  the  same  year,  however,  he  fell  upon  thera 
unexpectedly  near  the  Garigliano,  and  obtained  n 
complete  victoiy,  29th  December  1503.  The  French 
army  was  almost  annihilated  ;  the  fortress  of  Gaets* 
fell ;  and  the  possession  of  Naples  was  secured  to 
the  Spaniards.  King  Ferdinand  bestowed  the  duchy 
of  Sesa  upon  the  conqueror,  and  appointed  him 
viceroy  of  Naples,  with  unlimited  authority.  Hia 
good-fortune,  however,  made  him  many  powerful 
enemies;  and  G.  was  recalled  to  Spain,  where  the 
king  treated  him  with  marked  neglect.  G.  now 
betook  himself  to  his  estates  in  Granada ;  but  after 
the  defeat  of  the  new  viceroy  in  Naples  by  Gaston 
de  Foix,  he  was  again  appointed  to  the  command  of 
the  Spanish- Italian  army.  Mental  suflering,  how- 
ever, had  undermined  the  old  hero's  health,  and  on 
the  2d  December  1515  he  died  at  Grauadfu 


KND  OF  VOL.  lY. 


